97

A Grammar Glossary
f you think your understanding of grammatical terminology may be a

Ibit rusty, then this glossary should be helpfuL It defines familiar terms
(such as adjective) and some not quite as familiar (such as adjectival) and
gives examples. It is not intended to be a complete grammar glossary.
More complete descriptions can be found in Martha KoHn and Robert
Funk's Understanding English Grammar and other grammar texts.

Absolute phrase: A noun phrase with one modifier, often a participial phrase,
following the noun headword. An absolute phrase can explain a cause
or condition, as in The temperature having dropped suddenly, we decided to
build afire in the fireplace, or it can add a detail or a point of focus, as in
The children rushed out the schoolhouse door, their voices filling the playground
with shouts of freedom .
;>

Active voice: A feature of sentences in which the subject performs the action
of the verb and the direct object is the goa lor the recipient: The mechanic
fixed the car. See also Passive voice.
Adjectival: Any structure (word, phrase, or clause) that fills the role of an ad
jective-that is, that functions as an adjective normally does, modify
ing a noun: The hOllse is new. In this sentence, on the comer
is an adjectival prepositional phrase.
Adjective: A form-class word that functions as a noun modifier. Adjectives can
be made comparative and superlative (tall, taller, tallest) and can be quali
fied or intensified (very tal/).
Adverb: A form-class word that generally modifies a verb, as in I will be going
soon. Adverbs can also modifv the sentence as a whole, as in Unfortu
nately, I was out when you pJlOn~d. Some adverbs can be compared (more
quickly) or intensified (very quickly), Their pOSition in the sentence is
often flexible (I will soon be going; Soon I will be going).
Adverbial: Any structure (word, phrase, or clause) that functions as a modi
fier of a verb-that is, that fills the role of an adverb. In We drove to the
airport to pick up Uncle Louie, to the airport is an adverbial prepositional
phrase and to pick up Uncle Louie is an adverbial infinitive phrase, both
modifying the verb drove.
Affix: A meaningful unit that is added to the beginning (prefix) or end (suf
fix) of a word to change its meaning or its function or its part of speech:
(prefix) unhelpful; (suffix) unhelpful. See also Prefix; Suffix.
Agreement: See Pronoun-antecedent agreement; Subject-verb agreement.
98 A Grammar Glossary

Antecedent: The word or phrase, usually a noun phrase, that a pronoun stands
for: Here is }/QJ1LJlLeSent. I hope that you like fl.
Appositive: A structure that adds information by renaming another structure,
as in Ginger, nlJI dog, is szueef but stubborn. Or, My daily exercise routine,
running around the track, sometimes gets very boring.
Article: The determiners a and an (the indefinite articles) and the (the definite
article): 1 View to U. Kill; Man with Goldell Gun.
Auxiliary verb: A structure-class word used with verbs. Auxiliary verbs in
clude have, be, and do when they are used in phrases with other verbs,
as well as such modals as will and must: Miguel left tomor
I'mu. Do you need to see him? See also ModaL
Base form of the verb: TIle unintlected form of the verb, as it appears in the
frame "To ~ is difficult." The base form appears in the infinitive (To
be or not toJ:Jg), in the present tense for all persons except third-person
singular (I you walk, we 7V1llk, they walk), and in other verb phrases
(He mllst They lPill walk).
Case: A feature of nouns and certain pronouns (personal and relative pronouns)
that is determined by the role the noun or pronoun fills in the sentence.
Pronouns have three case distinctions: subjective (for example, he, we,
who), possessive (his, our, 'whose), and objective (him, us, whom). Nouns
have only one case inflection, the possessive (John1!., the cat~. See also
Objective case; Subjective case.
Clause: A sequence of words that includes a subject and a predicate: Ellen slt;pl;
Ellell dreamed about her daughter, who was away at school. See also Depen
dent clause; Independent clause.
Coherence: The quality of being orderly, logical, and consistent. See also Co
hesion.
Cohesion: The grammatical and semantic connections between sentences and
paragraphs. Cohesive ties are furnished by pronouns that have ante
cedents in previous sentences, by ad verbial connections, by known in
formation, by repeated or related words, and by knowledge shared by
the reader.
Comma splice: Two independent clauses joined by a comma, as in Juana went
home, she has a doctor's appointment for her son. See also Run-on sentence.
Complement: A structure that completes the predicate, such as a direct object
(Size planted roses), indirect object (He gave her a kiss), subject complement
(He became sleepy), and object complement named him Theodore).
Complex sentence: A sentence consisting of one independent: or main, clause
and at least one dependent clause, as in Computers arefrllstrating when
they don't work.
A Grammar Glossary 99

Compound-complex sentence: A sentence consisting of two or more indepen

dent clauses and at least one dependent clause, as in Computers are frus
trating when they don't work, but we all use them anyway.
Compound sentence: A sentence consisting of two or more independent, or
main, clauses, as in Computers arefrustrating sometimes, but we all use them
anyway.
Conjunction: A structure-class word that connects two or more words, phrases,
or clauses. See also Conjunctive adverb; Coordinating conjunction;
Correlative conjunction; Subordinating conjunction.
Conjunctive adverb: A conjunction with an adverbial emphasis (however, there
fore, nevertheless, moreover, etc.) that connects two clauses, as in Choco
late is delicious; however, 1 try my best to stay away from it.
Coordinating conjunction: A conjunction that connects two words, phrases,
or clauses as equals: and, but, or, nor, for, and yet. For example, Abraham
and Jeff worked Tuesday.
Correlative conjunction: A two-word conjunction: either-or; neither-nor; botlz
and; not only-but also. For example, Neither the sofa nor that table looks right
in this corner.
Dangling participle: A participial phrase at the beginning or end of a sentence
in which the subject of the sentence is not the subject of the participle.
In other words, a dangling participle is a verb without a subject, as in
Walking through the woods, the moon shone brightly.
Declarative sentence: A sentence in the form of a statement (in contrast to a com
mand, a question, or an exclamation): April showers bring May flowers.
Dependent clause: A clause that fills a role in a sentence (such as adverbial,
adjectival, or nominal) and that cannot stand independently as a sen
tence: He climbed until he was exhausted (adverbial clause); 1 wonder
1 put my keljs (nominal clause functioning as direct object). See also In
dependent clause.
Determiner: A structure-class word that marks or signals a noun, appearing
as the first word in a noun phrase, before the noun and before any modi
fiers in the phrase. Determiners include the articles a, an, and the and
those words that can be used in their place: demonstrative pronouns,
indefinite pronouns, numbers, possessive pronouns, and possessive
nouns. For example, telephone is IJ wonderful invention; This darned
telephone doesn't work; Some cell phones are expensive; We have three blue,
cordless telephones; You're using cell phone; Conchita's phone doesn't work
anymore.
Direct object: A noun phrase or other nominal structure that names the goal
or receiver of the action of the verb, as in Phil bought a used motorcycle; I
enjoy watching basketball; 1 hope that it doesn't rain tomorrow. See also In
direct object.
100 A Grammar Glossary

Exclamatory sentence: A sentence that expresses excitement or emotion. It may

include a shift in word order and is usually punctuated with an excla
mation point, as in What a beautiful day we're having!
Expletive: A word without semantic meaning used as a placeholder to fill the
subject position at the beginning of an independent clause: II is raining;
is a fly in my soup.
Finite: Specific, or finite, as to tense. Verbs in the present tense or past tense
are finite verbs: Hefilled the tub. Phrases with such verbs are finite verb
phrases. In most finite verb phrases, the first verb is the only finite verb:
He had filled the tub. (Filled in this sentence is a past participle.) Modals,
which begin many verb phrases, are not as clear as to their finiteness.
They don't take endings that indicate the past or present tense, but some
of them suggest past, present, or future time as well as possibility or
probability. For example, She can go can refer to the present or future
but not the past. See also Nonfinite; Modal; Participle.
Form: The inherent features of grammatical units, as distinguished from their
function. The forms of certain word classes are characterized by pre
fixes and suffixes. The forms of phrases are characterized by headwords
and their objects, complements, or modifiers. The forms of clauses are
characterized by subjects and predicates. See also Function.
Form-class words: The four large classes of words that contribute the lexical
content of the language: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They are
also called content words. Each takes characteristic prefixes and suffixes
that distinguish its form. New form-class words appear frequently, and
they are sometimes called open-class 'words for this reason, See also Struc
ture-class words.
Fragment: A group of words that, although punctuated as if it were a sentence,
is not a complete sentence. Some fragments are dependent clauses: She
drove frantically to the store. Because she had run out a/bread for tomorrow's
~~",", Others are phrases, without a subject and complete verb: She
went to get bread for tomorrow's lunches. Driving frantically to the store.
While most fragments are the result of punctuation or structural error,
they can be used purposefully by experienced writers for stylistic rea
sons.
Function: The role of a word, phrase, or clause in a sentence. Consider the
sentence To wear a winter coat in the summer is bizarre behavior. To wear a
winter coat in the summer is an infinitive verb phrase that functions as
the subject of the sentence. Winter in willter coat is a noun that functions
adjectivally, modifying coat. [n the summer is a prepositional phrase that
functions as an adverbial modifier of to wear.
Gerund: An -ing verb functioning as a nominal-that is, as a noun functions:
I enjoy reading; Playing the piano is relaxing. See also Gerund phrase.
A Grammar Glossary 101

together with all of its complements and modifiers,

as in is relaxing. See also Gerund.
Headword: The main word of a phrase, the one that the others modify or
complement. In the sentence The boys in the parade waved to the crowd,
boys is the headword of the noun phrase The boys in the parade; in is the
headword of the prepositional phrase in the parade; and waved is the
headword of the verb phrase waved to the crowd.
Helping verb: See Auxiliary verb.
Imperative: A sentence in the form of a direction or a command; the subject,
you, is usually deleted, as in Tum left at the light; Come here; Be quiet.
Independent clause: The main clause of a sentence, one that can stand on its
own: that used to look run down See
also Dependent clause.
Indirect object: The noun phrase naming the recipient of the direct object. In
direct objects can be shifted into prepositional phrases with to or for, as
in Samantha gave herfather a ticket; Samantha gave a ticket to her father.
Infinitive: The base form of the verb often preceded by to: To die, to sleep: ITo
sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub. See also Infinitive phrase.
Infinitive phrase: The infinitive together with all of its complements and
modifiers. Infinitive phrases function as adverbials, adjectivals, and
nominals: Rajesh wants to watch his favorite TV show (infinitive phrase as
direct object). See also Infinitive.
Inflection: See Inflectional suffix.
Inflectional suffix: A suffix added to a noun (-s plural, 's possessive), verb (-s,
-ed, -ing), or adjective and adverb (-er comparative, -est superlative) that
alters its grammatical role or meaning: Dog, Sing, Sling.
Interrogative: A structure-class word that introduces questions and certain
nominal clauses: where, when, who, what, why, and how. For example, Why
is she leaving?; I wonder why she is leaving.
Interrogative sentence: A sentence in the form of a question (in contrast to a
statement, exclamation, or command): When are we leaving?
Intransitive verb: A verb that has no complement, although it may take an
adverbial modifier: Denzel's parents arrived at the airport. See also Tran
sitive verb.
Irregular verb: A verb that does not form its past tense and past participle by
adding -d, or -t, as regular verbs do: sang, sung; go, went, gone.
See also Regular verb.
Linking verb: A verb that links the complement to the sentence subject, as in
The chicken ifi tasty; The salad looks delicious; The chef just became my hus
band.
102 A Grammar Glossary

Main clause: See Independent clause.

Main verb: The verb that fills the last position in the main verb string, or the
only position if there are no auxiliary verbs. Sometimes called the lexi
cal verb, it carries the specific meaning about actions, events, or states
of being, as in Raheem has been writing a short story. He me about it.
See also Auxiliary verb; Main verb string.
Main verb string: The part of the sentence consisting of the main verb and
any auxiliary verbs that precede it: Tyrone tried hard; Sheila should have
~ti....!:.f..#.1~ harder. See also Auxiliary verb; Main verb.

Modal: An auxiliary verb that opens a main verb string and that conveys the
probability, possibility, obligation, or other mood of the main verb. The
principal modals are can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, and
must: He should be here. He said he would be. He must be sick. Other kinds
of modals include need and dare, as in You need not have said that and I
don't dare say it. Modal phrases include had to, as in Anita leave.
See also Auxiliary verb; Main verb string.
Modifier: A word, phrase, or clause that adds information about a noun or
verb or the sentence as a whole: The blue chair that I bought at the auction
needs painting; The tomatoes grow fJJ!2l when the nights are warm: Un/ortu
she lost her job.
Nominal: A word, phrase, or clause that functions as noun phrases do.
Nominals do not necessarily contain nouns: Traveling can be hard work;
I'll accept whoever volunteers. See also Noun phrase; Nominal clause.
Nominal clause: A clause that functions as a noun phrase does, often a that
clause or an interrogative clause, as in I know that she knows; Denise W011
dered why they were late.
Nonfinite: Not definite as to tense. The nonfinite verbs are infinitives, parti
ciples, and gerunds. Konfinite verbs appear in the main verb phrase,
where they are preceded by a finite verb (one with tense), as in Melissa
is running in the race (present participle). They also appear in other
phrases where they function nominally, adjectivally, or adverbially; such
phrases are nonfinite verb phrases: Yuri loves to sing (infinitive); The
snoring man is next door (present participle); She likes riding roller coasters
(gerund). See also Finite.
Nonrestrictive modifier: A modifier-a word, phrase, or clause-in the noun
phrase that comments on the noun but is not necessary for defining or
identifying it. It is set off with commas: The Finance Committee, which met
last week, is still working all the budget. See also Restrictive modifier.
Noun: A form-class word that can usually be made plural or possessive, as in
boy, boys, boy's. Nouns fill the headword slot in noun phrases (my old
Kentucky home); they can also serve as adjectivals (the home team) and
adverbials (They went home).
A Grammar Glossary 10~

Noun phrase: The noun headword together with all of its modifiers. In the
sentence The gardener trimmed the pine tree with the broken branches, the
gardener is a noun phrase that functions as the sentence subject, and its
headword is gardener. The tree with the brokell branches is a noun
phrase functioning as a direct object, and its headword is tree. The bro
ken branches is a noun phrase embedded in the longer noun phrase; it
functions as the object of the preposition Lvith, and its headword is
branches.
Object complement: A word or phrase in the predicate that completes the idea
of the verb and modifies or renames the direct object: I found the play
~""".'...'&' We consider Rose Maric ~"'-""'..J.!-""'-'-","'

Objective case: The role in a sentence of a noun phrase or pronoun when it

functions as an object----direct object, indirect object, object complement,
or object of a preposition. Personal pronouns and the relative pronoun
who have special forms for the objective case: me, him, us, and them,
as well as whom. For example, He gaL'e him a stereo his birthday;
Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls is a great novel.
Object of a preposition: See Preposition.
Pa.rallelism: Two or more of the same grammatical structures that are coordi
nated-given equal weight-within a sentence, as in He came earl!! and.
~~= My words wellt The term also applies
to repeated structures in separate sentences within a paragraph.
Participial phrase: A present or past participle together with its subject or
complements and / or modifiers: Still clutching their pizza in their hands,
the kids lejt the room. See also Participle.
Participle: The verb forms that appear in verb phrases after the auxiliary verbs
to be, as in I was (JJting (present participle), and to llape, as in [ have eaten
(past participle). Participle is also the term used to refer to the present
or past participle in its role as an adjectival, as a 111.0difier in the noun
phrase: The band members, wearing their snazzy neWJll1ijorms, proudly
marched onto the field. See also Present participle; Past participle.
Particle: Any of various words accompanying the verb as part of a phrasal
verb, such as on in catch on and up and with in put lip with.
Passive voice: A feature of sentences in which the object or goal of the action
functions as the sentence subject and the main verb phrase includes the
verb to be and the past participle, as in The car was fixed by the mechanic
See also Active voice.
Past participle: The form of the verb used in the frame "We have ... If: We
have forgotten somethillg; We have walked two miles. The past participle can
stand on its own, without have: Forgotten by his friends, he lived alone. The
past participle is also used with a form of to be in the passive voice, as
in The car was fixed by the mechanic. Even though the past participles that
end in -ed have the same form as the past tense of regular verbs, the
104 A Grammar Glossary

in the name of this verb form does not denote past time: We have
(past participle); We (past tense); The dog is walked by the
girl next door (present tense, passive voice). See also Participle; Present
participle.
Past tense: The -ed form of regular verbs, usually denoting an action at a spe
cific time in the past: They down the street. Irregular verbs have
various past tense forms, as in She bought the car; They a walk; He
was happy.
Phrasal verb: A verb consisting of a verb plus a particle or particles: look up
the statistics, give in to the pressure, put up with the noise, find out the
truth, make up a lie, turn ill at midnight, come by a fortune, go in for horse
racing, and many other everyday verbs.
Phrase: A word or group of words that functions as a unit in the sentence and
is not a clause. The boy is a noun phrase. The boy with the blue shirt is a
noun phrase that includes a prepositional phrase modifying the noun
boy. The boy who is mowing the lawn is a noun phrase that includes an
adjectival clause modifying the noun boy. See also Noun phrase; Verb
phrase; Preposition; Absolute phrase.
Predicate: One of the two principal parts of the sentence, it's the comment made
about the subject. The predicate includes the verb together with its
complements and modifiers: The building finally collapsed after years of
See also Subject.
Predicate adjective: The adjective that functions as a subject complement fol
lowing a linking verb, as in He became sleepy. See also Linking verb;
Subject complement.
Predicate nominative: The noun or nominal that functions as a subject comple
ment: She became an engineer. See also Linking verb; Subject complement.
Prefix: A meaningful uni t added to the beginning of a word to change its mean
ing (illegal) or its class (enable). See also Affix; Suffix.
Preposition: A structure-class word that combines with a nominal (the object
of the preposition) to form a prepositional phrase, which functions ad
jectivally or adverbially, as in On Tuesday, the circus came to town. Prepo
sitions can be simple (above, at, in, ofJorJl'Oln, etc.) or phrasal (according
to, instead of, etc.).
Present participle: The form of the verb used with the frame "We are ...": We
are gQing; They should be leaving soon. This -ing form of the verb is also
used as an adjectival modifier as well as a main verb: Leaving the park,
she was feeling the excitement of the city. The word present in the label for
this verb form does not denote present time, and in fact the present
participle is not definite as to time: He is He was leaving. See also
Participle; Nonfinite.
A Grammar Glossary 10~

Present tense: The base form (eat) along with the -s form (eats) that is used with
a third-person singular subject. The present tense denotes a present
point in time ([like your new hairdo), a habitual action (My parents live in
Arizona), or the "timeless" present (The earth around the sun).
Progressive: A verb construction consisting of the auxiliary be and the present
participle, expressing ongoing activity or a temporary state, as in Jamal
is eating; Molly was being silly.
Pronoun: A word that substitutes for a nominaL as in Sam tried to stop laugh
ing, but he couldn't do i.t. Types of pronouns include demonstrative pro
nouns (this, these, that, those), personal pronouns (I, me, it, you, etc.), in
definite pronouns (every, everyone, many, any, etc.), relative pronouns
(who, that, which), and reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, etc.).
Pronoun-antecedent agreement: The matching of the number (whether sin
gular or plural) of the pronoun to the number of its antecedent: The boys
did chores; Each girl did best.
Qualifier: A structure-class word that qualifies or intensifies adjectives and
adverbs, as in We worked very hard; Joan was slightly annoyed; It's much
colder today.
Regular verb: A verb that forms the past tense and past participle by the ad
dition of -ed (or, in a few cases, -d or-t) to the base form: Yesterday, he
walked to school; Maria has all the way. See also Irregular verb.
Relative clause: A clause introduced by a relative pronoun (who, which, that)
or a relative adverb (when, where, why) that generally functions as an
adjectival, as in The book that you wanted has arrived; The area where I live
is densely populated. The broad reference which clause functions as a sen
tence modifier: John bought a gas-guzzler, which surprised me. See also
Subordinate clause.
Relative pronoun: The pronouns who, whose, whom, that, and which, used to
introduce relative clauses: The boy who lives here is named Jorge.
Restrictive modifier: A modifier-a word, phrase, or clause-in the noun
phrase that restricts and identifies the meaning of the noun. It is not set
off by commas: Homer's epic poem The Odyssey is a great book to teach;
The chair that you just sat on is broken. See also Nonrestrictive modifier.
Rhetoric: The aspects of language use and organization that make it effective
and persuasive for an audience; the study of those aspects.
Run-on sentence: Two independent clauses with no punctuation between
them, as in Juana went home she has a doctor's appointment for her son.
Semantics: Meaning in language; the study of meaning in language.
Sentence modifier: A word, phrase, or clause that modifies the sentence as a
whole, rather than a particular structure within it. It is sometimes called
106 A Grammar Glossary

a free modifier: Ironically, the other team won; In an ironic turn ofez)cnts, the
other team won.
Simple sentence: A sentence consisting of a single independent clause, as in
Computers can be frustrating. See also Complex sentence; Compound
sentence; Compound-complex sentence.
Structure-class words: The classes of words that show the grammatical or
structural relationships between form-class words. The major structure
classes are conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, determiners, qualifi
ers, interrogatives, and expletives. New structure-class words appear
rarely and for this reason they are referred to as closed classes. See also
Form-class words.
Subject: The opening position in the basic structure of a sentence, filled by a
noun phrase or other nominal that functions as the topic of the sentence,
as in This old upriKlzt piano still sounds beautiful. See also Predicate.
Subject complement: The nominal or adjectival that follows a linking verb and
renames or modifies the sentence subject: Charleston, South Carolina, is
a beaut~ful city. See also Predicate adjective; Predicate nominative.
Subjective case: The role of a noun phrase or a pronoun when it functions as
the subject of a clause. Personal pronouns have distinctive forms for
subjective case: 1, she, we, they. For example, She and T011l are happy.
Subject-verb agreement: The matching of the number and person of the sub
ject to the form of the verb. When the subject is third-person singular
and the verb is in the present tense, the verb takes the -s inflection, as
in The dog barks all night. He bothers the neighbors. With other subjects and
in other tenses, verbs (with the exception of be) do not change to match
the number or person of the subject: r we f;i!cp; he slept: thell
Subordinate clause: A dependent clause introduced by a subordinating con
junction such as if, since, because, and although. Subordinate clauses are
usually adverbial: We left becalisillll'as getting late. See also Dependent
clause.
Subordinating conjunction: A conjunction that introduces a subordinate
clause. Among the most common, both simple and compound, are af
ter, although, as long as, because, if since, so tfwt, provided that, though,
until, when, whenever, and while.
Suffix: A meaningful unit added to the end of a word to change its class
(laugh-laughable), its function (eal--eati1lg), or its meaning (dog--dogV.
See also Affix; Prefix.
Syntax: The structure and arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in sen
tences; the study of this topic.
Transitive verb: A verb that requires a direct object as its complement to be
complete, as in He drove the em: Many verbs can be either transitiYe or
A Grammar Glossary 10)

intransitive: Charles drove. Most transitive verbs can be made passive:

The car was driven by Charles. See also Intransitive verb; Passive voice.
Verb: A form-class word that names an action, process, event, or state; that can
always take both -s and -ing endings; and that can be signaled by aux
iliary verbs: It goes; She is gQing; We should gQ.
Verbal: Another term given to nonfinite verbs-participles, gerunds, and in
finitives-when their function is other than that of main verb: as
adjectivals, adverbials, or nominals.
Verb phrase: A verb together with its auxiliaries, modifiers, and complements.
The predicate of the sentence is a verb phrase, as in He left all his belong
ings, including his guitar, in the house. The term is sometimes used more
narrowly to refer to just the main verb and its auxiliaries. See also Main
verb string.