Experiment-1

Aim: To study the trainer kit for various experiments

Equipment Required:
Scientech 2502 Optical Fiber Communication Kit, Scientech 2502 Techbook Manual

Theory:
Scientech 2502 is an Advanced Fiber Optic Communication Kit & Techbook designed to learn
the communication techniques in Fiber Optics. It demonstrates properties of fiber optics
transmitter & receiver, characteristics of Fiber Optics Cable, different types of
Modulation/Demodulation techniques and PC to PC communication via Fiber Optic link using
RS232 interface. It can also be used to demonstrate various Digital communication techniques
via fiber optic link.

Layout of Trainer Kit:

Fig 1: Layout of Scientech 2502 Trainer Kit

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Features of Trainer Kit:
Full Duplex Analog & Digital Trans-receiver, Single module covering large number of
experiments including experiments with Optical Power Meter, 660 nm & 950 nm (Optional
LASER source) channel with Transmitter & Receiver, AM-FM-PWM modulation /
demodulation, PC-PC comm. with RS232 ports & software, On board Function Generator,
Crystal controlled Clock, Functional Blocks indicated on-board, Input-output & test points
provided, On board voice link, Built in DC Power Supply, Numerical Aperture measurement
jig and mandrel for bending loss measurement, Switched faults on Transmitter & Receiver.

Scope of Learning:
Setting up Fiber Optic Analog & Digital link, AM system using Analog & Digital input signals,
Frequency Modulation system and Pulse Width
Modulation system, Study of Propagation Loss, Bending Loss & measurement
of Numerical Aperture, Characteristics of Fiber Optic communication link, Setting of Fiber
Optic voice link using Amplitude, Frequency & PWM Modulation, Study of Switched Faults
in AM, FM & PWM system, Full Duplex Computer communication using RS232 ports
and software, V-I characteristics of LED ( E - O converter), Characteristics of Photo Detector.

Result: The trainer kit for various Optical Fiber Communication experiment Scientech 2502
has been studied.

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 Experiment-2
Aim: To study various types of optical devices and sources.
Equipment Required:
 Fiber Optic Cables
 LEDs
 Laser Diodes
 Photodiodes

Theory:
Principle of Optical Sources:
It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied
to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the colour of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.
Light Emitting Diode:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction
diode, which emits light when activated. LED is a particular diode which generates photons
(light) when a stream of electrons passes through it. To build a diode we use a crystal (electric
insulator) which is doped by atoms which have one more electron on their valence band (N
doping) or missing one electron on their valence band (P doping). When a suitable voltage is
applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color
of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap
of the semiconductor. LEDs have a limited bandwidth. LEDs have a very broad spectral output
which causes them to suffer chromatic dispersion in fiber.

Fig 2. LED Structure

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Laser Diode:
A laser diode is essentially a P-N diode. The active region of the laser diode is in the intrinsic
(I) region, and the carriers (electrons and holes) are pumped into that region from the N and P
regions respectively. While initial diode laser research was conducted on simple P-N diodes,
all modern lasers use the double-heterostructure implementation, where the carriers and the
photons are confined in order to maximize their chances for recombination and light
generation. Unlike a regular diode, the goal for a laser diode is to recombine all carriers in the
I region, and produce light. Thus, laser diodes are fabricated using direct bandgap
semiconductors. LASERs have a narrow spectral output that suffers very little chromatic
dispersion. The output of the LED is very broad but lasers are very focused.

Fig. 3 Laser Diode

Optical Fiber:
An optical fiber is a glass or plastic solid waveguide or transparent fiber that carries light along
its length with the help of the total internal reflection.
It consists of core and cladding. The refractive index of core is greater than that of the cladding.
The fiber can be either single mode or multi-mode.

Fig. 4 Optical Fiber Interfaces

Multi-mode Fiber:
Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometres) maybe analysed by geometric
optics and fiber that support many propagation paths or transverse modes. Such fiber is called
multi-mode fiber. In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber

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core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core cladding boundary at a high angle
(measured relative to a line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angel for this
boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal
reflection) is determined by the difference in the index of refraction between core and cladding.
Rays that meet the boundary at the lower angle are refracted from the core into the cladding,
and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines
the acceptance angle of the fiber, often referred as the numerical aperture. A high numerical
aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various
angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this numerical aperture
increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and
therefore take different times to transverse the fiber. A low numerical aperture may therefore
be desirable.
In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in core decreases continuously between the axis
and the cladding. This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding.
Because parts of the core closer to the fiber axis have a higher refractive index than the parts
near the cladding, light rays follow sinusoidal paths down the fiber. The most common
refractive index profile for a graded-index fiber is very nearly parabolic. The parabolic profile
results in continual refocusing of the rays in the core, and minimizes modal dispersion.

Fig. 5 Various Types of Optical Fiber

A single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber designed to carry light only one and directly
down the fiber - the transverse mode. In single-mode fibres, where we can have waves with
different frequencies, but of the same mode, which means that they are distributed in space in
the same way, and that gives us a single ray of light. Although the ray travels parallel to the
length of the fiber, it is often called transverse mode since its electromagnetic vibrations occur
perpendicular (transverse) to the length of the fiber. A typical single mode optical fiber has a
core diameter between 8 and 10.5 µm and a cladding diameter of 125 µm.

Result: The optical detector has been studied.

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 Experiment-3
Aim: Introduction of fiber optical detector.
Apparatus Required:

 PIN photodiode

 APD photodiode

Theory:
Optical receivers and transmitters are of essential importance for the overall performance of
optical communication systems. The function of an optical detector is to convert the optical
signal in an electrical signal, which can then be further processed.

Principle of Optical Detector:

The conversion of an optical into an electrical signal requires the absorption of the incident
light. The absorption leads to an excitation of an electron from the valence to the conduction
band. What is left in the valence band is a vacancy, which we call a “hole”. Therefore, we speak
about the photo-generation of electron-hole pairs, because the absorption always leads to the
generation of a hole and an electron. (That does not necessary mean that both carriers contribute
to the electronic transport, but the generation creates both species. If now a photon gets
absorbed in the material the electron-hole pairs have to be separated by an electric field. The
energy of the photon has to be sufficiently high to excite an electron from the valence to the
conduction band.

PIN Diode:
As a consequence, the depletion region is extended across the intrinsic or lightly doped layer
and therefore more photo-generated carriers contribute to the photocurrent. The pin-diode can
be realized as a homo-junction or a heterojunction. If the structure is realized in silicon the
device will be usually a homo junction. Under such conditions all three layers (p, i and n-
region) have the same optical bandgap. Depending on the application the thickness and the
individual layers can be adjusted. The thicker the i-layer the further the sensitivity can be
extending in the near infrared part of the optical spectrum. If there is only an interest in
detecting blue or green light the i-layer can be kept short. The pin diode shown on this slide is
a crystalline silicon pin diode. Therefore, the diode is only sensitive up to a wavelength of
1100nm. In such a case the i-layer would be already relatively thick (typically a few 100μm)

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APD Photodiode:
One way of increasing the sensitivity of the receiver is amplification. APDs amplify the signal
during the detection process. The operating principle of an APD is based on the avalanche
effect, where a highly accelerated electron excites another electron due to “impact ionization”.
However, in the first step a photon has to be absorbed and an electron-hole pair has to be
generated. The device consists of two regions. In region 1 of the device the electron hole pairs
are generated and separated. In region 2 of the device the carriers are accelerated and „impact
ionized”. The device operation works as following: Arriving photons pass through thin n+p
junction. The carriers are absorbed in a π- region. The absorption leads to the generation of
electron-hole pairs in this region. The electric field in the π-region is high enough to separate
the carriers. The electric field across the π-region is not high enough for the charge carriers to
gain enough energy for multiplication to take place. The electric field, however, in the n+p-
region the electric field is significantly higher.

Result: The fiber optical detector has been studied.

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 Experiment-4
Aim: To study a Fiber Optic Analog link.

Apparatus Required:

 Fiber link circuit kit

 Patch cords
 Dual channel Oscilloscope
 Optical fiber cable

Theory:

Optical Fiber:

An optical fiber is a glass or plastic solid rode that carries light along its length with the help
of the total internal reflection. It consists of core and cladding. The refractive index of core is
greater than that of the cladding. The fiber can be either single mode or multi-mode. There are
two types of optical fiber, one is single mode fiber and the other one is multimode fiber.

Transmitter:

The transmitter basically converts the electrical signal into an optical signal. The sources used
for fiber optic transmitters need to meet several criteria: it has to be at the correct wavelength,
be able to be modulated fast enough to transmit data and be efficiently coupled into fiber. Two
main types of sources are commonly used, LEDs and Laser Diodes. LEDs have much lower
power outputs than lasers and their larger, diverging light output pattern makes them harder to
couple into fibers, limiting them to use with multimode fibers. Laser have smaller tighter light
outputs and are easily coupled to single-mode fibers, making them ideal for long-distance high-
speed links.

Receiver:

The conversion of an optical into an electrical signal requires the absorption of the incident
light. The absorption leads to an excitation of an electron from the valence to the conduction
band. What is left in the valence band is a vacancy, which we call a “hole”. Therefore, we speak
about the photo-generation of electron-hole pairs, because the absorption always leads to the
generation of a hole and an electron. That does not necessary mean that both carriers contribute
to the electronic transport, but the generation creates both species. If now a photon gets
absorbed in the material the electron-hole pairs have to be separated by an electric field. The
energy of the photon has to be sufficiently high to excite an electron from the valence to the
conduction band.

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 Block Diagram of Optical Fiber Communication System

Optical Repeater:

An optical communications repeater is used in a fiber-optic communications system to

regenerate an optical signal by converting it to an electrical signal, processing that electrical
signal and then retransmitting an optical signal. Such repeaters are used to extend the reach of
optical communications links by overcoming loss due to attenuation of the optical fiber and
distortion of the optical signal. Such repeaters are known as optical-electrical-optical (OEO)
due to the conversion of the signal. Repeaters are also called regenerators for the same reason.

Optical Amplifier:

An optical amplifier is a device that amplifies an optical signal directly, without the need to
first convert it to an electrical signal. An optical amplifier may be thought of as a laser without
an optical cavity, or one in which feedback from the cavity is suppressed.

Procedure:
a) Slightly unscrew the cap of LED from the kit, then connect the fiber to the LED and
assure that the fiber is properly fixed.
b) Connect the other end of the fiber to the detector circuit.
c) Make jumper connections as in the block diagram and connect the power supply with
proper polarity of the kit.
d) Check the output signal of the amplifier.
e) Observe the output signal from the detector on oscilloscope, you should get the
reproduction of the originally transmitted signal.

Result: Fiber optic analog link has been successfully studied.

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 Experiment-5
Aim: To study a fiber optic digital link.

Apparatus Required:

 Fiber link circuit kit

 Patch cords
 Dual channel Oscilloscope
 Optical fiber cable

Theory:

Optical Fiber:

An optical fiber is a glass or plastic solid rode that carries light along its length with the help
of the total internal reflection. It consists of core and cladding. The refractive index of core is
greater than that of the cladding. The fiber can be either single mode or multi-mode. There are
two types of optical fiber, one is single mode fiber and the other one is multimode fiber.

Transmitter:

The transmitter basically converts the electrical signal into an optical signal. The sources used
for fiber optic transmitters need to meet several criteria: it has to be at the correct wavelength,
be able to be modulated fast enough to transmit data and be efficiently coupled into fiber. Two
main types of sources are commonly used, LEDs and Laser Diodes. LEDs have much lower
power outputs than lasers and their larger, diverging light output pattern makes them harder to
couple into fibers, limiting them to use with multimode fibers. Laser have smaller tighter light
outputs and are easily coupled to single-mode fibers, making them ideal for long-distance high-
speed links.

Receiver:

The conversion of an optical into an electrical signal requires the absorption of the incident
light. The absorption leads to an excitation of an electron from the valence to the conduction
band. What is left in the valence band is a vacancy, which we call a “hole”. Therefore, we speak
about the photo-generation of electron-hole pairs, because the absorption always leads to the
generation of a hole and an electron. (That does not necessary mean that both carriers contribute
to the electronic transport, but the generation creates both species. If now a photon gets
absorbed in the material the electron-hole pairs have to be separated by an electric field. The
energy of the photon has to be sufficiently high to excite an electron from the valence to the
conduction band.

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 Block Diagram of Optical Fiber Communication System

Optical Repeater:

An optical communications repeater is used in a fiber-optic communications system to

regenerate an optical signal by converting it to an electrical signal, processing that electrical
signal and then retransmitting an optical signal. Such repeaters are used to extend the reach of
optical communications links by overcoming loss due to attenuation of the optical fiber and
distortion of the optical signal. Such repeaters are known as optical-electrical-optical (OEO)
due to the conversion of the signal. Repeaters are also called regenerators for the same reason.

Optical Amplifier:

An optical amplifier is a device that amplifies an optical signal directly, without the need to
first convert it to an electrical signal. An optical amplifier may be thought of as a laser without
an optical cavity, or one in which feedback from the cavity is suppressed.

Procedure:
a) Slightly unscrew the cap of LED from the kit, then connect the fiber to the LED and
assure that the fiber is properly fixed.
b) Connect the other end of the fiber to the detector circuit.
c) Make jumper connections as in the block diagram and connect the power supply with
proper polarity of the kit.
d) Check the output signal of the amplifier.
e) Observe the output signal from the detector on oscilloscope, you should get the
reproduction of the originally transmitted signal.

Result: Fiber optic digital link has been successfully studied.

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 Experiment-6
Aim: To study the propagation losses in an optical fiber
Apparatus Required:
 Two Optical fibers of different lengths
 Optical source
 Signal generator
 CRO

Theory:
Attenuation is loss of power. During transit, light pulse loose some of its photons thus reducing
its amplitude. Attenuation for a fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometre. For
commercially available fibers, attenuation ranges from 1db/km for premium small core glass
fibers. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In common usage, discussions of loss omit the
negative sign. The basic measurement for loss in a fiber is made by taking the logarithmic ratio
of the input power (Pi) to the output power (Po).

α (dB) = 10 log10 Pi/P0

where α is Loss in dB/meter.

Procedure:
a) Generate a sine wave signal and connect it to the CRO to see the transmitted signal.
b) Now transmit the same signal through the optical fiber cable of length 30cm.
c) Compare the original signal and the signal transmitted through the optical fiber cable.
d) Now transmit the signal through the optical fiber cable of length 100cm.
e) Compare the original signal and the signal transmitted through the optical fiber cable.

Observations:
The signal transmitted via the 30 cm optical fiber cable had a very small attenuation, but the
signal transmitted via the 100 cm optical fiber cable showed a significant amount of
attenuation.

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 Kit setup for the propagation loss experiment.

The following are the images of transmitted signal, output through 30cm optical fiber and
output through 100 cm optical fiber.

Transmitted Signal

Signal transmitted via 30 cm optical fiber

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Signal transmitted via 100 cm optical fiber

Result:
The propagation losses increase as the length of the fiber increases.

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 Experiment-7
Aim: To study the bending losses in an optical fiber
Apparatus required:

 Optical Fiber

 Bending Cylinder

 Optical source

 Signal generator

 CRO

Theory:
There are two types of bends in optical fibers.
1. Macroscopic bending loss (having a larger radius than that of the fiber diameter)
2. Microscopic bending loss (random microscopic bends of the fiber axis)

In this experiment, we are going to focus on the macroscopic bending loss.

For a slight bend in an Optical Fiber, the loss is extremely small and is not observed. But as
the radius of curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially until at a certain critical
radius of curvature loss becomes observable. If the bend radius is made a bit smaller once this
threshold point has been reached, the losses suddenly become extremely large.

Multimode fibers are much more susceptible to macro bending losses than single-mode fibers.
The macro bending losses are proportional to the operating wavelength and core refractive
index, and inversely proportional to the refractive index difference between the core and
cladding.

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Procedure:

i. Generate a sine wave signal and transmit it through the optical fiber.
ii. Observe the transmitted signal on the CRO.
iii. Now transmit the same signal through the same fiber after bending the fiber on the
bending cylinder.
iv. Observe the signal transmitted by the bent fiber and compare it with the previously
transmitted signal.

Observations:
The signal transmitted via the bent fiber had a significant power loss as compared to the signal
transmitted through the fiber without bending it. The following are the images of output
through unbent optical fiber and output through bent optical fiber.

Kit setup for the bending loss experiment.

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Signal transmitted via optical fiber without bending

Signal transmitted via bent optical fiber

Result:
The bending losses increases as the radius of bending decreases.

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