CHAPTER

Pressure Drop in
Piping *
INTRODUCTION
Piping design in production facilities involves the selection of a pipe
diameter and a wall thickness that is capable of transporting fluid from
one piece of process equipment to another, within the allowable pressure
drop and pressure rating restraints imposed by the process. The first step
in being able to make these changes is to understand how pressure drops
in these lines are calculated. This is discussed in this chapter, while the
next chapter discusses the concepts involved in choosing a line size and a
pressure rating.
While this chapter emphasizes piping that exists within a facility, the
concepts included on pressure drop are equally valid for determining the
pressure drop in flowlines, pipelines, gas transmission lines, etc.
This chapter first introduces the basic principles for determining pres-
sure drops in piping and then discusses the flow equations for liquid
flow, compressible flow, and two-phase flow. Finally, it shows how to
calculate pressure drop in valves and fittings when using the various flow
equations. The last part of this chapter includes some example calcula-
tions for determining the pressure drop in various types of pipe.

*Reviewed for the 1998 edition by Eric M. Barron of Paragon Engineering Services, Inc.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that relates the

ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. It can be expressed by the fol-
lowing general equation:

Re = ^ (8-1)

where Re= Reynolds number

p = density, lb/ft3
D = pipe ID, ft
V = flow velocity, ft/sec
|u/ = viscosity, lb/ft-sec
The Reynolds number can be expressed in more convenient terms. For
liquids, the equation becomes:

R. = 7 , 7 3 8 ( S G > d V (8-2)

Re = 92.1 ( S ^ I - (8-3)

where u. = viscosity, cp
d = pipe ID, in.
V = velocity, ft/sec
S.G. = specific gravity of liquid relative to water
Qi = liquid flow rate, bpd
Derivation of Equations 8-2 and 8-3
|l is in cp, p in lb/ft3, d in inches
| / = M/1,488
p = 62.4(S.G.)
D = d/12

R c = (62.4) (S.G.)d V (1,488)

(12)n
_ 7,738(S.G.)dV
Ke =
 Q is in ft 3 /sec, A in ft2

v-2
A
Q= Ql x 5.61 _ * ! _ x _ ^ L x _ * _ = 6 .49 x !0-5Q1
barrel 24hr 3,600s

A= r c D 2 = 7td2
4 " ( 4 ) (144)

(6.49 x IP"5) (4) (144)

Ql
rid2
R c = 92.1(S-C)Q 1
d*i
For gases, the equation becomes:

Re = 20,100 - ^ - (8-4)

where Qg = gas flow rate, MMscfd

S = specific gravity of gas at standard conditions (air =1)
d = pipe ID, in.
\l = viscosity, cp
Derivation of Equation 8-4
Pg is in lb/ft3, D in ft, (l in cp, |x' in lb/ft-sec

Re=P'D>

where Vact = actual gas velocity, ft/sec

T is in 0R, d in inches, P is psia
p s?o sP
pKgE = 0.0764(S) x x = 2.7
14,7 T Z TZ
D = d/12
| / = H/1,488
 \T _ Q act
Vact- A

Q g is in MMscfd, Q act in ft3/s

A in6 scf day hr 14.7 TZ

Qart
act = QP
g x 10 x x x x
MMscf 24hr 3,600s P 520

Q act = 0.327 TZQ

_ 2p

nd2
" ( 4 ) (144)

Re = 2 0 , 1 0 0 ^ -
d|i

Flow Regimes

Flow regimes describe the nature of fluid flow. There are two basic
flow regimes for flow of a single-phase fluid: laminar flow and turbulent
flow. Laminar flow is characterized by little mixing of the flowing fluid
and a parabolic velocity profile. Turbulent flow involves complete mix-
ing of the fluid and a more uniform velocity profile. Laminar flow has
been shown by experiment to exist at Re < 2,000 and turbulent flow at
Re > 4,000. Reynolds numbers between 2,000 and 4,000 are in a transi-
tion zone, and thus the flow may be either laminar or turbulent.

Bernoulli's Theorem

It is customary to express the energy contained in a fluid in terms of

the potential energy contained in an equivalent height or "head" of a col-
umn of the fluid. Using this convention, Bernoulli's theorem breaks
down the total energy at a point in terms of
1. The head due to its elevation above an arbitrary datum of zero
potential energy.
2. A pressure head due to the potential energy contained in the pres-
sure in the fluid at that point.
3. A velocity head due to the kinetic energy contained within the fluid.
 Assuming that no energy is added to the fluid by a pump or compres-
sor, and that the fluid is not performing work as in a steam turbine, the
law of conservation of energy requires that the energy at point "2" in the
piping system downstream of point " 1 " must equal the energy at point
" 1 " minus the energy loss to friction and change in elevation. Thus,
Bernoulli's theorem may be written:
(Elevation Head)j (Elevation Head)2
+ (Pressure Head)! = + (Pressure Head)2
+ (Velocity Head)!2 + (Velocity Head)22
+ (Friction Head Loss)
or
144P1 Vi2 144Po V?
Z ! + i - ^ + - ^ = Z 2 + ^ ^ + ^ - + HL (8-5)
Pi 2g p2 2g
where Z = elevation head, ft
P = pressure, psi
p = density, lb/ft3
V = velocity, ft/sec
g = gravitation constant
HL = friction head loss, ft
Dairy's Equation
This equation, which is also sometimes called the Weisbach equation
or the Darcy-Weisbach equation, states that the friction head loss
between two points in a completely filled, circular cross section pipe is
proportional to the velocity head and the length of pipe and inversely
proportional to the pipe diameter. This can be written:
fj v2
HL = ^ - (8-6)
D2g
where L= length of pipe, ft
D = pipe diameter, ft
f = factor of proportionality
Equations 8-5 and 8-6 can be used to calculate the pressure at any point
in a piping system if the pressure, flow velocity, pipe diameter, and eleva-
tion are known at any other point. Conversely, if the pressure, pipe diameter,
and elevations are known at two points, the flow velocity can be calculated.
In most production facility piping systems the head differences due to
elevation and velocity changes between two points can be neglected. In
this case Equation 8-5 can be reduced to:
 P 1 -P 2 =AP = - - H L (8-7)
1 2
144 L
where AP = loss in pressure between points 1 and 2, psi
Substituting Equation 8-6 into Equation 8-7, we have:

J D2g
AP =144 ^L

Substituting D =

where d = pipe diameter, in.

^p = pfLV2(12)
(144)(2)(32.2)d
which reduces to:

AP = 0,0013 f p L V (8-8)
d
Moody Friction Factor

The factor of proportionality in the previous equations is called the

Moody friction factor and is determined from the Moody resistance dia-
gram shown in Figure 8-1. The friction factor is sometimes expressed in
terms of the Fanning friction factor, which is one-fourth of the Moody
friction factor. In some references the Moody friction factor is used, in
others, the Fanning friction factor is used. Care must be exercised to
avoid inadvertent use of the wrong friction factor.
In general, the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number, Re,
and the relative roughness of the pipe, e/D. For Laminar flow, f is a func-
tion of only the Re:

f =-^ (8-9)
Re
For turbulent flow, f is a function of both pipe roughness and the
Reynolds number. At high values of Re, f is a function only of e/D.
Table 8-1 shows the relative roughness for various types of new, clean
pipe. These values should be increased by a factor of 2-4 to allow for age
and use.
 Figure 8-1. Friction
factor chart (courtesy of
API RP 14Ej.

CHART FOR RELATIVE PIPE ROUGHNESS

LEGEND
T. Drawn Tubing
F. Fiberglass Epoxy
S. Steel Pipe clean commercial
(Use also for Cement-Asbestos
or Cement-lined Steel Pipe)
Cl.-Cast Iron, clean
G.I. Galvan.lron

PIPE DIAMETER, (!,INCHES

REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re
 Table 8-1
Pipe Roughness
Type of Pipe Roughness Roughness
(New, clean condition) E (ft) (in.)

Unlined Concrete 0.001-0.01 0.012-0.12

Cast IronUncoated 0.00085 0.01
Galvanized Iron 0.0005 0.006
Carbon Steel 0.00015 0.0018
Fiberglass Epoxy 0.000025 0.0003
Drawn Tubing 0.000005 0.00006
Increase by factor of 2-4 to allow for age and use.

FLUID FLOW EQUATIONS

Liquid Flow

AP = ( I L S x I O - 6 ) ^ ' f 0 0 (8-10)

where AP = pressure drop, psi

f = Moody friction factor, dimensionless
L = length of pipe, ft
Q1 = liquid flow rate, bpd
S.G. = specific gravity of liquid relative to water
d = pipe ID, in.
Derivation of Equation 8-10
p is in lb/ft3, L in ft, V in ft/s, d in inches.

AP = 0 . 0 0 1 3 ^ ^
d

Q in ft3/s, A in ft2.

A
Q1 is in bpd.

Q = Q1 x 5.61 - f t x - ^ - x h r =6.49 x 10- 5 Q 1

barrel 24hr 3,600s
 (4) (144)

p = 62.4(S.G.)

AP-(11.5xl^)tU^O->

The most common use of Equation 8-10 is to determine a pipe diame-

ter for a given flow rate and allowable pressure drop. However, first, a
calculation of Reynolds number (Equation 8-2 or 8-3) to determine the
friction factor must be made. Since a Reynolds number depends on the
pipe diameter the equation cannot be solved directly. One method to
overcome this disadvantage is to assume a typical friction factor of
0.025, solve Equation 8-10 for diameter, compute a Reynolds number,
and then compare the assumed friction factor to one read from Figure 8-1.
If the two are not sufficiently close, it is possible to iterate the solution
until convergence.
Figure 8-2 is a curve that can be used to approximate pressure drop or
required pipe diameter. It is based on an assumed friction factor relation-
ship, which can be adjusted to some extent for liquid viscosity.
In an effort to void an iterative calculation, several empirical formulas
have been developed. The most common of these is the Hazen-Williams
formula, which can be expressed as follows:

HL = 0.00208 (Mj" 8 5 ( ^ J " 1 5 L (8-11)

H
L = 0 - 0 1 5 ^ ^ (8-12)

where HL = head loss due to friction, ft

L= length, ft
C = friction factor constant, dimensionless
= 140 for new steel pipe
= 130 for new cast iron pipe
= 100 for riveted pipe
d = pipe ID, in.
gpm = liquid flow rate, gallons/minute
Q1 = liquid flow rate, bpd
 NOTES:
1. Chart is based on a liquid sp. gr. of 1. For other
values, multiply pressure drop from graph by
actual sp. gr.
2. Chart is based on a Kinematic viscosity of 1.1. If
R, is greater than 2000, apply the following cor-
rection factors.
Viscosity Correction
Centistokes Factor
2 1.14
5 1.40
10 1.70
30 2.37
50 2.68
70 3.06
100 3.50
3. Centistokes = Centipoise H- Specific Gravity
4. Flow rates, specific gravities and viscosities are at
flowing temperature and pressure.
5. Pressure drops were calculated using equation 2.2.
Correction factors were taken from NGPSA Data
Book, 1972.

LIQUID FLOW RATE, BARRELS FLUID/DAY

Figure 8-2. Pressure drop in liquid lines (courtesy of API RP 74E).

 This equation is based on water flowing under turbulent conditions
with a viscosity of 1.13 centipoise, which is the case for water at 6O0R
Since water viscosity varies appreciably from 32F to 212F, the friction
factor can decrease or increase as much as 40% between the two temper-
ature extremes.
The Hazen-Williams equation is frequently used for calculating pres-
sure losses and line capacities in water service. The discharge coefficient
"C" must be carefully chosen to reflect both fluid viscosity and pipe
roughness in a used condition. A "C" factor of 90 to 100 in steel pipe is
common for most produced liquid problems. Hazen-Williams factor "C"
must not be confused with the Moody friction factor "f," as these two
factors are not directly related to each other. Typical "C" factors for vari-
ous types of pipe are shown in Table 8-2.
Table 8-2
Hazen-Williams "C" Factors
Values of C
Type of Pipe RANGE* AVERAGE** COMMON***

Welded and Seamless Steel 150-80 140 100

Cement 160-140 150 140
Fibre 150 140
Cement-Lined Iron 150 140
Bitumastic-Enamel Lined Iron 160-130 148 140
Copper, Brass, Lead, Tin or Glass 150-120 140 130
* highbest, smooth, well laid; lowpoor or corroded
** value for good, clean, new pipe
*** value used for design purposes.

Gas Flow

The Darcy equation assumes constant density over the pipe section
between the inlet and outlet points. While this assumption is valid for liq-
uids, it is incorrect for pipelines flowing gases, where density is a strong
function of pressure and temperature. As the gas flows through the pipe it
expands due to the drop in pressure and thus tends to decrease in density.
At the same time, if heat is not added to the system, the gas will cool,
causing the gas to tend to increase in density. In control valves, where the
change in pressure is near instantaneous, and thus no heat is added to the
system, the expansion can be considered adiabatic. In pipe flow, howev-
er, the pressure drop is gradual and there is sufficient pipe surface area
between the gas and the surrounding medium to add heat to the gas and
thus keep the gas at constant temperature. In such a case the gas can be
considered to undergo an isothermal expansion.
On occasion, where the gas temperature is significantly different from
ambient, the assumption of isothermal (constant temperature) flow is
not valid. In these instances greater accuracy can be obtained by break-
ing the line up into short segments that correspond to only small temper-
ature changes.
The general isothermal equation for the expansion of gas can be given
by:

144 A2
w> = , S , N2-(P*)21 (8-13)

where w = rate of flow, lb/sec

g = acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2
A = cross-sectional area of pipe, ft2
V1 = specific volume of gas at upstream conditions, ft3/lb
f= friction factor
L = length, ft
D = diameter of pipe, ft
P1 = upstream pressure, psia
P 2 = downstream pressure, psia
This equation assumes that
1. No work is performed between points 1 and 2, i.e., there are no
compressors or expanders and no elevation changes.
2. The gas is flowing under steady state conditions, i.e., no accelera-
tion changes.
3. The Moody friction factor, f, is constant as a function of length.
There is some change due to a change in Reynolds number, but this
is quite small.
For practical pipeline purposes,
P fL
2 loge and can be ignored.
P2 D
With this assumption and substituting in Equation 8-13 for practical oil
field units:
9 9 S Q^ ZTfL
P12 2
- P 2 = 25.1 g
5
l
(8-14)
 where P1 = upstream pressure, psia
P 2 = downstream pressure, psia
S = gas specific gravity at standard conditions
Qg = gas flow rate, MMscfd
Z = compressibility factor for gas
T1 = flowing temperature, 0R
f = Moody friction factor, dimensionless
d = pipe ID, in.
Derivation of Equation 8-14

W2 = 144gA 2 [(P 1 ) 2 -(P 2 ) 2 "

Qg is in MMscfd, S is at STP, w in lb/sec.

1 OOO 000
Q i,uw, WU 0 0 M (S = 0 g84 (S) Q
g g
(24) (3,600)
d is in inches, A in ft2.
D = d/12

A=^ = 0.00545 d2
(4) (144)

T1 is in 0R, P1 in psia, p in Ib / ft3

Pi Vi = Ps Vs
Z1 T1 Z s Ts

At standard conditions Ps = 14.7, V8 = - = , Ts = 520

p 0.0764(S) s
Z8 =1.0
- 1 14.7 ZT,
Vi = x x L
0.0764(S) P1 520
Vi =0.370 ^ 1
SP1
 21Og 6 Ji = O

ro883so i2 =(144)(32'2)(0-545)2d4spidl"pi2-p2"
g p
(0.370) T1ZfL (12) L i

, , SQ 2 Z 1Lf L
2 2
P 1 -P 2 =25.1 V g d 5 '

The "Z" factor will change slightly from point 1 to point 2. It is usual-
ly assumed to be constant and is chosen for an "average" pressure of:

r pp i
2/3 P 1 + P 2 - 1 2 (8-15)
Rearranging Equation 8-14 and solving for Qg we have:

Qg= 0.199 [ d 5 ( p i 2 - p 2 2 )] (8_16)

g
[_ ZTjfLS J
An approximation of Equation 8-14 can be made when the change in
pressure is less than 10% of the inlet pressure. If this is true we can make
the assumption:
P 1 2 -P 2 2 = 2P1 ( P 1 - P 2 )
Substituting into Equation 8-14 we have:

[SQ^ZTifLl
g
AP = 12.6 , (8-17)
5
L Pid J
As was the case for liquid flow, in order to solve any of these equa-
tions for a pipe diameter to handle a given flow and pressure drop, it is
necessary to first guess the diameter and then compute a Reynolds num-
ber to determine the friction factor. Once the friction factor is known, a
pipe diameter can be calculated and compared against the assumed num-
ber. The process can be iterated until convergence.
Several empirical gas flow equations have been developed. These
equations are patterned after the general flow equation (Equation 8-16),
but make certain assumptions so as to avoid solving for the Moody fric-
tion factor. The three most common gas flow equations are described in
the following sections.
Weymouth Equation

This equation is based on measurements of compressed air flowing in

pipes ranging from 0.8 in. to 11.8 in. in the range of the Moody diagram
where the e/d curves are horizontal (i.e., high Reynolds number). In this
range the Moody friction factor is independent of the Reynolds number
and dependent upon the relative roughness. For a given absolute rough-
ness, 8, the friction factor is merely a function of diameter. For steel pipe
the Weymouth data indicate:

f=<P? <,..
Substituting this into Equation 8-16, the Weymouth equation
expressed in practical oil field units is:
2
2 67
r Pl
P2 PP2
2f
Qg =l.lld - " (8-19)
L LSZTi J
where Qg = flow rate, MMscfd
d = pipe ID, in.
P1 and P 2 = pressure at points 1 and 2 respectively, psia
L = length of pipe, ft
S = specific gravity of gas at standard conditions
T1 = temperature of gas at inlet, 0R
Z = compressibility factor of gas
Assuming a temperature of 5200R, a compressibility of 1.0 and a spe-
cific gravity of 0.6 the Weymouth equation can also be written:

Q^ = 865d267 ^ ^- (8-20)

where Q'g = flow rate, scfd

Lm = pipe length, miles
This is the form of the equation given in the Gas Processors Suppliers
Association (GPSA) Engineering Data Book. The correction factors for
gravity and temperature are merely ratios of square roots of the assumed
values divided by the actual values.
It is important to remember the assumptions used in deriving this
equation and when they are appropriate. Short lengths of pipe with high
pressure drops are likely to be in turbulent flow and thus the assump-
tions made by Weymouth are appropriate. Industry experience indicates
that Weymouth's equation is suitable for most piping within the pro-
duction facility. However, the friction factor used by Weymouth is gen-
erally too low for large diameter or low velocity lines where the flow
regime is more properly characterized by the sloped portion of the
Moody diagram.

Panhandle Equation

This equation was intended to reflect the flow of gas through smooth
pipes and is a reasonable approximation of partially turbulent flow
behavior. The friction factor can be represented by a straight line of con-
stant negative slope in the moderate Reynolds number region of the
Moody diagram.
A straight line on the Moody diagram would be expressed:
log f = n log Re + log C (8-21)
or

f = (8-22)
Re
The Panhandle A equation applies to Reynolds numbers in the 5 X l O 6
to 11 X 10 6 range and assumes n = 0.146. The Panhandle B equation
assumes more fully developed turbulent flow (greater Reynolds number)
and assumes a lower slope of n = 0.039.
Using this assumption and assuming a constant viscosity for the gas,
the Panhandle A equation can be written:

r p 2 . P 2 i0059
Qg = 0.020 E [ s o.853" Z T ^ m j <*2-62 (8 - 23)

Panhandle B can be written:

r P 2 - p 2 T51
Q g = 0.028 E - j r ^ ^ d2'53 (8 - 24)
^g Q 0 . 9 6 1 ryry j V /
where E = efficiency factor
= 1.0 for brand new pipe
= 0.95 for good operating conditions
= 0.92 for average operating conditions
= 0.85 for unfavorable operating conditions
Derivation of Equations 8-23 and 8-24

Q S =O. 1 99K <P ' 2 - P ^ ) 1" 2

g
L ZT1 f L S J
Re = 20,100 ~ ^ -

C= C-V-)
Uo,iooJ

f.cf-^-T
IQg(S)J
L = 5,280L m

For Panhandle A assume:

n = 0.146
C -0.010
For Panhandle B assume:
n = 0.039
C = 0.008
In practice, the Panhandle equations are commonly used for large
diameter, long pipelines where the Reynolds number is on the straight
line portion of the Moody diagram. It can be seen that neither the
Weymouth nor the Panhandle equations represent a "conservative"
assumption. If the Weymouth formula is assumed, and the flow is a
moderate Reynolds number, the friction factor will in reality be higher
than assumed (the sloped line portion is higher than the horizontal por-
tion of the Moody curve), and the actual pressure drop will be higher
than calculated. If the Panhandle B formula is used and the flow is
actually in a high Reynolds number, the friction factor will in reality
be higher than assumed (the equation assumes the friction factor con-
tinues to decline with increased Reynolds number beyond the horizon-
tal portion of the curve), and the actual pressure drop will be higher
than calculated.

Spitzglass Equation

This equation is used for near-atmospheric pressure lines. It is derived

directly from Equation 8-16 by making the following assumptions:

Lf = I(I+ Md + 0 .03d]p-l
AlOO J
2.T = 5200R
3. Pi = 15 psi
4.Z=LO
5.AP<10%ofP!
With these assumptions, and expressing pressure drop in terms of
inches of water, the Spitzglass equation can be written:
-il/2

Qg= 0.09 ^ f ^ (8-25)

SL 1 + +0.03d

where Ahw = pressure loss, inches of water

Derivation of Equation 8-25

O.-awf^'-^'T"
8
L ZT 1 f LS J
AP < 10% P1

SQ^ZTifL

Q.=0. 2 82[ <AP)P - di i" 2

g
[SZT1 fLj
P1 = 15, Z = 1.0, T1 = 520
 (AP) (144) (12)
^= WA
AP = 0.036 Ahw

036Ah (15)d5 2
Qge =0.2 8 2[- " l"
[ S(1.0) (520) f L J

Q - 0.009 \**T
g SfL
L J
f = fi + M + o.o3dY-L]
V d J UOO J
r i1/2

Q -009 ^
^g u ' u y ( 36 ^
SL 1 + + 0.03d
Application of Gas Flow Equations
The Weymouth and Spitzglass equations both assume that the friction fac-
tor is merely a function of pipe diameter. Figure 8-3 compares the friction
factors calculated from these equations with the factor indicated by the hori-
zontal line of the Moody diagram for two different absolute roughnesses.
FRICTION FACTOR, f

Spitzglass

Darcy (f = 0.004 in.)

Darcy

Weymouth

PIPE DIAMETER, IN.

Figure 8-3. Friction factor vs. pipe diameter for three correlations.
 In the small pipe diameter range (3-6 in.) all curves tend to yield iden-
tical results. For large diameter pipe (10 in. and larger) the Spitzglass
equation becomes overly conservative. The curve is going in the wrong
direction, thus the form of the equation must be wrong. The Weymouth
equation tends to become under-conservative with pipe greater than 20
inches. Its slope is greater than the general flow equation with 8 = 0.002
inch. This is merely a result of the way in which the Spitzglass and Wey-
mouth equations represent the Moody diagram.
The empirical gas flow equations use various coefficients and expo-
nents to account for efficiency and friction factor. These equations repre-
sent the flow condition upon which they were derived, but may not be
accurate under different conditions. Unfortunately, these equations are
often used as if they were universally applicable. The following guide-
lines are recommended in the use of gas flow equations:
1. The general gas flow equation is recommended for most general
usage. If it is inconvenient to use the iterative procedure of the gen-
eral equation and it is not known whether the Weymouth or the Pan-
handle equations are applicable, compute the results using both
Weymouth and Panhandle equations and use the higher calculated
pressure drop.
2. Use the Weymouth equation only for small-diameter, short-run pipe
within the production facility where the Reynolds number is expect-
ed to be high.
3. Use the Panhandle equations only for large-diameter, long-run
pipelines where the Reynolds number is expected to be moderate.
4. Use the Spitzglass equation for low pressure vent lines less than 12-
inches in diameter.
5. When using gas flow equations for old pipe, attempt to derive the
proper efficiency factor through field tests. Buildup of scale, corrosion,
liquids, paraffin, etc. can have a large effect on gas flow efficiency.
Two-Phase Flow

Two-phase flow of liquid and gas is a very complex physical process.

Even when the best existing correlations for pressure drop and liquid
holdup are used, predictions may be in error as much as 20%. Neverthe-
less, as gas exploration and production have moved into remote offshore,
arctic, and desert areas, the number of two-phase pipelines has increased.
 To determine whether two-phase flow will exist in a pipeline, the
expected flowing pressure and temperature ranges in the line must be
plotted on a phase diagram for the fluid. Figure 8-4 shows that composi-
tion B will flow as a single-phase fluid as it enters the pipeline. However,
as the pressure drops it becomes a two-phase mixture through part of the
pipeline. On the other hand, composition A will flow as a single-phase
(dense fluid or gas) through the entire length of the line. Composition C
will flow as a liquid throughout the entire length of the line.
In most production situations the fluid coming out of the well bore will
be in two-phase flow. Once an initial separation is made, the gas coming
off the separator can be considered to be single-phase gas flow even
though it will have some entrained liquids. The liquid coming off the
separator is assumed to be in single-phase liquid flow even though it will
contain some gas after it has taken a pressure drop through a liquid con-
trol valve.
Other than well flowlines, the most common two-phase pipelines exist
in remote locations, especially offshore, where gas and oil that have been
separated and metered are combined for flow in a common line to a cen-
tral separation facility.

PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS

PRESSURE

TEMPERATURE

Figure 8-4. Typical hydrocarbon phase behavior.

Horizontal Flow

When a gas-liquid mixture enters a pipeline, the two phases tend to

separate with the heavier liquid gravitating to the bottom. Figure 8-5
shows typical flow patterns in horizontal two-phase pipe flow. The type
of flow pattern depends primarily on the superficial velocities as well as
the system geometry and physical properties of the mixture. At very low
gas-liquid ratios, the gas tends to from small bubbles that rise to the top
of the pipe. As the gas-liquid ratio increases, the bubbles become larger
and eventually combine to form plugs. Further increases in the gas-liquid
ratio cause the plugs to become longer, until finally the gas and liquid
phases flow in separate layers; this is stratified flow. As the gas flow rate
is increased, the gas-liquid interface in stratified flow becomes wavy.
These waves become higher with increasing gas-liquid ratios, until the
crest of the waves touches the top of the pipe to form slugs of liquid
which are pushed along by the gas behind them. These slugs can be sev-
eral hundred feet long in some cases. Further increases in the gas-liquid
ratio may impart a centrifugal motion to the liquid an result in annular
flow. At extremely high gas-liquid ratios, the liquid is dispersed into the
flowing gas stream.
Figure 8-6 shows how the flow regime for horizontal pipes depends
primarily on the superficial gas and liquid flow rates. Experience has
shown that generally flow regime maps such s Figure 8-6 are not very
accurate, but they can be used as qualitative guides.

FLOW

BUBBLE PLUG

STRATIFIED WAVY

SLUG SPRAY

Figure 8-5. Two-phase flow patterns in horizontal flow.

 DISPERSED FLOW

BUBBLE ELONGATED
BUBBLE FLOW
SUPERFICIAL LIQUID VELOCITY, V SL ,FT/SEC

SLUG FLOW

ANNULAR,
ANNULAR MIST
FLOW

STRATIFIED FLOW
WAVE
FLOW

SUPERFICIAL GAS VELOCITY, VSQ, FT/SEC.

Figure 8-6. Flow regime for horizontal pipes. (Reprinted with permission from
International Journal of Multiphase Flow, Vol. 1, J. M . Mandhane, G. A. Gregory,
and K. Aziz, "A Flow Pattern Map for Gas-Liquid Flow in Horizontal Pipes/' 1974,
Pergamon Press, Ltd.)

In most two-phase flow lines in the field, slug flow is predominant in

level and uphill lines. In downhill lines, stratified flow is predominant.
However, if the slope of the downhill line is not very steep and the gas
velocity is high, slug flow may be observed. The criterion for transition
from stratified to slug flow in downhill lines is not well defined.

Vertical Flow

The two-phase flow patterns in vertical flow are somewhat different

from those occurring in horizontal or slightly inclined flow. Vertical two-
phase flow geometries can be classified as bubble, slug-annular, transi-
tion, and annular-mist, depending on the gas-liquid ratio. All four flow
regimes could conceivably exist in the same pipe. One example is a deep
well producing light oil from a reservoir that is near its bubble point. At
the bottom of the hole, with little free gas present, flow would be in the
bubble regime. As the fluid moves up the well, the other regimes would
be encountered because gas continually comes out of solution as the
pressure continually decreases. Normally flow is in the slug regime and
rarely in mist, except for condensate reservoirs or steam-stimulated
wells. The different flow regimes are shown in Figure 8-7. Figure 8-8
gives approximate flow regimes as a function of superficial gas and liq-
uid flow rates. These flow regimes are described below:
1. Bubble Flow: The gas-liquid ratio is small. The gas is present as
small bubbles, randomly distributed, whose diameters also vary ran-
domly. The bubbles move at different velocities depending upon
their respective diameters. The liquid moves up the pipe at a fairly
uniform velocity, and except for its density, the gas phase has little
effect on the pressure gradient.
2. Slug Flow: In this regime the gas phase is more pronounced. Although
the liquid phase is still continuous, the gas bubbles coalesce and form
stable bubbles of approximately the same size and shape, which are
nearly the diameter of the pipe. They are separated by slugs of liquid.
The bubble velocity is greater than that of the liquid and can be pre-
dicted in relation to the velocity of the liquid slug. There is a film of
liquid around the gas bubble. The liquid velocity is not constant;
whereas the liquid slug always moves upward (in the direction of bulk
flow), the liquid in the film may move upward, but possibly at a lower
velocity, or it may even move downward. These varying liquid veloci-
DIRECTION OF FLOW

BUBBLE FLOW SLUG FLOW SLUG-ANNULAR ANNULAR-MIST FLOW

TRANSITION

Figure 8-7. Two-phase flow patterns in vertical flow.

 Superficial Liquid Velocity, VsI, m/sec

BUBBLE FLOW ANNULAR

MIST
FLOW
SLUG
FLOW

CHURN
FLOW

Superficial Gas Velocity, Vsg m/sec

Figure 8-8. Vertical multiphase flow map (from AIChEJ., Y. Yaitel, D. Barnea, and
A. E. Duckler, "Modeling Flow Pattern Transitions for Steady Upward Gas-Liquid
Flow in Vertical Tubes/' May 1980).

ties not only result in varying wall friction losses, but also result in liq-
uid holdup, which influences flowing density. At higher flow veloci-
ties, liquid can even be entrained in the gas bubbles. Both the gas and
liquid phases have significant effects on pressure gradient.
3. Transition Flow: The change from a continuous liquid phase to a
continuous gas phase occurs in this region. The liquid slug between
the bubbles virtually disappears, and a significant amount of liquid
becomes entrained in the gas phase. In this case, although the
effects of the liquid are significant, the gas phase is predominant.
Transition flow is also known as "churn flow."
4. Annular-Mist Flow: The gas phase is continuous. The bulk of the
liquid is entrained and carried in the gas phase. A film of liquid wets
the pipe wall, but its effects are secondary. The gas phase is the control-
ling factor.

Pressure Drop

Pressure drop in two-phase flow is the sum of the pressure drop due to
acceleration, friction losses, and elevation changes.
In most pipelines, the pressure loss due to acceleration is small. Pres-
sure drop due to friction is typically several times larger in two-phase
flow than the sum of the pressure drops of the equivalent two single phas-
es. The additional frictional pressure drop in two-phase flow is attributed
to irreversible energy transfer between phases at the interface and to the
reduced cross-sectional area available for the flow to each phase.
Pressure drop due to elevation changes is also significant in two-phase
flow. In an uphill line, the pressure drop due to elevation change is mere-
ly the average density of the two-phase mixture in the uphill line multi-
plied by the change in elevation. Since the average density depends on
the liquid holdup, the static head disadvantage in an uphill line also
depends on the average liquid holdup for the segment.
In cross-country lines that consist of a number of uphill and downhill
segments, the worst case for pressure drop occurs at low gas flow rates,
where each uphill segment fills with liquid. That is, in these segments the
liquid holdup approaches the volume of the pipe and the gas is in bubble
flow. When this happens, the pressure drop in each uphill segment is
given by:
AP2 =0.43 (S.G.)AZn (8-26)
where AP2 = pressure drop due to elevation increase in the segment,
psi
AZn = increase in elevation for segment n, ft
S.G. = specific gravity of the fluid in the segment relative to
water
Derivation of Equation 8-26
AP7 in psi, AZ n in ft, p in lb/ft3,

AP2 = P ^
144

p = 62.4 (S.G.)
 AP2 = ^ (S.G.)AZn

AP2 = 0.43 (S.G.) AZn

In downhill lines, flow is normally stratified, and the liquid flows as fast
or faster than the gas. The depth of the liquid layer adjusts to the critical
depth at which the static head advantage due to the downhill run balances
the frictional losses and the pressure loss can be considered to be zero. If
slug flow exists in the downhill segment due to a slight slope and/or high
gas velocity, the static head advantage will generally be less than the fric-
tional pressure drop, resulting in a net pressure loss. In cross-country lines
the static head advantage is normally neglected, and in hand calculations
no pressure recovery due to the decrease in elevation is considered.
The net effect of a pressure loss due to an increase in elevation on each
uphill segment and no pressure recovery on each downhill segment can
be quite severe. In a single-phase line only the net change in elevation
from the beginning of the line to the end of the line need be considered.
In a two-phase line Equation 8-26 states the pressure lost in each uphill
segment, but this is not balanced by a pressure gain in each downhill seg-
ment. Thus, the pressure lost due to elevation changes is the sum of the
pressure lost in each uphill segment. It is possible in hilly terrain to have
a line that flows from a high point to a lower elevation, but which,
because it crosses a valley, will still have a loss in pressure due to eleva-
tion changes.
There are numerous computer programs available that calculate pres-
sure drops in two-phase flow. If these programs are available, by all
means, use them. However, in the absence of these programs, hand cal-
culation methods have been developed to calculate pressure drops in
two-phase flow. One equation presented in the American Petroleum Insti-
tute's Recommended Practice API RP 14E entitled "Design and Installa-
tion of Offshore Production Piping Systems," is:
AP = 3-4 x I Q ^ (8_2?)

where L = length, ft
W = rate of flow of liquid and vapor, lb/hr
p m = density of the mixture, lb/ft3
d = pipe ID, in.
For f = 0.015
 Ap=5xlO^LW^
5
Pn, d
This equation is derived from the general equation for isothermal flow
by making the following assumptions:
1. AP is less than 10% of inlet pressure
2. Bubble or mist flow exists
3. No elevation changes
Derivation of Equations 8-27 and 8-28

w2 = 1"(144JgA2Dl 1"(P1)2-(P2)2I
V
L ^ JL P1 J
D is in ft, V in ft3/lb, L in ft, A in ft2, w in lb/sec.

For < 10%, P12 - P22 = 2P, AP

P1

AP J|_(144)gA
- X I VDjl 2 ^2

g = 32.2

p m is in lb/ft3, W in lb/hr

Pm
A = 0.00545d2
D = d/12
W
w=
3,600
_ 3.4 x IQ"6 f L W2
Pmd5

f = 0.015

. 5 x 10" 8 LW 2
AP = ;
Pmd5
 The rate of flow of the mixture to use in this equation can be calculat-
ed as follows:
W = 3,180 Qg S + 14.6 Q1 (S.G.) (8-29)

where Qg = gas flow rate, MMscfd

Q1 = liquid flow rate, bpd
S = specific gravity of gas at standard conditions (air =1)
(S.G.) = specific gravity of liquid relative to water
Derivation of Equation 8-29
L is liquid flow rate in lb/hr, Q1 in bpd

_ barrel r r . ft3 day ,- . _ _ Ib

L = Q1 x 5.61 x x 62.4 S.G. r
day barrel 24hr ft3
L = 14.6 Q1 (S.G.)
G is gas flow rate in lb/hr, Qg in MMscfd,

= Q MMsCfx 1 ) 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 ^ L x 00764(S)Axday
g
day MM scf 24 hr
G = 3,180 Qg S
W=G+L
W = 3,180 Qg S + 14.6 Q1 (S.G.)
The density of the mixture to use in Equations 8-27 and 8-28 is given by:
12,409 <S.G.)P + 2 . 7 R S P
198.7 P + R T Z
where P = operating pressure, psia
R = gas/liquid ratio, ft3/bbl
T = operating temperature, 0R
Z = gas compressibility factor
Derivation of Equation 8-30
g is gas flow rate in ftVsec, Qg in MMscfd,
1,0Qq00Qscfx day hr ^ 14.7 ^ TZ
g 8 X
MM 2 4 h r X 3,600s X P X 520

QgTZ
g = 0.327 ^ -
 1 is in ft3/sec, Q1 in bpd,

, ^ r,, ft3 day hr

I = Q1X 5.61 x x
barrel 24hr 3,600s
1 = 6.49 X 1(T5 Q1
p m is in lb/ft3, W is in lb/hr,
W = 3,180 Qg S + 14.6 Q1 (S.G.)
W
Pm
~ 3,600 (1 + g)

3,180Q g 8 + 14.6Q1(S-G.)
Pm
~ f Q 2 TZA
3,600 6.49 x 10~5 Q1 + 0.327 - ^

1,000,000 Q 2
R= -
Qi

3,180QgS+(14-6)(1'00a000)Qg(S-a)
p = ! E,
m
f 6.49 xlO~ 5 XlO 6 XQ 2 Qa T Z")
3,600 - ^ + 0.327 - ^
{ R PJ
Factor out Qg, multiply top and bottom by R X P and rearrange
_ 14.6 x IQ6 (S.G.) P + 3,180 R S P
Pm
" 3,600 (64.9 P + 0.327 R T Z)
Divide top and bottom by 1,177

_12,409(S.G.)P + 2 . 7 R S P
Pm
~ 198.7 P + R T Z

HEAD LOSS IN VALVES AND PIPE FITTINGS

In many piping problems, especially those associated with offshore

production facilities where space limitation are important, the pressure
drop through valves, bends, tees, enlargements, contractions, etc.
becomes very important. The three most common ways of handling these
additional pressure drops are by use of resistance coefficients, flow coef-
ficients, and equivalent lengths.

Resistance Coefficients

Darcy's equation can be rewritten as:

HL=Kr^- (8-31)

where K r = resistance coefficient

= fL/D
Although Kr depends on the Reynolds number and surface roughness,
as well as on the geometry of the elbow or couplings, this dependence is
usually neglected. Approximate values of K1. are given in Table 8-3 for
various pipe fittings. Figures 8-9 and 8-10 show resistance coefficients
for sudden contractions and expansions, and for entrances and exits. Note
that the friction factor (ft) in Figure 8-9 assumes fully turbulent flow
through standard tees and elbows and is the same factor as stated previ-
ously in the text.

Table 8-3
Resistance Coefficients for Pipe Fittings
Global Valve, wide open 10.0
Angle Valve, wide open 5.0
Gate Valve, wide open 0.2
Gate Valve, half open 5.6
Return Blend 2.2
Tee 1.8
90 Elbow 0.9
45 Elbow 04

The total head loss for the entire piping system can be determined
from the following equation:

H L = I K ^ (8-32)

Flow Coefficient

The pressure drop characteristics of control valves are often expressed

in terms of Cv, the flow coefficient. The flow coefficient is measured
experimentally for each valve or fitting and is equal to the flow of water,
 90 PIPE BENDS AND PIPE ENTRANCE
FLANGED OR BUTT-WELDING 90 ELBOWS

Inward Flush
Projecting
r/d K
0.00* 0.5
0.02 0.28
0.04 0.24
0.06 0.15
0.10 0.09
The resistance coefficient, KB, for pipe bends other 0.15 & up I 0.04
than 90 may be determined as follows: *Sharp-edged For K,
KB = (n - 1) 10.25 Tt fT ^ +0.5 K ) + K see table

n = number of 90 bends
K = resistance coefficient for one 90 bends (per table)

STANDARD TEES PIPE EXIT

Projecting Sharp-Edged Rounded

Flow thru run K = 20 fT

Flow thru branch K = 60 fT

Figure 8-9. Representative resistance coefficients (K) for fittings (courtesy of Crane
Technical Paper 4 JO).
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENT K

SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT

SUDDEN CONTRACTION

Figure 8-10. Resistance in pipe due to sudden enlargements and contractions.

in gpm, at 60 0 F for a pressure drop of one psi. It can be shown from
Darcy's equation that with Cv measured in this manner:
29 9d 2

where D = fitting equivalent ID, ft

d= fitting equivalent ID, in.
L = fitting equivalent length, ft
Derivation of Equation 8-33

Q1 is in bpd, Cv in gpm, AP in psi, d in inches, D in ft,

AP= (11.5xl0^) f L Q] 5 ( S G )

AP = I
n _r gal 1 bbl min hr
min 42 gal hr day
Q1 = 34.3 Cv
S.G. - 1
d=12D

(34 3 C ) 2 =
v
11.5 x KT 6 CfLmD)
29.9 d2
v
"(fL/D) 1 / 2
It follows from the definition of Kr that the relationship between Cv
and Kr is:

The pressure drop for any valve or fitting for which Cv is known is
derived as follows:

AP = 8.5 x HT* \ \ (S.G.) (8-35)

where Q1 = Liquid flow rate, BPD

S.G. = Liquid specific gravity relative to water
Derivation of Equation 8-35
Q1 is in BPD, AP in psi

AP^lLSxloVt-Q-f0'

Q 1 = C - ^ x J - 1x60 = X 2 4 - ^ 3 4 3 Q
min 42 gal hr day

AP = lpsi, S.G. = 1

I^ILSXIO^K' 34 ^ 2 '

fL _ 73.9

4
r2_73.9d

"m
d = 12D

_ 29.9 d 2 _ 29.9 d2
v
" r f l . i 1 / 2 " (K r ) 1/2
LDJ
AP = (11.5 x 10"6) 1^- Q 2 (S.G.)

- -|2
4
AP-8.5 XlO" ^L (S.G.)
_ v_

Equivalent Length

It is often simpler to treat valves and fittings in terms of their equiva-

lent length of pipe. The equivalent length of a valve or fitting is the
length of an equivalent section of pipe of the same diameter that gives
the same head loss. Total head loss or pressure drop is determined by
adding all equivalent lengths to the pipe length. The equivalent length,
Le, can be determined from Kr or Cv as follows:
 L e = ^ (8-36)

U = ^ (8-37)

74 5d5
T - - f8 m

Table 8-4 summarizes the equivalent length for various commonly

used valves and fittings. Figures 8-11 and 8-12 show equivalent lengths
of various fabricated bends.
Laminar Flow Coefficient

Equivalent lengths that are usually published in tables are for turbulent
flow. The following equation is used when the flow is laminar, that is, the
Reynolds number is less than 1,000:
Re
(Le)laminar = 1 A n A L e (8-39)
1,UUU
where (Le)laminar = equivalent length to be used in pressure drop calcu-
lations (never less than actual fitting length)
Le = equivalent length of the valve or fitting if flow were
turbulent

EXAMPLE PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS

Example 8 - 1 : Pressure Drop in Liquid Line

Given: Flow rates: Condensate = 800 bpd

Water = 230 bpd
Specific gravity: Condensate = 0.87
Water = 1.05
Viscosity = 3 cp
Length = 7,000 ft
Inlet pressure = 900 psi
Temperature= 800F
Problem: Solve for pressure drop in a 2-inch and 4-inch LD. line using
the general equation and Hazen-Williams.
 11
.2
1 S
a 1 "3 CA

g> S
1C
I
I
1
1

S? I
P
IJS I-
9-6 s
1 o
I
S
Of

Solution to Example 8-1

1. General Equation
Specific gravity of liquid:
 L/D-EQUIVALENT LENGTH IN DIAMETERS

RELATIVE RADIUS, r/d

Figure 8 - 1 1 . Equivalent length of 90 bends (courtesy of Crane Technical

Paper 41 Oj.
L/D - EQUIVALENT LENGTH, IN DIAMETERS

e - DEFLECTION ANGLE, IN DEGREES

Figure 8-12. Equivalent length of mitre bends [courtesy of Crane Technical

Paper 470).
 = (230) (1.05) | (800) (0.87) =
1,030 1,030
_ _ (92.1) (0.91) (1,030) _ 28,775
3d d
e = 0.004 (assume old steel)

AT> _ (11.5 x IP" 6 ) (7,000) (1,03O)2 (0.91)f

d5
_77,725f
~ d5
Diameter
2-in. 4-in.
Re 14.4 X 103 7.2 X 103
8/d 0.002 0.001
f (from chart) 0.032 0.034
AP 78 psi 2.6 psi

2. Hazen-Williams
C = 120 (assume)

(1,03O)1-85 (7,000)
FLT = U . U l J To^ Ton
L
(12O)1-85 d 487
_ 5,604

= (0.91) (62.4) 39
L L
144
Diameter = 2 in. AP = 74.7 psi
Diameter = 4 in. AP = 2.6 psi

Example 8-2: Pressure Drop in Gas Line

Given: Flow rates: Gas = 23 MMscfd

Viscosity = 3 cp
Gravity: Gas = 0.85
Length = 7,000 ft
 Inlet pressure = 900 psi
Temperature = 800F
Problem: Solve for pressure drop in a 4-in. and 6-in. ID line using the:
1. General equation
2. Assumption of AP < 10% P1
3. Panhandle B Equation
4. Weymouth Equation.

Solution to Example 8-2

1. General Equation
Specific gravity of liquid:
Gas viscosity = 0.013 (from chart in Chapter 3)
_ (20,100) (23) (0.85) _ 30,227,000
(0.013) d " d
= 0.004 (assume old steel)
Z = 0.67 (from chart in Chapter 3)

_2 ^ 2 _o c (0.85) (23)2 (0.67) (540) (7,000)f _ 2.87 x IQ10(f)

Pi - P 2 -25.2 -5 - -5

Diameter
4-in. 6-in.
6
Re 7.6 X 10 5.0 X 106
e/d 0.001 0.0007
f (from chart) 0.0198 0.0180
Pi2-P22 555 XlO 3 66 XlO 3
P2 505 863
AP 395 psi 37 psi

2. Approximate Equation
_ (12.6) (0.85) (540) (0.67) (7,000)(23)2f _ 1.59 x IQ7(f)
(900)d5 ~ d5
 Diameter = 4 in.
AP = 308psi
Diameter = 6 in.
AP = 37psi
3. Panhandle B Equation
7,000 . _ ..
Lm = = 1.33 miles
m
5,280
E = 0.95 (assumed)

23 = (0.028) (0.95) T (90O)2-P22 V d2.53

095
L(0.85) (0.67)(540)(1.33)J

81OxIO3 _ _P|_= F 23 I1'96 H I 4 9 6

412 412 [(0.028) (0.95) _ LdJ

P l = S l O x 1 O ' - ^
Diameter
4-in. 6-in.
P2 753 882 psi
AP 147 18 psi

4. Weymouth
(900)2 P
23 = l . l l d * 4 - ^ I"
[(7,000) (0.85) (0.67) (54O)J

81OxIO 3 _ P22 _ [ 2 3 J 2 _ J _
2.2 XlO 6 2.2 XlO 6 " L l - I l J d 533

p| = 8 1 0xl0 3 -^pi^

Diameter
4-in. 6-in.
P2 476 862 psi
AP 424 psi 38 psi
Example 8-3: Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Line

Given: Same conditions as Examples 8-1 and 8-2

Problem: Solve for the pressure drop with both liquid and gas flow in
a single 4-in., 6-in., or 8-in. line.

Solution to Example 8-3

Specific gravity of liquid = 0.91 (from before)

Z = 0.67 (from chart in Chapter 3)
Flow rate:
W - (3,180) (23) (0.85) + (14.6) (1,030) (0.91)
= 75,854 lb/hr
Gas liquid ratio:

R = 23,000,000 = 3 O f t 3 / b b l
1,030
Density of mixture (compute at 900 psi):
_ (12,409) (0.91) (915) + (2.7) (22,330) (0.85) (915)
Pm
~ (198.7) (915) + (22,330) (540) (0.67)

p m = 6.93 Ib/ft3

_ (6.9 x IQ"8) (7,000) (75,854)2

(6.93) d5

_ 401xIQ3

Line ID AP
4 in. 392 psi
6 in. 52 psi
8 in. 12 psi
It may be desirable to iterate using an average density for each case.