Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Solar energy: Trends and enabling technologies

Vijay Devabhaktuni a,n, Mansoor Alam a, Soma Shekara Sreenadh Reddy Depuru a,
Robert C. Green IIa, Douglas Nims b, Craig Near c
a
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Toledo, 2801 W. Bancroft St., Toledo, OH 43606, United States
b
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toledo, 2801 W. Bancroft St., Toledo, OH 43606, United States
c
Genziko Inc., 2234 Willowtree Lane, Maumee, OH 43537, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: The global demand for energy is currently growing beyond the limits of installable generation capacity.
Received 10 November 2011 To meet future energy demands efciently, energy security and reliability must be improved and
Received in revised form alternative energy sources must be investigated aggressively. An effective energy solution should be
8 November 2012
able to address long-term issues by utilizing alternative and renewable energy sources. Of the many
Accepted 8 November 2012
available renewable sources of energy, solar energy is clearly a promising option as it is extensively
available. Solar power, especially as it reaches more competitive levels with other energy sources in
Keywords: terms of cost, may serve to sustain the lives of millions of underprivileged people in developing
Distributed generation countries. Furthermore, solar energy devices can benet the environment and economy of developing
Photovoltaic
countries. This paper illustrates the need for the utilization of alternative energy sources, evaluates the
Renewable energy
global scenario of installed generation systems, reviews technologies underlying various solar powered
Solar energy
devices, and discusses several applications and challenges in this area. In addition, this paper addresses
the costs of deployment, maintenance, and operation, as well as economic policies that promote
installation of solar energy systems.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
2. Solar technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
2.1. Solar photovoltaics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
2.2. Concentrating solar photovoltaic systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
2.3. Flat plate and evacuated tube solar collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
3. Global scenario and statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
4. Cost of electricity generated from solar systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
5. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
5.1. General applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
5.2. Approaches to integrated energy solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
5.3. Wireless sensors for improved performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
5.4. Integration into the smart grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
6. Economic policies to promote solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
7. Challenges to solar energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
8. Solar in developing countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

1. Introduction
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Vijay.Devabhaktuni@utoledo.edu (V. Devabhaktuni), Preventing an energy crisis is one of the most crucial issues of the
malam2@utoledo.edu (M. Alam),
21st century. In the past, there has been a constant endeavor to nd
Sdepuru@rockets.utoledo.edu (S. Shekara Sreenadh Reddy Depuru),
Robert.Green3@utoledo.edu (R.C. Green II), Douglas.Nims@utoledo.edu (D. Nims), an alternate way to satisfy the growing energy needs of the global
Craig.Near@genziko.com (C. Near). population the vast majority still living in poverty without

1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.024
556 V. Devabhaktuni et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564

plundering the resources that will be needed by future generations, is currently utilized [3]. Renewable energy sources such as
polluting our ecosystems, and putting undue pressure on the biomass, wind, solar, hydropower, and geothermal can provide
energy-rich regions of the world. In achieving this, the rst problem sustainable energy services based on the utilization of routinely
faced is the explosion in demand due to both the rapid increase in available indigenous resources. A transition to renewable energy
population and the efforts of the most densely populated regions of systems is increasingly likely as their costs continue to decline
the world to develop their economies. In just one generation, the while the cost of fossil fuels continues to rise. In the past 30 years,
global population has increased by nearly 2 billion, with a major solar and wind power systems have continued to improve their
contribution from developing countries. Also, it is a known fact that performance characteristics and have experienced rapid sales
energy demand increases at a rate that is proportional to economic growth. The capital and generation costs associated with such
growth. Based on this, the International Energy Agency (IEA) systems have also been reduced signicantly. Because of these
estimates that developing countries will need to double their developments, market opportunities now exist to both innovate
installed generation capacity in order to meet the growing demand and take advantage of emerging markets in order to promote
for power by the year 2020. In the International Energy Outlook renewable energy technologies, particularly with additional assis-
(IEO) 2009 [1], the total world consumption of marketed energy is tance of governmental and popular sentiment. The development
projected to increase by 44% from 2006 to 2030, as shown in Fig. 1. and use of renewable energy sources can enhance diversity in
In spite of several initiatives, policies, and investments for energy supply markets, contribute to securing long term sustain-
increasing generation capacity, the number of non-electried able energy supplies, help reduce local and global atmospheric
areas in developing countries has not changed signicantly. Lack emissions, and provide commercially attractive options to meet
of access to electricity continues to be one of the major reasons specic energy service needs. The use of renewable energy is also
that citizens of non-electried communities are still poor [2]. becoming increasingly important to slow the effects of climate
Therefore, it is critically important to create the required infra- change.
structure and install the needed distributed energy generation Solar technologies are an extremely promising renewable
resources to satisfy global energy needs. resource considering their ever-increasing output efciencies
Renewable energy is not a new concept, but it continues to and ability to be utilized in a variety of locations. The intrinsic
rapidly emerge as an alternative to fossil fuels and other deleter- qualities of solar energy make it a benecial utility, especially for
ious energy sources. The potential of renewable energy sources is developing countries, for many reasons: rst, most developing
enormous as they, in theory, can produce many times the worlds countries are located in regions with optimal access to the suns
total energy demand. For example, some studies have indicated rays. This is illustrated in Fig. 2. For instance, Indias solar power
that roughly 1000 times the global energy requirement can be reception is about 5000 trillion kWh per year. In addition, the
fullled by using solar energy; however, only 0.02% of this energy average radiation in tropical and sub-tropical regions located in
developing countries can be compared to that of annual global
radiation of about 16002200 kWh/m2 [4]. Second, most of the
available fossil fuel and energy resources can only be used by
exploiting the ecosystem, which leads to social decline. Third,
rising global independence of fossil fuels quickens the need for
solar technology, escalates enhancement of required research,
and thereby lowers related costs. Fourth, solar systems are
relatively affordable and applicable to both homes and villages,
as households of industrialized nations are using more solar
power than ever before. Finally, within solar technologies, passive
solar designs excel when considering renewable energy for
buildings, and can be coupled with solar panels to achieve
maximum comfort and sustainability.
The remainder of this paper will review the most popular solar
technologies, examine the current state of solar globally, discuss
the costs associated with the generation of solar power, evaluate
various applications of solar power, briey review policies sur-
Fig. 1. World marketed energy consumption 19802030 [1]. rounding solar power, and then conclude.

Fig. 2. Average annual global solar energy [4].

 V. Devabhaktuni et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564 557

2. Solar technologies  JA Solar HoldingsA Solar Holdings: JA Solar Holdings designs

and manufactures monocrystalline solar cells primarily in the
Solar energy can be converted into electrical energy using Peoples Republic of China. JA Solar Holdings also sells its
various technologies like photovoltaic (PV) panels, concentrating products to customers in Germany, Sweden, Spain, South
solar thermal power (CSP), and concentrating photovoltaics Korea, and the United States. Total solar PV cell shipment in
(CVT) [5]. The following sub-sections explain these currently 2010 was 1464 MW [13].
available technologies.  First SolarFirst Solar, Inc. is a publicly held US energy
company in the solar sector. It manufactures PV solar modules
using a thin lm semiconductor process based on Cadmium
2.1. Solar photovoltaics Telluride (CdTe), to produce PV modules. Total solar PV cell
shipment in 2010 was 1411 MW [14].
Solar PV modules are solid-state semiconductor devices that  YingliYingli, also known as Yingli Green Energy Holding Com-
convert sunlight into direct-current electricity. Materials used on PV pany Limited, is a solar energy company and one of the largest
panels are mono-crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, micro- vertically integrated manufacturers of photovoltaic solar mod-
crystalline silicon, copper indium selenide, and cadmium tellur- ules. Total solar PV cell shipment in 2010 was 1062 MW [15].
ide [6]. PV production has been doubling every 2 years, increasing
by an average of 48% each year since 2002, making it the worlds
fastest-growing energy technology [7]. Roughly 90% of the current
2.2. Concentrating solar photovoltaic systems
generating capacity from PV consists of grid-tied electrical systems.
Such installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes inte-
PV panels can sometimes be inefcient in capturing all available
grated with farming and grazing) or built on the roof or walls of a
energy from sunlight because of their shape and varying solar
building, known as building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV). Modern
intensity throughout the day. An alternative way to efciently
solar PV power stations have capacities ranging from 10 to 60 MW
capture maximum solar energy is through the use of CSP systems.
although proposed solar PV power stations will have a capacity of
CSP systems use lenses or mirrors to focus sunlight gathered over a
150 MW or more [8]. Net metering and nancial incentives (such
large area into a small area to generate electrical energy. Solar
as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity) have
concentrators are mounted on the solar tracker to keep track of the
supported solar PV installations in many countries. A typical PV
position of the sun. As long as the temperature is at an optimum
panel can now operate for up to 10 years at 90% of its rated power
point for a junction of cells, the solar cells will operate at high
capacity and for up to 25 years at 80% of its rated power capacity.
efciency. If these systems are installed at a large solar plant, then
Fig. 3 shows the total installed solar energy nameplate capacity and
they can be used to ensure that the harnessed energy is more
generation for the United States.
effectively converted to heat. Parabolic trough solar thermal
PV technologies have been manufactured by many companies
systems are the only CSP systems commercially available. These
that include capital equipment producers, cell manufacturers, panel
systems use parabolic, trough-shaped mirrors to focus sunlight on
manufacturers and installers [10]. The list does not include silicon
thermally efcient receiver tubes that contain a heat transfer uid.
manufacturing companies. According to an annual market survey by
This uid is heated to about 390 1C (734 1F) and pumped through a
the PV trade publication Photon International, global production of PV
series of heat exchangers to produce superheated steam that
cells and modules in 2009 was 12.3 GW, and the top 10 manufac-
powers a conventional turbine generator to produce electricity.
turers accounted for 45% of this total [11]. The leading PV manufac-
Recently, power towers and dish/engine type CSP systems have
turers include First Solar, Suntech Power, Sharp, Q-Cells, Yingly Green
been developed. Power towers consist of an array of relatively small
Energy, JA Solar, Kyosera, Trina Solar, Sunpower, and Gintech [6].
at glass mirrors placed around a receiver (solar boiler) which
A brief description of some of these manufacturers includes:
converts the light received into useful heat. These mirrors reect
sunlight onto the collection surface of a solar boiler, which is located
 SuntechSuntech Power Holdings Co., Ltd. is the worlds on top of a tower. The concentrated sunlight that is focused on the
largest producer of crystalline silicon PV modules. As the
collection surface is used to directly create steam, which then drives
center for the companys global operations, Suntech Head-
a turbine/generator to produce electricity. Some power tower
quarters, in Wuxi, China, features the worlds largest building
receivers use molten salt as a heat transfer medium to generate
integrated solar facade. Suntech Power is the worlds largest
steam through heat exchangers (like a parabolic trough). Dish
producer of solar panels, with 1800 MW of annual production
Stirling is a 25 kW solar power system that has been designed to
capacity by the end of 2010. Total solar PV cell shipment in
automatically track the sun and focus solar heat onto a power
2010 was 1572 MW [12].
conversion unit (PCU). This, in turn, converts the intense heat to
grid-quality electricity. The concentrator consists of a 38-foot dia-
meter dish structure that supports 82 curved glass mirror facets,
each three feet by 4 ft in area. These mirrors concentrate solar energy
onto the heater head of a high efciency, four cylinders, reciprocating
Stirling cycle engine generating up to 25 kW of electricity per system.
However, these systems are currently under development and
thus not available commercially. The main advantage of using CSP,
besides its efciency, is that these technologies involve a thermal
intermediary and, thus, can be readily hybridized with fossil fuels
and in some cases adapted to utilize thermal storage.

2.3. Flat plate and evacuated tube solar collectors

As opposed to CSP systems, at plate or evacuated tube solar

Fig. 3. Graph showing the total installed solar energy nameplate capacity and collectors may be used to gather solar energy in a non-concentrated
generation in the US for 20002009. manner for heating and cooling purposes [16]. Due to their high
558 V. Devabhaktuni et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564

Fig. 4. Examples of at plate and evacuated tube solar collection systems. (a) An example of a at plate solar collection system [21]. (b) An example of an evacuated tube
solar collection system [22].

efciency and cost effective nature, this technology is becoming very Table 1
popular worldwide and may be used year round, even in high Total installed solar energy nameplate capacity and generation in the US for
20002009 [9].
humidity, cold temperatures, and/or generally poor weather condi-
tions [17]. Partly due to their increased efciency over electric water Year US Solar Energy U.S. Solar Energy Capacity (MW) and
heating [18], as of 2010, over 70 million residences worldwide had Generation % increase from previous year
active installations of this technology [19,20]. Images depicting both (million kWh)
at plate and evacuated tube solar collectors are shown in Fig. 4. PV CSP Total Increase (%)

The basic construction of these systems consists of some type 2000 909 85 354 439 4.30
of absorption mechanism, a transfer mechanism, and some type of 2001 952 112 354 466 6.20
storage [23]. The absorption mechanism is typically some type of 2002 1021 156 354 510 9.40
copper tubing in various congurations that are painted with a 2003 1132 226 354 580 13.70
2004 1267 312 354 666 14.80
coating to improve efciency [24]. Various pipe congurations may
2005 1444 424 354 778 16.80
include harp, serpentine, completely ooded, or boundary layer 2006 1670 566 355 921 18.40
[23]. Water or air is circulated through this piping system where it 2007 2133 771 419 1190 29.20
is heated and returned to storage. A more efcient modication of 2008 2662 1106 419 1525 28.20
this technology is the evacuated tube collector. In this congura- 2009 3588 1677 431 2108 38.2

tion, heat pipes are vacuum sealed into a containment unit. These
pipes are then used to transfer heat using a manifold. The eva-
cuated tube construction is often preferred as it is 2045% more
efcient than at plate solar collectors, achieves reduced heat loss
by mitigating conductive/convective forces via vacuum sealing,
uses inexpensive pipes that are durable and inexpensive to replace,
and, due to the cylindrical nature of the pipes, tracks the sun
passively leading to increased efciencies at lower costs [25].

3. Global scenario and statistics

The recent advances in technologies that harness solar energy

have led to a rapid expansion of the solar energy market. A
summary of this growth in the United States is shown in Table 1.
In 2010, globally, the increase in the solar PV nameplate capacity
was exceptional. New capacity additions were about 17 GW and
this addition elevated the total nameplate capacity to 40 GW. In
2010, the total capacity of PV grew by 72% compared to the pre- Fig. 5. Share of PV market by country in 2010 [9].
vious year. The European Union accounts for 13.2 GW of new
additionroughly 80% of global additions. Signicantly, Germany
accounts for an addition of 7.4 GW, more than any other country. actively extending its current solar installations and has planned
Italy had an estimated addition of 2.3 GW. New PV installations to install SES units of about 1 GW by 2013, 10 GW by 2017, and
in the Czech Republic were 1.5 GW. Apart from Europe, Japan 20 GW by 2022 [27,28]. A solar thermal power station is currently
reported an increase of 1 GW, the USA about 0.9 GW, and China being constructed in the Banaskantha district in North Gujarat,
about 600 MW. By the end of 2011, the total installed utility scale India, as part of this project. Once completed, it will be the worlds
solar energy capacity was shared among different countries as largest solar power station [29]. In August 2009, First Solar
follows: Spain 32%, Germany 26%, Italy 16%, the USA 7%, and the announced plans to build a 2 GW PV system in Ordos City, Inner
Czech Republic 6% [9]. Also, the price of Solar Energy Systems Mongolia, China, in multiple phases of installation consisting of
(SES) came-down by 15%, new PV installations grew by 66%, and 30 MW in 2010, 970 MW in 2014, and another 1 GW by 2019
total revenue increased by 67%, when comparing the rst quarters [30]. Fig. 5 illustrates the share of PV market by country in 2010.
of 2010 and 2011 [26]. However, 10 of the top 15 cell manufac- In 2010, newly installed capacity of CSP increased about 77%
turers in the industry are located in Asia. compared to 2009. New CSP installations between 2007 and 2010
Several developing countries are planning for the large-scale were about 740 MW with about 478 MW in 2010 alone. At present,
development of SES. For instance, the Indian government is total global installed nameplate capacity has reached 1095 MW. Of
 V. Devabhaktuni et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564 559

this, Spain added 400 MW in 2010, giving the country a total of installation location and local electric rates). This is due to the high
632 MW in operation. In Spain, another 946 MW of CSP is under installation costs involved. Table 2 shows a comparison of the
construction and is expected to be completed by the end of 2013. construction cost, operation and maintenance cost, and fuel costs
In the USA, total capacity of CSP is 509 MW with new additions of for various sources of electricity generation. In developing coun-
78 MW. In addition, several CSP projects are under construction in tries, SES can provide the basic energy needs of houses in remote
Australia, China, India, Italy, Mexico, and South Africa. and rural areas at a fraction of the cost spent on traditional
When considering types of solar heating, the total worldwide electricity. Thus, the cost of electricity from PV systems is relatively
installations as of 2010 and 2011 totaled roughly 149 GWth and cost effective. Demand for solar powered systems is very high in
185 GWth, respectively [9,31]. The largest installations occurred countries with high electricity tariffs. Fig. 6(a) shows the improve-
in China (105 GWth) and the European Union (18.3 GWth) [9,20]. ment in affordability of both solar thermal and solar PV systems.
By 2015, Brazil also plans to install roughly 1000 MW of solar Fig. 6(b) illustrates the current electricity costs of generation using
heating systems [20]. In the US, most growth has been seen in the various major renewable energy sources.
area of thermal process heating systems (industrial solar heating)
and the heating of swimming pools (a 13% increase) [32].
5. Applications

4. Cost of electricity generated from solar systems

5.1. General applications

Driven by advances in technology and increase in manufactur-

This section reviews some applications of SES:
ing scale and sophistication, the cost of PV cells has declined
steadily since the rst solar cells were manufactured [10].
 Building-integrated photovoltaics: Building-integrated photo-
Although the cost of electricity produced from PV systems is still
voltaics (BIPVs) are a promising option for households in
higher than the other competing technologies, this cost is expected
remote, mountainous, and rural areas with no access to the
to continue to decline steadily. The cost of PV installation was $2
electric grid, as arrays of PV panels are mounted on the roof or
per unit of generating capacity in 2009 which came-down to about
the external walls of buildings [34]. Zero energy solar houses,
$1.50 in 2011. According to industry analysis, this price is slated
where energy required by the household appliances is gener-
to reach $1 per unit of generating capacity by 2013. These potential
ated by the solar panels at the same premises, could be
reductions in cost, combined with the simplicity, versatility,
another option. In case the energy generated at such houses
reliability, and low environmental impact of PV systems, should
exceeds the total household energy consumption, the surplus
help PV systems to become highly utilized sources of economical,
energy can be fed back to the utility grid [35].
premium-quality power over the next 2030 years.
 Crop and grain drying: The use of solar dryers in agriculture can
At present, in the USA, the levelized cost of energy from PV is
prove to be extremely efcient due to the low manufacturing
$0.211/kWh and from CSP is $0.312/kWh [33]. Solar electric prices
and operating cost. Solar dryers are able to protect grain and
today are at approximately $0.30/kWh, or around 25 times the
fruit, dry faster and more uniformly, and produce a better
average residential electricity tariffs (the calculation depends on
quality product than open-air methods.
 Greenhouse heating: Solar greenhouses utilize solar energy for
Table 2
both heating and lighting. A solar greenhouse equipped with
Estimated levelized costs of new generation sources in 2016 [33].
thermal mass can be used for collecting and storing solar heat
Plant type Levelized Transmission Total system energy. The greenhouse can also be insulated to retain this heat
capital cost investment levelized cost for use during the night and on cloudy days. This will greatly
($/MWh) ($/MWh) ($/MWh)
reduce the need to use fossil fuels for heating. A gas or oil heater
Conventional coal 65.5 1.2 95.1 may serve as a backup heater or to increase carbon dioxide levels
Natural gas 17.5 1.2 65.1 inside the greenhouse in order to induce higher plant growth.
(combined cycle)  Heating and cooling: Technologies like at plate and evacuated
Wind (off shore) 209.7 5.9 243.7 tube solar heating and cooling are currently being used in
Concentrated solar 259.8 5.8 312.2
power
multiple applications. These include solar water heating sys-
Solarphotovoltaic 194.9 4.0 211.0 tems for commercial/residential use, the heating of swimming
pools, and solar air heating systems.

Fig. 6. Capital and generation costs for various sources. (a) Projected average installed capital costs for new solar electricity generating plants [1]. (b) Costs for generating
electricity for various non-renewable sources.
560 V. Devabhaktuni et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564

 Micro-scale applications: On an even smaller level, an inte- bio-energy, and hydropower, which can be integrated on a grid-
grated micro power generation solution would eliminate the level. However, for smaller meso-scale or off-grid energy genera-
need to plug low power systems into the AC mains for primary tion, options for non-solar power generation are limited. Small
power or for battery recharging or replacement and disposal. wind energy converters or turbines ranging in size from 20 W to
In addition, whereas outdoor solar energy has the capability of 100 kW are available, enjoying a 78% market growth in the US in
providing a power density of 15,000 W/cm3, its power density 2008 [40,41]. Available in many parts of the world, annual
drops down to as little as 1020 W/cm3 for indoor applications average wind speeds of 34 m/s (79 mph) can be adequate for
[36]. Roughly, a 100 mm2 PV cell under ofce lighting yields these small wind generators. With power outputs between 5 and
approximately 100 mW of power [37,38]. Applications to date 100 kW, micro-hydro generators are used to power small com-
include contact and motion sensors for building applications munities, residences, or small enterprises, usually in remote
[39], as well as calculators, PDAs, and wristwatches [37]. mountainous regions [42]. Pico-hydro power generation systems
 Remote electricity supply: PV systems convert sunlight directly have outputs below 5 kW and are usually used for one to three
to electricity. They can power an electrical appliance directly residences. Often these can be integrated with biodiesel genera-
or store solar energy in a battery. A remote location can be tors or wood stoves to develop an integrated meso-scale solution.
several miles or as little as 50 ft (15 m) from a power source. For embedded applications, it is obvious that solar energy is
SES may be much cheaper than installing power lines and unavailable. Other micro-renewal energy sources have greater poten-
step-down transformers in applications such as electrical tial for various indoor, embedded, or remote environments, including
fencing, lighting, and water pumping. vibration, magnetic, heat differential or thermal, and kinetic energy
 Water pumping: Although current prices for PV panels make harvesting. Mechanical vibrations and air ow are the other most
most crop irrigation systems impractical, PV systems are very attractive alternatives [4244]. Vibrational energy harvesters may
cost effective for remote livestock water supply, pond aeration, utilize electromagnetic, magnetostrictive, electrostatic, or piezoelec-
and small irrigation systems. Also, PV water pumping systems tric technology. As piezoelectric-based technologies have proven to be
may be the most cost-effective water pumping option in a high volume manufacturing success, a National Science Foundation
locations where there are no existing power lines. (NSF) workshop considered these harvesters mature and adequate.
Likewise, Frost & Sullivan concluded that they have the highest
probability and impact of success, as shown by their opportunity
analysis in Fig. 7 [45]. These harvesters are being evaluated for the
5.2. Approaches to integrated energy solution powering of sensor nodes for wireless sensor networks, controllers,
data loggers, data processors, low power and portable electronics,
In addition to solar energy, there are several other well-known transmitters, and possibly cell phones and LED lighting. Fig. 8 shows
macro-level renewable energy sources such as wind, geothermal, that these harvesters are addressing the convergence of technology
and market trends towards ubiquitous, wireless, smart sensing,
controlling, and operations.
Vibrational energy harvesters use wasted and often unwanted
vibrational energy to generate usable electrical power for the low-
power device and system market. As shown in Table 3, harvestable
vibrational energy is available nearly everywhere, including civil
structures (bridges and pipelines), transportation vehicles (airplanes,
cars, trucks, and even bicycles), roads (trafc), industrial or mechan-
ical equipment (air compressors, handling equipment, pumps, rotat-
ing machinery, and HVAC equipment), and even from wind and
footfalls. For machine powered applications, Mitcheson estimated
vibrational power densities were closer to 800 W/cm3 [46]. Starner
Fig. 7. Frost & Sullivans opportunity analysis matrix of various micro energy showed a 68 kg human produces 67 W of energy at the heel walking
harvesting technologies [30]. at 3.5 mph or two steps per second. The theoretical limit for power

Fig. 8. Recent technology and market trends enabling ubiquitous, wireless, smart sensing, controlling, and operations.
 V. Devabhaktuni et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564 561

generation from walking has been determined to be 1.265 W Currently, Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and conven-
daily [47]. In order for energy to be harvested from walking, tional vibrational energy harvesters have been developed at micro-
vibrational energy harvesters may be installed in shoes or under a watt mW and milli-watt (mW) power levels, limiting their usage to
oor or walkway. The East Japan Railway Company (JR East) powering MEMS sensors, ultralow power wireless sensors, or ultra-
conducted a demonstration experiment from 19 January to 7 March low power electronic devices.
2008, at Yaesa North Gate, Tokyo Station, on a new power-generating
oor installed at the ticket gate area, shown in Fig. 8. JR East expects 5.3. Wireless sensors for improved performance
to generate enough electricity to light a 100 W bulb for about 80 min
per day. It intends to use the power for station facilities such as Operation of a solar power plant depends on a number of
automatic ticket gates or electric displays in the near future. Club factors, including electrical (e.g. PV efciency, output power,
Surya in London and Club Watt in Rotterdam are the rst of the latest temperature etc.), environmental (e.g. intensity of sunlight, direc-
eco-nightclubs utilizing power generating oors, recovering 30% and tion, rain, air temperature, etc.), and mechanical (e.g. size of the
10%, respectively, of the dance clubs electrical requirements. panels, position, incline angle, etc.). The environmental factors play
a very crucial role in determining the output from a solar power
plant. For example, the direction and orientation of PV panels must
Table 3 be perfect in order to achieve the maximum power output. There is
Potential vibration sources for energy harvesting.
also a need to develop models that will serve as a tool to help
Human body Breathing, blood pressure, exhalation, walking, arm motion, identify design barriers and quantify the cost and mass impact of
nger motion, jogging, swimming, eating, talking design changes on various components of the solar panels. Using
Vehicles Aircraft, UAV, helicopter, automobile, trains, tires, tracks, advanced wireless sensors to collect data on PV installations and
peddles, brakes, shock absorber, turbines
performing analysis to further enhance system design can be
Structures Bridges, roads, tunnels, buildings, pipelines, oil rigs, control
switch, HVAC highly attractive to design engineers and researchers (Fig. 9).
Industrial Motors, compressors, chillers, pumps, fans, conveyors, vibrating A wireless sensor network enables the sensors to be placed all
machinery over a structure. Such a wireless system could be combined with
Environment Wind, ocean currents, waves electrical, mechanical and environmental monitoring sensors to
be a part of a remote, multi-panel, centralized plant monitoring,
and control system. Data from the sensors are transmitted via
wireless technology to a central monitoring station using satellite
Internet as shown in Fig. 10. At the central monitoring station,
data is analyzed and a relationship between various sensed
parameters is established for improving the efciency of the
whole system. For example, various performance monitoring
systems consisting of sensors and other photo-operated devices
like op-amp 741 circuitry, photo-transistors, photo sensors, etc.,
can be integrated into the PV module to enable automatic
orientation of the PV module to the suns direction, making
troubleshooting and maintenance more efcient. Efcient energy
conversion is possible if the PV modules are equipped with
advanced tracking and optical systems (e.g. Fresnel lens).

5.4. Integration into the smart grid

Fig. 9. Power generating oor demonstrated by JR East at Yaesa North Gate, Tokyo The present electric grid is becoming congested due to a lack
Station. of its ability for expansion and continued growth in electricity

Fig. 10. Wireless communication using satellite Internet.

562 V. Devabhaktuni et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564

demand. The present electricity grid is non-uniform and unintel- healthcare in these countries. Since the initial costs of installing a
ligent as the demand side cannot communicate with the supply PV system are very high, and despite lifetime economic advan-
side. Compatibility of the grid with distributed power supplies tages, micro-nance is becoming more of a focus in improving its
would bring down costs for connecting renewable energy sources affordability. Kenya is the most notable developing nation with a
to the grid. Getting the electricity from the renewable energy strong unsubsidized market, where their customers can obtain
sources located in remote areas involves more than just building low power (1020 W) and entry level PV modules.
more power lines. The electric grid should be able to handle greater
and faster changes to load ow caused by intermittent generation
and should plan for standby reserve capacity to supplement 7. Challenges to solar energy
intermittent generation. Effective grid management can be
achieved by improving data collection, using efcient communica- Fundamental challenges faced by SES are the cost, manufac-
tion protocols and network monitoring systems that provide turing procedure, and waste products. In order to implement SES
operators with up-to-date information about the status of grid. at a large scale, technology needs to be cost effective compared to
The smart grid helps to identify faults in the grid and deal with fossil fuel or nuclear energy based generation systems. In addi-
them before they are serious [48]. A smart grid applies state-of- tion, educating customers about the advantages and marketing
the-art technologies and techniques to make the grid more the solar energy products can be expensive and difcult in rural
efcient and provides advanced energy management techniques areas, due to low literacy rates. Impractical political promises or
and approaches for integrating wind or solar power into the grid. plans for rural electrication can also be a barrier for market
The grids software uses stochastic prediction algorithms for expansion [53]. Power generation using SES is weather-
renewable energy forecasting, and such predictions may be used dependent and the trend of generation cannot be fully predicted.
to switch on/off the loads. Smart grids will integrate weather Because of intermittency in power generation, SES might not
reports, real-time output monitoring, and grid-load balancing to be a good choice for a continuous load requirement, and raises
respond to this variability pro-actively [49]. reliability and power quality issues. Because of this, SES has to be
Solar power is an intermittent source of energy, meaning that operated in conjunction with the utility grid or some kind of
it may not always be able to meet peak load requirements. As a energy storage in order to achieve required continuity in power
result, solar energy has to rely upon other expensive energy supply. The grid-connected operation leads to another set of
storage technologies like compressed air, batteries, pumped issues related to voltage stability, reactive power demand, etc.
hydro, etc. One possible solution is to combine plug-in hybrid Another problem associated with using SES is that the energy
electric vehicles (PHEVs), smart grids and solar power. A PHEV generated by the solar energy systems is DC, which has to be
can be considered as a complimentary resource to provide energy converted to AC before utilizing it for home appliances or before
storage during the day. As a result of integrating PHEVs into the feeding it back to the utility grid. Solar energy devices produce no
smart grid, the PHEV owners benet by selling energy to the grid air or water pollution and no greenhouse gases, but do have some
during the day when the demand is higher and buying back the indirect impacts on the environment. For example, there are some
energy during the night when the cost is less if a variable-cost toxic materials and chemicals, and various solvents and alcohols
electric power system is available. Thus, the solar energy systems that are used in the manufacturing process of PV cells. In addition,
and PHEVs result in better economic and environmental benets large solar thermal power plants can harm ecosystems if not
when used in conjunction. properly managed. For example, birds and insects can be killed if
they y into a concentrated beam of sunlight, such as that created
by a solar power tower. CSPs also use potentially hazardous
6. Economic policies to promote solar energy uids (to transfer heat) that require proper handling and disposal.
The use of CSP on a large scale could also lead to water pollution
The PV market is currently being driven by subsidies, tax since water is required for regular cleaning of the concentrators
exemptions, and other nancial incentives. Micro-nance Institu- and receivers and for cooling the turbine-generator.
tions, which are the most likely funding sources in rural areas, are
being supported by bigger government funding agencies. Cur-
rently, in the US, the Department of Energy (DOE) uses a systems- 8. Solar in developing countries
driven approach for the management of research activities of
SES. This approach uses market analysis, modeling, testing, and The main role of all types of solar power in developing
prioritizing to determine the research needs and assess progress countries is twofold: easing the burden of energy production for
[50]. In India, Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission has been everyday tasks and lessening the carbon emissions of developing
established to make the necessary changes to government poli- economies. Pursuing these goals will aid in reducing poverty and
cies in order to promote and develop solar technologies. Changes increasing the general well-being of individuals in these countries
in policy include making the utilization of solar heaters manda- [54]. As an example, 3040% of energy is typically spent on water
tory, ensuring certication for manufacturers of solar powered heating that is done by hauling/burning wood or other fossil fuels
appliances, supporting promotion of the SES through local agen- [54]. The addition of a solar powered water heating system would
cies and power utilities, and supporting technological upgrades to lead to increased freedom from this burden (leading to opportu-
achieve high efciency and cost reduction [27,51]. nities to pursue other ventures) and increased hygiene due to
The ability to promote a clean power source and improve basic installed plumbing [54]. Due to these obvious benets of solar
living standards is the major attraction for international funding installations in developing countries, much work has been
of solar energy in developing countries. Developmental aid fund- completed regarding general policy [28,5559] and viability
ing from several multi-lateral and bi-lateral aid agencies speci- [56,60,61] while also heavily investigating individual locations
cally include solar activities, which has beneted the market [52]. [28,62,63]. While this work is extensive, it can be summarized
Major PV projects valued at tens of millions of dollars have in by considering a few main issues: (1) the use of solar in
installed and operated in remote villages, in countries such as developing countries is highly benecial in terms of indepen-
Indonesia and the Philippines. Increasingly, solar power is being dence, health, and economic growth, (2) governments need to
used for programs which develop education, water supply, and put policies in place that attract investment and encourage
 V. Devabhaktuni et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 555564 563

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