Phytochemistry PDF

Development of digital learning materials for renewable pharmaceutical practice-oriented skills
in English and Hungarian. Preparing university lecturers for educational challenges of the 21st century.
Pharmacognosy 1
Dr. gnes Farkas, Dr. Gyrgyi Horvth, Prof. Dr. Pter Molnr
Pharmacognosy 1
Dr. gnes Farkas, Dr. Gyrgyi Horvth, Prof. Dr. Pter Molnr
Development of digital learning materials

for renewable pharmaceutical practice-oriented skills
in English and Hungarian.
Preparing university lecturers for educational challenges of the 21st century.
Identification number: TMOP-4.1.2.A/1-11/1-2011-0016
University of Pcs Pcs, 2014
The project is funded by the European Union and

co-financed by the European Social Fund.
Manuscript completed: December 2013
Editor in charge: University of Pcs
Editor in charge: Dr. gnes Farkas
Other developers: Dr. Tmea Bencsik, Dr. Nra Papp
Photos: Dr. Tmea Bencsik, Dr. gnes Farkas, Dr. Gyrgyi Horvth, Ildik Erna Hutai,
Dr. Nra Papp
Technical editors: Szilvia Czulk, Zsolt Bencze
Lectors: Dr. Sndor Gonda, Dr. Gbor Vasas
ISBN 978-963-642-612-5
Length: 326 pages

Content
Chapter 1 Scope of Pharmacognosy; Scientific and common name of

medicinal plants and drugs; Basic ethnobotany ........................................... 11
1.1 Scope of Pharmacognosy ................................................................. 11
1.2 Scientific and common name of medicinal plants and drugs........... 11
Nomenclature of drugs ..................................................................... 11
Drugs of animal origin ..................................................................... 29
1.3 Basic Ethnobotany ........................................................................... 31
Introduction ...................................................................................... 31
Ethno sciences .................................................................................. 31
Leading journals of the field include ............................................... 32
Research methods ............................................................................ 32
Data types and analyses ................................................................... 33
Significance of the field ................................................................... 35
Chapter 2 Wild, protected and cultivated medicinal plants; medicinal plant

breeding; plant biotechnology, gene technology ......................................... 37
2.1 Medicinal plant (MP) production and usage in Hungary ................. 37
Beginning of 1990s .......................................................................... 37
End of 1990s, 2000-onward ............................................................. 37
2.2 Area for MP cultivation in Hungary ................................................ 37
End of 1980s .................................................................................... 37
EU accession (2004) ........................................................................ 37
2.3 Trends of MP collection from natural habitats ................................ 37
Significance of MP collection .......................................................... 37
Species spectrum of MP collected from natural habitats ................. 38
2.4 The most important medicinal plants and/or their drug parts
collected from natural habitats in Hungary ...................................... 39
2.5 Collection and purchase of MPs from natural habitats .................... 52
How to collect MPs properly ........................................................... 53
2.6 MPs becoming endangered ........................................................... 65
Direct effects .................................................................................... 65
Indirect effects.................................................................................. 65
2.7 Protection of MPs............................................................................. 67
Degree of the endangered status ...................................................... 67
Endangered and protected species ................................................... 67
Trade of endangered species and their products
international agreements .................................................................. 67
Methods for protecting MPs ............................................................ 69
3
Pharmacognosy 1
2.8 Main Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) cultivated in

Hungary ............................................................................................ 71
2.9 Domestication of MPs ...................................................................... 83
Reasons for domestication ................................................................ 83
Domestication process ...................................................................... 84
2.10 MP Breeding ..................................................................................... 85
Biological background...................................................................... 85
Trends in MP breeding ..................................................................... 86
Methods of breeding ......................................................................... 90
2.11 Plant biotechnology .......................................................................... 92
Classic biotechnology ....................................................................... 92
New PLANT biotechnology ............................................................. 92
Biotechnology of reproduction ......................................................... 92
Somatic cell genetics ........................................................................ 92
Gene technology ............................................................................... 92
Chapter 3 Tea drugs, primary processing of medicinal plants, plant extracts;

Qualification and phytochemical evaluation of medicinal plants;
Industrial medicinal plants ........................................................................... 95
3.1 Tea drugs, primary processing of medicinal plants, plant
extracts .............................................................................................. 95
Primary processing of plant drugs .................................................... 95
Herbal tea drugs ................................................................................ 97
3.2 Qualification and phytochemical evaluation of medicinal
plants............................................................................................... 100
GAP: Good Agricultural Practice ................................................... 100
Quality control / Assessment .......................................................... 100
GMP: Good Manufacturing Practice .............................................. 100
Ph. Eur. ........................................................................................... 101
3.3 Industrial medicinal plants.............................................................. 102
Papaver somniferum (poppy) ......................................................... 102
Mentha piperita (peppermint) ........................................................ 102
Ricinus communis (castor oil plant) ............................................... 102
Secale cornutum (ergot) Claviceps purpurea ............................ 103
Digitalis purpurea (purple foxglove) and Digitalis lanata
(woolly foxglove) ........................................................................... 103
Domestication of MPs growing in natural habitats ........................ 105
Cultivation of foreign MPs ............................................................. 106
Elaborating agrotechnology of plants with essential oil................. 107
MPs containing rutoside - Gubnyi Emil ....................................... 109
Plant steroid research ...................................................................... 110
Apocynaceae family ....................................................................... 110
Current sources of medications ...................................................... 111
4
Content
Chapter 4 Natural substances in pharmaceutical research .......................................... 113

4.1 Usage of Medicinal Plants ............................................................. 113
4.2 Some definitions ............................................................................ 113
4.3 Therapeutical utilization of medicinal plants ................................. 114
(1) Mono-component products .................................................... 114
(2) Multi-component products..................................................... 114
4.4 Types of pharmaceutical utilization of natural constituents .......... 115
(1) Application of natural constituents in direct form ................. 115
(2) Application of derivatives of natural constituents ................. 116
(3) Model- or marker-compounds of synthetic medicines
leader molecules ......................................................................... 117
4.5 Industrial production of natural drugs ............................................ 118
(1) Isolation ................................................................................. 118
(2) Total synthesis ....................................................................... 119
(3) Semi-synthesis from natural compound ................................ 120
(4) Biotechnology ........................................................................ 120
(5) Combination of biotechnology and chemical methods.......... 122
4.6 Modifying natural substances ........................................................ 122
Aim of the modification: intensification of the effect.................... 123
Aim: modification of the effect ...................................................... 123
Aim: improvement of physico-chemical features .......................... 124
4.7 Significance of natural compounds for pharmaceutical
industries ........................................................................................ 124
Chapter 5 Phytotherapy; (traditional) herbal medicines and dietary

supplements................................................................................................ 125
5.1 Definition of Phytotherapy............................................................. 125
5.2 Phytotherapy or Ethnomedicine ..................................................... 125
5.3 Interactions ..................................................................................... 127
Interaction types ............................................................................. 127
5.4 Composition and therapeutical value of phytotherapeutics ........... 128
Determination of the composition of phytotherapeutics ................ 128
Types of Phytotherapeutics ............................................................ 129
Determination of therapeutical value of phytotherapeutics ........... 129
Correct Application, Dosage of Phytotherapeutics Some
examples......................................................................................... 129
Phytotherapeuticum forte vs. mite ................................................. 130
5.5 Properties of herbal medicines used in phytotherapy .................... 130
Responsible authorities .................................................................. 131
Herbal medicine ............................................................................. 131
Traditional herbal medicinal product (= THMPD) ........................ 131
5
Pharmacognosy 1
Requalification of herbal products (in Hungary)............................ 132

Herbal tea........................................................................................ 132
Dietary supplement ......................................................................... 132
Chapter 6 Aromatherapy and homeopathy .................................................................. 133

6.1 Aromatherapy ................................................................................. 133
Why is aromatherapy worth considering? ...................................... 133
Processing the smell of odorant molecules .................................... 133
The brief history of aromatherapy .................................................. 134
Properties of EOs ............................................................................ 137
Pharmacological effects of EOs ..................................................... 138
EOs official in Ph. Eur. 5 and 6 ...................................................... 144
Storage, Application of EOs ........................................................... 145
6.2 Homeopathy ................................................................................... 145
What is the problem with homeopathy? ......................................... 145
Diagnosis ........................................................................................ 146
Homeopathic remedies ................................................................... 146
Homoeopathic preparations in the European Pharmacopoeia
5th edition ........................................................................................ 146
Materia Medica ............................................................................... 152
Chapter 7 Drugs of fungus and animal origin ............................................................. 155

7.1 Drugs of fungus origin.................................................................... 155
Drug: Secale cornutum ................................................................... 155
Drug: Tinder fungus ....................................................................... 155
Drug: Laricis fungus ....................................................................... 155
Drug: Ganoderma ........................................................................... 155
Drug: Shii-take ............................................................................... 156
Drug: Schizophyllum ...................................................................... 156
7.2 Drugs of lichen origin ..................................................................... 156
Drug: Lichen islandicus (Ph. Eur. 5.) ............................................. 156
Drug: Lichen quercus ..................................................................... 157
7.3 Drugs of animal origin.................................................................... 157
Drug: Blatta orientalis, cockroach ................................................. 157
Drug: Cantharis .............................................................................. 157
Drug: Cetylis palmitas (Ph. Eur. 5.) ............................................... 157
Drug: Gelatina ................................................................................ 158
Drug: Hirudo .................................................................................. 158
Drug: Jecoris aselli oleum (Ph. Eur. 5.) ......................................... 158
Drug: Mel (Ph. Eur. 5.) ................................................................... 158
6
Content
Chapter 8 Photosynthesis and related metabolic pathways for the formation of

effective substances ................................................................................... 159
8.1 The scene of photosynthesis .......................................................... 159
8.2 Chemical composition of the chloroplast....................................... 160
8.3 Pigments in the chloroplast ............................................................ 160
8.4 Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis ................................. 162
8.5 Calvin cycle or dark reactions of photosynthesis ....................... 164
Carboxylation ................................................................................. 165
Oxidation, dephosphorylation ........................................................ 165
Regeneration .................................................................................. 165
8.6 Connection points of photosynthesis ............................................. 166
8.7 Differences between the C3 and C4 pathways of
photosynthesis ................................................................................ 166
C4 pathway .................................................................................... 167
Chapter 9 Role of nitrate- and sulphate-reduction in synthesis of effective

substances .................................................................................................. 169
9.1 Nitrogen metabolism in plants ....................................................... 169
Natural circulation of nitrogen by living organisms ...................... 169
Nitrogen fixation ............................................................................ 170
Nitrification .................................................................................... 173
Denitrification ................................................................................ 173
Nitrogen assimilation ..................................................................... 173
9.2 Sulphate-reduction ......................................................................... 176
(1) Activation of sulphate ............................................................ 177
(2) Reduction of sulphate ............................................................ 177
(3) Formation of cysteine ............................................................ 178
Importance of sulphate-reduction .................................................. 179
Chapter 10 Synthesis, role and usage of carbohydrates ............................................. 181

10.1 Formation of carbohydrates ........................................................... 181
The Calvin-cycle Fixation and reduction of carbon
dioxide ............................................................................................ 181
Fixation of carbon dioxide in C4 plants ......................................... 184
Fixation of carbon dioxide in CAM plants .................................... 184
10.2 Di- and polysaccharides, role, usage .............................................. 186
Saccharose / sucrose (beet sugar, cane sugar)................................ 186
Sugar alcohols ................................................................................ 187
Polysaccharides .............................................................................. 188
Structural / Cell-wall carbohydrates .............................................. 190
Agar-agar ....................................................................................... 193
7
Pharmacognosy 1
Mannanes ........................................................................................ 194

Gums............................................................................................... 195
Heteropolysaccharides .................................................................... 195
Chapter 11 Synthesis, role and usage of lipids. Oils and waxes ................................. 201
11.1 Biological functions........................................................................ 201
11.2 Classification on the basis of their reaction with bases
(alkali)............................................................................................. 201
Saponifiable combined lipids ......................................................... 202
Saponifiable simple lipids .............................................................. 205
Not saponifiable lipids .................................................................... 216
Polyalkines (polyacetylenes) .......................................................... 218
Chapter 12 Biosynthesis and classification of terpenoids ........................................... 219

12.1 Compounds having isoprene skeleton ............................................ 219
Connection types of isoprene units................................................. 219
12.2 Terpenes (terpenoids) ..................................................................... 222
Biosynthesis .................................................................................... 222
Classification of terpenes ............................................................... 225
Chapter 13 Biosynthesis and role of amino acids and proteins .................................. 249
13.1 Occurrence and significance of amino acids .................................. 249
13.2 Proteinogenic amino acids .............................................................. 249
13.3 Reactions of amino-acids ............................................................... 255
Transamination ............................................................................... 255
Biosynthesis of amino-acids from -oxo-acids .............................. 255
Formation of glutamine from glutamic acid ................................... 256
Decomposition and oxidation of amino acids in plants.................. 256
13.4 Classification of amino acids with respect to the formation
of alkaloids ..................................................................................... 258
13.5 Peptides, proteins ............................................................................ 261
Classification of proteins on the basis of their solubility ............... 261
Enzymes ......................................................................................... 261
Biosynthesis of proteins ................................................................. 262
Storage proteins .............................................................................. 262
Lectins (phytohemagglutinines) ..................................................... 263
Toxic proteins ................................................................................. 263
Proteins having antidigestive, antinutritive and trypsin-
inhibitory properties ....................................................................... 263
8
Content
Chapter 14 General features of alkaloids.................................................................... 265

14.1 Definition of alkaloids ................................................................... 265
14.2 Distribution of alkaloids in plants .................................................. 265
14.3 Alkaloid biosynthesis ..................................................................... 265
14.4 Classification of alkaloids .............................................................. 266
(1) Protoalkaloids (Nonheterocyclic alkaloids) ........................... 266
(2) True alkaloids ........................................................................ 267
(3) Pseuodalkaloids ..................................................................... 277
Chapter 15 General features of phenoloids ................................................................ 279

15.1 Biosynthesis of phenolic compounds ............................................. 279
15.2 Phenols, phenolic acids, phenylpropanoid-derivatives .................. 280
15.3 Unsaturated phenolalcohols ........................................................... 284
15.4 Lignans ........................................................................................... 286
Flavanolignans ............................................................................... 286
15.5 Coumarins ...................................................................................... 287
Furanocoumarins ............................................................................ 288
15.6 Flavonoids ...................................................................................... 292
15.7 Anthocyanins and anthocyanidins.................................................. 295
15.8 Tannins ........................................................................................... 299
Characteristic features of tannins ................................................... 299
15.9 Quinones ........................................................................................ 301
15.10 Terpenophenols .............................................................................. 305
Figures .......................................................................................................................... 309
Literature ....................................................................................................................... 325
9
Chapter 1
Scope of Pharmacognosy; Scientific and
common name of medicinal plants and drugs;
Basic ethnobotany
1.1 Scope of Pharmacognosy

Pharmacognosy encompasses the structural and chemical characterization of medicinal
plants and drugs, as well as the metabolic pathways leading to the synthesis of
pharmacologically active compounds. Various chapters of this teaching supplement will
emphasize the significance of natural substances in pharmaceutical research, and
introduce different ways of applying plant drugs. A separate chapter will discuss
phytotherapy, including the effect and use of drugs, herbal extracts and isolated
compounds. A brief introduction of homeopathy will also be provided. Some chapters
will provide information on the collection and cultivation of medicinal plants, including
breeding strategies and the application of biotechnology.
1.2 Scientific and common name of medicinal plants and

drugs
Nomenclature of drugs
The scientific (Latin) name of medicinal plants is based on the binomial nomenclature
introduced by the Swedish medical doctor and botanist Linnaeus. The name of the
genus (e.g Rosa) is followed by the name of the species (e.g. canina), the two members
being combined into the binomial name Rosa canina. The common (English) name of
the same species is dog rose.
In Pharmacognosy the term drug can be briefly defined as the dried part or extract of a
medicinal plant that is used for medical purposes. The scientific (Latin) nomenclature
of drugs is based on the scientific names of the source plants. The first part of the drug
name is the Latin name of the source plant (genus and/or species) in genitive, while the
second part of the drug name is the Latin name of the plant organ that is used for
healing purposes. E.g. the false fruits of dog rose are called Rosae pseudofructus. In this
case only the genus name of roses is given (genitive of Rosa: Rosae), because two
distinct rose species can serve as the source plant: Rosa canina and R. pendulina. The
English name of the drug consists of the common name of the plant and the plant part
used in English (e.g. rose hip).
Other examples for the nomenclature of drugs can be found below, proceeding from
drugs derived from below-ground to above-ground plant parts, and finishing with
extracts or simple products of herbs. Finally, a few drugs of animal origin are also
included in this chapter.
11
Pharmacognosy 1
radix: root
e.g. Bardanae radix (burdock root) Arctium lappa (greater burdock)
Therapeutic uses: diuretic; externally against eczema, wounds, hair loss, dandruff
Figure 1.1
Bardanae radix (burdock root)
e.g. Ginseng radix (ginseng root) Panax ginseng

Therapeutic use: adaptogenic, roborating
Figure 1.2
Ginseng radix (ginseng root)
12
Scientific and common name of medicinal plants and drugs
rhizoma: rhizome
e.g. Calami rhizoma (calamus rhizome) Acorus calamus (calamus/sweet flag)
Protected! Therapeutic use: appetizer
Figure 1.3
Calami rhizoma (calamus rhizome)
bulbus: bulb
e.g. Allii sativi bulbus Allium sativum (garlic)
Therapeutic use: reduces high blood pressure and blood cholesterol level, against
atherosclerosis, antibacterial, antifungal
13
Pharmacognosy 1
herba: aerial parts of the plant

e.g. Bursae pastoris herba (shepherds purse herb) Capsella bursa-pastoris
Therapeutic use: haemostyptic (stops bleeding)
Figure 1.4
Bursae pastoris herba (shepherds purse herb)
14
folium: leaf
e.g. Farfarae folium (coltsfoot leaf) Tussilago farfara (coltsfoot)
Therapeutic use: expectorant, antitussive, anti-inflammatory
Figure 1.5
Farfarae folium (coltsfoot leaf)
flos: flower
e.g. Carthami flos Carthamus tinctorius (safflower)
seeds: rich in oil;
food colorant replaces true saffron
Figure 1.6
Carthami flos (safflower)
15
Pharmacognosy 1
stigma: stigma
Croci stigma (crocus stigma) Crocus sativus (saffron crocus)
Therapeutic use: carotenoids as anti-tumor agents
Figure 1.7
Croci stigma (crocus stigma)
anthodium: inflorescence
e.g. Chamomillae (Matricariae) anthodium (german chamomile inflorescence)
Matricaria recutita (german chamomile)
Therapeutic use: anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, immune stimulating
Figure 1.8
Chamomillae anthodium (german chamomile inflorescence)
Ph. Eur. 6.: Matricariae flos
16
fructus: fruit
e.g. Anisi fructus (aniseed) Pimpinella anisum (anise)
Therapeutic use: expectorant, spasmolytic, carminative
Figure 1.9
Anisi fructus (aniseed)
e.g. Anisi stellati fructus Illicium verum (star anise)

Therapeutic use: expectorant, spasmolytic, carminative
Figure 1.10
Anisi stellati fructus (star anise)
17
Pharmacognosy 1
e.g. Capsici fructus (pepper fruit) Capsicum annuum (pepper)

Therapeutic use: against rheuma and hair loss
Figure 1.11
Capsici fructus (pepper fruit)
caput: head
e.g. Papaveris somniferi caput (poppy head) Papaver somniferum (poppy)
Industrial medicinal plant, source of various alkaloids (e.g. morphine: pain killer)
Figure 1.12
Papaveris somniferi caput (poppy head)
18
pseudofructus: false fruit

e.g. Cynosbati / Rosae pseudofructus
(rosehip) Rosa canina (dog rose), R. pendulina (alpine rose)
Source of vitamin C; carotenoids, flavonoids
Figure 1.13
Rosae pseudofructus cum seminibus (rosehip with seeds)
Figure 1.14
Rosae pseudofructus sine seminibus (rosehip without seeds)
19
Pharmacognosy 1
bacca / galbulus: cone berry

e.g. Juniperi bacca (juniper berry) Juniperus communis (common juniper)
Therapeutic use: diuretic, carminative, appetizer
Figure 1.15
Juniperi bacca (juniper berry) Ph. Eur. 6.: Juniperi pseudofructus
20
semen: seed
e.g. Foenugraeci semen (fenugreek seed) Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek):
pleasant odour coumarin;
Therapeutic use: aids digestion, lowers blood-sugar and cholesterol levels
Figure 1.16
Foenugraeci semen (fenugreek seed)
21
Pharmacognosy 1
e.g. Lini semen (flax seed) Linum usitatissimum (flax)

Therapeutic use: laxative due to its mucilage content.
Figure 1.17
Lini semen (flax seed)
stipes: peduncle
e.g. Cerasi stipes (cherry peduncle) Cerasus avium (sweet cherry)
Therapeutic use: diuretic, lowers blood pressure
Figure 1.18
Cerasi stipes (cherry peduncle)
22
summitas: upper twigs with leaves, flowers/fruits

e.g. Crataegi summitas Crataegus oxyacantha, C. monogyna (hawthorn sp.)
Therapeutic use: beneficial for heart and blood vessels, anti-hypertensive
Figure 1.19
Crataegi summitas, Ph. Eur. 6.: Crataegi folium cum flore Hawthorn leaf and flower
cortex: bark
e.g. Frangulae cortex (frangula bark) Frangula alnus (alder buckthorn)
Therapeutic use: laxative
Figure 1.20
Frangulae cortex (frangula bark)
23
Pharmacognosy 1
e.g. Quercus cortex (oak bark) Quercus robur, Q. petraea (pedunculate and sessile
oak) Therapeutic use: against diaorrhea
Figure 1.21
Quercus cortex (oak bark)
amylum: starch
e.g. Maydis amylum (maize/corn starch) Zea mays (maize/corn)
Figure 1.22
Maydis amylum (maize starch)
24
aetheroleum: essential oil

e.g. Menthae piperitae aetheroleum (peppermint oil) Mentha piperita (peppermint)
Figure 1.23
Mentha piperita (peppermint)
25
Pharmacognosy 1
oleum: oil
e.g. Helianthi oleum (sunflower oil) Helianthus annuus (sunflower)
Used in ointments, oily injections.
Figure 1.24
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)
26
lignum: wood
e.g. Juniperi lignum (juniper wood) Juniperus communis (common juniper)
Source of tar.
Figure 1.25
Juniperus communis (common juniper)
pix: tar
e.g. Juniperi pix (juniper tar)
Therapeutic use: in dermatology; treating of psoriasis.
27
Pharmacognosy 1
resina: resin
e.g. Pini resina (pine resin) Pinus sp. (pine species)
Used in ointments and plasters.
Figure 1.26
Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine)
28
Drugs of animal origin

Cantharis Lytta vesicatoria (Spanish fly)
Therapeutic use: strong diuretic, in veterinary medicine
Figure 1.27
Lytta vesicatoria (Spanish fly) (Pharmacy Museum, Krakow)
29
Pharmacognosy 1
Blatta orientalis
Figure 1.28
Jars for storing Blatta orientalis (Pharmacy Museum, Krakow)
Mel (honey)
Hirudo (leech)
Cera (wax) e.g. bee wax: in ointments
Cetaceum (waxy substance whales): substituted by jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis)
30
Basic Ethnobotany
Figure 1.29
Wooden jar for storing Cetaceum (Pharmacy Museum, Krakow)
1.3 Basic Ethnobotany

Introduction
Medicinal plants, used in folk therapy by unique healing methods and special healers,
play an important part in the everyday life of people living in the isolated regions of the
world which are only partially or not provided by official medical or veterinary service.
In 3rd world countries basic healthcare is still provided by traditional healers for 70-
90% of the population. E.g. in South Africa, 70-80% of the total population (27 million)
is healed by traditional medicine, involving 350,000 traditional healers, who apply
3,000 different plants.
Worldwide: 25,000-50,000 higher plants are applied in traditional medicine.
USA and Europe: ca. 120 official effective compounds of plant origin discovery of
74% derived from traditional medicine directly or indirectly
Ethno sciences
Ethno sciences (ethno meaning people or cultural group) include ethnomedicine,
ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, medical anthropology, ethno psychiatry, economic
botany, archeo(ethno)botany and ethno-veterinary.
Ethnomedicine investigates the traditional knowledge of tribal societies regarding the
origin, symptoms and treatments of diseases.
Ethnobotany is the study of the relationship between people and plants. It deals with
traditional plant usage, including food and fodder plants, medicinal plants, fibers and
31
Pharmacognosy 1
dyeing plants etc. An ethnobotanist may study how people collect wild foods for a meal
and fodder, use herbs to treat illness, dye clothes, or apply them in a variety of ways,
e.g. as childrens toys, handicrafts, tools, furniture and timbers.
Ethnopharmacology is an interdisciplinary science, focusing on the biologically active
substances in plants that are traditionally applied in various cultures.
Ethnopharmacology encompasses botany, pharmacology, chemistry, as well as
pharmacognosy, ethnography, anthropology and archaeology.
Leading journals of the field include

Economic Botany, an interdisciplinary journal focusing on the past, present and
potential uses of plants by people. The reports include data on the traditional plant use
of a particular area, often compared e.g. with the data of neighbouring countries and
cultures to highlight the differences and similarities in the fieldworks.
(http://www.springer.com/life+sciences/plant+sciences/journal/12231)
Journal of Ethnopharmacology publishes reports on biological and pharmacological
effects of plants, fungi and animals based on their traditional uses described during
fieldworks (http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-ethnopharmacology).
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine is an online journal available at
http://www.ethnobiomed.com. This journal publishes papers on the traditional use of
plants, animals and fungi of various regions, mostly compared with data recorded in
other countries.
Research methods
Ethno-pharmacobotanical surveys study the oral tradition as the most common source
in this field. The first step is to choose a new region or village which has not been
investigated ethnobotanically earlier. This step is based mostly on the analysis of
written sources, including historical, geographical, botanical and medical references.
The next step is planning the field work involving the acquisition of tools and other
necessities (e.g. dictaphone, camera, plant identification keys). During field work,
various types of interviews are conducted, handwritten notes are taken, local vocabulary
and herbaria are prepared, photos are taken about the plants and informants, and records
of the interviews with dictaphone are transcribed. Among the described data, the
vernacular plant name, time and method of collection, used plant part, preparation form
(e.g. tea, syrup, tincture, vinegar, gargle, rinse, bath, cataplasm, cream or liniment), way
of administration and treated diseases (completed by beliefs and peculiar magico-
mythological role) can be listed. Plant taxa should be identified as species with plants
identification books of the selected region. In addition, voucher specimens should be
also deposited at the institute which co-ordinates the study.
The source of the medical knowledge (studied, heard or read data) is also recorded, and
the elements of inherited knowledge should be separated from data originating from any
written sources. This step plays a significant role in further analysis of the described
data, which means the comparison of these elements with official sources (e.g.
pharmacopoeias, scientific literature and references). In the case of describing a new
plant species, a new drug or original way of application, phytochemical and/or
pharmacological studies should be planned to affirm or disprove the traditional use.
32
Basic Ethnobotany
Data types and analyses

The ancient knowledge using plants, animals and fungi can be used in the healing
practice of human and veterinary medicine, too. Traditional uses of the listed materials
involve both rational and irrational elements. Rational elements include using plants
for food, fodder and medical purposes, keeping away parasites or as fibers and dyes.
These data encompass exact methods of the collection and preparation of specific plants
in local remedies. Based on these data the preparations should be replicable in
laboratory analyses. Irrational elements include the magical use of natural resources
accompanied by magic chants, casting spells and pow-wows. These data commonly
involve e.g. peculiar numbers, places, dates and specific processes connected to the
local uses of the applied materials. These elements are of pivotal importance rather in
the ethnographical sciences.
There are 3 components in each healing practice:
(1) the plant, animal or mineral that is used for healing
(2) words that have to be said (chanted) according to the peoples believes
(3) action that has to be performed simultaneously (e.g. taking water from the creek)
One of the research topics at the Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Pcs, is
the study of the ethnobotanical data in various regions of Transylvania, currently part of
Romania. Based on several earlier works from the 16-17th century, new ethnobotanical
surveys were carried out since the 1960s in several regions of the country, inhabited
mostly by the ethnic groups of Szklers and Csngs.
A few examples of how medicinal plants are used by the Csng population in the z
valley (Transylvania, Romania) are summarized below. E.g. the leaves of stinging nettle
(Urtica dioica) have to be taken from 3 separate nettle plants bearing 5, 7, 9 leaves
respectively. They are used against snake bite scrubbed into the injured body parts.
Figure 1.30
Urtica dioica (stinging nettle)
Another example is willow gentian (Gentiana asclepiadea), called candle root herb,
because the yellow roots (used for healing) reminded people of candles prepared from
33
Pharmacognosy 1
beeswax. It is used in the treatment of jaundice based on colour analogy, which means
that the colour of the used plant parts is associated with the colour of the disease or its
symptoms (in this case: yellowish colour of the skin).
Figure 1.31
Gentiana asclepiadea (willow gentian)
In veterinary medicine, a well-known example is inducing a local inflammation by

placing the roots (rhizomes) of hellebore (Helleborus sp., Figure 1.32) into an incision
in the ear or breast of an animal (e.g. cattle, sheep) in order to boost non-specific
immune responses. Similar applications of various Adonis species were reported from
Hungary (A. vernalis pheasants eye, Figure 1.33), Transylvania: A. transsylvanica
and Mongolia: A. mongolica.
34
Basic Ethnobotany
Figure 1.32
Helleborus odorus (fragrant hellebore)
Figure 1.33
Adonis vernalis (pheasants eye)
Significance of the field

Although new plant species, new drug parts or indications can be described mostly from
the tropical areas of Asia, Africa and America, attributed to the rich and undiscovered
flora elements, other regions such as the Mediterranean can also be characterized by
several unidentified and unnoted ethnobotanical data.
The collection of ethnobotanical data is of primary importance mostly in the isolated
areas of the world because the old knowledge of rural people about the traditional use of
plants, animals, fungi and minerals decreases dramatically nowadays, due to the
transformation of the landscape, the erosion of the traditional knowledge, and the
migration of young people to cities and abroad.
35
Pharmacognosy 1
Underlining the importance of home treatments and the possible plant sources,
ethnobotanical works highlight the necessity of the preservation of disappearing
medical practices among the indigenous people with further analyses which can play a
significant role in recent phytotherapy.
36
Chapter 2
Wild, protected and cultivated medicinal plants;
medicinal plant breeding; plant biotechnology,
gene technology
2.1 Medicinal plant (MP) production and usage in Hungary

Beginning of 1990s
20-25,000 t MP export from Hungary
Western-Europe: 100,000 t used (25% from Hungary)
End of 1990s, 2000-onward

demand for MP increased
in accordance with the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) the number of herbal
drugs doubled in the Hungarian Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Hg. VIII)
Western-Europe: 140,000 t MP
Hungarian export decreased: 3-5,000 t EU market: ~ 1-3 % from Hungary
2.2 Area for MP cultivation in Hungary

End of 1980s
37-42,000 ha area
35-40,000 t/yr MP production
EU accession (2004)
not prepared properly
area decreased to 24-26,000 ha
amount of MPs collected from wild plants decreased to half
2.3 Trends of MP collection from natural habitats

Europe:
1200-1300 MP species, 90% of drugs collected from wild plants
Hungary:
drug production > 30% (8000-10000 t drug/year)
60-70% MP (120-130 species) from natural habitats
Significance of MP collection
Western Europe (e.g. Great-Britain): hardly any collection from wild plants, only for
personal purposes
Spain: half of drug production from natural habitats
Albany: almost exclusively collected from natural habitats
37
Pharmacognosy 1
Species spectrum of MP collected from natural habitats

Hungary: broad
Spain: main MP: thyme (Figure 2.1)
Greece: sage (Figure 2.2)
Turkey, Italy: oregano (Figure 2.3)
Figure 2.1
Thymus vulgaris (garden thyme)
Figure 2.2
Salvia officinalis (common sage)
38
Wild, protected and cultivated medicinal plants; medicinal plant breeding; plant biotechnology
Figure 2.3
Origanum vulgare (oregano)
2.4 The most important medicinal plants and/or their drug

parts collected from natural habitats in Hungary
Below you can find the most important drugs collected from natural habitats in
Hungary, together with their source plants (in order of decreasing amounts).
Figure 2.4
Sambucus nigra (European elderberry)
39
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.5
Sambuci fructus (elder berry)
Figure 2.6
Urticae folium (stinging nettle leaf)
40
Figure 2.7
Equiseti herba (equisetum stem)
Figure 2.8
Matricaria recutita (German chamomile)
41
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.9
Matricariae flos (matricaria flower)
Figure 2.10
Aesculus hippocastanum (horse chestnut)
42
Figure 2.11
Hippocastani semen (horse chestnut seed)
Figure 2.12
Rosa canina (rose hip)
43
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.13
Hyperici herba (St. Johns wort)
Figure 2.14
Solidago canadensis (Canadian goldenrod)
44
Figure 2.15
Solidago gigantea (giant goldenrod)
Figure 2.16
Solidaginis herba (goldenrod)
45
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.17
Taraxacum officinale (dandelion)
Figure 2.18
Taraxaci radix cum herba (dandelion root with flowering shoot)
46
Figure 2.19
Millefolii herba (yarrow)
Figure 2.20
Viscum album (common mistletoe)
47
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.21
Visci stipes (mistletoe)
Figure 2.22
Crataegus laevigata (woodland hawthorn)
48
Figure 2.23
Crataegus monogyna (common hawthorn)
Figure 2.24
Crataegi summitas (Ph. Eur.: Crataegi folium cum flore, Crataegi fructus)
(hawthorn leaf and flower, hawthorn berries)
49
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.25
Chelidonium majus (greater celandine)
Figure 2.26
Chelidonii herba (greater celandine flowering shoot)
50
Figure 2.27
Sambuci flos (elder flower)
Figure 2.28
Tilia cordata (small-leaved lime)
51
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.29
Tiliae flos (lime flower)
2.5 Collection and purchase of MPs from natural habitats

Collection: no permission is needed
Trading of MPs: requires permission
permit holder is entitled to:
buy MPs, drugs, essential oils and oils
produce drugs
primary processing of MPs
store MPs / drugs
pack drugs
Duties of MP purchaser/trader:
organise the work of collectors
take over drugs fresh or dried
pre-qualify drugs:
identity, condition, foreign substance content
primary processing: collector or trader
52
How to collect MPs properly
(1) Be sure you know the plant
Related plant species: drug parts of different species can be collected together
According to Ph.Eur. the drug Tiliae flos (lime flower) can be collected from 3 Tilia
species: T. platyphyllos (large-leaved lime), T. cordata (small-leaved lime) and the
hybrid T. x vulgaris (common lime). However, another common lime species, T.
argentea (silver lime) cannot be the source of lime flower, due to the abundant stellate
cover hairs which can cause allergic reactions.
Figure 2.30
Tilia cordata (small-leaved lime)
53
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.31
Tiliae argenteae flos (silver lime flower)
The drugs Crataegi folium cum flore (hawthorn leaf and flower) and Crataegi fructus
(hawtorn berries) can be collected from 5 different Crataegus species: C. monogyna
(common hawthorn), C. laevigata (woodland hawthorn), C. pentagyna (small-flowered
black hawthorn), C. nigra (Hungarian hawthorn) and C. azarolus (azarole).
Figure 2.32
Crataegus laevigata (woodland hawthorn)
54
Related species have to be distinguished

In the case of yarrow flower, a change has occurred from the previous Hungarian
Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Hg. VII.) to the current Ph.Hg. VIII. Earlier, yarrow flower
(Achilleae flos) could be collected from several different Achillea species, including A.
collina, A. pannonica and A. asplenifolia. However, in Ph. Hg. VIII. (following Ph.Eur.
6.) the name of the drug has been changed to Millefolii flos, and the source plant is
exclusively A. millefolium (common yarrow).
Figure 2.33
Achillea millefolium (common yarrow)
The drug St. Johns wort (Hyperici herba) can be derived from a single species,
Hypericum perforatum, which has a high level of active compounds. Other Hypericum
species, like H. hirsutum, H. maculatum and H. elegans are similar in appearance, and
these species frequently occur together. However, the latter species have lower level of
active compounds and they are protected, therefore they cannot be collected to provide
Hyperici herba.
55
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.34
Hypericum perforatum (St. Johns wort)
Field horsetail (Equisetum arvense) is the source plant of the drug Equiseti herba, a
well-known diuretic. Plant parts of the closely related marsh horsetail (E. palustre)
should be excluded from Equiseti herba, due to the presence of the toxic alkaloid
palustrine.
The flowers (Sambuci flos) of elder (Sambucus nigra) are official in the current
pharmacopoeia, and also the fruits are valued for their mild laxative effect. However, no
plant parts of the related S. ebulus are used in official medicine.
56
Figure 2.35
Sambucus ebulus (dwarf elder)
(2) Be sure you know what is toxic / has strong physiological effect
Medicinal plants containing active compounds with a strong physiological effect should
always be collected separately. The most well-known examples include alkaloid-
containing plants such as Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) and Hyoscyamus niger
(henbane). These plants should not be mixed with other, harmless plant (part)s. The
person who is collecting such plants should take some precautions: wear gloves, not
touch their eyes and mouth, wash their hands afterwards.
57
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.36
Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)
Figure 2.37
Flower of Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)
58
Figure 2.38
Fruits of Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)
Figure 2.39
Hyoscyamus niger (henbane)
(3) Make sure to collect the appropriate part of the plant

Only the plant parts that provide the appropriate drug should be collected, in accordance
with the prescriptions of pharmacopoeias or national standards. Also, attention should
be paid to choosing the most suitable period for collection, i.e. when the level of the
active compounds in the given plant part is optimal.
When collecting the aerial parts (herba), the stem often contains less (or no) active
compounds compared to the leaves and flowers, thus the maximum proportion of stems
is determined in herba drugs. E.g. in Hyperici herba the length of the stem cannot be
more than 40 cm. The proportion of thick, woody plant parts is also limited, e.g. in
59
Pharmacognosy 1
Marrubii herba (white horehound flowering shoot) the thickness of stem parts should
be 5mm.
Figure 2.40
Marrubium vulgare (white horehound)
Figure 2.41
Marrubii herba
In the case of flowers or inflorescences, the length of the peduncle is prescribed. E.g. in
matricaria flower (Matricariae flos) the maximum peduncle length is 5 cm.
With roots and rhizomes a certain amount of aerial stem is often permitted. E.g. in
restharrow root (Ononidis radix) the stem parts can reach a maximum of 3%.
60
Figure 2.42
Ononidis radix (restharrow root)
The colour of fruits and pseudofruits should be appropriate, corresponding to their

ripeness and maximal content of active substances. E.g. with rosehips (Rosae
pseudofructus), pink or black pseudofruits should be rejected; with juniper berries
(Juniperi pseudofructus) only the waxy, blue pseudofruits of the 2nd year can be
accepted, while green, unripe cones of the 1st year should be rejected.
(4) Be sure to know when to collect

Various plant parts should be collected during the period of technological ripeness,
which coincides with maximum levels of active compounds in the given plant organ.
There is increasing evidence that the amount and composition of effective substances
varies in different seasons and also in different plant parts of the same species (or
cultivar). However, with plant species that have not been thoroughly investigated, we
have to follow general rules for when to collect what:
Below-ground organs (radix, rhizoma): dormancy period
Cortex: after sap flow started
Gemma: before leafing
Folium: fully developed, but still fresh
Flos: open flowers with or without calyx
Herba: at the beginning of bloom
With some plants, there are more specific regulations. E.g. Althaeae folium, Hyperici
herba and Millefolii herba should be collected when the plant is in full bloom; whereas
Tiliae flos, Matricariae flos and Solidaginis herba should be collected at the beginning
of bloom;
61
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.43
Solidago gigantea (giant goldenrod)
Leaves, flowers and fruits should not be collected when covered with dew or rain.
Aromatic plants are preferably collected in dry, sunny weather.
(5) Make sure you know the habitats

In case of plants that have similar morphological features, proper species identification
can be aided by being familiar with the plants habitat preference. E.g. Tussilago farfara
(coltsfoot) is a pioneer plant, living along roadsides and disturbed places; whereas
Petasites hybridus (butterbur), whose leaves superficially resemble those of coltsfoot,
prefers forests, and occurs typically along creeks.
62
Figure 2.44
Inflorescence of Tussilago farfara (coltsfoot)
Figure 2.45
Leaves of Tussilago farfara (coltsfoot)
63
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.46
Petasites hybridus (butterbur)
The increasing pollution of various habitats has to be taken into consideration, as well.
Plants should not be collected along roads with heavy traffic, due to contamination with
dust or heavy metals. There are certain plant species that are particularly prone to
accumulate heavy metals: e.g. Hypericum (St. Johns wort), Urtica (nettle) and
Chelidonium (celandine). In the vicinity of arable lands, MPs may be contaminated with
pesticides.
Another important factor is if the habitat is under protection or not. If the area
belongs to a national park or a nature protection area, a specific permit should be issued
by the nature protection authority prior to collecting any MPs. E.g. the berries of
common juniper (Juniperus communis) can be collected with permission of the
Kiskunsg National Park (Hungary).
(6) Make sure you know how to collect

Various plant parts should be collected with suitable methods and appropriate care, in
order to ensure optimal drug quality and preserve the ecological balance of the
ecosystem, which in turn will guarantee continuous availability of drug sources in the
future.
The necessary plant parts should be detached properly, without destructing the plant.
E.g. lime flowers should be collected without harming the trees (not necessary to cut or
break whole twigs); small-size species that provide herb drugs (e.g. Viola, Centaurium)
should be collected without damaging the below-ground organs.
Using proper tools such as scissors, clippers, knives, chamomile combs or cranberry
combs, can improve drug quality.
Flowers, which are sensitive to injuries, should be placed into baskets or boxes; juicy
fruits can be collected in buckets; herbs, seeds and roots in sacs.
Underground organs (e.g. roots and rhizomes) must be freed from soil. Most frequently
they are washed and dried afterwards, in some cases they are peeled. Large organs
should be sliced to facilitate drying.
64
2.6 MPs becoming endangered

Direct effects
Direct effects like cutting down a forest, establishing new arable lands or draining
swamps may lead to the reduction of the MP habitat and stand. The decrease in the
number of individuals may continue up to the point when the species eventually
disappears.
Reduction of forest ecosystems has led to a significant decrease in the numbers of
Dryopteris filix-mas (male fern), Primula (primrose) spp., Adonis vernalis (pheasants
eye), and as a consequence these species are no longer among MPs that can be collected
freely.
Draining of wildwater/swamp ecosystems without preceding ecological studies is
the reason for Acorus calamus (sweet flag) and Menyanthes trifoliata populations
becoming reduced in Hungary.
Figure 2.47
Menyanthes trifoliata (bogbean)
Indirect effects
In case of indirect effects, the occurrence and biomass production of a plant species is
modified through changes of the whole environment.
Indirect effects include air pollution and soil contamination resulting from industrial
activities and heavy traffic. Exhaust gases pollute the air, while heavy metals can
accumulate in the soil.
Other harmful effects are due to the intensive management of arable fields, often
applying pesticides on a large scale.
Ecologically less tolerant species such as Arnica montana (mountain arnica) and
Vaccinium spp. (including cranberry and blueberry) are particularly endangered by the
above effects, and they might become rare in heavily polluted areas.
65
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.48
Vaccinium myrtillus (blueberry/bilberry)
Figure 2.49
Vaccinium vitis-idaea (cowberry/lingonberry)
66
2.7 Protection of MPs

Degree of the endangered status
Several factors may influence the degreee of the endangered status:
ecological conditions, plant associations of a given area same species: different
status at different areas
life form of the plant species (growing slowly more endangered)
plant parts utilized (root, reproductive organs more endangered)
time and method of collection (optimal timing, non-destructive methods spares the
plant stands)
similar species positive if endangered MP species can be substituted with another
species (with bigger area), negative if there is a danger of mixing up the endangered
plant species with a similarly looking species
collected for other purposes if the MP is used also for food, industrial or
ornamental purposes, it will be more threatened
can be cultivated or not
Endangered and protected species
Hungary
ca. 500 protected plant species 160 MPs
47 highly protected plant species 19 MPs
1996: law LIII on nature protection (Hungary)

As a general rule, it is not allowed to collect protected species. They can be collected
only with a permit issued by the appropriate nature protection authority. These permits
allow the collection of MPs only for a limited period and amount of drugs.
It is prohibited to collect highly protected species.
Trade of endangered species and their products

international agreements
CITES: Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna

and Flora
Supplements: species listed at various levels of protection / prohibition of collection
Some examples from these lists:
Panax quinquefolius
Aloe ferox
Orchidaceae
67
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.50
Aloe ferox (cape aloe)
EU: European Cooperative Program for Plant Genetic Resources (ECP/GR),

Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAP WG)
Criteria for selecting 10 model species:
species/genus is medically important
known active compound
species/genus significant biodiversity
protected or endangered
can be maintained partly vegetatively, partly generatively
the highest possible number of member states should show interest
14 countries: suggested 137 species to be protected
A priority list was established, comprising 10 plant taxa that were supported by the
highest numbers of votes:
Gentiana lutea
Melissa officinalis
Carum carvi
Artemisia sp.
Mentha sp.
Hypericum sp.
Achillea sp.
Salvia sp.
Thymus sp.
Origanum sp.
68
Figure 2.51
Gentiana lutea (great yellow gentian)
Main objectives of the MAP WG:

develop conservation strategies in Europe, including the following steps:
make an inventory of MAP genetic resources survey native populations of
specified plant taxa (habitat data are recorded, sampling, collecting herbarium
specimens)
ex situ and in situ conservation
characterization and evaluation of the genetic and chemical variability of specified
plant taxa
documentation
distribution of collected data among partners
Methods for protecting MPs
Static protection
Static protection: in situ, ex situ protection: protecting the species OR the area
Ex situ maintenance of wild medicinal plants in gene banks:
reservation of genetic material
genetic reserve
highly productive cultivars can be selected
wide range of chemotaxonomic selection
69
Pharmacognosy 1
Challenges:
Ca. 200 MP species more than 1000 chemical varieties
Most species are wild: no data on their reproductive biology.
Little information on long-term storage of MAPs.
Gene bank traditional method

(1) Basis collections:
only long-term storage / maintenance
storage under -10C
5% seed moisture content
(2) Active collections:
maintenance, research, seed exchange mid-term storage
+4C
5-7% seed moisture content
Gene bank: seeds have to be treated, germinated
Gene bank modern method

In vitro meristem- and shoot-cultures:
increasing role
several species (e.g Mentha piperita, Lavandula intermedia) can be maintained only
vegetatively
Ex situ reservation
chemotaxonomic gardens, living collections
Dynamic protection
Dynamic protection includes domestication (on farm) protection AND increasing
production
Protection of MPs in Hungary

1980s: 4-5 million Ft/year financial support
Research Institute of Medicinal Plants, Budakalsz
Agrobotanical Research Institute, Tpiszele
1990s: 10-15 million Ft
further 6 institutions joined the program
2000s: no financial support from the state reservation programs declined
2009-2010: 3-3,5 million Ft/year support renewed
70
2.8 Main Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) cultivated in

Hungary
This section provides the list of cultivated MAPs and their drug parts that have the
greatest significance in Hungary.
Figure 2.52
Sinapis alba (white mustard)
Figure 2.53
Sinapis albae fructus
71
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.54
Papaver somniferum (poppy)
Figure 2.55
Papaveris caput (poppy head)
72
Figure 2.56
Carum carvi (caraway)
Figure 2.57
Carvi fructus (caraway fruit)
73
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.58
Coriandri fructus (coriander fruit)
Figure 2.59
Foeniculum vulgare (fennel)
74
Figure 2.60
Inflorescence of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel)
Figure 2.61
Foeniculi fructus (fennel fruit)
75
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.62
Silybum marianum (milk thistle)
Figure 2.63
Silybi mariani fructus (milk thistle fruit)
76
Figure 2.64
Anethum graveolens (dill)
Figure 2.65
Anethi fructus (dill fruit)
77
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.66
Pimpinella anisum (anise)
Figure 2.67
Anisi fructus (aniseed)
78
Figure 2.68
Melissa officinalis (lemon balm)
Figure 2.69
Melissae folium (melissa leaf)
Matricariae recutita (German chamomile) see Figure 1.8, 2.8 and 2.9
79
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.70
Valerianae radix (valerian root)
Figure 2.71
Majorana hortensis (marjoram)
80
Figure 2.72
Majoranae herba (marjoram flowering shoot)
Figure 2.73
Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil)
81
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.74
Basilici herba (basil herb)
Figure 2.75
Satureja hortensis (summer savory)
82
Figure 2.76
Saturejae herba (savory flowering shoot)
2.9 Domestication of MPs

Reasons for domestication
Certain MPs are used more widely, for new therapeutic purposes, new products etc.,
and the increased demand cannot be ensured by natural ecosystems (e.g. Hypericum,
Solidago, Secale cornutum).
Standard quality of drugs can be ensured only in case of known, constant
composition of active compounds.
Pesticide or heavy metal contamination of wild sources can result in lower quality
drugs. In cultivation, pesticide usage is documented, controlled (e.g. Chelidonium,
Urtica).
Figure 2.77
Chelidonium majus (greater celandine)
Certain MPs become rare, protected (e.g. Arnica, Veronica).
83
Pharmacognosy 1
Some exotic MPs that are traditionally imported, can be grown in Hungary, as well.
Selecting suitable genotypes and the development of local cultivation technology is
necessary (e.g. Rosmarinus).
Figure 2.78
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)
Number of MP collectors decreases.

Areas from where MPs can be collected are becoming scarce.
Domestication process
The domestication process of any plant species is a long-term task, amounting to 10-15
years. It requires the following steps.
(1) Selection of biological material

Wild populations are heterogeneous, considering both morphological and
phytochemical features. The selection of optimal genotypes is needed. Data should be
collected on the genetic, reproductive- and production biology of the given taxon.
Genetically inherent features should be distinguished from modifications caused by the
environment.
(2) Optimising the ecological conditions:

Phenotypic characters determined by the genetic background can be realized only in
case of optimising environmental conditions and agrotechnology.
Species with wide ecological tolerance can adapt more easily to the artificial system.
The environmental conditions of natural habitats can serve as starting point, but they are
not exclusively valid. E.g. German chamomile (Matricaria recutita) typically occurs on
saline soils in nature. The plants ability to accumulate salt provides a competitive
advantage at its natural habitat, where other, less salt-tolerant species cannot survive.
However, in cultivation it turned out that chamomile can perform much better and is
able to provide higher quality drug when grown on nutrient-rich soil.
84
The following conditions should be optimised:

(a) Optimal soil properties (pH, aeration, lime and humus content, thickness of humus
layer)
(b) Water requirement can affect yield and active compound content, fruit ripening
etc.; plants with high water requirement should be irrigated
(c) Temperature
(d) Light or shade (e.g. forest understorey plants require shading in cultivation)
(3) Agrotechnology
Reproduction
Experiments should be carried out to determine which is the most suitable plant part for
reproduction (e.g. seeds or stolons).
Problems: seeds of wild species: low and changeable germination ability.
Plant protection and weed suppressing technology

should be established according to the principles of environment and nature protection.
Species living in their original ecosystems are balanced, however, in populations
removed from their native habitat earlier unknown pests may appear and should be dealt
with.
Optimal nutrition levels should be achieved.
Water should be supplemented if necessary for optimal biomass production, and
accumulation of active compounds.
Optimising harvest
The optimal developmental stage for harvesting should be selected, in accordance with
the maxima of dry matter content and active compounds.
Plant organ to be harvested and frequency of harvest should be determined, and proper
tools should be applied.
Primary processing (postharvest technologies)

Drying, purification, cutting
2.10 MP Breeding
Biological background
Cultivar or population with known, determined genetic features:
required phytochemical features
required yield to be produced economically
Hungarian Cultivar List:
2007: 40 MAP species with 70 cultivars
85
Pharmacognosy 1
Trends in MP breeding
Increasing production
Not total biomass, but drug part production should be increased.
Valeriana officinalis: aim of breeding: increase root production, optimise root form
Mentha spp., Ocimum basilicum, Melissa officinalis: increase shoot mass; improve
stem/leaf proportion
Hypericum perforatum, Chrysanthemum parthenium: quality of inflorescence should
be improved
Figure 2.79
Valeriana officinalis (valerian)
86
Figure 2.80
Chrysanthemum parthenium (feverfew)
Improving regenerating ability

Improved regenerating ability has major significance in MPs, whose aerial parts are
harvested. It facilitates more harvests per year and an increase in profit. Examples
include Thymus vulgaris and Majorana hortensis.
Increasing the mass of vegetative reproductive organs

It is important in species where vegetative reproduction is dominant over sexual
reproduction. Well-known examples are Mentha piperita (peppermint), which
reproduces with stolons; and
Artemisia dracunculus (tarragon), frequently spreading with sprouts.
87
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.81
Figure 2.82
Artemisia dracunculus (tarragon)
88
Changing phytochemical properties

The level of active compounds should be increased, and/or the ratio of components
should be changed. E.g. in Hyssopus officinalis, Lavandula spp. and Ocimum basilicum
the essential oil content should be increased; in Hypericum perforatum and Silybum
marianum the level of phenolic compounds; while in Cucurbita pepo and Oenothera
erythrosepala the oil content of seeds should be raised by breeding efforts.
Ratio of components is modified

E.g. carvone should be the main essential oil component in caraway (Carum carvi oil),
while chamazulene should be dominant in chamomile oil.
The level of toxic compounds should be lowered

Examples include common sage (Salvia officinalis), the essential oil of which should
contain low levels of the toxic beta-thujone; and comfrey (Symphytum officinale), where
the level of pyrrolizidine alkaloids should be kept as low as possible.
There are two opposing trends in poppy (Papaver somniferum) breeding: in Hungary
the main goal is to achieve high alkaloid (and morphine) content for pharmaceutical
utilisation; while in Western Europe poppy cultivars with lower morphine level have
been developed, which are more suitable for food purposes.
Enhancing resistance
Against biotic factors

E.g. Mentha cultivars that are resistant against the fungus Verticillium, which causes
wilt disease, were bred in the USA.
Against abiotic factors

Winter-hardy cultivars of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and fennel (Foeniculum
vulgare) were developed in Hungary and Germany, respectively
Enhancing organoleptic features drug quality

Organoleptic features of drugs, such as their colour and odour can largely contribute to
customer preferences. E.g. pot marigolds (Calendula officinalis) with bright orange
petals (in ligulate flowers of the inflorescence) represent better quality than the ones
with pale yellow petals. Similarly, marjoram (Majorana hortensis) should preferably
have a strong spicy odour.
Enhancing agrotechnology
Influence growth rate, competitive ability (e.g. earliness, ability to suppress weeds,
suitability for harvest with machines)
Enhance reproductive biological features (e.g. non-dehiscent capsule which
facilitates harvesting seeds; all seedlings germinating at the same time)
Modify plant morphological features (e.g. seed size, root form, leaf size)
89
Pharmacognosy 1
Methods of breeding
Selection breeding
based on selection of individuals, clones etc.
e.g. India: Cinchona spp. selecting individuals with high levels of alkaloids
most simple and cheap
successful for most MPs majority of wild populations: great genetic variability
does not require species-specific genetic knowledge
disadvantage: we can stabilize only the variability that is present in the given
population
efficiency can be increased by environmental pressure: under controlled conditions:
individuals or lines that are able to produce high level of active compounds even
under unfavourable conditions should be selected this refers to strong genetic
background (e.g. poppy cultivars Monaco, Blue Gemona)
Breeding via crosses

unites the favourable traits of 2 genotypes
e.g. Carum carvi 1-, 2-year ecotypes;
Mentha spicata chemical varieties
traditional crossing (pollination) or in vitro fusions, followed by selection according
to our purposes
interspecific crosses are rather rare:
e.g. Blue Danube poppy (P. orientale x P. somniferum)
requires deeper genetic knowledge (flower biology, fertilisation, heritability etc.)
Polyploids
rarely applied in MP breeding
the naturally occurring forms of some MP genera form polyploid series:
Achillea spp., Mentha spp., Valeriana spp.
however, an increase in chromosome numbers is rarely accompanied by an increase
in the amount of the drug part or active compounds
there are a few examples when tetraploid cultivars were successfully introduced (e.g.
chamomile Matricaria recutita, dill Anethum graveolens)
Mutation breeding
performed with gamma-rays or chemical mutagens
rare in MP breeding
results are by chance,
applied to alter a specific gene, or if no success is expected from other methods
e.g. Mentha piperita Verticillium resistance was developed with this method
In vitro breeding techniques

hybridisation, protoplast fusion, haploid cultures, embryogenesis
few MPs basic research
(Papaver somniferum, Datura stramonium, Nicotiana tabacum)
practical results (cultivars): only few examples (with strong industrial background)
(e.g. Salvia sclarea)
90
Figure 2.83
Datura stramonium (thornapple)
Figure 2.84
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)
91
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.85
Salvia sclarea (clary sage)
2.11 Plant biotechnology

Classic biotechnology
Living organisms (e.g. microorganism) or their parts (e.g. enzymes) are used to
synthesize a product (industrial technologies), e.g. in case of microbial fermentation.
New PLANT biotechnology

Modification of the genetic program in plants, plant cells or cell organelles;
development of individuals (cells or plants) with new features; the technological usage
of their newly evolved abilities.
It can be utilised in plant breeding, plant protection, producing propagation materials.
Biotechnology of reproduction
Modification of sexual or asexual (vegetative) reproduction in in vitro cultures of plant
cells, tissues or organs.
Somatic cell genetics

Modification of the genetic program of the plant cell indirectly, via cell-level
manipulation, in cell- or protoplast-cultures
Gene technology
Modification of the genetic program of the plant cell or cell organelle, with molecular
genetic methods
GMOs (genetically modified organisms)/ GM plants/ transgenic plants/ transformant
plants:
92
a foreign gene (transgene) is inserted into the nucleus (genome) with molecular methods
of gene technology; the gene will be integrated, functioning and new features will be
transmitted to next generations
Gene technology involves the direct molecular modification of the genetic material. It
applies various methods of molecular biology, cell genetics and tissue cultures.
The main steps of producing GMOs are as follows:
(a) isolation and multiplication of the gene(s) with the required character(s)
(b)gene inserted into a vector; gene transmitted to recipient cell, gene is integrated
within the genome; new gene is functioning
(c) regeneration of transgenic plant from the genetically modified cells
1st generation GM plants were developed with the following goals:
for agricultural purposes
to protect the environment
to make plants resistant against pests
reduce the use of chemicals (e.g. pesticides)
2nd generation GM plants
plants with better inner qualities
(e.g. larger amount of essential fatty acids, less trans fatty acids)
changes influencing plant metabolism
development of drought-, cold-resistant cultivars
3rd generation GM plants
produce organic molecules
produce pharmaceutically active compounds
Examples for successfully applying biotechnological methods in management of MPs
include:
the large-scale, rapid cloning of Dioscorea species that are valuable sources of the
steroid sapogenin diosgenin (Chaturvedi et al. 2007)
conservation of the endangered medicinal plant Acorus calamus through plant tissue
culture (Bhagat 2011)
93
Chapter 3
Tea drugs, primary processing of medicinal
plants, plant extracts; Qualification and
phytochemical evaluation of medicinal plants;
Industrial medicinal plants
3.1 Tea drugs, primary processing of medicinal plants, plant

extracts
Primary processing of plant drugs
Primary processing of plant drugs includes the following steps:
(1) Harvest
at the optimal time (technological ripeness)
method of harvest or collection should be appropriate
(2) Transfer quick, proper transfer of crude drug to the place of drying
(3) Assessment of drugs before further processing:
species (source plant) identification, should be healthy, with characteristic sensory
characters, including no foreign matter
(4) Storage before processing: toxic and non-toxic drugs separated; drugs with strong
smell separately;
(5) Pre-processing before drying:
purification (by hand or sieve, washing, peeling)
cutting, slicing
removing leaves and flowers from stem
fermentation
(6) Drying removing water without harming the drug
There are several factors that influence the speed and efficiency of drying, such as:
temperature of drying air (usually < 60C)
moisture content of air
speed and direction of air flow
duration of drying
method of drying:
natural (open-air)
artificial
95
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 3.1
Equipment for natural drying
Artificial drying:
with drying equipment
(a) cold air (8-12 days, ventilation)
(b) warm air (4-12 hours) most frequent
(c) hot air (2-5 min, 200-1000C) mainly industrial drugs
(d) lyophilisation
1 kg dry drug can be obtained from:
flos: 6-7 kg crude drug
folium or herba: 5-6 kg
(pseudo)fructus, radix, cortex: 2-3 kg
semen: 1.2 - 2 kg
(7) Purification and comminution of drugs
conveyer belt (by hand, 1-10 m/min)
cutters
trituration: dried aerial parts: removing valuable leaf- and flower-parts from the
stem
millers finer comminution
sieve equipments: fractionation, removing dust (chamomile flowers removing
peduncles)
seed drugs removing particles with different size
Grade of comminution
no comminution: small flowers, inflorescences
scissus: coarsely cut sieve size 1 (6.3mm): flowers
conscissus: comminuted sieve size 2 (4.0mm): leaves, herb drugs
semiconscissus: finely comminuted sieve size 3 (2.0mm): root, rhizome, bark,
woody parts, leathery leaves, fruits, seeds
96
Tea drugs, primary processing of medicinal plants, plant extracts
sieve size 4, 5 powdered substances suitable for industrial processing (tablet,

capsule)
sieve size 6 (0.32 mm): fine powder tea bags
Herbal tea drugs

tea aqueous extract
monotea single tea drug
species mixture of 2 or more tea drugs
tea drug with strong physiological effect (e.g. Chelidonii herba): under medical
supervision, with exact dosage
mild tea drugs not dangerous: prevention, treatment of chronic/acute diseases
! continuous consumption long-term usage not always beneficial (e.g. tea drug with
high tannin content might cause liver damage in case of prolonged use )
Herbal teas should not be mixed up with the tea prepared from black or green tea leaves
(Theae folium, source plant: Camellia sinensis, syn. Thea sinensis). Herbal teas can be
prepared by means of infusion or decoction (see below) from various plant parts of
MAPs.
Below you can find the definition of herbal teas according to Ph.Eur.: Herbal teas
Plantae ad ptisanam
Herbal teas consist exclusively of one or more herbal drugs intended for oral
aqueous preparations by means of decoction, infusion or maceration. The
preparation is prepared immediately before use.
Herbal teas are usually supplied in bulk form or in sachets.
The herbal drugs used comply with the appropriate individual European
Pharmacopoeia monographs or in their absence to the general monograph on
Herbal drugs (1433).
Recommendations on the microbiological quality of herbal teas (5.1.4. Category
4) take into account the prescribed preparation method (use of boiling or non-
boiling water).
Preparing herbal teas ways of extraction
Liquid extracts = Extracta fluida

Infusum (infusion): pour boiling water on the drug and leave for 10-15 min with the lid
on (or: after soaking, 20 min in steam), filter
Decoctum (decoction): boil for 10-15, or 40 min in steam after soaking, filter
Digestio: soak for longer time (4-8 h) at 30-70C (e.g. Frangulae cortex, Uvae ursi
folium)
Maceratio (maceration): soak for longer time (8-12 h) at room temperature (e.g.
Althaeae radix, Rosae pseudofructus)
97
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 3.2
Uvae ursi folium (bearberry leaf)
Figure 3.3
Althaeae radix (marshmallow root)
Other liquid extracts

Special maceration: in vinegar, wine, oil e.g. with garlic, St.Johns wort, arnica
Solutio (solution): special technology (e.g. Aqua aromatica)
Sirupus (sugary solution): Sirupus aurantii, S. rubi idaei, S. laxans
Tinctura (tincture, alcoholic extract): usually soaked in 40-70% ethanol, or with
percolation
homeopathy: mother tinctures
gutta (drops): usually alcoholic extracts
medical wines: tincture mixed with white or red wine
98
Tea drugs, primary processing of medicinal plants, plant extracts
Soft and dry extracts

Extracta (soft and dry extracts):
soft extract: semi-solid
dry extract: solid
usually with evaporation of the solvent used for extraction
extractum fluidum (dry matter: 15-50%)
extractum subspissum (dry matter: 50-70%)
extractum spissum (dry matter: 70-85%)
extractum siccum (dry matter: ~ 94%)
Other extracts
Supercritical fluid extraction (SCFE): usually with CO2
Essential oil extraction: water steam distillation, cold pressing
Fatty oil extraction: with solvent, pressing
Hydrophilic substances: lyophilisation following aqueous extraction, spray drying,
vacuum drying (instant powders, granules)
Freshly pressed juices (e.g. cabbage, beetroot) pasteurized, lyophilized
Pulpa - laxative agents (e.g. Tamarindi pulpa)
Other formulas with pharmaceutical technological methods (cyclodextrin powder,
granulation, tablet, dragee, lozenge, capsule, ointment)
Figure 3.4
Tamarindi pulpa (tamarind)
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Pharmacognosy 1
3.2 Qualification and phytochemical evaluation of medicinal

plants
The quality control of MPs is regulated by the following:
GAP Good Agricultural Practice
GMP Good Manufacturing Practice
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation, 9002:1994 standard
Ph.Hg.VIII.
Ph.Eur., DAB (Deutsches Arzneibuch)
MSZ (Magyar Szabvny = Hungarian Standards)
GAP: Good Agricultural Practice

Quality plants with known genetic background
Collection: chemically well-defined taxon
Cultivation: controlled propagation material (cultivar)
Cultivation site ecological conditions optimal production controlled technology
Collection: preserving the natural environment, sustaining biodiversity
Cultivation: species or cultivars ecological requirements adaptation to
cultivation area
Minimal biological, chemical or physical contamination
Post-harvest procedures
maintaining or improving the quality of the product
primary processing, packaging, storage
Quality control / Assessment

(1) Identification of collected or harvested plant material, basic quality characters
(2) Quality assessment of the drug as end product:
organoleptic, phytochemical analysis
(3) Monitoring changes during storage and packaging of drugs
Quality control (2 and 3), issuing retail trade permissions:
earlier: Research Institute of Medicinal Plants (RIMP) (Hungarian: GyNKI)
today: accredited quality control laboratories
Ph.Hg.VIII. Ph. Eur.: general notices

Plant drugs Plantae medicinales regulates:
production
identification
methods of examination
detection of pesticides
GMP: Good Manufacturing Practice
MPs, herbal preparations

standardization of effective substances (prescribing the amount of total effective
compounds or the amount of a specific compound)
organic solvent (used for extraction) residues cannot be present or have to be under
the prescribed limit
100
Qualification and phytochemical evaluation of medicinal plants
no heavy metals or pesticide residues are allowed

microbiological quality is prescribed
quality of packaging material, method of packaging have to comply with
prescriptions
Ph. Eur.
ca. 200 plant drugs
30 oleum
30 aetheroleum
20 tincturae
10 extracta
Individual monograph structure
Latin and English name of the drug and the source plant(s)
Identification
macroscopic examination
microscopic examination
identification reactions
TLC (thin layer chromatography), GC (gas chromatography) or spectroscopic
identification
Purity examinations
organoleptic examination
foreign matter: other plant parts, foreign contamination ( 2% m/m)
loss on drying (drying at 105C weight loss)
total ash
ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid
pesticide residue examination (bio product: 0.01mg/kg)
microbiological purity
heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg, Fe, As) < limit
Phytochemical assessment
determining the extract content (aqueous or alcoholic extract)
swelling index mucilage-containing drugs (swelling of 1g drug in water (ml), after
5 h, at room temperature)
bitterness value the highest dilution, from which 5ml still tastes bitter
tannin content
haemolytic index saponin-containing drugs (the dilution still causing total
haemolysis)
alkaloid content
essential oil content
other active compounds (e.g. total flavonoid content) quantitative evaluation
usually with a spectroscopic analysis
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Pharmacognosy 1
3.3 Industrial medicinal plants

In the previous decades numerous developments of industrial medicinal plants took
place in Hungary. Leading researchers of several projects worked at the Research
Institute of Medicinal Plants (RIMP, Budakalsz, Hungary). Some examples can be
found below.
Papaver somniferum (poppy)

Main aspects of breeding:
increase yield (seed production),
opium poppy pharmaceutical industry: increase the concentration of morphine or
other active compounds (alkaloids)
food poppy decrease alkaloid content
Jnos Kabay: elaborated the technique of extracting alkaloids from poppy straw
Figure 3.5
Capsule of Papaver somniferum (poppy)

developing production technology
withdrawing Mentha rubra from breeding essential oil composition was not
suitable
Ricinus communis (castor oil plant)

cultivars with smooth capsule and low stem were developed to facilitate harvest of
seeds, which are rich in oil
102
Figure 3.6
Ricinus communis (castor oil plant)
Secale cornutum (ergot) Claviceps purpurea

developing production technology
Mikls Bksy: artificial infection of rye
later: automation, breeding for active compounds (ergot alkaloids), production of
propagation materials
Figure 3.7
Secale cornutum (ergot)
Digitalis purpurea (purple foxglove) and Digitalis lanata (woolly foxglove)

phytochemical research (sources of cardenolide-type cardiac glycosides) and
breeding
103
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 3.8
Inflorescence of Digitalis purpurea (purple foxglove)
Figure 3.9
Digitalis lanata (woolly foxglove)
104
Figure 3.10
Inflorescence of Digitalis lanata (woolly foxglove)
Domestication of MPs growing in natural habitats

Acorus calamus (sweet flag, calamus)
Rhamnus frangula (alder buckthorn)
Matricaria recutita (German chamomile)
Gypsophyla paniculata (babys breath)
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Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 3.11
Gypsophyla paniculata (babys breath)
Cultivation of foreign MPs

Hyoscyamus muticus (Egyptian henbane)
Datura metel (devils trumpet)
Ammi majus (bishops flower), Ammi visnaga (toothpickweed)
106
Figure 3.12
Flower of Datura metel (devils trumpet)
Figure 3.13
Fruit of Datura metel (devils trumpet)
Elaborating agrotechnology of plants with essential oil

Mentha x piperita (peppermint)
Mentha spicata convar. crispa (spearmint)
Lavandula sp. (lavender)
Salvia sp. (sage)
Thymus vulgaris (garden thyme)
Anethum graveolens (dill)
Carum carvi (caraway)
Foeniculum vulgare (fennel)
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Pharmacognosy 1
Pimpinella anisum (aniseed)

Coriandrum sativum (coriander)
Levisticum officinale (lovage)
Angelica archangelica (garden angelica)
Figure 3.14
Lavandula angustifolia (English lavender)
Figure 3.15
Levisticum officinale (lovage)
108
Figure 3.16
MPs containing rutoside - Gubnyi Emil

Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat)
Fagopyrum tataricum (tartary buckwheat) tolerates drying better, almost no
decrease in rutin content
Sophora japonica flower bud new source with higher rutin content
Figure 3.17
Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat)
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Pharmacognosy 1
Plant steroid research

plant steroids can serve as sources for producing sex hormones, hormones of the adrenal
glands by the pharmaceutical industry
Dioscorea sp. couldnt be cultivated in Hungary
Solanum sp. (S. aviculare / S. laciniatum) cultivation successful
Apocynaceae family
Catharanthus roseus cancer therapy
Vinca minor enhancing cerebral blood circulation
Figure 3.18
Vinca minor (lesser periwinkle)
110
Current sources of medications

Cucurbita pepo (squash, pumpkin) Cucurbitae semen treatment of benign
prostate hypertrophy (BPH)
Figure 3.19
Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin)
111
Pharmacognosy 1
Silybum marianum Silybi mariani fructus hepatoprotective dragee with

silimarine
Figure 3.20
Claviceps purpurea Secale cornutum ergot alkaloids (e.g. ergometrine used to

prevent bleeding after childbirth; ergotamine used for treatment of acute migraine
attacks)
Valeriana officinalis Valerianae radix valepotriates used as anxiolytic, in
treatment of insomnia
112
Chapter 4
Natural substances in pharmaceutical research
Pharmacognosy itself is a multidisciplinary field within pharmaceutical sciences. It
involves the knowlegde of drugs derived from plants, animals and fungi, used for
medicinal purposes. Pharmacognosy requires the following knowledge:
biological (morphology, anatomy, genetics)
biochemical (biosynthesis and metabolism of compounds)
chemical (structure and physico-chemical feature of metabolites, etc.)
analytical (investigations, qualification-quantification determination)
therapeutical (medicinal use, side effects, etc.)
4.1 Usage of Medicinal Plants

Medicinal plants can be used for a variety of purposes. The most relevant uses include
therapeutical and pharmaceutical applications. Aromatherapy uses essential oils
produced by plants. Food industry uses medicinal plants as flavouring materials (e.g.
spices, natural aromas) or colouring materials. Many plants containing flavonoids have
antioxidant effects, therefore they can be additives. Cosmetic and household industries
use essential oils or their compounds isolated from approx. 1400 species. Medicinal
plants have other industrial applications, for instance in dye-, textile- and chemical
industry.
4.2 Some definitions

Plants produce chemically different compounds. We have to distinguish these materials
according to the aim of their utilization.
Content materials: they are biosynthetized by the plants (during universal and special
metabolism) and are characterized with different chemical structures.
Active constituents: they are specific content materials that are biologically active
substances. They are responsible for the pharmacological effects of the drug.
e.g. Digitalis-glycosides are the active constituents in the genus Digitalis. Chamomile
(Matricaria recutia) contains three groups of active compounds: essential oil,
flavonoids and mucilage.
Characteristic constituent (marker-compound, principal-compound): it is also a kind of
content material, but is used for analytical purposes, quantitative measurements and
product standardization. It is not necessarily an active constituent, but the plant can
produce it in great amounts.
Accompanying constituents: they are content materials, which help or prevent the effect
of active constituents, and they may cause side-effects.
Ballast constituent: it must be removed during the extraction procedure, because it may
disturb the correct quantitative measurements. Tannins, fatty oils and to a lesser degree
chlorophyll are the most frequent ballast contituents, but the aim of the extraction
always has to be taken into consideration. E.g. Determination of tannins in herbal
113
Pharmacognosy 1
drugs is an official method in the European Pharmacopoeia, therefore, in plants

containing tannins, these are active compounds, not ballast constituents.
4.3 Therapeutical utilization of medicinal plants

(1) Mono-component products
They contain pure constituents, e.g. herbal medicines.
Characteristics:
High activity
Accompanying constituents do not influence the effect
Easy analysis
Exact dosage
(2) Multi-component products

They contain more than one constituent, e.g. teas, tinctures, extracts, oils, syrups, etc.
Herbal products and dietary supplements are multi-component products.
Characteristics:
They have complex effect, because there is synergism between components.
There are no pure constituents: is not possible to isolate or the isolation is not
economical
Active constituent is not known
S: synthetic, N: natural constituent, ND: derivative of natural constituent,

SN: synthetic developed based on natural constituent, B: constituent (peptid,
protein) produced by biological (mammal) organism or cell culture,
V: vaccine
Figure 4.1
Distribution by origin of medicines licensed between 1981-2006
(Source: Csupor D.: Fitoterpia. JATEPress, Szeged, 2007)
114
4.4 Types of pharmaceutical utilization of natural constituents

There are three types of pharmaceutical utilization of natural constituents:
(1) Application of natural constituents in direct form
(2) Application of derivatives of natural constituents
(3) Model- or marker-compounds of synthetic medicines leader molecules
(1) Application of natural constituents in direct form

Taxol is a good example when a natural substance becomes a medicine. Taxol (=
paclitaxel) was isolated from the bark of pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) in 1971.
Chemically it is a diterpene-alkaloid. Today it can be used in medicines for treating
lung-, ovarian- or breast cancer. Paclitaxel stabilizes microtubules and as a result,
interferes with the normal breakdown of microtubules during cell division.
Figure 4.2
Taxus baccata (common yew)
O HO
O
O
O
O NH O
O
O
OH O
OH O
Figure 4.3
Chemical structure of taxol A
115
Pharmacognosy 1
(2) Application of derivatives of natural constituents
Camptotheca acuminata (camptotheca, happy tree), a plant native to southern China and
Tibet, is the source of camptothecin (CPT), a cytotoxic quinoline alkaloid which
inhibits the DNA enzyme topoisomerase I. It was discovered in 1966 by Wall and Wani
in systematic screening of natural products for anticancer drugs. It was isolated from the
bark and stem of Camptotheca acuminata, which has been used in cancer therapy in
Traditional Chinese Medicine. CPT showed remarkable anticancer activity in
preliminary clinical trials but also low solubility and (high) adverse drug reaction.
Because of these disadvantages synthetic and medicinal chemists have developed
numerous syntheses of camptothecin and various derivatives to increase the benefits of
the chemical, with good results. Two CPT analogues have been approved and are used
in cancer chemotherapy today, topotecan (in lung and ovarian cancer) and irinotecan
(in colon cancer) (Wall et al. 1966, Efferth et al. 2007, Akimoto and Calvo 2008).
Figure 4.4
Chemical structure of camptothecin
Figure 4.5
Chemical structure of topotecan
Figure 4.6
Chemical structure of irinotecan
116
(3) Model- or marker-compounds of synthetic medicines leader

molecules
Galega officinalis (goats rue) has been known since the Middle Ages for relieving the
symptoms of diabetes mellitus. Upon analysis, it turned out to contain compounds
related to guanidine, a substance that decreases blood sugar by mechanisms including a
decrease in insulin resistance. However, the compounds detected in goats rue were too
toxic for human use. Georges Tanret identified an alkaloid from this plant, galegine,
that was less toxic, and this was evaluated in unsuccessful clinical trials in patients with
diabetes in the 1920s and 1930s. Other related compounds were being investigated
clinically at this time, including biguanide derivatives. This work led ultimately to the
discovery of metformin, currently recommended in international guidelines for
diabetes management as the first choice for antidiabetic pharmacotherapy alongside diet
and exercise (Witters 2001, Bailey et al. 2007, Nathan et al. 2009).
Figure 4.7
Inflorescence of Galega officinalis (goats rue)
CH3O NH
C CH CH2 NH C
CH3O NH2
Figure 4.8
Chemical structure of galegine
117
Pharmacognosy 1
(CH3)2N NH
C NH C
HN NH2
Figure 4.9
Chemical structure of metformin
4.5 Industrial production of natural drugs

There are five different techniques to produce pharmacologically active compounds
from natural drugs.
(1) Isolation
(2) Total synthesis
(3) Semi-synthesis from natural compound
(4) Biotechnology
(5) Combination of biotechnology and chemical methods
(1) Isolation
Quinine (quinoline-alkaloid) was isolated from the bark of Cinchona pubescens Vahl.
(Rubiaceae) in 1817. Cinchonae cortex is an official drug in the Ph. Eur. The quinine-
content of the bark is 3-14%. Total production of the world: 5000 10 000 tons of bark,
which corresponds to 300 500 tons of quinine/year. Its synthesis is also solved: in
1944. R. Woodward and W. Doering developed total synthesis, while in 2001. G. Stork
achieved stereoselective synthesis.
Figure 4.10
Cinchonae cortex (cinchona bark)
118
CH CH2
HO
N
CH
CH3O
Figure 4.11
Chemical structure of quinine
Digitalis glycosides: Digitalis purpurea (common or purple foxglove) and Digitalis

lanata (woolly foxglove, in Hungary this plant is protected, but it can be cultivated)
produce Digitalis glycosides, e.g. digoxin. Digoxin is used in medicine for treatment of
cardiac insufficiency (atrial fibrillation). In 1930, the structure of sugar part was
discovered. The structure identification was finished in 1952. The leaves contain 0.05-
0.1% cardiac glycosides. Other relevant compounds are digitoxin and lanatoside C.
Figure 4.12
Chemical structure of digoxin
(2) Total synthesis

Ephedrae herba (Ephedra distachya L., Ephedraceae) produces ephedrine, commonly
used as a decongestant and stimulant. The source plant is protected in Hungary,
therefore it cannot be collected. Figure 4.13 shows the synthetic production of
ephedrine.
H/cat
+
phenyl methyl diketone methyl amine ephedrin
Figure 4.13
Synthetic production of ephedrine
119
Pharmacognosy 1
(3) Semi-synthesis from natural compound

Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L., Papaveraceae) produces opium, which contains
morphine 10-14%, codeine 1%, tebaine 0.2-0.5% and other alkaloids. Codeine is a
cough-suppressant. This compound can be produced from morphine or tebaine (see
below).
6-O-demethylation
methylation hidration
morphine codeine tebaine
Figure 4.14
Synthetic pathways of codeine
Birth of morphine
1805: Sertrner (Friderich Wilhelm Adam Sertrner), German pharmacist isolation
of morphine
origin of the name morphine Morpheus, the God of sleeping
1816: reported the chemical and pharmacological properties of morphine (self-
studies)
1848: Laurent determination of molecular formula
1925: determination of graphic formula (structure)
1820: industrial production of opium alkaloids from opium (Merck), use of morphine
instead of opium
Jnos Kabay (1896 1936)

A Hungarian chemist, Jnos Kabay, invented and internationally patented a method (in
1931) to extract morphine from poppy straw. Poppy straw was the cheapest raw
material for isolation of morphine. In opium poppy the alkaloids are bound to meconic
acid. The method is to extract from the crushed plant with diluted sulfuric acid, which is
a stronger acid than meconic acid, but not so strong to react with alkaloid molecules.
The extraction is performed in many steps (one amount of crushed plant is at least six to
ten times extracted, so practically every alkaloid goes into the solution). From the
solution obtained at the last extraction step, the alkaloids are precipitated by either
ammonium hydroxide or sodium carbonate. The last step is purifying and separating
morphine from other opium alkaloids.
(4) Biotechnology
Ergotamine is an important alkaloid, which is found in a sclerotium produced by a
fungus (Claviceps purpurea (Fries) Tulasne, Clavicipitaceae). A sclerotium is a
compact mass of hardened fungal mycelium, which develops on rye or wheat spike.
Today ergotamine can be produced with biotechnological methods, in liquid cultures at
24C, for 6-10 days (1-6 g/L peptide alkaloids). Ergotamine is a vasoconstrictor (in case
of giving birth or migraine).
120
Mikls Bksy (1903-1980) got Kossuth-prize for his achievement of industrial

cultivation of Secale cornutum (ergot) in Hungary.
H N
HO O
O N
CH2C6H5
C
H3C O
NH
O C
CH3
N
N
H
Figure 4.15
Chemical structure of ergotamine
Advantages of biotechnology are: stereospecific pathways, low energy intensity,

environmental technology
Disadvantages of biotechnology are: prolonged research work, species selection,
optimization, expensive maintenance of cultures
121
Pharmacognosy 1
(5) Combination of biotechnology and chemical methods

Ergometrin is also an important alkaloid, which is found in the sclerotium produced by
another fungus Claviceps paspali (Clavicipitaceae). Ergometrin is a myometrium
(muscle of uterus) vasoconstrictor. In liquid cultures paspalic acid can be synthesized
(during 8-10 days, 8-10 g/L), and it can be converted into ergometrine with chemical
synthesis (see below).
OH
paspalic acid lysergic acid / isolysergic acid

ergometrine
Figure 4.16
Synthesis of ergometrine
4.6 Modifying natural substances

Substances of natural origin are often modified, for a variety of purposes, such as
modification or intensification of the effect, or improvement of physico-chemical
properties. Modification can be achieved with diverse methods (Figure 4.17).
Modification
Aim of the modification
of the effect Improvement
Intensification of phisico-
of the effect chemical
features
Derivative of
natural substance
Semi-synthesis Biotechnology
Mode of the modification
Total-synthesis
Figure 4.17
Aims and modes of modifying natural subtances
122
Aim of the modification: intensification of the effect

Papaverine (Figure 4.18) was isolated from opium in 1848. Its pharmacological effect
was described in 1916. The etoxy analogue of papaverine, etaverine (Figure 4.19), was
prepared in 1931, but its resorption was not appropriate. Therefore another derivative,
3,4-dihydroetaverine (=drotaverine), was produced in the Chinoin Pharmaceutical
Industry in 1961. Today this compound can be found as an active ingredient in the
medicine called No-Spa. In this case the intensification of the effect of papaverine was
the aim. Perparine (= etaverine) is an antispasmodic, smooth muscle relaxant, but it is
more effective (3 times) than papaverine.
CH3O
N
CH3O
OCH3
OCH3
Figure 4.18
papaverine (benzyl-isoquinoline alkaloid)
C 2H 5O
N
C 2H 5O
OC2H5
OC2H5
Figure 4.19
etaverine (= perparine)
Aim: modification of the effect

Lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor) contains an indole alkaloid called vincamine
(Figure 4.20). It was the active compound of Devincan medicine, which was an
antihypertensive product discovered by Klmn Szsz in 1957. The effect of vincamine
was modified, and vinpocetine (apovincaminic acid ethyl ester, Figure 4.21) was
produced. Today vinpocetine is the active ingredient of the medicine called Cavinton.
This product is prescribed for patients with age-related memory impairment.
Vinpocetine has celebral blood-flow enhancing effect, being more effective (10 times)
than vincamine.
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Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 4.20
vincamine
Figure 4.21
vinpocetine
Aim: improvement of physico-chemical features
In a previous section we have seen that although camptothecin, isolated from

Camptotheca acuminata, showed remarkable anticancer activity, its low solubility and
adverse drug reactions prevented widespread clinical use. Various derivatives have been
synthesized to increase the benefits of this compound, and finally two analogues,
topotecan and irinotecan have been approved and are used in cancer chemotherapy
today.
4.7 Significance of natural compounds for pharmaceutical

industries
The natural compounds produced by plants, fungi or bacteria show unique chemical
diversity. During isolation procedures, which are often time-consuming, unexpected
new structures can be found. These structures become principal or model components
for synthetic chemistry. In most cases the isolated compounds show some kind of
biological activity in different in vitro and in vivo model systems.
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Chapter 5
Phytotherapy; (traditional) herbal medicines and
dietary supplements
5.1 Definition of Phytotherapy

Phytotherapy is the study of the use of extracts from natural origin as medicines or
health-promoting agents. We can distinguish traditional and modern, evidence-based
phytotherapy.
Traditional phytotherapy is often used as synonym for herbalism and regarded as
alternative medicine by much of Western medicine, although effects of many
substances found in plants are supported by scientific evidence.
Modern phytotherapy can be considered the scientific study on the effects and clinical
use of herbal medicines. Evidence-based phyotherapy relies on various levels of
scientific evidences, such as in vitro tests, pre-clinical studies (in vivo model systems)
and clinical studies. Evidence-based phytotherapy applies herbal products, whose
efficacy and safety have been demonstrated with appropriate scientific methods.
5.2 Phytotherapy or Ethnomedicine

It is important to distinguish between phytotherapy and ethnomedicine. In some cases,
ethnomedicinal data support the same (or similar) use of a plant, as in evidence-based
phytotherapy. However, as we will see from the examples below, this is frequently not
the case.
Medicinal plants are used for the same purposes in phytotherapy and ethnomedicine:
Hypericum perforatum (St. Johns wort) mild antidepressant
Both phytotherapy and ethnomedicine but for different purposes:
Agrimonia eupatoria (agrimony): ethnomedicine: TBC, phytotherapy: gall-
bladder disease
Used only in the ethnomedicine:
Rumex crispus (curled dock) astringent, laxative
Related plant is used in phytomedicine:
ethnomedicine: Inula britannica (British yellowhead), phytotherapy.: I. helenium
(elecampane)
Used in ethnomedicine, but there is no clinical evidence:
Achillea crithmifolia
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Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 5.1
Agrimonia eupatoria (agrimony)
Figure 5.2
Inflorescence of Agrimonia eupatoria (agrimony)
126
Phytotherapy; (traditional) herbal medicines and dietary supplements
Today people often (re)turn to various forms of alternative medicine, because they lose
their confidence in allopathic medication, which often treats the symptoms of a disease,
without putting an end to its cause, and neglects the individual. Frequently, people are
afraid of the numerous side-effects and interactions synthetic drugs may produce. Thus,
compliance (cooperation) between doctors and patients remains weak in many cases.
Phytotherapy, being one of the most popular branches of alternative medicine, is
accepted and promoted by some medical doctors, but rejected by several others. Severe
problems may arise if the patient does not inform the doctor about applying natural
remedies together with (or instead of) the prescribed drugs.
Several people prefer natural remedies to synthetic drugs, because they think that
anything that is natural is completely harmless and can be applied safely. However,
medicinal plants and their products may also have side effects, e.g. nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea. It is well known that Asteraceae species or cinnamon bark oil can cause
allergic skin reactions. Furanocoumarins may cause photodermatitis. Peppermint,
hyssop and sage essential oils can produce epileptic attack. Plants belonging to
Solanaceae family, such as thornapple, devils trumpet and henbane, can cause
hallucinations due to their alkaloid content.
5.3 Interactions
Besides, interactions are common with natural products, as well. Natural products can
interact with drugs and with other natural products by the same pharmacokinetic and
pharmacodynamic mechanisms as drugs. Examples include application of a laxative
drug (e.g. Frangulae cortex) and a drug against diarrhoea (e.g. Quercus pubescens)
together. Dietary fibers prevent the absorption of active compounds of other medicines.
Interactions between contraceptives (anti-baby pills) and herbal medicines containig
Hypericum perforatum (St. Johns wort) are also well-documented.
Interaction types
synergism: interaction of drugs so that the total effect is greater than the sum of the
individual effects (e.g. anti-inflammatory components in chamomile strengthen each
others effects)
antagonism: the involvement of multiple agents reduces the overall effect, because
they act in opposite ways (e.g. Rheum rhubarb: antraquinones vs. tannins)
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Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 5.3
Rheum rhabarbarum (rhubarb)
5.4 Composition and therapeutical value of phytotherapeutics

Determination of the composition of phytotherapeutics
The aim: the synergism of the active components should be optimal (the best).
Quantity of components is important: if they are responsible for pharmacological
effect
Problem: there is no data or few information about:
the active component(s) of the drug
interaction between the components
Accompanying constituents of the drug can influence the pharmacological effect.
Accompanying constituents are content materials, they help or prevent the effect of
active constituents, but they may cause side effects, as e.g. saponins. They are produced
in 70-75% of plants (in different quantities, typically in the range 0.1-25%). Their
absorption is not effective in the bowels, but they can influence the absorption of other
substances (drugs).
128
Types of Phytotherapeutics
(1) Preparations that can be prepared in pharmacies or as home remedies:
tea, infusion, decoctum, extract, tincture, ointment, etc.
(2) Refined main component-concentrate:
e.g. Legalon 70 pills Silybi mariani fructus (milk-thistle fruit), standardized for
silibine, a hepatoprotectant
(3) Standardised for plant-extract
(4) Contain only pure component
Determination of therapeutical value of phytotherapeutics

The following values should be measured experimentally:
Efficacy (Effective Dose ED50)
Safety (Lethal Dose LD50)
Permanent quality should be maintained by applying GAP, GMP and GLP.
Besides, the pharmacological effect should be determined in the course (progress) of an
illness. Recommendations for therapeutical use should be formed, taking into
consideration possible side effects and contraindications, as well.
Correct Application, Dosage of Phytotherapeutics Some examples

Antraquinones: they have laxative effect; may destroy mucous membrane in the
bowels; can cause K-ion deficit; cause convulsion (spasm) in the bowels.
Some plants are not used internally: e.g. drugs containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids,
such as comfrey root (Symphyti radix)
Use drugs in the required amount: e.g. Valerianae radix: 2-3x 1-2 ml tincture diluted
with water; 2-3 g drug/daily
Botanical identification is very relevant, for instance, the poisonous Conii fructus can
easily be confused with Anisi fructus, which can be safely applied in phytotherapy
Figure 5.4
Symphytum officinale (comfrey)
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Pharmacognosy 1
Phytotherapeuticum forte vs. mite

Herbal drugs applied in phytotherapy may have a pronounced pharmacological effect
(phyotherapeuticum forte), with severe adverse effects. This group includes drugs
containing alkaloids and cardiac glycosides, the majority of which cannot be used as
self-remedy (as a tea drug). The other group contains drugs which have less marked
physiological effect, and can usually be safely applied (phytotherapeuticum mite).
Examples for plants containing alkaloids (may cause hallucination or have toxic effect):
Papaver somniferum (opium, morphine, semi-synthetic heroin)
Erythroxylum coca, E. novogranatense (Cocae folium, cocaine)
Cannabis sativa ssp. indica (marijuana, hashish resin of the female flowers, THC)
Atropa belladonna (atropine: mixture of D- and L-hyoscyamine)
Hyoscyamus niger (atropine, scopolamine)
Datura sp. (atropine, scopolamine)
Figure 5.5
Cannabis sativa (hemp)
5.5 Properties of herbal medicines used in phytotherapy

They contain one or more herbal component(s), vitamins, inorganic salts,
microelements, refined materials (e.g. fatty acids, flavonoids).
They contain many chemical components, therefore, composition is known only
partially.
Components responsible for the pharmacological effect are known or partially
known or not identified.
It is more difficult to obtain and maintain permanent quality and efficiency.
There are several factors that can influence the quality of herbal medicines. The most
important is the starting raw material. Standard quality can be ensured only by
cultivated plants or wild plants with known chemical constituents. Agronomists must
adhere to the regulations of GAP (Good Agricultural Practice) and GMP (Good
Manufacturing Practice), which can guarantee optimal quality of raw plant materials.
130
Medicines
Traditional
herbal medicines
Drugs in Ph. Eur.

Herbal teas
Herbal products
Dietary supplements
The size of every level of the pyramid represents the number of the products. Hence, there
are more dietary supplements than medicines or traditional herbal medicines.
Figure 5.6
Hierarchy of herbal products traded in Hungary
Responsible authorities
GYEMSZI (National Institute of Quality- and Organizational Development in
Healthcare and Medicines (previous name: OGYI National Institute of Pharmacy) is
responsible for the authorization and inspection of medicines, traditional herbal
medicines and other herbal products. Another Hungarian Institute, OTI (National
Institute for Food and Nutrition Science) deals with the category of dietary supplements,
but it only registers these products. OTI does not examine the quality of the products
by analytical techniques. In the case of dietary supplements, only the manufacturers are
responsible for the quality of their products. Unfortunately, there are many adulterated
products in this category on the market.
Herbal medicine
It contains one or more herbal material(s) or extract(s) or their combination.
Well-established use category
National Institute of Pharmacy authorizes them.
This type of application may be submitted if the applicant can demonstrate that the
active substances of the medicinal product have been in well-established medicinal
use within the (European) Community for at least ten years, with recognised efficacy
and an acceptable level of safety.
Traditional herbal medicinal product (= THMPD)

This category is regulated by Decree of the Minister of Health No. 52/2005 (XI. 18.)
and Directive 2004/24/EC
They are herbal medicines, which are administered orally, externally, or by
inhalation, are intended to be used without supervision by a medical doctor.
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Pharmacognosy 1
The intended use of a herbal medicine will only be authorised on the basis of its
traditional history and/or the recognised pharmacological properties of the herbal
ingredient(s).
Vitamins and minerals may be added to the herbal medicine provided that their use is
ancillary to the herbal ingredient(s).
Attributing a preventive or curative effect to these products is allowed.
They contain one or more herbal substances, preparations or their combination as
active agents.
They can be distributed in pharmacies.
Their authorization is possible via abridged registration.
Need to demonstrate that the herbal medicine has been in use within the EU for at
least 30 years or 15 years within the EU, and 30 years outside the EU.
Requalification of herbal products (in Hungary)

Those herbal products, which contain only herbal component(s), can be in the market
until their date of expiry, but not later than 1 April, 2013.
Requalification is possible:
to herbal medicine or traditional herbal medicine (product) or
to dietary supplement
Herbal tea
Herbal tea is a herbal or plant infusion and usually not made from the leaves of the tea
bush (Camellia sinensis). Typically, a herbal tea is simply the combination of boiling
water and dried fruits, flowers or herbs. Herbal teas should be prepared and traded in
pharmacies. Pharmacists can give appropriate information about the preparation, the
application period, the side effects and the possible interactions of herbal teas. In
Hungary approx. 81 drugs are used for preparing tea, peppermint (Mentha piperita)
being among the most popular plants. Today new plants, e.g. Uncaria sp., Euphorbia
hirta, appeared in tea mixtures, but there are no clinical evidences related to these
plants.
Dietary supplement
It is a preparation intended to supplement the diet and provide nutrients, such as
vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids that may be missing or may not be
consumed in sufficient quantities in a person's diet. Some countries define dietary
supplements as foods, while in others they are defined as drugs or natural health
products.
Supplements containing vitamins or dietary minerals are included as a category of food
in the Codex Alimentarius, a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of
practice, guidelines and other recommendations relating to foods, food production and
food safety. Herbal tea, traditional herbal medicinal products, special foods for the
athletes, nutritions, formula and medicinal nutritions do not belong to the category of
dietary supplement. We mentioned that there are many adulterated products in this
category on the market. For instance, in several cases manufacturers contaminate the
product with syntethic drugs, but this active ingredient is not indicated on the
packaging.
132
Chapter 6
Aromatherapy and homeopathy
6.1 Aromatherapy
Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant materials,
known as essential oils (EOs), and other aromatic compounds for the purpose of altering
a person's mind, mood, cognitive function or health. EOs are extracted from plants
through steam distillation or expression.
Why is aromatherapy worth considering?

It has holistic view, therefore aromatherapy can restore the balance of the body-
mind-spirit
It can be applied together with allopathic medicine
Stress can stand in the background of various diseases, and aromatherapy can reduce
stress
Its therapeutic possibilities: first aid, relaxation, improving general health, boosting
the immune system, etc.
Figure 6.1 demonstrates the most important therapeutical systems using plant materials,
including aromatherapy. Aromatherapy can be considered as part of phytotherapy,
because it uses materials (EOs) originating from plants.
Position of Aromatherapy among the

different therapeutical systems
Therapeutical systems using plant materials
Allopathic Medication
Phytotherapy
Homeopathy
Ayurvedic Medication Tradicional Aromatherapy
Chinese Medication
Bach Flower Therapy
Figure 6.1
Position of aromatherapy among the different therapeutical systems using plant
materials
Processing the smell of odorant molecules

Air contains a lot of odorant molecules. These molecules bind to odorant receptors.
Olfactory receptor cells are located in the nasal epithelium. After binding, the receptor
cells are activated and send electric signals to the olfactory bulb. The signals are relayed
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Pharmacognosy 1
in glomeruli. After it, the mitral cells transmit signals to a higher region of the brain
(hypothalamus).
The brief history of aromatherapy
Mesopotamia
The use of medicinal plants in different types of medicines was very important. Herbs
such as fennel (Foeniculum) or aromatic plants like juniper (Juniperus) were frequently
applied. People in Mesopotamia were able to isolate different materials from plants, for
instance, fatty oils, essential oils and resins. They made perfumes, the most important
steps included: maceration of aromatic plants in water, then dissolving essence in fatty
oil. Among the essential oils cedar (Cedrus), cypress (Cupressus), myrtle (Myrtus),
juniper (Juniperus), cinnamon (Syzygium) and thyme (Thymus) were the most popular.
Figure 6.2
Cedrus deodara (Himalayan cedar)
134
Figure 6.3
Cupressus sempervirens (Mediterranean cypress)
Figure 6.4
Myrtus communis (common myrtle)
Egypt
The application of odours was very common among the pharaoh and the clergy. The
following essential oils were used: cedar, cypress, olibanum (Boswellia), juniper, myrrh
(Commiphora), rose. They used these materials for preparing ointments. Olibanum was
used as incense. People knew the antibacterial properties of EOs, balsams and resins,
135
Pharmacognosy 1
because these materials were used in embalming process. Balsam is a resin dissolved in
volatile oil. People distinguished the embalming materials of the rich (myrrh, cedar) and
the poor (cinnamon, sandalwood, thyme). Medicinal and cosmetic applications of the
EOs were also popular.
The Greek
These people adopted the use of the essential oils from the Egyptians. They considered
the odours as the gift of the Gods. Medicinal application of the EOs and plants should
be highlighted at this time. Hippocrates (460 BC - 370 BC) described the therapeutic
effects of oils. There was a famous story in the Greek history. During the black death
(plague) in Athens, the Greek burnt medicinal plants containing EOs (e.g. lavander,
hyssop and rosemary) on the streets, and the evaporated fume stopped the spread of this
serious disease.
Romans
These people used aromatic essences during massage and in Roman bath but it was
considered as luxury. In rich families there was a servant called cosmetae, who
provided bath and massage for mothers. Roman perfumers were called aromatarii and
they started the trade of EOs, fragrances and perfumes.
Middle-East (Arabian, Persian) cultures

They possessed a highly developed bath-culture and medical system. They played a
crucial role in the trade of EOs. Essences spread from the Middle-East to Europe
(Spain, South France, Greece). Avicenna was a Persian doctor, who applied water-
distillation for the first time. Many terracotta distillation equipments were discovered by
archeologists during excavations.
In the Middle Ages

Following the demise of the Roman Empire, the use of aromatics declined in Europe.
Medicinal plants were found only in cloister gardens.
From the Renaissance to the 20th century

Different perfumes were made, because people did not like having a bath, they were
stinking and dirty. In World War II, the Australian soldiers had tea tree EO in their bag,
because this oil has antiseptic and regenerative properties, therefore soldiers could treat
their wounds and injuries. In the 20th century: artificial odours became more important
than natural materials. The word aromatherapy was first coined in 1928 by Rene-
Maurice Gattefosse (1881-1950). He published his work in 1964. He was a French
chemist working in the family perfumery business. One day he worked in his
laboratory, and burnt his hand. He plunged his hands into a nearby flask containing
lavender oil. He realised that the burn healed quickly with little scarring, and therefore
he concluded that the oil must have had an antiseptic and curative effect. He published
several scientific papers and books in connection with the topic of aromatherapy.
Another famous person, Robert Tisserand, should be highlighted, who continued
Gattefosses work. He published the following books: Essential Oil Safety A Guide
for Health Care Professionals, The Art of Aromatherapy.
136
Properties of EOs
EOs are volatile materials, they contain mono-, sesquiterpenes and phenylpropane
derivatives. They have characteristic smell, and they can be isolated by water-steam
distillation or expression from different parts of the plants. They are hydrophobic
materials, therefore they can not be dissolved in water, but some components dissolve
into water phase (during preparation of herbal teas or aromatic water). They contain
several constituents (5-300 volatile components). In every EO one main component can
be detected, e.g. thymol in the thyme EO (Thymi aetheroleum). According to the
composition there are significant differences between species or individuals. A
chemotype (sometimes chemovar) is a chemically distinct entity within a plant species,
with differences in the composition of the secondary metabolites. A chemotype (ct.)
comprises plants producing EO with different composition than other representatives of
the same species. A good example of a plant with many polymorphic chemotypes is
thyme (Thymus vulgaris). While largely indistinguishable in appearance, specimens of
T. vulgaris may be assigned to one of seven different chemotypes, depending on
whether the dominant component of the EO is thymol, carvacrol, linalool, geraniol, -
terpineol, or eucalyptol. Such chemotypes may be indicated as Thymus vulgaris ct.
thymol, or Thymus vulgaris ct. geraniol (sweet thyme), etc. Such an indication has no
taxonomic standing. The thymol chemotype causes more allergic reactions than the
linalool-ct. Environmental factors (solar radiation, soil, etc.) influence the composition
of the EO.
EOs must not used in undiluted form, only in alcoholic or oily solutions, in ointments
(absorption through the skin). Oral administration is available in France and England by
medical practitioners, but great care must be exercised in this case, because EOs are
potentially toxic materials. The use of EOs should not be recommended in infants,
babies and little children (e.g. Menthae piperitae aetheroleum: until 5-7 year-old local
application of menthol to their nostrils apnoea and collapse of lung, cardiac arrest;
e.g. Hyssopi aetheroleum epileptic attack)
In the case of the following EOs caution should be recommended:
Peppermint: it should not be recommended for infants, babies and little children (until
7 years); danger of apnoea and collapse of lung, cardiac arrest may occur.
Thyme: it should not be recommended for little children (under 3 years), the main
component of the oil, thymol is a dermal and mucous membrane irritant.
Oregano: skin and mucous membrane irritant (because of thymol), should not be used
in children under 2 years of age.
Rosemary: it contains camphor, which readily causes epileptiform convulsions, should
be used with caution (in oral dose).
Juniper: should not be used during pregnancy (risk of abortion) and kidney disease
(risk of inflammation).
Camphor: it should not be used in children under 7 years of age (see peppermint),
because epileptiform convulsions may occur and it can absorb through the placenta
freely.
Bitter orange: it is contraindicated in patients with gastric and duodenal ulcer; the oil is
moderately phototoxic - if it is applied to the skin at a concentration over max. use level
(1.4%), skin must not be exposed to sunlight or sunbed rays for 12 h.
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Pharmacognosy 1
Melissa: skin sensitisation reaction possible during external application; citral can cause
a rise in ocular tension (to avoid oral use in cases of glaucoma).
Lemon, Sweet orange: see bitter orange.
Eucalyptus: see camphor.
Cinnamon bark: moderate dermal irritant, strong dermal sensitiser, moderate mucous
membrane irritant; externally max. use level 0.1%!
There are some EOs, which can increase the blood pressure: rosemary, hyssop,
cedar, common sage (Dalmatian), thyme.
EOs causing epileptiform convulsions: sweet fennel, hyssop, camphor, common sage
(Dalmatian), rosemary
Tropical EOs:
Melaleuca leucodendron (Myrtaceae), Cajeput: evaporation (respiratory infections),
aromatic bath, mouth-wash
M. viridiflora, Niaouli: see cajeput
M. alternifolia, Tea tree: bactericide, antiseptic
Myrtus communis, Myrtle: inhalation (respiratory infections), meditation
Tropical EOs perfume industry:
Aniba rosaeodora (Brazilian rosewood)
Cananga odorata (Annonaceae): Ylang-ylang
Citrus sp. (Rutaceae)
Pharmacological effects of EOs
Effect on respiratory system

EOs have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effect. Inhaled EOs pass down the
trachea into the bronchi.
Secretolytic effect: increase the production of mucus in the respiratory tract and make
the phlegm thinner and less sticky.
Secretomotoric effect: help the cilia tiny hairs that line the respiratory tract to
transport the phlegm out of the lungs.
Thymus (thyme) sp.: EO main component: thymol, carvacrol
Syzygium aromaticum (clove): eugenol
Cinnamomum cassia, C. zeylanicum (cinnamon): cinnamic aldehyde
Matricaria recutita (chamomile): chamazulene
Pimpinella anisum (aniseed), Illicium verum (star anise), Foeniculum vulgare
(fennel): trans-anethole
Eucalyptus (eucalyptus) sp.: cineole = eucalyptol
Pinus (pine) sp.: -pinene
138
Figure 6.5
Eucalyptus sp. (eucalyptus)
Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, for inhalation, treating oral cavity:

Matricaria recutita (Asteraceae) German chamomile
Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae) common sage
Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae) garden thyme
Eucalyptus sp. (Myrtaceae) eucalypt
Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) clove
Stomachic, appetizing effect

amara-aromatica (aromatic bitter materials): stimulate stomach wall gastric juice is
produced, increase the appetite
aperitive drinks, spices
Angelica archangelica (Apiaceae) garden angelica
Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae) sweet fennel
Pimpinella anisum (Apiaceae) anise (aniseed)
Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae) bitter orange
Mentha piperita (Lamiaceae) peppermint
Syzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae) clove
Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae) common wormwood
Acorus calamus (Araceae) common sweet flag, calamus
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Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 6.6
Aurantii epicarpium et mesocarpium (orange epicarp et mesocarp)
Figure 6.7
Artemisia absinthium (common wormwood)
Effect on the liver and gall-bladder

cholagogue: promotes the discharge of bile from the system
choleretic: increases the volume of bile secreted from the liver
Some plants containing EOs inhibit the production of bile-stones, e.g. Mentha piperita
(Lamiaceae)
Cholagogue EOs: Acorus calamus (Araceae), Carum carvi and Foeniculum vulgare
(Apiaceae), Lavandula officinalis (Lamiaceae)
140
Carminative effect
Prevents formation of gas in the gastrointestinal tract or facilitates the expulsion of gas,
thereby combating flatulence.
Pimpinella anisum (Apiaceae) aniseed
Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae) fennel
Carum carvi (Apiaceae) caraway
Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae) coriander
Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae) sweet basil
Figure 6.8
Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil)
Spasmolytic EOs
Carum carvi (Apiaceae) caraway
Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae) fennel
Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae) bitter orange
Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae) lemon balm
Cinnamomum sp. (Lauraceae) cinnamon
Achillea sp. (Asteraceae) yarrow
Diuretic effect:
EOs can increase the excretion of water from bodies.
Levisticum officinale (Apiaceae) lovage
Petroselinum hortense (Apiaceae) parsley
Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae) juniper
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Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 6.9
Petroselinum crispum (garden parsley)
! Caution nephritis may occur

! Juniperi pseudofructus and aetheroleum: contraindicated in case of pregnancy (risk of
abortion).
Supporting blood circulation, refreshing, use in a bath

Following EOs are contraindicated in patients with high blood pressure, heart disease:
Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae) rosemary
Pinus sp. (Abietaceae) pines
Citrus sp. (Rutaceae) citrus fruits
Sedative effect
Valeriana officinalis (Valerianaceae) valerian
Lavandula officinalis (Lamiaceae) lavender
Ylang-ylang
In case of headache (for compress)

Citrus limon (Rutaceae) lemon
Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae) orange
Pinus sp. (Abietaceae) pines
Lavandula sp. (Lamiaceae) lavenders
142
Figure 6.10
Citrus limon (lemon)
In case of pollen-allergy
Use dry inhalation, drop EO on a paper handkerchief
Matricaria recutita (Asteraceae) chamomile
In massage oils
In case of external use EOs must be diluted in base oils (carrier oils). Base oils are fatty
oils, e.g. Amygdalus communis var. dulce sweet almond (Rosaceae), Arachis
hypogaea peanut (Fabaceae), Persea americana avocado (Lauraceae), Simmondsia
chinensis jojoba (Buxaceae/Simmondsiaceae), Olea europaea olive (Oleaceae)
Figure 6.11
Persea americana (avocado)
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Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 6.12
Olea europaea (olive tree)
EOs official in Ph. Eur. 5 and 6

Anise oil: Anisi aetheroleum
Bitter-fennel fruit oil: Foeniculi amari fructus aetheroleum
Bitter-orange-flower oil: Aurantii amari floris aetheroleum
Cassia oil: Cinnamomi cassiae aetheroleum
Cinnamon bark oil, ceylon: Cinnamomi zeylanici corticis aetheroleum
Cinnamon leaf oil, ceylon: Cinnamomi zeylanici folii aetheroleum
Citronella oil: Citronellae aetheroleum
Clary sage oil: Salviae sclareae aetheroleum
Clove oil: Caryophylli floris aetheroleum
Coriander oil: Coriandri aetheroleum
Eucalyptus oil: Eucalypti aetheroleum
Juniper oil: Iuniperi aetheroleum
Lavender oil: Lavandulae aetheroleum
Lemon oil: Limonis aetheroleum
Matricaria oil: Matricariae aetheroleum
Mint oil, partly dementholised: Menthae arvensis aetheroleum partim mentholi
privum
Neroli oil: Neroli aetheroleum
Nutmeg oil: Myristicae fragrantis aetheroleum
Peppermint oil: Menthae piperitae aetheroleum
Pine sylvestris oil: Pini sylvestris aetheroleum
Rosemary oil: Rosmarini aetheroleum
Star anise oil: Anisi stellati aetheroleum
Sweet orange oil: Aurantii dulcis aetheroleum
Tea tree oil: Melaleucae aetheroleum
Thyme oil: Thymi aetheroleum
Turpentine oil, Pinus pinaster type: Terebinthi aetheroleum ab pinum pinastrum
144
Storage, Application of EOs

EOs are relatively sensitive to the environment should be stored in a cool place in
dark bottles to avoid photo-oxidation.
Current code of practice of aromatherapists recommends the use of EOs for
external application only EOs can cause damage to the sensitive mucous
membranes.
EOs should never be taken internally without medical supervision!
EOs are wildly use topically both in local and whole body massage.
Aromatherapy may also be affected by using EOs in aromatic bath.
Aerial diffusion: for environmental fragrancing or aerial disinfection
Direct inhalation: for respiratory disinfection, decongestion, expectoration as well as
psychological effects
Before use of an EO, make skin test!
6.2 Homeopathy
Homeopathy is an alternative medicine. It has holistic view, therefore it can restore the
balance of the body-mind-spirit. The origin of the word homeopathy: Greek homoios
(like) and pathos (treatment).
Homeopathy is based on the theory that a small dose of what the patient is suffering
from will help to cure the condition is termed: Like cures like (Similia similibus
curantur). This is the most important law of this alternative medicine. For example:
Allium cepa (homeopathic remedy) could be prescribed for cases of hay-fever for
patients suffering from stinging nose and eyes. Homeopathy uses diluted materials: the
more the drug is diluted, the greater its ability to cure. The system of homeopathy was
established and ealborated by Samuel Hahnemann (a German physician) (1755-1843).
He began his work in the 1790s. Today a homeopathic consultation involves an in-depth
discussion, during which patients are asked about their daily routines and general health
condition. After consultation and physical examination doctors try to find the best
medicine for the particular patient.
Hahnemann conducted self-studies and decided to examine the effect of taking different
materials on himself. He collected and published his experiences. He examined the
effect of a wide range of plants, animals and mineral extracts. His results were
published in The Organon of Medicine (first edition: in 1810, final ed.: posthumously
in 1843).
Doctors treat patients with acute and chronic diseases. Homoeopathic medicines are
made from plants (e.g. chamomile, belladonna), animal products (e.g. snake venom) and
minerals (mercury, sulphur). Homeopathic medicines are prepared by diluting and
shaking the items this process may be repeated several times. To date there are few
double blind, randomised trials and laboratory experiments on animals that support the
efficacy of homeopathic medicines. However, several clinical studies arrived at the
conclusion that the homeopathic preparation did not have stronger effect than the
placebo.
What is the problem with homeopathy?

Medicines are diluted to the point that no trace of the original substance can be found,
therefore it is hard to understand how the therapy works. Side effects are uncommon,
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Pharmacognosy 1
but in the first period of the treatment symptoms can become worse, which is the
positive sign of recovery.
Diagnosis
Process of diagnosis and determination of appropriate remedy is long, takes more than 1
hour. Doctors observe how you are dressed, how you walk and talk, if you are over-
underweight, etc. During the examination, the following questions are asked from
patients: What is the state of health of your family?, Are you employed?, Do you have
any difficulty with relationships?, What foods do you like and dislike?, Do you have
any allergies?, How does a change in the weather affect you?
Homeopathic remedies
In Hungary approximately 300 homeopathic medicines are on the market. Most of them
are derived from plant material. The two main types of remedies are: mono-component
products and complex homeopathic remedies. Sublingual application is the most
frequent mode of administration.
Types of homeopathic remedies: cream (e.g. Arnica), toothpaste (e.g. Homeodent),
syrup (e.g. Stodal), injection (e.g. Traumeel), pills (e.g. Arnica montana).
Homoeopathic preparations in the European Pharmacopoeia 5th edition
Homoeopathic preparations - Praeparationes homoeopathicas
Definition
Homoeopathic preparations are prepared from substances, products or preparations
called stocks, in accordance with a homoeopathic manufacturing procedure. A
homoeopathic preparation is usually designated by the Latin name of the stock,
followed by an indication of the degree of dilution.
Raw materials
Raw materials for the production of homoeopathic preparations may be of natural or
synthetic origin. A raw material of botanical, zoological or human origin may be used
either in the fresh state or in the dried state. Where appropriate, fresh material may be
kept deep-frozen. Raw materials of botanical origin comply with the requirements of the
monograph on Herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations. Where justified and
authorised for transportation or storage purposes, fresh plant material may be kept in
ethanol (96 per cent V/V) or in alcohol of a suitable concentration, provided the whole
material including the storage medium is used for processing. Raw materials comply
with any requirements of the relevant monographs of the European Pharmacopoeia.
Vehicles
Vehicles are excipients used for the preparation of certain stocks or for the potentisation
process. They may include for example: purified water, alcohol of a suitable
concentration, glycerol and lactose. Vehicles comply with any requirements of the
relevant monographs of the European Pharmacopoeia.
146
Stocks
Stocks are substances, products or preparations used as starting materials for the
production of homoeopathic preparations. A stock is usually one of the following: a
mother tincture or a glycerol macerate, for raw materials of botanical, zoological or
human origin, or the substance itself, for raw materials of chemical or mineral origin.
Mother tinctures comply with the requirements of the monograph on Mother tinctures
for homoeopathic preparations. Glycerol macerates are liquid preparations obtained
from raw materials of botanical, zoological or human origin by using glycerol or a
mixture of glycerol and either alcohol of a suitable concentration or a solution of
sodium chloride of a suitable concentration.
Herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations - Plantae medicinales ad praeparationes

homoeopathicas
Definition
Herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations are mainly whole, fragmented or cut plants,
parts of plants including algae, fungi or lichens in an unprocessed state, usually in fresh
form but sometimes dried. Certain exudates that have not been subjected to a specific
treatment are also considered to be herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations. Herbal
drugs for homoeopathic preparations are precisely defined by the botanical scientific
name of the source species according to the binomial system (genus, species, variety
and author).
Production
Herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations are obtained from cultivated or wild plants.
Suitable cultivation, harvesting, collection, sorting, drying, fragmentation and storage
conditions are essential to guarantee the quality of herbal drugs for homoeopathic
preparations. Herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations are, as far as possible, free
from impurities such as soil, dust, dirt and other contaminants such as fungal, insect and
other animal contaminants. They do not present signs of decay. If a decontaminating
treatment has been used, it is necessary to demonstrate that the constituents of the plant
are not affected and that no harmful residues remain. The use of ethylene oxide is
prohibited for the decontamination of herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations.
Adequate measures have to be taken in order to ensure that the microbiological quality
of homoeopathic preparations containing one or more herbal drugs comply with the
recommendations given in the text on Microbiological quality of pharmaceutical
preparations (5.1.4).
Identification
Herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations are identified using their macroscopic and,
where necessary, microscopic descriptions and any further tests that may be required
(for example, thin-layer chromatography).
Tests
When a fresh plant is used as a starting material for the manufacture of homoeopathic
preparations, the content of foreign matter is as low as possible; if necessary, the
maximum content of foreign matter is indicated in the individual monographs. When a
dried plant is used as a starting material for the manufacture of homoeopathic
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Pharmacognosy 1
preparations, a test for foreign matter (2.8.2) is carried out, unless otherwise prescribed
in the individual monographs.
A specific appropriate test may apply to herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations
liable to be falsified. If appropriate, the herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations
comply with other tests, for example, total ash (2.4.16) and bitterness value (2.8.15).
The test for loss on drying (2.2.32) is carried out on dried herbal drugs for
homoeopathic preparations. A determination of water (2.2.13) is carried out on herbal
drugs for homoeopathic preparations with a high EO content. The water content of fresh
herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations is determined by an appropriate method.
Herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations comply with the requirements for pesticide
residues (2.8.13).
The requirements take into account the nature of the plant, where necessary the
preparation in which the plant might be used, and where available the knowledge of the
complete record of treatment of the batch of the plant. The content of pesticide residues
may be determined by the method described in the annex to the general method. The
risk of contamination of herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations by heavy metals
must be considered. If an individual monograph does not prescribe limits for heavy
metals or specific elements, such limits may be required if justified. Limits for
aflatoxins may be required. In some specific circumstances, the risk of radioactive
contamination is to be considered.
Assay
Where applicable, herbal drugs for homoeopathic preparations are assayed by an
appropriate method.
Storage
Fresh herbal drugs are processed as rapidly as possible after harvesting; they may also
be stored deep-frozen or in ethanol (96 per cent V/V) or in alcohol of a given
concentration. Store dried herbal drugs protected from light.
Potentization
Dilutions and triturations are obtained from stocks by a process of potentisation in
accordance with a homoeopathic manufacturing procedure: this means successive
dilutions and succussions, or successive appropriate triturations, or a combination of the
2 processes.
The potentisation steps are usually one of the following:
1 part of the stock plus 9 parts of the vehicle; they may be designated as D, DH
or X (decimal),
1 part of the stock plus 99 parts of the vehicle; they may be designated as C or
CH (centesimal).
The number of potentisation steps defines the degree of dilution; for example, D3, 3
DH or 3X means 3 decimal potentisation steps, and C3, 3 CH or 3C means 3
centesimal potentisation steps. LM- (or Q-) potencies are manufactured according
to a specific procedure.
In homeopathy 5C, 6C, 9C, 12C, 30C, 200C and D2, D4, D6, D12, D30, D200 dilutions
are frequently used.
148
During potentization solutions are vigorously shaken and tapped on a resilient (flexible)
surface. This process is known as succussion.
Insoluble solids, such as quartz, are diluted by grinding them with lactose (trituration).
Trituration is also the name of the process for reducing the particle size of a substance
by grinding, as by grinding of powders in a mortar with a pestle.
Homeopathic remedies should not be stored near pungent materials, e.g. perfumes, EOs
(peppermint) or toothpaste (containing mentol).
Dosage forms
A dosage form of a homoeopathic preparation complies with any relevant dosage form
monograph in the European Pharmacopoeia and with the following:
for the purpose of dosage forms for homoeopathic use active substances are
considered to be dilutions or triturations of homoeopathic stocks,
these dosage forms are prepared using appropriate excipients,
the test for uniformity of content is normally not appropriate. However, in certain
circumstances, it is required.
Homoeopathic dosage form pillule
Pillules for homoeopathic use are solid preparations obtained from sucrose, lactose or
other suitable excipients. They may be prepared by impregnation of preformed pillules
with a dilution or dilutions of homoeopathic stocks or by progressive addition of these
excipients and the addition of a dilution or dilutions of homoeopathic stocks. They are
intended for oral or sublingual use.
Homoeopathic dosage form tablet
Tablets for homoeopathic use are solid preparations obtained from sucrose, lactose or
other suitable excipients according to the monograph on Tablets. They may either be
prepared by compressing one or more solid active substances with the excipients or by
impregnating preformed tablets with a dilution or dilutions of homoeopathic stocks. The
preformed tablets for impregnation are obtained from sucrose, lactose or other suitable
excipients according to the monograph on Tablets. They are intended for oral or
sublingual use.
Mother tinctures for homoeopathic preparations - Tincturae maternae ad

praeparationes homoeopathicas
Definition
Mother tinctures for homoeopathic preparations are liquid preparations obtained by the
solvent action of a suitable vehicle upon raw materials. The raw materials are usually in
the fresh form but may be dried. Mother tinctures for homoeopathic preparations may
also be obtained from plant juices, with, or without the addition of a vehicle. For some
preparations, the matter to be extracted may undergo a preliminary treatment.
Production
Mother tinctures for homoeopathic preparations are prepared by maceration, digestion,
infusion, decoction, fermentation or as described in the individual monographs, usually
using alcohol of suitable concentration. Mother tinctures for homoeopathic preparations
are obtained using a fixed proportion of raw material to solvent, taking the moisture
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Pharmacognosy 1
content of the raw material into account, unless otherwise justified and authorised. If
fresh plants are used, suitable procedures are used to ensure freshness. The competent
authorities may require that the freshness is demonstrated by means of a suitable test.
Mother tinctures for homoeopathic preparations are usually clear. A slight sediment
may form on standing and that is acceptable as long as the composition of the tincture is
not changed significantly. The manufacturing process is defined so that it is
reproducible.
Production by maceration
Unless otherwise prescribed, reduce the matter to be extracted to pieces of suitable size,
mix thoroughly and extract according to the prescribed extraction method with the
prescribed extraction solvent. Allow to stand in a closed vessel for the prescribed time.
The residue is separated from the extraction solvent and, if necessary, pressed out. In
the latter case, the 2 liquids obtained are combined.
Adjustment of the contents

Adjustment of the content of constituents may be carried out if necessary, either by
adding the extraction solvent of suitable concentration or by adding another mother
tincture for homoeopathic preparations of the vegetable or animal matter used for the
preparation.
Identification
Where applicable, at least 1 chromatographic identification test is carried out.
Tests
The limits in an individual monograph are set to include official methods of production.
Specific limits will apply to each defined method of production. If the test for relative
density is carried out, the test for ethanol need not be carried out, and vice versa.
Relative density. The mother tincture for homoeopathic preparations complies with the
limits prescribed in the monograph.
Ethanol. The ethanol content complies with that prescribed in the monograph.
Methanol and 2-propanol: maximum 0.05 per cent V/V of methanol and maximum
0.05 per cent V/V of 2-propanol, unless otherwise prescribed.
Dry residue. Where applicable, the mother tincture for homoeopathic preparations
complies with the limits prescribed in the monograph.
Pesticides. Where applicable, the mother tincture for homoeopathic preparations
complies with the test. This requirement is met if the herbal drug has been shown to
comply with the test.
Assay
Where applicable, an assay with quantitative limits is performed.
Storage
Protected from light. A maximum storage temperature may be specified.
150
Labelling
The label states:
that the product is a mother tincture for homoeopathic preparations (designated as
TM or ),
the name of the raw material using the Latin title of the European Pharmacopoeia
monograph where one exists,
the method of preparation,
the ethanol content or other solvent content, in per cent V/V, in the mother tincture,
the ratio of raw material to mother tincture,
where applicable, the storage conditions.
The official monographs of homoeopathic preparations in the European

Pharmacopoeia 5th edition
Arsenious trioxide for homoeopathic preparations Arsenii trioxidum ad

As2O3
Content: 99.5 per cent to 100.5 per cent of As2O3.
Common stinging nettle for homoeopathic preparations Urtica dioica ad

Definition: Whole, fresh, flowering plant of Urtica dioica L.
Copper for homoeopathic preparations Cuprum ad praeparationes homoeopathicas

Cu
Content: 99.0 per cent to 101.0 per cent of Cu.
Garlic for homoeopathic preparations Allium sativum ad praeparationes

homoeopathicas
Definition: Fresh bulb of Allium sativum L.
Honey bee for homoeopathic preparations Apis mellifera ad praeparationes

homoeopathicas
Definition: Live worker honey bee (Apis mellifera L.).
Hypericum for homoeopathic preparations Hypericum perforatum ad

Definition: Whole, fresh plant of Hypericum perforatum L., at the beginning of the
flowering period.
Iron for homoeopathic preparations Ferrum ad praeparationes homoeopathicas

Fe
Definition: Obtained by reduction or sublimation as a fine blackish-grey powder.
Content: 97.5 per cent to 101.0 per cent.
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Pharmacognosy 1
Saffron for homoeopathic preparations Croci stigma ad praeparationes

homoeopathicas
Definition: Dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L. usually joined by the base to a short
style.
Materia Medica
Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the
therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing (i.e., medicines).
Structure
Latin name of the remedy
Origin
Description
Results of medicine-examination
Previous experience, observations
Clinical suggestions
Pharmacological data
Individual symptoms, which help in choosing the suitable remedy
Toxic plants and fungi applied in homoeopathy

Aconit - Aconitum napellus (Ranunculaceae) acute infection (cold, cough),
depression (in pregnancy)
Agaricus - Amanita muscaria (Amanitaceae) illnesses of central nervous system
(epilepsy)
Anhalonium - Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae) mental fatigue, hallucination,
decomposition of movement
Colchicum - Colchicum autumnale (Liliaceae) - arthritis, gout, colonitis
Colocynthis - Citrullus colocynthis (Cucurbitaceae) acute pains - rheumatism;
laxative, against gastrointestinal spasms
Mezereum - Daphne mezereum (Thymeleaceae) - eczema, psoriasis
Nux vomica - Strychnos nux-vomica (Loganiaceae) - irritability, insomnia,
gastrointestinal disorders, etc.
Rhus toxicodendron - Rhus toxicodendron (Anacardiaceae) skin- and joint
diseases (herpes zoster, herpes, eczema)
Tabacum - Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae) severe gastric problems, nausea,
travel sickness
152
Figure 6.13
Flowers of Aconitum napellus (aconite)
Figure 6.14
Colchicum autumnale (autumn crocus)
Homeopathic practice in England:

There are postgraduate trainings: available to physicians through the Faculty of
Homoeopathy at the Royal London Homoepathic Hospital
Following 6-month, full-time course, doctors graduate as members or fellows
Pharmacists, nurses, dentists may achieve the associate membership
153
Chapter 7
Drugs of fungus and animal origin
7.1 Drugs of fungus origin

Drug: Secale cornutum
Fungus: Claviceps purpurea (Clavicipitaceae)
This fungus can produce sclerotium, which is a compact mass of hardened fungal
mycelium, develops on rye or wheat spike.
Active compounds: alkaloids, see below.
Usage:
ergotamine: vasoconstrictor (at giving birth, treatment of migraine)
ergotoxine: antihypertensive
ergometrine: myometrium vasocontrictor
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) as an illegal drug, can be made from lysergic acid.
Drug: Tinder fungus

Fungus: Fomes fomentarius (Polyporaceae)
It grows on old, moulding beech-wood.
Active compounds: special polysaccharides
Usage: Research with mice showed an extract of Fomes fomentarius altered immune
function and in vitro research showed an anticancer effect.
Drug: Laricis fungus

Fungus: Fomes officinalis (Polyporaceae), Agarikon
It grows on Larix decidua (European larch).
Active compounds: cellulose, resin
Usage: in ethnomedicine asringent, appetizer (it has bitter taste).
Drug: Ganoderma
Fungus: Ganoderma lucidum (Ganodermataceae)
reishi mushroom
It grows on different trees, hard tinder fungus, cultivated in greenhouse in Japan.
Active compounds: glucan, xilan, oligosaccharides
Usage, effect: anti-tumor, immunomodulatory activities, decreases blood sugar levels,
in cancer treatment
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Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 7.1
Ganoderma lucidum (reishi)
Drug: Shii-take
Fungus: Lentines edodes (Polyporaceae)
shii-take
It is native to East Asia. It grows on moulding trees. It can be cultivated.
Active compounds: (1-3)- and (1-6)--bonded heteroglucans, heterogalactans, lentinan,
vitamins, protein, lipids, minerals
Usage: see reishi
Drug: Schizophyllum
Fungus: Schizophyllum commune (Schizophyllaceae)
It is a very common fungus, but not edible.
Active compounds: (1-3)- and (1-6)--bonded heteroglucans
Uses: aspecific immunstimulant, intravenous injection (in cancer therapy)
7.2 Drugs of lichen origin

Drug: Lichen islandicus (Ph. Eur. 5.)
Lichen: Iceland moss, Cetraria islandica (Parmeliaceae)
It grows abundantly in the mountainous regions of northern countries.
Active compounds: special polysaccharides, galactomannan, cetraric acid
Uses, effect: antibacterial, cough-medicine, respiratory tract infections
156
Drugs of fungus and animal origin
Figure 7.2
Lichen islandicus (iceland moss)
Drug: Lichen quercus

Lichen: Oak moss, Evernia prunastri (Parmeliaceae)
Active compounds: EO, moss acids
Usage, effect: antibacterial, gastrointestinal problems, respiratory tract infections. Its
EO is used in perfume industry.
7.3 Drugs of animal origin

Drug: Blatta orientalis, cockroach
The killed, dried and chopped animals are used. From the animal an infusion or tincture
is prepared. Previously it was used as a strong diuretic in homoeopathy.
Drug: Cantharis
Animal: Lytta vesicatoria, Spanish fly (Figure 1.27)
This animal is killed by chloroform and dried (drying temperature 40C).
Active compound: 0.6-0.9% cantharidin, which is an irritant vesicant (blister-inducing)
substance, it has rubefacient effect.
Usage: the powdered drug was used for preparing tincture (Tinctura cantharidis) and
ointment (Unguentum cantharidatum veterinarium).
Today in homoeopathy the products are used in case of genito-urinary problems and in
dermatology.
Drug: Cetylis palmitas (Ph. Eur. 5.)

It is a mixture of C14-C18 esters of lauric, myristic, palmitic and stearic acids (Cetyl
esters wax).
Animal: Physeter macrocephalus, Sperm whale
Today this animal is an endangered species! Therefore cetylis palmitas can substitute
the milky-white waxy substance (spermaceti), which is in its head and vertebral column.
This special wax is used in ointment (Unguentum Stearini). Today jojoba oil, a plant
wax, can also substitute the spermaceti.
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Pharmacognosy 1
Drug: Gelatina
Gelatin
Purified protein obtained either by partial acid hydrolysis (type A), partial alkaline
hydrolysis (type B) or enzymatic hydrolysis of collagen from animals (including fish
and poultry); it may also be a mixture of different types.
Usage: in pharmaceutical technology (making capsules, suppositors).
Drug: Hirudo
Animal: Hirudo medicinalis, European medicinal leech
This water animal produces hirudin, an anti-coagulant material. Hirudin reduces blood
coagulation.
Drug: Jecoris aselli oleum (Ph. Eur. 5.)

Cod-liver oil
Purified fatty oil obtained from the fresh livers of Gadus morhua L. (Atlantic cod) and
other species of Gadidae, solid substances being removed by cooling and filtering.
Composition: cod-liver oil contains saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, vitamin A-, D-
,E
Usage: in the case of lack of vitamins.
Drug: Mel (Ph. Eur. 5.)

Honey
Animal: Apis mellifera
Composition:
70-80% invert sugar (glucose : fructose 1:1), 1-10% saccharose, water, protein, EO,
flavonoid
Usage: in case of respiratory problems: cough, inflammation of the throat. Seasoning
material in herbal teas.
158
Chapter 8
Photosynthesis and related metabolic pathways
for the formation of effective substances
Photosynthesis is the basis of the formation of all compounds of plant origin.
Autotrophic plants (primary producers) are able to photosynthesize, during which
process they convert light energy into chemical energy. In the process they reduce
carbon-dioxide to organic compounds like glucose, and a by-product, oxygen is formed.
Although plants can utilize only 0.2% of solar radiation, they can produce ca. 2 x 1011 t
organic material/year.
The end-product of photosynthesis are carbohydrates, which can be taken up by
consuming organisms (consumers) serving as sources of chemical energy.
The by-product of the photosynthetic process is oxygen, which is released into the
environment of photosynthesizing plants.
The formation of oxygen and the reduction of carbon-dioxide takes place via the
successive disjunction of electrons.
Overall equation of the photosynthetic process: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
8.1 The scene of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in the leaf mesophyll, which is delimited by the upper
(adaxial) and lower (abaxial) epidermis. The largest part of the leaf mesophyll is filled
with the tissue responsible for photosynthesis, called chlorenchyma, which in most
plants consists of palisade and spongiose parenchyma. This assimilating ground tissue is
composed of chloroplast-containing parenchyma cells (Figure 8.1)
Figure 8.1
A typical dicotyledonous leaf (Helleborus odorus)
159
Pharmacognosy 1
Chloroplasts are cell organelles surrounded by double membrane layer (Figure 8.2). The
invaginations of the inner membrane develop the thylakoid membrane system. The
inside of the thylakoid membrane is called the lumen, and outside the thylakoid
membrane is the stroma, where the dark reactions take place. The thylakoid
membrane contains some integral membrane protein complexes that catalyze the light
reactions.
Figure 8.2
The plant cell
8.2 Chemical composition of the chloroplast

Water - about 80%
Protein - 60-70% (dry weight)
insoluble in water:
- thylakoid;
pigment:
- chlorophyll-protein complexes
- chromoproteids (Fe-S-protein, ferredoxine, plastocyanine)
ATP-synthase
soluble in water:
- stroma proteins, e.g. RUBISCO
DNA, RNA
Nucleotids (ATP, NADP)
Lipids
8.3 Pigments in the chloroplast

Chlorophylls are pigments that are responsible for the green colour of plants.
Chlorophylls absorb light with the highest intensity in the blue portion (400 to 450 nm)
of the electromagnetic spectrum, and with less intensity in the red portion (650 to 700
nm). The photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) wavelengths fall between 400 and
160
Photosynthesis and related metabolic pathways for the formation of effective substances
700 nm. Chlorophylls belong to the porphyrin pigments, with a magnesium ion at the
centre of the chlorin ring (Figure 8.3). The most important chlorophyll pigments are
Chlorophyll A, and Chlorophyll B.
Figure 8.3
The chemical structure of chlorophyll a and b
Another pigment involved in the photosynthetic process is the red-orange -carotene

that is structurally a tetraterpene, having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule
(Figure 8.4).
Figure 8.4
The chemical structure of -carotene
161
Pharmacognosy 1
8.4 Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

The light-dependent reactions comprise the first stage of photosynthesis. In this process
light energy is converted into chemical energy, which is stored in energy-carrying
molecules ATP and NADPH. The light reactions of photosynthesis include the
following major events:
reduction of NADP+ NADPH
phosphorylation of ADP ATP
oxydative cleavage of H2O formation of O2
The light-dependent reactions take place on the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast.
There are four major protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane: Photosystem I
(PSI), Photosystem II (PSII), Cytochrome b/f complex and ATP synthase (Figure 8.5).
These four complexes work together to ultimately create the products ATP and
NADPH.
The two photosystems absorb light energy through pigments, particularly the
chlorophylls. Chlorophyll a plays a central role in this process, since it is located in the
reaction centre of each photosystem. The light-dependent reactions begin in PSII. When
a Chlorophyll a molecule within the reaction centre absorbs a photon, an electron in this
pigment attains an excited state (gets to a higher energy level). Since this state is quite
unstable, the electron is transferred to another molecule, establishing a chain of redox
reactions, which together comprise the electron transport chain. The direction of the
electron flow is from PSII to quinone and plastoquinone, then the cytochrome b/f
complex, followed by plastocyanin, to PSI. In PSI the electron receives the energy from
another photon. The final electron acceptor is NADP+. The first electron donor is water,
which splits into hydrogen ions (protons) and oxygen in the Hill-reaction.
The cytochrome b/f complex and the ATP synthase work together to create ATP in a
process called photophosphorylation (Figure 8.5). The energy of electrons from PSII is
used to pump protons from the stroma to the lumen. The proton gradient developing
across the thylakoid membrane will serve as the force to form ATP by the ATP
synthase.
162
Figure 8.5
Outline of photophosphorylation
Plastoquinone is a mobile electron carrier in the membrane, which transfers protons

(H+) and electrons (Figure 8.6). In the process plastoquinol is transformed into
plastoquinone by losing 2 electrons and 2 protons.
Figure 8.6
Electron-transport with plastoquinones
The cytochrome b/f is a transmembrane proton pump. Electrons from PSII are carried
by plastoquinol to the cytochrome b/f complex (Figure 8.7), where they are removed
one by one, reforming plastoquinone.
163
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 8.7
Electron-transport through the cytochrome b/f complex
Plastocyanine is a copper-protein complex with blue colour. It is a stable

chromoproteid, which is synthetised in the cytoplasm. If functions as an electron
transfer agent between the cytochrome b/f compex and the reaction centre of PSI.
Ferredoxins are iron-sulphur proteins with reddish-brown colour, mediating electron
transfer in a range of metabolic processes, including photosynthesis. Ferredoxin reduces
the final electron acceptor NADP+.
8.5 Calvin cycle or dark reactions of photosynthesis

The so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis depend strongly on the light reactions,
since they are driven by ATP and NADPH, which are the products of the light reactions
(Figure 8.8). ATP and NADPH are essential for the reduction of carbon-dioxide to
organic compounds such as glucose in the steps of the so-called Calvin cycle.
Figure 8.8
Summary and interrelations of light and dark reactions
The Calvin cycle, often referred to as dark reactions or the carbon reactions pathway
(Figure 8.9), uses the energy of cleavage of phosphate bonds of ATP and the reducing
164
power of NADPH, to fix and reduce carbon-dioxide to form carbohydates. The enzymes
and the intermediates of the Calvin cycle are located in the chloroplast stroma.
The enzyme Ribulose-Bisphosphate-Carboxylase (RuBp-Carboxylase) catalyses CO2
fixation. The same enzyme can catalyse an oxygenase reaction, therefore it is frequently
called RuBp-Carboxylase/Oxygenase or RuBisCo.
Carboxylation
Carbon dioxide is combined with the 5-carbon sugar ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, creating
a 6-carbon sugar. This in turn is broken down into 2 phosphoglycerate molecules.
Oxidation, dephosphorylation
The following steps include oxidation and dephosphorylation, using NADPH and ATP
from the light reactions, resulting in triose phosphates.
Regeneration
Ribulose 5-monophosphate can be regenerated from these triose phosphate molecules,
and with phosphorylation, using one more ATP the starting molecule of the Calvin
cycle, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate is regenerated.
The triose phosphates will be the precursors of important carbohydrates like fructose
and glucose.
For details of the steps of the Calvin cycle see Chapter 10.
Figure 8.9
Summary of dark cycle reactions
165
Pharmacognosy 1
8.6 Connection points of photosynthesis

fructose-6-phosphate glucose-6-phosphate glucose starch
erythrose-4-phosphate: one of the primary precursors of aromatic amino acids
(other precursor: PEP = phosphoenol-pyruvate)
ribose-5-phosphate: precursor of ribonucleic acids and of the ribose in nucleotids
(Figure 8.10)
Figure 8.10
Outline of photosynthesis-related metabolic pathways
8.7 Differences between the C3 and C4 pathways of

photosynthesis
In C4 plants the vascular bundle (vein) of the leaf is surrounded by two rings of cells.
The cells of the inner ring, called bundle sheath, contain chloroplasts (Figure 8.12).
These chloroplasts are rich in starch, but they are lacking grana, thus being different
from chloroplasts present in the mesophyll cells of the outer ring. In contrast, in C3
plants the bundle sheath is lacking chloroplasts (Figure 8.11).
166
Figure 8.11
Leaf transversal section of a C3 plant
Figure 8.12
Leaf transversal section of a C4 plant
C4 pathway
The C4 photosynthetic pathway is typical in tropical, drought resistant plants, such as
representatives of the Poaceae, Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae and
Portulacaceae family. The C4 pathway requires more energy in the form of ATP
compared to the C3 pathway, however, it ensures a higher rate of photosynthesis, which
is advantageous under tropical conditions with higher temperature and great light
intensity.
The C4 pathway uses a more efficient enzyme to fix CO2 in mesophyll cells. The fixed
carbon is stored in the form of malic acid within leaf mesophyll cells. CO2 is transferred
to the bundle sheath cells, where it enters the Calvin cycle (Figure 8.13).
167
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 8.13
Summary of C4 photosynthetic pathway
168
Chapter 9
Role of nitrate- and sulphate-reduction in
synthesis of effective substances
Photosynthesis, respiration: The most important chemical reaction of this process is the
following:
keto acids amino acids
The enzymes involved are: transaminases (reductive transaminases).
Formation of reduced (amino) form of nitrogen:
Nitrate (NO3) is taken up by the plant.
N2 is taken up from the air and fixed
Reduction of sulphate:
sulphate taken up by the plant -SH (S-containing amino acids)
The base of nitrogen- and sulphur-assimilation is biological reduction (similarly to the
reduction of CO2 in photosynthesis).
9.1 Nitrogen metabolism in plants

Natural circulation of nitrogen by living organisms
The most important elements of nitrogen circulation are summarized in Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1
Biological circulation of nitrogen
169
Pharmacognosy 1
Nitrogen fixation
Fixing of nitrogen is the following process: N2 NH4+, which occurs with the
participation of nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Figure 9.1).
Important: If plants are able to fix nitrogen, there is no need for N-containing artificial
fertilizers!
Bacteria capable of nitrogen-fixing
Diazotroph bacteria
Non-symbiotic
CYANOBACTERIA (e.g. Nostoc, Anabaena, Oscillatoria)
PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA (e.g. Rhodospirillium rubrum)
CHEMOTROPHIC BACTERIA (e.g. Thiobacillus ferrooxidans)
EUBACTERIA (e.g. Azotobacter, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Azospirillium the latter
is in loose association with roots of grasses)
Symbiotic
CYANOBACTERIA (in some angiosperms, ferns, mosses)
ACTINOMYCETALES (ray fungi), e.g. Frankia symbiosis with Alnus,
Elaeagnus, Hippophae
EUBACTERIUM (Rhizobiaceae: Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azorhizobium
endosymbiosis with legumes)
Legumes endosymbiosis
On the root of host plant: root nodules (tubers, nodules)
Bacteria can penetrate through the root-hairs: infection thread will be formed
Bacteria penetrate through the cortical cells of the root into the internal part of the
bark: they induce mitosis
In the polyploid cells: bacteria proliferate intensively
The proliferated cells are demarcated by the membrane of the host cells
(peribacteroid membrane)
This enveloped formation is: nodule (Figure 9.2-3)
Root nodules
Formation of nodules bacteria swell: bacteroid phase
In vitro: Rhizobium they are not able to fix N2 themselves (without the legume
partner), but the bacteroids isolated from root nodules are!
The genetic ability of N2-fixing is coded in Rhizobium. The host plant supplies bacteria
with the suitable carbon skeleton.
Leghaemoglobin: located in the peribacteroid interstice, in plant cytosol (synthesis
hem: bacteroid; globin: host plant). It binds O2 very strongly under micro-aerophyl
conditions (low, but necessary concentration of O2).
The pink colour of a nodule shows that it contains leghaemoglobin, i.e. the nodule is
viable.
170
Role of nitrate- and sulphate-reduction in synthesis of effective substances
Figure 9.2-3
Root nodules with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in longitudinal section
Fixing of nitrogen with chemical equations

The energy of the diazo bond (:N N:): is very high.
Root nodule bacteria use about 20% of the ATP produced by the plant to break the
diazo bonds.
Reduction of 1 mol N2 requires 16 mol ATP, 8 mol electron:
N2 + 10 H+ + 8 e- 2 NH4+ + H2
nitrogenase
Nitrogenases: proteins containing Fe and Mo (Figure 9.4)
They are formed by two subunits, which dissociate readily, but neither of them is active
in itself.
Nitrogenase-reductase: smaller unit, Fe-protein complex
Nitrogenase: bigger unit, Mo-Fe-protein complex, activity: N2 NH4+
Outside the peribacteroid membrane (in cytosol) the following processes take place:
NH4+ glutaminic acid
transaminase
NH3 + glutaminic acid glutamin + ADP + Pi
ATP
171
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 9.4
Structure of the nitrogenase subunit
Equation of N2-fixing (reduction) (Figure 9.5):

N2 + 8 e- + 16 MgATP + 16 H2O 2 NH4+ + H2 + 16 MgADP + 16 Pi + 6H+
Figure 9.5
Nitrogenase electrontransport
Origin of ATP:
Photosynthetizing bacteria: photosynthetic origin
Under aerob conditions (e.g. Rhizobium sp.): mitochondrial phosphorylation will take
place.
172
Nitrification
Nitrification is an important step in the nitrogen cycle in the soil (Figure 9.1). It is an
aerobic process performed by autotrophic bacteria, which are quite sensitive (e.g. to
acidic pH, presence of tannins).
Nitrifying bacteria:
Nitrosomonas sp.
Nitrobacter sp.
Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia with oxygen, into nitrite, followed
by the oxidation into nitrate:
NH4+ NO2- NO3-
The function of nitrifying bacteria is hindered by this process:
NH3 atmosphere NH4+ absorbed in the soil
Denitrification
Denitrification is a process of nitrate reduction performed by heterotrophic facultative
anaerobic bacteria that will eventually produce molecular nitrogen (N2) through a series
of intermediate nitrogen oxide products (Figure 9.1, 9.6).
Figure 9.6
The process of denitrification
Anaerobic denitrifying bacteria:

Pseudomonas denitrificans
Micrococcus dentirificans
Thiobacillus denitrificans
Nitrogen assimilation
Nitrogen assimilation is the formation of organic nitrogen compounds such as amino
acids from inorganic nitrogen compounds present in the environment (Figure 9.1).
Plants that cannot fix nitrogen gas (N2) depend on the ability to assimilate nitrate or
ammonia for their needs.
Plants absorb nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrate (NO3-) and ammonia (NH3).
In aerobic soils where nitrification can occur, nitrate is the predominant form of
available nitrogen (Figure 9.1). Nitrate is taken up by nitrate transporters that use a
proton gradient to power the transport. The co-transport of NO3- and H+ is directed
through the plasmalemma into the root cells. Nitrogen is transported from the root to the
shoot via the xylem in the form of nitrate, or dissolved ammonia and amino acids
173
Pharmacognosy 1
(Figure 9.7). In some species NO3- can be reduced in the root cortex parenchyma cells;
while in the majority of plants most of the nitrate reduction is carried out in the shoots,
and the roots typically reduce only a small fraction of the absorbed nitrate to ammonia.
Nitrate ions can be stored in the vacuoles until they are needed for the synthesis of
amino acids (Figure 9.8). Ammonia is incorporated into amino acids via the glutamin
synthetase-glutamate synthase pathway.
Figure 9.7
Transport ways of nitrate in plants
Reduction of nitrate
Nitrate reduction is carried out in two steps.
1) Nitrate is first reduced to nitrite (NO2-) in the cytosol by nitrate reductase using
NADH or NADPH.
Nitrate-reductase:
NO3- + 2 H+ + 2 e- NO2- + H2O
NADH
In the cytoplasm, during nitrate reduction, the nitrate-reductase enzyme is in close
contact with the external membrane of the chloroplast, because in the next step further
reduction will take place in the chloroplast by nitrite reductase. The presence of NO3-
increases the activity of nitrate reductase.
174
The way of the electron:

NADH NAD cytochrome b557 Mo-cofactor NO3- NO2-
e- e- e- e-
oxidation
NADH NAD+
reduction
NO3- NO2-
NO3- + NADH + H+ NO2- + NAD+ + H2O
2) Nitrite is then reduced to ammonia in the chloroplasts by a ferredoxin dependent
nitrite reductase.
Nitrite-reductase:
NO2- + 8 H+ + 6 e- NH4+ + 2 H2O
ferredoxine
The electron donor is the e- transport system in the chloroplast. Nitrate and light are the
two most important factors in the regulation of nitrite reductase.
Transamination
Glutamin synthetase glutamate synthase:
In the chloroplasts, glutamin synthetase incorporates ammonia as the amide group of
glutamine, using glutamate as a substrate. Further transaminations are carried out to
make other amino acids from glutamine.
The most important transport routes and pathways of nitrogen metabolism within the
plant are summarized in Figure 9.8.
175
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 9.8
Transport routes and pathways of nitrogen metabolism in plants
9.2 Sulphate-reduction
Sulphate (SO42-) is reduced to thiols by microorganisms and plants, and these are
incorporated via amino acids into proteins. Sulphates taken up by the root are the major
sulphur source, although they have to be reduced to sulphide before they are further
metabolized. Root plastids contain all sulphate reduction enzymes, but typically SO42- is
transported by xylem-transport into the shoot (mainly the leaves), where the reduction
of sulphate to sulphide and its subsequent incorporation into cysteine will take place, in
the chloroplasts.
The main steps of sulphate reduction are summarized in the following equation. Further
details of this process can be found below.
SO42- + ATP + 8 e- + 8 H+ S2- + 4 H2O + AMP + PPi
176
(1) Activation of sulphate

Sulphate is first activated by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) before it is reduced
(Figure 9.9).
Figure 9.9
Activation of sulphate by ATP
A sulphur-containing nucleotide, adenosine-5-phospho-sulphate (APS) is a carrier of

sulphur during sulphate reduction in green plants (Figure 9.10-11).
(2) Reduction of sulphate
Figure 9.10
Formation of carrier-tiosulphonate complex
Figure 9.11
Reduction of tiosulphonate
177
Pharmacognosy 1
(3) Formation of cysteine

Cysteine is the precursor or reduced sulphur donor of most other organic sulphur
compounds in plants (Figure 9.12-13). The amino acids cysteine and methionine are
highly significant in the structure, conformation and function of proteins.
Figure 9.12
Incorporation of sulphide into cysteine
178
Importance of sulphate-reduction
Plants contain a variety of organic sulphur compounds, as thiols, sulpholipids and
secondary sulphur-containing metabolites like alliin, glucosinolates etc. (Figure 9.13),
which play an important role in plant physiology and are of great importance for
pharmaceutical applications.
Figure 9.13
Interrelations of various sulphur-containing compounds
179
Chapter 10
Synthesis, role and usage of carbohydrates
10.1 Formation of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are formed in the process of photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates CO2 and H2O + solar energy
Primary processes of photosynthesis: photolysis of water light energy (for details
see Chapter 8)
Secondary process: CO2 reduced to carbohydrates; hydrogen photolysis of water
Equation of the fundamental process: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
The steps of CO2 fixing and reduction were clarified by Calvin and co-workers
(Nobel-price; 1961) Calvin-cycle (Figure 10.1-3)
The Calvin-cycle Fixation and reduction of carbon dioxide

CO2 fixation: ribulose-1,5-diphosphate (or -bisphosphate) phosphorylated by the
primary ATP (Figure 10.1)
Figure 10.1
Fixation of carbon-dioxide by ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-carboxylase-oxygenase
181
Pharmacognosy 1
The product of the RuBP carboxylase reaction, glyceric-acid-3-phosphate (3-

phosphoglcyerate) is converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Triose-phosphate-
isomerase catalyses the formation of dihydroxy-aceton-3-phosphate (Figure 10.2).
Figure 10.2
The C-3 reactions of the Calvin-cycle
Further reactions of the Calvin-cycle are catalysed by various aldolase and trans-
ketolase enzymes, and yield a variety of carbohydrates important in several plant
physiological processes (Figure 10.3-5). From glucose-phosphate molecules primary or
photosynthetic starch is formed, which serves as a reserve substance.
182
aldo- and keto-triose-phosphates
aldolase and trans-ketolase

enzymes
important carbohydrates
(sugars with 4-7 C-atoms):
fructose (C-6)
glucose (C-6)
erythrose (C-4)
ribulose (C-5)
xilulose (C-5)
ribose (C-5)
sedoheptulose (C-7)
subsequent phosphorilation of ribulose - cycle repeated
Figure 10.3
Carbohydrates formed in the Calvin-cycle
Figure 10.4
Synthesis of various carbohydrates in the Calvin-cycle
183
Pharmacognosy 1
Fixation of carbon dioxide in C4 plants

C4 plants bind CO2 in a combined way, where phospho-enol-pyruvate (PEP)
(Figure 10.5) plays an important role. The bound CO2 is temporarily stored as malic
acid (Figure 10.6), which in turn is transported to neighbouring tissues. Here it can be
used in the Calvin-cycle, yielding starch as the end product. C4 type plants include e.g.
maize (Zea mays) and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris).
Figure 10.5
Phospho-enol-pyruvate (PEP)
Figure 10.6
Malic acid (monohydroxy-succinic acid) dicarboxylic acid
Fixation of carbon dioxide in CAM plants

Crassulaceae Acid Metabolism (CAM) is typical in members of the family Crassulaceae
(Figure 10.8), but also in cacti (family Cactaceae) and other succulents, including
representatives of the family Euphorbiaceae (Figure 10.7) and the genus Sempervivum.
Here the process is separated in time (e. g. during the night the stomata are open); the
chloroplast-containing cells store CO2 as malic acid in the vacuole, which results in an
acidic pH of the cell sap.
184
Figure 10.7
Euphorbia monteiroi (Angola)
Figure 10.8
Crassula falcata (South-Africa)
185
Pharmacognosy 1
10.2 Di- and polysaccharides, role, usage

Saccharose / sucrose (beet sugar, cane sugar)
the most important disaccharide
saccharose = -D-glucose-1,2--D-fructose (-D-glucopyranosyl--D-
fructofuranose)
-D-glucopyranose and -D-fructofuranose units: 1,2-glycosidic bond
Figure 10.9
Chemical structure of sucrose (saccharose)
basic component of syrups, important vehicle and flavouring compound

sources: sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum)
inverted sugar: 1 : 1 mixture of glucose (grape sugar, dextrose) and fructose (fruit
sugar, laevulose);
it is formed from saccharose by dilute acidic hydrolysis, or by the enzyme
invertase
industrial sugar used after purification in food industry, and in the falsification of
honey!
H+
saccharose + H2O glucose + fructose
(C12H22O11) invertase 2 C6H12O6
Figure 10.10
Simplified equation of sugar invertation
186
Sugar alcohols
Sugar alcohols are formed by reduction of monosaccharides, e.g. D-sorbitol is formed
from D-glucose (Figure 10.11). D-sorbitol frequently occurs in members of the
Rosaceae family, e.g. Malus sp., Pyrus sp., Prunus sp., and enhances peristaltic action
of the bowels.
Figure 10.11
D-glucose and D-sorbitol
In plants ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is formed from D-sorbitol, e.g. in Rosae

pseudofructus (rose hips, Figure 10.12). The jam prepared from rose hips contains
pectin, too, which contributes to the mild laxative activity of the jam.
Figure 10.12
False fruit of Rosa canina
187
Pharmacognosy 1
Reduction of D-mannose yields D-mannitol (Figure 10.13), which is the effective

substance of Manna (source plant: Fraxinus ornus, Oleaceae).
Figure 10.13
D-mannose and D-mannitol
Polysaccharides
in water:
form colloid solutions
cannot be dissolved in water
Classification on the basis of their functions:
reserve nutrients
structural components in plant cell wall
osmotic regulators
According to their chemical structure:
homo-polysaccharides (homoglycanes)
hetero-polysaccharides (heteroglycanes)
Reserve nutrients
Starch (amylum): amylose + amylopectine;
total hydrolysis (boiling in solution with mineral acids) D-glucose (homoglycane)
amylose: glucose units linked by (14) bonds; linear, unbranched chain with a
helical structure,1 spiral unit: 6 glucose molecules (Figure 10.14)
with I2 (iodine) it forms an inclusion-complex with intensive blue colour stability
decreases at higher temperature
188
Figure 10.14
Structure of amylose
amylopectin: glucose units are connected by (14)-bonds, but per 10-20 glucose
units there are (16)-branches, too (Figure 10.15)
Figure 10.15
Structure of amylopectin
partial hydrolysis results in maltose: 2 D-glucose-units connected by -glycosidic

bond (Figure 10.16)
189
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 10.16
Chemical formula of maltose
Hydrolysis of starch: enzyme -amylase (saliva, pancreas) cleaves the (14) bonds
maltose + glucose + dextrin, containing (16) bonds (the hydrolysis of dextrin is
catalyzed by the enzyme (16)-glycosidase)
refined starch: tablets and powders (talcums), e.g.:
Solani amylum (potato starch),
Tritici amylum (wheat starch),
Oryzae amylum (rice starch)
maltodextrines: formed during an enzymatic hydrolysis, and after refining used in
the food industry (e.g.: instant cacao, coffee)
inulin D-fructose-units (21) bonds; e.g. Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus
tuberosus) fructose syrup; purified inulin used as excipient (binding material) in
tablets
Structural / Cell-wall carbohydrates
Cellulose
nearly half of the organic materials of the biosphere
the main constituent of plant fibres
the purest cellulose is scoured cotton (Lana gossypii) from the seed hairs of cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum, Malvaceae, Figure 10.17)
190
Figure 10.17
Gossypium hirsutum (cotton)
structure of cellulose: D-glucose-units connected by (1 4) bonds (Figure 10.18)
Figure 10.18
Chemical structure of cellulose
3000-10 000 glucose-units, M 500 000 1 500 000

insoluble in water
H2O/H+
hydrolysis: cellulose cellubiose (Figure 10.19)
cellulase
191
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 10.19
Chemical structure of cellobiose
Characteristics of cellulose
cellulose chains stabilized by H-bonds (H-bridges) between C-3 OH groups and
ring O-atoms
chains arranged as parallel bundles, between them H-bonds
X-ray structure-analysis: a high degree of regularity mechanical stability
enzym cellulase: produced by bacteria, fungi able to utilize cellulose
in the stomach of ruminants: protozoa help the digestion of cellulose (originating
from plants, fodder)
cellulose can be accompanied by:
lignin:
- in the lignified (woody) secondary cell wall; consisting of polymerized
aromatic alcohols, too
xylane:
D-xylose with (14) bonds
important skeleton material, giving the hardness of woods (e.g.: corn-stalk,
corn-cob)
Pectins
they are present in the soft tissues of plants (e.g.: fruits, Figure 10.20)
their building stones are: D-galactose and L-arabinose
they dissolve in boiling water, after cooling down form gel
employment: food industry
192
Figure 10.20
Cerasus avium (sweet cherry)
Agar-agar
polysaccharide (Figure 10.21) of marine algae containing sulphate and phosphate
groups
it dissolves in boiling water
at room temperature forms a gel, which solidifies
employment: culture medium of bacteria , electrochemistry (salt-bridge),
electrophoresis (excipient)
193
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 10.21
Agar
Mannanes
polymers of D-mannose, formed by (14) bonds
occurrence: higher plants (e.g.: kernel of stone-fruits, e.g. Prunus domestica,
Figure 10.22), lignified part of conifers
in yeasts: 12, resp. 13 branched mannanes
Figure 10.22
Prunus domestica (plum)
194
Gums
Acaciae gummi: acacia (gum arabic) Acacia senegal (Mimosaceae, Figure 10.23)
constituents: D-galactose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, D-glucuronic acid
Tragacantha Astragalus gummifer (Fabaceae)
employment: glues, emulgeating agents and stabilizing materials in the preparation
of drugs
Figure 10.23
Acacia senegal (gum acacia)
Heteropolysaccharides
Gluco- and galacto-mannanes, xylanes, rhamnogalacturonanes
their solutions are viscous, but not sticky
action: form a protective layer on mucous membrane
immunostimulants in the case of respiratory and gastro-intestinal diseases
occurrence: plant mucilages
A few examples for mucilage-containing drugs are shown in Figure 10.24-30.
195
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 10.24
Lichen islandicus (Iceland moss)
Figure 10.25
Althaeae radix (marshmallow root)
196
Figure 10.26
Malvae folium (mallow leaf)
Figure 10.27
Malvae flos (mallow flower)
197
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 10.28
Plantaginis lanceolatae folium (ribwort plantain leaf)
Figure 10.29
Farfarae folium (colts-foot leaf)
198
Figure 10.30
Lini semen (flax seed or linseed)
E. Minker (1996): a number of water-soluble polysaccharides show antiphlogistic and

gastroprotective action by intraperitoneal administration.
A few examples for drugs containing water-soluble polysaccharides are shown in
Figure 10.31-33.
Figure 10.31
Matricariae flos (matricaria / chamomile flower)
199
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 10.32
Tiliae flos (lime flower)
Figure 10.33
Cucurbitae semen (pumpkin seed)
200
Chapter 11
Synthesis, role and usage of lipids.
Oils and waxes
The majority of lipids dissolve in nonpolar solvents (chloroform, ether, CCl4), because
they are hydrophobic.
11.1 Biological functions

(1) reserve sources of energy
(2) building stones of cell membranes
(3) isolation and mechanical protection
(4) hormones, vitamins regulation of metabolic processes
11.2 Classification on the basis of their reaction with bases

(alkali)
(1) not saponifiable lipids
terpene- and carotenoid hydrocarbons
steroids (stigmasterine and sytosterine)
liposoluble vitamins (D, E, K, A)
prostaglandins
(2) saponifiable lipids
simple lipids: neutral fats, plant oils, waxes
combined lipids: phosphoglycerides, sphyngolipids, glycolipids
the special transformation of fatty acids results polyalkines (polyacetylenes)
201
Pharmacognosy 1
Saponifiable combined lipids
(1) Phosphoglycerides
fundamental compound: L--phosphatidic acid (Figure 11.1)
ester bond
O
1
O CH2 O C R1
2
R2 C O C H O
3
CH2 O P OH acidic group
OH acidic group
ester bond
Figure 11.1
L--phosphatidic acid
further alcohol components can bind to the phosphoric acid molecule part by ester
bonds
if the alcohol is cholamine (ethanolamine = 1-amino-2-hydroxy-ethan, Figure 11.2),
the forming phosphoglyceride is cephaline (phosphatidyl-ethanol-amine,
Figure 11.3)
2 1
HO CH2 CH2 NH2
Figure 11.2
Cholamine
O
1
O CH2 O C R1
2
R2 C O C H O basic group
3
CH2 O P O CH2 CH2 NH2
OH
acidic group
Figure 11.3
Cephaline
202
Synthesis, role and usage of lipids. Oils and waxes
if the alcohol component is choline (trimethyl-2(or )-hydroxyethyl-ammonium-

hydroxide, Figure 11.4), the forming phosphoglyceride is lecithin (Figure 11.5)
[ ]
+
CH3
2 1 -
HO CH2 CH2 N CH3 OH

CH3
Figure 11.4
Choline
O
1
O CH2 O C R1
2
R2 C O C H O CH3
3 +
CH2 O P O CH2 CH2 N CH3
O CH3
-
subst. phosphation
Figure 11.5
Lecithin
cephaline and lecithin: the main building stones of membranes in animal and plant
cells
cephaline occurs in the lipoid materials of the brain
the egg-yolk contains lecithin in high quantities
from soybean oil: soya-lecithin it is used by food- and pharmaceutical industry as
emulgent and emulsion stabilizing material
if the alcohol component is serine (-amino--hydroxy-propionic acid, Figure 11.6),
phosphatidyl-serine (Figure 11.7) will be formed

HO 3CH2 CH
2
COOH
1
NH2
Figure 11.6
Serine
203
Pharmacognosy 1
O
O CH2 O C R1
R2 C O C H O acidic group
CH2 O P O CH2 CH2 COOH
OH NH2
basic group
acidic group
Figure 11.7
Phosphatidyl-serine
if the alcohol component is inositol (Figure 11.8), phosphatidyl-inositol

(Figure 11.9) will be formed
OH OH
H OH
H H
OH H
HO H
H OH
Figure 11.8
Inositol (hexa-hydroxy-cyclohexane)
O
O CH2 O C R1 OH OH
R2 C O C H O H OH
H H
CH2 O P OH H
O H
OH
H OH
Figure 11.9
Phosphatidyl-inositol
phosphatidyl-serine and phosphatidyl-inositol: building blocks of cell membranes

phosphatidyl-inositol: important role in signal transformation, activated by
hormone receptors secondary messenger molecules will be formed
(2) Sphyngolipids
occurrence: in the membrane of plant and animal cells; a fundamental compound is
sphyngosine = unsaturated amino-diol with long (C18) carbon-chain (Figure 11.10)
204
1
CH2 OH
2
H2N C H
3 4 5 18
H C CH CH (CH2)12 CH3
OH
Figure 11.10
Sphyngosine
(3) Glycolipids
sugar- or sugaralcohol-molecules connect to one of the OH groups of glycerol by
ether-bond; the other two OH groups are esterified by long-chain fatty acids
mono- and digalactosyl-diglycerols: components of photosynthetic membranes
Saponifiable simple lipids
(1) Fats and fatty oils

esters of fatty acids formed with glycerol
solid state of matter (fat): the esterifying acid components are saturated
liquid state of matter (fatty oil): the esterifying acid components are unsaturated
place of biosynthesis: chloroplast, but the enzymes elongase and desaturase work in
the cytoplasm
fatty acids are formed from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA (Figure 11.11), and they
are always even- numbered:
O CO 2 O
H3C C S CoA biotine HOOC H2C C S CoA
acetyl-coensyme A (vitamin H) malonyl-coensyme A
Figure 11.11
Acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA, precursors of fatty acids
malonyl-CoA can be formed also from oxalacetic acid; the reaction is catalysed by
the enzyme peroxydase in the presence of Mn2+ ions; malonic acid is formed as
intermedier (Figure 11.12)
205
Pharmacognosy 1
oxalyl-group
COOH
COOH O
C O peroxydase
CH2 HOOC H2C C S CoA
CH2 2+
Mn COOH
COOH
oxalacetic acid malonic acid malonyl-coensyme A
Figure 11.12
Synthesis of malonyl-CoA from oxalacetic acid
the most commonly occurring saturated fatty acids in plants are listed in
Figure 11.13.
CH3 (CH2)10 COOH laurinic acid = dodecane acid
CH3 (CH2)12 COOH myrystinic acid = tetradecane acid
CH3 (CH2)14 COOH palmitinic acid = hexadecane acid
CH3 (CH2)16 COOH stearinic acid = octadecane acid
CH3 (CH2)18 COOH arachinic acid = eicosane acid
Figure 11.13
Saturated fatty acids in plants
the most commonly occurring unsaturated fatty acids in plants are shown in
Figure 11.14-17.
H 10 9 H
C C
18 1
H3C (H2C)7 (CH2)7 COOH
Figure 11.14
Oleic acid (9-cis-octadecen acid)
18 13 12 11 10 9 1
H3C (CH2)4 CH CH CH2 CH CH (CH2)7 COOH
Figure 11.15
Linolic acid (9,12-di-cis-octadeca-dien acid)
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 1
H3C CH2 CH CH CH2 CH CH CH2 CH CH (CH2)7 COOH
Figure 11.16
-linoleic acid (9,12,15-tri-cis-octadeca-trien acid)
206
18 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 1
H3C (CH2)4 CH CH CH2 CH CH CH2 CH CH (CH2)4 COOH
Figure 11.17
-linoleic acid (6,9,12-tri-cis-octadeca-trien acid)
Omega-3 fatty acids (-3 fatty acids or n-3 fatty acids) are polyunsaturated fatty
acids with a double (C=C) bond at the third carbon atom (in n-3 position) from the
end of the carbon chain. In -6 fatty acids this double bond can be found at the sixth
carbon atom from the methyl group at the end of the carbon chain. Each double bond
is in cis position both in -3 and -6 fatty acids.
Omega-3 fatty acids include -linoleic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA); while omega-6 fatty acids contain linolic acid
and arachidonic acid.
The human body is not able to synthesize the above compounds, therefore they are
considered essential fatty acids and vitamin-like materials (vitamin F), and they
should be taken with food.
Sources of -3 and -6 fatty acids include milk, fish, meat, eggs; various plant oils
such as linseed oil, soy oil, rapeseed oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, corn (maize) oil,
poppyseed oil; as well as oily seeds like nuts and peanuts. The optimal intake of -3
: -6 fatty acids would be 1:3 1:5.
The omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids enhance quality of life and lower the risk of
premature death. They function via cell membranes, in which they are anchored by
phospholipid molecules. They have a beneficial effect on the cardiovascular system,
lowering the level of triglycerides, as well as pulse rate, blood pressure and the risk
of atherosclerosis. They are needed for the proper functioning of the immune system,
and are valued also for their anti-inflammatory character.
DHA was proven essential to pre- and postnatal brain development, whereas EPA
seems to be more influential on behaviour and mood. Both DHA and EPA generate
neuroprotective metabolites (Kidd 2007).
Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid (Figure 11.18-19), which
is the starting material of the biosynthesis of prostaglandins
20 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 1
H3C (CH2)4 CH CH CH2 CH CH CH2 CH CH CH2 CH CH (CH2)3 COOH
Figure 11.18
Arachidonic acid (5,8,11,14-tetracis-eikosa-tetraen acid)
207
Pharmacognosy 1
its correct structure:
9 8 5 3 1
6
7 4 2 COOH
10
13
CH3
16 18 20
11 12 14 15 17 19
Figure 11.19
Arachidonic acid
one of the special and rarely occurring representatives of unsaturated fatty acids is
ricinolic acid (Figure 11.20), which can be found in castor-oil bean (Ricini semen,
source plant: Ricinus communis)
18 12 11 10 9 1
H3C (CH2)5 CH CH2 CH CH (CH2)7 COOH
OH
Figure 11.20
Ricinolic acid
80-90% of castor oil (Ricini oleum) is the glycerol-ester of ricinolic acid; the oil is
known for its purgative action; it cannot contain ricinine (toxic pyridine-derivate,
acid nitrile, Figure 11.21) and ricine (toxic protein)
CH3
O
C N
N O
CH3
Figure 11.21
Ricinine
fats can be stored as reserve nutrients mainly in seeds, from which the fats and fatty
oils are recoverable by pressing for food and pharmaceutical purposes
fats and fatty oils are insoluble in water and in alcohols, but they are well-soluble in
nonpolar solvents (hexane, benzene, ether, chloroform, ethylacetate)
under the influence of air and light they can be quickly oxydized, and become rancid
during this process organic peroxy-derivatives and free radicals are formed
storage: in a cool place, in tightly closed dark (brown) flask protection from light
208
the alkaline hydrolysis of fats and fatty oils results the salts of corresponding fatty
acids (soaps) and glycerol saponification
Plants containing fats and fatty oils

A few examples are shown in Figure 11.22-31.
Figure 11.22
Amygdalus communis sweet or bitter almond (Rosaceae)
Figure 11.23
Brassica napus oilseed rape (Brassicaceae / Cruciferae)
209
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 11.24
Glycine soja soy(a) bean (Fabaceae)
Figure 11.25
Gossypium hirsutum mountain cotton (Malvaceae)
210
Figure 11.26
Seeds with cover hairs from Gossypium hirsutum mountain cotton (Malvaceae)
Figure 11.27
Helianthus annuus sunflower (Asteraceae / Compositae)
211
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 11.28
Linum usitatissimum cultivated flax (Linaceae)
Figure 11.29
Olea europaea common olive (Oleaceae)
212
Figure 11.30
Fruits of Olea europaea common olive (Oleaceae)
Figure 11.31
Fruits and seeds of Theobroma cacao cacao(tree) (Sterculiaceae)
Plant oils Olea herbaria (Ph.Eur.)

Virgin oil (Oleum virginale): oil obtained with mechanic processes (cold pressing,
centrifugation).
213
Pharmacognosy 1
Refined oil (Oleum raffinatum): oil obtained with pressing and/or with solvent
(hexane) extraction; followed by chemical refinement (with a base) or physical
refinement
Hydrogenised oil (Oleum hydrogenatum): pressing or extraction with solvent,
refined chemically or physically; hydrogenised
List of plant oils in Ph.Eur. 6.:
Amygdalae oleum raffinatum almond oil, refined
Amygdalae oleum virginale almond oil, virgin
Arachidis oleum hydrogenatum peanut oil, hydrogenated
Arachidis oleum raffinatum peanut oil, refined
Carthami oleum raffinatum safflower oil, refined
Cocois oleum raffinatum coconut oil, refined
Gossypii oleum hydrogenatum cotton oil, hydrogenated
Helianthi annui oleum raffinatum sunflower oil, refined
Lini oleum virginale flaxseed oil, virgin
Maydis oleum raffinatum maize/corn oil, refined
Olivae oleum raffinatum olive oil, refined
Rapae oleum raffinatum rape oil, refined
Ricini oleum virginale castor oil, virgin
Sesami oleum raffinatum sesame oil, refined
Soiae oleum raffinatum soy oil, refined
Tritici aestivi oleum raffinatum wheat germ oil, refined
Tritici aestivi oleum virginale wheat germ oil, virgin
Cod-liver oil
cod-liver oil (Iecoris aselli oleum): oil of animal origin melting, cooling and
filtering the fatty oil from the liver of Gadus morhua
contains:
oleic acid (85 %)
linolic acid
palmitoleic acid
gadolinic acid (9-cis eicosen acid, Figure 11.32)
20 10 9 1
H3C (CH2)9 CH CH (CH2)7 COOH
Figure 11.32
Gadolinic acid
214
glycerolesters of palmitinic- and myristinic acid

vitamin A (retinol) (Figure 11.33)
19 20
16 17 15
1 7 9 11 13
6 CH2OH
2
8 10 12 14
3
4 18
Figure 11.33
Vitamin A (retinol)
vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) (Figure 11.34)
12
11 13 17
1 9
2 10 16
8 14 15
7
HO 3 5
4 6
Figure 11.34
Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol)
vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) (Figure 11.35)
12
11 13 17
1 9
2 10 16
8 14 15
7
HO 3 5
4 6
Figure 11.35
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)
cod-liver oil is used for the prevention and treatment of deficiency diseases (A-
and D-avitaminosis), and as component of ointments (creams)
(2) Waxes
esters of long-chain fatty acids with long-chain monovalent alcohols (wax-alcohols)
some important wax-alcohols are shown in Figure 11.36.
215
Pharmacognosy 1
CH3 (CH2)14 CH2 OH cetylalcohol

CH3 (CH2)16 CH2 OH stearylalcohol
CH3 (CH2)24 CH2 OH cerylalcohol
CH3 (CH2)28 CH2 OH myricyl- or melissylalcohol
Figure 11.36
Wax-alcohols
esterifying acid-components include: laurinic acid, palmitinic acid, stearinic acid,

melissynic acid, myristynic acid
waxes are solid; their solubility relations are similar to those of fats, but they
dissolve to a lesser degree
they are less sensitive to oxydation than fats, they are saponifiable
therapeutical usage: basic materials of plasters and ointments, covering of drages
some widely used waxes are listed below:
Cera flava (yellow wax or beeswax)
Cera alba (white wax)
Cera carnauba (carnauba wax)
Cetaceum (its main components: cetyllaurate, cetylmirystate, cetylpalmitate,
cetylstearate)
Not saponifiable lipids
Prostaglandins
discovery: 1935 Euler (Swedish) and Goldblatt (English): in human sperm cells
and in tissues of ram seminal vesicle
the first isolation in pure crystalline state: Bergstrm and co-workers in the 1960s
They can be found in all living organisms; mainly in animal and human organism,
but they occur in plants, too (e.g. Allium sp.)
Prostaglandins are unsaturated fatty acids, containing 2-3 OH groups and a
cyclopentene or cyclopentane ring
the cyclopentene- or cyclopentane-ring is always formed from the C-atoms 8, 9, 10,
11 and 12
between the C-atoms 13-14 there is a double bond in each case
to the C-atom C-15 a OH group is bound in each case, having S configuration
on the basis of structure and substitution of cyclopentene and cyclopentane rings
6 fundamental types (groups) of prostaglandins can be distinguished
(Figure 11.37-38):
216
O O O
9 8 ... 9 8 ... 9 8 ...
10 10 10
11 12 ... 11 12 ... 11 12 ...

PGA PGB PGC
Figure 11.37
Cyclopentene rings
HO O HO
9 8 ... 9 8 ... 9 8 ...
10 10 10
11 12 ... 11 12 ... 11 12 ...
O HO HO
PGD PGE PGF
Figure 11.38
Cyclopentane rings
the lower index-numbers (e.g. PGE2) show the number of double bonds in the
molecule:
1: double bond is between C-13, C-14
2: double bonds are between C-5, C-6 and C-13, C-14
3: double bonds are between C-5, C-6 and C-13, C-14 and C-17, C-18
the carbon chains connected to the rings are arranged in trans (E) configuration
the precursor of prostaglandin-biosynthesis is arachidonic acid (Figure 11.39)
O
9 8 6 5 3 1 1
9 8
7 4 2 COOH cyclization COOH
5
10
CH3
13 16 18 20 + oxidation 11 12
15
11 12 14 15 17 19 (several steps) CH3
HO H 20
OH
arachidonic acid PGE2
Figure 11.39
Biosynthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid
217
Pharmacognosy 1
prostaglandins are used in therapy, too:

PGE2: Dinoproston abortive; derivatives of PGE2 are used in the treatment of
gastrointestinal ulcers, due to their antisecretoric and cytoprotective activity
PGE1 and prostacyclin are applied in disorders of blood circulation, for
inhibition of platelet-aggregation and in the case of asthma bronchiale
PGF2: used in treatment of intestinal diseases
their biological activity depends on the structure!
Polyalkines (polyacetylenes)
they are formed from fatty acids (mainly from linolic acid), through special
transformations
first polyenes are formed, from which polyines are formed enhanced by different
desaturase enzymes
their structure is often linear, but they can form rings; in this case they form
spiroether and thiophen-derivatives with oxygen and sulphur atoms, respectively
they are phototoxic: on the effect of UV-A irradiation their electron system gets
into excited state they become toxic
they are important resistance factors, play a role in tolerance; transported to the
root system and to the shoots they hinder the proliferation of microfungi (e.g.
Candida), bacteria and viruses
effective compounds of several medicinal plants are polyalkine-derivatives, e.g.:
Arctium lappa (greater burdock), Echinacea species
a number of toxic plants cause contact dermatitis or allergy due to the
photoactivated compounds of polyalkines, e.g.: Heracleum sphondylium (pigweed),
Oenanthe sp. (water-dropwort, hemlock), Cicuta sp. (water-hemlock, cowbane),
Hedera helix (ivy, Figure 11.40)
Figure 11.40
Hedera helix (ivy)
218
Chapter 12
Biosynthesis and classification of terpenoids
12.1 Compounds having isoprene skeleton

isoprene-principle is manifested in their structure they look like polymers of
isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) (Figure 12.1) Wallach (1883)
Ruzika (1921): the connection of isoprene units is well-regulated
5
CH3
1 2 3 4
H2C C CH CH2
head 2 4
foot (tail)
1 3
Figure 12.1
Isoprene
isoprene is the building block of naturally occurring polyisoprenes (caoutchouc,

guttapercha), terpenes, carotenoids and steroids
Connection types of isoprene units

Various types of the connection of isoprene units are demonstrated in Figure 12.2-6.
(a) linear
1 - 4 (or 4 1) connection: head-foot
foot head foot

head
4 4
1 1
Figure 12.2
Head-foot connection of isoprene units
219
Pharmacognosy 1
4 - 4 connection: foot-foot
5
foot 3 1
4
head 2 head
2
1 3 4
foot 5
Figure 12.3
Foot-foot connection of isoprene units
(b) cyclic: mono- and bicyclic terpenes (Figure 12.4):
head
head foot
+
foot foot
foot head
head
Figure 12.4
Limonene or dipentene (fundamental compound of monocyclic monoterpenes)
caoutchouc : natural poly-isoprene having all-cis connections (Figure 12.5-6):
H3C CH2 H3C H

C C C C
H2C H ... H2C CH2 ...
cis (Z)
Figure 12.5
Poly-isoprene structure with all-cis connections
h f h f h
. .
h f h f f
Figure 12.6
Structure of caoutchouc
220
caoutchouc is a substance with thread-like structure containing about 40 000 isoprene

units; it occurs in the milky sap (latex) of the caoutchouc tree (Hevea brasiliensis);
can be precipitated with acids
rubber: vulcanized caoutchouc the molecule chains are kept together by S-
bridges (Figure 12.7):
... ...
H C S C H
... ...
Figure 12.7
Structure of vulcanized caoutchouc
artifical caoutchouc: polyisoprene (Figure 12.8)
CH3 CH3
... + H2C C CH CH2 + H2C C CH CH2 + ...
head CH3 foot head CH3 foot

... CH2 C CH CH2 CH2 C CH CH2 ...
Figure 12.8
Polyisoprene structure of artificial caoutchouc
guttapercha: naturally occurring polyisoprene having all-trans configuration

(Figure 12.9)
its chain has an almost elongated structure
not elastic
the connection of isoprene units is foot foot, or head head:
h f f h f f
... ...
h h
Figure 12.9
Guttapercha
221
Pharmacognosy 1
12.2 Terpenes (terpenoids)

Terpenoids are hydrocarbons and derivatives containing oxygen, having (C5)n carbon
atoms, isoprene units; isolated generally from volatile oils of plant origin.
Biosynthesis
from isopentenyl-pyrophosphate (= IPP; active isoprene), which is formed from
mevalonic acid (Figure 12.10) by repeated phosphorylation, decarboxylation and by
loss of water
CH3

HO CH2 CH2 C CH2 COOH
5 4 3 2 1
OH
Figure 12.10
Mevalonic acid
(3,5-dihydroxy-3-methyl-pentanoic acid = ,-dihydroxy--methyl-valerianic acid)
the biosynthesis of mevalonic acid, as precursor of isoprenoids, starts from acetyl-

coensyme A, similarly to the biosynthesis of fatty acids
fundamental difference: from acetyl-coensyme A not malonyl-coensyme A is
formed, but 2 mols of acetyl-coensyme A are condensed under the catalytic effect of
the enzymes acyl-transpherase and thiolase, resulting in aceto-acetyl-coensyme A
(Figure 12.11)
acyl-transpherase,
O O thiolase O O
+ +
CH3 C S CoA CH3 C S CoA CH3 C CH2 C S CoA H S CoA
acetyl-coensyme A acetyl-coensyme A aceto-acetyl-coensyme A coensyme A
Figure 12.11
Synthesis of aceto-acetyl-coensyme A
the process mentioned above is the first step of the biosynthesis of fatty acids;
from this step branches the biosynthesis of isoprenoids (terpenes, carotenoids,
steroids) into the direction of the formation of mevalonic acid
the first step from the fatty acid cycle branching into the direction of mevalonic acid
is the special, enzyme-catalyzed addition reaction of aceto-acetyl-coensyme A with a
new molecule of acetyl-coensyme A (Figure 12.12)
This reaction is followed by hydrolysis, which results in the formation of H S
CoA
222
(coensyme A) and -hydroxy--methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA):
O O O 1st enzyme 2nd hydrolysis

+
CH3 C CH2 C S CoA CH3 C S CoA
aceto-acetyl-coensyme A acetyl-coensyme A
OH O
H3C C CH2 C S CoA + H S CoA
CH2 COOH
HMG-CoA coensyme A
Figure 12.12
Addition reaction of aceto-acetyl-CoA with acetyl-CoA, followed by hydrolysis
HMG-CoA will be transformed into (3R)-mevalonic acid (MVA) with the catalysis of
the HMG-CoA-reductase enzyme (Figure 12.13)
H3C 3 OH H3C 3 OH
2 C 4 2 C 4
reductase H2C CH2
H2C CH2
1 5
C1 5 C S CoA C CH2 OH
HO O O HO O
HMG-CoA (3R)-mevalonic acid (MVA)
Figure 12.13
The reaction catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase
In the next step of the reaction, the primary alcoholic OH-group of MVA is
phosphorylated by ATP, so MVA-pyrophosphate will be formed. This reaction is
followed by loss of water and decarboxylation, resulting in the formation of
isopenthenyl-pyrophosphate (IPP), which is considered as active isoprene
(Figure 12.14-15).
223
Pharmacognosy 1
H3C 3 OH H3C 3 OH
2 C 4 chinase 2 C 4
H2C CH2 + ATP H2C CH2 O O + AMP
C1 5 CH2 OH C1 5 CH2 O P O P OH
HO O HO O OH OH
MVA MVA-pyrophosphate
acidic
anhydrid
5-pyrophospho-MVA-
anhydro-decarboxylase H CH3 O bond O
C C CH2 CH2 O P O P OH
- CO 2 ester-
H OH OH
- H2O bond
IPP = isopenthenyl-pyrophosphate
(ester of isopenthenol formed with pyrophosphoric acid)
"ACTIVE ISOPRENE"
Figure 12.14
Phosphorylation of MVA, followed by decarboxylation
acidic
anhydrid Great energy!
head CH3 foot O bond O
H2C C CH2 CH2 O P O P OH
ester- OH OH
bond
Figure 12.15
isopentenyl-pyrophosphate (IPP)
IPP can then be isomerized to dimethyl-allyl-pyrophosphate (DMAPP) by the enzyme

isopentenyl pyrophosphate isomerase. IPP and DMAPP will form geranyl-
pyrophosphyate (a C10 molecule). With an additional IPP molecule, pharnesyl-
pyrophosphate (C15) can be formed (Figure 12.16).
224
IPP = ester of isopenthenol formed with pyrophosphoric acid

(H4P2O7)
H+
O P P isomerase O P P
IPP dimethyl-allyl-pyrophosphate = DMAPP

--OPP
O P P geranyl-pyrophosphate (C10)
C5 (IPP)
pharnesyl-pyrophosphate (C15)
C15 (FPP)
squalene (C30)
C30H48 = (C5H8)6
Figure 12.16
Formation of dimethyl-allyl-pyrophosphate and geranyl-pyrophosphate
Classification of terpenes
Terpenes can be classified based on the number of their isoprene units (Table 12.1).
Table. 12.1. Classification of terpenes
Number of isoprene Formula of fundamental

Name
units hydrocarbons
Monoterpenes 2 2 x C5H8
Sesquiterpenes 3 3 x C5H8
Diterpenes 4 4 x C5H8
Triterpenes 6 6 x C5H8
Tetraterpenes, 8 8 x C5H8
Carotenoids* 8 *C40H56
Polyterpenes n n x C5H8
* Containing more double bonds than the corresponding tetraterpenes
225
Pharmacognosy 1
(1) Monoterpenes
Classification of monoterpenes based on their structural properties

Monoterpenes can be open-chain or cyclic; they are mostly components of volatile oils.
(a) Open-chain monoterpenes
Myrcene (Figure 12.17) and ocymene (Figure 12.18) occur in the volatile oil of
laurel/bay tree (Laurus nobilis).
CH2
h
H2C CH
f
HC CH2
f CH
H3C h CH3
Figure 12.17
Myrcene
CH3
h
HC CH
f
HC CH2
f CH
H3C h CH3
Figure 12.18
Ocymene
Geraniol (Figure 12.19) can be detected e.g. in rose (Rosa sp.) oil and geranium oil
(Geranium and Pelargonium sp., e.g. P. odoratissimum).
CH2OH
Figure 12.19
Geraniol
226
(b) Monocyclic monoterpenes

Cymene (Figure 12.20) can be detected in the essential oil of eucalyptus (Eucalpytus)
and cypress (Cupressus) species. P-cymene was first isolated from cumin (Cuminum
cyminum), hence the name cymene. P-menthane (Figure 12.20) can also occur in
eucalyptus oil.
7
CH3 CH3
1
6 2
+ 6 H / cat. (Pt)
5 3
4
8
C C
H3C H CH3 H3C H CH3
10 9
cymene
(1-methyl-4-isopropyl-benzene) p-menthane
(1-methyl-4-isopropyl-cyclohexane)
Figure 12.20
p-cymene and p-menthane
7 7 7
1 1 1
6 2 6 2 6 2
5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3
8 8 8
10 9 10 9 10 9
1- 3- 1(7)-
p-menthenes
Figure 12.21
P-menthenes
Limonene (Figure 12.22) occurs in the volatile oil of lemon (Citrus limon) peel.
1
6 2
5 4 3
10 9
Figure 12.22
- 1,8 para-menthadiene = limonene = dipentene
227
Pharmacognosy 1
-terpinene (Figure 12.23) is one of the components of tea tree (Melaleuca) oil,
responsible for its antioxidant activity.
1
6 2
5 4 3
10 9
Figure 12.23
-terpinene
Thymol (Figure 12.24) is a characteristic compound in thyme (Thymus) essential oil,

with antiseptic and antifungal activity. Menthol (Figure 12.24) can be detected in mint
(Mentha) oil, with antimicrobial and refreshing features.
7
CH3 CH3 CH3
1
6 2
+ 6 H / cat. (Pt) oxydation
5 3
4
OH OH O
8
C C C
H3C H CH3 H3C H CH3 H3C H CH3
10 9
thymol menthol menthone
(3-hydroxy-p-menthane)
Figure 12.24
Thymol, menthol (3-hydroxy-p-menthane) and menthone
228
(c) Bicyclic monoterpenes

Examples include pinenes, carene, camphene, sabinene.
7 7 7 7
CH3
1 1 1 1
6 2 rearrang. 6 2 rearrang. 6 2 rearrang. 6 2
10 10
5 3 3 8 9 3 8 9 3
4 5 5 5
4
4 4
8 8
C 9
H3C H CH3
10 9 10
p-menthane carane pinane camphane
(1-methyl-4-isopropyl-cyclohexane)
Figure 12.25
Basic skeletons of bicyclic monoterpenes
D-camphor (Figure 12.26-27) is a characteristic compound of the camphor tree

(Cinnamomum camphora), with refreshing, antiseptic and analgesic properties.
7 7 7
1 1 red. (+ 2H) 1
6 9
O O 2
6 2 OH
10 6 9
2
8 10 8 9 8 10
H
5 3 3 5 5 3
ox. (- 2H)
4 4 4
L-camphor D-camphor isoborneol
Figure 12.26
D-camphor and isoborneol
229
Pharmacognosy 1
9 10 10 9
H3C 8 CH3
H3C 8 CH3
7
CH3 H3C 7
6 2 2 6
1 O O 1
5 4 4 5
3 3
L-camphor D-camphor
9 10 10 9
H3C 8 CH3 H3C 8 CH3
7 7
4 1 1 4
5 6
CH3 H3C * 6 5
* * *
3 2 2 3
O O
L-camphor D-camphor
Figure 12.27
Possible conformations of camphor
although camphor contains two differently saturated chiral centers, it has only a
single pair of diastereoisomers
reason: the dimethyl-methylene bridge can be attached only in cis-position to the
cyclohexane skeleton, which will be forced into the bathtub conformation
Pinenes (Figure 12.28) are characteristic compounds in the essential oils of pines (Pinus
sp.), e.g. the Scots pine (P. sylvestris).
7 7 7
1 1 1
6 2 6 2 6 2
10 10 10
5 8 9 3 5 8 9 3 5 8 9 3
4 4 4
-pinene -pinene -pinene
Figure 12.28
Pinenes
Carene (Figure 12.29) occurs in the volatile oil of Pinus longifolia, a pine species native
to India.
230
7
1
6 2
5 3
4
8
9
10
Figure 12.29
Carene
Camphene (Figure 12.30) can be found in the volatile oil of Siberian fir (Abies sibirica).
1
7 6
2
8
9 3
5
4
10
Figure 12.30
Camphene
Sabinene (Figure 12.31) is characteristic in the volatile oil of savin juniper (Juniperus
sabina).
1
6 2
4
5 3
8
9 10
Figure 12.31
Sabinene
Classification of monoterpenes according to their functional groups

alcohols (geraniol, linalool, citronellol)
aldehydes (geranial, neral, citronellal)
ketones (tagetone, menthone, carvone, pulegone)
esters (linalyl-acetate, citronellyl-acetate)
ethers (cineol)
peroxydes (ascaridol)
phenols (thymol, carvacrol)
Monoterpene-alcohols
Geraniol (Figure 12.19) belongs to the group of monoterpene-alcohols.
231
Pharmacognosy 1
Linalool (Figure 12.32) can be detected in the essential oil of lavender (Lavandula).
OH
Figure 12.32
Linalool
Citronellol (Figure 12.33) is naturally occurring in the oil of rose, geranium and
lemongrass (Cymbopogon / Andropogon) species.
CH2OH
Figure 12.33
citronellol
Monoterpene-aldehydes
The monoterpene-aldehydes shown in Figure 12.34-36 occur in the volatile oil of lemon
grass (Andropogon nardus), native to Indonesia.
Figure 12.34
Geranial (citral A)
cis (Z) isomer
232
O
H
Figure 12.35
Neral (citral B)
trans (E) isomer
O
H
Figure 12.36
Citronellal
Monoterpene-ketones
menthone (Figure 12.24) occurs together with menthol in peppermint (Mentha
piperita)
carvone (Figure 12.37) can be found in the essential oil of caraway (Carum carvi)
and dill (Anethum graveolens)
pulegone (Figure 12.38) can be detected in the volatile oil of pennyroyal (Mentha
pulegium)
1
6
O
2
5 4 3
9 10
Figure 12.37
Carvone
233
Pharmacognosy 1
7
1
6 2
3
5 4
O
8
9 10
Figure 12.38
Pulegone
Monoterpene-ethers
Cineol (Figure 12.39), also called eucalyptol, was isolated for the first time from the oil
of the seeds of santonica (Artemisia cina), but it occurs in substantial amounts in the
volatile oil of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus). It can be detected in rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis) oil, as well.
1
6 2
O
5 4 3
9 10
Figure 12.39
Cineol
Monoterpene-peroxydes
Ascaridol (Figure 12.40) is a characteristic compound in the goose-foot
(Chenopodiaceae) family, e.g. in white goose-foot (Chenopodium album).
1
6 2
O O
5 3
4
9 10
Figure 12.40
Ascaridol
234
Phenolic monoterpenes
Thymol (Figure 12.24) occurs in thyme (Thymus) oil, while carvacrol (Figure 12.41) is
typical in caraway (Carum carvi) oil.
CH3
OH
C
H3C H CH3
Figure 12.41
Carvacrol
Iridoids
biosynthetically they are monoterpenes
characteristic skeleton: cyclopenta-pyranoid skeleton (Figure 12.42)
cyclopentane
ring
O
dihydro--pirane
ring
Figure 12.42
The cyclopenta-pyranoid skeleton of iridoids
they occur in plants as glycosides

biosynthesis: in the 1st step 10-hydroxy-geraniol is formed from 2 mols of
dimethyl-allyl-pyrophosphate (DMAPP), and from this compound 7-de(s)oxy-
loganinic acid and other iridoids will be formed :
OH COOH
2
O P P
OH O O
DMAPP glucose
10-hydroxy-geraniol
7-de(s)oxy-loganic acid
Figure 12.43
Biosynthesis of iridoids
235
Pharmacognosy 1
the alkaloid-derivatives of iridoids are well-known

ecological role: they are toxic for certain animals, e.g. aucubin for insects and birds
Medicinal plants containing iridoids include valerian (Valeriana officinalis,
Figure 12.44), figworts (Scrophularia sp.), gentians (Gentiana sp., Figure 12.45),
centauries (Centaurium sp., Figure 12.46), bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata,
Figure 12.47), common vervain (Verbena officinalis), as well as Galium and
Asperula species (Figure 12.48).
Figure 12.44
Valeriana officinalis (valerian)
236
Figure 12.45
Gentiana lutea (yellow gentian)
Figure 12.46
Centaurium minus (annual centaury)
237
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 12.47
Figure 12.48
Galium odoratum (woodruff)
238
Pyretroids
not regular monoterpenes; esters of cyclopropane carboxylic acids
they are toxic for insects, but not for mammals
occurrence: e.g. insect-powder-flower (Chyrsanthemum cinerariifolium)
(2) Sesquiterpenes
formula of the fundamental hydrocarbon: C15H24
they may be hydrocarbons (e.g. -bisabolene, -caryophyllene) and derivatives
containing oxygen (e.g. pharnesol)
they occur in nature mainly as lactones (intramolecular cyclic internal esters)
sesquiterpene-lactones
about 3000 compounds with known structure; they are bitter
occur in mushrooms and mosses, but mainly in the species of Asteraceae, Apiaceae,
Lauraceae and Menispermaceae
sesquiterpene-lactones are enzyme-inhibitors: they hinder the activity of the
enzymes DNA-polymerase or thimidyl-synthase; they are irreversible alkylation
agents, antibacterial; some of them can cause allergy and dermatitis
active ingredients of antiparasitic, insecticidal and digestive medicinal plants
Sesquiterpene-lactones can be detected e.g. in St. Benedicts thistle (Cnicus
benedictus, Figure 12.49), ragweeds (Ambrosia sp.), horse-heal (Inula helenium,
Figure 12.50), mountain arnica (Arnica montana), tansy (Tanacetum vulgare,
Figure 12.51) and wormwoods (Artemisia sp., Figure 12.52).
Figure 12.49
Cnicus benedictus (St. Benedicts thistle)
239
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 12.50
Inula helenium (horse-heal)
Figure 12.51
Inflorescence of Tanacetum vulgare (tansy)
240
Figure 12.52
Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort, common wormwood)
Figure 12.53
Artemisia absinthium (absinthe wormwood)
Bisabolene (Figure 12.54) was first isolated from the resin of Asteraceae sp., myrrh
(Commiphora abyssinica) and frankincense (Burseraceae).
241
Pharmacognosy 1
h f
f h
f
Figure 12.54
bisabolene
Caryophyllene (Figure 12.55) was first isolated from clove (Syzygium aromaticum, syn.
Eugenia caryophyllata) by Wallach (1892).
Figure 12.55
Caryophyllene
Pharnesol (Figure 12.56) is a sesquiterpene-alcohol with open chain, which occurs in

the volatile oil of lime flower (Tiliae flos) and cyclamen (Cyclamen).
h f h f
CH2OH
f
Figure 12.56
Pharnesol
Guaiazulene (Figure 12.57) is a bicyclic sesquiterpene, which occurs in chamomile oil,

and has antiphlogistic effect.
242
f h
h f
f
Figure 12.57
S - guaiazulene
Volatile oils
main components of volatile oils are monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes;
they can be extracted by:
(1) water/steam distillation
(2) solvent extraction
(3) pressing
(4) fluid CO2 supercritical extraction
volatile oils containing pinenes and cineol (= monoterpenes): attract pollinating
insects pheromone-like attractants
there are volatile oils with repellent action, too (containing e.g. limonene, menthone,
myrcene and camphor)
(3) Diterpenes
Formula of the fundamental hydrocarbon: C20H32
these compounds are mainly cyclic
they are inhibitors or toxic
about 1500 compounds with known structure
diterpenes and diterpene-alkaloids toxic to humans occur in Thymelaeaceae (Daphne
sp.), Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbia sp.) and Ericaceae (Rhododendron sp.).
taxol and its semi-synthetic derivatives are active ingredients of anticancer drugs
taxol can be isolated from Taxaceae species, particularly from the bark of Taxus
brevifolia (North-America)
Vitamin A: see carotenoids, vitamins
Phytol: a component of chlorophyll, formed during the hydrolysis of chlorophyll;
built up from 4 isoprene units connected by head-foot coupling (Figure 12.58)
h f h f h f h f CH OH
2
Figure 12.58
Structure of phytol
243
Pharmacognosy 1
(4) Triterpenes
formula of the fundamental hydrocarbon: C30H48
plants: about 4000 triterpenes with known structure
cucurbitacines (Cucurbitaceae): tetracyclic triterpenes, laxatives
saponins: triterpene saponins (five-membered ring skeleton) or steroid saponins (six-
membered ring skeleton);
they occur in plants as glycosides
Squalene: intermedier of the biosynthesis of steroids (Figure 12.59)
h f h f h f
f h f h f h
Figure 12.59
Structure of squalene
Medicinal plants containing triterpene saponins include liquorice (Glycyrrhiza

glabra, Figure 12.60), horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum, Figure 12.61),
senega root (Polygala senega, Figure 12.62), ivy (Hedera helix), cowslip (Primula
sp., Figure 12.63), Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus), soap bark tree
(Quillaja saponaria, Figure 12.64), common soapwort (Saponaria officinalis,
Figure 12.65) and Hungarian soap root (Gypsophila paniculata, Figure 12.66).
Figure 12.60
Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice)
244
Figure 12.61
Aesculus hippocastanum (horse chestnut)
Figure 12.62
Polygalae radix (senega root)
245
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 12.63
Primula veris (primula = cowslip)
Figure 12.64
Bark of Quillaja saponaria = Quillajae cortex (soapbark)
246
Figure 12.65
Saponaria officinalis (common soapwort)
Figure 12.66
Gypsophila paniculata (Hungarian soap root, babys breath)
247
Chapter 13
Biosynthesis and role of amino acids and
proteins
13.1 Occurrence and significance of amino acids

Amino acids are present in plants in free and bound (fixed) form (e.g. peptides,
proteins)
13.2 Proteinogenic amino acids

Proteinogenic amino acids (shown in alphabetical order in Figure 13.1-21) are -
amino acids having L-configuration
COOH

H2N C H

CH3
Figure 13.1
Alanine (-amino-propionic acid, 2-amino-propanoic acid)
COOH

H2N C H
arginine
CH2 (-amino--guanidino-valerianic acid)

CH2
CH
2
NH guanidino- or guanidyl-group
(it may be derived from guanidine = imino-carbamide)
C NH
NH2
guanidine: H2N C NH2 H2N C NH2

NH HNH2 + O
carbamide
Figure 13.2
Arginine (-amino--guanidino-valerianic acid)
249
Pharmacognosy 1
COOH

H2N C H

CH2
COOH
Figure 13.3
Asparagic acid (aspartic acid, amino succinic acid)
COOH
H2N C H
CH2
C NH2
O
Figure 13.4
Asparagine (monoamid of asparagic acid)
COOH

H2N C H

CH2 S H
mercapto or
sulphydryl or thiol group
Figure 13.5
Cysteine (-amino--mercapto-propionic acid)
COOH
.. |
H2N C H
|
H
Figure 13.6
Glycine (amino acetic acid)
COOH

H2N C H

CH2
CH
2
COOH
Figure 13.7
Glutamic acid (-amino-glutaric acid)
250
Biosynthesis and role of amino acids and proteins
COOH
H2N C H
CH2
CH2
C NH2
O
Figure 13.8
Glutamine (monoamid of glutamic acid)

CH2 CH COOH
4
3 N NH2
2 5
N1
H
Figure 13.9
Hystidine (-amino--(4)-imidasolyl-propionic acid)
COOH

H2N C H

H C CH3

CH2

CH3
Figure 13.10
Isoleucine (-amino--methyl-valerianic acid)
COOH

H2N C H

CH2

CH
H3C CH3
Figure 13.11
Leucine (-amino--methyl-valerianic acid)
251
Pharmacognosy 1
COOH

H2N C H
(CH2)3
CH
2
NH2
Figure 13.12
Lysine (,-diamino-capronic acid)
COOH

H2N C H

CH2

CH2
S
CH3
Figure 13.13
Methionine (-amino--methyl-mercapto-butyric acid)
COOH

H2N C H

CH2
Figure 13.14
Phenylalanine (-amino--phenyl-propionic acid)
4 3
2
5 COOH
N1
H
Figure 13.15
Proline (pyrrolidine-2-carboxilic acid or 2-carboxy-pyrrolidine)
252
HO
3
4
2
5 COOH
N1
H
Figure 13.16
Hydroxyproline (4-hydroxy-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid)
COOH

H2N C H

CH2 OH
Figure 13.17
Serine (-amino--hydroxy-propionic acid)
COOH

H2N C H

H C OH
CH3
Figure 13.18
Threonine (-amino--hydroxy-butyric acid)

CH2 CH COOH
4
5 3 NH2
2
6 N 1
7
H
Figure 13.19
Tryptophan (-amino--(3)-indolyl-propionic acid)
253
Pharmacognosy 1
COOH

H2N C H

CH2
1
2
OH
Figure 13.20
Tyrosine (-amino--4-hydroxyphenyl-propionic acid = para-hydroxy-phenylalanine)
COOH

H2N C H

CH2
CH3
Figure 13.21
Valine (-amino-butyric acid)
Hydroxyproline (Figure 13.16) is exceptional in that it is synthesized by post-

translational modification, and this amino acid is present only in the proteins of
connective tissues in animals
glutamic acid (an important precursor) is formed from 2-oxo(keto)-glutaric acid
(Figure 13.22) and glutamine (Figure 13.8) during reductive transamination
1
COOH
2
C O
(CH2)2
5 COOH
Figure 13.22
2-oxo(keto)- or -oxo(keto)-glutaric acid
254
13.3 Reactions of amino-acids

Transamination
the fundamental reaction of transamination is shown in Figure 13.23.
tautomeric
COOH COOH COOH
- H2O transformation
R CH + O C R' R CH COOH
NH2 N C R'
-amino acid -oxo(keto)-acid condensation
intermedier
COOH + H2O COOH COOH

R C COOH R C + H2N CH R'
hydrolysis O
N CH R' -amino acid
tautomeric form of -oxo(keto)-acid
condensation intermedier
Figure 13.23
Transamination
the original (starting) -amino acid is transformed into the corresponding -

oxo(keto)-acid, the original (starting) -oxo(keto)-acid into the corresponding -
amino acid
the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme transaminase - both in plants and animals
the amino acid composition of proteins is characteristic to the species, and
depends on the genotype
the number of non-proteinogenic, free amino acids is more than 100
the skeleton of amino acids is provided by the intermediers of photosynthesis and of
respiration
Biosynthesis of amino-acids from -oxo-acids

in plants: amino acids are synthetized in the chloroplasts from -oxo(keto)-acids
(Figure 13.24)
COOH + H2NH COOH + 2 'H' (red.) COOH

C O C N H HC NH2
(NH3) reductive
R R R
- H2O transaminase
-oxo acid -imino acid -amino acid
Figure 13.24
Synthesis of -amino acids
255
Pharmacognosy 1
Formation of glutamine from glutamic acid

the reaction of glutamic acid with ammonia results in glutamine (Figure 13.25) in
the presence of the enzyme glutamine synthetase
Ammonia is formed by reduction of nitrate (NO3) and of nitrite (NO2) ions or by
means of the reduction of atmospherical N2.
COOH COOH
H2N C H H2N C H
glutamine-synthetase
CH2 CH2
CH2 + H NH2 - H2O CH2
C OH (NH3) C NH2
O O
glutamic acid glutamine
(-amino-glutaric acid) (monoamide of glutamic acid)
Figure 13.25
Synthesis of glutamine
Fabaceae sp. (e.g. bean, lentil, alfalfa, melilot): symbiosis with Rhisobium bacteria
form root nodules atmospheric N2 is fixed and reduced by nitrogen reductase
ammonia
similarly, reduction of sulphate (taken up from the soil) cystein
Decomposition and oxidation of amino acids in plants

by decarboxylation (Figure 13.26) and desamination; the latter process is preceded
by oxidation (Figure 13.27)

R CH COOH - CO2 R CH2 NH2
NH2
-amino acid primer amine
Figure 13.26
Decarboxylation of -amino acids
256

R CH COOH oxydation
R C COOH hydrolysis NH3 + R C COOH
NH2 NH2 O -oxo(keto) acid
'O' ; -H2O + H2O decarboxylation
-amino acid -imino acid - CO 2
R C H
O
aldehyde
Figure 13.27
Oxydative desamination of -amino acids
during the decomposition of xanthine (Figure 13.28), caffeine (Figure 13.29) and
other effective substances with purine skeleton, ureides (N-acyl derivatives of
carbamide, Figure 13.31), glycolic acid (Figure 13.30), glyoxylic acid (Figure 13.32)
and carbamide are formed
the most well-known ureide of plant origin is allantoin (Figure 13.33), which is the
effective substance of Symphyti radix (comfrey root)
OH H
6 7
1 5 N
N 8
2 4
HO N N 9
3
Figure 13.28
Xanthine (2,6-dihydroxy-purine)
O CH3
H3C 7 N
1 N
O N
3N
CH3
Figure 13.29
Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine)
HO CH2 COOH
Figure 13.30
Glycolic acid (hydroxy acetic acid)
257
Pharmacognosy 1
H2N C NH C R
O O
Figure 13.31
General formula of ureide
O
C H
COOH
Figure 13.32
Glyoxylic acid
H
O
N
H2N 4 3
O
5 2
O N 1N
H H
5-membered ring: 2,4-dioxo (diketo) derivative of

imidasolidine (saturated derivative of imidasole) hydantoine ring
Figure 13.33
Allantoin
13.4 Classification of amino acids with respect to the formation

of alkaloids
(1) Pyruvate origin: alanine, valine, leucine
(2) Formed during photorespiration and sulphate-reduction: glycine, serine,
cysteine
(3) Citrate-cycle origin: asparagic acid, threonine, isoleucine, methionine, lysine,
glutaminic acid, proline, ornithine, arginine
(4) Aromatic amino acids: formed during the carbohydrate metabolism:
phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, hystidine
(5) Special amino acids: do not take part in protein synthesis; several special amino
acids accumulate in the taxon to which they are characteristic;
-amino-butyric acid (GABA): formed in plants as a response to stress; protective
role together with -amino-butyric acid (BABA) against certain virulent pathogens
(Figure 13.34-35)
258

H2C H2C C O
- H2O
CH2 OH O
N
H N H
H
-amino-butyric acid (GABA) -butyro-lactam
(intramolecular, cyclic amide)
Figure 13.34
-amino-butyric acid (GABA)

H3C CH CH2 COOH - NH3 H3C CH CH COOH
NH2
-amino-butyric acid (BABA) -methyl-acrylic acid = crotonic acid

Figure 13.35
-amino-butyric acid (BABA)
-alanine: (-amino-propionic acid, component of coensyme-A) (Figure 13.36)

H2N CH2 CH2 COOH
Figure 13.36
-alanine
Occurrence: Canavalia ensiformis (sword-bean), Fabaceae; its enzymatic

degradation yields important proteinogenic amino acids; insecticide.
L-dihydroxy-phenylalanine = L-DOPA: toxic for most mammals; occurs in great
quantity in the seed coat and fruit wall of horse-bean (Vicia faba).
COOH

H2N C H
CH
2
HO
OH
Figure 13.37
L-DOPA
259
Pharmacognosy 1
alkylated derivatives of cysteine: in Allium species (Alliaceae)

from the allyl-derivative of cysteine, allicine is formed by enzymatic way;
occurrence: garlic (Allium sativum) and wild garlic (A. ursinum, Figure 13.38),
responsible for characteristic smell
Figure 13.38
Allium ursinum (wild garlic )
in the essential oil of garlic: diallyl-sulphide and diallyl-disulphide
CH2 CH CH2 S CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH2 S S CH2 CH CH2
propenyl-cysteine-derivatives: precursors of the compounds responsible for the

smell of onion (Allium cepa, Figure 13.39)
260
Figure 13.39
Allium cepa (onion)
13.5 Peptides, proteins

peptides built up from amino acids by means of enzymes,
proteins synthesis is regulated by DNA
molecular mass of peptides is not > 10 000; that of proteins may be > 100 000, even
> 1 000 000
certain peptides are toxic, e.g. phalloidine, a cyclic octapeptide, the effective
substance of death cap or deadly amanita (Amanita phalloides), which causes lethal
intoxication
Classification of proteins on the basis of their solubility

(1) albumines: soluble in distilled water; stored reserve nutrients
(2) globulines: insoluble in water, soluble only in salt solutions
(3) glutelines: soluble only in week acids and week bases
(4) histones: soluble in diluted acids; basic proteins, mainly in the nucleus
(5) prolamines: soluble in ~ 60-80 % ethanol, proteins containing mainly proline and
asparagic acid
Enzymes
According to function, the most important proteins are the enzymes, which catalyse the
chemical processes taking place in living organisms biocatalysts
Classification of enzymes on the basis of their functions:
(1) hydrolases: breaking of C O and C N bonds by means of hydrolysis
esterases: substrate-specific
lipases: cleave fats
glycosydases: cleave carbohydrates
proteases: cleave proteins
261
Pharmacognosy 1
(2) lyases: reversible addition of water (H OH) to double bonds

(3) ligases: can join and break C C bonds
(4) transferases: transfer atomic groups and radicals from one compound to the other;
e.g. transmethylation, transcarboxylation
(5) isomerases: transform phosphorylated aldoses or ketoses into each other
(6) oxydoreductases: catalyse redox processes, e.g. lactate-pyruvate reaction
Enzymes used in therapy:
(1) papaine: occurs in papaya (Carica papaya, Caricaceae), proteolytic enzyme,
cleaves proteins; built up from 185 amino acids; aids digestion of proteins; used for the
cleaning of wounds
(2) bromelaine: occurs in the ripe and unripe fruits of pineapple (Ananas comosus,
Bromeliaceae) and in the pressed juice of its floral axis; enzyme with proteolytic
activity; treatment of digestion disorders and against postoperative oedemas and
inflammations
(3) ficine: Ficus species (Moraceae); e.g. fig (Ficus carica); proteolytic enzyme
Biosynthesis of proteins
Biosynthesis of plant proteins in the cytoplasm; Characteristic steps of
biosynthesis:
(1) Activation of amino acids:
formation of enzyme AMP amino acid complex
(2) Activated amino acid:
binding of the above complex to t-RNA
(3) Initiation and elongation
(4) Termination: the biosynthesized polypeptide reaches the corresponding codon and
breaks away from the m-RNA
Storage proteins
reserve nutrients
Monocotyledonous plants: store mainly gluteline (~45 % glutaminic acid content)
and prolamine
glutenine: the gluteline of wheat and rye
gliadine: the prolamine of wheat and rye
glutenine + gliadine = glutene
glutene intolerance (allergy) sensitivity may develop also to proteins that are
characteristic for dicotyledonous plants
bean-seed: albumine, globuline, gluteline are present in high quantities
most legumes contain the globuline viciline
a number of enzymes, glycoproteins and lectins are globulines
legumeline: albumine present in the seeds of leguminous plants not toxic
262
Lectins (phytohemagglutinines)
form a precipitate with hemoglobine
specific sugar-binding capacity: proteins which recognize the sugar components
characteristic to the cell membrane and bind to them
they play a role e.g. in the symbiosis between legumes and Rhizobium bacteria
(formation of root nodules)
they are stored in seeds and metabolised during germination
several lectins have mitosis-stimulating action, mitogen
because of their selective recognizing-ability several lectins are used in immune
biology and immune therapy ; e.g. lectin of wheat-germ, soy, castor plant, mistletoe,
bean
lectins are particularly characteristic to the plant family Fabaceae
lectin of Phytolacca americana (American pokeweed) has antiviral action
Toxic proteins
Ricine: toxic protein (toxalbumine) occurring in the seeds (Ricini semen) of the castor
oil plant (Ricinus communis); insoluble in fats, therefore it cannot occur in purified
castor-oil; ricine present in only 3-4 seeds cancause death
ricine and other toxic lectins bound to monoclonal antibodies are used in directed
cancer therapy
Proteins having antidigestive, antinutritive and trypsin-inhibitory

properties
their molar mass < the molar mass of lectins
occur mainly in legumes
the trypsin-inhibitor of soy causes pancreas-hypertrophy
lectins and trypsin-inhibitors are thermosensitive; they decompose during thermal
action and cooking
263
Chapter 14
General features of alkaloids
14.1 Definition of alkaloids

According to the old definition, alkaloids are end products of plant metabolism, organic
heterocyclic bases containing a N-atom, and characterised by marked physiological
action.
According to the new definition, alkaloids are cyclic organic compounds, which contain
the N-atom in the state of negative oxydation grade; occurring in various living
organisms in limited quantities.
14.2 Distribution of alkaloids in plants

Alkaloids can be found predominantly in plants, but they occur also in animals
(salamanders, frogs, insects, sea animals etc.), as well as in fungi and bacteria.
Alkaloids are more typical in dicotyledonous plants, where a huge variety of alkaloids
can be detected in substantial amounts; whereas only a few monocotyledonous families
are characterised by the presence of alkaloids. Alkaloids frequently occur in the dicot
plant families Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Fumariaceae, Lauraceae, Loganiaceae,
Magnoliaceae, Menispermaceae, Papaveraceae, Ranunculaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae
and Solanaceae; as well as in the monocot families Amaryllidaceae and Liliaceae.
Several alkaloid-containing plants keep off certain herbivorous animals, which in turn
accumulate these alkaloids in their bodies, frightening away predators. Alkaloids exert a
strong physiological effect, being mostly toxic to animals and humans, already in low
concentrations. Alkaloid-containing drugs typically have narrow therapeutic range,
which means that there is little difference between therapeutic and toxic doses.
The highest quantities of alkaloids are present in the organs of fully developed plants
(root, leaf, flower, seed) or in their tissues (e.g. bark). In plants alkaloids occur in the
form of their water soluble salts, or bind to phenolic acids in the vacuole of the cells.
Alkaloids form salts mainly with organic acids, such as citric acid, malic acid, tartaric
acid and benzoic acid.
14.3 Alkaloid biosynthesis

Alkaloids are typically synthetized from amino acids. The most important starting
materials of biosynthesis include ornithine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan
and hystidine. The biosynthesis of alkaloids is a genotypic property; precursors and end
products can already be detected in cell- and tissue cultures.
The most characteristic N-containing heterocycles of alkaloids include pyrrol,
pyrrolidine, pyridine, piperidine, indole, quinolone and isoquinoline.
Alkaloids can be classified according to their origin (derived from amino acids or other
substances); whether they possess a heterocyclic ring with nitrogen, or contain the N-
atom outside the ring; and according to the type of the N-containing heterocycle.
265
Pharmacognosy 1
14.4 Classification of alkaloids

(1) Protoalkaloids (Nonheterocyclic alkaloids)
Protoalkaloids (e.g. mescaline and ephedrine) do not have a heterocyclic ring with
nitrogen, they contain the N-atom in the form of amino group. This group also includes
pigments containing quaternary N-atom; e.g.: chromoalkaloids, betalains and their
glycosides, betanines are present in Chenopodiaceae (goose-foot sp.). These compounds
are pigments with antioxidant activity, not being toxic.
Phenyl-ethylamin alkaloids
Ephedrine (Figure 14.1) can be found in Ephedra vulgaris (ephedra). Its biological
activities include increasing blood-pressure, stimulating the nervous system and dilating
the bronchi.
H H
1 2 3
C C CH3
OH NH CH3
Figure 14.1
Ephedrine 1-Phenyl-2-methylamino-propanol-(1)
The antibiotic Chloromycetin or chloramphenicol (Figure 14.2) produced by

Streptomyces venezuelae has a similar structure to ephedrine, but it is not an alkaloid.
H H
1
O2N C 2 C 3CH2OH
OH NH C CHCl2
O
dichloracetyl-group
Figure 14.2
Chloramphenicol
Mescaline (Figure 14.3) is a derivative of pyrogallol-trimethyl-ether or of ethylamine. It

is not heterocyclic, therefore it can be classified into the group of protoalkaloids.
Mescaline can be found in peyote (peyotl) or mescaline-cactus (Lophophora williamsii)
and is responsible for causing hallucinations.
266
H3C O CH2 CH2 NH2
O
H3C
O
CH3
Figure 14.3
Mescaline
Colchicine (Figure 14.4), naturally found in autumn crocus or meadow saffron

(Colchicum autumnale), has a tropolone nucleus with nitrogen in side-chain, containing
an amid-group.
Figure 14.4
Colchicine
(2) True alkaloids
Alkaloids containing pyridine or piperidine ring

Nicotine (Figure 14.5) is one of the best-known examples of alkaloids with a pyridine
ring. Nicotine is found in high amounts in various tobacco (Nicotiana) plants, e.g.
Nicotiana tabacum.

2 N1
CH3
N
Figure 14.5
Nicotine (1-methyl-2()-pyridil-pyrrolidine)
Coniine (Figure 14.6), one of the few liquid alkaloids, is the main active compound of
poison hemlock (Conium maculatum). Coniine is highly toxic, and extracts of poison
267
Pharmacognosy 1
hemlock were once used as a means of execution (e.g. Socrates was sentenced to death
by drinking a hemlock-based liquid).
4
5 3
6 2
N1 CH2 CH2 CH3
H
propyl-group
Figure 14.6
Coniine (2-Propyl-pyperidine)
Similar types of alkaloids include lobeline, which can be detected in various Lobelia sp.
(lobelias, e.g. Lobelia inflata); and piperine, a pseudoalkaloid in Piper sp. (pepper, e.g.
Piper nigrum - black pepper).
Tropane alkaloids
Tropane alkaloids are alkaloids with pyrrolidine- and piperidine condensated ring
systems.
Tropane alkaloids are a class of compounds that are derived from the amino acid
ornithine, and contain a tropane ring in their chemical structure. Their basic structures
include 8-azabicyclo-[3,2,1]-octane (Figure 14.7), nortropane (Figure 14.8) and tropane
(Figure 14.9). Tropane alkaloids occur in several members of the nightshade
(Solanaceae) family.
7 1 2
CH2 CH CH2
8 NH 3 CH
2
6 CH 5 CH 4 CH
2 2
Figure 14.7
8-azabicyclo-[3,2,1]-octane
H 8
N
1 2
7
5 4
6 3
Figure 14.8
Nortropane
268
H3C 8
N
1 2
7
5 4
6 3
Figure 14.9
Tropane (N-methyl-8-azabicyclo-[3,2,1]-octane)
H 8
N
1 2
7
5 4 H
6 3
OH
Figure 14.10
Tropine (3--hydroxy-tropane)
Atropine (Figure 14.11) is the ester of tropine (Figure 14.10) formed with racemic
tropic-acid (-phenyl--hydroxy-propionic acid). Atropine is the characteristic alkaloid
of deadly nightshade or belladonna (Atropa belladonna).
H 8
N
1 2
7
5 4 H
6 3

O C C CH2OH
O H
Tropic-acid (-Phenyl--
hydroxy-propionic acid)
Figure 14.11
Atropine
Hyosciamine is the ester of tropine with levorotatory ()-tropic-acid (-phenyl--

hydroxy-propionic acid).
Scopolamine (Figure 14.12) is the 6,7-epoxyde of atropine, exerting a particularly
strong effect on the central nervous system; due to its narcotic action it causes a feeling
of exhaustion. However, if overdosed, it will induce strong excitement. Scopolamine
can be found in various representatives of the Solanaceae family, including henbane
(Hyosciamus niger) (Figure 14.13) and Datura species (Figure 14.14-16).
269
Pharmacognosy 1
H3C 8
N
1 2
7
5 4 H
6 3

O C C CH2OH
O H
Figure 14.12
Scopolamine
Figure 14.13
Hyosciamus niger (henbane)
270
Figure 14.14
Datura metel (angels [devils] trumpet) flower
Figure 14.15
Datura metel (angels [devils] trumpet) fruit
271
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 14.16
Datura stramonium (thorn apple) flower
Ecgonine (Figure 14.17) is a tropane alkaloid found naturally in coca leaves. It is the 2-
carboxy-derivative of pseudotropine (3--hydroxy-tropane). The ester of ecgonine with
benzoic acid and methanol is called cocaine, which is the main active compound of the
coca shrub (Erythroxylon coca). Cocaine has local anaesthetic effect, which can be
attributed to the benzoylester group (Figure 14.18).
272
O
H3C 8
N C OH + HO CH3
1 2 2 H2O
7
5 4 OH + HO C
6 3
O
H
Benzoic acid
-hydroxy
group
Figure 14.17
Ecgonine
O
H3C 8
N C O CH3
1 2
7
5 4 O C
6 3
O
H
group responsible for the
localanaesthetic effect
Figure 14.18
Cocaine
The well-known local anaesthetic drug, Novocain, is the ester of PABA (p-amino-
bensoic-acid) with diethylamino-ethanol (Figure 14.19).
O CH2 CH3
H2N C O CH2 CH2 N
CH2 CH3
Figure 14.19
Novocain
Quinoline alkaloids
Quinine (Figure 14.20) is isolated from Cinchona bark, collected from various
Cinchona species (C. succirubra, C. pubescens). Quinine is valued for its antimalarial
and antipyretic property.
273
Pharmacognosy 1
CH CH2
* *
quinuclidine
HO * *
CH N skeleton
5 4
H3CO
6 3 quinoline
7
N
2 skeleton
8 1
Figure 14.20
Quinine
Opium alkaloids: alkaloids of poppy (Papaver somniferum)

The six opium alkaloids which occur naturally in the largest amounts are morphine,
narcotine, codeine, thebaine, papaverine and narceine. Of these, three are phenanthrene
alkaloids (morphine, codeine and thebaine), all three used in the drug industry; thebaine
usually for conversion into some derivative which is more useful medically.
The first major alkaloid formed in the plant is thebaine, this is irreversibly converted to
codeine and then to morphine. Morphine (Figure 14.21), the main alkaloid of opium, is
the derivative of N-methyl-morphinane. Structurally, the molecule of morphine contains
three units: 1. partially hydrogenated phenanthrene skeleton, 2. piperidine ring, 3.
dihydrofuran ring.
HO
O
N CH3
HO
Figure 14.21
Morphine
Opium and morphine are widely used to relive pain and are particularly valuable as
hypnotics.
Codeine, the monomethyl-ether of morphine, is a milder sedative than morphine and is
useful as a cough suppressant. Thebaine, the 3,6-dimethoxy-derivative of 6,7,8,14-
tetradehydro-N-methyl-morphinan, is the most poisonous opium alkaloid and is
scarcely used medically.
The illegal drug heroine is chemically diacetyl-morphine.
Papaverine (Figure 14.22) is approved to treat spasms of the gastrointestinal tract, bile
ducts and ureter and for use as a cerebral and coronary vasodilator.
274
5 4
H3C O
6 3 isoquinoline
N 2 skeleton
H3C O 7
8 1
CH2
1
6 2
veratrol structural element
5 3
O CH3 (catechol-dimethylether); it is also
4
present in isoquinoline skeleton
O CH3
Figure 14.22
Papaverine (6,7,3,4-Tetramethoxy-1-benzyl-isoquinoline)
Ergot-alkaloids
Ergot alkaloids are produced by ergot, the sclerotium of a fungus, Claviceps purpurea.
The pharmacologically active alkaloids of ergot are the derivatives of lysergic acid.
Whole ergot preparations were traditionally used in labour to assist delivery and to
reduce post-partum haemorrhage, today ergot has been replaced by the isolated
alkaloids. Ergometrine produces an oxytocic effect, while ergotamine is employed as
specific analgesic for the treatment of migraine. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD,
Figure 14.23), prepared by partial synthesis from lysergic acid, is a potent
psychotomimetic, used illegally as a recreational drug.
H5C2 C2H5
N
C CH3
O N partially hydrogenated
*
quinoline skeleton
*
N indole structure
H
Figure 14.23
LSD = Liserg-Sure-Diethyl-amide (German)
Purine-alkaloids
Purine alkaloids are N-methylated derivatives of xanthine (2,6-dihydroxy-purine)
(Figure 14.24).
275
Pharmacognosy 1
O - OH H
H
6 6
H 5 N 5 N 7
N1 7 1N
8 2 4 8
2 4
N HO N N
O N 3 9 3 9
-
H
lactame form lactime form
Figure 14.24
Xanthine (2,6 dihydroxy purine)
Xanthine itself does not occur in nature, but the N-methyl-derivatives of the lactame
form are naturally occurring compounds. Three well-known examples are caffeine
(1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine), theophylline (1,3-dimethylxanthine) and theobromine (3,7-
dimethylxanthine). Beverages such as tea and coffee owe their stimulant properties to
these substances.
Caffeine (Figure 14.25) stimulates the central nervous system and has a weak diuretic
action, whereas theobromine acts in the reverse way. Theophylline exerts a shorter, but
more powerful diuretic action than caffeine; it relaxes involuntary muscles more
effectively than either caffeine or theobromine.
Caffeine occurs naturally in the seeds of various coffee shrubs (Coffea arabica, C.
liberica, C. canephora), in cola tree (Cola nut) (Cola acuminata, C. nitida, C.
verticillata), and in the leaves of tea shrubs (Camellia or Thea sinensis).
O CH3
H3C 6
5 N 7
N1
2 4 8
O N N
3 9
CH3
Figure 14.25
Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine)
Theophylline (Figure 14.26) is the main alkaloid in the leaves of tea (Camellia
sinensis).
276
O H
6
CH3 5 N
N1 7
2 4 8
O N N
3 9
CH3
Figure 14.26
Theophylline (1,3-dimethyl-xanthine)
Theobromine (Figure 14.27) is synthesized abundantly in the seeds (beans) of cacao tree
(Theobroma cacao).
O CH3
H 6
5 N
N1 7
2 4 8
O N N
3 9
CH3
Figure 14.27
Theobromine (3,7-dimethyl-xanthine)
(3) Pseuodalkaloids
Pseudoalkaloids are compounds, whose biosynthesis starts not from amino acids, but
other substances. This group includes terpenoid alkaloids such as aconitine, a
diterpenoid alkaloid in Aconitum species; steroid-alkaloids of Solanum species; and
coniine, having a piperidine skeleton in poison hemlock (Conium maculatum).
Steroid-alkaloids
Steroid alkaloids arise by the inclusion of basic nitrogen at some point in the steroid
molecule. These compounds can be employed in the partial synthesis of steroidal drugs
(including several hormones). Species so exploited are Solanum laciniatum and S.
aviculare. Solanidine (Figure 14.28), the glycoside of which is solanine, occurs also in
the leaves and seeds of potato (Solanum tuberosum).
277
Pharmacognosy 1
H3C
12 17
11 E F
13 N
1 C D 16 CH3
2 9 14
10 8 15
3 A B
7
HO 5
4 6
Figure 14.28
Solanidine
Tomatidine (Figure 14.29), the glycoside of which is tomatine, occurs naturally in the
leaves of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum).
H CH3
H3C
N
F
12 17
11 E
13 O
1 C D 16
2 9 14
10 8 15
3 A B
7
HO 4
5
6
Figure 14.29
Tomatidine
278
Chapter 15
General features of phenoloids
Phenoloids constitute one of the largest groups of plant secondary metabolites. They are
widespread in nature, ranging from simple structures with one aromatic ring to highly
complex polymeric substances such as tannins and lignins.
15.1 Biosynthesis of phenolic compounds

Their biogenesis starts mainly from aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine).
During the biosynthesis phenylpropionic acid (Figure 15.1) derivatives, then cinnamic
acid (Figure 15.2-3) derivatives (cinnamoids) are formed; e.g. cinnamic acid, p-
coumaric acid (Figure 15.4), caffeic acid (Figure 15.5), ferulic acid and chlorogenic acid
(Figure 15.6). Cinnamates are the salts of cinnamic acid, occurring in essential oils and
resins.

CH2 CH2 COOH
Figure 15.1
-phenylpropionic acid
H COOH
C C
H
Figure 15.2
Cinnamic acid (trans, E) (-phenyl-acrylic acid)
H H
C C
COOH
Figure 15.3
allo-cinnamic acid (cis, Z)
HO CH CH COOH
Figure 15.4
para-coumaric acid
279
Pharmacognosy 1
HO
3 2
4 1
HO CH CH COOH
5 6
Figure 15.5
Caffeic acid. Its monomethylether is ferulic acid (3-methoxy-derivative).
HO
O
HO CH CH C
O COOH
quinic acid
HO OH
HO
Figure 15.6
Chlorogenic acid
The unsaturation of the alkyl chain and the great number of the phenolic OH groups
results in a huge variety of forms that occur in various plants. Phenoloids can be
polymerized; they can form ethers and glycosides. The polymeric substances called
tannins can be used as protein-precipitating agents. Phenolic compounds are effective
substances of a great number of medicinal plants, and their role is important also in
allelopathic reactions.
15.2 Phenols, phenolic acids, phenylpropanoid-derivatives

the glycosides of hydroquinone (Figure 15.7) (e.g. arbutin) and its methylethers are
characteristic in several species of the plant families Ericaceae and Rosaceae
OH O
2 H+
-
+ + 2e
OH O
hydroquinone p-benzoquinone
(p-quinone, quinone)
Figure 15.7
Hydroquinone and p-benzoquinone
280
Phenol-carboxylic acids, derived from benzoic acid (Figure 15.8), are very important
in plants
COOH
OH
OH
Figure 15.8
3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid
Vanillic acid (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid) (Figure 15.9) is a dihydroxybenzoic

acid derivative, used as a flavoring agent. The highest amount of vanillin has been
reported from the roots of Angelica sinensis, a herb used in Chinese traditional
medicine.
COOH
O
CH3
OH
Figure 15.9
Vanillic acid
Gallic acid (Figure 15.10) is a trihydroxybenzoic acid, found in various plant species
such as oaks (Quercus sp.) witch hazel (Hamamelis sp.), and tea (Camellia sinensis).
Gallic acid is commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry, and can also be used as a
starting material in the synthesis of the psychedelic alkaloid mescaline.
COOH
HO OH
OH
Figure 15.10
Gallic acid
Salicylic alcohol, and its glycoside formed with D-glucose, salicin (Figure 15.11), occur
in high amounts in the bark of various willow (Salix) species (Figure 15.12), in the
281
Pharmacognosy 1
catkin of poplar (Populus) species (Figure 15.13) and in meadowsweet (Filipendula)

species (Figure 15.14).
O C6H11O5 OH
+ H2O
CH2OH H+ CH2OH
salicin salicylic-alcohol
Figure 15.11
Formation of salicylic-alcohol from salicin
Figure 15.12
Salix sp.(willow)
282
Figure 15.13
Populus sp. (poplar)
Figure 15.14
Filipendula sp. (meadowsweet)
The discovery of salicin, salicyl-alcohol and salicylic acid (Figure 15.15) resulted in the
production of Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) (Figure 15.16).
283
Pharmacognosy 1
COOH
OH
Figure 15.15
Salicylic acid (ortho-hydroxy-benzoic acid)
COOH
O C CH3
O
Figure 15.16
Aspirin (acetyl-salicylic acid)
Anisealcohol (4-methoxy-benzyalcohol or para-methoxy-benzylalcohol) and

anisealdehyde [4(p)-methoxy-benzaldehyde] (Figure 15.17) are components of the
volatile oil of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia).
OCH3
OCH3
oxidation
reduction
CHO
CH2OH
anisealcohol anisealdehyde
Figure 15.17
Anisealcohol and anisealdehyde as members of redox-system
15.3 Unsaturated phenolalcohols

Unsaturated phenolalcohols are the derivatives of a trans(E)-cinnamyl alcohol
(Figure 15.18).The most important representatives include p-coumaryl-alcohol
(Figure 15.19), coniferyl-alcohol (Figure 15.20) and sinapyl-alcohol (siringenine)
(Figure 15.21), which are the direct precursors of lignins.
284
3
4 2 H
5 1 C
6 C CH2OH
H
Figure 15.18
trans (E)-cynnamyl alcohol
3
HO 4 2 H
5 1 C
6 C CH2OH
H
Figure 15.19
p-coumaryl-alcohol
OCH3
HO 4 3
2 H
5 1 C
C CH2OH
6
H
Figure 15.20
Coniferyl-alcohol
OCH3
HO 4 3
2 H
1 C
H3CO 5 C CH2OH
6
H
Figure 15.21
Sinapyl-alcohol
The above mentioned unsaturated phenolalcohols are stored in the form of their 4-O--
D-glycosides in perennial plants, which are able to form woody (lignified) structures.
As a result of an enzymatic hydrolysis their phenolic OH group becomes free, and then
the enzyme phenol-oxydase starts the biosynthesis of different lignins. Lignins are
complex chemical compounds, the organic biopolymers of phenolic compounds such as
p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol.
285
Pharmacognosy 1
15.4 Lignans
complex compounds formed during the condensation of phenylpropanoid units
important biologically active substances include podophyllotoxine and -peltatine,
e.g. in american mandrake (mayapple) (Podophyllum peltatum) (Berberidaceae
Berberis sp.)
Flavanolignans
hinder lipid-peroxidation
membrane stabilizers
components of important liver-protective medicaments
e.g. in milk thistle (Silybum marianum) (Figure 15.22) (Asteraceae)
The effective substances of milk thistle include silybin(in), silymarin, silychristin, and
silydianin. These flavanolignanes can be used in case of intoxication by deadly amanita
(death cap, Amanita phalloides).
Figure 15.22
286
15.5 Coumarins
their fundamental compound is coumarin (Figure 15.23), which is the lactone of 2-
hydroxy-allo-cinnamic acid (ortho-hydroxy-allo-cinnamic acid)
coumarin (-benz(o)-pyron) : colourless, crystalline compound with an odour
reminiscent of hay
H
C H
C
C
O O
5 4
6 3
7
O 2 O
8 1
Figure 15.23
Coumarin
they are wide-spread in plants, e.g.: woodruff (Asperula odorata) and Tonka bean
(Dipteryx odorata)
in most of plants coumarins are present not in their free form, but as glycosides of
coumarinic acid (Figure 15.24):
H
H
C C
C O
OH OH
Figure 15.24
Coumarinic acid
coumarin is formed from the glycosides of coumarinic acid during enzymatic

degradation which starts by the etiolation of plant smell of hay
coumarin derivatives include e.g. aesculin (Figure 15.25) (glycoside of aesculetin)
which occurs in horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum)
glucose O
HO O O
Figure 15.25
Aesculin
287
Pharmacognosy 1
simple coumarin derivatives are present in melilot (Melilotus) species (Fabaceae)

(Figure 15.26), which contain dicoumarol (Figure 15.27), a compound with
anticoagulant activity
Figure 15.26
Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover)
OH OH
CH2
O OO O
Figure 15.27
Dicoumarol
Furanocoumarins
Furanocoumarins are closely related to coumarins, and occur particularly in the
Rutaceae (Figure 15.34-35) and Apiaceae (Figure 15.32-33). Psoralen (Figure 15.28) is
the parent compound, structurally related to coumarin by the addition of a fused furan
ring. Psoralen can be found naturally in the seeds of Psoralea, as well as in celery and
parsley.
Further examples of furanocoumarins include e.g. angelicin (Figure 15.29).
O O O
Figure 15.28
Psoralen
288
O O O
Figure 15.29
Angelicin
O O O CH3
O CH2 CH C
CH3
Figure 15.30
Imperatorin
O O O
O CH3
Figure 15.31
Xanthotoxin
furanocoumarins are phototoxic

they are responsible for the conservation of the capability of resistance in plants
Several members of the Apiaceae (Carrot family) contain furanocoumarins, including
garden angelica (Figure 15.32), coriander, parsnip and hogweed (Figure 15.33).
Representatives of the Rutaceae (Rue family) with furanocoumarins include common
rue (Figure 15.34) and citrus species (Figure 15.35).
289
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 15.32
Figure 15.33
Heracleum sphondylium (hogweed) leaf
290
Figure 15.34
Ruta graveolens (common rue)
Figure 15.35
Citrus limon (lemon)
291
Pharmacognosy 1
15.6 Flavonoids
these compounds are the condensed derivatives of - and -pyran (Figure 15.36-37),
respectively of - and -pyrone (Figure 15.38-39) with benzene:
CH2
O
Figure 15.36
-pyran
H H
C
Figure 15.37
-pyran

O O
Figure 15.38
-pyrone
Figure 15.39
-pyrone
Coumarin (Figure 15.23) is -pyrone condensed with benzene.
292
Pyranes and pyrones condensed with benzene form the ring skeleton of a great
number of natural plant pigments, such as chromane, chromene and chromone
(Figure 15.40).
O
4 oxydatinon
3 oxydation
2 - 2 'H'
O1 O O
chromane (with chromene (with chromone (with
benzene condensed benzene condensed - benzene condensed
dihydro--pyrane) pyrane) -pyrone)
Figure 15.40
Skeletons of chromane, chromene and chromone
The derivatives where the C-2 carbon atom is substituted with phenyl group include
flavan (Figure 15.41), flaven (Figure 15.42) and flavon (Figure 15.43).
2
O1
Figure 15.41
Flavan
2
O1
Figure 15.42
Flaven
2
O1
Figure 15.43
Flavon
293
Pharmacognosy 1
The glycosides of the hydroxy derivatives of the above compounds form one type of
yellow pigments of different plants. The most important of them is quercetin
(Figure 15.45), which is the 5,7,3,4-tetrahydroxy-derivative of flavonol (3-
hydroxy-flavon) (Figure 15.44).
O
3 OH
2
O1
Figure 15.44
Flavonol (3-hydroxy-flavon)
OH O
5 4
6 3 OH
7 2 2'
1' OH
HO O 3'
1
6' 4' OH
5'
Figure 15.45
Quercetin (5,7,3,4-tetrahydroxy-flavonol)
Rutin (Vitamin P), which is a glycoside of quercetin formed with rutinose on the C-
3 OH group, regulates the permeability of capillary blood vessels. Rutin can be
extracted by industrial method from the flowering shoots of buckwheat (Fagopyrum
esculentum; Fagopyrum tataricum) (Polygonaceae), or from the flower buds of the
common Japanese pagodatree (Sophora japonica, Fabaceae), where the rutin content
reaches 15-20 %.
Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba; Ginkgoaceae ) contains physiologically active bioflavonoids
and proanthocyanidins
isoflavonoids: the phenyl group is connected to the C-3 carbon atom
neoflavonoids + glycosides: the phenyl group is connected to the C-4 carbon atom
Occurrence:
legumes (Fabaceae)
devils fig or prickly poppy (Argemone) sp. (Clusiaceae)
madder sp. (Rubiaceae)
294
15.7 Anthocyanins and anthocyanidins

the hydroxy derivatives of flaven (2-phenyl-chromen) are wide-spread in plants as
glycosides; their comprehensive name: flavylium or anthocyan (anthocyanin)
pigments
the alkaline hydrolysis of glycosides yields the corresponding coloured aglycones
(anthocyanidins), which can be formed during acidic hydrolysis of oxoniumsalts
(Figure 15.46).
-
+ Cl
O flavylium chloride
flavilium chlorid
+
Figure 15.46
Formation of oxoniumsalts
the glycosides formed with the 4-6 OH groups substituted derivatives of flavylium
chloride are responsible for the colour of various petals
On the effect of alkali the structure of the coloured salts will be rearranged; this
process results a change of colour (Figure 15.47). This phenomenon is in the
background of their indicator property:
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH + NaOH
HO O+ -
+ Cl HO O
- NaCl
OH - H2O O
pelargonidin(ium) chloride (red) pelargonidin (blue-violet)
Figure 15.47
Colour change of pelargonidin chloride pelargonidin
The colour of the anthocyan-pigments depends on the pH value of the plant saps.
This property explains the different shades of colour caused by anthocyanidins.
In the petals of red rose and of blue cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) (Figure 15.48)
the same cyanin-pigment is present and the pH values of their press-saps are
identical, too:
295
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 15.48
Centaurea cyanus (cornflower)
explanation of the difference in colour: in the petals of cornflower (Centaurea

cyanus) a coloured pigment-lac (pigment salt, formed with metal ions) is present
flavonoids and anthocyanidins are antioxidants, inhibitors of lipid peroxidation, and
scavengers antitumor effect
Anthocyanins
anthocyanins having glycosidic character
water soluble
the corresponding aglycones are the anthocyanidins
occur mainly in the a corolla (petals) or perigonium (tepals) of angiosperms
the most important anthocyanidins include pelargonidin, cyanidin, peonidin,
delphinidin, petunidin, malvidin, with corresponding chloride salts (Figure 15.49-50).
OH
5 4
6 3 OH
7 2 2' -
1
1' Cl
3'
HO 8 O+
4'
6'
5' OH
OH
Figure 15.49
Cyanidin chloride (3,5,7,3,4-pentahydroxyflavylium chloride)
296
OH
5 4
6 3 OH
7 1 2 2' -
1' 3' OH Cl
HO 8 O
+
4'
6'
5' OH
OH
Figure 15.50
Delphinidin chloride (3,5,7,3,45-hexahydroxyflavylium chloride)
The most important agricultural plants containing anthocyanins are grapes (Vitis
vinifera); the anthocyanin-pigments are present in the red wine varieties.
the following fruits containing anthocyanins in high quantity have pharmaceutical
value:
Anthocyanin-pigments occur in a variety of plants and plant parts. Pharmaceutical value
can be attributed to plant organs containing high levels of anthocyanins, such as the
fruits of grape-vine (Figure 15.51), blueberry (Figure 2.48), black currant (Figure 15.52)
and elderberry (Figure 15.53); the petals of Moorish mallow and cornflower; and the
sepals of hibiscus or roselle (Figure 15.54).
Figure 15.51
Vitis vinifera (grape-vine) in bloom
297
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 15.52
Ribes nigrum (black currant)
Figure 15.53
Fruits of elderberry = Sambuci fructus (Sambucus nigra)
298
Figure 15.54
Roselle calyx of Hibiscus sabdariffa (hibiscus)
15.8 Tannins
Characteristic features of tannins
plant polyphenols, which precipitate proteins; tanning materials
water-soluble
if oxidized to quinones, can bind to proteins
their quality and quantity determines the ability of plants against illnesses
a great number of polyphenols are antibacterial, antimitotic and antiviral
through their phenolic OH-groups their characteristic chemical reactions are:
condensation, ester- and glycoside-formation
their functional effects are diversified
according to their biogenesis they have two groups:
hydrolysable and condensed tannins
Condensed tannins or- proanthocyanidins: polymers of the flavan3ol

Hydrolysable tannins are called gallotannins; they are esters of gallic acid
(Figure 15.10) or of digallic acid (Figure 15.55), formed with glucose. The main
component of digallic acid is penta-meta-digalloyl--D-glucose (Figure 15.56).
299
Pharmacognosy 1
HO
O O
HO C O C OH
HO HO
OH
Figure 15.55
(meta)di-gallic acid (component of Chinese tannin)
CH2ODg
H O ODg
ODg H
DgO H
H ODg
Figure 15.56
Penta-meta-digalloyl--D-glucose
gallotanins occur mainly in the following plant families:

Ericaceae
Combretaceae
Anacardiaceae
Geraniaceae
Aceraceae
ellagitannnins containing mainly dimer gallic acid occur in the plant families
Rosaceae, Geraniaceae, Onagraceae and Lytharceae
The bark of oak trees (Figure 15.57) and their galls contain hydrolysable tannins in
high quantity. Further examples include common beech (Figure 15.58) and common
hazel (Figure 15.59).
Figure 15.57
Bark and leaves of Quercus (oak) spp.
300
Figure 15.58
Fagus sylvatica (common beech)
Figure 15.59
Leaf and male catkin of Corylus avellana (common hazel)
15.9 Quinones
Quinones include simple quinones, naphthoquinones, antraquinones and
naphthodianthrones. Simple quinones rarely occur in nature, however,
naphthoquinones are frequent in various plants. A well-known naphthoquinone
derivative is juglone (Figure 15.60), occurring in walnut-tree (Juglandaceae), and
having alleopathic effect.
301
Pharmacognosy 1
O
8 1
7 2
6 3
5 4
O O
H
Figure 15.60
Juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone)
juglone: occurs in all green parts of walnut-tree

the structure of juglone is stabilized with H-bond (H-bridge) new quasi six-
membered ring
forms with Cu2+ s Ni2+ - ions violet-coloured chelate-complexes (juglone : metal ion
= 2 : 1)
the occurrence of anthraquinone (Figure 15.61) derivatives is frequent in the
following plant families:
Rubiaceae (madder sp.)
Fabaceae (legumes)
Polygonaceae (knotweeed or Polygonum sp.)
Rhamnaceae (buckthorn sp.)
Liliaceae
Scrophulariaceae
O
8 9 1
7 2
6 10 3
5 4
O
Figure 15.61
Anthraquinone (9,10-antraquinone)
glycosides of its hydroxy-derivatives are effective substances of medicinal plants

having laxative effect. Examples include senna (Cassia) species (Figure 15.62),
aloes (Figure 15.63) and rhubarbs (Figure 15.64).
302
Figure 15.62
Cassia (senna) species
Figure 15.63
Aloe sp. (aloe)
303
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 15.64
Rheum rhabarbarum (rhubarb, pieplant)
Hypericine is a compound with naphthodianthrone-skeleton (Figure 15.65), being the

main active substance of St. Johns wort (Hypericum perforatum, Hypericaceae)
(Figure 15.66), used in the treatment of mild depression.
Hypericine can exert photosensitizing effect, inducing allergic symptoms,
particularly in sensitive individuals and at strong light
Figure 15.65
Anthrone
304
Figure 15.66
Hypericum perforatum (St. Johns wort)
15.10 Terpenophenols
The most well-known terpenophenols are cannabinoids, which are the effective
substances of hemp (Cannabis sativa; Cannabinaceae) (Figure 15.67). The most
significant one is tetrahydro-cannabinol (THC), which has hallucinogenic effect.
In harle-hemp THC can be detected in lower quantities, whereas Indian hemp
(Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) is characterised by higher amounts (> 1 %) of THC.
drugs of Cannabis sativa:
hashish: THC-content: 5-20 %
marihuana: THC-content 2-6 %
305
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 15.67
Cannabis sativa (hemp)
Hops (Humulus lupulus) (Figure 15.68) contain terpenophenol derivatives. The resin
of hop strobile contains the bitter and sour substances humulone and lupulone, which
are substituted derivatives of 4-cyclohexene-1,3-dione (Figure 15.69), with a
complicated structure. Both compounds contain OH group (enolic OH group, acidic
character). The other C-atoms bear substituents with complicated structures. Herbal
preparations containing the extracts of hop strobile have moderate sedative effect.
306
Figure 15.68
Humulus lupulus (hop) and its strobili
O
3
2 4
5
O 1
6
Figure 15.69
4-cyclohexene-1,3-dione
307
Figures
Figure 1.1 Bardanae radix (burdock root)...................................................................... 12
Figure 1.2 Ginseng radix (ginseng root) ......................................................................... 12
Figure 1.3 Calami rhizoma (calamus rhizome) .............................................................. 13
Figure 1.4 Bursae pastoris herba (shepherds purse herb) ............................................. 14
Figure 1.5 Farfarae folium (coltsfoot leaf) ..................................................................... 15
Figure 1.6 Carthami flos (safflower) .............................................................................. 15
Figure 1.7 Croci stigma (crocus stigma) ........................................................................ 16
Figure 1.8 Chamomillae anthodium (german chamomile inflorescence)
Ph. Eur. 6.: Matricariae flos ...................................................................... 16
Figure 1.9 Anisi fructus (aniseed) ................................................................................... 17
Figure 1.10 Anisi stellati fructus (star anise) .................................................................. 17
Figure 1.11 Capsici fructus (pepper fruit) ...................................................................... 18
Figure 1.12 Papaveris somniferi caput (poppy head)..................................................... 18
Figure 1.13 Rosae pseudofructus cum seminibus (rosehip with seeds) ...................... 19
Figure 1.14 Rosae pseudofructus sine seminibus (rosehip without seeds) ................. 19
Figure 1.15 Juniperi bacca (juniper berry) Ph. Eur. 6.: Juniperi pseudofructus ......... 20
Figure 1.16 Foenugraeci semen (fenugreek seed) .......................................................... 21
Figure 1.17 Lini semen (flax seed).................................................................................. 22
Figure 1.18 Cerasi stipes (cherry peduncle) ................................................................... 22
Figure 1.19 Crataegi summitas, Ph. Eur. 6.: Crataegi folium cum flore
Hawthorn leaf and flower .......................................................................... 23
Figure 1.20 Frangulae cortex (frangula bark) ................................................................ 23
Figure 1.21 Quercus cortex (oak bark) ........................................................................... 24
Figure 1.22 Maydis amylum (maize starch) .................................................................... 24
Figure 1.23 Mentha piperita (peppermint) ..................................................................... 25
Figure 1.24 Helianthus annuus (sunflower) ................................................................... 26
Figure 1.25 Juniperus communis (common juniper) ...................................................... 27
Figure 1.26 Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine) ........................................................................ 28
Figure 1.27 Lytta vesicatoria (Spanish fly) (Pharmacy Museum, Krakow) ................... 29
Figure 1.28 Jars for storing Blatta orientalis (Pharmacy Museum, Krakow) ................ 30
Figure 1.29 Wooden jar for storing Cetaceum (Pharmacy Museum, Krakow) .............. 31
Figure 1.30 Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) ..................................................................... 33
Figure 1.31 Gentiana asclepiadea (willow gentian) ...................................................... 34
Figure 1.32 Helleborus odorus (fragrant hellebore) ....................................................... 35
309
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 1.33 Adonis vernalis (pheasants eye) ................................................................. 35

Figure 2.1 Thymus vulgaris (garden thyme) ................................................................... 38
Figure 2.2 Salvia officinalis (common sage) ................................................................... 38
Figure 2.3 Origanum vulgare (oregano) ......................................................................... 39
Figure 2.4 Sambucus nigra (European elderberry) ......................................................... 39
Figure 2.5 Sambuci fructus (elder berry) ........................................................................ 40
Figure 2.6 Urticae folium (stinging nettle leaf)............................................................... 40
Figure 2.7 Equiseti herba (equisetum stem) ................................................................... 41
Figure 2.8 Matricaria recutita (German chamomile) ..................................................... 41
Figure 2.9 Matricariae flos (matricaria flower) .............................................................. 42
Figure 2.10 Aesculus hippocastanum (horse chestnut) ................................................... 42
Figure 2.11 Hippocastani semen (horse chestnut seed) .................................................. 43
Figure 2.12 Rosa canina (rose hip) ................................................................................. 43
Figure 2.13 Hyperici herba (St. Johns wort) ................................................................. 44
Figure 2.14 Solidago canadensis (Canadian goldenrod) ................................................ 44
Figure 2.15 Solidago gigantea (giant goldenrod) ........................................................... 45
Figure 2.16 Solidaginis herba (goldenrod) ..................................................................... 45
Figure 2.17 Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) ................................................................ 46
Figure 2.18 Taraxaci radix cum herba (dandelion root with flowering shoot) .............. 46
Figure 2.19 Millefolii herba (yarrow) ............................................................................. 47
Figure 2.20 Viscum album (common mistletoe) ............................................................. 47
Figure 2.21 Visci stipes (mistletoe) ................................................................................. 48
Figure 2.22 Crataegus laevigata (woodland hawthorn) ................................................. 48
Figure 2.23 Crataegus monogyna (common hawthorn) ................................................. 49
Figure 2.24 Crataegi summitas (Ph. Eur.: Crataegi folium cum flore, Crataegi
fructus) (hawthorn leaf and flower, hawthorn berries) .............................. 49
Figure 2.25 Chelidonium majus (greater celandine) ....................................................... 50
Figure 2.26 Chelidonii herba (greater celandine flowering shoot) ................................. 50
Figure 2.27 Sambuci flos (elder flower) .......................................................................... 51
Figure 2.28 Tilia cordata (small-leaved lime) ................................................................ 51
Figure 2.29 Tiliae flos (lime flower) ............................................................................... 52
Figure 2.30 Tilia cordata (small-leaved lime) ................................................................ 53
Figure 2.31 Tiliae argenteae flos (silver lime flower) .................................................... 54
Figure 2.32 Crataegus laevigata (woodland hawthorn) ................................................. 54
Figure 2.33 Achillea millefolium (common yarrow) ....................................................... 55
310
Figures
Figure 2.34 Hypericum perforatum (St. Johns wort) .................................................... 56

Figure 2.35 Sambucus ebulus (dwarf elder) ................................................................... 57
Figure 2.36 Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) ...................................................... 58
Figure 2.37 Flower of Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)...................................... 58
Figure 2.38 Fruits of Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)........................................ 59
Figure 2.39 Hyoscyamus niger (henbane) ...................................................................... 59
Figure 2.40 Marrubium vulgare (white horehound) ....................................................... 60
Figure 2.41 Marrubii herba ............................................................................................ 60
Figure 2.42 Ononidis radix (restharrow root) ................................................................. 61
Figure 2.43 Solidago gigantea (giant goldenrod) ........................................................... 62
Figure 2.44 Inflorescence of Tussilago farfara (coltsfoot)............................................. 63
Figure 2.45 Leaves of Tussilago farfara (coltsfoot) ....................................................... 63
Figure 2.46 Petasites hybridus (butterbur) ..................................................................... 64
Figure 2.47 Menyanthes trifoliata (bogbean) ................................................................. 65
Figure 2.48 Vaccinium myrtillus (blueberry/bilberry) .................................................... 66
Figure 2.49 Vaccinium vitis-idaea (cowberry/lingonberry) ........................................... 66
Figure 2.50 Aloe ferox (cape aloe) .................................................................................. 68
Figure 2.51 Gentiana lutea (great yellow gentian) ......................................................... 69
Figure 2.52 Sinapis alba (white mustard) ....................................................................... 71
Figure 2.53 Sinapis albae fructus .................................................................................... 71
Figure 2.54 Papaver somniferum (poppy) ...................................................................... 72
Figure 2.55 Papaveris caput (poppy head) ..................................................................... 72
Figure 2.56 Carum carvi (caraway) ................................................................................ 73
Figure 2.57 Carvi fructus (caraway fruit) ....................................................................... 73
Figure 2.58 Coriandri fructus (coriander fruit) .............................................................. 74
Figure 2.59 Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) ....................................................................... 74
Figure 2.60 Inflorescence of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) ............................................ 75
Figure 2.61 Foeniculi fructus (fennel fruit) .................................................................... 75
Figure 2.62 Silybum marianum (milk thistle) ................................................................. 76
Figure 2.63 Silybi mariani fructus (milk thistle fruit) .................................................... 76
Figure 2.64 Anethum graveolens (dill) ........................................................................... 77
Figure 2.65 Anethi fructus (dill fruit).............................................................................. 77
Figure 2.66 Pimpinella anisum (anise) ........................................................................... 78
Figure 2.67 Anisi fructus (aniseed) ................................................................................. 78
Figure 2.68 Melissa officinalis (lemon balm) ................................................................. 79
311
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 2.69 Melissae folium (melissa leaf) ..................................................................... 79

Figure 2.70 Valerianae radix (valerian root) .................................................................. 80
Figure 2.71 Majorana hortensis (marjoram)................................................................... 80
Figure 2.72 Majoranae herba (marjoram flowering shoot) ............................................ 81
Figure 2.73 Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil) .................................................................. 81
Figure 2.74 Basilici herba (basil herb)............................................................................ 82
Figure 2.75 Satureja hortensis (summer savory) ............................................................ 82
Figure 2.76 Saturejae herba (savory flowering shoot) ................................................... 83
Figure 2.77 Chelidonium majus (greater celandine) ....................................................... 83
Figure 2.78 Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary)............................................................... 84
Figure 2.79 Valeriana officinalis (valerian) .................................................................... 86
Figure 2.80 Chrysanthemum parthenium (feverfew) ...................................................... 87
Figure 2.81 Mentha piperita (peppermint) ...................................................................... 88
Figure 2.82 Artemisia dracunculus (tarragon) ................................................................ 88
Figure 2.83 Datura stramonium (thornapple) ................................................................. 91
Figure 2.84 Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) ....................................................................... 91
Figure 2.85 Salvia sclarea (clary sage) ........................................................................... 92
Figure 3.1 Equipment for natural drying ......................................................................... 96
Figure 3.2 Uvae ursi folium (bearberry leaf)................................................................... 98
Figure 3.3 Althaeae radix (marshmallow root) ............................................................... 98
Figure 3.4 Tamarindi pulpa (tamarind)........................................................................... 99
Figure 3.5 Capsule of Papaver somniferum (poppy) .................................................... 102
Figure 3.6 Ricinus communis (castor oil plant) ............................................................. 103
Figure 3.7 Secale cornutum (ergot) ............................................................................... 103
Figure 3.8 Inflorescence of Digitalis purpurea (purple foxglove)................................ 104
Figure 3.9 Digitalis lanata (woolly foxglove) .............................................................. 104
Figure 3.10 Inflorescence of Digitalis lanata (woolly foxglove) ................................. 105
Figure 3.11 Gypsophyla paniculata (babys breath) ..................................................... 106
Figure 3.12 Flower of Datura metel (devils trumpet).................................................. 107
Figure 3.13 Fruit of Datura metel (devils trumpet) ..................................................... 107
Figure 3.14 Lavandula angustifolia (English lavender)................................................ 108
Figure 3.15 Levisticum officinale (lovage) .................................................................... 108
Figure 3.16 Angelica archangelica (garden angelica) .................................................. 109
Figure 3.17 Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat) ......................................................... 109
Figure 3.18 Vinca minor (lesser periwinkle) ................................................................. 110
312
Figures
Figure 3.19 Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin) ........................................................................ 111

Figure 3.20 Silybum marianum (milk thistle) ............................................................... 112
Figure 4.1 Distribution by origin of medicines licensed between 1981-2006
(Source: Csupor D.: Fitoterpia. JATEPress, Szeged, 2007) .................. 114
Figure 4.2 Taxus baccata (common yew) .................................................................... 115
Figure 4.3 Chemical structure of taxol A ..................................................................... 115
Figure 4.4 Chemical structure of camptothecin ............................................................ 116
Figure 4.5 Chemical structure of topotecan .................................................................. 116
Figure 4.6 Chemical structure of irinotecan ................................................................. 116
Figure 4.7 Inflorescence of Galega officinalis (goats rue) .......................................... 117
Figure 4.8 Chemical structure of galegine .................................................................... 117
Figure 4.9 Chemical structure of metformin ................................................................ 118
Figure 4.10 Cinchonae cortex (cinchona bark) ............................................................ 118
Figure 4.11 Chemical structure of quinine ................................................................... 119
Figure 4.12 Chemical structure of digoxin ................................................................... 119
Figure 4.13 Synthetic production of ephedrine ............................................................ 119
Figure 4.14 Synthetic pathways of codeine .................................................................. 120
Figure 4.15 Chemical structure of ergotamine ............................................................. 121
Figure 4.16 Synthesis of ergometrine ........................................................................... 122
Figure 4.17 Aims and modes of modifying natural subtances ..................................... 122
Figure 4.18 papaverine (benzyl-isoquinoline alkaloid) ................................................ 123
Figure 4.19 etaverine (= perparine) .............................................................................. 123
Figure 4.20 vincamine .................................................................................................. 124
Figure 4.21 vinpocetine ................................................................................................ 124
Figure 5.1 Agrimonia eupatoria (agrimony) ................................................................ 126
Figure 5.2 Inflorescence of Agrimonia eupatoria (agrimony) ..................................... 126
Figure 5.3 Rheum rhabarbarum (rhubarb) ................................................................... 128
Figure 5.4 Symphytum officinale (comfrey) ................................................................. 129
Figure 5.5 Cannabis sativa (hemp)............................................................................... 130
Figure 5.6 Hierarchy of herbal products traded in Hungary ......................................... 131
Figure 6.1 Position of aromatherapy among the different therapeutical systems
using plant materials ................................................................................ 133
Figure 6.2 Cedrus deodara (Himalayan cedar) ............................................................ 134
Figure 6.3 Cupressus sempervirens (Mediterranean cypress) ...................................... 135
Figure 6.4 Myrtus communis (common myrtle) ........................................................... 135
Figure 6.5 Eucalyptus sp. (eucalyptus) ......................................................................... 139
313
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 6.6 Aurantii epicarpium et mesocarpium (orange epicarp et mesocarp) ........... 140
Figure 6.7 Artemisia absinthium (common wormwood) .............................................. 140
Figure 6.8 Ocimum basilicum (sweet basil) .................................................................. 141
Figure 6.9 Petroselinum crispum (garden parsley) ....................................................... 142
Figure 6.10 Citrus limon (lemon) .................................................................................. 143
Figure 6.11 Persea americana (avocado) ..................................................................... 143
Figure 6.12 Olea europaea (olive tree) ......................................................................... 144
Figure 6.13 Flowers of Aconitum napellus (aconite) .................................................... 153
Figure 6.14 Colchicum autumnale (autumn crocus) ..................................................... 153
Figure 7.1 Ganoderma lucidum (reishi) ........................................................................ 156
Figure 7.2 Lichen islandicus (iceland moss) ................................................................. 157
Figure 8.1 A typical dicotyledonous leaf (Helleborus odorus) ..................................... 159
Figure 8.2 The plant cell ............................................................................................... 160
Figure 8.3 The chemical structure of chlorophyll a and b ............................................ 161
Figure 8.4 The chemical structure of -carotene........................................................... 161
Figure 8.5 Outline of photophosphorylation ................................................................. 163
Figure 8.6 Electron-transport with plastoquinones ....................................................... 163
Figure 8.7 Electron-transport through the cytochrome b/f complex ............................. 164
Figure 8.8 Summary and interrelations of light and dark reactions .............................. 164
Figure 8.9 Summary of dark cycle reactions................................................................. 165
Figure 8.10 Outline of photosynthesis-related metabolic pathways ............................. 166
Figure 8.11 Leaf transversal section of a C3 plant ........................................................ 167
Figure 8.12 Leaf transversal section of a C4 plant ........................................................ 167
Figure 8.13 Summary of C4 photosynthetic pathway ................................................... 168
Figure 9.1 Biological circulation of nitrogen ................................................................ 169
Figure 9.2-3 Root nodules with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in longitudinal section ......... 171
Figure 9.4 Structure of the nitrogenase subunit ............................................................ 172
Figure 9.5 Nitrogenase electrontransport ...................................................................... 172
Figure 9.6 The process of denitrification ...................................................................... 173
Figure 9.7 Transport ways of nitrate in plants .............................................................. 174
Figure 9.8 Transport routes and pathways of nitrogen metabolism in plants ............... 176
Figure 9.9 Activation of sulphate by ATP .................................................................... 177
Figure 9.10 Formation of carrier-tiosulphonate complex ............................................. 177
Figure 9.11 Reduction of tiosulphonate ........................................................................ 177
Figure 9.12 Incorporation of sulphide into cysteine ..................................................... 178
314
Figures
Figure 9.13 Interrelations of various sulphur-containing compounds .......................... 179

Figure 10.1 Fixation of carbon-dioxide by ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-carboxylase-
oxygenase ................................................................................................ 181
Figure 10.2 The C-3 reactions of the Calvin-cycle ....................................................... 182
Figure 10.3 Carbohydrates formed in the Calvin-cycle ................................................ 183
Figure 10.4 Synthesis of various carbohydrates in the Calvin-cycle ............................ 183
Figure 10.5 Phospho-enol-pyruvate (PEP) ................................................................... 184
Figure 10.6 Malic acid (monohydroxy-succinic acid) dicarboxylic acid ................ 184
Figure 10.7 Euphorbia monteiroi (Angola) .................................................................. 185
Figure 10.8 Crassula falcata (South-Africa) ................................................................ 185
Figure 10.9 Chemical structure of sucrose (saccharose) .............................................. 186
Figure 10.10 Simplified equation of sugar invertation ................................................. 186
Figure 10.11 D-glucose and D-sorbitol ........................................................................ 187
Figure 10.12 False fruit of Rosa canina ....................................................................... 187
Figure 10.13 D-mannose and D-mannitol .................................................................... 188
Figure 10.14 Structure of amylose ................................................................................ 189
Figure 10.15 Structure of amylopectin ......................................................................... 189
Figure 10.16 Chemical formula of maltose .................................................................. 190
Figure 10.17 Gossypium hirsutum (cotton) .................................................................. 191
Figure 10.18 Chemical structure of cellulose ............................................................... 191
Figure 10.19 Chemical structure of cellobiose ............................................................. 192
Figure 10.20 Cerasus avium (sweet cherry) ................................................................. 193
Figure 10.21 Agar ......................................................................................................... 194
Figure 10.22 Prunus domestica (plum) ........................................................................ 194
Figure 10.23 Acacia senegal (gum acacia) ................................................................... 195
Figure 10.24 Lichen islandicus (Iceland moss) ............................................................ 196
Figure 10.25 Althaeae radix (marshmallow root) ........................................................ 196
Figure 10.26 Malvae folium (mallow leaf) ................................................................... 197
Figure 10.27 Malvae flos (mallow flower) ................................................................... 197
Figure 10.28 Plantaginis lanceolatae folium (ribwort plantain leaf) ........................... 198
Figure 10.29 Farfarae folium (colts-foot leaf) ............................................................ 198
Figure 10.30 Lini semen (flax seed or linseed) ............................................................. 199
Figure 10.31 Matricariae flos (matricaria / chamomile flower) ................................... 199
Figure 10.32 Tiliae flos (lime flower) ........................................................................... 200
Figure 10.33 Cucurbitae semen (pumpkin seed) .......................................................... 200
315
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 11.1 L--phosphatidic acid ................................................................................ 202

Figure 11.2 Cholamine .................................................................................................. 202
Figure 11.3 Cephaline ................................................................................................... 202
Figure 11.4 Choline ....................................................................................................... 203
Figure 11.5 Lecithin ...................................................................................................... 203
Figure 11.6 Serine ......................................................................................................... 203
Figure 11.7 Phosphatidyl-serine .................................................................................... 204
Figure 11.8 Inositol (hexa-hydroxy-cyclohexane) ........................................................ 204
Figure 11.9 Phosphatidyl-inositol ................................................................................. 204
Figure 11.10 Sphyngosine ............................................................................................. 205
Figure 11.11 Acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA, precursors of fatty acids........................ 205
Figure 11.12 Synthesis of malonyl-CoA from oxalacetic acid ..................................... 206
Figure 11.13 Saturated fatty acids in plants .................................................................. 206
Figure 11.14 Oleic acid (9-cis-octadecen acid) ............................................................. 206
Figure 11.15 Linolic acid (9,12-di-cis-octadeca-dien acid) .......................................... 206
Figure 11.16 -linoleic acid (9,12,15-tri-cis-octadeca-trien acid) ................................ 206
Figure 11.17 -linoleic acid (6,9,12-tri-cis-octadeca-trien acid) ................................... 207
Figure 11.18 Arachidonic acid (5,8,11,14-tetracis-eikosa-tetraen acid) ....................... 207
Figure 11.19 Arachidonic acid ...................................................................................... 208
Figure 11.20 Ricinolic acid ........................................................................................... 208
Figure 11.21 Ricinine .................................................................................................... 208
Figure 11.22 Amygdalus communis sweet or bitter almond (Rosaceae).................... 209
Figure 11.23 Brassica napus oilseed rape (Brassicaceae / Cruciferae) ..................... 209
Figure 11.24 Glycine soja soy(a) bean (Fabaceae) .................................................... 210
Figure 11.25 Gossypium hirsutum mountain cotton (Malvaceae) ............................. 210
Figure 11.26 Seeds with cover hairs from Gossypium hirsutum mountain cotton
(Malvaceae).............................................................................................. 211
Figure 11.27 Helianthus annuus sunflower (Asteraceae / Compositae) .................... 211
Figure 11.28 Linum usitatissimum cultivated flax (Linaceae) ................................... 212
Figure 11.29 Olea europaea common olive (Oleaceae) ............................................ 212
Figure 11.30 Fruits of Olea europaea common olive (Oleaceae).............................. 213
Figure 11.31 Fruits and seeds of Theobroma cacao cacao(tree) (Sterculiaceae) ...... 213
Figure 11.32 Gadolinic acid .......................................................................................... 214
Figure 11.33 Vitamin A (retinol) .................................................................................. 215
Figure 11.34 Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) ..................................................................... 215
316
Figures
Figure 11.35 Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) ................................................................... 215

Figure 11.36 Wax-alcohols ........................................................................................... 216
Figure 11.37 Cyclopentene rings .................................................................................. 217
Figure 11.38 Cyclopentane rings .................................................................................. 217
Figure 11.39 Biosynthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid ............................ 217
Figure 11.40 Hedera helix (ivy) ................................................................................... 218
Figure 12.1 Isoprene ..................................................................................................... 219
Figure 12.2 Head-foot connection of isoprene units..................................................... 219
Figure 12.3 Foot-foot connection of isoprene units ...................................................... 220
Figure 12.4 Limonene or dipentene (fundamental compound of monocyclic
monoterpenes) ......................................................................................... 220
Figure 12.5 Poly-isoprene structure with all-cis connections ....................................... 220
Figure 12.6 Structure of caoutchouc ............................................................................. 220
Figure 12.7 Structure of vulcanized caoutchouc .......................................................... 221
Figure 12.8 Polyisoprene structure of artificial caoutchouc ......................................... 221
Figure 12.9 Guttapercha ............................................................................................... 221
Figure 12.10 Mevalonic acid (3,5-dihydroxy-3-methyl-pentanoic acid = ,-
dihydroxy--methyl-valerianic acid) ....................................................... 222
Figure 12.11 Synthesis of aceto-acetyl-coensyme A .................................................... 222
Figure 12.12 Addition reaction of aceto-acetyl-CoA with acetyl-CoA, followed by
hydrolysis................................................................................................. 223
Figure 12.13 The reaction catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase ..................................... 223
Figure 12.14 Phosphorylation of MVA, followed by decarboxylation ........................ 224
Figure 12.15 isopentenyl-pyrophosphate (IPP) ............................................................ 224
Figure 12.16 Formation of dimethyl-allyl-pyrophosphate and geranyl-
pyrophosphate.......................................................................................... 225
Figure 12.17 Myrcene ................................................................................................... 226
Figure 12.18 Ocymene .................................................................................................. 226
Figure 12.19 Geraniol ................................................................................................... 226
Figure 12.20 p-cymene and p-menthane....................................................................... 227
Figure 12.21 P-menthenes ............................................................................................ 227
Figure 12.22 - 1,8 para-menthadiene = limonene = dipentene............................... 227
Figure 12.23 -terpinene ............................................................................................... 228
Figure 12.24 Thymol, menthol (3-hydroxy-p-menthane) and menthone ..................... 228
Figure 12.25 Basic skeletons of bicyclic monoterpenes ............................................... 229
Figure 12.26 D-camphor and isoborneol ...................................................................... 229
317
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 12.27 Possible conformations of camphor ......................................................... 230

Figure 12.28 Pinenes ..................................................................................................... 230
Figure 12.29 Carene ...................................................................................................... 231
Figure 12.30 Camphene ................................................................................................ 231
Figure 12.31 Sabinene ................................................................................................... 231
Figure 12.32 Linalool .................................................................................................... 232
Figure 12.33 citronellol ................................................................................................. 232
Figure 12.34 Geranial (citral A) cis (Z) isomer ............................................................. 232
Figure 12.35 Neral (citral B) trans (E) isomer .............................................................. 233
Figure 12.36 Citronellal ................................................................................................ 233
Figure 12.37 Carvone .................................................................................................... 233
Figure 12.38 Pulegone................................................................................................... 234
Figure 12.39 Cineol ....................................................................................................... 234
Figure 12.40 Ascaridol .................................................................................................. 234
Figure 12.41 Carvacrol .................................................................................................. 235
Figure 12.42 The cyclopenta-pyranoid skeleton of iridoids ......................................... 235
Figure 12.43 Biosynthesis of iridoids ........................................................................... 235
Figure 12.44 Valeriana officinalis (valerian) ................................................................ 236
Figure 12.45 Gentiana lutea (yellow gentian) .............................................................. 237
Figure 12.46 Centaurium minus (annual centaury) ....................................................... 237
Figure 12.47 Menyanthes trifoliata (bogbean) .............................................................. 238
Figure 12.48 Galium odoratum (woodruff) .................................................................. 238
Figure 12.49 Cnicus benedictus (St. Benedicts thistle) ............................................... 239
Figure 12.50 Inula helenium (horse-heal) ..................................................................... 240
Figure 12.51 Inflorescence of Tanacetum vulgare (tansy) ........................................... 240
Figure 12.52 Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort, common wormwood) .............................. 241
Figure 12.53 Artemisia absinthium (absinthe wormwood) ........................................... 241
Figure 12.54 bisabolene ................................................................................................ 242
Figure 12.55 Caryophyllene .......................................................................................... 242
Figure 12.56 Pharnesol .................................................................................................. 242
Figure 12.57 S - guaiazulene ......................................................................................... 243
Figure 12.58 Structure of phytol ................................................................................... 243
Figure 12.59 Structure of squalene ............................................................................... 244
Figure 12.60 Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice) ................................................................. 244
Figure 12.61 Aesculus hippocastanum (horse chestnut) ............................................... 245
318
Figures
Figure 12.62 Polygalae radix (senega root) ................................................................. 245

Figure 12.63 Primula veris (primula = cowslip) .......................................................... 246
Figure 12.64 Bark of Quillaja saponaria = Quillajae cortex (soapbark) ..................... 246
Figure 12.65 Saponaria officinalis (common soapwort) .............................................. 247
Figure 12.66 Gypsophila paniculata (Hungarian soap root, babys breath) ................ 247
Figure 13.1 Alanine (-amino-propionic acid, 2-amino-propanoic acid)..................... 249
Figure 13.2 Arginine (-amino--guanidino-valerianic acid) ...................................... 249
Figure 13.3 Asparagic acid (aspartic acid, amino succinic acid).................................. 250
Figure 13.4 Asparagine (monoamid of asparagic acid) ................................................ 250
Figure 13.5 Cysteine (-amino--mercapto-propionic acid) ........................................ 250
Figure 13.6 Glycine (amino acetic acid) ....................................................................... 250
Figure 13.7 Glutamic acid (-amino-glutaric acid) ...................................................... 250
Figure 13.8 Glutamine (monoamid of glutamic acid) .................................................. 251
Figure 13.9 Hystidine (-amino--(4)-imidasolyl-propionic acid) .............................. 251
Figure 13.10 Isoleucine (-amino--methyl-valerianic acid) ....................................... 251
Figure 13.11 Leucine (-amino--methyl-valerianic acid) ........................................... 251
Figure 13.12 Lysine (,-diamino-capronic acid) ........................................................ 252
Figure 13.13 Methionine (-amino--methyl-mercapto-butyric acid) ......................... 252
Figure 13.14 Phenylalanine (-amino--phenyl-propionic acid) ................................. 252
Figure 13.15 Proline (pyrrolidine-2-carboxilic acid or 2-carboxy-pyrrolidine) ........... 252
Figure 13.16 Hydroxyproline (4-hydroxy-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid) ................... 253
Figure 13.17 Serine (-amino--hydroxy-propionic acid) ........................................... 253
Figure 13.18 Threonine (-amino--hydroxy-butyric acid) ......................................... 253
Figure 13.19 Tryptophan (-amino--(3)-indolyl-propionic acid) ............................... 253
Figure 13.20 Tyrosine (-amino--4-hydroxyphenyl-propionic acid = para-
hydroxy-phenylalanine) ........................................................................... 254
Figure 13.21 Valine (-amino-butyric acid) ................................................................. 254
Figure 13.22 2-oxo(keto)- or -oxo(keto)-glutaric acid ............................................... 254
Figure 13.23 Transamination ........................................................................................ 255
Figure 13.24 Synthesis of -amino acids ...................................................................... 255
Figure 13.25 Synthesis of glutamine ............................................................................ 256
Figure 13.26 Decarboxylation of -amino acids .......................................................... 256
Figure 13.27 Oxydative desamination of -amino acids .............................................. 257
Figure 13.28 Xanthine (2,6-dihydroxy-purine) ............................................................ 257
Figure 13.29 Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine) ........................................................ 257
319
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 13.30 Glycolic acid (hydroxy acetic acid) ......................................................... 257

Figure 13.31 General formula of ureide ........................................................................ 258
Figure 13.32 Glyoxylic acid .......................................................................................... 258
Figure 13.33 Allantoin .................................................................................................. 258
Figure 13.34 -amino-butyric acid (GABA) ................................................................. 259
Figure 13.35 -amino-butyric acid (BABA) ................................................................. 259
Figure 13.36 -alanine................................................................................................... 259
Figure 13.37 L-DOPA ................................................................................................... 259
Figure 13.38 Allium ursinum (wild garlic ) ................................................................... 260
Figure 13.39 Allium cepa (onion) ................................................................................. 261
Figure 14.1 Ephedrine 1-Phenyl-2-methylamino-propanol-(1) ................................. 266
Figure 14.2 Chloramphenicol ........................................................................................ 266
Figure 14.3 Mescaline ................................................................................................... 267
Figure 14.4 Colchicine .................................................................................................. 267
Figure 14.5 Nicotine (1-methyl-2()-pyridil-pyrrolidine) ............................................ 267
Figure 14.6 Coniine (2-Propyl-pyperidine) ................................................................... 268
Figure 14.7 8-azabicyclo-[3,2,1]-octane ....................................................................... 268
Figure 14.8 Nortropane ................................................................................................. 268
Figure 14.9 Tropane (N-methyl-8-azabicyclo-[3,2,1]-octane)...................................... 269
Figure 14.10 Tropine (3--hydroxy-tropane) ................................................................ 269
Figure 14.11 Atropine ................................................................................................... 269
Figure 14.12 Scopolamine............................................................................................. 270
Figure 14.13 Hyosciamus niger (henbane) ................................................................... 270
Figure 14.14 Datura metel (angels [devils] trumpet) flower...................................... 271
Figure 14.15 Datura metel (angels [devils] trumpet) fruit ......................................... 271
Figure 14.16 Datura stramonium (thorn apple) flower................................................. 272
Figure 14.17 Ecgonine .................................................................................................. 273
Figure 14.18 Cocaine .................................................................................................... 273
Figure 14.19 Novocain .................................................................................................. 273
Figure 14.20 Quinine..................................................................................................... 274
Figure 14.21 Morphine .................................................................................................. 274
Figure 14.22 Papaverine (6,7,3,4-Tetramethoxy-1-benzyl-isoquinoline) .................. 275
Figure 14.23 LSD = Liserg-Sure-Diethyl-amide (German) ........................................ 275
Figure 14.24 Xanthine (2,6 dihydroxy purine) ....................................................... 276
Figure 14.25 Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine) ......................................................... 276
320
Figures
Figure 14.26 Theophylline (1,3-dimethyl-xanthine) .................................................... 277

Figure 14.27 Theobromine (3,7-dimethyl-xanthine) .................................................... 277
Figure 14.28 Solanidine ................................................................................................ 278
Figure 14.29 Tomatidine............................................................................................... 278
Figure 15.1 -phenylpropionic acid .............................................................................. 279
Figure 15.2 Cinnamic acid (trans, E) (-phenyl-acrylic acid) ...................................... 279
Figure 15.3 allo-cinnamic acid (cis, Z) ......................................................................... 279
Figure 15.4 para-coumaric acid.................................................................................... 279
Figure 15.5 Caffeic acid. Its monomethylether is ferulic acid (3-methoxy-
derivative). ............................................................................................... 280
Figure 15.6 Chlorogenic acid........................................................................................ 280
Figure 15.7 Hydroquinone and p-benzoquinone .......................................................... 280
Figure 15.8 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid ........................................................................ 281
Figure 15.9 Vanillic acid .............................................................................................. 281
Figure 15.10 Gallic acid................................................................................................ 281
Figure 15.11 Formation of salicylic-alcohol from salicin ............................................ 282
Figure 15.12 Salix sp.(willow) ...................................................................................... 282
Figure 15.13 Populus sp. (poplar) ................................................................................ 283
Figure 15.14 Filipendula sp. (meadowsweet) .............................................................. 283
Figure 15.15 Salicylic acid (ortho-hydroxy-benzoic acid) ........................................... 284
Figure 15.16 Aspirin (acetyl-salicylic acid) ................................................................. 284
Figure 15.17 Anisealcohol and anisealdehyde as members of redox-system............... 284
Figure 15.18 trans (E)-cynnamyl alcohol ..................................................................... 285
Figure 15.19 p-coumaryl-alcohol ................................................................................. 285
Figure 15.20 Coniferyl-alcohol..................................................................................... 285
Figure 15.21 Sinapyl-alcohol ........................................................................................ 285
Figure 15.22 Silybum marianum (milk thistle) ............................................................. 286
Figure 15.23 Coumarin ................................................................................................. 287
Figure 15.24 Coumarinic acid ...................................................................................... 287
Figure 15.25 Aesculin ................................................................................................... 287
Figure 15.26 Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover) ............................................. 288
Figure 15.27 Dicoumarol .............................................................................................. 288
Figure 15.28 Psoralen ................................................................................................... 288
Figure 15.29 Angelicin ................................................................................................. 289
Figure 15.30 Imperatorin .............................................................................................. 289
321
Pharmacognosy 1
Figure 15.31 Xanthotoxin ............................................................................................. 289

Figure 15.32 Angelica archangelica (garden angelica) ................................................ 290
Figure 15.33 Heracleum sphondylium (hogweed) leaf ................................................. 290
Figure 15.34 Ruta graveolens (common rue)............................................................... 291
Figure 15.35 Citrus limon (lemon) ................................................................................ 291
Figure 15.36 -pyran ..................................................................................................... 292
Figure 15.37 -pyran ..................................................................................................... 292
Figure 15.38 -pyrone ................................................................................................... 292
Figure 15.39 -pyrone ................................................................................................... 292
Figure 15.40 Skeletons of chromane, chromene and chromone ................................... 293
Figure 15.41 Flavan....................................................................................................... 293
Figure 15.42 Flaven....................................................................................................... 293
Figure 15.43 Flavon ...................................................................................................... 293
Figure 15.44 Flavonol (3-hydroxy-flavon) ................................................................... 294
Figure 15.45 Quercetin (5,7,3,4-tetrahydroxy-flavonol) ............................................ 294
Figure 15.46 Formation of oxoniumsalts ...................................................................... 295
Figure 15.47 Colour change of pelargonidin chloride pelargonidin .......................... 295
Figure 15.48 Centaurea cyanus (cornflower) ............................................................... 296
Figure 15.49 Cyanidin chloride (3,5,7,3,4-pentahydroxyflavylium chloride) ........... 296
Figure 15.50 Delphinidin chloride (3,5,7,3,45-hexahydroxyflavylium chloride) ..... 297
Figure 15.51 Vitis vinifera (grape-vine) in bloom......................................................... 297
Figure 15.52 Ribes nigrum (black currant) ................................................................... 298
Figure 15.53 Fruits of elderberry = Sambuci fructus (Sambucus nigra)....................... 298
Figure 15.54 Roselle calyx of Hibiscus sabdariffa (hibiscus) ................................... 299
Figure 15.55 (meta)di-gallic acid (component of Chinese tannin) ............................... 300
Figure 15.56 Penta-meta-digalloyl--D-glucose ........................................................... 300
Figure 15.57 Bark and leaves of Quercus (oak) spp. .................................................... 300
Figure 15.58 Fagus sylvatica (common beech) ........................................................... 301
Figure 15.59 Leaf and male catkin of Corylus avellana (common hazel) .................... 301
Figure 15.60 Juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone) ............................................... 302
Figure 15.61 Anthraquinone (9,10-antraquinone)......................................................... 302
Figure 15.62 Cassia (senna) species ............................................................................. 303
Figure 15.63 Aloe sp. (aloe) .......................................................................................... 303
Figure 15.64 Rheum rhabarbarum (rhubarb, pieplant) ................................................. 304
Figure 15.65 Anthrone .................................................................................................. 304
322
Figures
Figure 15.66 Hypericum perforatum (St. Johns wort) ................................................ 305

Figure 15.67 Cannabis sativa (hemp)........................................................................... 306
Figure 15.68 Humulus lupulus (hop) and its strobili .................................................... 307
Figure 15.69 4-cyclohexene-1,3-dione ......................................................................... 307
323
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What is the scope of the document?

What is the scope of the document?

What are some of the important medicinal plants discussed in the document?

What are some of the important medicinal plants discussed in the document?

Development of digital learning materials for renewable pharmaceutical practice-oriented skills

Development of digital learning materials

University of Pcs Pcs, 2014

The project is funded by the European Union and

Editor in charge: University of Pcs

Editor in charge: Dr. gnes Farkas

Other developers: Dr. Tmea Bencsik, Dr. Nra Papp

Technical editors: Szilvia Czulk, Zsolt Bencze

Lectors: Dr. Sndor Gonda, Dr. Gbor Vasas

Length: 326 pages

Chapter 1 Scope of Pharmacognosy; Scientific and common name of

Chapter 2 Wild, protected and cultivated medicinal plants; medicinal plant

2.8 Main Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) cultivated in

Chapter 3 Tea drugs, primary processing of medicinal plants, plant extracts;

Chapter 4 Natural substances in pharmaceutical research .......................................... 113

Chapter 5 Phytotherapy; (traditional) herbal medicines and dietary

Requalification of herbal products (in Hungary)............................ 132

Chapter 6 Aromatherapy and homeopathy .................................................................. 133

Chapter 7 Drugs of fungus and animal origin ............................................................. 155

Chapter 8 Photosynthesis and related metabolic pathways for the formation of

Chapter 9 Role of nitrate- and sulphate-reduction in synthesis of effective

Chapter 10 Synthesis, role and usage of carbohydrates ............................................. 181

Mannanes ........................................................................................ 194

Chapter 12 Biosynthesis and classification of terpenoids ........................................... 219

Chapter 14 General features of alkaloids.................................................................... 265

Chapter 15 General features of phenoloids ................................................................ 279

Figures .......................................................................................................................... 309

Literature ....................................................................................................................... 325

1.1 Scope of Pharmacognosy

1.2 Scientific and common name of medicinal plants and

e.g. Ginseng radix (ginseng root) Panax ginseng

herba: aerial parts of the plant

e.g. Anisi stellati fructus Illicium verum (star anise)

e.g. Capsici fructus (pepper fruit) Capsicum annuum (pepper)

pseudofructus: false fruit

bacca / galbulus: cone berry

e.g. Lini semen (flax seed) Linum usitatissimum (flax)

summitas: upper twigs with leaves, flowers/fruits

aetheroleum: essential oil

Drugs of animal origin

1.3 Basic Ethnobotany

Leading journals of the field include

Data types and analyses

In veterinary medicine, a well-known example is inducing a local inflammation by

Significance of the field

2.1 Medicinal plant (MP) production and usage in Hungary

End of 1990s, 2000-onward

2.2 Area for MP cultivation in Hungary

2.3 Trends of MP collection from natural habitats

Species spectrum of MP collected from natural habitats

2.4 The most important medicinal plants and/or their drug

2.5 Collection and purchase of MPs from natural habitats

How to collect MPs properly

(1) Be sure you know the plant

Related species have to be distinguished