Manual On Efficient Lighting

MANUAL OF
PRACTICE ON
EFFICIENT LIGHTING
i
Philippine Copyright 2007
by
Department of Energy (DOE), Philippines
All rights in this manual are reserved. No copyright is claimed to

the portions of the manual containing copies of the laws,
ordinances, regulations, administrative orders or similar documents
issued by government or public authorities. All other portions of
the manual are covered by copyright. Reproduction of the other
portions of the manual covered by copyright shall require the
consent of the Department of Energy, Philippines.
First Printing, December 2007
ii
Republic of the Philippines
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
Energy Center, Merritt Rd., Fort Bonifacio, Taguig
MESSAGE
With climate change already affecting our lives, there is a need

to actively involve industry practitioners in implementing energy
efficient lighting systems (EELs). By implementing EELs all over the
country, we can defer the capacity installation of new power plants.
From an economic point of view, it is more affordable to conserve
energy than to build another power plant.
The purpose of this guideline is to provide a reference to

students and lighting designers and other professionals in the industry in
designing and implementing energy efficient lighting systems within the
workplace. This booklet will serve as another milestone for the
government in its attempt to address climate change through energy
efficient lighting.
I am confident that with our concerted efforts, we will be able to

reach our objective of conserving energy, and in doing so, mitigate the
destructive effects of climate change.
Angelo T. Reyes
Secretary
iii
iv
PREFACE
In the past years since the IIEE-ELI Manual of Practice on Efficient

Lighting herein referred to as Manual has been first published, there has
been a remarkable progress in the science and art of efficient lighting
design. New and more efficient light sources, improved luminaires and
controls, and new standards of efficient lighting practices, have opened
up a number of areas that need to be considered in efficient lighting
design and practices.
In this edition, we have re-organized the order of the chapters in order for
the readers to have a smooth flow of ideas. Also, the Committee deemed
it necessary to update pertinent Tables and informations to conform with
the standards set by the Philippine National Standards (PNS) and other
recognized international standards. New technologies such as the T8 and
T5 fluorescent lamps were introduced in certain Chapters of the Manual.
Also, a section on Obstrusive (Stray) Lighting has been integrated in
Chapter 8 as additional information regarding the design of area lighting.
Furthermore, Chapter 4 – Light Emitting Diode, Chapter 10 – Basic
Lighting Energy Audit, and Chapter 11 – Economic Analysis for
Lighting are included as new Chapters to adapt to the advancement of
efficient lighting design technologies. Illuminations Calculations, which
were previously included in the Chapter on Lighting System Design is
now regarded as Appendix E while the IES Tables is added to this
edition of the Manual as Appendix F.
The Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.

(IIEE) in cooperation with the Energy Management Association of the
Philippines (ENMAP) and the Philippines Lighting Industry Association
(PLIA) through the technical assistance provided by the Philippine
Efficient Lighting Market Transformation Project (PELMATP) updated
this Manual in response to changing times and advancement of
technologies.
It is the objective of the IIEE that this Manual be used as a reference

textbook for students and lighting design and energy utilization
v
professionals in the design of lighting systems and/or energy audit of a
facility.
The publication of this Manual was made possible through the initiative
and support of the United Nations Development Programme-Global
Environment Facility and administered, executed, and implemented by
the Department of Energy.
It is IIEE’s hope that the information in this Manual will provide useful
advice, tools and pointers as well as additional resources in order to
optimize quality and efficiency in lighting design throughout the country.
While every attempt was made and efforts were exerted to ensure the
accuracy of the information in this manual, comments regarding omissions
and errors are most welcome and highly appreciated.
IIEE STANDARDS COMMITTEE

Ad Hoc Subcommittee on Efficient Lighting
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The “MANUAL OF PRACTICE ON EFFICIENT LIGHTING”, was

hewed from a noble objective to reduce greenhouse emissions coming
from the electricity sectors by building and accelerating demand for
energy efficient lighting products. Its development as a printed
publication was a collaborative effort among professional, business and
international organizations that espouse the environmental preservation
and safety as a principle of responsible business and/or professional
practice.
In the course of its conceptualization and production, which spanned

more than a year, the following distinguished entities and individuals
have generously lent their critical participation, assistance, facilities and
support towards the successful completion and release of this manual.
In particular, special thanks to the following individuals who in their

individual capacities contributed significantly to the project: Mr. Leo S.
Cabasag, 2006 IIEE National President, Mr. Virgilio C. Flordeliza, 2005
IIEE National President, and the 2005 & 2006 IIEE National Board of
Governors for their insightful approval to engage the Institute in this
noble project; IIEE Ad Hoc Committee on Efficient Lighting
Chairperson, Engr. Arthur A. Lopez for his able stewardship of the group
tasked to update and develop the Manual of Practice on Efficient
Lighting. Dir. Raquel S. Huliganga (PELMATP Project Director), Engr.
Noel N. Verdote (PELMATP-Project Manager), Atty. Mayla Fermin A.
Ibañez (PELMATP Task Specialist on Policy & Environmental
Management), and Engr. Arturo M. Zabala (PELMATP-Energy Efficient
Lighting System Specialist) for their supports, efforts, and advices. Also,
to our partner in the Technical Assistance, the Philippine Lighting
Industry Association (PLIA), and the Energy Efficientcy Practitioners
Association of the Philippines (EEPAP) for the inputs and technical
expertise that their members extended and most especially to the United
Nations Development Programme for funding the project as a gift for the
Filipino people.
vii
IIEE Ad Hoc Committee on Efficient Lighting members, Messrs. Arjun
G. Ansay, Konrad Chua, Paul Fung, Jaime Jimenez, Clifford Jison,
Francis Mapile, Ernesto Payongayong, Adam Pineda, Charlie A.
Quirante, Genesis Ramos, Mike Rizarri, Jesus Santos, Ronald
Tahanlangit, Gem Tan, Gideon Tan, Willington KKC Tan, Jake Velasco,
Andrew Yan, Franco Yap, and Arturo Zabala.
Moreover, we would also like to recognize the support and participation

of the following organizations through their representatives, in the
development of this manual: Department of Energy (DOE), Philippine
Lighting Industry Association (PLIA), Department of Trade and Industry
(DTI), Integrated Research and Training Center – Technological
University of the Philippines (IRTC-TUP), Manila Electric Company
(MERALCO), and the Philippine Efficient Lighting Market
Transformation Project Management Office (PELMATP-PMO).
The MANUAL OF PRACTICE ON EFFICIENT LIGHTING is a

fusion of experience, knowledge, and expertise from the country’s
leading technical minds with the world’s latest lighting industry
standards. As such, Filipino technical and engineering practitioners
would now have an authoritative and world-class reference guide for
efficient and environmentally safe lighting specifications and procedures.
In considering the coming up of this publication as a success in itself, the
faithful and widespread compliance by lighting engineers and specifiers
throughout the country as to the information contained herein would be
the ultimate success for all of us who are involved in this project.
Thank you very much.
IIEE STANDARDS COMMITTEE

Ad Hoc Subcommittee on Efficient Lighting
viii
FOREWORD
It is with sheer delight that I heed the invitation of the Institute of

Integrated Electrical Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (IIEE) to welcome
you to this updated edition of the IIEE-ELI Manual of Practice on
Efficient Lighting. Not only am I gratified by another opportunity to
serve the cause of global energy efficiency, for which I continue to
pursue with relentless passion, but I just as well posthumously honor the
man who wrote the foreword of the maiden edition, Douglas Leon
Kuffel1 – a colleague who believed with me that God, humankind and
Mother Earth can be served by a seemingly unrelated achievement such
as co-founding the Philippine Lighting Industry Association, Inc. (PLIA)
in November 2001.
As in the pioneer edition, this revised manual takes you through a tour of
useful information on energy-efficient lighting – from the fundamental
sciences behind lighting to cutting-edge technologies awaiting full
commercialization in the global, regional and Philippine lighting
markets. This book should appeal to a wider readership ranging from
lighting design professionals, procurement practitioners, policymakers,
building end-users, lighting industry players, distribution utilities, to
engineering and architectural faculty and students.
Before one immerses into the deeply technical discussions, one must
dare ask – why all the trouble of transforming markets towards energy-
efficient lighting?
The technological advances of this world have driven humanity to

depend on artificial lighting – in fact, way too much dependent. To light
up the world with electricity (that is, excluding the 2 billion people still
using fuel-based lighting), it has been estimated that 2,106,000,000,000
kilowatt-hours/year of electric energy consumption and
21,103,000,000,000,000,000 joules of electric energy production would
1
Douglas Leon Kuffel (1950-2004), Founding Trustee and President of the
Philippine Lighting Industry Association, Inc. (PLIA)
ix
be needed for lighting alone2 – the equivalent of 1,000 power plants!
This means that, from electric lighting alone, the world emits an
additional 2,893,000,000 tons of CO2 annually from the combustion of
fossil fuels in the generation side of the world’s power sector. It is
likewise estimated that humankind foots an annual energy bill of $232
billion for lighting up the world.3
In the Philippines, the Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that at

least 154,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours will be needed in the next decade
as baseline electricity consumption for end-use lighting.4 This means
that, unless the market transforms fast enough, the country may
contribute as much as 84,546,000 tons of CO2 in greenhouse gas
emissions during the same 10-year period. If we include the 5 million
Filipinos dependent on fuel-based lighting, the Philippines spends over P
80 billion/year for lighting energy.5
The case for efficient lighting market transformation is solid and crystal
clear. The universality of lighting across all sectors and socio-economic
classifications allows all players in each economy to generate savings in
energy expenditures, enhance energy security, and contribute to global
efforts to slow down global warming with greenhouse gas abatement
strategies.
This book enables the lighting user and practitioner to be a catalyzing

force that accelerates the obsolescence of inefficient lighting
technologies and the commercialization of more energy-efficient lighting
technologies. On the premise that the light output is maintained in the
process, the savings potential of the technological shifts recommended in
this manual starts at a low of 15% to a high of 80%.6
2
Evan Mills, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory paper for the International
Energy Agency and the Fifth International Conference on Energy-Efficient
Lighting, Nice, France, 2002.
3
2002 estimate of Evan Mills includes both electric and fuel-based lighting.
4
UNDP-DOE baseline estimates, 2003.
5
Author’s estimate.
6
Eighty percent savings are attainable with the replacement of incandescent
bulbs with appropriately rated, quality compact fluorescent lamps.
x
Because the development, updating and publication of this manual are
enabling activities, this reference book becomes a power legacy tool of
the Global Environment Facility – initially through the Efficient Lighting
Initiative of the International Finance Corporation7, and now through the
Philippine Efficient Lighting Market Transformation Project8
(PELMATP) of the United Nations Development Programme, the DOE
and the strong partnership with non-governmental organizations such as
the IIEE, PLIA and the Energy Management Association of the
Philippines.
Long after foreign-assisted interventions are closed, this book will be

among those legacy tools that will maintain the momentum of the market
transformation in the years and years to come. By your conscious desire
to use the technical information gathered in this manual, you have
unknowingly chosen to serve as a transformation catalyst, an agent of
change.
Alexander Ablaza
Independent Consultant for Energy-Environment & Engineering
Founding Trustee, Philippine Lighting Industry Association, Inc.
11 August 2006, Makati City, Philippines
7
IFC implemented the GEF-assisted program on behalf of the World Bank
Group.
8
This revision of the manual is funded with PELMATP assistance.
xi
xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
1 Light and Lighting Fundamentals 1
1.1 Light 1
1.1.1 Radiant Energy, Light and Color 1
1.1.2 The Eye and Vision 4
1.2 Lighting 6
1.2.1 Lighting Terminologies Introduction 6
1.2.1.1 Lighting Concepts and Units 7
1.2.2 Laws for Point Sources of Light 9
1.2.3 Sources of Artificial Light 13
1.2.3.1 Introduction 13
1.2.3.2 Types of Modern Artificial Light Sources 14
1.2.3.3 Commonly Used Types of Lamps 14
1.2.3.4 Color Characteristics of Artificial Light
Sources 14
2 Low Intensity Discharge Lamps 21
2.1 Technical Description 21
2.1.1 Fluorescent Lamp Operation 22
2.1.2 Fluorescent Technology 25
2.1.3 Mercury Reduced Fluorescent Lamps 26
2.1.4 Operating Parameters 26
2.2 Linear/Tubular Fluorescent Lamps 31
2.2.1 Technical Advantages of Triphosphor Lamps 34
2.2.2 Advantages of Replacing Halophosphor
Fluorescent Lamps with Triphosphor Lamps in
Existing Systems 35
2.2.3 The Right Light Color for Every Application 37
2.2.4 Color Temperature 39
2.2.5 Environmentally Friendly 40
2.2.6 Lower Mercury Content 40
2.2.7 Recyclable Packaging Materials 40
2.2.8 Recent Products 40
2.2.9 New Developments and Trends 43
2.2.10 Efficient Operation of T5 Lamps — With ECGs 44
2.2.11 Burning Positions 45
2.2.12 Standard for Linear Fluorescent Lamps 45
2.3 Compact Fluorescent Lamps 46
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CHAPTER PAGE
2.3.1 Technology Updates 47
2.3.2 Current Products 55
2.3.3 Application Guidelines 60
2.3.4 Cost Savings Retrofit Profile 64
2.3.5 Standard for Fluorescent Lamps 66
2.4 New Technology 67
2.4.1 Electrodeless (Induction) Lamps 67
2.5 Guideline Specification 69
3 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps 71
Introduction 71
3.1 Technology Description 71
3.2 Current Products 72
3.2.1 Metal Halide Lamps 74
3.2.2 Mercury Lamps 80
3.2.3 Low-Pressure Sodium Lamps 81
3.2.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamps 81
3.2.5 Ballast and Ignitors 84
3.2.6 Lamp Dimming 84
3.2.7 Lamp Starting and Restrike 85
3.2.8 Lamp Life and Failure Modes 86
3.2.8.1 Metal Halide 86
3.2.8.2 Standard High-Pressure Sodium 86
3.2.8.3 Low-Mercury HPS Lamps 86
3.2.8.4 No-Mercury HPS Lamps 86
3.2.9 Energy Efficiency 87
3.2.10 Color Characteristics 88
3.2.11 Temperature Sensitivity 89
3.2.12 Burning Orientation 89
3.2.13 Other Applicable Technologies 89
3.2.14 HID Ballast 89
3.2.15 Interchangeable Lamps 91
3.3 Application Guidelines 91
3.3.1 Typical Application 91
3.3.2 Special Application Consideration
for HID Lamps 93
3.4 Example 93
4 Light-Emitting Diodes 95
Introductiont 95
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CHAPTER PAGE
4.1 Invention and Development 95
4.2 How LEDs Work 96
4.3 Color 97
4.3.1 Tri-color LEDs 98
4.3.2 Bi-color LEDs 99
4.4 Sizes, Shapes and Viewing Angles 100
4.5 Luminous Flux and Efficacy 101
4.6 Lumen Depreciation 102
4.7 Power Source 102
4.8 Advantages of Using LEDs 104
4.9 Disadvantages of Using LEDs 105
4.10 LED Applications 105
4.11 LEDs: Environmental and Disposal Issues 108
4.12 LEDs: The Future of Lighting 108
5 Energy-Efficient Fluorescent Ballast 109
Introduction 109
5.1 Technology Description 109
5.1.1 Lamp Ballast 109
5.1.2 Types of Fluorescent Lamp Ballast 110
5.1.3 Starting Requirements 113
5.1.4 Operating Requirements 113
5.1.5 Lamp and Ballast Wattage Compatibility 114
5.1.6 Direct Lamp Change Over Using the Existing
Installed Ballast 115
5.1.7 Efficient and Cost Effective Lamp and Ballast
Changeover 115
5.1.8 Types of Conventional Ballasts and their
Associated Starting Methods 116
5.1.9 Other Types of Ballasts and their Associated
Starting Methods 119
5.1.10 Ballast Factor 122
5.1.11 Energy Efficiency 124
5.1.12 Lamp-Ballast System Efficacy 124
5.1.13 Reliability of Electronic Ballast 125
5.1.14 Ballast Noise Level (Sounding Rating) 126
5.1.15 Dimming 127
5.1.16 Flicker 128
5.1.17 Harmonics 128
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CHAPTER PAGE
5.1.18 New Generation of High Performance
Electronic Ballast 133
5.2 Application Guidelines 133
5.2.1 Electronic Ballast 134
5.2.2 Ballast Selection Considerations 134
5.2.3 System Compatibility of Electronic Ballast 136
5.2.4 Heater Cutout Ballast 136
5.3 Standard for Electromagnetic Ballast 137
5.4 Guideline Specifications 137
6 Lighting Systems and Luminaires 139
6.1 Lighting Systems 139
6.2 Luminaires 139
6.2.1 Definition 139
6.2.2 Function of Luminaires 139
6.3 Classification 140
6.3.1 Classification by Photometric Characteristics 140
6.3.1.1 CIE Classification 140
6.3.1.2 NEMA Classification System 145
6.3.2 IEC Classification System 146
6.3.2.1 Protection Against Electrical Shock 146
6.3.2.2 Protection Against Ingress of Dust and
Moisture 147
6.4 Technical Description 149
6.4.1 Luminaire Components 149
6.4.2 Light Control Components 151
6.4.3 Mechanical Components 155
6.4.4 Electrical Components 155
6.5 Types of Luminaire Design and Characteristics 155
6.5.1 General Lighting Luminaire Types 156
6.5.1.1 Commercial and Residential Luminaire 156
6.5.1.2 Architectural Luminaires 163
6.5.1.3 Task Lights 166
6.5.1.4 Decorative Luminaires 167
6.5.1.5 Emergency and Exit 169
6.5.1.6 Industrial Luminaire 170
6.5.1.7 Outdoor Luminaires 172
6.5.1.8 Luminaire Design Considerations 177
6.6 Photometric Data for Luminaires 181
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CHAPTER PAGE
6.6.1 Light Loss Factor 184
6.6.2 Overall Light Loss Factor 184
6.7 Lighting System 185
6.7.1 Typical Luminaire Installations 187
6.7.2 Recommended Spacing for General Office
Lighting Applications 187
6.7.3 Recommended Spacing for Other Applications 187
6.8 Guidelines Specification 192
6.8.1 Performance Specifications 192
7 Lighting Control Technologies 193
7.1 Lighting Control Strategies 193
7.1.1 Energy Management Strategies 193
7.2 Lighting Control Techniques 198
7.2.1 Switching or Dimming 198
7.2.2 Local or Central 199
7.2.2.1 Outdoor Luminaires 200
7.2.2.2 Hardwiring 200
7.2.2.3 Power Line Carrier 201
7.2.2.4 Radio Links 201
7.2.3 Degree of Control Automation and Zoning 201
7.2.3.1 Zoning 201
7.3 Lighting Control Equipment 202
7.3.1 Manual Switching 202
7.3.2 Timing and Sensing Devices 203
7.3.2.1 Timing Devices 203
7.3.2.2 Photo Sensors 204
7.3.2.3 Occupancy/Motion Sensors 205
7.4 Impact of Lighting Controls 207
7.4.1 Electrical Equipment 208
7.4.1.1 Switching 208
7.4.1.2 Interference 208
7.4.2 Power Quality 209
7.4.3 Human Performance Effects 210
7.4.3.1 Illumination 210
7.4.3.2 Audible Noise 210
7.4.3.3 Flicker 210
7.4.3.4 Color Changes 211
7.5 Cost Analysis 211
xvii
CHAPTER PAGE
7.5.1 Cost Considerations 212
7.5.1.1 Economic Analysis Techniques 212
7.5.1.2 Sources of Cost and Performance
Data 213
7.6 Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI) 213
7.6.1 DALI Advantages to Lighting Designers 214
7.6.2 DALI Advantages to Facility Managers 215
7.6.3 DALI Advantages to Building Occupants 215
8 Lighting System Design 217
Introduction 217
8.1 Basic Indoor/Interior Lighting Design 217
8.1.1 Objectives and Design Considerations 218
8.1.2 Determining Average Illuminance 219
8.1.3 Indoor Lighting Calculations 230
8.2 Basic Outdoor/Exterior Lighting Design 236
8.2.1 Point-by-Point Method 237
8.2.2 Design Factors 238
8.2.3 Average Illuminance Equation 243
8.2.4 Area Design Considerations 244
8.2.5 Rule of Thumb Method 247
8.3 Obstrusive (Stray) Lighting 249
8.3.1 Stray Lighting 249
8.3.1.1 Sky Glow 249
8.3.1.2 Light Trespass 250
8.3.1.3 Glare 250
8.3.2 Mitigating Obstrusive Light 250
8.3.2.1 New Lighting Design 250
8.3.2.2 Existing Lighting Design
Installation 250
8.4 Computer Aided Lighting Design Softwares 251
9 Lighting System Maintenance 253
9.1 Lighting Maintenance 253
9.1.1 Maintenance Action Checklist 253
9.2 Maintaining Light 254
9.2.1 Level Group Relamping 254
9.2.2 Cleaning 254
9.2.3 Spot Relamping 255
9.2.4 Advantage of Group Relamping and Cleaning 255
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CHAPTER PAGE
9.3 Maintenance Planning 255
9.4 Troubleshooting and Maintenance Tips 258
9.4.1 Preheat Fluorescent Lamp Circuits 258
9.4.2 Rapid-Start Fluorescent Lamp Circuits 259
9.4.3 Instant-Start Fluorescent Lamp Circuits 260
9.4.4 Mercury Lamps 261
9.4.5 Metal Halide Lamps 263
9.4.6 High-Pressure Sodium Lamps 264
9.4.7 Low-pressure Sodium Lamps 265
10 Basic Lighting Energy Audit 267
Introduction 267
10.1 Definition 267
10.2 Purpose 268
10.3 Types of Audit 268
10.3.1 The Walk-Thru Audit 268
10.3.2 The Intermediate Audit or Preliminary Audit 269
10.3.3 The Comprehensive Audit or Detailed Audit 269
10.4 The Lighting System Auditor 270
10.5 Evaluating Lighting Systems 270
10.6 Measuring and Monitoring Equipment Requirement 271
10.7 Potential of Energy Savings and Payback Period 273
10.7.1 Simple Payback (SPB) 273
10.7.2 Life-Cycle Costing (LCC) 273
10.7.3 Lighting System Cost 274
10.8 Lighting Audit Report 275
10.9 Existing Lighting System Conditions 275
11 Economic Analysis of Lighting 279
11.1 The Role of Economic Analysis in Lighting 279
11.2 Lighting Cost Comparisons 279
11.3 The Cost of Lighting 280
11.4 Simple Payback 282
11.5 Simple Rate of Return 283
11.6 Life-Cycle Cost-Benefit Analysis (LCCBA) 284
11.6.1 Notes on the LCCBA Worksheet 286
11.6.2 Financial Equations 289
11.6.3 Notes on the Use of Equations 11.4 through
11.8 293
Appendix A Checklist of Energy-Saving Guidelines 295
xix
CHAPTER PAGE
Appendix B Efficient Lighting Initiative (ELI) Voluntary
Technical Specification 303
Appendix C Levels of Illumination Currently Recommended 313
Appendix D Metal Halide and High Pressure Sodium (HPS)
Lamps Tables 355
Appendix E Illumination Calculations 357
Appendix F Tables 397
Appendix G Ballast Wiring Diagrams 413
FIGURE PAGE
Figure 1.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 2
Figure 1.2 Additive Mixing (Light) 3
Figure 1.3 Subtractive Mixing 4
Figure 1.4 The Human Eye 4
Figure 1.5 Rods and Cones in the Retina 5
Figure 1.6 Relative Spectral Sensitivity of the Eye 6
Figure 1.7 Inverse Square Law 9
Figure 1.8 Inverse Square Law — Example 10
Figure 1.9 The Effect Upon the Illuminance
When Hitting a Different-Angled Surface 11
Figure 1.10 Inverse Square Law and Cosine Law 12
Figure 1.11 Inverse Law and Cosine Law-Example 12
Figure 1.12 Lamp Families and some Common Lamp Types 16
Figure 2.1 How a Fluorescent Lamp Produces Light 23
Figure 2.2 Relation Between Switching Cycle and
Lifetime (CCG) 28
Figure 2.3 Relative Luminous Flux/Ambient Temperature 29
Figure 2.4 Cold Spots 30
Figure 2.5 Fluorescent Lamp Nomenclature 32
Figure 2.6 Lumen Maintenance 36
Figure 2.7 T5 Circular (FC) Lamp Burning Position 45
Figure 2.8 Energy Label for Linear Fluorescent Lamps 46
Figure 2.9 Compact Fluorescent Lamp-Ballast Systems 48
Figure 2.10 Typical Luminous Flux/Temperature Curves for
18W Amalgam CFL 49
xx
FIGURE PAGE
Figure 2.11 Typical Ambient Temperature and Lamp
Orientation Effects on Lumen output of Compact
Fluorescent Lamps 55
Figure 2.12 Compact Fluorescent Luminaire Application 57
Figure 2.13 Comparison between Incandescent Lamps and
CFLs 58
Figure 2.14 Energy Label for Compact Fluorescent Lamps 67
Figure 2.15 Induction (Electrodeless) Lamps 68
Figure 3.1 Metal Halide and High Pressure Sodium Lamp
Construction 72
Figure 3.2 Typical HID Lamps Bases and Envelope Share 74
Figure 3.3 Metal Halide Lamp Configurations 76
Figure 3.4 Double—Ended Metal Halide Lamps
With FC2 and RSC Bases 79
Figure 3.5 Typical High Pressure Sodium Lamp
Configurations 82
Figure 3.6 Life of HID Lamps 87
Figure 3.7 Graphical Comparison of Different Lamp Efficacy 88
Figure 4.1 Light Emitting Diode Anatomy 95
Figure 4.2 LED Structure 97
Figure 4.3 Tri-Color LED 98
Figure 4.4 Bi-Color LED 99
Figure 4.5 LED Shapes 101
Figure 4.6 LED Configuration 103
Figure 4.7 Seven-Segment LED 106
Figure 4.8 Dot Matrix LED 107
Figure 4.9 Exit and Emergency Sign Backlight LED 107
Figure 4.10 Cyclist Belt LED 107
Figure 4.11 LED for Task Lighting 108
Figure 5.1 Typical Electromagnetic Fluorescent Ballast 111
Figure 5.2 Lamp Efficacy vs. Frequency 112
Figure 5.3 A Typical Switch Start Circuit 117
Figure 5.4 Traditional Rapid Start 119
Figure 5.5 Programmed Start with Zero Glow Current Lamp
Ballast Compatibility 120
Figure 5.6 Power vs. Ballast Factor Curves for Two-Lamp
1.2m Fluorescent Lamp-Ballast Systems 123
Figure 5.7 Ballast Energy Label 137
xxi
FIGURE PAGE
Figure 6.1 Example of Direct Luminaire 142
Figure 6.2 Example of Semi-direct Lighting 142
Figure 6.3 Example of General-Diffuse Luminaire 143
Figure 6.4 Example of Indirect Luminaire 145
Figure 6.5 Basic Components of Luminaires 150
Figure 6.6 Examples of Reflectors 152
Figure 6.7 Examples of Refractor 154
Figure 6.8 Examples of Diffusers 154
Figure 6.9 Examples of Louvers & Baffles 155
Figure 6.10 Open Direct Luminaire 156
Figure 6.11 Open Luminaire w/ Specular Reflector 157
Figure 6.12 Shield Direct Luminaire 157
Figure 6.13 Shielded Industrial Luminaire 158
Figure 6.14 Typical Four-Lamp Parabolic Troffer 160
Figure 6.15 Example of Troffer with Prismatic Lens 160
Figure 6.16 Indirect Lighting Luminaire 161
Figure 6.17 Cove Lighting System 162
Figure 6.18 HID Indirect Luminaire (Uplighter) 162
Figure 6.19 Direct/Indirect Luminaire 163
Figure 6.20 Example of Stage/Theater Luminaire 163
Figure 6.21 Example of Low Wattage HID Downlight 164
Figure 6.22 Example of Recessed Architectural Downlight 165
Figure 6.23 HID Tracklights and Compact Fluorescent
Floodlights 165
Figure 6.24 Screw-in Compact Fluorescent Luminaire 166
Figure 6.25 Typical Compact Fluorescent Task Light 167
Figure 6.26 Compact Fluorescent Wall Sconces 168
Figure 6.27 Decorative Pendant Luminaires 168
Figure 6.28 Examples of Compact Fluorescent Exterior
Luminaires 169
Figure 6.29 Examples of Emergency & Exit Lights 170
Figure 6.30 Examples of Linear Fluorescent for Industrial
Applications 170
Figure 6.31 Examples of Strip or Batten Luminaires 171
Figure 6.32 Examples of High Bay Luminaires 171
Figure 6.33 Examples of Low Bay Luminaires 172
Figure 6.34 Examples of Floodlights 173
Figure 6.35 Examples of Sportlights 173
xxii
FIGURE PAGE
Figure 6.36 Examples of Street and Roadway Luminaires 174
Figure 6.37 Example of Pathway Luminaire 175
Figure 6.38 Examples of Garage and Parking Lot Luminaires 175
Figure 6.39 Examples of Security Luminaires 176
Figure 6.40 Examples of Landscape Luminaires 176
Figure 6.41 Measurement of the ‘cold spot’ Temperature for T5
Lamps 177
Figure 6.42 Polar Intensity Diagram 182
Figure 6.42 (a) Dotted Line 183
Figure 6.42 (b) Continuous Line 183
Figure 6.42 Sensitivity of Lamp-Ballast Performance to
Ambient Temperature 186
Figure 6.44 Recommended Spacing 188
Figure 6.45 Spacing Requirements for Reasonably Uniform
Lighting 188
Figure 6.46 Maximum Spacing Dimensions for Fluorescent
Luminaires 189
Figure 6.47 Layout Arrangement for Luminaires 191
Figure 8.1 Light Output Change Due to Voltage Change 224
Figure 8.2 Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD) Factors 227
Figure 8.3 Indoor Lighting 230
Figure 8.4 Room Reflectances 232
Figure 8.5 Room Cavities 233
Figure 8.6 Components of Point-by-Point Method 238
Figure 8.7 Types of Lateral Light Distribution 240
Figure 8.8 Full Cutoff 240
Figure 8.9 Cutoff 241
Figure 8.10 Semi-Cutoff 242
Figure 8.11 Non-Cutoff 242
Figure 8.12 Light Projection 245
Figure 8.13 Interior Poles 245
Figure 8.14 Perimeter Poles 245
Figure 8.15 Graph-Calculations, Rule of Thumb Method 248
TABLE PAGE
Table 1.1 Lighting Terminologies and Basic Units 13
Table 1.2 Qualitative Comparison of Artificial Light
Sources 17
xxiii
TABLE PAGE
Table 2.1 Color of Light and Color Rendering Properties of
Fluorescents 33
Table 2.2 Comparison of Standard and Triphosphor Lamps 35
Table 2.3 Appropriate Color Choices by Application 37
Table 2.4 Linear Fluorescent Lamp Comparison (32/36/40W) 42
Table 2.5 Comparative Light Output, Efficacy and Operating
Hours of Incandescent Lamps (IL) and Compact
Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) 59
Table 2.6 Residential Applications for Compact Fluorescent
Lamps 61
Table 2.7 Commercial Applications for Compact Fluorescent
Lamps 63
Table 2.8 Cost/Savings Comparison between Incandescent
Lamps and CFL 65
Table 3.1 Color Rendering Index and lamp Efficacy for
Typical Light Sources 73
Table 3.2 Typical Application of HID Lamps 94
Table 4.1 Elements Important to the Construction of LEDs 96
Table 4.2 Common Light Emitter Materials and Characteristics 98
Table 4.3 Color Producing Inorganic Semiconductor Materials 100
Table 4.4 Determination of LED Correct Polarity 103
Table 5.1 Ballast Loss Comparison 111
Table 5.2 Effects of Mismatching Ballast and Lamp Types 114
Table 5.3 Example on Cost Effectiveness in Re-Lamping and
Use of Electronic Ballast 116
Table 6.1 Protection Degree IP 148
Table 6.2 Luminaires Common IP Rating 149
Table 6.3 Comparative Luminance of Fluorescent Lamps 178
Table 6.4 Technology Design Considerations 179
Table 8.1 Five Degrees of Dirt Conditions 228
Table 8.2 Room Surface Dirt Depreciation (RSDD) Factors 229
Table 8.3 Suggested Mounting Heights 246
Table 10.1 Existing Lighting System Conditions Assessment
Worksheet 276
Table 11.1 Lighting Cost Comparison Methods 280
Table 11.2 Worksheet for LCCBA 284
Table 11.3 Conversion Factors for Various Fuels 288
xxiv
xxv
Chapter 1. Light and Lighting Fundamentals
INTRODUCTION
1.1—LIGHT
Light is a form of radiant energy from natural sources (e.g. the sun and
stars), and artificial sources (e.g. a candle and electric lamps). It travels
in the form of an electromagnetic wave, so it has wavelength and a
known speed. Like other electromagnetic radiation, it can be reflected
and refracted.
Lighting, on the other hand, is the application of light to illuminate

objects, surfaces, scenes, pictures and people. Since it is an application, it
is both a science and an art. Science, because it makes use of the science
of light and employs methods and techniques developed through time. It
is an art because the personal taste (preference) and artistic sense of the
designer and owner greatly influence the manner by which lighting is
applied.
1.1.1 Radiant Energy, Light and Color
Light is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the eye

responds. This visible energy is a small part of the total spectrum, which
ranges from cosmic rays with extremely short wavelength
(1 x 10-14 meter) to electric power frequencies with wavelength in
hundred kilometers as shown in Figure 1.1. The visible portion lies
between 380 and 770 nanometers (a unit of wavelength equal to 1 x 10-9
meter or one- billionth of a meter).
The color of light is determined by its wavelength. Visible energy with

the shortest wavelengths (380 to 450 nm) produces the sensation of violet
and those with longest wavelengths (630 to 770 nm) produce sensation
of red. In between light blue (450 to 490 nm), green (490 to 560 nm),
yellow (560 to 590 nm), and orange (590 to 630 nm).
1
CHAPTER 1. LIGHT AND LIGHTING FUNDAMENTALS
Figure 1.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The region with slightly longer wavelengths immediately adjacent to the

red end of the visible spectrum is known as the infrared, and the region
with slightly shorter wavelengths immediately adjacent to the violet end
of the visible spectrum is the ultraviolet.
The human visual system responds to the very small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that lies between 380 and 760 nanometers.
However, it does not respond uniformly. Given the same output of power
at each wavelength, the visual system will sense the yellow-green region
as the brightest and the red and blue region as the darkest. This is why
the light source, which has most of its power in the yellow-green area,
will have the highest visual efficiency, i.e., the highest lumens per watt.
2
However, without a reasonable proportion of red or blue in its output, a

light source will not be able to render colors satisfactorily. With most
sources, the wider the range of wavelengths present, the lower the
efficiency.
How to see colors depends on the wavelengths emitted by the light

source, the wavelengths reflected by the object, the surroundings in
which we see the object and the characteristics of the visual system.
Exactly how the visual system really sees color is still only a theory.
Lights and pigments mix differently to form colors. The primary colors
of light (red, green, and blue) can be added to produce the secondary
colors of light–magenta (red plus blue), cyan (green plus blue), and
yellow (red plus green). Thus, colors of light are called “additive”. A
secondary color of light mixed in the right proportions with its opposite
primary will produce white light. Thus, yellow and blue are
complimentary colors of light as cyan and red, and magenta and green.
In pigments, however, a primary color is defined as one that subtracts or

absorbs a primary color of light and reflects or transmits the other two.
So the primary colors in pigments (sometimes called subtractive
primaries) are magenta, cyan, and yellow – the secondary colors of light.
Figure 1.2 Additive Mixing (Light)
3
Figure 1.3 Subtractive Mixing
1.1.2 The Eye and Vision
(a) The Eye. The rays of light enter the eye through the Cornea,
which is the transparent membrane that bulges out at the front of the eye.
They then pass through the Pupil, which is a round opening in the
colored Iris. The eye reduces the size of this opening to limit the rays of
light to the central and optically best part of the Lens, except when the
full aperture is needed for maximum sensitivity. The pupil also closes for
near vision to increase the clarity of near objects. It can change the area
of the opening over a ratio of about 16:1 although the eye works
efficiently over a range of brightness of about 1,000,000:1. The ability of
the eye to adjust to higher or lower levels of luminance is termed
Adaption.
Figure 1.4 The Human Eye
4
The whole eye is filled with a jelly like substance and the rays pass
through this onto the lens, which focuses the image. Muscles around the
lens make it fatter or thinner so the eye can focus sharply on distant or
close objects. This ability is called Accommodation and ensures that
sharp, clear image is focused onto the light sensitive cells of the Retina.
We don't "see" with the retina—it is only when the information it collects
has been transferred along the Optical Nerve to the brain that a
conscious visual image is formed and this is the time we "see".
The retina has two basic types of Receptors—Rods and Cones for
collecting this information. By a chemical process in the retina, the eyes
are able to work over the enormous range of brightness we see. Cones
can differentiate between the different wavelengths of light and therefore
enable us to see in color. The rays of light are not actually colored. The
more sensitive rods only give us black and white vision.
Figure 1.5 Rods and Cones in the Retina
(b) Vision. The cones operate during the day and nominal daylight
conditions, and enable us to see in detailed color. This is known as
Photopic or daytime Adaptions. The eye is using a mixture of cones and
rods to see. If light conditions are not bright, as the rods can only "see" a
black and white image, the overall impression is much less brightly
colored. This is called Mesopic vision. At even lower levels, much lower
than the average street lighting or moonlight, the cones cease to function.
The eye losses all its facility to see in color and the rods take over giving
completely black and white vision, called Scotopic, or nighttime
Adaptions.
5
These different adaptions are important because not only does the
eye discriminate between different wavelengths of light with the
sensation of color, but it is also more sensitive to some wavelengths than
others - and this sensitivity alters between Photopic and Scotopic vision.
For Photopic vision, the eye has peak sensitivity at 555 nanometers,
which is yellow-green color. However, for Scotopic vision, peak
sensitivity moves to 505 nanometers, which is blue-green light, although
the vision is in terms of black and white. The Mesopic vision peak will
be somewhere between the two.
Figure 1.6 Relative Spectral Sensitivity of the Eye
1.2—LIGHTING
1.2.1 Lighting Terminologies Introduction
A basic understanding of lighting fundamentals is essential for specifiers

and decision makers who make decisions about lighting design,
installation and upgrades. For more detailed terminology used in the
lighting industry please refer to the glossary at the end of this manual.
6
1.2.1.1 Lighting Concepts and Units
(a) Luminous Flux (Φ). All the radiated power emitted by a

light source and perceived by the eye is called luminous flux (Φ)
commonly called light output. Unit of measurement is lumen (lm)
LUMINOUS
FLUX
Is the light output
of a light source.
Unit: lumen (lm)
(b) Luminous Intensity (I). Generally speaking, a light source

emits its luminous flux (Φ) in different directions and at different
intensities. The visible radiant intensity in a particular direction is called
luminous intensity (I). The unit of measurement is the candela (cd).
LIGHT INTENSITY
Light intensity is the measure of light

output in a specified direction.
Unit: candela (cd)
(c) Illuminance (E). Illuminance (E) is a measure of the amount

of light falling on a surface. The distance of the light source from the
area being illuminated influences it. An illuminance of 1 lux occurs when
a luminous flux of 1 lumen is evenly distributed over an area of 1 square
meter. Unit of measurement is lux (lx).
7
ILLUMINATION
Average
illumination of a
surface is luminous
flux per unit area.
Lux = lumens/m2
(d) Luminance (L). The luminance (L) is the brightness of an

illuminated or luminous surface as perceived by the human eye. Unit of
measurement is candelas per square meter (cd/m2).
LUMINANCE
Is the measure of the brightness of a
surface, as seen by the eye.
Unit: candela/m2 (cd/m2)

Visible surface
Luminance depends on the surface
Light intensity size seen and the light intensity,
reflected by the surface towards the
eye.
Illuminated surface
(e) Luminous Efficacy (η). Luminous efficacy indicates the

efficiency with which the electrical power consumed is converted into
light. The unit of measurement is lumens per watt (lm/W).
8
(f) Luminaire Efficiency. Luminaire efficiency (also known as

the light output ratio) is an important criterion in gauging the energy
efficiency of a luminaire. This is the ratio between the luminous flux
emitted by the luminaire and the luminous flux of the lamp (or lamps)
installed in the luminaire.
1.2.2 Laws for Point Sources of Light
The Inverse Square Law and the Cosine Law of Incidence are used to
calculate the illuminance at a single point in a plane.
(a) Inverse Square Law. In order to determine the required

illuminance for different task applications, importance is placed in
determining the method for calculating this quantity. In the mid-18th
century, J. H. Lambert established one of the earliest lighting laws to
enable the calculation of illuminance, called the Inverse Square Law
(Lambert’s First Law).
To understand this law, consider a cone-shaped beam of light coming

from a small point source and hitting a surface some distance away (see
figure below). Suppose that the luminous flux within the cone is one
lumen, and that it strikes a surface 1-meter away, producing an
illuminated area of 1 square meter. By dividing the luminous flux by the
area we can find the illuminance, which will be 1 lux.
Figure 1.7 Inverse Square Law
9
From figure above, if the surface is moved further away to a distance

of 2 meters, then the luminous flux within the cone will stay the same,
but the illuminated area will increase in size to 4 square meters. This will
result in an illuminance of 1/4 lux. By doing this, the area has increased
in proportion to the square of the distance from the light source, and the
illuminance has changed inversely with the square of the distance. If the
surface is moved still further away to a distance in 3 meters, the inverse
square law operates again. The area has increased in proportion to the
distance squared and is now 9 square meters and the resultant
illuminance falls inversely to 1/9 lux. All of this is encompassed by the
inverse square law, which states that the illuminance E equals I, the
intensity of the light source, divided by the distance squared.
I
E=—
d2
The LUMINOUS INTENSITY is a measure of how much flux is

emitted within a small conical angle in the direction of the surface and its
unit is the CANDELA. If a source emits the same luminous flux in all
directions, then the luminous intensity is the same in all directions. For
most sources, however, the flux emitted in each direction is not the same.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.8 Inverse Square Law – Example
For example, in Figure 1.8, the luminous intensity of a spotlight

varies with angle. It may have a maximum value of 1000 candelas at the
center of the beam. If this spotlight is aimed directly downwards onto the
floor 2 meters below [see Figure 1.8(a)], the illuminance will be:
10
E = 1000 lux
22
E = 250 lux
However, if the spotlight is angled [see Figure 1-8(b)] so that the

luminous intensity directed downwards is 100 candelas, the illuminance
will now be:
E = 1002 Lux
2
E = 25 lux
(b) Cosine Law. If the surface is turned so that the rays hit it at an
angle, the illuminated area will increase in size and the illuminance will
drop accordingly. The ratio of the original illuminated area to the new
area is equal to the cosine of the angle through which the surface has
been moved. Therefore the illuminance will fall by the factor of the
cosine of angle. This is where Lamberts Second Law comes in, the
COSINE LAW of illuminance.
If a surface is illuminated to 100 lux and is twisted through an angle

of 60 degrees then the illuminance will fall to half or 50 lux, because the
cosine of 60 degrees is ½.
Figure 1.9. The Effect Upon the Illuminance

when Hitting a Different-Angled Surface
This cosine law can be combined into one equation with the inverse
square law.
E = I2 Cos A
d
11
Figure 1.10 Figure 1.11

Inverse Square Inverse Law and
Lawand Cosine Law Cosine Law–Example
Returning to the angled spotlight mentioned earlier, if it is 3 meters

above the floor, aiming at a point 3 meters away (see above figures), then
its intensity in this direction is 1000 candelas. The distance from the
point of illumination to the spotlight is calculated using Pythagorean
Theorem and is computed to be 4.24 meters. The light is striking the
floor at the angle of 45 degrees so using the combined Inverse Square
and cosine law equation, we can calculate the illuminance.
E = I2 Cos A
d
1000
= Cos 450
4.242
= 39 lux
These calculations have only referred to one light source but when
there are several, the illuminance is calculated in the same way for each
source in turn and then these are added together for the total illuminance.
12
Table 1.1 Lighting Terminologies and Basic Units

Quantity Quantity is a Symbol Unit in Definition of Unit
Measure of SI
Luminous Ability of source I Candela Approximately
intensity to produce light in (cd) equal to the
(Candlepower) a given direction luminous intensity
produced by a
standard candle
Luminous flux Total amount of Ø Lumen Luminous flux
light (lm) emitted in a solid
angle of 1
steradian by a 1
candela uniform
point source
Illuminance Amount of light E Lux (lx) One lumen equally
(illumination) received on a unit distributed over
area of surface one unit area of
(density) surface
Luminous Density of light M Lm/m2 A surface reflecting
exitance reflected or or emitting 1
transmitted from lumen per unit
a surface area
Luminance Intensity of light L Cd/m2 A surface reflecting
(brightness) per unit area or emitting light at
reflected or the rate of 1
transmitted from candela per unit of
a surface project area
2 2
1 meter (m) = 3.28 ft; 1 cd/m = 3.14 lm/m
2 2 2 2 2
1m = (3.28ft) = 10.76 ft ; 1cd/in = 452 lm/ft
1fc = 10.76 lux
1.2.3 Sources of Artificial Light
1.2.3.1 Introduction
Our prehistoric ancestors burned wood to provide themselves with

heat and light. The glowing flame enabled people to live in caves where
the rays of the sun never penetrated.
The light of the campfire, the pine torch, and oil and tallow lamps
made a decisive change in the way of life of prehistoric man.
13
Since then, chronologically, oil lamps, candles, gas lighting, and

electric lamps have been used for lighting.
1.2.3.2 Types of Modern Artificial Light Sources. Electric light

sources are probably the most commonly used electrical equipment. The
primary purpose of the electrical light source is to convert electrical
energy into light energy. Commercial, industrial, residential, institutional
and other facilities use different light sources. Each lamp type has
particular advantages and disadvantages. Selecting the appropriate source
depends on installation requirements, life-cycle cost, color qualities,
dimming capability, and other required effects.
1.2.3.3 Commonly Used Types of Lamps.
Incandescent lamps produce light by the passage of an electric

current through a filament, which heats it to incandescence (e.g. general
service, reflectorized, and tungsten-halogen).
Electric discharge lamps produce light by the passage of an electric

current through a vapor or gas, initiating the discharge to fluoresce.
• Low intensity discharge lamp

- Fluorescent (tubular, circular, and compact)
• High intensity discharge
- Mercury vapor
- Metal halide
- High pressure sodium
- Low pressure sodium
1.2.3.4 Color Characteristics of Artificial Light Sources. White

light is luminous energy containing a mixture of wavelengths that are
perceived as color when the eye transforms the energy into a signal for
the brain. This mixture determines whether an environment will appear
warm or cool and how well people and furnishings will look.
(a) Color and Efficiency. Some lamps are more efficient in

converting energy into visible light than others. The efficacy of lamp
refers to the number of lumens leaving the lamp compared to the number
14
of watts required by the combination of lamp and ballast. Efficiency or

efficacy is expressed in lumens per watt. Sources with higher efficacy
require less electrical energy to light a space or area. Thus, for the most
efficient lighting, designers should seek the highest efficacy possible for
the type of system desired.
(b) Color Rendering. The general expression for the effect of

the light source on the color appearance of objects in conscious or
subconscious comparison with their color appearance under a reference
light source.
(c) Color Rendering Index (CRI). The measure of the degree
of color shift, which objects undergo when illuminated by the light
source, as compared with the color of those same objects when
illuminated by a reference source of comparable color temperature.
The CRI uses filament light as a base for 100 and the warm
white fluorescent for 50. Values for common light sources vary from
about 20 to 99. The higher the number, the better the color rendering or
color appearance (less color shift or distortion occurs).
(d) Color Temperature (Chromaticity). The absolute
temperature (in Degrees Kelvin) of a blackbody radiator whose
chromaticity nearly resembles that of the light source. This indicates
visual “warmth” or “coolness”. The chromaticity of general lighting
lamps, measured in Degrees Kelvin (K) falls in the range 2200 to 7500
K. For interior lighting, the chromaticity values of 4000 and above are
usually described as “cool”. Around 3500 K, sources have a neutral
appearance, but at 3000 and below, the lighting effect is usually judged
to be “warm”. Hence, the lower the number, the warmer the light (more
red content). The higher the number, the cooler is the light (more blue
content).
As with any technology, continuous research is being carried out
to improve existing light sources and to develop new ones. In the last 10
years, many new lighting products have been brought to market.
Listed in Table 1.2 is a Qualitative Comparison of Different
Artificial Light Sources. The succeeding Chapters describe the
construction, operation and application of these light sources.
15
16
*Although shown in this figure, some lamps are not included in this manual because they are not considered efficient energy-saving lamps.
Figure 1.12 Lamp Families and Some Common Lamp Types

Table 1.2 Qualitative Comparison of Artificial Light Sources
Light source Advantages Disadvantages Applications
Incandescent Compact Size Short life They are a good choice for social areas
Lamp No Ballast (no noise or Very low efficacy where good rendering and a warm,

(General humming sound) (lm/W) pleasant, low key effect is desired
Service Lamp) Low initial cost Extremely bright
Good optical control (easy to point source
control light distribution) High operating
Good color rendering temperature*
(favorable color for humans) High infrared
Dimmable component*
Good lumen maintenance Light output affected
Light output not affected by by voltage variation
ambient temperature
17
No delay on starting or re- *70% Heat and 30%

starting light is produced by
No stroboscopic problems at the 100% of energy
60hz supplied
Tungsten- Compact size Lamp handling is For special accent and display lighting in
Halogen No ballast difficult during stores and art galleries where good light
(Quartz and Good color rendering maintenance control is necessary for localized or
Iodine Lamp) Moderate life High cost supplementary lighting, and for decorative
Excellent optical control Low efficacy (lm/W) lighting.
Dimmable Operating
Excellent Lumen Maintenance temperature affects
lamp life & output
UV output component
Table 1.2 (Continued)
Fluorescent Linear, circular and compact Requires Ballast They are widely used for large area general
Lamp shape Stroboscopic effect lighting in offices, commercial

Moderate cost when used with establishments and industrial plants
Optical control limited magnetic ballasts
Good efficacy (lm/W)
Long lamp life
Good color rendition (special
color can give excellent
color rendering)
Low point brightness
Low operating temperature
Low infrared output
18
Can be operated with a higher

system voltage
Only minor delay on starting
and re-starting
Good lumen maintenance
Dimmable, with special ballasts
High Intensity High output in compact size Very bright point They are widely used for high bay interior
Discharge Light output not affected by source industrial applications, such as street
Lamps (HID) ambient temperature Stroboscopic effect lights, parking lot areas, docks, flood
general Can be operated at higher problem lighting and security lighting, with the
characteristics system voltage Long warm-up and development of better color-rendering
Cold weather starting problems re-strike times metal halide lamps, they are now being
Difficult to dim used with increasing frequency for indoor
Specific HID
types

Mercury Lamp Moderate efficacy Starting takes 3-5 Landscape lighting (greenish appearance)
Very long life minutes
Good lumen maintenance Does not restart
Burning position not critical immediately
Dimmable to 25% Has large ballast and
may be noisy
Relatively high cost of
lamp and ballast
Metal halide High efficacy Variation in color, Retail clothing and furniture stores;
Good coloring rendering especially at warehouses and factories where colors
19
Medium to long life end of life (some must be perceived correctly.

Good optical control types)
Dimmable to 60%
Burning position very
important
With large ballast
and may be noisy
High cost of lamp
and ballast
Starting takes 2-8
minutes
High pressure Very high efficacy Poor color rendering Street lighting, parks and parking lots
sodium Long lamp life Dimmable to 50-60% (yellow-orange appearance)

Excellent lumen maintenance With large ballast
Good optical control and may be noisy
High cost of lamp
and ballast
Starting takes 1-4
minutes.
20
Chapter 2. Low Intensity Discharge Lamps
INTRODUCTION
Low intensity discharge lamps or more commonly referred to as

fluorescent lamps are among the most widely used light sources in the
world because they require little energy to produce a great deal of light.
The immense variety of modern luminaires provides a universal basis for
the use of fluorescent lamps in the commercial, industrial and residential
sectors. Different light colors and different color-rendering levels are
available for a whole variety of lighting applications. First introduced in
the mid thirties, fluorescent lamps have been developing further ever
since. The slimmer 26 mm diameter versions with a new triphosphor
coating were introduced in the early eighties and soon superseded the
lamps with standard coating on account of their more efficient light and
better quality.
2.1—TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
Fluorescent lamps, in common with other discharge lamps, cannot be

operated direct from the electrical supply. This is due to the fact that
discharge lamps have a NEGATIVE resistance characteristic. Unlike
filament lamps, where the current decreases when voltage increases, in a
discharge lamp, current INCREASES with an increase in lamp voltage.
That means that the lamp will destroy itself if no action is taken to limit
the current.
Fluorescent lamps have various operating modes, depending on the way

the electrodes are brought up to the required operating temperature:
• Current-controlled pre-heating in choke/starter mode, preferred in

countries with a high mains voltage (200V or more). Used
increasingly in most electronic control gear (ECG).
21
CHAPTER 2. LOW INTENSITY DISCHARGE LAMPS
• Voltage-controlled pre-heating with additional transformer

windings in “rapid start” mode.
• No pre-heating (cold start). This type of starting reduces the lamp
life more than any other type and is therefore not recommended for
systems with frequent on/off switching.
• Electronic ballasts convert the mains voltage into a high-frequency
oscillation of around 35 to 50kHz. As a result, the flickering that
may appear as a stroboscopic effect in conjunction with rotating
machine parts, for example, is much less noticeable or virtually
invisible.
Fluorescent lamp technology has made tremendous advances over the

past few years. The trend has been away from high energy consumption
lamps to more energy-efficient products, improved color rendition, and a
greater selection of color temperatures. These improvements are due in a
large part to the use of rare earth phosphors in place of the traditional
halophosphors that are used in standard "cool white" lamps. To a lesser
degree, efficiency improvements are due to the more widespread use of
smaller diameter lamps. The smaller diameter lamps can also increase
luminaire efficiency and improve light distribution patterns.
Fluorescent Lamps have three designations: Preheat, Rapid Start, and

Instant Start. The terminals of Preheat and Rapid Start type lamps are
the same: either miniature or medium bi-pin terminals. Instant Start
lamps are usually easy to spot, as the terminals are single pins. There are
exceptions, but the standard T8 commonly found in the Philippine
market is used as if it were any of the above three types (i.e. used in any
starting mode). Therefore, users should not mix and match lamps and
ballasts without first confirming that the lamp matches the operation
mode of the ballast to be connected. Without this confirmation step, it
may be possible to experience short life and warranty or safety issues.
2.1.1 Fluorescent Lamp Operation. A fluorescent lamp is a glass tube
with the inside surface coated with phosphor. The tube is filled with
argon gas, or sometimes with a mixture of argon and krypton. A small
amount of mercury is also inside, which is vaporized during lamp
operation. Electrodes (also referred to as cathodes) are located at each
end of the sealed tube. When a suitable lighting voltage is applied across
the electrodes, an electric arc discharge is initiated and the resulting
22
current ionizes the vaporized mercury in the tube. The ionized mercury
emits ultra-violet (UV) radiation that strikes and excites the phosphor
coating on the inside surface of the tube, causing it to glow or fluoresce
and produce visible light. The exact makeup of the phosphors coating
the tube is what determines the color temperature of the light produced
by the lamp.
Figure 2.1 How a Fluorescent Lamp Produces Light
Manufacturers can vary the gas fill, phosphor type and content, as well as
the lamp's tube length and diameter, in order to achieve different lamp
characteristics. As a result, there is a wide range of lamps being
designed and sold. The smallest standard linear fluorescent lamp is the
136 mm, 4-watt, T5 lamp, while the largest lamp is the 2.4 m, 100 watt,
T8 lamp.
The fluorescent tube is filled with a gas, which, with the addition of
mercury, becomes the carrier of the discharge arc; the gas operates at a
pressure from 1 to 5 millibar. Mercury is chosen for its ability to create a
relatively high gas pressure at low temperatures. This ensures a presence
of a large number of mercury atoms in the gas mixture. Mercury also has
the advantage in that it does not easily combine with other components
used in the discharge process and as a result retains its usefulness over
many thousands of hours.
23
The cathodes, usually tungsten filaments, at each end of a tube, are

coated with an emitter material to aid the emission of electrons. The
emitter material consists mainly of alkaline earth oxides. There is one
other important point: Electrodes can vary according to the lamp type
and may be referred to, for example, as either high resistance or low
resistance cathodes.
There are three different types of Fluorescent Lamps that are commonly
used today. Listed below are the three types and the description for each.
(a) Preheat Operation. Lamp electrodes are heated prior to

initiating the discharge. A "starter switch” closes permitting a current to
flow through each electrode. The starter switch rapidly cools down,
opening the switch, and triggering the supply voltage across the arc tube,
initiating the discharge. No auxiliary power is applied across the
electrodes during operation.
(b) Instant Start Operation. Lamp electrodes are not heated prior to
operation. Ballasts for instant start lamps are designed to provide a
relatively high starting voltage (with respect to preheat and rapid start
lamps) to initiate the discharge across the unheated electrodes.
(c) Rapid Start Operation. Lamp electrodes are heated prior to and
during operation. The ballast transformer has two special secondary
windings to provide the proper low voltage to the electrodes.
Rapid start is the most popular mode of operation for 1200 mm T-12 40-
watt lamps. The advantages of rapid start operation include smooth
starting, long life, and dimming capabilities. (Lamps of less than 30 watts
are generally operated in the preheat mode. Lamps operated in this mode
are more efficient than the rapid start mode as separate power is not
required to continuously heat the electrodes. However, these lamps tend
to flicker during starting and have a shorter lamp life.) The 1200 mm 32-
watt F32T8 and 36-watt F36T8 lamps are a rapid start lamp, but
commonly operate instant start mode with electronic high-frequency
ballasts. In this mode of operation lamp efficacy is improved with some
penalty in lamp life.
24
2.1.2 Fluorescent Technology. Discharge lamps cover around 80% of

our total artificial lighting needs, with low-pressure mercury discharge
lamps, “fluorescent lamps”, making up the bulk (95%) of the discharge
family. Naturally, with this prominence, ongoing research is well
justified, leading to developments such as:
• The change from T12 (38mm) to T8 (26mm) – reduced materials

• Improved phosphors (triphosphor) – better color rendering/longer
life and better lumen maintenance
• T5 technology – bringing efficiency levels above 100 lumens per
watt.
(a) Rare Earth (RE) Phosphor Lamps. Rare Earth (RE) phosphor
technology improves the performance of fluorescent lamps. RE
phosphor compounds are selected for their ability to produce visible light
at the most sensitive wavelengths of the eye's red, blue and green
sensors. When compared with conventional halophosphors, such as cool
white (with a CRI of 60-62), RE phosphors produce better color
rendering and higher efficacy, while improving lumen maintenance
characteristics. For reasons of lumen maintenance, rare earth materials
are required in small diameter lamps, e.g. compact fluorescent and T5.
RE phosphors raise lumen output up to 8% over conventional

halophosphors. RE phosphor lamps are available for most fluorescent
lamp configurations and are available in a wide range of color
temperatures.
(b) Types of Fluorescent Lamps. There are many types of

fluorescent lamps to cater for a wide range of applications. Some require
electronic control gear, such as T5 and T2 lamps, while others can be
operated on conventional (electromagnetic) control gear or electronic
control gear, such as T8 and T12.
The size of tubular fluorescent lamps are often referred to as T2, T5,
T8 or T12, which is an indication of their diameter, such as:
• T12 – 12/8” or 38mm diameter

• T10 - 10/8” or 32mm diameter
25

2.1.3 Mercury Reduced Fluorescent Lamps. In recent years

improved manufacturing processes have made it possible to reduce the
absorption of mercury into the coating and the glass. This in turn was
utilized to further reduce the mercury content of fluorescent lamps
without compromising lamp starting at low temperatures.
The mercury content in different types and brands of lamps varies. The
older style T12 (38mm diameter) lamps contain between 15-30mg of
mercury, while Standard T8 lamps contain up to 15mg of mercury. All
triphosphor-coated lamps now contain approximately 4.5mg (+/- 0.5mg)
of mercury against the previous (already reduced) levels of around 8mg.
As such, triphosphor and reduced mercury content lamps (T8) are

recommended for their contribution to the protection of the environment
during disposal. Several countries have already established regulations
for the disposal of FL lamps to prevent mercury from being dispersed in
the environment we live in.
2.1.4 Operating Parameters
(a) Lamp Life. Lumen Depreciation and Mortality. Depending

on the particular issue, we use various definitions of lamp life. The most
commonly used term is “Average Life”. Average life is defined as the
number of burning hours of a reasonably large sample of lamps at which
50% of the lamps are still operating. This applies for lamps under normal
operating conditions at a 3-hour switching cycle as per IEC standards.
Abnormal operating conditions (high or low temperature, high or

low voltage, frequent switching, etc.) may cause premature failures and
shorter life of the entire sample of lamps.
There are two different factors, which describe the performance of

fluorescent lamps, namely Lamp Lumen Depreciation (or Lumen
Maintenance), and Mortality. Lumen Maintenance describes the
reduction of light output over life. Mortality indicates the expected
failure rate of lamps.
26
The economical life, i.e.: the time after which the lamps have to be
replaced, depends on the maintenance factor in the lighting design
calculation. Generally we should replace lamps when the total installed
flux has dropped to 80% of the initial flux.
Based on Efficient Lighting Initiative (ELI) Performance

Specifications, the luminous flux of a lamp must be more than 90% of
the initial luminous flux level at 40% of the model’s rated lifetime
(Please refer to Appendix B2).
(b) Switching Cycles. Switching cycles can have a dramatic effect

on the life of fluorescent lamps. As stated above, the ‘average life’ of
fluorescent lamps is based on a 3 hour switching cycle. The graph below
(Figure 2.2) shows the relationship between lamp life and the switching
cycle of fluorescent lamps used with conventional control gear (CCG). It
can clearly be seen that switching cycles of less than 3 hours will result
in a dramatically reduced lamp life; however, by extending the switching
cycle, lamp life will also be extended.
27
Lifetime [%]
140
120
100 3h
80
1h
60
45 min
40 3hrs-switching cycle
(165 mins. ON/15 mins.
OFF) Average lifetime:
20 5 min 13,000 hours
230 V/ 60Hz
0 Triphosphor
3 5 15 20 24
Switching cycle [h]
Figure 2.2 Relation Between Switching Cycle and Lifetime (CCG)
(c) Luminous Flux and Ambient Temperature. Ambient

temperature refers to the temperature immediately surrounding the lamp,
not the actual room temperature, and has a major influence on the
behavior of a fluorescent lamp. The most efficient mercury vapor
pressure of 0.8 Pa occurs when the lowest wall temperature (that is, the
cold spot), is between 40-50oC. This corresponds to an ambient
temperature of 20-25oC in the case of T8 and T12 lamps and between
33oC to 37oC in the case of T5 lamps. As the bulb wall temperature will
change with a change in ambient temperature, the lamp voltage and lamp
28
current will also change. As the product of both these components will
be low for both higher and lower than optimum temperatures, the
luminous flux produced by the lamp will also be low. Figure 2.3 shows
the relative luminous flux/ambient temperature of a fluorescent lamp.
110 The optimum luminous flux at

25°C 35°C 35°C for T5 (∅ 16 mm) can only
100 be achieved with “cut off”
technology.
90
Φ 80
rel.
[%] “Cut off”
70 technology (T5)
60 Conventional
10 20 30 40 50 ECG (T8)
Ambient temperature Tu [°C]
Figure 2.3 Relative Luminous Flux/Ambient Temperature
These characteristics of fluorescent lamps must be taken into

consideration when luminaires are selected. In case of low ambient
temperatures such as cool-rooms, for example, a carefully chosen
luminaire can act as an insulator to an unfavorable ambient environment.
In such a case, a lamp will need a warming-up period before it reaches
maximum output. If, in this example, an open fixture was used, the lamp
may not exceed 20 – 25% of its rated output. This shows that, in order to
obtain the best possible result, correct heat balance of the lamp is of
utmost importance.
Low temperature can also affect the starting behavior of fluorescent
lamps.
29
The location of the cold spot (Figure 2.4) varies for different types
of lamps. For most linear fluorescent lamps, the cold spot is located half
way along the glass tube, while for T5 linear fluorescent lamps the cold
spot is at the same end as the lamp ‘stamp’. With most compact
fluorescent lamps, the cold spot is at the bend of the glass tube; however,
the cold spot in amalgam lamps is located in the lamp base.
Cold spot
Linear Fluorescent lamp - Cold

Cold spot
Lamp ‘stamp’
T5 Linear Fluorescent lamp - Cold
Cold spot
Compact Fluorescent lamp - Cold
Figure 2.4 Cold Spots
(d) Energy Efficiency. The ratio of transformation of electrical

energy into “visible energy” is an important indication as to the
efficiency of a light source. It is this measure that greatly influences the
choice of a light source and fluorescent lamps compare extremely
favorably with other lamps.
To determine the effectiveness one must first consider the energy

loss of the conversion of UV radiation into visible radiation. This jump
in wavelengths from 254nm (the most powerful UV radiation line) into
the 550nm region represents an energy loss of around 50%. Assuming
efficiencies of 80% for the mercury emission, 75% for the fluorescent
coating and the losses in the electrodes, an overall efficiency of around
30
25% results. This is still 3 to 4 times greater than the energy

transformation rate of an incandescent lamp.
2.2—LINEAR/TUBULAR FLUORESCENT LAMPS
The commonly used old type 1.2-meter length 40-watt fluorescent

(F40T12) lamp is filled with argon gas. It uses halophosphor “daylight”
for its phosphor coating. The newer 36W T8 fluorescent lamp has
basically the same construction (although of smaller diameter) and is
filled with argon or a mixture of argon and krypton. Unlike the older
lamps, T8 phosphor coating can either be halophosphor or triphosphor.
The newest T5 lamps only use the triphosphor coatings.
Figure 2.5 illustrates the nomenclatures used to specify fluorescent

lamps. The F40T12 is still the most common light source in the
Philippines even though there are now more energy efficient fluorescent
lamps in the market, such as the F36T8 lamps. The number following the
“T” represents the diameter of the tube in 1/8 of an inch increment.
31
Figure 2.5 Fluorescent Lamp Nomenclature

[Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) Nomenclature]
[International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Nomenclature]
32
Table 2.1 Color of Light and Color Rendering

Properties of Fluorescents
Color Color of Light

Rendering Daylight Cool White Warm White
Index (Ra) above 5000 K 4000 K below 3300 K
Group 1 1A 950 Daylight 940 Cool 930 Warm
Very good Ra90-100 5400 K White 3800K White 3000 K
965 Daylight
6500 K
1B 860 Daylight 840 Cool 830 Warm
Ra80-89 6000 K White 4000K White 3000 K
827 Warm
White 2700 K
Group 2 2A Daylight Universal
Good Ra70-79 6000 K White
4000 K
2B Cool White
Ra60-69 4000 K
Group 3
Acceptable Ra40-59 Warm White
3000 K
International Type Designations

The international color code: The first digit stands for the color-rendering
group:
9 = color rendering group 1A (Ra90-100)

8 = color rendering group 1B (Ra80-89)
7 = color rendering group 2A (Ra70-79)
6 = color rendering group 2B (Ra60-69)
5 = color rendering group 3 (Ra50-59)
4 = color rendering group 3 (Ra40-49)
33
When connected with conventional electromagnetic ballasts, most lamps

deliver less than 100% of their rated lumens. The percentage of actual
lumens generated is known as the ballast factor, an important figure to
consider when making lighting calculations. The ballast factor is the
ratio of the light produced by a particular lamp ballast system to the rated
light output of the same lamp(s) on ANSI reference ballast operated in
free air at 25oC. The term "ballast factor" implies that it is a property of
the ballast, but it is really a property of the lamp-ballast system. For
instance, the ballast factor for a given ballast will be different depending
on whether it is operating a F40T12 lamp or a F40T12/ES lamp. See
Chapter 5 Energy-Efficient Fluorescent Ballasts for more information on
the ballast factor.
2.2.1 Technical Advantages of Triphosphor Lamps
(a) Lower Depreciation of Luminous Flux. The fluorescent

coating is subject to natural ageing during a life of a lamp, with the result
that the luminous flux decreases. This disadvantage has been minimized
by the use of a special phosphor coating, which results in 90% of the
original luminous flux being maintained even after 12,000 or more hours
of operation.
(b) High Luminosity. The special triphosphor materials used

guarantee a high luminous flux with a high luminous efficiency of up to
96 lm/w.
(c) Large Selection of Light Colors and Optimum Color

Rendering. The triphosphor lamp is available in every light color for all
the various requirements to be met by a modern lighting system in
commercial and industrial use: the right light color for every lighting
application – with color-rendering level 1B (excellent – Ra 80-89).
(d) More Environmentally Friendly. Mercury is essential for

ensuring the functionability and luminaire efficiency of the lamp.
Triphosphor contains mercury, but no more than is necessary to
guarantee reliable operation, even when used in outdoor applications.
All the materials used for the triphosphor, from the glass to the
phosphor coating and packaging, can be recycled and reused. In addition,
34
the high luminous efficiency and long service life as compared with the
more common halophosphor lamps ensure that fewer lamps are required
and extend the intervals between servicing. In summary: lower power
consumption to generate more light, fewer lamps to produce the same
brightness and 100% recyclability.
2.2.2 Advantages of Replacing Halophosphor Fluorescent Lamps

with Triphosphor Lamps in Existing Systems. The triphosphor
fluorescent lamps can be used to modernize existing systems with
halophosphor lamps without necessitating any technical changes
whatsoever and considerably improve the performance of these systems
at the same time.
(a) Improved Economical Operation. Use of the triphosphor

lamps instead of halophosphor fluorescent lamps tangibly increases the
luminous efficiency obtained with the same installed power.
Table 2.2 Comparison of Halophosphor and Triphosphor Lamps
Halophosphor Fluorescent Lamps 6500 K–Conventional Control Gear

(CCG)
Wattage (W) 18 36 58
Luminous flux (lm) 1,100 2,600 4,000
Luminous efficiency (lm/W) 61 72 71
Triphosphor 6500 K-Conventional Control Gear (CCG)

Wattage (W) 18 36 58
Luminous flux (lm) 1,350 3,350 5,200
Luminous efficiency (lm/W) 75 93 90
V LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY +23% +30% +27%
The higher luminous efficiency of the triphosphor lamp guarantees

up to 30% more light with the same number of lamps and the same
installed power.
35
Triphosphor
Halophosphor Fluorecent Lamps
Figure 2.6 Lumen Maintenance
(b) Longer Service Life. The decline in the luminous flux of the
triphosphor is tangibly lower than in conventional halophosphor
fluorescent lamps. After 12000 hours of operation or more, the remaining
luminous flux is still equal to 90% of the original value, as compared
with only about 70% in a halophosphor fluorescent lamp.
Use of the triphosphor lamps guarantee:
(1) A constant average lighting intensity very close to the

nominal lighting intensity of the system and in conformity with the
relevant standards. That is a major advantage and also improves general
safety: just imagine the risks associated with a roughly 30% drop in the
lighting level when working with such machinery as lathes, milling and
drilling machines, etc.
(2) Long intervals and less maintenance to maintain the average

lighting intensity at the required level.
36
(c) Large Selection of Light Colors. The range of triphosphor

lamps includes the ideal light color for every application, as the variety
of light colors available is larger and more comprehensive than in the
case of halophosphor fluorescent lamps.
(d) Better Color Rendition. Due to the special coating of the

triphosphor, the color rendering is improved from a level of 2A to 2B –
good – for conventional halophosphor fluorescent lamps to 1B –
excellent. In other words, the color rendering of illuminated objects is
improved distinctly and that is a matter of great importance for instance
in the textile industry, the graphics sector, at exhibitions, in sales and
showrooms, and in private homes.
2.2.3 The Right Light Color for Every Application
(a) Choice of Light Color. Choosing the right light color is first and
foremost a matter of personal taste, although it also depends on local
customs, the mood and the manner in which a person perceives the light.
This table contains basic information for planning and tendering, so

that you can choose the right light color for every application.
Table 2.3 Appropriate Color Choices by Application
Daylight/ Cool 830 827

Application Cool White Warm Warm
Daylight White White
OFFICES
Offices, corridors ° ° °
Conference rooms ° ° °
INDUSTRY AND TRADE
Electrical engineering °
Textile industry ° °
Graphics sector, laboratories ° °
Wood processing ° °
Storage rooms, haulers °
SCHOOLS & LECTURE HALLS
Kindergartens ° ° °
Libraries, reading rooms ° ° °
37
Table 2.3 (continued)
Daylight/ Cool 830 827

Application Cool White Warm Warm
Daylight White White
SOCIAL AMENITIES
Restaurant, inns, hotels ° °
Theaters, concert halls, lobbies °
PUBLIC AREAS
Sports facilities °
Art galleries, museums ° ° °
BUSINESS OUTLETS
Food trade ° ° °
Bakeries ° °
Deep-freezers and freezer cabinets °
Cheese, fruit and vegetables °
Fish °
Textiles, leather ° °
Furniture, carpets °
Sports equipment, toys, stationery °
Photographic supplies, clocks, ° °
watches, jewelry
Cosmetics, hairdressing °
Flowers ° °
Department stores, supermarkets ° ° °
HOSPITALS
Diagnosis and therapy °
Examination rooms, waiting rooms ° °
RESIDENTIAL SECTOR
Living rooms °
Kitchens, bathrooms, hobby rooms, ° °
basement areas
(b) Cultural Influences. A warmer color of light is preferred in

northern countries, while cooler light is more frequently favored in the
south. This is essentially due to the fact that people who are regularly
exposed to strong sunlight tend to prefer an artificial light that is
perceived as being “cool” and vice versa.
Lamps emitting a warm light will almost certainly be preferred in
homes furnished with a great deal of wood, while white furniture, marble
38
and chromium look better in white light or a daylight color. Warm light
conveys a sense of rest and relaxation, while white light and daylight
colors are associated with concentration and a positive working
atmosphere.
2.2.4 Color Temperature
(a) Daylight Color. Fluorescent lamps in color 860 are ideal sources
of light in all rooms requiring artificial light of daylight quality. Rooms
in which minor differences in color shades must be clearly recognizable
and in which the colors must be reproduced as naturally as possible. This
is important, for example, in retail outlets, selling garments,
photographic supplies and optical equipment, jewelry or flowers, as well
as in the textile industry, doctors’ surgeries, print shops, newspaper
offices and the graphics sector.
(b) Cool White Color. With a color temperature of 4000 K, the

triphosphor cool white light is roughly halfway between the light color
resembling daylight and the light of incandescent lamps. It is therefore
ideal for use at workplaces, particularly in industry, commerce and trade,
in offices at exhibitions and trade fairs, as well as sports events. The
lamps can also be used for various purposes in the home, for instance in
corridors, kitchens, bathrooms, basement areas and workshops and gyms.
(c) 830 Warm White Color. Triphosphor warm white is the ideal
light color whenever a bright, yet comfortable light is required. This light
is perceived as being pleasantly “warm” on account of its color
temperature of 3000 K. It creates a pleasant atmosphere in which to feel
comfortable.
Triphosphor warm white lamps are used wherever a bright basic

light and a positive mood are required, such as in salesrooms, exhibition
rooms, trade fair halls, schools, lecture halls, kindergartens, offices and
conference rooms.
(d) 827 Warm White Color. Of all the triphosphor lamps, this
color version comes closest to the warm light of an incandescent lamp.
With a color temperature of 2700 K, it gives its surroundings a feeling of
homeliness and comfort. Wood, for instance, is highlighted particularly
39
strongly by this light color; this makes it ideal for use inside furniture
and for indirect lighting. All residential rooms, conference rooms, lecture
halls, libraries, hospital rooms and waiting rooms are other major areas
of use for this light color. Triphosphor 827 warm white creates an
extremely pleasant light in hotels, public halls, foyers, inns and
restaurants, theaters and concert halls and creates a relaxing atmosphere
in libraries, lecture halls and conference rooms.
2.2.5 Environmentally Friendly. There is a machine known as the “cut-

and-separate machine” which selectively separates the various
components contained in waste lamps and prepares these for reuse in the
manufacture of new lamps.
Ninety-three percent (93%) of the components removed in this way can

be reused to produce new fluorescent lamps.
The remaining 7% are recycled and processed into materials with a

whole range of possible uses: for sandblasting, as additives for the
cement industry, or mixed with foamed glass for the manufacture of
bricks, prefab elements, pipes and material for the building industry.
2.2.6 Lower Mercury Content. With fluorescent lamps being discharge

lamps, the use of the mercury in the filling gas is indispensable, for it is
impossible to generate light without igniting the mercury. To this day, it
is still not possible to completely eliminate the mercury content.
2.2.7 Recyclable Packaging Materials. The lamp packaging also

constitutes a waste volume, the importance of which must not be
underestimated for the environment. In addition to the individually
packed versions, there is also simple industrial packaging, which makes
it much easier for bulk customers to change lamps and reduce the volume
of packaging waste by up to 45%.
2.2.8 Recent Products
(a) T8 Lamps. Two other fluorescent lamp types have significantly

improved efficacy, when compared with the conventional F40T12 lamp-
ballast system. These are the 36-watt (Asia) and 32-watt (US) T8 lamp
40
varieties, which uses the common medium bipin base. T8 28W lamps
have also been introduced (US Standard) as an alternative to T8 32W
lamps. These are compatible with existing 32W electronic control gear
and offer lower consumption versus the 32W system but have a slightly
lower luminous flux. Smaller lamp diameters and the exclusive use of
rare earth phosphors increase the efficacy of these lamps over
conventional F40T12 lamps. In addition specially designed ballasts may
be used for even greater increases in lamp-ballast system efficacy.
The linear T8 lamps have the same medium bi-pin bases as T12
lamps, allowing them to fit the same sockets (this is not true for the U-
bent T8 lamps, which have different leg spacing than their T12 counter
parts). However, T8 lamps have different electrical characteristics, so
they may not use a conventional F40T12-type lamp ballast designed for
430-milliampere operation.
Like conventional F40T12 lamps, the T8 lamps are rated at 8000

hours for 60 Hz operations. However, for highest efficacy, they are often
matched with an electronic ballast that operates the lamps in an instant
start mode and at 25 kHz (electronic ballasts for rapid start operation are
also available). Instant start operation of T8 lamps reduces rated lamp
life by 25% (based on 3 hours per start operation), but lamp efficacy is
increased by more than 10% when compared with magnetically ballasted
operation. In most commercial applications, where lamps are on for a
period of 10 hours between starts, lamp life is only slightly less than that
of rapid start operation. Like T12 1amps, T8 1amps may be dimmed, but
they require specialized dimmers and ballasts to work properly.
Table 2.4 shows the comparison between several T8 lamp-ballast

systems as against T12 lamp-ballast systems.
41
Table 2.4 Linear Fluorescent Lamp Comparison (32/36/40W)
28W 32W 32W 36W 36W 40W

Parameters (Triphosphor) (Triphosphor) (Standard) (Triphosphor) (Standard) (Standard)
Fluorescent Fluorescent Fluorescent Fluorescent Fluorescent Fluorescent
No. Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp
1 Rating 28W 32W 32W 36W 36W 40W
2 Length 1200 mm 1200 mm 1200 mm 1200 mm 1200 mm 1200 mm
3 Lamp Base G 13 G13 G13 G13 G13 G13
4 Diameter T8 T8 T8 T8 T8 T12
(26mm) (26mm) (26mm) (26mm) (26mm) (38mm)
5 Color Cool White Daylight/ Daylight Daylight/ Daylight Daylight
Temperature Cool white Cool
Warm white white
Warm
white
6 Life Time 26000 hrs 20000 hrs 20000 20000 hrs 8000 hrs 8000 hrs
Average (w/ (w/ hrs (w/ (w/
electronic electronic elec. electronic
ballast) ballast) Ballast) ballast)
7 Color 85 82 75 80-89 60-69 60-69
Rendering
Index
8 Luminous 2725 lm 2950 lm 2700 3250 lm 2600 lm 2500 lm
Flux
9 Luminous 97.32 92.18 84.38 90.27 72.22 62.50
Efficiency Lumens/ Lumens/ Lumens/ Lumens/ Lumens/ Lumens/
watt watt watt watt watt watt
• Typically the two-lamp F32/36T8 system with an energy-efficient

magnetic ballast has an efficacy of around 15% higher, as compared to a
standard two-lamp F40T12 lamp system.
• Even a higher efficacy can be achieved when using electronic

ballast. For example a two-lamp F32/36T8 system with an instant start
electronic ballast can achieve a 15% higher efficacy than for an
electronically ballasted two-lamp F40T12.
• Some T8 lamps contain rare earth phosphors. RE phosphor

coatings (triphosphor) give T8 lamps improved color rendering and lamp
lumen maintenance over T12 halophosphor lamps.
42
• Standard T8 (halophoshpor) lamps are now cheaper than

halophosphor T12 lamps. Overall, on a lifecycle cost basis, T8 lamp-
ballast systems are always a better investment than any T12 system. As
such, T12 lamps mostly remain on the market for replacement purposes,
where the ballast cannot start a T8 lamp. T12 lamp/ballast combinations
should never be used for retrofitting lamp and ballast systems nor for any
new installations.
2.2.9 New Developments and Trends
(a) T5 Linear Lamp Technology. T5 technology has really evolved

as a lighting system rather than just an isolated lamp development. The
T5 system consists of a 16mm double-ended tubular fluorescent lamp,
optimized for use with an electronic ballast, which operates the lamp at
high frequency (ECG), to enhance its efficiency.
One significant change introduced with this system is that the lamp
length and wattages are different to those available with either T8 or T12
fluorescent lamps. T5 lamps are 16mm in diameter, or 5/8 of an inch,
which is why they are commonly referred to as ‘T5’. These lamps are
available in lengths, which are approximately 50mm shorter than the
most commonly used T8 lamps (26mm diameter) lamps.
(b) Applications. Some of the best reasons for using T5 lamps

include:
(1) T5 lamps are more environmentally friendly than T8 or T12

lamps, they have:
a. Reduced glass
b. Reduced gases
c. Reduced phosphor
d. Reduced Mercury
(2) Luminaire costs will benefit from the compact size of T5

lamps, with reductions in the costs of material, freight etc.
(3) Higher luminous output (at a realistic temperature) can mean
fewer luminaires will be required
43
(4) Compact size allows for shallower luminaires, having a big

impact on lighting design in areas with limited ceiling space and for
suspended systems.
(5) The system as a whole, will contribute to energy savings.
(6) Luminaires designed around T5 lamps and ECGs can be
more aesthetically pleasing, while at the same time, contributing
significantly to the quality of the lighting.
With T5 lamps being shorter and slimmer than T8, one other
advantage is that there should not be any ‘mix-ups’, by contractors or
maintenance personnel, once ongoing maintenance gets underway. For
example, a T5 lamp cannot be installed in a luminaire designed for T8
lamps and vice versa.
Another advantage associated with the reduced length of T5 lamps is

the overall length of luminaires. With the most common size of ceiling
grids being 1200mm x 600mm, it is impossible to have a continuous run
of more than two luminaires when using T8 lamps, since the length of a
36W lamp alone is 1200mm. The T5 range includes two lamps that have
a length of 1149mm—the FH 28W and the FQ 39W. This length of
1149mm, once the additional length of the lamp holders and metal ware
is added, still allows the luminaires to fit neatly between the ceiling
supports.
2.2.10 Efficient Operation of T5 Lamps - With ECGs. Electronic

control gear, like the previously used magnetic ballast is firstly required
to regulate the operating conditions of the lamp. However, it can achieve
greater efficiency by incorporating high frequency operation and other
circuitry refinements such as “cut off” technology, which eliminates
filament losses, sensing concepts that react to adverse conditions to
protect the lamp and electronic ballast (ECG) together, contribute
considerably to prolonged lamp life.
Most importantly, an electronic ballast by design minimizes losses within

itself, contributing to overall efficiency of the system. They consume
only 2 or 3-watts per lamp.
44
Incorporated into the ECG is a ‘soft start’ facility and power factor
correction, eliminating two components that often contribute to the
maintenance costs.
2.2.11 Burning Positions. When T5 lamps are installed in vertical

burning positions, care must be taken to ensure the ‘stamp’ or marker is
at the bottom. If two or more T5 lamps are installed very close together,
it is best to ensure that the stamped ends are next to one another.
Likewise, T5 circular (FC) lamps should be installed in a vertical burning
position, for example, in wall-mounted installations, the base must be at
the bottom (cap end) as shown in Figure 2.7 below.
Figure 2.7 T5 Circular (FC) Lamp Burning Position
2.2.12 Standard for Linear Fluorescent Lamps. Philippine National

Standards (PNS) require the display of an energy label for all linear
fluorescent lamps. This will allow the buying public to compare power
input, light output, and efficacy (lumens per watt). Manufacturers,
suppliers and importers are required to label every individual lamp with
the above parameters.
Figure 2.8 shows a sample of the newly required energy label for Linear
Fluorescent Lamps by the Department of Trade and Industry-Bureau of
Product Standards.
45
: EFFICACY*
O512-345678
Brand Name
O512-345678
Model/Type :
Light output, lumens : DEPARTMENT OF
E N E R G Y
lumens/watt
Wattage rating, watts :
PHILIPPINES
* based on standard test conditions
Important : For lamps with same wattage rating, HIGHER EFFICACY means MORE ENERGY SAVINGS
THE MINIMUM EFFICACY SET BY THE GOVERNMENT FOR THIS TYPE OF LAMP IS 70 lumens per watt.
Figure 2.8 Energy Label for Linear Fluorescent Lamps
2.3—COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS
The continuing rise in the popularity of compact fluorescent lamp

technology is good evidence of its value as an energy-efficient, long-
lasting substitute for the incandescent lamp. The average compact
fluorescent lamp consumes only one-quarter to one-third as much energy
as its incandescent counterpart and will last up to ten times longer. For
example, a 10000-hour, 13-watt compact fluorescent lamp (about 17
watts with a magnetic ballast) will provide about the same illumination
as a 60-watt incandescent lamp that has a life of approximately 1000
hours.
Compact fluorescent lamps are available in a wide range of color

temperatures, from 2700 K to 6500 K. They have very good color
rendering properties, and they are available in a variety of sizes, shapes,
and wattages. The increasing availability of luminaires designed for
compact fluorescent lamps in both new and remodel applications means
that compact fluorescent lamps can meet most any design application
requirement.
Compact fluorescent lamps were developed in the late 1970’s and

introduced in the Philippine market in the 1990’s. Early model lamp
production concentrated primarily on the retrofit market. Integral lamp-
ballast combinations with screw-in Edison bases provided a convenient
and inexpensive alternative to traditional incandescent lamps for hotels,
apartment complexes, and other high-volume user. Modular systems with
replaceable lamps were popular, as well. Relatively recent large-scale
46
production of dedicated compact fluorescent luminaires has extended the

range of applications for this technology.
2.3.1 Technology Description. Compact fluorescent lamps are actually

lighting systems consisting of a lamp (often with a starter integrated into
the base), a lamp holder, and ballast. Sometimes, a screw-in socket
adapter is incorporated into the package. It is based on the principle of
the fluorescent tube in which a phosphor coating transforms some of the
ultraviolet energy generated by the discharge into light. Generally, there
are three different types of compact fluorescent lamp-ballast systems:
• Integral systems are self-ballasted packages and are made up of a

one piece, disposable socket-adapter-ballast, and lamp
combination.
• Modular systems are also self-ballasted packages, consisting of a
screw-based incandescent socket adapter-ballast-lamp holder,
and replaceable lamp.
• Dedicated systems exist when a ballast and fluorescent lamp
socket have been directly wired in as a part of the luminaire.
While integral and modular systems are designed to screw into
existing incandescent medium base sockets, dedicated systems
generally are OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer)
components, supplied with luminaires.
Lamps are easily replaceable in both modular and dedicated compact

fluorescent systems. On the other hand, relamping in an integral system
requires the replacement of the entire integral unit.
Modular and integral compact fluorescent systems leave particular

relevance in retrofit applications. Dedicated systems are designed
primarily for new construction and complete remodel purposes, although
several companies have introduced dedicated hardwire retrofit kits for
downlights recently. Simple permanent conversion kits for exit signs
and table lamps are also available.
(a) Lamp Types. The following lamp types are commonly available
from a number of manufacturers:
47
(1) T4 diameter twin-tube two-pin lamps that have a starter built

into the lamp plug base. They operate on inexpensive reactor magnetic
ballasts, come in wattages from 5 to 13 watts and are available for both
modular and dedicated systems.
(2) T4 and T5 diameter quad-tube two-pin lamps that also have
plug bases and built-in starters. These lamps produce more light than
simple twin-tubes and are available up to 27 watts. These lamps are
available for all compact fluorescent systems.
(3) Both T4 and T5 diameter twin-tube and quad-lamps are now
available in four-pin versions that do not contain a starter in the base of
the lamp. These lamps are designed primarily for use with electronic
ballasts.
Compact fluorescent lamps for self-contained integral systems are

generally a twin or quad-tube integrated with ballast and a screw-in
socket base. In some cases a reflector or surrounding diffuser may be
included in the package as shown in Figure 2.9 below.
Figure 2.9 Compact Fluorescent Lamp-Ballast Systems
(b) Amalgam Lamps. Amalgams are mercury compounds, which

allow the lamp to operate with a lesser degree of influence caused by
operating temperatures. The luminous flux vs. temperature curve is
spread out i.e.: the luminous flux will be at least 90% over a large
temperature range, from 5oC to 65oC, as shown in Figure 2.10.
The cold-spot in amalgam compact fluorescent lamps is within the

base, rather than at the bend in the glass tube, as it is for standard CFLs.
48
Figure 2.10 Typical Luminous Flux/Temperature

Curves for 18W Amalgam CFL
(c) Lamp Life-Lumen Depreciation and Mortality. Similar to

tubular fluorescent lamps, average life depends on the type of control
gear as well as switching cycle and ambient temperature. Typically a
high-grade compact fluorescent lamp would last about 8000 hours on
Conventional Control Gear (CCG) and 10000 hours on Electronic
Control Gear (ECG).
(d) Ballasts. Compact fluorescent lamps are discharge lamps

requiring ballasts to start and operate properly. A ballast provides the
necessary voltage to start the lamp and, once started, keeps the lamp in
49
operation. Ballasts also consume energy that must be accounted for

when determining the efficacy of a particular lighting system.
Integral and modular compact fluorescent systems combine an

Edison screw base with ballast for direct retrofitting of incandescent
luminaires. All other compact fluorescent lamps are designed to have an
external ballast that must be specified for each individual lamp type and
wattage. Ballast options for compact fluorescent lamps are listed below.
(1) Normal Power Factor (NPF) Reactor Ballasts. NPF

ballasts are common for the smaller two-pin lamp sizes. These ballasts
exhibit very low power factors (0.5 for 230 volt), so it is important for
engineers to calculate circuit loading carefully when designing the
electrical distribution system.
(2) High Power Factor (HPF) Reactor Ballasts. Also for the
smaller preheat lamps, these ballasts contain capacitors to raise the
power factor to 0.90. They are more expensive and larger than the NPF
type, but they allow for conventional branch, circuit design and lower
installation costs.
(3) Conventional Electromagnetic Energy-Saving Ballasts.

The higher-wattage lamps, designed for 2G11-based four-pin operation,
generally operate on single or multiple lamp ballasts similar to those
used for conventional fluorescent lamps.
(4) Dimming Ballasts. The starterless four-pin lamps can be

used with either a magnetic dimming ballast with appropriate wall box
dimmer, or a special electronic dimmer and electronic dimming ballast.
Dimming capability of the lamp should be checked with the
manufacturer/supplier.
Dimming can only be done with electronic control gear in

conjunction with a dimming system.
(5) Electronic Ballasts. Most integral products are now

available that combine a twin, quad, or 6-tube lamp with an electronic
ballast. These products eliminate the objectionable starting flicker that
has been associated with compact fluorescent lamps in the past.
50
In addition to electronically ballasted integral products, several

manufacturers now offer compact fluorescent luminaires with electronic
ballasts instead of standard magnetic ballasts. Electronic ballasts for
compact fluorescent lamps offer several advantages over conventional
electromagnetic ballasts:
a. The system efficacy (lumens per watt, including ballast

losses) is generally about 20% higher with an electronic
ballast. Under test conditions of 25oC, the efficacy of an
electronically ballasted compact fluorescent lamp ranges
from 50-70 lumens/watt, compared to 40-55 lumens/watt
for a magnetically ballasted compact fluorescent lamp.
b. The starting time of electronically ballasted lamps is
generally less than one second, while magnetically
ballasted lamps typically require one to four seconds to
start.
c. Electronic ballasts reduce lamp flicker.
d. Electronic ballasts operate without any perceptible noise.
e. Electronic ballasts can be manufactured in much smaller
sizes and are lighter than conventional magnetic ballasts.
A disadvantage of electronic ballasts for compact fluorescent

lamps is their higher price. This is compounded by the fact that there are
few electronically ballasted modular type compact fluorescent systems
where the lamp can be replaced separately from the electronic ballast;
integral electronic designs require that the ballast be disposed of with the
lamp. In addition, many of the current products exhibit a high percentage
of total harmonic distortion (THD). The effects of THD produced by
compact fluorescent lamp ballasts are still being evaluated by utilities,
but it appears that the actual harmonic current is insufficient to cause
major concern.
(e) Power Quality Issues. Low power factor is one indicator of the
effect that compact fluorescent lamps can have on the power quality of a
utility distribution system. Compact fluorescent systems generally have
power factors much lower than the 90% level achieved for high quality
ballasts in typical linear fluorescent lighting systems. Power factor is a
performance measure that determines how effectively input current is
converted into actual usable power delivered to the lamp. Optimum
51
power utilization would result in a power factor of 1.0, meaning that the
product of voltage and the current (volt-amperes or VA) is equal to the
power used. Most compact fluorescent lamp systems, regardless of
whether they are magnetically or electronically ballasted, are supplied
with NPF ballasts, rated between 0.50 and 0.70 at 230 volts. Thus, a 13-
watt lamp drawing a total load with ballast of 17 watts at a power factor
of 0.50 actually draws 34 VA at 230 volts-twice as much current as it
would with a power factor of 1.0. Branch circuit current and over current
protection are based on VA. This makes it important to consult with a
utility representative or professional engineer when using large numbers
of NPF ballasted compact fluorescent luminaires in a single facility.
High power factor ballasts for compact fluorescent lamps are
available. Whether using HPF or NPF ballasts, building engineers
should follow the input current instructions of each ballast when
designing the circuit loading,
Harmonic distortion is another indicator of the effect of compact
fluorescent lamps on power quality. Any nonlinear load, such as a
personal computer, variable speed motor, television, or compact
fluorescent lamp, causes harmonic distortion in power distribution
systems. Most magnetically ballasted CFL lamps have a THD between
15% and 25%. The THD from most available electronically ballasted
compact fluorescent lamps may be significantly higher, due to severe
distortion of the current waveform. Distortion of the sinusoidal
waveform may also be associated with a reduced power factor. A second
potential concern is the presence of third (180Hz) harmonics. In
principle, these harmonics may cause overheating on the neutral line of
three-phase systems in older commercial buildings. This generally is not
a practical problem for compact fluorescent lamps, because of the
relatively small size of the load imposed by these lamps.
There are products currently available that reduce both the THD and
the odd harmonics from electronically ballasted lamps to levels
approaching those of magnetic ballasts. Electronically ballasted integral
lamp-ballast packages with high power factors and low THD are
currently available in the market. However, increased size requirements,
increased radio frequency interference (RFI), and cost factors have
slowed the development of similar products.
52
(f) Dimming. In general, compact fluorescent lamps cannot be

dimmed using conventional dimming equipment. For example, according
to at least one lamp manufacturer, using conventional incandescent
dimmers in an attempt to dim integral units especially those using
electronic ballasts can cause a fire. However, there are two specific
products that enable dimming of compact fluorescent lamps:
(1) Dimming adapters permit an incandescent dimmer to dim a

four-pin quad-tube lamp. The adapter must be used with a specific ballast
that is factory-installed on the luminaire.
(2) Solid state dimming ballasts permit the dimming of four-

pin twin-tube and quad-tube lamps with a remote potentiometer or low-
voltage signal.
(g) Switching. The longevity of any fluorescent lamp including

compact fluorescents, is affected by the number of times the lamp is
switched on and off during its life. Fluorescent lamp life ratings listed in
lamp manufacturers' catalogs are based on a specific switching cycle of 3
hours on per start. Fluorescent lamp life may be less than the rated value
if the lamp is switched more frequently than this. However, with
electronic ballasting technology, manufacturers can include circuitry that
optimizes the starting sequence (so-called "soft-starting"), thus
preserving manufacturers' rated lamp life even if the lamp is switched
more frequently than every 3 hours. The manufacturer should be
contacted for more information if the application calls for frequent
switching. Of special concern are modern electronic control products.
Devices such as illuminated wall switches, wallbox touch switches,
wallbox time switches, and wallbox occupant sensors may not be
compatible with most compact fluorescent lamps. Incompatibilities are
usually caused by the use of solid-state switches (triacs) instead of air
gap switches or relays. A small continuous current (insufficient to
illuminate an incandescent lamp) passes through the load even when it is
"off." In magnetically ballasted compact fluorescent applications, this
idling current can cause continuous electrode heater and starter
operation, resulting in reduced lamp life. In electronically ballasted
applications, the ballast may prevent idle current, in turn rendering the
control device inoperable.
53
(h) Environmental Conditions and Efficacy. It is important to

realize that laboratory environmental conditions under which lumen
output ratings are made are often quite different from actual installation
conditions. The two environmental conditions that most significantly
affect the performance of compact fluorescent lamps are ambient air
temperature and the orientation or burning position of the lamp.
Figure 2.11 gives typical performance curves showing how ambient

temperature affects lumen output of compact fluorescent lamps in both
base up and base down burning positions. Note that while the compact
fluorescent lamp produces rated lumens at 25oC with the lamp base up,
its lumen output drops to 80% of its rated lumens at 50oC. In
applications where compact fluorescent lamps are mounted in small
volume fixtures with a lack of air circulation (such as in lensed
downlights), the user should expect that the ambient temperature would
be between 40oC and 50oC, and should lower the lamp lumen rating
accordingly. Some compact fluorescent luminaire manufacturers provide
luminaires designed to improve ventilation in order to lower ambient air
temperature and increase lumen output.
Figure 2.11 also shows how lamp orientation (burning position) can
have a major influence on lumen output of a typical compact fluorescent
lamp. Under identical ambient temperatures (25oC) a compact
fluorescent lamp in a horizontal or base up orientation will produce about
20% more lumens than a lamp in a base down position. As such, in any
application where a compact fluorescent is used in a base down position
(such as in a retrofit of an incandescent table lamp), the expected lumen
output should be lowered by at least 10%. At higher ambient
temperatures, a lowering of 15% is appropriate for base down operation.
Manufacturers’ data should be consulted for specific values for
individual lamp types, as performance differences are related to lamp
shape and wattage.
54
NOTE: Curves shown are for one specific lamp type in a draught-free
environment. Performance-particularly in the base down position –will vary
significantly depending on lamp configuration and wattage. (Source –Osram
Corporation)
Figure 2.11 Typical Ambient Temperature and Lamp

Orientation Effects on Lumen Output of Compact Fluorescent
Lamps.
2.3.2 Current Products. As stated previously, compact fluorescent

lamps are highly efficacious, have very good color rendering capabilities
and are available in several color temperatures. Their performance is due
to the use of high efficacy, high color rendering rare earth (RE)
phosphors. The relative balance among these phosphors determines the
color temperature of the lamp. RE phosphors are essential to the
operation of the compact fluorescent lamp because of the high power
density in the small diameter tube. The same loading of conventional
halophosphors would result in rapid and severe lamp lumen depreciation.
Most compact fluorescent lamps are capable of generating about 50-60
lumens/watt. Their advantages notwithstanding, compact fluorescent
lamps have similar overall efficacy as several other technologies of equal
lumen output, such as low-wattage metal halide and high-pressure
sodium lamps, and conventional straight, U-shaped, or circular
fluorescent lamps.
55
A new square-shaped "double-D" configuration is now available in

different sizes and wattages. Its compact shape and size make it suitable
for low profile surface and small recessed luminaires.
A T2 diameter, sub-miniature, wedge base fluorescent lamp is now

produced in a wide range of lengths and wattages. It is available in both
hot and cold cathode versions. As is true with all compact fluorescents,
these lamps use RE phosphor coatings for good color rendering. T2
lamp efficacy is more than 80 lumens/watt, exclusive of ballast losses.
Suitable applications for this lamp will probably include task, sign, and
showcase lighting.
Several manufacturers are now offering compact fluorescent lamps

consisting of three bent tubes (as opposed to twin-tube and quad-tube
configurations). This allows for more lumens in a smaller package.
Some manufacturers have begun producing an electronically ballasted
20-watt compact fluorescent, with high power factor and low THD. This
type of lamp produces similar lumens as a 75-watt to 100-watt
incandescent lamp.
(a) New Lamp Products. In addition to the familiar types of

compact fluorescent lamps, several new lamp configurations are
becoming available.
Current research into new compact fluorescent lamp configurations

is concentrated on more varieties of lamps with higher powers, different
shapes, and single-ended, four-pin bases (2G7, 2Gl1, etc.). These lamps
can use electronic ballasts, can be dimmed, and will eliminate much of
the starting flicker that has been associated with the use of compact
fluorescent lamps. This development promises to increase the number of
compact fluorescent lamp applications. Recently, high wattage self
ballasted and externally ballasted CFL systems in the 70W-120W range
have been introduced in the market, as well as decorative self ballasted
CFLs with e27 bases in circular, spiral and bulb shapes.
(b) Luminaire Types. Lower wattage compact fluorescent lamps

are designed to be used in place of incandescent lamps in a wide variety
of luminaire shapes and types. The twin-tube style is especially good for
task lights, wall sconces, exit signs, step lights, and exterior path lighting.
56
Two-lamp, horizontally aligned, twin-tube combinations have become an

excellent substitute for incandescent recessed downlights, and many
manufacturers of recessed luminaires have designed series of luminaires
around this concept. The quad-tube lamp has similar applications as a
downlight, wall washer, and sconce light. Figure 2.12 illustrates some
luminaires that use compact fluorescent sources.
Figure 2.12 Compact Fluorescent Luminaire Application
57
(c) Retrofitting. Modular and integral compact fluorescent systems

with Edison screw-in sockets are generally not as efficient as their
dedicated counterparts, but they do offer a means to upgrade existing
incandescent lighting. Modular and integral lamps are available with
either electronic or magnetic ballast. The electronic ballast operates at a
higher efficiency and without noise or flicker.
(d) Incandescent Lighting Alternatives. Compact fluorescent

lamps can generally be utilized in many areas where incandescent lamps
would typically have been used before. Such areas can include recessed
downlights, wall washers, desk lights, and wall sconce-type ambient
fixtures, under cabinet fixtures, landscape lights, residential floodlights,
and a variety of other applications. In most instances, compact
fluorescent lamps produce three to four times more lumens per watt than
incandescent lamps as shown in Figure 2.13.
ENERGY SAVER
50 watts, 12 watts,
uses more = uses less
electricity electricity
EXTRA BRIGHT
520 lumens, 570 lumens,

= white or
yellow color
yellowish
color
LONG LIFE
750-1,000 hours, 4,000-8,000 hours,

=
won’t last a year can last up to 2 yrs
Figure 2.13 Comparison between Incandescent Lamps and CFLs
58
Replacing incandescent lighting with compact fluorescent lighting

offers significant cost savings to the user. Money saved through reduced
energy use, fewer lamp replacements, longer lamp life, and related
maintenance savings can quickly recoup the initial investment and
provide continuing operating cost savings as shown in Table 2.5 below.
Table 2.5 Comparative Light Output, Efficacy and Operating Hours

of Incandescent Lamps (IL) and Compact Fluorescent Lamps
(CFLs)*
Type of Wattage rating and equivalent average Efficacy, Average life,
Lamps Light output lumens/watt in hours
Compact 5 W 7 W 9 W 13 W 15 W 22 W 5000
45 W
Fluorescent to to to to to to to
to 57 W
Lamp 6 W 8 W 12 W 14 W 18 W 23 W 8000
Light output, 240 350 460 760 820 1280
In lumens to to to to to to - -
260 400 570 800 990 1300
750
Incandescent 25 40 50 60 75 100 8 to 13 to
Lamp 1000
Light output,
200 390 520 720 890 1300 - -
in lumens
*Source: Department of Energy – Lighting and Appliance Testing Laboratory
(e) Alternatives to Other Fluorescent Lamps. In the lower

wattages, other smaller fluorescent lamp types, such as circling
configurations, lack the convenient single-ended plug base, color
temperature options, and consistent good color rendition of compact
fluorescent lamps. Many typical fluorescent applications for smaller
lamps, such as task lights, surface mounted “drum lights," and corridor
lights, will be more effective if compact fluorescent lamps are used.
Also, the high color rendering quality of the compact lamp is maintained
with every lamp replacement.
(f) Limitations. Overall, compact fluorescent lamps are excellent

choices for many residential and commercial lighting situations. The
major limiting factor associated with compact fluorescent lamps in
retrofit applications has been their size. Compact fluorescent lamp-
59
ballast packages have been somewhat larger than incandescent lamps of

the same lumen output, meaning that they may not fit properly in
luminaires designed for incandescent sources. For example, in recessed
downlights, a screw-in compact fluorescent package may protrude below
the ceiling line, resulting in an objectionable appearance and creating
glare, In addition, the base portion of a compact fluorescent lamp that
contains the ballast is larger and of a different shape than the standard
incandescent lamp. The luminaire's reflector may therefore not allow
enough clearance for the adapter to be screwed into the socket. For these
reasons, designers are encouraged to try out a test lamp of the intended
configuration prior to attempting an entire retrofit. Lately however,
several manufacturers have introduced much smaller-sized CFLs to
mitigate many of these size limitations.
Another limitation of compact fluorescent lamps is that they may not

be suitable in very high ceilings (more than 3.6 m), or in certain accent
lighting applications requiring a tight beam spread or a point source
sparkle. Furthermore, CFLs are not suitable for areas with voltage
fluctuations of +/- 20%; as well as, areas with frequent and short duration
switching operations.
2.3.3 Application Guidelines. In general, compact fluorescent lamps are

best applied in situations where incandescent or other small fluorescent
lamps would be considered. They may be used in a wide variety of
residential, commercial, retrofitting, and new construction applications.
(a) Residential Applications. In general, the use of compact

fluorescent luminaires is especially appropriate for rooms such as
kitchens and bathrooms where high lumen output and good color
rendering are desired. Compact fluorescent lamps are also useful in all
utility room lighting applications and in enclosed exterior fixtures (if
“weatherized”) such as lantern, and path lights. They are useful as
ambient light sources in wall sconces. The extended lamp life of
compact fluorescents makes them an intelligent design decision in hard-
to-reach places. They are also appropriate for task lights, especially those
types designed for the configuration of compact fluorescent lamps. A
commitment to increased residential use of compact fluorescent lamps
could be quite significant, in terms of energy conservation. A savings of
25% to 50% of the lighting electrical energy used by every home could
60
be realized if all acceptable fluorescent applications were utilized. Table

2.6 summarizes some of the residential applications suitable for compact
fluorescent lamps.
The selection of compact fluorescent lighting equipment for

residential design applications should be made carefully. Newer designs
using electronically ballasted compact fluorescent lamps are suitable for
many residential applications, since these packages operate silently and
start almost immediately without an initial flicker. An added benefit is
the lighter weight and smaller size of the electronically ballasted
products. When magnetically ballasted systems are used in residential
applications, the benefits of energy efficiency and long life are
sometimes outweighed by concerns for the acoustic noise of some
ballasts, or by a negative reaction to starting flicker. In most residential
applications, these conditions are not tolerable. In any case it is
advisable to consult with and advise one's client about the overall
benefits of compact fluorescent lighting.
Table 2.6 Residential Applications for Compact Fluorescent Lamps

Living Utility
Kitchens Bedrooms Bathrooms Exterior
Rooms Area
Recessed Task lights Task lights Mirror lights Stairways Lanterns
downlights
Under Cabinet Swing arm Closet Recessed Laundry Garage

lights lamps lights downlights rooms lights
Under Shower & Attics Path lights

Cabinet tub lights
lights
Recessed Closets Security

downlights lights
Wall Crawl
washers spaces
(b) Commercial Applications. Commercial lighting represents the

best application for compact fluorescent technology. Compact
fluorescent luminaires can be easily incorporated into lighting designs
61
that are both aesthetically pleasing, and energy-efficient. It is now

possible to design a first-class project using compact fluorescents in
place of most incandescent lamps.
In office lighting design, not every incandescent luminaire has a

compact fluorescent counterpart, but many do. Offices and other types
of commercial and institutional spaces will look good and operate
efficiently through the proper use of compact fluorescent troffers,
downlights, wall washers, and task lights.
In retail lighting design, fluorescent light is appropriate for general

illumination, wall washing, and some types of case lighting. The energy
conscious designer uses standard incandescent or halogen sources only
when point source sparkle or significantly more light intensity is
required. Examples of this would include display lighting, jewelry case
lighting, etc.
In restaurants and hotels, most of the circulation areas and other
public spaces can be illuminated with compact fluorescent sources,
unless ceilings are especially high, an application where HID sources
might be more appropriate. Additionally, some pendant type luminaires
and wall sconces can be equipped with compact fluorescent lamps.
Incandescent lighting can then be used where it is especially important
for full-range dimming and special accents. Many fast food/fast action
spaces can take advantage of the smaller general illumination fixtures
made possible by compact fluorescent technology. In hospitals,
laboratories, schools, and other institutions, compact fluorescent lamps
can generally replace most incandescent applications.
In industrial lighting, most compact fluorescent lamps have limited

applications. But the low heat of compact fluorescent lamps makes them
safer in hazardous environments where HID lamps might otherwise be
used.
Table 2.7 suggests some possible commercial applications for

compact fluorescent lamps.
62
Table 2.7 Commercial Applications for

Compact Fluorescent Lamps
General Accent & Specialty Decorative & Utility Exterior
Lighting Lighting Portable Lighting Lighting
Lighting
Recessed Recessed & track Wall sconces Security Landscape
downlights mounted wall lighting floodlights
washers
Suspended Under cabinet lights Chandeliers Step Pedestrian post

luminaires lights top and bollard
lights
Cove lights
Indirect lighting Table & floor Step lights
systems lamps Exit signs
Case display lights

Makeup & Under rail lights
dressing lights Task
Modular Strip lighting
outlining
Sign &display lights Vandal-resistant

security lights
(c) General Downlighting. Many corridors and lobbies are

furnished with round or square recessed downlights for general or wall
wash lighting purposes. Typical designs call for incandescent “cans" or
"tophat" luminaires; an energy-efficient alternative is to use modular type
downlights designed specifically for compact fluorescent twin-tube or
quad-tube lamps. By careful selection, the specifier can choose a
fluorescent luminaire that appears similar to standard incandescent
downlights. A general rule-of-thumb is to use about 20% of the
required incandescent lamp wattage. In other words, use a downlight
with one 26-watt or two 13-watt lamps to replace a 100-watt
incandescent lamp; two 18-watt lamps replace a 150-watt incandescent
lamp and two 26-watt lamps to replace a 200-watt incandescent lamp.
Avoid using screw-in socket adapters in new construction, as they are not
as efficient and are easily compromised by incandescent relamping at a
later time.
63
(d) Outdoor Floodlighting. Compact fluorescent lamp sources have

excellent floodlighting capabilities, and there is a significant potential for
savings over the use of traditional incandescent sources. Many
floodlighting schemes for shorter walls, signs, etc. use an incandescent
PAR-38 flood lamp. In many situations, a short fluorescent flood lamp
luminaire will serve as an energy-saving option, as long as ambient
temperatures are high enough for proper operation. For example, a 22-
watt quad-tube compact fluorescent luminaire with reflector would be a
good alternative to an incandescent luminaire supplied with a 100-watt
PAR-38 lamp. The 22-watt quad-tube luminaire would use 60 watts less
(including ballast) than a 90-watt PAR halogen lamp and 70 watts less
than a standard 100-watt PAR lamp.
(e) Decorative Lighting. Many pendant lights, wall sconces, and

other types of decorative luminance are available as compact fluorescent
lamp sources. Manufacturers of wall sconces in particular have been
quick to capitalize on the technology of compact fluorescent lamps, and
many products are available.
2.3.4 Cost Savings Retrofit Profile
(a) Residential Retrofit Example. Retrofitting incandescent lamps

with compact fluorescent lamps offers energy savings to consumers. This
scenario assumes that an 18-watt CFL replaces a 25-watt incandescent
lamp (IL) in order to provide 8,000 hours of operation in the residential
sector. It is assumed that the lamps operate 8 hours a day. One (1) CFL
costing around PhP 240.00 would displace four (4) IL’s costing a total of
P160.00, for a difference of PhP 80.00 (all cost figures are in present
value). Over its burning life hours, the CFL would consume 144 kWh
costing PhP 1,152.00 at PhP 8.00 per kWh, while IL’s would consume
600 kWh costing PhP 4,800.00, for a difference of PhP 3,648.00. Hence,
total savings comes around to PhP 3,568.00 by retrofitting to CFLs as
shown in Table 2.8.
64
Table 2.8 Costs/Savings Comparison between Incandescent Lamps

and CFL
Household X Y
Lamp Type Incandescent
A CFL
Lamps
Rating per Lamp,
B 75 18
Watts
Burning hours per
C 1 000 8 000
lamp
Total burning hours
needed for D 8 000 8 000
operation
Number of lamps
E = D/C 8 1
required
Price per lamp, PhP F 20.00 240.00
Total Price of
G=ExF 160.00 240.00
Lamp, PhP
Savings on Lamp, PhP 80.00 —
Lighting load per
H 75 18
lamp, Watts
Total electricity I=
600 144
consumption, kWh (D x H)/1000
Average Electricty
Cost, J 8.00 8.00
PhP/kWh
Bill per lamp, PhP K=IxJ 4 800.00 1 152.00
Savings in Electricity Cost over
— 3 648.00
the Life of each Quality CFL, PhP
(b) General Downlighting Example. Energy efficiency with a

compact fluorescent downlight system is significant when compared with
incandescent options. For example, to provide 220 lux in a corridor,
luminaires are installed about every 3 m2. The fluorescent scheme (two
13 watt twin-tube lamps) operates at about 10.75 watts/m2, while the
incandescent scheme (one 100-watt “A” lamp) operates at over 32.25
watts/m2. A saving of over 7.74 kWh/m2/mo. is realized translating into
PhP 46.44/m2/mo., or about PhP 139.32/mo./fixture. Added benefits
65
result from a much longer lamp life and fewer maintenance costs
associated with replacements.
(c) Product Classifications. Lamp manufacturer tend to create

“marketable” product names and identifications. These names make for
better marketing, but make it more difficult to write a generic
specification. Hence, please refer to manufacturers’ product catalogs in
the preparation of CFL specifications.
2.3.5 Standard for Compact Fluorescent Lamps. Philippine National

Standards (PNS) require the display of an energy label for all compact
fluorescent lamps. This will allow the buying public to compare power
input, light output, efficacy (lumens per watt), and average life.
Manufacturers, suppliers and importers are required to label every
individual lamp with the above parameters.
Figure 2.14 shows a sample of the newly required energy label for
Compact Fluorescent Lamps by the Department of Trade and Industry-
Bureau of Product Standards.
66
Brand Name:
Model/Type:
Lamp Specifications 1
Light
Output lumens
Power
Consumption watts
Efficacy 3
lumens per watt
Average
Life 2 hours
For lamps of similar

light output, higher
efficacy means
more energy savings
1
when tested at standard test
conditions
2
rated average life at 50% failure
3
The Minimum Efficacy Set
By The Government For
This Type Of Lamp Is
___ LUMENS PER WATT.
CTRL NO. XXXX-XXXXXX
DEPARTMENT OF
E N E R G Y
PHILIPPINES
Figure 2.14 Energy Label for Compact Fluorescent Lamps
2.4—NEW TECHNOLOGY
2.4.1 Induction (Electrodeless) Lamps. Induction lamps (Figure 2.15)

do not have electrodes. In contrast to conventional fluorescent lamps, the
discharge needed to generate light in the induction lamp does not take
place between two electrodes but through a closed “ring” with no starting
67
point and no end point. The energy is “injected” via ferrite rings from
outside the lamp using magnetic fields (induction principle). The
frequency generator produces a 2.65 MHz (radio frequency) alternating
current and supplies it to the induction coil (a wire wrapped around a
plastic or metal core). The current passing through the induction coil
generates an electromagnetic (EM) field. The EM field excites the
mercury in the gas fill. The ionized mercury emits ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, which causes the phosphor coating inside the lamp glass to
fluoresce.
The advantage of eliminating electrodes is extended lamp life. The main

reason why low and high intensity discharge lamps fail is because of the
deterioration of the electrodes or filament, which is a result of the
reaction of the light-generating substances with metal electrodes in
conventional lamps. Since the lamp has no parts that can wear out, it
lasts long and may take years before it needs replacement.
Figure 2.15 Induction (Electrodeless) Lamps
The best applications for induction lamps are in street, roadways,

tunnels, high bays, parking lot, and area lighting where lamp change-outs
are costly or dangerous. Other good applications include overhead
machinery, and in production areas where lamp change-outs are
disruptive or might decrease production.
Advantages:
• Can last up to 30 years, dramatically reducing ongoing

operations and maintenance costs,
• Super long life, quick start, no flicker, auto restart,
• Deliver higher efficiency (more lumens per watt)
68
• Provide excellent color rendering (CRI over 80) versus HID

(CRI: 22 for High Pressure Sodium, and 70 for Metal Halide)
• Energy saving. Saves as much as 60 – 70% without sacrificing
illumination level,
• Environment friendly due to very long replacement period.
2.5—GUIDELINE SPECIFICATION
Specifying fluorescent lamps is not difficult. There are ways of ensuring
that the preferred lamp and ballast requirements are clear to suppliers to
avoid the substitution of inferior products. Furthermore, the designer
should specify products that conforms with the following Philippine
National Standards:
A. For Linear Fluorescent Lamps

• PNS IEC 60081: 2006 (IEC published 2002) Double-capped
fluorescent lamps – Performance requirements
• PNS IEC 61195: 2006 (IEC published 1999) Double-capped
fluorescent lamps – Safety requirements
• PNS 2050-1-1: 2007 Lamps and related equipment – Energy
efficiency and labeling requirements – Part 1-1: Double-capped
fluorescent lamps
B. For Compact Fluorescent Lamps

• PNS IEC 969: 2006 (IEC published 1988) Self-ballasted lamps
for general lighting services – Performance requirements
• PNS IEC 968: 2006 (IEC published 1988) Self-ballasted lamps
for general lighting services – Safety requirements
• PNS 2050-2: 2007 Lamps and related equipment – Energy
efficiency and labeling requirements-Part 2: Self-ballasted
lamps for general lighting services
69
70
CHAPTER 3. HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE LAMPS
Chapter 3. High Intensity Discharge (HID)

Lamps
INTRODUCTION
High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps can offer better efficiency and

longer life than fluorescent lamp, with color quality approaching that of
incandescent lamp. HID lamps all utilize a compact “arc tube” in which
very high temperature and pressure exists. This small arc tube resembles
a point source of light, making HID lamps and their luminaires both
compact and powerful. There are four main types of HID lamps: mercury
vapor (MV), metal halide (MH), low-pressure sodium (LPS), & high-
pressure sodium (HPS). Major applications of HID include outdoor
floodlighting, roadway lighting, high-bay for industrial environment and
sport’s gym. However, due to technology, HID lamps today are also
being use in track lighting for offices, commercial and retail
environments.
3.1—TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION
Arc tubes may be made out of quartz needed for HPS lamps. However,
because quartz cannot contain the hot and corrosive sodium and vapors,
high purity aluminum oxide or “polycrystalline alumina” is being
utilized for its high-temperature stability, strength and excellent light
transmission characteristics. Recently, arc tubes of this alumina material
are also employed in MH lamps, which are described as “ceramics arc
tube metal halides”. Ceramic tube can withstand higher temperature and
pressures than a conventional glass arc tube. Thus, the lamp has slightly
higher efficacy and better color stability.
71
Figure 3.1 Metal Halide and High Pressure

Sodium Lamp Construction
3.2 CURRENT PRODUCTS
As shown in Figure 3.2, HID lamps are available in a wide variety of

sizes, shapes, and bases. HID lamp technology development is a
continually enveloping process, as manufactures try to design lamp
configurations and characteristic to meet an ever widening range of
applications.
Table 3.1 shows the Color Rendering Index (CRI) and lamp efficacy of
the different high intensity discharge lamps as compared with low
intensity discharge lamps.
72
Table 3.1 Color Rendering Index and Lamp Efficacy for Typical Light Sources

Initial Lamp Mean Lamp Mean Lamp
Lamp Type Lamp Watts (CRI)* Lumens* Lumens* Efficacy*
Incandescent 100 100 1 750 1 575 16
Compact Fluorescent 26 82 1 610 1 370 53
Fluorescent (4')
Standard Phosphor (T-12/ES) 34 62 2 650 2 300 68
Mercury Vapor
Clear 250 20 12 100 10 500 42
73
Color Improved 250 45 13 000 10 700 43

Metal Halide
Clear 250 65 20 500 17 000 68
Color Improved 250 70 19 745 16 000 64
Pulse Start 250 65 26 300 21 040 84
High Pressure Sodium
Clear 250 21 28 500 25 600 102
Color Improved 250 65 23 000 20 700 83
Low Pressure Sodium 180 0 33 000 33 000 183
NOTE: Not drawn to scale
Figure 3.2 Typical HID Lamps Bases and Envelope Shape
3.2.1 Metal Halide Lamps
Metal halide lamp are high-intensity discharge lamp in which the major
portion of the light is produced by radiation from a mixture of metallic
vapour, metal halides and the products of the dissociation of metal
halides.
NOTE: The definition covers clear and coated lamps
74
Wattages of metal halide lamps range from 32 to 2000 watts. A large

number of envelope and base configurations are available. Major
variations of metal halide lamps include:
• Universal-burning-position lamps that are relatively insensitive to

lamp physical orientation
• Position-specific lamps that have maximum efficacy and lamp life
• Clear or phosphor-coated lamps ranging from 3400-4100K in
chromaticity
• Optional warm (3000K) and cool (6500K) lamps in some sizes
• A few warm (3000-3200K) clear lamps, especially in lower
wattages
• Lamps for open luminaires with internal arc rupture shields (see
section 6.5 for luminaire information)
• Silver-bowl lamps that minimize glare and light trespass from
directional luminaries
• Compact lamps without outer glass envelopes that produce a
brilliant, high color rendering light in a comparatively small arc
tube
(a) Universal-Burning Position. Because of their ability to be

burned in any operating position, the "universal" metal halide lamps are
the most easily used. However, they perform best (maximum light output
and life) when the arc tube is within about 15 degrees of vertical
position. They are also typically less efficacious than lamps optimized
for limited burning positions.
Lamp color choice with universal metal halide lamps is generally

limited to standard clear (4000-4500K, 65 CRI) or coated (3700-4000K,
70 CRI). Recent improvements include the addition of more wattage, as
well as the development of medium-based compact lamps. These lamps
operate on ANSI standard ballasts and generate 65-100 lumens per watt.
(b) Vertical- or Horizontal-burning Position
In addition to universal-burning- position products, metal halide

lamps are also available that are designed to operate either vertically or
horizontally. When designed for specific burning position, metal halide
75
lamps can generate more light and offer more color options than are
available with universal-position lamps.
Figure 3.3 Metal Halide Lamp Configurations
Vertical Burning. The vertical-burning metal halide lamp is

optimized for base-up, base-down, or base-up/base-down operation,
primarily for use in down-lights. In addition to standard clear (4000-
4500K) and coated (3700-4000K) lamps, warm color (2700-3200K)
clear and coated lamps are available in various wattages. The newest
products tend to have lower wattages with medium bases and smaller
envelopes. One product—the 32-watt lamp—is designed specifically
(and only) for operation on electronic ballast. A principal advantage of
vertical-burning lamps is efficacy. Lamps generate 70-110 lumens per
watt, or about 10% more than universal-burning lamps. Table 3.2
provides performance information for vertically burning pulse-start metal
halide lamps.
Horizontal Burning. As in vertical-burning metal halide lamps,

optimum lamp design in horizontal lamps is achieved when operating
position is predetermined. Horizontal high output or "super" lamps may
76
have bowed arc .tubes, and use a position-fixing pin in the base, called a
prefocus or position-orienting mogul (POM) base. This base and
matching socket assure correct positioning of the lamp.
Since these lamps are primarily used in outdoor lighting—

floodlighting and highway signs are two major applications—the
smallest wattage product available is 175 watts. The most popular metal
halide lamp colors are offered (3200K coated, 3700K coated, and
4100K clear). As with vertical lamps, efficacy is 70-110 lumens per
watt.
(c) Color Shift
It is characteristic of metal halide lamps to shift in color both

between lamps and over time. As metal halide lamps operate, the
circulation of hot gases in the arc tube, the area and position of the "pool"
of molten halides, lamp temperature and age all contribute to a
continuously changing mixture of halides and their moment-to-moment
light and color output. Unfortunately, the most likely lamp color
characteristic to change is chromaticity, which is also the most visible to
the eye.
There are, however, several strategies that can minimize lamp color
shift so that MH lamps can be used as energy-efficient alternatives to
incandescent and fluorescent light sources. Further, lamp manufacturers
have struggled with the problem and are beginning to achieve some
success, which is apparent with the newer pulse-start and ceramic arc
tube products.
There are a number of strategies for minimizing lamp color shift:
Specification Considerations
• Determine what color shift is acceptable for the application

and if the acceptability applies to the overall appearance of the
lamps over time or the lamp-to-lamp variation at any given
time. Recognize that the color stability of metal halide lamps is
not expected, at least in the near term, to be the same as that of
incandescent and fluorescent lamps.
77
• Consult with the lamp manufacturer to determine what

variation can be expected and what variation might be put into
writing as a warranty of performance.
• Ask lamp and ballast manufacturers about lamp/ballast
systems that work together to minimize color shift and
variation. Some electronic HID ballast now has sensing and
feedback circuitry that helps to stabilize lamp operation.
• Use the same ballast model throughout the installation.
• Choose ballasts with good regulation characteristics, especially
if the supply voltage is subject to voltage variations.
• Specify newer-technology lamps. Lamps with "shaped" arc
tube chambers; pulse-start technology and ceramic arc tubes
are designed to have minimal color shift characteristics.
Installation and Operation Considerations
• Before judging the color of new lamps in an installation, burn

the lamps for at least 100 hours to stabilize the lamp color
characteristics.
• If lamps have been moved, and particularly if the lamps have
been tipped or shaken when warm, they must be re-stabilized.
Operate them for several hours in their new positions.
• Operate all of the lamps in an installation in the same burning
position.
• Do not operate metal halide lamps on a dimmer.
• If lamp-to-lamp color variation over time is an important issue,
specify group relamping. Lamp manufacturers may select
lamps with matching color values on request or at extra cost
for critical installations.
• In general, operate lamps with quartz arc tubes vertically. Off-
vertical positions are more likely to change the surface area of
the halide "pool."
(d) Double-Ended
Double-ended metal halide lamps in compact packages (without

enclosing outer glass envelopes), illustrated in Figure 3.4, were originally
introduced in Europe and have been very successful there. Some
manufacturers produce these lamps with special halide chemistries,
78
resulting in lamps with very high CRI of 80 or more. These lamps

operate in the range of 35-95 lumens per watt, and the 70-watt lamp with
electronic ballast achieves a system efficacy of about 75 lumens per watt,
over 10% more than with magnetically ballasted operation. Moreover,
the reduced ballast package lends itself to smaller luminaires including
track lighting equipment.
Double-ended lamps must be operated with the arc tube within 45

degrees of horizontal.
Figure 3.4 Double –Ended Metal Halide Lamps

With FC2 and RSC Bases
(e) Open Luminaire/Protected Lamps
Most metal halide lamps require enclosed luminaires to protect

people and property in the event of lamp rupture and, in the case of
single-envelope lamps, high levels of UV emissions. Although rare,
metal halide arc tubes can fail and burst - especially near its end-of-life,
if the lamp has been burned continuously.
However, a few metal halide lamps are listed for use in open
luminaires. These are typically indicated in the "notes" column of
79
manufacturers' catalogs. One type is simply a lamp design tested by the

manufacturer determined to have a failure risk of virtually zero. Another
type is called a protected lamp. These lamps typically employ an inner
glass shield or reinforced arc tube so that, in the event of arc tube failure,
the pieces are contained within the lamp's outer envelope. Protected
lamps have a special base design. If the open luminaire is equipped with
the matching exclusionary lamp holder, non-protected lamps cannot be
installed.
Of course, the best protection is the use of an enclosed luminaire,

especially if lighting maintenance procedures are such that there is a
significant chance that a non-protected lamp could be installed. Protected
and non-protected lamps are electrically interchangeable; the use of
exclusionary lamp holders will prevent mechanical interchangeability.
Protected lamps are usually designed for universal or vertical

burning. They are rated slightly lower in lumen output compared to
standard vertical burning lamps.
3.2.2 Mercury Lamps
High-pressure mercury (vapour) lamp are high-intensity discharge lamp

in which the major portion of the light is produced, directly or indirectly,
by radiation from mercury operating at a partial pressure in excess of 100
kilopascals.
NOTE: This term covers clear, phosphor coated (mercury fluorescent) and blended
lamps. In a fluorescent mercury discharge lamp, the light is produced partly by the
mercury vapour and partly by the layer of phosphors excited by the ultraviolet radiation
of the discharge.
Mercury lamps were first developed in 1901, but compact arc tube
versions didn't appear until some 30 years later. They became widely
used for roadway lighting after the development of long-life lamps in
1960 and began to be used for indoor general lighting after improved-
color or "deluxe white" phosphors were introduced in 1966. The efficacy
of mercury lamps that peaked at about 50 lumens per watt together with
relatively poor depreciation characteristics has made the mercury lamp
obsolete for energy-efficient lighting. It should not be used in new
80
installations and existing installations should be upgraded to use a more

energy-efficient source.
3.2.3 Low-Pressure Sodium Lamps
Low-pressure sodium (vapour) lamps are discharge lamps in which the

light is produced by radiation from sodium vapour operating at a partial
pressure of 0.1 pascal to 1.5 pascal
Low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamps use sodium as the primary light-

emitting material. LPS lamps relatively have good performance
characteristics and operate at higher efficacies than of fluorescent or
other type of HID lamps. However, due to their relatively large physical
size, difficult to control optics and monochromatic color (CRI=0).
Limiting their application to security, roadway, tunnel & other similar
application where color rendering and appearance are not of concern.
3.2.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamps
High-pressure sodium (vapour) lamp are high-intensity discharge lamps

in which the light is produced mainly by radiation from sodium vapour
operating at a partial pressure of the order of 10 kilopascals.
NOTE: The term covers lamps with clear or diffusing bulb.
High-pressure sodium lamps were developed and introduced in 1968 as

energy-efficient sources for exterior, security, and some industrial
lighting applications. HPS lamps were mostly placed into roadway
lighting service. HPS lamps are the most efficient of the HID lamp
sources, and they are useful in most applications where high color
rendering is not a crucial concern. Figure 3.5 shows the typical HPS
lamp configurations.
Unlike metal halide lamps, HPS lamps do not contain starting electrodes.
Due to the HPS ballast's electronic starting circuit; warm-up and restrike
periods are much shorter than those of metal halide lamps.
81
Figure 3.5 Typical High Pressure Sodium Lamp Configurations
(a) Universal Burning Position. HPS lamps, unlike most metal

halides, do not require enclosure except to prevent moisture from
accumulating on the lamp. This makes HPS lamps especially easy to use
in many fixture types. Moreover, the virtual insensitivity of HPS lamps
to operating position means that fewer lamp types are needed, as
compared to metal halide.
Lamp color temperature in HPS lamps does not vary much. While
the "deluxe" HPS lamp has a relatively light CRI (65) for HPS
technology, its color temperature of 2100-2200 K is not much different
from standard HPS, which varies between 1900 K and 2100 K. All HPS
82
lamps except "white" sodium appear in golden-orange color, and are not
recommended for non-industrial interior lighting.
HPS lamps are offered in variety of wattages. Lumens per watt,

ranging from 90 to 130, increase with wattage. Electronic ballasts are
available in the market and will provide a small increase in system
efficacy.
Some HPS lamps can be obtained with 2 arc tubes. These so called
“standby” lamps are a reasonable alternative to instant strike circuits,
providing rapid restrike cycles while offering extended lamp life. It
should be noted that lamp warm-up time would still be in effect in the
event of a power interruption. However, the lamp will not have a cool
down before the second arc can be struck. These lamps are especially
applicable for roadway and parking lot applications. In normal operation,
standby lamps alternate operation between the arc tubes.
Performance characteristics of screw base “Deluxe" HPS lamps with

their respective CRI are described in Appendix D, as well as standard
screw base HPS lamps.
(b) Universal Position Directional HPS Lamps (See Appendix D).

R-configured HPS lamps are useful for compact directional light sources,
such as track lighting and outdoor lighting luminaires. The poor color
rendition of these lamps, however, limits the usefulness to specific
industrial and security floodlighting and general lighting applications.
(c) Double-Ended HPS Lamps. The double-ended HPS was

designed to take advantage of luminaires and lighting installations
originally designed for the double-ended metal halide lamp. The double-
ended HPS lamp offers comparable lumen output, but offers HPS’ longer
life and excellent lumen maintenance characteristics.
(d) White Sodium Lamps. White HPS lamps offer lamp life and
lumen maintenance characteristics similar to those of other HPS lamps
whose color temperatures and CRI may be unsuitable for many interior
spaces. However, ballast designs for “white” HPS lamps employ
electronic circuits designed to increase color temperature and CRI. The
color temperature, of white sodium lamps, at 2600 K to 2800 K, closely
83
resembles incandescent lighting. During the lamp's stable color-life, the

color performance is more consistent and appealing than most metal
halide lamps (including 3000 K lamps). Although efficacy is relatively
low 35-45 lumens per watt, the white sodium lamp is in many ways the
best (if not the only high-efficacy substitute for incandescent lamps).
3.2.5 Ballasts and Ignitors
HID lamps require ballasts to regulate the arc current flow and to deliver
the proper voltage to the arc. Depending on the lamp design, some larger
metal halide lamps employ a starting electrode within the lamp to initiate
the arc. See Figure 3.1. Smaller metal halide and HPS lamps, on the
other hand, do not contain starting electrodes. Instead, a high-voltage
pulse to the operating electrodes starts the lamp. An external electronic
starting circuit associated with the ballast generates this pulse. This
circuit is commonly called an ignitor.
A few electronic ballasts are now available for HID lamps. Electronic
ballasts for HID lamps do not use the same principles as for fluorescent
lamps. The primary benefit of electronic HID ballast is more precise
management of the lamp’s arc tube wattage over life. By better
managing the arc tube wattage, more consistent color and longer lamp
life usually occur. With few exceptions, high-frequency operation does
not increase HID lamp efficacy.
3.2.6 Lamp Dimming
While it is technically possible to dim some HID lamps, the results are
not likely to be satisfactory from either a functional or energy-saving
standpoint. HID lamps are designed to be operated only at rated power.
Anything less will compromise performance. This usually affects the
efficacy, life and color. For example, a metal halide lamp can be dimmed
to about 50% of rated power, but at this level it generates only about
25% of its rated lumens, and it will change color in an undesirable
manner. HID dimming requires specialized ballasts and dimming
electronics. Specifiers should carefully evaluate proposed systems with
respect to warrantee responsibility in case of system performance
problems.
84
An exception is the step-dimming (hi-lo) systems for HPS and MH

lamps. These systems provide full light then switch to a lower standby
level via a special circuit in the HID ballast. They are typically supplied
by the HID ballast manufacturer and can be linked to manual or
automatic controls for use in warehouses, parking areas and other
installations where continuous high-level lighting is not required.
Standby levels of about 50% (input power) are typically available. Since,
for the low setting, the HID lamp is already on, lamp warm-up times
after switching to full output are relatively short.
3.2.7 Lamp Starting and Restrike
HID lamps start in a “glow” state or at a very low output before reaching
its full brilliance. Starting the arc initially may take a few seconds and
the duration of the warm-up period can range from 2 to 10 minutes
depending on the lamp and ballast characteristics. During this period,
heat from the arc increases the arc tube temperature, causes the internal
gas pressure to build and the metal compounds to melt and vaporize. As
these gas mixtures enter the arc, they are ionized and emit energy. Even
in brief power interruptions, HID lamps will extinguish. The lamp must
cool down first before the arc restrikes again.
Restrike period could create hazardous conditions especially when there
are frequent momentary power failures or voltage dips. In this situation,
several options may be applied such as using MH or HPS luminaires
with “instant restrike” capability. These luminaires have special ballast
or circuit, which develops very high voltages necessary to instantly
restrike a hot HID lamp. Another option is by using HPS systems that
have a second arc tube connected in parallel with the one in operation.
Only one arc tube can operate at a time and in the event of momentary
power failure, the “cool” arc tube begins to operate immediately upon the
resumption of power.
MH lamps that operate on standard MH ballasts with no auxiliary

starting circuits contain three electrodes. Two main electrodes are
mounted at the ends of the arc tube. At one end, an auxiliary or starting
electrode is mounted next to the main electrode. The lamp begins the
starting process when the gas between the main and starting electrode
ionizes. After starting, a thermal switch in the lamp disables the starting
electrode. Unlike conventional metal halide lamps, HPS lamps and the
85
newer “pulse start” MH and ceramic arc tube MH do not contain starting
electrodes. An external high voltage pulse circuit matched to the ballast
characteristics initiates starting. The system used for HPS lamp-starting
results in warm-up and restrike periods that are much shorter than those
of metal halide lamps.
3.2.8 Lamp Life and Failure Modes.
The lamp life and failure of HID lamps varies considerably depending on
the type, burning orientation, size and configuration. Near the end of
lamp life, many HID lamps will exhibit a noticeable degree of color shift,
which may be objectionable in some applications.
3.2.8.1 Metal Halide. The subsequent blackening and failure of the

arc tube or seals, or the loss of sodium through the wall of the quartz arc
tube are due to cathode deterioration. Arc tubes in lamps that are burned
continuously are more likely to rupture at end-of-life; manufacturers
recommend that such systems be turned off at least once a week to
minimize the chances of such failures.
3.2.8.2 Standard High-Pressure Sodium. Loss of sodium through

the ceramic wall of the arc tube causes the operating voltage of the lamp
to rise beyond what the ballast can supply. The lamp then "cycles" on
and off as the ballast tries unsuccessfully to maintain the arc. The arc
tube seals can also crack and leak sodium into the space between the arc
tube and outer bulb of the lamp.
3.2.8.3 Low-mercury HPS Lamps. These "unsaturated" HPS lamps
drop significantly in light output when their sodium is lost. When this
happens, color shifts to blue (depending upon design) which signal their
end-of-life.
3.2.8.4 No-mercury HPS Lamps. Xenon may be used as substitute
for mercury vapor as a buffer gas so that the arc tube of these HPS lamps
contains only xenon and sodium. Xenon, however, shifts the
chromaticity of the discharge towards green color appearance of these
lamps.
86
HID lamps offer some of the longest lifetimes of any light

Source. Incandescent and Fluorescent lifetimes are shown here
Incandescent Fluorescent
1 3 7.5 20
Mercury vapor
16 24
Metal halide
7.6 20
High-pressure sodium
7.5 White HPS Standard HPS Double Arc-tube 40
16 24
Low-pressure sodium
14 18
0 10 20 30 40
Typical rated lifetime (thousands of hours)
Source: Manufacturer data
Figure 3.6 Life of HID Lamps
3.2.9 Energy Efficiency. HID lamps are among the most energy-
efficient lamp technologies available. The most efficacious HID sources
are standard high-pressure sodium lamps, ranging from 65 (40-watt
lamp) to about 130 lumens per watt (1000-watt lamp). Metal halide
lamps range from 55 (40-watt open fixture lamp) to 110 lumens per watt
for a 1000-watt horizontal high-output lamp. White sodium lamps have
the lowest efficacy of the HID sources, producing between 40 and 50
lumens per watt (about the same as a CFL). These values include ballast
losses, and they are based on new, but burned-in lamps.
As a safety measure, HID lamps should not be operated 24 hours a day

and 7 days a week.
87
Standard incandescent
Tungsten halogen
Halogen infrared reflecting
Mercury vapor
White sodium
Compact fluorescent 5-26 W
Compact fluorescent 27-40 W
Fluorescent (full size and U-tube)
Metal halide
High-pressure sodium
Low-pressure sodium
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Efficacy. Including ballast (lumens per watt)
Figure 3.7 Graphical Comparison of Different Lamp Efficacy
3.2.10 Color Characteristic. Manufacturers have taken advantage of

new technologies in recent years to improve color characteristics of HID
lamps considerably. This development has allowed lighting professionals
to use HID lamps in an ever-widening range of applications. In terms of
lamp Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) and Color Rendering Index
(CRI) capabilities, HID lamps can be summarized as follows:
(a) Metal Halide Lamps. Some metal halide lamps are available in
2400-3200 K (warm), but most lamps range from neutral to cool in color
appearance, with a crisp white light of 3500-4300 K. Color rendering
indices are usually between 65 and 40, although a few of the more
recently developed lamps achieve very high CRI (up to 96).
(b) High Pressure Sodium Lamps. Most HPS lamps have a

distinctive, golden orange color of 1900-2100 K, accompanied by a
relatively poor CRI of less than 25. There are a few "deluxe" HPS
products with a CRI of 65. In addition, "white" sodium lamps have color
temperatures of 2500-2800 K and a CRI over 45. Neither deluxe nor
white sodium lamps are as efficacious or as long lasting as standard HPS
lamps.
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3.2.11 Temperature Sensitivity. Metal halide lamps are sensitive to

low starting temperatures, and lamp life will be reduced if they are
frequently started below -12 0C. High-pressure sodium lamps are fairly
insensitive to temperature, and will start to about -30 0C.
3.2.12 Burning Orientation. Many HID lamps are designed to operate

in a specific burning position, such as universal, horizontal, vertical with
base up and vertical with base down. Lamp manufacturers usually
designate the correct burning position for position-sensitive lamps in
their catalogs. Operating HID lamps in burning positions other than
those recommended by the manufacturer will adversely affect lamp life
and lumen output. In particular, some metal halide lamps are extremely
sensitive to burning position. High-pressure sodium lamps generally are
not.
3.2.13 Other Applicable Technologies. HPS and metal halide lamps

are the highest efficacy point sources in moderate output lumen
packages. However, in certain situations, other sources might be more
applicable, these include:
Metal halide lamps using ceramics instead of glass to enclose the

arc. These lamps are especially useful for display illumination and
are generally available only in the lower wattage ranges.
Compact and linear fluorescent lamps, particularly in general
lighting and wall-washing situations
3.2.14 HID Ballasts
When HPS lamps were developed, lamp life was found to be dependent
upon the ballast being able to compensate for the changes in lamp
electrical characteristics as the lamp burned. In typical systems, due to
changes in lamp voltage over time, HPS lamps initially operate at less
than rated watts, then lamp watts increase to above rated values and
finally, as the lamp approaches end-of-life, lamp watts again fall below
rated values. That makes HPS ballast circuits somewhat more costly and
complicated. Add to that was the need to have a high-voltage pulse
applied to the lamp for starting. Now, of course, pulse-start metal halide
89
lamps also require a starting pulse so both HPS and metal halide ballasts
must have starting ignitor circuitry.
Depending upon the lamp, the best match between the power system, the
ballast and the HID lamp for a given application therefore requires
consideration of:
• Lamp watts and nominal line voltage. Determines the basic size,
weight and circuit type of the ballast.
• Variation of the line voltage. How does the voltage available to
the ballast change during the operating period? Determines the
ballast "voltage regulation" characteristics required.
• Input voltage "dip" tolerance. Transient changes in the input
voltage that may cause the lamp to extinguish.
• Power factor requirements. Affects building power quality,
system load and utility costs.
• Lamp wattage regulation. How well does the ballast control the
power flowing to the lamp and therefore the lamp light output?
• Ballast losses. Affects luminaire temperatures, system efficiency
and therefore operating costs.
• Line current (starting and open circuit). Especially important
during lamp warm-up when ballasts may draw higher than
average current. The electrical system must be sized to handle the
maximum current and only a certain maximum number of ballasts
can be used per circuit.
• Current crest factor. Defined as the ratio of the peak lamp current
to the root-mean-square (rms) value. Values of 1.4 to 1.6 are
ideal. Higher values negatively affect lamp depreciation and life.
• System operation when there are rare or abnormal conditions such
as short circuits or momentary power interruptions or when the
lamp reaches end-of-life.
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3.2.15 Interchangeable Lamps. Metal halide lamps have superior color

when compared to either mercury vapor or high-pressure sodium
technologies. For interior spaces where either of the poorer color lamps
was originally used, it may be desirable to retrofit with metal halide
without having to change the ballasts in the existing luminaires. Specific
products are available in a few configurations and wattages to serve this
function.
Similarly, some high-pressure sodium lamps can be retrofitted into

existing mercury vapor luminaires, particularly roadway lightings, with
reduced wattage and substantially increased lumen output.
Performance characteristics of exchangeable metal halide and HPS lamps
are noted in Appendix D.
3.3—APPLICATION GUIDELINES
.
HID lamps are point sources that lend themselves to projection and
floodlighting situations, as well as to general illuminations. The best
interior applications are those where lights are left on for long periods or
are controlled by a time switch. Examples would include manufacturing,
corridor, and display lighting, as well as commercial area lighting. Some
of the best applications for HID lamps are in all kinds of exterior lighting
sources. HID sources are especially suitable for roadway, architectural,
landscape, parking lot, security, and sports lighting.
3.3.1 Typical Applications. In general, HID lamps are best applied in
one of the following ways:
• Energy-Efficient Flood and Display Lighting. In suitable

modern luminaires, HID lamps can be used for a wide
variety of display and floodlighting situations, including
track, recessed, and surface installations.
• Energy-Efficient Lamps in General Lighting Luminaires. As
long as switching is not a concern, wide opportunities are
possible in using HID lamps for area lighting in both interior
and exterior situations. HID lamps are particularly well
91
suited to large rooms with high ceilings, such as

gymnasiums, industrial plants, and warehouses.
(a) General Limitations. All HID lamps require warm-up and

restrike periods, so applications requiring frequent switching should not
utilize HID lamps. Additionally as noted previously, lamps of these types
can only be dimmed with highly specialized dimmers and ballasts. The
effort of dimming is not nearly as appealing or as extensive as it is with
incandescent or fluorescent light sources. Lamp efficacy and color
stability may suffer when HID lamp are operated at less than full output.
(b) Residential Applications. Because frequent switching is

common to residential operation, HID lamps are not commonly used in
homes. Nevertheless, low-wattage HID lamps may be useful in outdoor
security and landscaping lighting applications, particularly if timers or
photoelectric sensor control these sources.
(c) Commercial Applications. HID lamps offer the designer an

alternative to incandescent down-lights, up-lights, and accent lights.
Unlike fluorescent alternatives, HID lamps are point sources of light that
give sparkle to polished surfaces and produce dramatic shadowing when
used to accent displays. The compact lamp size of the smaller HID
lamps allows for the use of many traditional luminaire types and shapes
while employing a reasonable lumen package.
(d) Special Interior Applications. The best interior applications

for HID lamps are for corridor and lobby down-lighting, commercial
wall washing, lobby and office up-lighting, and commercial and general
lighting. The smaller HID lamps are valuable in accent and display
lighting applications, as well. In addition, some types of highly
decorative fixtures, such as wall sconces and pendant chandeliers, can be
designed for compact HID lamps
(e) Exterior Applications. There is a wide range of exterior
applications for HID lamps. In addition to those listed previously, HID
lamps can be used in many landscape applications, such as bollards and
tree up-lights, as well as in wall lights, step lights, and architectural
facade and floodlighting luminaires. The large 1500-watt metal halide
lamp with a lamp life of 2000 to 3000 hours is widely used in sports
lighting applications where television cameras are used.
92
3.3.2 Special Application Considerations for HID Lamps. There are

several precautions to consider when using HID lamps in certain
situations. Manufacturers' literature on this subject is extensive, and
troubleshooting guides and engineering and technical bulletins are
available. Some of the most important considerations are noted here.
• Backup lighting. In HID applications where a brief power outage

could cause hazardous conditions or a major manufacturing
shutdown, and where no backup non-HID emergency lighting
system is in place, it's a good idea to specify that some portion of
the luminaires be furnished with either instant-restrike or quartz
backup lamps. This ensures that some type of backup lighting is
in place until the HID lamps can be reignited.
• Strobe effects. All HID lamps are turned on and off 120 times per
second in synchronization with the 60-Hz alternating current
power supply, both with electromagnetic and typical electronic
HID ballasts. Because of this, the use of HPS lamps in general
lighting luminaires near rotating machinery may produce a
stroboscopic effect, making the machinery appear to be
motionless, a potentially hazardous situation. This can occur
when the moving object rotates at any speed that is a multiple of
60 (for example, 2400 revolutions per minute). Strobe effects of
this type can be mostly eliminated by the proper phasing of the
luminaire power supply circuits, so that none of the machinery is
lighted solely by luminaires on the same phase circuit.
3.4—EXAMPLE
A high ceiling hotel lobby might employ recessed incandescent down-

lights supplied with 250-watt PAR-38 quartz lamps to provide general
illumination for the space. If, instead, 40-watt double-ended metal halide
(3000K, 81 CRI) electronically ballasted lamps were used, the following
benefits could be realized:
More than 160 watts per socket saved, including ballast losses
Fewer luminaires needed due to increased lumen output (5500
lumens to 3300 lumens)
93
Decreased maintenance charges for relamping due to increased

lamp life of 64% (10 000 hours to 6000 hours)
The metal halide luminaires in this application will use much less energy
than the incandescent down-lights, while providing an essentially similar
aesthetic to the hotel lobby. Although the initial costs for luminaires and
lamps will be higher than would be the case for the incandescent design,
the reduced quantity of luminaires needed, combined with the energy
savings achieved by the design, will more than offset the higher start-up
cost, while producing significant long-term savings.
Table 3.2 Typical Application of HID Lamps

Metal High- White Low- Mercury
Application Halide pressure High- pressure Vapor
Sodium pressure Sodium
Sodium
Interior: a
decorative
down lights
Parking areas
General outdoor
Roadway/tunnel
Sports Arena
High-bay a
spaces
(Hangars,
Warehouse,
etc.)
Low-bay spaces
(Supermarkets,
light industrial
shops, etc.)
Outdoor a
signage
NOTE: a - where access is difficult or dangerous
94
Chapter 4. Light-Emitting Diodes
INTRODUCTION
Almost everyone is familiar with light-emitting diodes (LEDs) from their

use as indicator lights and numeric displays on consumer electronic
devices, and later used in seven-segment alphanumerics that became
briefly popular in digital watches and other display applications during
the early 1970s.
Figure 4.1 Light Emitting Diode Anatomy
4.1—INVENTION AND DEVELOPMENT
In 1906, Henry Joseph Round first reported “electroluminescence” while

experimenting with Silicon Carbide (SiC). In 1955, Rubin Braunstein
(born 1922) of the Radio Corporation of America first reported on
infrared emission from Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) and other
semiconductor alloys. In 1962, Nick Holonyak Jr. (born 1928) of
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CHAPTER 4. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
General Electric Company invented the first practical light-emitting

diode operating in the red portion of the visible spectrum. Throughout
the later 1960s and 1970s, further invention and development produced
additional colors and enabled LEDs to become a readily available
commercial product.
4.2—HOW LEDs WORK
Basically, LEDs are solid-state semiconductor devices. A semiconductor

is a material with a varying ability to conduct electrical current. When
certain elements (see Table 4.1) are combined in specific configurations
and electrical current is passed through them, photons (light) and heat are
produced. The heart of LEDs, often called a “die” or “chip,” is composed
of two semiconductor layers – an n-type layer that provides electrons and
a p-type layer that provides holes for the electrons to fall into. The actual
junction of the layers (called the p-n junction) is where electrons and
holes are injected into an active region.
When a sufficient voltage is applied to the chip across the leads of the
LED and the current starts to flow, electrons in the n region have
sufficient energy to move across the junction into the p region. Once in
the p region the electrons are immediately attracted to the positive
charges due to the mutual Coulomb forces of attraction between opposite
electric charges. When an electron moves sufficiently close to a positive
charge in the p region, the two charges “recombine”.
When the electron and holes recombine, photons (light) are created
(Figure 4.2). The photons are emitted in a narrow spectrum around the
energy band gap of the semiconductor material, corresponding to visible
and near-UV wavelengths.
Table 4.1 Elements Important to the Construction of LEDs

Base materials p-type dopants n-type dopants
Boron (B) Aluminum (Al) Carbon (C)
Silicon (Si) Gallium (Ga) Nitrogen (N)
Germanium (Ge) Indium (In) Phosphorus (P)
96
Figure 4.2 LED Structure
4.3—COLOR
The color-emitted light of LEDs depends on the chemical composition

and dominant wavelength of the semiconducting material used.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with GaAs.
Advances in materials science have made possible the production of
devices with even shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of
colors.
Table 4.2 lists some common light emitter materials, the emission
wavelength and corresponding energy gap. The first materials, GaP and
AlAs, are used to make emitters in the visible portions of the spectrum.
The next three materials, GaAs, InP, and AlGaAs, are used to make
emitters in the near infrared portion spectrum. The last material,
InGaAsP is used to make emitters in the infrared portion spectrum. The
energy gap corresponds to the energy of the emitted photons and also is
indicative of the voltage drop associated with a forward biased LED.
97
Table 4.2 Common Light Emitter Materials and Characteristics
Material Formula Energy Gap Wavelength

Gallium Phosphide GaP 2.24 eV 550 nm
Aluminum Arsenide AIAs 2.09 eV 590 nm
Gallium Arsenide GaAs 1.42 eV 870 nm
Indium Phosphide InP 1.33 eV 930 nm
Aluminum-Gallium
AIGaAs 1.42-1.61 eV 770-870 nm
Arsenide
Indium-Gallium-
InGaAsP 0.74-1.13 eV 1100-1670 nm
Arsenide-Phosphide
4.3.1 Tri-color LEDs
The most popular type of tri-color LED has a red and a green LED
combined in one package with three leads. They are called tri-color
because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this is
produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.
The diagram shows the construction of a tri-color LED. Note the

different lengths of the three leads. The center lead (k) is the common
cathode for both LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the
LEDs allowing each one to be separately, or both together to give the
third color.
Figure 4.3 Tri-Color LED
98
4.3.2 Bi-color LEDs
A bi-color LED has two LEDs wired in ‘inverse parallel’ (one forwards,
one backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of
the LEDs can be lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri-color
LEDs described above.
Figure 4.4 Bi-Color LED
Assembled as an LED, phospides and nitrides of aluminum, indium, and

gallium produce lights of different colors and efficacies. The two major
material groups are the Indium-Gallium Phospide (InGaP) compounds,
used to create red and amber, and the Gallium Nitride (GaN) compounds,
used to create blue, cyan, and green. These LED materials can also
generate infrared and ultra-violet radiation outside the visible range.
The plastic may be colored, but this is only for cosmetic reasons or to
improve the contrast ratio; the color of the packaging does not
substantially affect the color of the light emitted.
LEDs that emit different colors are made of different semi-conductor

materials, and require different energies to light them.
99
Table 4.3 Color Producing Inorganic Semiconductor Materials
Color Production Inorganic Semiconductor Materials

Red and infrared Aluminum Gallium Arsenide
(AlGaAs)
Green Aluminum Gallium Phospide
(AlGaP)
Orange-red, orange, yellow, and Aluminum Gallium Indium
green Phospide (AlGaInP)
Red, red-orange, orange, and Gallium Arsenide Phospide (GaAsP)

yellow
Red, yellow, and green Gallium Phospide (GaP)
Green, pure green (or emerald Gallium Nitride (GaN)

green), and blue
Near ultraviolet, bluish-green, Indium Gallium Nitride (InGaN)
and blue
Blue Silicon Carbide (SiC) as substrate,

Silicon (Si) as substrate, Sapphire
(Al2O3) as substrate, Zinc Selenide
(ZnSe)
Ultraviolet Diamond (C)
Near to far ultraviolet Aluminum Nitride (AlN),
Aluminum Gallium Nitride (AlGaN)
4.4—SIZES, SHAPES AND VIEWING ANGLES
LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. LED die sizes
range from tenths of millimeters for small-signal devices to greater than
a square millimeter for the power packages available today The
‘standard’ LED has a round cross-section of 5 mm diameter (T-1 ¾
lamp) “bullet shape” and this is probably the best type for general use,
but 3 mm round LEDs are also popular.
100
Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to
install on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of
glue will help to hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available
to secure LEDs in holes. Other cross-section shapes include square,
rectangular and triangular.
As well as a variety of colors, sizes, and shapes, LEDs also vary in their
viewing angle (beam of light spreads out). Standard LEDs have a
viewing angle of 60° but others have a narrow beam of 30° or less.
Figure 4.5 LED Shapes
4.5—LUMINOUS FLUX AND EFFICACY
The luminous flux from a LED varies according to its color, and depends
on the current density the LED die can manage. Package properties also
limit the electrical current that can be safely driven through LED
assemblies. The more current an LED device can handle, the more
luminous flux it will produce.
The efficacy of individual LEDs varies by material type, packaging,

radiation pattern, phosphors, and processing. The average commercial
LED currently provides 32 lumens per watt (lm/W), and new
technologies promise to deliver up to 100 lm/W.
Most typical LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30-60
milliwatts of electrical power. Around 1999, commercial LEDs capable
of continuous use at one watt of input power were introduced. These
101
LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large
power input. In 2002, 5-watt LEDs were available with efficiencies of
18-22 lumens per watt. In 2005, 10-watt units became available with
efficiencies of 60 lumens per watt. These devices will produce about as
much light as a common 50-watt incandescent bulb, and will facilitate
use of LEDs for general illumination needs.
4.6—LUMEN DEPRECIATION
Lumen depreciation is the lighting attribute most often used to determine

the useful life (minimum maintained illuminance level) of LED sources.
LEDs do not fail abruptly; instead, they dim with time. Although a
50,000 to 100,000-hour life is commonly attributed for LED. The best
LED achieved 70 percent of original light output at 50,000 hours of
operation under standard use conditions.
One of the key limitations affecting LEDs is temperature. A common

maximum junction temperature rating is more than 130oC. The higher
the design junction temperature, the faster the light output will degrade.
LEDs of different colors do not have identical lumen depreciation rates.

Various packaging materials and manufacturing methodologies can also
influence depreciation rates in the same base color.
4.7—POWER SOURCE
LEDs are low-voltage current-driven devices. It operates at relatively

low voltages between 1 to 4 volts, and draw currents between 10 to 40
mA. Voltages and currents substantially above these values can melt a
LED chip.
Power sources include electronic circuit choices such as drivers and

switch-mode power supplies. A single direct-current (dc) power source
may drive one LED or a cluster of LEDs. Unlike incandescent light
bulbs, which light up regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only
light with correct electrical polarity (see Table 4.4). When the voltage
across the p-n junction is in the correct direction, a significant current
102
flows and the device is said to be forward-biased. If the voltage is of the

wrong polarity, the device is said to be reverse biased, very little current
flows, and no light is emitted. LEDs can be operated on an AC voltage,
but they will only light with positive voltage, causing the LED to turn on
and off at the frequency of the AC supply.
Because the voltage versus current characteristics of an LED are much

like any diode, they can be destroyed by connecting them to a voltage
source higher than their turn-on voltage. Most LEDs have low reverse
breakdown voltage ratings, so they will also be damaged by an applied
reverse voltage of more than a few volts.
Figure 4.6 LED Configuration
Table 4.4 Determination of LED Correct Polarity
Polarity positive negative

Sign + -
Terminal anode cathode
Wiring red black
Pinout long short
Interior small large
Shape round flat
Marking none stripe
103
4.8—ADVANTAGES OF USING LEDs
LEDs are capable of emitting light of an intended color without the use
of color filters that traditional lighting methods require.
The shape of the LED package allows light to be focused. Incandescent

and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light
and direct it in a useable manner.
LEDs are insensitive to vibration and shocks, and they are solid-state
devices that do not use gases or filaments. Thus extremely high
reliability against mechanical shocks and vibrations are achieved.
LEDs are built inside solid cases that protect them, making them hard to
break and extremely durable and moisture-tolerant. However, the
electronic circuitry (drive circuitry/power) that surrounds them in a
system is not.
Since LEDs are low-voltage devices, LED systems are safer than other
lamp systems that require high voltages. In addition, visible-wavelength
LEDs do not generate appreciable amounts of ultra-violet or infrared.
LEDs have an extremely long operating hours, twice as long as the

fluorescent lamps and fifty times longer than the incandescent bulbs.
Further, LEDs fail by dimming over time, compared with the abrupt
burn-out of incandescent bulbs. LEDs give off less heat than
incandescent light bulbs with similar light output.
LED lights up very quickly and will achieve full brightness in

approximately 0.01 seconds, 10 times faster than an incandescent light
bulb (0.1 second), and many times faster than a compact fluorescent
lamp, which starts to come on after 0.5 seconds or 1 second, but does not
achieve full brightness for 30 seconds or more.
104
4.9—DISADVANTAGES OF USING LEDs
LEDs are currently more expensive than more conventional lighting

technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively
low lumen output (requiring more light sources) and drive
circuitry/power supplies needed.
LED performance largely depends on both current density and junction

temperature. More light output degradation occurs whenever either of
these parameters is increased. It is very important that the specified LED
junction temperature not be exceeded for effective LED system
operation. Adequate heat sink is required to maintain long life.
4.10—LED APPLICATIONS
While LEDs may be more expensive than incandescent lights up front,

because they’re built around advanced semiconductor material, their
lower cost in the long run can make them a better buy.
The main drivers for conversion to LEDs are higher efficiency, long life,
reduced maintenance, and increased and superior visibility, making
LEDs a more cost-effective lighting option for a wide range of situations.
Below are examples of different usage of LEDs.
(a) seven segment in showing numbers in calculators and

measurement instruments.
(b) in dot matrix arrangements for displaying messages
displays in public information signs (banks, hotels, airports
and railway stations and as destination displays for trains,
buses, and ferries).
(c) remote controls for TVs, VCRs, etc., using infrared LEDs.
(d) traffic signals
(e) pedestrian signs
(f) highway sign panels
(g) railroad signals
(h) marine navigational lights
(i) emergency beacon or strobe lights at airports
(j) exit signs
105
(k) channel letters

(l) street signs
(m) moving messages
(n) marquis
(o) building façade graphics
(p) scoreboards.
(q) walkway lighting
(r) floor of spaces that are often dark or that only have low-
level lighting (movie theaters and passenger aircrafts)
(s) car brake and indicator lights in automobile
(t) bicycle lighting
(u) task lighting for desks, workstations, and display-cases
(v) downlighting for elevators and emergency applications
(w) appliance lighting for refrigerators and vending machines
(x) portable lighting for flashlights or torches
(y) miners’ and dive lights.
(z) indicators for audio and video equipment.
(aa) fiber optic communications
(ab) in photographic darkrooms
(ac) backlights for LCD screens.
(ad) disco/club lighting products.
(ae) projectors
(af) movement sensors (i.e. in mechanical and computer mice
and trackballs)
(ag) pulse oximeters, both a red and an infra-red LED are used.
(ah) phototheraphy (use of light for healing process)
(ai) christmas lights and other for decorative display.
Figure 4.7 Seven-segment LED
106
Figure 4.8 Dot matrix LED
Figure 4.9 Exit and Emergency Sign Backlight LED
Figure 4.10 Cyclist Belt LED
107
Figure 4.11 LED for Task Lighting
4.11—ENVIRONMENTAL AND DISPOSAL ISSUES
As LED systems become more efficient, the environmental benefits from

decreased energy consumption will increase. Since LEDs are solid-state
devices, they do not contain mercury, glass, filaments, or gases. Because
LEDs are small and have long lifetimes, their use might reduce the
material flow entering the waste-stream.
4.12—LEDs: THE FUTURE OF LIGHTING
LEDs are finding their way into many new applications within the
lighting community. Research by dozens of companies is underway to
deploy LEDs even further. The ultimate goal is to move these special
light sources into common usage for general lighting wherever
applicable.
108
Chapter 5. Energy-Efficient
Fluorescent Ballasts
INTRODUCTION
Advances in fluorescent lamp ballast technology have created

opportunities for improved lamp performance and increased system
energy efficiency of lamp and ballast. Products, such as high frequency
electronic ballast and heater cutout ballasts are now widely available and
accepted in the marketplace. The recent trend toward more competitive
pricing of these products should continue, due to an expansion of
manufacturing facilities and more competition between manufacturers.
Energy-efficient ballasts are an excellent energy-saving strategy that
should not be overlooked by anyone who is interested in saving money
through the use of efficient lighting products.
The most prevalent fluorescent fixtures found in general commercial

lighting today employs the rapid start F40T12 lamp/ballast combination.
However, the more efficacious smaller diameter F36T8 lamps are
gaining popularity in general lighting applications and as an energy-
efficient replacement for standard lamps. This Chapter mainly addresses
electronic ballasts that operate linear fluorescent lamps at high
frequencies, but it also covers energy-efficient electromagnetic ballasts
with heater-cutout circuits that switch off a lamp’s electrode heaters after
startup.
5.1—TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION
5.1.1 Lamp Ballasts
To generate light output of a fluorescent lamp, a control gear generally

known as “ballast” is needed to provide sufficient voltage for start-up
across the end electrodes of the lamp, to maintain constant current during
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CHAPTER 5. ENERGY-EFFICIENT FLUORESCENT BALLASTS
steady state operation of the lamp, and to maintain stable voltage across
the lamp during supply voltage fluctuations. Lamp ballasts are designed
to meet the voltage and current requirement for every specific type of
fluorescent lamp for the optimum operation of the lamp and ballast
combination.
Good quality ballast accounts for 15% of the lamp and ballast total
energy consumption while the poor quality ballast can account as high as
30%. It is therefore very important to consider energy efficient ballast
when choosing lamp and ballast optimum combination.
Well-designed electronic lamp ballast that are presently in the market

makes for an energy efficient alternative to the electromagnetic ballast.
The high frequency operation of the fluorescent lamp when used in
connection with electronic ballast allows up to 10% increase of light
output using the same level of energy consumption compared with
electromagnetic ballast. The cost, however, is prohibitive. It can go as
high as 6 to 10 times more expensive than the energy efficient
electromagnetic ballast.
5.1.2 Types of Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts
(a) Electromagnetic Ballast. Electromagnetic ballasts (Fig. 5.1) are

also known as "core-and-coil ballasts", "choke ballast", "conventional
ballast" and "ferromagnetic ballast". They use a heavy magnetic core of
several laminated steel plates wrapped with copper windings. These
types of ballasts are inexpensive to manufacture. The electromagnetic
type of ballast is the predominantly use ballast in the country.
The Lighting and Appliance Testing Laboratory of the Philippine

Department of Energy provides regular updates of the list of PNS
compliant electromagnetic ballasts. This list can be readily obtained from
the laboratory for reference or from the DOE-CWPO (Department of
Energy, Consumer Welfare and Protection Office). The list provides
complete information on the ballast loss category of all electromagnetic
ballast tested and available in the market.
110
Figure 5.1 Typical Electromagnetic Fluorescent Ballast
(b) Energy Efficient Electromagnetic Ballast (Low Loss Ballast).

Low loss ballasts contain a magnetic core of several laminated high
grade (usually silicon) steel plates, wrapped with high-grade copper
windings. By utilizing high quality materials the heat generated by the
ballast is greatly reduced resulting to lower losses and increase in energy
efficiency. New production technology and use of more energy efficient
materials reduce ballast energy consumption by 50% (about 5W to 10W
loss for each ballast) compared to the commonly used low quality
electromagnetic ballast, as shown in Table 5.1 below.
Table 5.1 Ballast Loss Comparison
Type of Ballasts 18/20 watts 36/40 watts

Flourescent Lamps Flourescent Lamps
Conventional 10-12 watts 12-20 watts
Electromagnetic
Low-Loss 6-8 watts 6-8 watts
Electromagnetic
Electronic 2-4 watts 2-4 watts
Source: Department of Energy – Lighting and Appliance Testing Laboratory
111
(c) Cathode-Disconnect Ballasts. Cathode-disconnect ballasts are

also known as "hybrid ballasts", "low-frequency electronic ballasts", and
"filament cutout ballasts". These ballasts use magnetic core and coil
transformer and an electronic switch for electrode-heating circuit. The
electrode-heating circuit disconnects after the lamp starts.
(d) High Frequency Electronic Ballasts. Electronic ballasts, also

called "solid-state ballasts" operate fluorescent lamps at frequencies
above 20 kHz using electronic switching power supply circuits.
Electronic high-frequency ballasts increase lamp-ballast efficacy,

leading to increased energy efficiency of the fixture and lower operating
costs. Electronic ballast converts the 60Hz input frequency to above
20kHz to the lamp circuit. Electronic ballast that operates at high
frequency increases lamp efficacy by 10% to 15% compared to 60Hz
operation. See figure 5.2 below.
Figure 5.2 Lamp Efficacy vs. Frequency

(Adapted from Thorn Lighting Manual)
112
Electronic ballasts have a number of other advantages over

electromagnetic ballasts. Electronic ballasts are readily available that
operate three or four lamps, allowing the use of a single ballast in three-
lamp and four-lamp luminaires. This reduces both installation and field
wiring labor costs, and may negate the necessity of tandem luminaire
wiring. Electronic ballasts are designed to operate lamps in either series
or parallel mode. The advantage of the parallel mode of operation is that
a single lamp failure will not affect the operation of the remaining lamps
controlled by the same ballast. However, ballast losses will increase
slightly in the parallel mode. Other advantages of the electronic ballast
include reduced weight, quieter operation, and reduced lamp flicker.
Electronic ballasts are directly interchangeable with electromagnetic
ballasts, and they are available to operate most full-size and compact
fluorescent lamps.
5.1.3 Starting Requirements
To attain the most efficient lamp ballast combination it is recommended

that the ballast can start the lamp successfully at rated starting voltage
and current.
PNS IEC 60081: 2006 (IEC published 2002) provides complete data for
each lamp and the required ballast for each corresponding lamp. This
same standard provides the required starting voltage and current for each
lamp type. New generations of lamps are not included under this
standard. It is, therefore, important that the manufacturer be requested to
provide the required data.
5.1.4 Operating Requirements
When lamps are successfully started, the economical and optimum

utilization is not guaranteed if the required operating voltage and current
are not maintained.
PNS IEC 60081: 2006 (IEC published 2002) provides the data for proper
lamp and ballast matching. The new generations of lamps are not
covered under this standard, which makes it more difficult to make
proper matching of lamp and ballast.
113
The ballast to be used should always match the starting requirement of

the lamp.
Example: For a rapid start lamp, rapid start ballast is needed. Sometimes
lamps are specified to be rapid start and at the same time preheat start, in
cases like this, either a preheat type ballast or rapid start type ballast can
start the lamp.
5.1.5 Lamp and Ballast Wattage Compatibility
To attain optimum lamp and ballast operation the lamp wattage should
always match with the ballast wattage rating. Example: An 18W/20W
lamp should not be used for 36W/40W ballast. In some cases a 32W
lamp is used for 40W ballast. This makes the lamp filament current
operate higher than the designed value thus causing premature lamp
failures due to over stress of the filament.
Lamp wattage and lamp starting requirement must always be matched to

ensure optimum lamp and ballast operation. Example: a 36W lamp must
have 36W ballast, carefully considering as well the starting requirement
of the lamp. The most common issue now is utilizing a 36W lamp for
40W ballast. Aside from the issue of starting requirement to attain
optimum operation, the issue of mismatch rating has to be resolved since
it may possibly reduce the service life of the lamp. (See Table 5.2)
Table 5.2 Effects of Mismatching Ballast and Lamp Types
Type of Pre-heat Rapid-start Instant-start

Lamp Ballast Ballast Ballast
Unreliable
Pre-heat Normal Unreliable starting;
Lamp operation starting Shortened lamp
life
Shortened lamp
Rapid-start Normal
Normal operation life if cycle time
Lamp operation
is short
Instant-start
Will not start Will not start Normal operation
Lamp
114
5.1.6 Direct Lamp Change over using the Existing Installed Ballast
Care must be taken when an attempt to change T12 40W lamp with T8
36W lamp using the existing installed ballast.
Most ballasts in old buildings are designed to operate T12 40W lamp and
most of these were manufactured even before T8 36W were introduced
to the market. Meaning, most of these (old installed ballast) are not
designed to operate T8 36W lamps.
Sometimes it is possible to make a direct change over of a lamp without

changing the ballast. However, this does not guarantee optimum lamp
and ballast operation.
Lamp starting requirement sometimes hinders the proper starting of 36W

T8 lamp when used to directly replace the 40W T12 lamp due to
differences in the gas composition inside the lamp. 36W T8 lamp utilizes
heavier gas inside the tube, which results to starting problems when
direct replacement is done.
The optimum operation of lamp and ballast cannot be attained when the
lamp and ballast are not properly matched. Problems such as early failure
of lamp and hard starting of lamp may result.
5.1.7 Efficient and Cost-Effective Lamp and Ballast Changeover
To attain optimum lamp and ballast operation from the change over of
40W lamp to 36W lamp, it is recommended that well designed 36W
electronic ballast should to be used. A cheaper alternative is the new
generation 36W energy efficient design of electromagnetic ballast.
Most 36W lamp operates very well in connection with well-designed

36W electronic ballasts.
Ballasts (electromagnetic and electronic) which have passed the safety

and performance requirements of the Philippine National
115
Standards/International Electrotechnical Commission Standards

(PNS/IEC) shall always be used in retrofit/new installations.
An example of the cost effectiveness in re-lamping and switching to

electronic ballast is shown in Table 5.3 below.
Table 5.3 Example on Cost Effectiveness in Re-Lamping and Use of

Electronic Ballast
Replacing 2x40W FL with 2x32W FL Existing Replacement

& Installation of Electronic Ballast 2 x 40 W FL 2 x 32 W FL
A No. of Fixtures Considered 500 500
B Total Lamp & Ballast Wattage (W) 90 70
C Total Lighting Load (kW) (A x B) 45 35
D Energy Consumption @ 6k hrs/yr (kWh) (C x 6k) 270,000 210,000
E Energy Savings @ 6,000 hrs/yr (kWh) (D1 – D2) 60,000

F Annual Monetary Savings @ Pesos 10.00/kWh 600,000
Investment
G Php 250/pc of 32 W Fluorescent Lamp 250,000

H Php1,000/pc of Electronic Ballast 500,000
I Total Investment (G + H) 750,000
J Payback (years) (I / F) 1.25
5.1.8 Types of Conventional Ballasts and their Associated Starting

Methods
The methods of starting fluorescent lamps are presented in the order in

which they were developed and used. The preheat method was
introduced with the original fluorescent lamp in 1938, followed by the
instant-start method introduced in 1944. However, because of the
disadvantages listed for these methods, the vast majority of fluorescent
lighting installed at the present use the third method introduced in 1952,
which is rapid start.
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Fluorescent lamps require a ballast to regulate the electric current

through the lamp. For optimum performance, a particular ballast must
match a specific lamp's current requirements.
Generally, there are three different types of conventional ballasts. Listed

below are the three types and their methods of operation.
(a) Preheat. This is also called switch start ballast. All ballasts that
operate in this mode are electromagnetic ballasts. In so called “switch
start” or preheat mode operation, a switch or starter establishes a
complete circuit through the ballast to preheat the filaments for several
seconds prior to initiating discharge (Figure 5.3). When the filaments
have heated up, the starter opens and the ballast then provides a suitable
voltage of approximately 200 to 300 volts to light the lamp and limits the
current flow to the proper value. This process causes the lamp to flash on
and off for several seconds before finally staying lit. Lamps with either
Low or High resistance cathodes can be operated on switch start circuits.
B
mains voltage
S
B = ballast to limit the discharge current

S = starter/switch for lamp ignition
Figure 5.3 A Typical Switch Start Circuit
(b) Instant Start Ballasts. Instant start ballasts start the lamps by
supplying high voltage (usually above 400V) to the lamp electrodes
without preheating resulting to forced discharge. The high voltage
applied across the lamps typically ignites them within 50 milliseconds.
Electrodes are not preheated during starting which greatly reduce the
service life of the lamp, which is inversely proportional to the number of
starts (more starting reduces lamp life). On the other hand since lamp
operates without electrode heating, the lamp circuit has lower power
losses compared to rapid start ballast system. Although these lamps are
rapid start, the lamp electrodes are never heated. This increases system
117
efficacy. Lamp life is reduced by approximately 25% (for 20000-hour

lamps at three hours per start), but this is compensated for by increased
energy efficiency. In most commercial applications, where lamps are
operated at ten hours per start or longer, lamp life is only slightly reduced
in comparison to rapid start operation. These ballasts are available for
either one or multiple lamps.
Although instant start systems are more efficient, lamp life will be
slightly less, so instant start mode ballasts should not be used where the
lamp is frequently switched on and off. Likewise, using occupancy
sensors with instant start lamp-ballast systems may cause an accelerated
reduction of lamp life due to short cycle times. Rapid start lamp
operation is usually a better choice in such applications.
(c) Rapid Start. In “rapid-start” circuits, cathodes are generally the

“low resistance” types and transformers are introduced to pre-heat the
cathodes. Rapid start ballasts ignite lamps by providing cathode voltage
(approximately 3.6 volts) and voltage across the lamp simultaneously
(Figure 5.4). As the cathodes heat, the voltage required to ignite the lamp
is reduced. At some time after both voltages are applied, the cathodes
reach a temperature sufficient for the applied voltage to ignite the lamps.
Rapid start ballasts heat lamp electrodes continually during starting and
operation and the resultant watts loss remain part of the circuit while the
lamp is operating.
During this starting scenario, voltage across the lamps creates a glow
current that damages the lamp by sputtering off the cathode’s emissive
material. The sputtering results in end blackening and a reduction in
lamp life. After all of this material is depleted from the cathode, the lamp
ultimately fails.
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FILAMENT
Voltage time
(5V/div)
LAMP
Voltage time
(500V/div)
LAMP
Current
time
T1 T2 T3
Figure 5.4 Traditional Rapid Start
Ballasts are available for one, two, three, and four-lamp operation.
Appendix G shows the different wiring diagrams for connecting lamp-
ballast systems.
5.1.9 Other Types of Ballasts and Their Associated Starting

Methods
(a) Programmed Start Ballast. Programmed start ballasts

incorporate a precise starting scenario, which breaks the process into
unique and well defined steps that eliminate the pitfalls of the other
starting methods (Figure 5.4).
The first step in the series is the application of the cathode heat.
While this heat is being applied (preheat interval), voltage across the
lamp is reduced to a level that reduces damaging glow current. Glow
current is actual lamp current that flows during this preheat interval and
causes end blackening and degradation in lamp life. It is important
during this step that sufficient voltage is applied to the cathodes for a
long enough duration so that cathode’s temperature is at least 7000 C.
The duration of this step is pre-programmed into the ballast circuitry.
Since the lamp voltage is kept very low, the lamps cannot ignite until the
cathodes are heated to optimal temperature and the ballast program
moves to the second step.
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FILAMENT
Voltage time
(5V/div)
LAMP
Voltage time
(500V/div)
LAMP
Current
time
T1 T2 T3
Figure 5.5 Programmed Start with Zero Glow Current

Lamp Ballast Compatibility
Rapid starting does not guarantee that the cathodes are at their proper
temperatures prior to lamp ignition. If applied voltage across the lamp is
too high, the lamps will ignite before the cathodes are at their proper
temperature. This will also cause sputtering of the emissive material. The
programmed start ballasts’ combination of pre-heating time and voltage
are set at a level to assure that the cathodes have reached the desired
temperature before starting.
As mentioned earlier, glow current is the actual lamp current that

flows across the cathode during a preheat interval and causes end
blackening and degradation in lamp life. As the amount of glow current
increases, the cathode emissive material also increases which is further
detrimental to the lamp. The programmed start ballasts are able to keep
sputtering to a minimum by reducing voltage across the lamp during the
first phase. Some, but not all, programmed start ballasts have the
capability to eliminate glow current completely by not applying any
voltage across the lamps during the first step.
The second step of the starting process is the application of lamp

voltage. After the programmed time of step one has been reached, a
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voltage is applied across the lamps, igniting them with minimal loss of
the emissive material. Minimal loss of the emissive material equates to
gentle treatment of and prolonged life for the lamp.
The time required for the lamp to move from the cathode heating
stage to the full arc current stage is called the transition time. The longer
this process is, the more emissive mix is being removed from the
cathodes. Most rapid start ballasts have a transition time of about 80 to
100 milliseconds. The length of this transition is based upon the
cathode’s temperature and the voltage across the lamp.
(b) Two-Level Electronic Ballasts. Two-level electronic ballasts

increase the flexibility of standard electronic ballasts by allowing the
light level to be switched between 50% and 100% of full light output.
Standard switches, occupant sensors, photocells, or other building energy
systems may automatically operate these ballasts. Two-level Electronic
Ballasts are supplied with an additional input lead to allow the switching
between 50% and 100% operation.
(c) Adjustable Output (Dimming) Ballasts. Dimming electronic

ballasts permit the light output of the lamp to be continuously controlled
over a range of approximately, 10% to 100% of full light output. A low
voltage signal (usually between 0 and 10 volts) to the ballast output
circuit modifies the current to the lamp. Dimming electronic ballasts are
equipped with feedback circuits that maintain electrode voltage when the
lamp current is reduced. This allows the lamp to be dimmed over a wide
range without reducing lamp life. This dimming technique contrasts with
that of electromagnetic ballasts in which the input power to the ballast is
modified to alter the lamp current, which also reduces electrode voltage.
These limit the practical dimming range of the lamp to about 50% of full
light output.
(d) Full Range Dimming Ballasts. A full dimming range of from

1% to 100% of full light output may be achieved through the use of
premium-priced electronic ballasts designed for this purpose. At present,
these ballasts are only part of special control systems (see Chapter 7.6 for
the discussion of DALI-Standard ballasts and control systems).
121
5.1.10 Ballast Factor (BF)
One of the most important ballast parameters for the lighting

designer/lighting engineer is the ballast factor. The ballast factor is
needed to determine the light output for a particular lamp-ballast system.
Ballast factor is a measure of the actual lumen output for a specific lamp
ballast system relative to the rated lumen output measured with reference
ballast under ANSI test conditions (open air at 25oC). ANSI reference
ballast for standard 40-watt F40T12 lamps requires a ballast factor of
0.95. However, many types of ballast are available with either high
(conforming to the ANSI specifications) or low ballast factors (70% to
75%). It is important to note that the ballast factor value is not simply a
characteristic of the ballast, but of the lamp-ballast system. Ballasts that
can operate more than one type of lamp (e.g. the 40-watt F40 ballast can
operate either 40-watt F40T12, or 40 watt F40T10 lamps) will generally
have a different ballast factor for each combination. As F40T12 lamps
are lately only sold for replacement purposes, nowadays a BF of 80 or
less is preferred with T8 or T5 systems.
Ballast Factor (BF) is calculated as follows:
E1
BF = BF’
E2
Where: BF = ballast factor of the test ballast

BF’= ballast factor of the calibrated ballast
E1 = the illuminance reading on the testing rack of the
test ballast/test lamp system
E2 = the illuminance rating on the testing rack of the
calibrated ballast/test lamp system
Ballast factor is not a measure of energy efficiency. Although a lower

ballast factor reduces lamp lumen output, it also consumes proportionally
less input power. As such, careful selection of a lamp-ballast system with
a specific ballast factor allows designers to better minimize energy use
by "tuning" the lighting levels in the space. For example, in new
construction, high ballast factors are generally best, since fewer
luminaires will be required to meet the high level requirements. In
retrofit applications or in areas with less critical visual tasks, such as
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aisles and hallways, lower ballast factor ballasts may be more

appropriate.
It is important to note that to avoid a drastic reduction in lamp life, low

ballast factor ballasts (<70%) should operate lamps in rapid start mode
only. This is particularly relevant for 36-watt F36T8 lamps operated at
high frequency.
To use the graph, locate the curve (A-H) for the lamp-ballast system of interest. Draw a vertical line from the
cited input power to that curve. Draw a horizontal line from that point to the vertical axis to find the ballast factor
for that lamp-ballast system. It is essential that the input power cited by the manufacturer be measured under
standard ANSI test conditions.
*Note: This graph is applicable only for two-lamp 1.2 m systems; other lamp-ballast systems will
defer
Figure 5.6 Power vs. Ballast Factor Curves for Two-Lamp

1.2 m Flourescent Lamp-Ballast Systems
Finding the ballast factor for lamp-ballast combinations may not be easy,
as few ballast manufacturers provide this information in their catalogs.
However, if the input power for a particular lamp-ballast system is
known (usually found in catalogs) an estimate of the ballast factor is
possible. Figure 5.5 provides a set of curves for determining the ballast
factor for several two-lamp ballast systems. It is based upon the average
system efficacy measured for ballasts at standard ANSI conditions.
123
5.1.11 Energy Efficiency
Fluorescent lamps are reasonably efficient at converting input power to

light. Nevertheless, much of the power supplied into a fluorescent lamp-
ballast system produces waste heat energy.
There are three primary means of improving the efficacy of a fluorescent

lamp-ballast system:
• Reduce the ballast losses.

• Operate the lamp(s) at a high frequency,
• Reduce losses attributable to the lamp electrodes.
Newer, more energy-efficient ballasts, both electromagnetic and

electronic, exploit one or more of these techniques to improve lamp
ballast system efficacy, measured in lumens per watt. The losses in
electromagnetic ballasts have been reduced by substituting copper
conductors for aluminum and by using higher-grade magnetic
components. Ballast losses may also be reduced by using a single ballast
to drive three or four lamps, instead of only one or two. Careful circuit
design increases efficiency of electronic ballasts. In addition, electronic
ballasts, which convert the 60 Hz supply frequency to high frequency,
operate fluorescent lamps more efficiently than is possible at 60 Hz.
Finally, in rapid start circuits, some electromagnetic ballasts improve
efficacy by removing power to the lamp electrodes after starting.
5.1.12 Lamp-Ballast System Efficacy
The efficiency of a fluorescent lamp ballast changes depending on the

type of lamp operated. Similarly, lamp efficacy is affected by ballast
technology: the same lamp will perform differently when operated by a
heater cutout ballast than it will when operated at high frequency. As a
consequence, the only meaningful comparison between lamps or ballasts
is the lamp-ballast system efficacy. The system efficacy can be
calculated as follows:
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System Efficacy (lumens / watt):
Rated Lamp Lumens

= = x Number of Lamps x Ballast Factor
Input Power (watts)
The above equation calculates initial system efficacy as measured under

ANSI test conditions.
5.1.13 Reliability of Electronic Ballasts
The reliability of electronic ballast has been questioned since their

introduction in 1981. Some manufacturers' initial products failed
prematurely. Those manufacturers who were unable to improve their
products are no longer producing electronic ballasts. Other
manufacturers have been in production over ten years with documented
ballast failure rates of less than 1% after five years of operation. At this
time, it is apparent that long-term usage has demonstrated the reliability
of electronic ballasts.
A main reason for the questioning of the reliability of electronic ballasts

has been the lack of large scale, controlled, on-site data. However, in
1988, the University of California-Berkeley energy management group
presented their findings on failures of electronic ballasts installed in a
variety of campus buildings over a period of three and one-half years.
Over 32,000 electronic ballasts were installed, supplied by three different
manufacturers. (Source: R.S. Abesamis, etal., "Field Experience with
High-Frequency Ballasts," Trans. IEEE-IAS, 26, #5, 8 10, Sept./Oct.
1990.) Two of the manufacturers' ballasts had failure rates of less than
1%—well within acceptable limits. The third manufacturer's ballasts had
a 6% failure rate, and the company has since ceased manufacturing
electronic ballasts. For comparison purposes, the general failure rate for
60 Hz electromagnetic ballasts is about 0.5%.
The results of the University of California case study clearly demonstrate

that electronic ballast technology has advanced enough so that efficient,
reliable ballasts can be successfully designed and manufactured in large
volume. Based on these findings, the university's ballast retrofit program
was expanded, and a total of over 75,000 electronic ballasts have been
installed at the campus, leading to considerable energy savings.
125
The above case study suggests that reliable electronic high-frequency

ballasts can be produced with the quality control necessary to reach or
exceed the ten to twelve year life spans common with electromagnetic
ballasts. Most ballast failure, when they do occur, will happen within the
first six months of installation. Early ballast failures are usually due to
either poor quality control in the manufacturing process or incorrect
installation procedures. Failures occurring after a normal “wear-out”
period of ten to twelve years are usually due to the eventual degradation
of the electrolytic capacitor.
Electronic ballast problems can be kept to a minimum if specifiers are

diligent in their selection of ballast manufacturers. They should research
the track records of manufacturers and obtain verification for the
reliability of any new or unfamiliar products.
5.1.14 Ballast Noise Level (Sound Rating)
All electromagnetic ballasts emit a hum that is caused by vibration of the

laminated core of the ballast, vibration that results from the expanding
and collapsing magnetic field in the core. High temperatures can increase
noise, and it is amplified by certain luminaire designs. The best ballasts
use high-quality materials and workmanship to reduce noise. Noise is
rated A, B, C, or D in decreasing order of preference. An "A" rated
ballast will hum softly; a "D" rated ballast will make a loud buzz. The
number of ballasts, their sound rating, and the nature of ambient noise in
the room determine whether or not a system will create an audible
disturbance.
Virtually all energy-efficient electromagnetic ballasts for F40T12 and

F36T8 lamps are “A” rated, with a few exceptions, such as low-
temperature ballasts. Still, the hum of electromagnetic ballasts may be
perceptible in a particularly quiet environment such as a library. Well-
designed electronic high frequency ballasts, on the other hand, should
emit no perceptible hum. All electronic ballasts are "A" rated for sound.
126
5.1.15 Dimming
Most fluorescent lamps cannot be properly dimmed with a simple

wallbox device such as those used for incandescent lamps. For a
fluorescent lamp to be dimmed over a full range without a reduction in
lamp life, its electrode heater voltages must be maintained while the
lamp arc current is reduced. As such, lamps operated in rapid start mode
are the only fluorescent lamps suitable for wide-range dimming
applications. The power required to keep electrode voltage constant over
all dimming conditions means that dimming ballasts will be less efficient
when operating lamps at dimmed levels.
Dimming ballasts are available in both electromagnetic and electronic

versions, but there are distinct advantages to using electronic dimming
ballasts. To dim lamps, electromagnetic dimming ballasts require
control gear containing expensive high-power switching devices that
condition the input power delivered to the ballasts. This is economically
viable only when controlling large numbers of ballasts on the same
branch circuit. In addition, luminaires must be controlled in large zones
that are determined by the layout of the electrical distribution system.
Since the distribution system is fixed early in the design process, control
systems using electromagnetic dimming ballasts are inflexible and are
unable to accommodate changes in usage patterns.
Dimming of electronically ballasted lamps, on the other hand, is

accomplished within the ballast itself. Electronic ballasts alter the output
power to the lamps by a low-voltage signal into the output circuit. High-
power switching devices to condition the input power are not required.
This allows control of one or more ballasts independent of the electrical
distribution system. With dimming electronic ballast systems, a low-
voltage control network can be used to group ballasts together into
arbitrarily sized control zones. This control network may be added
during a building renovation or even, in some circumstances, during a
lighting retrofit. Low-voltage wiring does not have to be run in conduit,
which helps keep installation costs down. In addition, it is less costly to
modify the size and extent of lighting zones by reconfiguring low-
voltage wiring when usage patterns change. Low-voltage wiring is also
127
compatible with photocells, occupancy sensors, and energy management

system (EMS) inputs.
Dimming range differs greatly among ballasts. With most electronic

dimming ballasts, light levels can vary between full output and a
minimum of about 10% of full output. However, electronic, full-range
dimming ballasts are also available that operate lamps down to 1% of full
lumen output. Electromagnetic dimming ballasts also offer many
dimming options, including range dimming.
5.1.16 Flicker
Electromagnetic ballasts are designed to condition the 60 Hz input

voltage to the electrical requirements of the lamps. Electromagnetic
ballast alters the voltage, but not the frequency. Thus, the lamp voltage
crosses zero 120 times each second, resulting in 120 Hz light output
oscillations. This results in about 30% flicker for standard halophosphor
lamps, operated at 60 Hz. The flicker is generally not noticeable but there
is evidence that flicker of this magnitude can cause adverse effects, such
as eyestrain and headache.
Most electronic ballasts, on the other hand, use high-frequency operation,

which reduces lamp flicker to an essentially imperceptible level. The
manufacturer usually specifies the flicker percentage of a particular
ballast. For a given ballast, the percent flicker will be a function of lamp
type and phosphor composition.
5.1.17 Harmonics
When a current or voltage wave shape deviates from the ideal

(sinusoidal), current or voltage harmonics are produced. Harmonic are
sinusoidal voltages or currents that are higher multiples of the
fundamental frequency. For example, the harmonics of 60 Hz are 60 Hz,
120 Hz, 180 Hz, etc., representing the first (fundamental), second, third,
etc. multiples. Fluorescent ballasts affect the current, as opposed to the
input voltage; in the process, current harmonics are generated. The
amplitude of these harmonics is expressed as a percentage of
fundamental.
128
Recently electrical utilities have been concerned with the growing use of
electrical equipment that generates harmonics. Such equipment may
include variable speed drives, uninterruptable power supplies, personal
computers, and electronic ballasts. Any circuit that is nonlinear (e.g. a
gas discharge lamp) uses rectifying circuits, or uses high-speed switching
systems will generate harmonics. If any one or combination of the above
systems makes up a significant portion of a building's electrical load, the
following undesirable effects may result:
• Overloading of transformers
• Adding of current to the neutral in three-phase electrical
distribution systems
• Current/voltage surges and/or spikes due to circuit resonances
with one or more of the harmonic frequencies
• Interference with electrical equipment or communications on the
same circuit
• Distortion of the electrical service entrance voltage with
accompanying adverse effects on the performance of other
electrical equipment in the building
(a) Harmonic Distortion and Electronic Ballasts. When electronic

high-frequency ballasts were first introduced in the early 1980s, some
models generated relatively high line harmonics. Nevertheless, at that
time, harmonic currents produced by lighting equipment and other
electronic systems were not, as yet, a utility issue. However, by the mid-
1980s, utilities and power engineers were becoming increasingly more
concerned about power equipment that generated line harmonics.
The harmonics issue first surfaced as a concern to the professional

lighting community when a major utility announced that electronic
ballasts were required to leave total harmonic distortion (THD) of less
than 20% of the fundamental, in order to qualify for their rebate program.
Electronic ballast manufacturers responded to the utility's requirement by
employing passive filtering that met the 20% limit at a slightly higher
cost to the end user.
To help understand the issue, it is of interest to examine and compare

the harmonics generated by electromagnetic ballasts. The harmonics for
some electromagnetic ballast exceed the 20% limit, and have been even
129
measured at levels over 37%. This suggests that there are presently
many electromagnetic ballasts in use that exceed the 20% THD limit.
These ballasts have not been known to cause any problems with the
electrical distribution where they are installed, further suggesting that the
choice of a 20% limit on THD may be arbitrarily conservative. In any
case, most electronic ballast manufacturers now make electronic ballasts
that are well under the 20% limit.
(b) K-Factor and Harmonic Distortion. K-Factor is a metric used

for electrical transformer design that accounts for nonsinusoidal currents
(i.e. currents that cause harmonics). These line currents generate higher
eddy currents than a pure 60 Hz sinusoidal fundamental. Eddy currents
cause transformers to operate at higher temperatures, increasing losses.
To reduce the effect of eddy currents, transformer manufacturers use
secondary windings consisting of well insulated, multiple wire strands.
This increases the resistance of those windings, helping to limit the flow
of eddy currents.
Until recently, engineers rarely specified K-factors for transformers.

However, it is recommended that electrical engineers designing lighting
distribution systems calculate the K-Factor from the known harmonic
distortion generated by the lamp-ballast system under consideration.
This figure should be available from the ballast manufacturer.
ANSI/IEEE 57.110-1986 is the recommended practice for establishing
transformer capability for non-sinusoidal line currents, and it contains the
equations for calculating K-Factor. Transformers with K-Factors of 1, 4,
9, 13, and 20 are standard products. Transformers with K-Factors of 4 or
less are usually sufficient for lighting systems.
(c) Harmonic Distortion and Power Factor. Utilities are

concerned with low power factors because end users draw higher
currents for the power that they are using. Ideally, lighting equipment
should have a power factor greater than 0.9 and as close to 1.0 as
possible. Power factors of less than 1.0 occur when the voltage and
current are out of phase and/or when the sinusoidal wave shape is
distorted. Harmonic currents generated by electronic ballasts reduce
power factor due to a distorted current wave shape. (Harmonic currents
produced by other types of electronic equipment can also lower the
130
power factor by producing a phase shift between the voltage and

current.)
Electronic ballast manufacturers now make a habit of publishing the

percentage of total harmonic distortion (THD) produced by their
products. This allows a lighting professional to quantify how the
installation of electronic ballasts in a building will affect power factor.
Electrical distribution wiring may be sized accordingly. The relationship
between power factor and total harmonic distortion with no voltage-
current phase shift may be determined as follows:
Power Factor = 1
1+ THD2
As long as there is no voltage-current phase shift contribution to the

power factor, THD may be as high as 48% and maintain a power factor
of over 0.90.
(d) The IEC 61000-3-2:2005 Standards on Harmonics. The
International Electrotechnical Commission based in Geneva, Switzerland
developed the IEC 61000-3-2 in November 2005. The standard defines
the limits on the magnitude of each harmonics depending in which class
(A, B, C, D) the equipment falls in.
Class A: Balance three-phase equipment (r.m.s line currents

differing less than 20%) and all other equipment
except that stated in one of the following classes.
Class B: Portable tools.
Class C: Lighting equipment including dimming devices with
active input power above 25 W.
Class D: Equipment having an input current with a “special
wave shape” and a fundamental active input power
between 75 and 600 W. Whatever the wave shape of
their input current. Class B, Class C, and
provisionally motor-driven equipment are not
considered as Class D equipment,
131
The Limits for Class C Equipment1 are given below:
Class C > 25 W
Harmonic order Maximum value expressed

n as a percentage of the
fundamental input current
of the luminaires
2 2
*
3 30λ
5 10
7 7
9 5
11 <= n <= 39 3
λ* is power factor
Where λ = power factor (W/VA)

*
e.g. PF = 0.63
H(1) = 0.3055A
Harmonic # 3 = 0.305A x [(30x0.63) + 100]
= 57.6A
Harmonic #29 = 0.305A x [3 + 100]
= 9.15mA
Reference: IEC 61000-3-2-Harmonic Limits

1
Lighting Products are included in this category.
(e) Third Harmonics of Current Electronic Ballasts. There are

electronic ballasts that have third harmonic levels below 20% and 10%.
Harmonic levels of 20% are achieved by passive filtering devices, such
as chokes, resistors, and capacitors. Active filters, such as integrated
circuits and other semi-conductive devices, can reduce harmonics down
to well under 10%.
While both electronic and electromagnetic fluorescent lamp ballasts

generate harmonics, one should understand that it is a systems problem.
The potential for adverse effects in a given building primarily depends
upon the size of the load imposed by harmonics-generating devices as a
132
proportion of the total building load. The current harmonics (triplens)

for fluorescent ballasts in three-phase distribution systems (e.g., branch
circuits) are 120 degrees out of phase and will add on to the neutral wire.
(f) Other Harmonics Research. At the present time, data are being
collected to measure the voltage distortion at the service entrance of
buildings that are lighted with electronically ballasted fluorescent lamps.
Based on these studies, new standards may be developed that would
require more stringent harmonic limits. The new limits would take into
consideration the relative contribution of lighting to the total electrical
load in relation to the expanded use of other equipment (personal
computers, variable speed drives, microwave equipment, etc.) that also
generate line harmonics.
5.1.18 New Generation of High Performance Electronic Ballasts
Current technology development in the semiconductor field particularly

in the Power MOSFET and ballast design have made it possible to
operate at a wider input voltage range from 200 to 300 VAC safely. The
Total Harmonic Distortion of less than 10% can be easily attained and
power factor at above 99% are now common. Some manufacturers refer
to this New Generation of High Performance Electronic ballast as Linear
Electronic Ballast because of its power factor reaching near unity and
suitable for a 208VAC, 230VAC, 265VAC or 277VAC power supply.
The new generation of High Performance Electronic ballast normally

employs a parallel-resonant configuration circuit that allows it to operate
at a single or double lamp load.
5.2—APPLICATION GUIDELINES
Advance technology for ballasts improve the efficacy of fluorescent

lamp systems and are appropriate for both new construction and retrofit
applications.
133
5.2.1 Electronic Ballasts
Electronic ballasts for fluorescent lamps can save energy and money in
nearly every application. There is a cost premium for electronic ballasts,
but prices are becoming more competitive as the market expands. Users
like the University of California have demonstrated that electronic
ballasts are an excellent institutional investment. Electronic ballasts may
be substituted for electromagnetic ballasts without any need for concern
about lighting system performance. In fact, electronic ballasts can
enhance lighting quality through the added benefit of a quiet, flicker-free
lighting environment. This makes electronic ballasts an ideal choice for
modern offices and in other applications with important visual tasks.
5.2.2 Ballast Selection Considerations
Use the following criteria when making ballast selections:
Always consider electronic ballast for general-purpose

applications in new construction. The higher cost of
electronic ballasts makes economic sense in terms of energy
savings and improved lighting performance over the life of
the system.
Always consider electronic ballasts for routine maintenance
replacements and renovations. (It may not be cost-effective
to retrofit large groups of existing low loss electromagnetic
ballasts in working order that would not otherwise be
replaced.).
Consider operating F36T8 lamps at full output with instant
start ballasts to obtain maximum energy efficiency for
dedicated (non-dimming) applications with minimal on/off
cycles.
Exercise caution to avoid using instant start lamp-ballast
systems with occupant sensors or other applications with
rapid switching cycles.
Consider stepped multi-level electronic ballasts as an
excellent alternative to switching adjacent lamps in
luminaires (tandem wiring). An additional benefit will be
quiet, flicker-free space.
134
Consider the use of low ballast factor (<75%) rapid start

electronic ballasts in aisles or other circulation areas where
partial light output will suffice. Installation of low ballast
factor ballasts is also a cost-effective solution for retrofitting
spaces that are illuminated. Low ballast factor electronic
ballasts should be operated in rapid start mode only to
maintain lamp life at reduced lamp currents.
Consider full-range (1%-100%) dimming electronic ballasts
for functional dimming requirements in applications such as
boardrooms, conference rooms, and residences.
Continuously adjustable dimming electronic ballasts are especially

appropriate for all of the following lighting control strategies (see the
appropriate guidelines for application details):
Tuning: the adjustment of illuminance levels according to user

needs
Daylighting: the control of electric lighting levels in spaces
where natural light is present
Lumen maintenance: the reduction of lighting power in
conventional systems that are designed to produce excess light
when new to compensate for future light depreciation
Peak demand limiting (load shedding): the reduction of
lighting power during the time of day when utility charges are
at their highest levels
Adaptation compensation: adjusting interior lighting levels to
more closely correspond-with exterior illumination
In most instances, electronic ballasts are manufactured in standard ballast

housings. This allows for quick and easy replacement in existing
luminaires and permits their use in already tooled new luminaires. To
facilitate replacement, the wires on typical non-dimming electronic
ballasts use the same color-coding as electromagnetic ballasts.
Installation of electronic ballasts is actually easier than installing
electromagnetic ballasts, because they weigh less. Most adjustable output
and dimming ballasts have separate, low-voltage leads that permit a low-
voltage, Class I signal to control lamp output. These ballasts are often
designed to use in the luminaire so that Class II low-voltage wiring can
135
be used within the building. Other dimming ballasts require no

additional control wiring.
5.2.3 System Compatibility of Electronic Ballasts
Like virtually all-lighting products, there are some applications in which

high-frequency electronic ballasts may be incompatible with existing
technologies. One of these instances that have been identified occurs in
libraries equipped with magnetic detectors used to prevent theft.
However, as long as electronic ballasts are at least 3 m to 4.5 m away
from the detector units, problems with the detectors are unlikely to occur.
A second potential system compatibility problem with electronic ballasts

may occur in conjunction with high-frequency power line carrier (PLC)
control systems. The carrier frequency for PLCs usually ranges from 50
kHz to 200 kHz. These frequencies may be affected by one of the
harmonic currents generated by electronic ballasts. The extent of this
potential problem has not as yet been fully researched. However, in
simple PLC systems for residential applications when lighting and other
appliances share the same distribution network, electronic ballasts may
not be compatible. This may be resolved by the selection of a more
appropriate frequency for the PLC system. In commercial systems
where the PLC is isolated from the lighting circuits, problems may be
minimal. If, however, the PLC is used to control the lighting system, the
probability of problems occurring will increase.
It is important to realize that the possible compatability problems posed

by the use of electronic ballasts arise only on rare occasions. The above
incompatibilities can be resolved or avoided, and they should not be used
to disqualify the use of electronic ballasts in other applications.
5.2.4 Heater Cutout Ballasts
Heater cutout ballasts are less expensive than electronic ballasts and are a
viable energy-efficient option to consider when a project budget does not
permit electronic ballasts. Heater cutout ballasts can be used in any non-
dimming situation involving linear F32T8 or F36T8 lamps. Typical
applications include offices, schools, retail and wholesale stores, health
care facilities, and general industrial and commercial lighting. Because
136
of their lower initial cost they are especially appropriate for use as
replacement ballasts in retrofit applications. Some heater cutout ballasts
may have a problem starting lamps when the line voltage is below its
rated voltage. In addition, some lamp manufacturers derate lamp life
when heater cutout ballasts operate lamps.
5.3—STANDARD FOR FLUORESCENT LAMP BALLASTS
Philippine National Standard (PNS) 2050-4: 2007 “Lamps and related

equipment - Energy labeling requirements – Part 4: Ballast” prescribes
the ballast efficacy factor (BEF) labeling requirements for electronic and
electromagnetic ballasts. Manufacturers, suppliers and importers will be
required to label the individual ballasts with the BEF rating.
*based on standard test
conditions
BALLAST O512-345678
EFFICACY
BEF* FACTOR
XX DEPARTMENT OF
E N E R G Y
PHILIPPINES
Important: HIGHER BEF means HIGHER SAVINGS.
Figure 5.7 Ballast Energy Label
5.4—GUIDELINE SPECIFICATIONS
Specifying fluorescent lamp ballasts is not difficult. There are ways of

ensuring that the preferred ballast requirements are clear to suppliers to
avoid the substitution of inferior products. Furthermore, the designer
should specify products that conforms with the following Philippine
National Standards:
• PNS IEC 60921: 2006 (IEC published 2004) Ballast for tubular
fluorescent lamps – Performance requirements
• PNS IEC 60929: 2006 (IEC published 2003) AC supplied
electronic ballasts for tubular fluorescent lamps – Performance
requirements
137
• PNS IEC 60923: 2006 (IEC published 2005) Auxiliaries for

lamps – Ballasts for discharge lamps (excluding tubular
fluorescent lamps) - Performance requirement
• PNS IEC 61347-1: 2002 (IEC published 2000)
• PNS IEC 61347-1: 2002 Amd. 1: 2006 (IEC published 2000
Amd.1: 2003)
• PNS IEC 61347-2-8: 2002 (IEC published 2000)
• PNS IEC 61347-2-3: 2002 (IEC published 2000)
• PNS IEC 61347-2-3: 2002 Draft Amd. 1: 2006 (IEC published
2000 Amd.1: 2004)
• PNS IEC 61347-2-9:2005 (IEC published 2000)
• PNS IEC 61347-2-9: 2005 Draft Amd. 1: 2006 (IEC published
2000 Amd.1: 2003)
• PNS 2050-4: 2007 Lamps and related equipment - Energy
labeling requirements – Part 4: Ballast
138
Chapter 6. Lighting Systems
and Luminaires
6.1—LIGHTING SYSTEMS
A lighting system is defined as one or more luminaire with one or more

lamps having a characteristic lighting distribution. Several types of
luminaires with lamps can be combined to make up a lighting system.
The lighting system itself and thus the choice of luminaires to make up
the system depend on the use of the space to be illuminated and other
more perhaps “artistic” concerns.
6.2—LUMINAIRES
6.2.1 Definition
Luminaire is a lighting unit consisting of the following components:

optical devices to distribute the light, sockets to position and protect the
lamps and to connect the lamps to a supply of electric power, ballast of
the lamp, if separate from the lamp, and the mechanical components
required to support or attach the luminaire.
6.2.2 Functions of Luminaires.
The main function of the luminaire therefore, is to efficiently direct light

to appropriate locations without causing glare or discomfort. Ideally, a
luminaire directs lamp output to where it is needed while shielding the
lamp from the eyes at normal angles of view. Often, modern lamp
technologies require special luminaire features in order to be used
correctly. For example, T5 lamps are 58.3% smaller in diameter than
equivalent T12 lamps, even while producing nearly as many lumens.
Because T5 lamps are brighter per unit length than T12 lamps, proper
luminaire shielding is more critical.
139
CHAPTER 6. LIGHTING SYSTEMS AND LUMINAIRES
Different luminaires may significantly affect the operating temperatures

of lamps. This can have significant effects on the total performance of
the luminaire-lamp-ballast system. For example, luminaires that cause
fluorescent lamps to operate above their optimum operating temperatures
will also cause reduced light output in those lamps.
Similarly, electronic ballasts have high-frequency outputs that are subject

to greater power losses in applications requiring extended wiring runs
between the lamps and ballasts. It is also important to have a matched
lamp-ballast combination that is not simply a combination that lights the
lamps, but that is truly energy efficient, as well. In addition, luminaire
photometry should be performed using the specific lamp-ballast system
under consideration. Furthermore, conventional photometric calculations
should be supplemented with correction factors that account for the
application conditions
6.3—CLASSIFICATION
Thousands of different luminaires are made by hundreds of

manufacturers. Choosing luminaires that efficiently provide appropriate
luminance patterns for the application is an important part of energy-
efficient lighting design.
Luminaire classification helps specifiers and manufacturers describe,

catalog, and retrieve luminaire information. Luminaire can be classified
according to source, mounting, construction, application, and/or
photometric characteristics.
6.3.1 Classification by Photometric Characteristics
6.3.1.1 CIE Classification
Luminaires are classified by the Commission Internationale de

L’Eclairage (CIE) according to the percentage of light output above and
below the horizontal. The system is usually applied to indoor luminaires
they are as follows:
140
0- 10% 10-40% 40-60%

90-100% 60-90% 40-60%
Direct Semi-Direct General Diffuse
40-60% 60-90% 90-100%

40-60% 10-40% 0-10%
Direct-Indirect Semi-Indirect Indirect
Direct Lighting. When luminaires direct 90 to 100% of the their

output downward, they form a direct lighting system. The distribution
may vary from widespread to highly concentrated, depending on the
reflector material, finish and contour, and on the shielding or control
media employed. Troffers and downlights are two forms of direct
luminaires.
Direct lighting units can have the highest utilization of all types, but
this utilization may be reduced in varying degrees by brightness-control
media required to minimize direct glare. Veiling reflections may be
excessive unless the distribution of light is designed to reduce the effect.
Reflected glare and shadows may be a problem with direct lighting

unless close spacing are employed.
141
Figure 6.1 Example of Direct Luminaire
Luminous ceilings, louverall ceilings, and large-area modular

lighting elements are forms of direct lighting having characteristics
similar to those of indirect lighting discussed in the paragraphs below.
Semi-direct Lighting. The distribution from semidirect units is
predominantly downward (60 to 90%) but with a small upward
component to illuminate the ceiling and upper walls. The characteristics
are essentially the same as for direct lighting except that the upward
component will tend to soften shadows and improve room brightness
relationships. Care should be exercised with close-to-ceiling mounting of
some types to prevent overly bright ceilings directly above the luminaire.
Utilization can approach, or even sometimes exceed, that of well-
shielded direct units.
Figure 6.2 Example of Semi-direct Lighting
142
General Diffuse Lighting. When downward and upward

components of light from luminaires are about equal (each 40 to 60% of
total luminaire output) the system is classified as general diffuse. Direct-
indirect is a special (non-CIE) category within this classification for
luminaires that emit very little light at angles near the horizontal. Since
this characteristic result in lower luminances in the direct-glaze zone,
direct-indirect luminaires are usually more suitable than general-diffuse
luminaires that distribute the light about equally in all directions.
Direct-Indirect Luminaire
Figure 6.3 Examples of General-Diffuse Luminaire
General-diffuse units combine the characteristics of direct lighting

described above and those of indirect lighting described below.
Utilization is somewhat lower than for direct or semidirect units, but it is
still quite good in rooms with high reflectance surfaces. Brightness
relationships throughout the room are generally good and the upward
143
light reflected from the ceiling softens shadows from the direct
component.
Pendant-mounted luminaires designed to provide a general-diffuse or

direct-indirect distribution are frequently installed on or very close to the
ceiling. Such mountings change the distribution to direct or semidirect
since the ceiling acts as a top reflector redirecting the upward light back
through the luminaire. Photometric data obtained with the luminaire
equipped with top reflectors or installed on a simulated ceiling board
should be employed to determine the luminaire characteristics for such
application conditions.
Semi-Indirect Lighting. Lighting systems that emit 60 to 90% of

their output upward are defined as semi-indirect. The characteristics of
semi-indirect lighting are similar to those of indirect systems discussed
below except that the downward component usually produces a
luminaire luminance that closely matches that of the ceiling. However, if
the downward component becomes too great and is not properly
controlled, direct or reflected glare may result.
Indirect Lighting. Lighting systems classified as indirect are those

which direct 90 to 100% of the light upward to the ceiling and upper
sidewalls. In a well-designed installation the entire ceiling becomes the
primary source of illumination, and shadows will be virtually eliminated.
Also, since the luminaires direct very little light downward, both direct
and reflected glare will be minimized if the installation is well planned.
Luminaires whose luminance approximates that of the ceiling have some
advantages in this respect. It is also important to suspend the luminaires a
sufficient distance below the ceiling to obtain reasonable uniformity of
ceiling luminance without excessive luminance immediately above the
luminaires.
Since the indirect lighting the ceiling and upper walls must reflect light
to the work plane, it is essential that these surfaces have high
reflectances. Care is needed to prevent overall ceiling luminance from
becoming too high and thus glaring.
144
Figure 6.4 Example of Indirect Luminaire
6.3.1.2 NEMA Classification System
This system is based on the distribution of flux within the beam produced
by the luminaire. It is used primarily for sports lighting and floodlighting
luminaires.
Source: Adapted from the IESNA Lighting Handbook, 2000 9th Edition
145
6.3.2 IEC Classification System
International Electrotechnical Commission has classified Luminaires

according to the type of protection against electric shock, the degree of
protection against ingress of dust, solid objects and moistures, and the
material of the supporting surfaces.
6.3.2.1 Protection Against Electrical Shock
Luminaire shall be classified according to the type of protection

against electrical shock provided, as follows:
Class 0 Luminaire – Luminaire in which a basic type insulation is

provided for protection against electric shock; this means that no device
is provided for connecting accessible conductive parts that may be
present to a protective conductor forming a part of the permanent electric
installation. If the basic insulation should be damaged, protection is
entrusted to the environment surrounding the fitting.
Class I Luminaire – Luminaire in this class are electrically

insulated and provided with a connection to earth. Exposed metal parts
that could become live in the event of basic insulation failure are
protected by earthing.
Class II Luminaire – - Class II Luminaire are designed and

constructed so that protection against electric shock does not rely on
basic insulation only. This can be achieved by means of reinforced or
double insulation. No provision for earthing is provided.
III
Class III Luminaire – Protection against electric shock relies on
supply at Safety Extra Low Voltage (SELV) and in which voltages
higher than those of SELV are not generated( max. 50V ac rms)
Luminaires with a rated voltage in excess of 250V shall not be

classified as Class 0. Luminaire shall have only a single classification.
For example, for a luminaire with a built-in extra-low voltage
transformer with provision for earthing, the luminaire shall be classified
146
as Class 1 and part of the luminaire shall not be classified as Class III
even though the lamp compartment is separated from the transformer
compartment.
6.3.2.2 Protection Against Ingress of Dust and Moisture
Luminaires shall be classified in accordance with the “IP” number

system of classification.
The designation to indicate the degree of protection consists of the

characteristics letter IP followed by the numerals (the “characteristic
numerals”) indicating conformity with the conditions stated on Table 6.1,
which has the following format:
IP XY
Where:
IP (Ingress Protection) Code is a coding system to indicate the

degree of protection provided by enclosure against access to hazardous
parts, ingress of solid foreign objects, ingress of water and to give
additional information in connection with such protection.
X = Protection of persons against contact with or approach to

live parts and against contact with moving parts (other than smooth
rotating shaft and the like) inside the enclosure and protection of the
equipment against ingress of solid foreign bodies.
Y = Protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against

harmful ingress of water.
Examples of common IP ratings of luminaires are shown in

Table 6.2
147
Table 6.1
Table 6.2 IP Rating TableSource: Adapted from the Lanzini Illuminazione Catalogo
Professionale Edizione Intel 1997
148
Table 6.2 Luminaires Common IP Ratings:
IP DESIGNATION APPLICATION
RATING
IP 20 Ordinary Luminaire Indoor Dry rooms without
Ballproof no protection dust development
from water ingress
IP 44 Splash proof Moist rooms, open air
locations
IP 54 Dust/ splash water Dusty rooms, workshops

protected subject to fire hazard.
IP 65 Dust/jet water protected Wet rooms, but with instense

dust development
IP67 Dust and impermeable to For underwater illumination

presswater ( Immersible) (≤1m)
IP 68 Dust-proof/submersible For underwater illumination

Type (≥1m)
6.4—TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
6.4.1 Luminaire Components. Luminaires generally consist of some or

all of the following parts:
• Lamp holders or sockets of a particular light source

• Light Control Components
• Electrical Components
• Mechanical Components
149
Plug/Tail wire
Reflector
Housing
Lampholder
Ballast
Lamp
Reflector Clip
Louver Assembly Spring
Figure 6.5 Basic Components of Luminaires
150
An efficient luminaire optimizes the system performance of each of its

components. Careful evaluation of photometric data often reveals the
overall quality of a particular luminaire design.
In evaluating a luminaire, its efficiency (the ratio of lumens emitted by

the luminaire to lumens emitted by the luminaire’s lamps) and its
distribution characteristics are of considerable importance. When
assessing luminaire distribution, one should consider how the luminaire
controls glare, as well as the proportion of lamp lumens that reach the
workplane, as measured by the coefficient of utilization (CU). The CU
also takes into consideration the effects of room configuration and
surface reflectances.
Light Sources. Efficient luminaires use the most efficient sources

appropriate for that luminaire type. Luminaires should be selected
specifically to take advantage of the unique features—particularly with
respect to source size and thermal performance of each respective light
source.
Luminaires are commonly available for these lamps:
(a) Incandescent filament including tungsten halogen lamps

(b) Low Intensity Discharge lamps, including linear fluorescent,
compact fluorescent, & induction (electrodeless) lamps
(c) High Intensity Discharge Lamps
(1) Metal halide

(2) High Pressure Sodium
(3) Mercury
(d) Low Pressure Sodium lamps
Luminaires are less common for xenon arc and carbon arc lamps.
6.4.2 Light Control Components
(a) Reflectors. A Reflector is a device, usually of coated metal or

plastic, that is of high reflectance and is shaped to redirect the light
emitted by the lamp.
151
a) powder coated or specular aluminum reflector for strip fluorescent luminaire, (b)&(c)
specular&grooved aluminum reflector for a compact downlight luminaire, (d) faceted
reflector for a floodlight luminaire, and( reflector with”kicker” to direct light for wall-
wash luminaire.
Figure 6.6 Examples of Reflectors
Advances in materials science have resulted in several key new

materials capable of improving luminaire efficiency. These reflector
materials have a mirror-like or a specular finish that permits precise
redirection of incident light rays. These differ from standard painted
reflectors that produce diffuse, scattered, or widespread distribution of
the incident light. New reflector materials include the following:
• Anodized, specular aluminum, having a total reflectivity of 85-

90%
• Anodized, specular aluminum, enhanced with a multiple thin-
film dielectric coating, having a total reflectivity of 88-94%
• Vacuum-deposited, specular silver, applied on the front or rear
surface of a clear polyester film and adhered to a metal
substrate, having a total reflectivity of 91-95%
Some efficient luminaires use the specular materials listed above in

carefully contoured reflectors for maximum control and efficiency.
Another use of these materials is in specular "imaging" reflectors,
designed as retrofit components to be inserted into existing luminaires.
For example, in theory, an existing three or four lamp fluorescent troffer
can have one or two lamps removed, and some of the lost light output
can be recovered through the use of a "one-bounce" or specular reflector.
The specular reflector replaces the troffer's original white-painted
reflecting surface. By removing a lamp from a four-lamp troffer and
152
inserting an optically superior specular reflector, it is possible to recover

efficiency losses due to degradation of the original white paint and
reduce the amount of light and heat trapped in the luminaires. This
typically results in approximately the same light output from three lamps
as from four without the reflector. When reflector replacement is
combined with relamping of a luminaire's aging lamps and cleaning of
the luminaire surfaces, light output may actually be greater than it was
prior to the retrofit. In addition, by further improving lamp-ballast
combinations, more dramatic delampings can be performed. However,
use of reflectors with delamping will almost always change the original
candlepower distribution pattern of the luminaire, which may or may not
be desirable, depending on the application.
Sometimes, spaces are actually over-lighted to the extent that lamps

can be removed without adding a reflector and adequate illumination can
be maintained. In these cases, reflectors may still be considered because,
with a reflector, the luminaire lens is more uniformly bright, and the
luminaire does not appear as if some of the lamps are missing.
Specular reflectors are also included in a number of new products.

However, the efficiency improvements are not as dramatic, when
compared to the retrofitting of white-painted reflectors, because some of
the advertised effectiveness of these reflector products is due to
improvements over poorly shaped and/or deteriorated, painted reflector
surfaces in old luminaires.
(b) Refractors. Refractors are light control devices that take

advantage of the change in direction that light undergoes as it passes
through the boundary of materials of differing optical density (index of
refraction), such as air to glass or air to plastic (see figure 6.7)
(c) DIFFUSERS – Diffusers are light control elements that scatter

(redirect) incident light in many directions. This scattering can take place
in the material, such as in bulk diffusers like white plastic, or on the
surface as in etched or sandblasted glass. Diffusers are used to spread
light and, since scattering destroy optical images, obscure the interior of
luminaires, suppress lamp images, and reduce high illuminance by
increasing the area over which light leaves a luminaire. Examples of
diffusers are shown in Fig. 6.8.
153
a) Prismatic lens, b) spread lens, c) glass refractor, d) Fresnel refractor e) wrap around
prismatic lens f) prismatic lens on troffer, g) drop lens, and h) spread lens refractor
Figure 6.7 Examples of Refractor
a) and b) wrap-around diffuser, c) jelly jar diffuser, and (d) drop glass diffuser
Figure 6.8 Examples of Diffusers
(d) Shades, Blades, Louvers, and Baffles. Shades and shields are
opaque or transluscent materials shaped to reduce or eliminate the direct
view of the lamp from outside the luminaire (Figure 6.9) Blades, usually
opaque and highly reflective, can be shaped and positioned to eliminate
the direct view of the lamp from certain directions outside the luminaire
and to control the direction from which the light leaves. If arranged in a
rectangular grid, producing cells, they are called louvers. If arranged
linearly they are called baffles. Louvers and baffles often are made of
specularly reflecting metal, though some are of coated plastic.
154
(a),(b) and (c) louvers for linear fluorescent, (d) cross baffles, (e) shield for industrial
luminaire, and (f) hoods and cowls for track luminaires
Figure 6.9 Examples of Louvers & Baffles
6.4.3 Mechanical Components
The mechanical components of a luminaire consist of a housing or

general structure to support other components of the luminaire, and a
mounting mechanism for the attachment of the luminaire to its support. If
the luminaire uses a refractor or transparent cover, then hinged frames or
doors often are provided to hold the lens.
6.4.4 Electrical Components
The electrical components of the luminaire operate the lamp. The

luminaire contains and supports ballast, starter, capacitors, or emergency
lighting devices.
6.5—TYPES OF LUMINAIRE DESIGN AND

CHARACTERISTICS
The most widely used luminaires are those designed for general
illumination of large areas. In commercial lighting, these luminaires are
usually fluorescent lighting systems designed to be mounted onto or
recessed into a ceiling. These lighting systems consist of a luminaire
layout pattern or "grid" that provides uniform lighting throughout the
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space. General lighting systems constitute the majority of lighting

installations and the majority of the energy consumed for lighting.
6.5.1 General Lighting Luminaire Types. Among the thousands of

lighting products on the market, there are a few that represent
opportunities for energy conservation in lighting systems design. These
are discussed below for general types of lighting systems.
6.5.1.1 Commercial and Residential Luminaire
(a) Open Direct Luminaires. Open direct systems do not

employ shielding at all. These systems include surface and pendant-
mounted strip fluorescent fixtures and suspended open industrial and
commercial luminaires. Unless equipped with reflectors, these systems
radiate light in all directions (see Figure 6.10). Open direct lighting
systems are often very efficient, with high coefficient of utilization (CU)
values, but they may cause visual discomfort and disability glare.
Figure 6.10 Open Direct Luminaire
(b) Imaging Specular Reflector Open Luminaires. The basic,

open luminaire can be equipped with an imaging specular reflector. The
imaging reflector may not improve luminaire efficiency, but the
luminaire's coefficient of utilization (CU) can be increased as more light
is redirected toward the work plane, as shown in Fig. 6.11.
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Figure 6.11 Open Luminaire w/ Specular Reflector
(c) Shielded Direct Lighting Systems. Shielded systems use

some form of lens, louver, or baffle to prevent direct viewing of the
lamps at normal angles of view (see Figure 6.12). Surface and
suspended luminaire types include industrial HID downlights, baffled
industrial fluorescent luminaires, fluorescent wraparound lens
luminaires, and commercial fluorescent lens luminaires. Recessed
systems include HID downlights and a wide range of fluorescent
"troffers" using lenses, louvers, or baffles to control glare.
Figure 6.12 Shielded Direct Luminaire
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(d) Shielded Industrial and Commercial Luminaires with

Specular Imaging Reflectors. These luminaires are similar to open
industrial and commercial luminaires. However, they are equipped with
louver shielding. Specular imaging reflectors can increase luminaire
efficiencies and coefficient of utilization. (See Fig. 6.13)
Figure 6.13 Shielded Industrial Luminaire
(e) Parabolic Louvered Recessed Troffers. An increasingly

popular commercial general lighting fixture is the recessed parabolic
troffer. There are large-cell and small-cell parabolic luminaires. Large
cell luminaires are generally more efficient, with relatively high
coefficient of utilization values, while smaller cells usually offer better
glare control. The large-celled parabolic louvered troffer is a luminaire
that can combine sharp cut-off glare control with an efficient
reflector/louver design. Many different standard sizes are readily
available, including 600mm x 1200mm, 600mm x 600mm, 300mm x
1200mm and others.
Three variations of large-cell parabolic luminaires are available:
• Standard parabolic troffers generally have louvers about 75

mm deep. Standard parabolics are efficient, and have good
glare control and reasonably low brightness.
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• Deep-cell parabolic troffers have louvers that are a minimum

of 100 mm deep. Deep-cell parabolics have moderate
efficiency and CU values, very good glare control, and very
low brightness shielding. Specular imaging reflectors can
increase luminaire efficiencies and CUs.
• Compound parabolic troffers have specially designed
parabolic louver assemblies to create extremely low
brightness for Video Display Terminal (VDT) work
environments. These fixtures have excellent glare control
and will not produce reflected images in VDT screens if they
comply with the luminance limits specified in the
Illuminating Engineering Society's VDT Lighting: IES
Recommended Practice for Lighting Offices containing
Computer Visual Display Terminals (RP24-1989).
Specular and Semi-Specular Louvered Luminaires. These

luminaires are high-end parabolic fixtures containing shielding
components made of anodized high-reflectivity aluminum. Semi-
specular finishes, similar to stainless steel in appearance, are the most
common type, as they tend to give the luminaire just enough brightness
to appear "on." This brightness, however, may still be enough to be
reflected in VDT screens, causing a loss in visual task visibility. Mirror-
like specular finishes tend to decrease luminaire brightness. Compound
parabolic troffers (see Fig. 6.14) generally use specular louvers, and they
are intended for use in VDT environments.
Compound Parabolic Luminaires. Work areas having VDT

screens generally require very low brightness luminaires and ceilings to
avoid veiling or reflected glare. Specially designed compound parabolic
luminaires serve this requirement much more efficiently than do the
small-cell parabolic cube louvers often used for this application, because
less light is blocked by a smaller number of larger cells.
(f) Standard Lensed Troffers Equipped with Specular

Imaging Reflectors. The traditional lensed troffer (see Fig. 6.15) can be
equipped with a specular imaging reflector. The efficiency of a two-
lamp, 600mm x 1200mm, reflector-equipped luminaire consisting of a
pattern-12 (standard) prismatic lens, and properly aligned lamps, rises
from about 70% to about 80% with the addition of a specular imaging
159
reflector. CU values increase, as well. The increase in efficiency and CU

is greatest when the reflector is designed exactly for the luminaire and
the desired light distribution. Most common lens types, such as
prismatic, bat wing, linear batwing, and polarized, can be used, though
not all types will exhibit increased efficiency when used with a reflector.
Final photometric performance—especially uniformity of illumination,
may be significantly altered, when compared to traditional painted
troffers.
Figure 6.14 Typical Four-Lamp Parabolic Troffer
Figure 6.15 Example of Troffer with Prismatic Lens
160
(g) Indirect Lighting Luminaires. Luminaires that radiate light

up to a reflecting ceiling are called indirect types (see Figure 6.16).
Indirect lighting systems generally employ luminaires suspended from
the ceiling, though cove lights and lights mounted to walls and furniture
can also be used. Indirect lighting systems using well-designed and
properly spaced luminaires can provide excellent illumination,
uniformity, and freedom from glare. Their success depends on
maintaining a high ceiling reflectance combination with nearly uniform
brightness. In this way, a maximum amount of light is reflected down to
the work plane, yet light patterns are less likely to create reflected glare
in VDT screens. IES RP24 specifies the maximum to minimum ceiling
luminance (brightness) ratio if reflections in VDT screens are to be
avoided. Additionally, when using indirect lighting systems, it may also
be necessary to install energy-efficient task lighting, as CU values may
be low.
Recent designs in fluorescent indirect lighting systems use lenses

or imaging reflectors to achieve high luminaire efficiency, by producing
a broad batwing light distribution while allowing for close-to-ceiling
mounting. These designs can increase indirect system's CU to nearly that
of traditional lensed troffer systems.
Figure 6.16 Indirect Lighting Luminaire
(h) Cove Lighting Systems. New designs in indirect lighting

luminaires, especially for cove and coffer installations, increase the
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effectiveness of traditional strip lights and eliminate socket shadows.

Figure 6.17 shows a typical distribution pattern.
Figure 6.17 Cove Lighting System
(i) Compact HID Indirect Lighting Systems. Compact HID

lamps allow for smaller uplight luminaires that are easily installed in
furniture-mounted luminaires and wall sconces. (HID luminaires may not
be suitable for applications when periodic switching is anticipated.)
Figure 6.18 shows an example of HID Indirect Luminaire (Uplighter).
Figure 6.18 HID Indirect Luminaire (Uplighter)
(j) Direct/Indirect Lighting Systems. These systems combine

the efficiency and high CU of direct illumination with the uniformity and
glare control of indirect lighting (see Figure 6.19). Some industrial
162
lighting systems are designed for a limited percentage of indirect uplight;

some office and school lighting systems are designed for an equal
balance between direct downlight and indirect uplight. Additionally,
there are high-efficiency versions of direct/indirect lighting systems for
commercial and institutional lighting, including some especially
designed for VDT work environments. When used in VDT
environments, these systems should meet the performance criteria of
IES RP-24 with respect to both direct and indirect lighting.
Figure 6.19 Direct/Indirect Luminaire
(k) Stage. Stage luminaires are designed to produce tight optical

control and provide maximum flexibility. They are commonly used in
theaters and television studios for lighting stage and people.
Figure 6.20 Examples of Stage/Theater Luminaires

(a) Fresnel spot, (b) ellipsoidal spot, and(c) border spot.
6.5.1.2 Architectural Luminaires. Architectural lighting is

generally employed in building spaces such as lobbies, corridors and the
like. Typical lighting types include recessed downlights, wall washers,
track lights, and some wall sconces. Since these luminaires are used
163
initially for highlighting high-quality spaces, aesthetics is a principal

consideration in their design and selection. Nevertheless, there are many
opportunities to utilize efficient lighting in these applications.
(a) Recessed Low-Wattage HID Downlights. HID downlights

suitable for lower ceilings and high-quality spaces have been made
viable with high-CRI compact metal halide and white high-pressure
sodium lamps. This allows for replacement of traditional incandescent
downlights, making significant energy savings possible. Examples of
Low Wattage HID downlights are shown in Figure 6.21 below.
Figure 6.21 Examples of Low Wattage HID Downlights
(b) Recessed Compact Fluorescent Downlights. The popular

compact fluorescent downlight is now available in a variety of
configurations, including dimmable lamps designed for use with
electronic ballasts. In general, compact fluorescent lamps replace
incandescent downlights on a 1 watt for 3-watt basis. By using parabolic
downlight for compact fluorescent lamps it can improve efficiency by
allowing replacement of incandescent lamps on a 1 watt for every 4-
watts basis. An example of recessed architectural CFL downlight is
shown in Figure 6.22
(c) Track-Mounted HID and Compact Fluorescent

Floodlights. Tracklights use a system that includes luminaires and a
track or rail that is designed to both provide mounting and deliver
electric power. Several interesting designs in track luminaires using
compact fluorescent and low-wattage HID lamps have been introduced.
These products offer significant energy savings over standard
164
incandescent luminaires of this type. Figure 6.23 illustrates an example

of a compact fluorescent track light and floodlights
Figure 6.22 Example of Recessed Architectural CFL Downlight
a b)
Figure 6.23
a) HID Tracklight, b) Compact Fluorescent Floodlight
165
(d) Compact Fluorescent Adapters with Screw in Power

Connections. Techniques are available for retrofitting incandescent
downlights with compact fluorescent technology. Except for the means
of connecting power, these designs have elements used in conventional
luminaires: a lamp holder with replaceable lamp and a housing for the
ballast and other components. Some designs make use of the
incandescent lamp holder's medium-base screw-shell for mounting and
power connection. Some designs are also equipped with reflectors
and/or lenses to improve light distribution and provide shielding (see
Figure 6.24). The reflector and lens assembly is designed to correctly
match the lamp for optimum performance. Also, the lamp can be
replaced without replacing the rest of the assembly, reducing the chance
that an incandescent lamp will be substituted at a later time.
Key items in the specification should include the lamp operating

current, lamp compartment temperature, and the lamp base temperature.
In general, these types of luminaires cannot be used with dimmers.
Figure 6.24 Screw-in Compact Fluorescent Luminaire
6.5.1.3 Task Lights. Task-ambient lighting designs generally utilize

two separate lighting systems to improve lighting while saving energy.
First, an ambient lighting design provides a medium-to-low level of
uniform illumination in a room. Most general lighting systems can be
used for ambient lighting. Second, task lighting is provided at and for
166
specific visual tasks. Compact fluorescent lamp technology has special

relevance for task lighting applications. In VDT applications where high
levels of ambient light often interfere with visibility, task lighting (Fig.
6.25) may be especially important for non-VDT tasks, particularly when
those visual tasks are difficult to perform because of low contrast, high
speed, and/or worker age.
Figure 6.25 Typical Compact Fluorescent Task Light
6.5.1.4 Decorative Luminaires. A renaissance in decorative lighting

fixtures in the form of pendants, wall sconces, chandeliers, exterior
lanterns, and landscaping lights were introduced in the 1980s. In most
instances, decorative lighting luminaires are used to provide general or
ambient lighting in areas where a more customized appearance is
desired. Although decorative lighting is still most often used in
restaurants and hotels, an increasing number of applications exist in
offices, retail stores, apartment buildings, and other commercial spaces.
Energy-conserving decorative luminaires utilizing advanced lighting
technologies have increased options for lighting efficiency.
(a) Low-Wattage HID and Compact Fluorescent Wall-
Mounted Luminaires. Many traditional applications for incandescent
wall-mounted sconces and brackets can be replaced with similar-
appearing luminaires designed specifically for compact fluorescent or
HID lamps. See Figure 6.26 for an example.
167
Figure 6.26 Compact Fluorescent Wall Sconces
(b) Compact Fluorescent Pendants and Chandeliers.

Luminaire designs continue to evolve for compact fluorescent decorative
chandeliers and pendants used in applications once limited to traditional
incandescent fixtures. See Figure 6.27 for an example.
Figure 6.27 Decorative Pendant Luminaires
168
(c) Compact Fluorescent Exterior Luminaires. Compact

fluorescent lamps can be used in enclosed luminaires for exterior
lighting. In colder climates, electronically ballasted compact fluorescent
lamps may be required to ensure proper operation at lower temperatures.
Compact fluorescent outdoor luminaires (Fig. 6.28) are especially well
suited for landscape lighting applications, which previously used low-
wattage incandescent lamps.
Figure 6.28 Examples of Compact Fluorescent Exterior Luminaires
(d) Low-Wattage HID Exterior Luminaires. While larger HID

lamps are commonly used as exterior light sources, low-wattage (100
watts or less) HID lamps offer the opportunity to use these lamps for
more compact luminaires. In many cases, low-wattage HID luminaires
can be used where incandescent lamps are typically chosen.
Low-wattage HID lamps can be used in every climate region

because of their wide temperature range for starting and operating. The
small lamp size makes them suitable for many outdoor luminaires.
6.5.1.5 Emergency and Exit. Emergency lighting luminaires (Fig.

6.29) are designed to provide enough light for egress in emergency
situations. They may operate from power provided by batteries. Under
normal condition the batteries are continuously charged from line
voltage. These luminaires contain circuitry that turns them on whenever
line voltage is not present.
Exit luminaires help building occupants identify directions to an exit.

They are of illuminated signage, which are designed to provide critical
169
help in emergency situations. Compact fluorescent lamps and LEDs are

commonly used in exit luminaires.
Figure 6.29 Examples of Emergency & Exit Lights
6.5.1.6 Industrial Luminaires
(a) Linear Fluorescent. These luminaires are often designed for

high-output fluorescent lamps, with the reflector often being part of the
housing. These luminaires are designed to minimize accumulation of dirt
by providing for convection; in areas with large amounts of airborne
particles, dust tight covers are used. Diffusers with gasketting are often
used in wet locations. Examples of linear fluorescent luminaires for
industrial application are shown in Figure 6.30 below.
Figure 6.30 Examples of Linear Fluorescent Luminaires for

Industrial Application
170
(b) Strips/Batten. These luminaires have one or more

fluorescent lamps and mounted to a small housing large enough to hold
ballasts and sockets. Reflectors are uncommon since these luminaires are
used in areas where a large amount of general diffuse lighting is required
and efficiency and budget are a concern. Examples of strip or batten
luminaires are shown in Figure 6.31 below.
Figure 6.31 Examples of Strip or Batten Luminaires
(c) High Bay. These luminaires use HID lamps to produce

general lighting in an industrial area. They are for application of with
spacing-to-mounting height ratios of up to 1.0. They are surface or
pendant mounted, depending on the structure and openness of the area.
These luminaires use reflectors and refractors to produce luminous
intensity distributions that vary from narrow to wide, depending on the
application and the need for vertical illuminance. Examples of high bay
luminaires are shown in Figure 6.32 below.
Figure 6.32 Examples of High Bay Luminaires
171
(d) Low Bay. These luminaires used HID lamps to produce

general lighting in an industrial area. They are for applications with
space-to-mounting height ratios greater than 1.0. As with high bay
luminaires, they are surface or pendant mounted. These luminaires
usually have wide luminous intensity distributions to provide greater
horizontal and vertical illuminances in areas with restricted ceiling
heights. Examples of low bay luminaires are shown in Figure 6.33
below.
Figure 6.33 Examples of Low Bay Luminaires
6.5.1.7 Outdoor Luminaires
(a) Floodlight. These luminaires are often used for building

lighting and other special application such as billboard lighting. Most
types of HID lamps are used in floodlight luminaires. Lamp orientation
and reflector arrangement normally determine beam characteristics.
Depending on the portion of the building being illuminated and its
distance from the luminaire mounting location, exterior building lighting
use luminaires with narrow and wide distributions. Column lighting,
accent lighting and distance mounting locations require narrow
distributions. Lighting large areas with near mounting locations requires
very wide distributions. Examples of floodlights are shown in Figure
6.34 below.
172
Figure 6.34 Examples of Floodlights
(b) Sports Lighting. Some sports lighting luminaires (Fig. 6.35)

have very narrow luminous intensity distributions and typically mounted
to the side and well above the playing area. High wattage metal halide
lamps are common for sports lighting luminaires from 1000W-3500W.
Reflectors are used to produce the required luminous intensity
distributions. Since aiming is a critical part of their application, these
luminaires are usually provided with special aiming and locking gear
(goniometer). Internal or external louvers also may be provided to
control glare and light trespass and to improve observer comfort.
Figure 6.35 Examples of Sports Lights
173
(c) Street and Roadway. These luminaires are designed to

produce reasonably uniform illuminance on streets and roadways. They
are usually mounted on arms of a pole, or are post-top mounted. All
types of HID lamps are used in these luminaires but commonly they use
High Pressure Sodium Lamps for roadway applications. Some
streetlights commonly use metal halide or mercury lamps. Luminaires
with drop dish or ovate refractors are commonly used in roadway
applications. Because of their appearance these luminaires are referred to
as “cobra head” luminaires. (See Fig. 6.36).
Figure 6.36 Examples of Street and Roadway Luminaires
(d) Pathway. Walkway and grounds lighting is often

accomplished with bollards. These luminaires are mounted in the ground
and have the form of a short thick post similar to that found on a ship or
wharf (see Fig. 6.37). They are used for localized lighting. Their size is
appropriate for the architectural scale of walkways and other pedestrian
areas.
Small sharp cut-off luminaires are also used on small poles to

provide pathway lighting. Luminaires for lighting outdoor stairs and
ramps are used. These can be mounted on poles or recessed into the
structure near the stair or ramp.
174
Figure 6.37 Example of Pathway Luminaire
(e) Parking Lot and Garage. Parking lot lighting often uses
cut-off or semi-cut-off luminaires with flat-bottomed lenses. These
luminaires are mounted on post-top brackets or on short arms and can be
arranged in single, twin, or quad configurations. Wall mounted
luminaires are often used for small parking lots immediately adjacent to
a building or in parking structures, often referred to as “wall packs” wall-
mounted luminaires.
Surface mounted luminaires in parking structures are mounted

on walls or ceilings. These are designed to produce a considerable
amount of interreflected light in the structure. (See Fig. 6.38)
Figure 6.38 Examples of Garage and Parking Lot Luminaires
175
(f) Security. Security luminaires (see Fig 6.39) are typically

outdoor luminaires designed to help visually secure an area. This can
mean providing sufficient illuminance for visual surveillance or security
camera surveillance. These luminaires are typically mounted in
inaccessible places and have particularly strong housings and lenses to
help them become less susceptible to vandalism.
Figure 6.39 Examples of Security Luminaires
(g) Landscape. Landscape luminaires (see Fig. 6.40) are

designed for outdoor use to light buildings, plants, water features, and
walkways. They can be mounted on the ground, poles, trees, or
underwater. Typically they have special housing, gasketting, lenses, and
electrical wiring hardware that protects against the effects of water and
corrosion.
Figure 6.40 Examples of Landscape Luminaires

(a) ground and path luminaire, (b) and (c) direct burial and well-mounted landscape
luminaires, (d) bollards for lighting pathways
176
6.5.1.8 Luminaire Design Considerations
a) For T5 Lamps. Although the ambient temperature

surrounding T5 lamps has a great impact on the lumen output, there is
another factor, which is of great importance – the cold spot. Unlike T8
lamps, where the cold spot is located in the middle of the lamp, with T5
lamps, the cold spot is located at one end of the lamp as shown in Fig.
6.41 below.
2 mm between the glass and the

measuring point on the G5 cap
x FH28W/840
Lamp stamping
Measuring point with the best correlation to the cold-spot temperature
Figure 6.41 Measurement of the ‘cold spot’

Temperature for T5 Lamps
In designing the luminaire, heat dissipation should be such that

the temperature at the ‘cold spot’ remains around 50oC. Any variation
greater than 5oC to 7oC either way, will reduce the lumen output by 5%.
This percentage increases with the variance.
It should also be noted that variations in lamp voltage is also
related to luminous flux. A 5% drop in lamp volts will translate into
177
around 20% drop in relative light output, and a 15oC drop in cold spot
temperature.
The slimmer diameter of T5 lamps allows more compact
luminaire designs. Thus suspended up/downlighters become more
aesthetically pleasing and compact solutions for special applications can
be realized.
When using louvered or open luminaires, glare control should be

given more attention because the T5 lamps have luminance levels nearly
twice as high as T12 lamps. Table 6.3 below shows typical readings for
various lamp types.
Table 6.3 Comparative Luminance of Fluorescent Lamps
7 7.0
6
Luminance cd/cm2
5
4 3.9
3.6
3.2 3.0 2.8
3 2.8 2.9 2.6 2.6
2.5
2 2.1
1.5 1.7 1.7
1.2
1 0.8 1.1
0.6
6
0
FQ 24W/840
L 40W/25
L 36W/25
L 58W/25
L 36W/21-840
FQ 39W/840
FQ 54W/840
FQ 80W/840
FM 6-13W/840
DS 11W/840
DD 18W/840
DL 36W/840
DL 55W/840
DT/E 57W/840
FC 22W/840
FC 40W/840
FC 55W/840
FH 14-35W/840
L 58W/21-840
T12 T8 T5 T2 T5 Compact
Circular Fluorescent
178
FH lamps are quite unique, in respect to their luminance, which

is the same (1.7cd/cm2) for each wattage (14W, 21W, 28W, 35W). This
feature makes T5 FH lamps particularly suited for use in cove lighting
systems. Since there is no difference in luminance, the lamps, regardless
of their wattage, the illuminance on the ceiling will appear the same.
With T8 lamps, when lamps of different wattages are combined to fill the
length of a lighting cove, the appearance varies since the luminance of
the lamps varies with the lamp wattage, i.e. it is clearly visible where the
36W and 18W lamps are located.
b) Other Technology Design Considerations
Table 6.4 below shows the design considerations for other

technologies:
Table 6.4 Technology Design Considerations
Option Replaces Why More Efficient?

Shielded Direct Lighting Systems
Parabolic large-cell Lensed painted troffers Increase in luminaire
louvered recessed and efficiency and effectiveness;
surface troffers improved glare control
Low brightness “CRT”- Small-cell parabolic cube Increase in luminaire
type parabolic luminaires louvered luminaires efficiency and effectiveness;
no loss of glare control; no
apparent ceiling darkness
Standard lensed troffers
equipped with imaging Standard lensed troffers Increase in luminaire
reflectors efficiency, generally with an
increase in coefficient of
utilization
Shielded
industrial/commercial Painted reflector Imaging reflectors can
fixtures with imaging luminaires increase luminaire efficiency
reflector by concentrating light
downwards and can increase
overall lighting effectiveness
179

Indirect Lighting System
High-efficiency and low- Conventional up lights Increased luminaire
ceiling fluorescent indirect efficiency; wider spread in
systems luminaires designed to be
used in computer CRT
spaces
Cove lighting systems Staggered Fluorescent
Strips Increase in cove efficiency
combined with improved
installation due to luminaire
butt-joint without socket
shadow better spread across
ceiling due to asymmetry
Compact HID lighting Incandescent and halogen
systems luminaires Allows use of high-efficacy
HID lamps in up lights,
previous available only for
low-efficacy incandescent
and halogen luminaires
Direct/Indirect Lighting Systems
High-efficiency Conventional Improved cutoff for use in
direct/indirect lighting direct/indirect computer work is combined
system Luminaires with efficient optical systems
to provide greater efficiency
and acceptability in modern
office applications
Open Direct Lighting Systems
Imaging specular reflector Painted open luminaires Imaging reflectors can
open luminaires concentrate light downwards
increasing overall lighting
system effectiveness
Architectural Luminaires
Recessed compact Incandescent downlights Direct replacement in many
fluorescent downlights situations with approximate
wattage reduction of 67% at
same illumination level and
aesthetic effect. Especially
useful in low-to-medium
height ceilings.
180

Architectural Luminaires
Recessed low wattage HID Incandescent downlights Direct replacement in many
downlights situations with approximate
wattage reduction of 50-67%
at same illumination level
and aesthetic effect. Useful at
most ceiling heights
Track-mounted HID and Incandescent and halogen Direct replacement in many
compact fluorescent wall washers situations with approximate
floodlights wattage reduction of 50-67%
at same illumination level
and aesthetic effect. Useful at
most ceiling heights
Compact fluorescent task Incandescent and halogen Significant wattage reduction
lights task lights
Low wattage HID and Incandescent and halogen Significant wattage reduction
compact fluorescent wall wall lights
lights
Compact fluorescent Incandescent and halogen Significant wattage reduction
pendants & chandeliers luminaires
6.6—PHOTOMETRIC DATA FOR LUMINAIRES
"Photo" means light; “metric” means measurement. Photometry involves

the measurement of the light radiated by luminaires. Photometric charts,
diagrams and other data are used in all types of lighting calculations and
design.
The introduction of new technologies makes it difficult for the lighting

industry to provide consistent photometric data because of the number of
different combinations of luminaire components; each combination has a
different effect on luminaire-lamp-ballast system performance.
Additionally, product designs to be operated in conjunction with older
technologies, such as F40T12 fluorescent lamps and electromagnetic
ballasts, will behave differently and will require different measurements,
181
when operated in conjunction with a newer technology, such as T8 lamps

and electronic ballasts. Thus, the designer must consider the entire
luminaire-lamp-ballast system and application when selecting the correct
photometric data.
Figure 6.42 Polar Intensity Diagram
The polar intensity diagram (see Fig. 6.42) provides a rough idea of the
shape of the light distribution of a luminaire.
In the polar intensity diagram, the luminous intensity is given in the form
of a polar diagram. The luminous intensity is given in candela per 1000
lumen (cd/1000lm) of the nominal lamp flux of the lamps applied.
The diagram gives the light distribution in two planes:
(a) Dotted Line. In the vertical plane through the length axis of the
luminaire, the so-called C90-C270 plane is indicated as in Fig. 6.42(a):
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Figure 6.42(a) Dotted Line
(b) Continuous Line. In the vertical plane through the width axis of
the luminaire, the so-called C0-C180 plane is indicated as in Fig 6.42(b)
below:
Figure 6.42(b) Continuous Line
183
If the light distribution of a luminaire is rotational-symmetrical, like

downlights, spotlights, and industrial high-bay luminaires, the light
distribution in only one C-plane is given. Note that for asymmetrical
light distributions two planes are not sufficient for calculation purposes.
Yet in the polar intensity diagram, only two planes will be given and this
is universally accepted.
6.6.1 Light Loss Factors. In today's era of evolving technologies, the

designer must account for a variety of light loss factors (LLFs) that must
be used in conjunction with photometric data provided by manufacturers
and testing laboratories. It is important to consider all factors that affect
lighting system performance and to account for the influence of these
individual factors as accurately as conditions permit. If these factors are
not carefully considered, the designer may be tempted to use a very large
LLF as a safety margin. This leads to inefficient designs that are
wasteful, consuming more power than designs with well-conceived light
loss factors.
There are two types of LLFs: nonrecoverable and recoverable. (See

Chapter 8 for a complete discussion.)
Lamp lumen depreciation (LLD) from aging and dirt accumulation on

lamps, reflectors, lenses, and room surfaces are the principal recoverable
light loss factors. Since lumen output depreciates with aging, most
lighting designs base calculations on “maintained,” as opposed to
“initial,” lamp lumens. Many fluorescent lamps that use phosphors (such
as halophosphor "cool white), depreciate significantly over lamp life. On
the other hand, newer technology “triphosphor” lamps depreciate
significantly less over the same period of time, as compared to
conventional halophosphor lamps. This results in different LLD values.
6.6.2 Overall Light Loss Factor. The thermal factor (see the next
section and Chapter 8), dirt depreciation factors, and lamp lumen
depreciation can be significant. Accurate design calculations must
consider these and other variables. As an example, if photometric data is
given for standard F40T12 cool white lamps and electromagnetic
ballasts, but the luminaire is to be equipped with F36T8 triphosphor
lamps and an electronic ballast, the following adjustments should be
considered:
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• Change in initial lamp lumens, due to the different lamp type.

• Change in ballast factor, due to the electronic ballast
• Increase in application thermal factor, due to the electronic
ballasts.
• Probable increase in the LLD multiplier, because of the
triphosphor coatings in the T8 lamp (Note: an increase in LLD
actually means that lamp lumen depreciation is less)
• Possible increase in luminaire efficiency due to the smaller
diameter of the T8 lamp.
The end result of using the T8 lamps and electronic ballasts as described
above would be a reduction of energy use of more than 20% with no
significant change in lighting level. This would more than offset the
higher cost of this lamp-ballast combination. When LLFs are considered,
electronic ballasts produce even more dramatic energy savings and
should be considered in almost every possible lighting application.
6.7—LIGHTING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
The lighting system consists of the luminaire itself along with the
reflectors, lenses and housings, as well as the lamps and ballasts. System
performance depends on how well all these components work together.
With the introduction of many new products—especially electronic
ballast – designers must pay special attention to the interactions between
lamps, ballasts, and luminaires. Thermal effects, in particular, vary
widely and affect luminaire-lamp-ballast system performance. With
fluorescent lamp-ballast systems, light output (lumens), input watts, and
efficacy are all sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature. When
the ambient temperature around the lamps is significantly above or below
25oC, the performance of the lamp ballast system can change
significantly. Figure 6.43 shows this relationship for two common lamp-
ballast systems: (a) the F40T12 lamp with magnetic ballast and (b) the
F36T8 lamp with electronic ballast.
Figure 6.43 shows that the optimum operating temperature for the F36T8
lamp-ballast system is higher than the F40T12 system. This means that
for installations when the lamp ambient temperature is greater than
25oC, the performance of the F36T8 system is actually higher than
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performance under the applicable PNS conditions. Performance of lamps

with even smaller diameters, such as T5 twin tube lamps, peaks at even
higher ambient temperatures. For example, the FT28T5 lamp peaks in
lumen output when the ambient temperature approaches 32oC.
(a) F40T12 Lamp with Magnetic Ballast
(b) F36T8 with Electronic Ballast
Figure 6.43 Sensitivity of Lamp-Ballast Performance to

Ambient Temperature
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While the information in the Polar Intensity Diagram (Fig. 6.42) is

interesting, it does not provide much information to the designer faced
with the responsibility of designing an energy-efficient lighting system
that provides specified design illuminance levels. Data like that shown in
Fig. 6.43 should be combined with luminaire performance data from the
manufacturers’ catalog.
6.7.1 Typical Luminaire Installations. Typical luminaires used

locally are the following:
Parabolic troffer type, recessed mounted

Same as above but with air vents for HVAC return air
Surface mounted, “vandal resistant”, dust tight
6.7.2 Recommended Spacing for General Office Lighting

Applications. When more than one luminaire is required in an area, the
general procedure shown in Fig. 6.44 should be followed. Uniform light
distribution is achieved by spacing the luminaires so that the distances
between the luminaires and walls follow these recommended spacing
guides. The spacing ratios for specific luminaires are given in the data
sheets published by each manufacturer. This number, usually between
0.5 and 1.5, when multiplied by the mounting height, gives the maximum
distance that the luminaires may be separated and provide uniform
illuminance on the work surface.
6.7.3 Recommended Spacing for Other Applications. Uniform

lighting requires that the spacing between adjacent luminaires must not
exceed defined limits (refer to Figure 6.45). The diagram on the left
shows a spacing arrangement that does not give uniform lighting. The
diagram on the right shows that with reduced spacing, the lighting levels
are reasonably uniform.
Spacing limitations between luminaires are a function of their intensity

distribution patterns and their mounting heights. The luminaire spacing
criterion (SC) is a classification relating to its distribution pattern. This
classification is done numerically.
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Figure 6.44 Recommended Spacing
6m 3m 3m
500 lx 100 lx 500 lx 500 lx 400 lx 500 lx 400 lx 500 lx
Figure 6.45 Spacing Requirements for Reasonably

Uniform Lighting
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For luminaires using essentially point sources of light, such as CFLs or

HID lamps, the maximum spacing applies equally to both directions in
the room. Luminaires using fluorescent lamps, because of their length,
do not necessarily fit this pattern. A very common and desirable
arrangement is continuous rows of fluorescent luminaires in one
direction in the room, usually lengthwise, as shown in Figure 6.46(a).
The maximum spacing then applies only between the centerlines of each
row. Where rows of fluorescent luminaires are not continuous, the
maximum spacing along the rows applies as shown in Figure 6.46(b).
For 1.2 m long luminaires, the maximum spacing is from centerline to
center line (the same as for point sources). These guidelines are based on
the fact that the distribution of light from the ends of fluorescent
luminaires is not as good as it is from the sides.
Figure 6.46 Maximum Spacing Dimensions for Fluorescent

Luminaires
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In many lighting layouts, the final spacing is less than the maximum
permitted by the spacing criterion. After the theoretical number of
luminaires required for the layout has been calculated, it is necessary to
adjust this number so that it can be evenly divisible by the number of
rows.
For point sources of light, the ratio between the number of rows and the
number of luminaires per row should be in proportion to the width-to-
length ratio of the room. This is required to give symmetrical spacing in
both directions in the room for uniform lighting [refer to Figure 6.47(a)].
The exact spacing between rows is calculated by dividing the room width
by the number of rows. Spacing between luminaires in each row is
calculated by dividing the room length by the number of luminaires per
row. This means that the spacing between the outer luminaires and the
adjacent wall is one-half of the luminaire spacing. If it is known that
desks or other work areas are to be located alongside the walls, then the
wall-to-luminaires spacing should be reduced to one-third of the
luminaire spacing.
For fluorescent luminaires, it is often necessary to first establish the

maximum number that can be installed in one row. Refer to Fig. 6.47(b).
It is necessary to allow some space between the ends of the rows and the
walls. Therefore, the maximum number is calculated by subtracting at
least 0.3 meter from the room length and then dividing by the length of
the luminaire. The spacing between rows of fluorescent luminaires is
determined the same as previously indicated for rows of point sources.
The final layout of luminaires in practice is very often influenced by the

building structural details. Such things as the location of beams and
columns must be considered in locating luminaires. Since these details
introduce much more complexity into the design of the lighting system,
they are not considered in the examples shown in this chapter. However,
designers of lighting systems in the real world must be able to read
structural, mechanical, and architectural drawings in order to coordinate
the lighting systems.
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(a) CFL and HID
(b) Flourescent, continuous rows

Figure 6.47 Layout Arrangements for Luminaires
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6.8—GUIDELINES SPECIFICATION
Lighting specifications for luminaires should be clearly described to

avoid the substitution of inferior products that might sacrifice
performance and energy savings. (Refer to ELI specifications in
Appendix B).
6.8.1 Performance Specifications. Instead of specifying a product by

name, it is possible to specify a product by thoroughly describing its
performance characteristics. Key identifying characteristics are the
photometric curves of the luminaire. Like fingerprints, photometric data
are virtually unique to each luminaire. Characteristics may include
coefficient of utilization, efficiency, distribution patterns, and candela at
specific angles. It is especially important to have a performance
specification in cases where visual performance may be impaired by poor
luminaire characteristics as in, for example, VDT areas.
It is also advisable to include construction parameters when writing a

performance specification. Material gauge, construction method,
tolerances, and other quality factors should be included to prevent
substitution by photometrically correct but otherwise inferior products.
Finally, the performance specification should require certified test data

from an independent laboratory using IEC recommended testing
methods.
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Chapter 7. Lighting Control Technologies
7.1—LIGHTING CONTROL STRATEGIES
The 3 main purposes for the use of lighting controls are:
• Energy Management
• Aesthetics
• Code Compliance
Energy management controls for lighting systems provide energy and

cost savings through reduced power or reduced time of use. Aesthetic
controls provide the ability to change space functions and can create
emotional appeal, offering control of lighting quality, mood, and attitude.
Power density considerations are often given for control systems,
providing additional lighting to be used in a space, or to reduce overall
energy consumption to meet code requirements.
7.1.1 Energy Management Strategies
(a) Forecasted Schedule. Wherein the activities in a building occur

routinely during the day, luminaires throughout the space can be
operated on a fixed schedule (with overrides in case there are variations
in the schedule). For example, staff arrival and departure times, lunch
times, and cleaning hours are forecasted activities and schedules.
Forecasted scheduling strategies are particularly effective when work

schedules are well defined for the entire area. These strategies can reduce
energy consumption by as much as 40 % by eliminating energy wastage
caused by lights operating in unoccupied spaces. Automatic scheduling
also frees the staff of the burden of operating lighting controls and can be
used to signal times of particular activities, such as opening and closing
of retail stores.
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CHAPTER 7. LIGHTING CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
(b) Un-forecasted Schedule. Many situations are unscheduled, such

as workstations vacancies due to sickness, vacations, staff meetings and
business trips. Unassigned areas such as comfort rooms, copy centers,
conference rooms, filing areas, etc. are used (sporadically) in a wide
range and are not readily scheduled. Although these areas may not be
open to tightly scheduled lighting operation, local automatic control
techniques can be more cost effective than to rely on manual operation of
lights. Unforecasted scheduling strategies using occupancy/motion
sensors have yielded energy savings of over 60 % in some areas.
To assess the benefits of automatic controls, it is important first

determine the proportion of time the space is vacant. It is also important
to consider that switching lights on and off can disturb occupants of
adjacent spaces, as in an open-plan office. For reasons of aesthetics,
safety, and user acceptance, lights in these spaces can be dimmed rather
than switched off completely.
(c) Daylighting. In the perimeter areas of buildings, part of the

illumination can often be provided by daylight. In these areas, reduction
of power for electric lighting in response to the amount of available
daylight reduces energy consumption.
Both dimming and switching strategies can be used. Successful

applications of daylight based switching, high levels of daylight must be
present so that sufficient illumination for the task remains after the
electric lighting has been lowered.
Energy savings realized from daylighting depends on several factors,

such as climatic conditions, building orientation, design and shape,
sensor and control design and installation, and the activities within the
building. In some conditions, daylight can reduce energy costs
significantly when photoelectric sensor controls are used. It is therefore
important that control of lighting be properly integrated with daylighting
illumination pattern to maintain adequate illumination and quality of
lighting. It is important during peak power demand hours when cost of
energy can be much higher than off-peak hours.
Photo sensor controls, the size and form of control zones are usually
constrained by the rapid falloff of horizontal illumination from the
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window wall. Lighting zones can be laid out to cover a single task area,
a room, or an entire building. In practice, the lighting zones should be
adjacent to the window wall and no more than 4 meters deep. A separate
control should be provided for the row of luminaires nearest the window.
Occupancy sensors available today can have daylight sensing features.
(d) Brightness Balance. Lighting design often dictates limit to the

brightness within spaces. The design objective is to balance different
brightness levels so that glare and shadows be reduced. Lighting controls
can be used to mitigate the brightness produced by windows in interior
spaces. The control technique is to limit light entering the space with
blinds or louvers. A counterintuitive approach for interior spaces is to
increase the illumination produced by artificial light. Often controls can
be used to hide a luminous transition between two spaces having
different brightness levels.
(e) Lumen Maintenance. Lighting systems are designed for a

minimum maintained illumination level. This requires the level of a new
lighting system to exceed the design minimum by 20 To 35 % to allow
for lamp lumen depreciation, luminaire dirt depreciation, and room
surface dirt depreciation.
Lumen depreciation control strategy calls for the reduction of the

initial illumination of a new system to the designed minimum level. As
lumen depreciation occurs, more power is applied to the lamps in order
to maintain constant output. Therefore, full power is applied only near
the end of the lumen maintenance period, significantly reducing energy
consumption over the life of the lamps.
Lumen maintenance can be done by the use of a dimming system

with photo-sensor input. The control system for lumen maintenance is
most cost effective when large portion of luminaires are controlled
together. Group relamping is to maintain all the lamps at the same lumen
output. This is required for the system to be effective in reducing energy
and maintenance costs.
(f) Task Tuning. With a task tuning control strategy, the lighting
system can be adjusted, tuned, to provide local illumination as needed.
Levels can be lowered in areas such as aisles and reception rooms and
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raised in areas where more difficult visual tasks occur. Significant

savings are possible through task tuning. This strategy results in the
efficient use of energy for lighting without sacrificing occupant visual
performance.
Tuning is done by varying the light output of individual or small

groups of luminaires. It is necessary to tune the lighting only
occasionally, upon a change in the space utilization or in the task being
performed, the adjustment often can be done manually. Light controllers
have features to tune up a zone of luminaires.
(g) Load Shedding and Demand Reduction. An electrical bill of a

building can be effectively reduced by controlling lighting power
demand for short periods of time. Selective reduction of illumination in
less critical areas can be effective in regions where peak power demand
occurs in summer,. This is because a reduction in lighting load also
reduces the cooling load. Peak power demand charges are used by many
utilities to help avoid voltage outages, so the savings at peak periods can
be significant.
(h) Aesthetic Control Strategies. Many spaces in buildings are used

for more than one purpose. Different tasks need a variety of lighting
conditions. Aesthetic controls include switching and dimming. Dimming
controls can provide dynamic effects or create a smooth transition
between different room functions.
It is necessary to control illumination over a wide range for Aesthetic

applications. In a conference room, for example, a high illumination
would be needed for reading tasks, while for a slide presentation the
illumination should be 1/10th or less of the reading level. The differences
in required illumination are due to the differences in the task visibility
and the adaptation of the eye to changes in illumination. The square law
curve for adaptation used by most controls generally require a measured
illumination of less than 10 % depending on the room reflectance, the
screen used, and the degree of note taking required.
It is necessary to use a light source that can be appropriately

dimmed. Incandescent and low voltage incandescent sources can be dim
to zero output. Fluorescent sources can be dimmed to 1 % output when
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used with certain dimming ballasts. Neon and cold cathode lamps can be
dimmed to approximately 10 % of maximum light output. HID sources
can be dimmed to approximately 20 % of maximum light output, but
they have a slow response time and strong color shifts, which make them
poorly suited for aesthetic applications.
The strategies used for aesthetic control include manual controls,

preset control systems, and central control systems. Manual controls
(switches and dimmers) are used in schools, residential, commercial and
industrial buildings. To be effective, manual controls must be simple and
convenient to use. The number of controls should be minimized to avoid
confusion. Control panels should be clearly and permanently labeled.
Switches and dimmers should match each other and fit into the overall
architectural style of the area to be lighted
Preset control systems provide several lighting points to be

controlled simultaneously. All points are programmed to provide
multiple scenes or moods. Each of these moods can be recalled with the
touch of one button. Preset control systems are valuable in multifunction
commercial areas such as ballrooms, conference rooms. They are also
used in residential applications.
Central dimming systems are the most effective of the group of

dimming options. Similar to theatrical dimming systems, they have at
least one central dimming panel with dimmers suited for the type of load.
The dimmers are themselves the power handling devices. The control
function logic is typically in the control panel, which can include
processors and several forms of preset and manual controls.
Local, single room control systems composed of one control station

with manual sliders or non-dimming switches that can control large
amounts of power. The dimmable wattage is limited only by the number
of modules a dimmer panel can preset, assigned, and time clock control.
They can include energy reduction controls such as occupancy/motion
sensors and photo-sensors and can handle emergency power functions.
Some systems allow wireless remote control and can interface to
audiovisual and other systems in both residential and commercial
applications.
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In divisible areas, assignment control points allow many independent

lighting systems to be joined together through flexible master control.
Convention Center and Hotel function areas are the most common
applications.
Whole house systems are being applied more frequently today.

Using local or small modular dimmers, a central computer, and master
control station, these systems can control all lighting features. Several of
these systems can also operate other electrical systems such as whirlpool
pumps, motorized curtains, and interface easily with burglar alarms,
smart home systems and other electrical control systems.
7.2—LIGHTING CONTROL TECHNIQUES
Selection of the major control technique is important in the specification

process. There are three categories that establish the major selection;
switching or dimming control, local or central control, and the degree of
control automation. Once the strategies are decided, it is necessary to
select the specific lighting control equipment to be employed.
7.2.1 Switching or Dimming
Switching can be done manually with simple wall box switches,

remotely via relays or switchable circuit breakers, by a control system, or
by occupancy sensors. It has been found that where the use of local
switching controls can save energy, switches might be used. Two-stage
switching in private offices is an inexpensive way to give the occupant
the ability to modulate the environment in response to daylight or
specific task requirements. To achieve a different switching light level, it
has to be done through light level switchable ballast. Instead of switching
between lamps, the light level switchable ballast can reduce the light
from all lamps in the luminaire.
Central switching systems can be less expensive to install per unit area
than equivalent dimming systems and the most applicable strategies such
as scheduling, where the switching action can be confined to unoccupied
times. Switching techniques should be treated carefully for other
purposes, especially if the switching action can occur when the space is
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occupied, because sudden changes in the electric lighting can annoy

building occupants, thus affecting productivity.
In multi-ballasted lighting systems, switching can be used most

effectively if the luminaires are split-wired. Split wiring 3 and 4 lamp
luminaires can provide multiple intensities in a single area. With the aid
of a control system, full lighting can be provided for certain portions of
the day while allowing a reduction of lighting level for times when less
demanding tasks are preformed. In retrofit applications, split wiring can
be costly. Depending on the existing wiring system, relays can be
installed near the circuit breaker stations to allow automatic control of
blocks of lighting.
Occupancy or motion sensors can be utilized to control lighting in

offices, conference areas, and similar spaces. In these situations, the
addition of toggle switches or sensors with override switches to provide
the manual off condition for certain applications is recommended. With
dimming control, the illumination in each area can be varied smoothly
and continuously to dynamically match visual requirements. Dimming
control can be well suited to daylighting applications. Moreover, the
dynamic range of split wiring scheme allows 3 lighting levels with 4
lamp luminaires.
NOTE: under IEC 61000-3-2- Lighting Equipment
1.) Independent Dimming Devices shall comply with class A limits. Where phase
control is used on incandescent lamps, the firing angle shall not exceed 1450.
2.) Built-in Dimming Devices for incandescent lamp class A limits shall be
satisfied. Where phase control is used, the firing angle shall not exceed 1450.
For discharge lamps class D limits apply.
7.2.2 Local or Central
Lighting controls can be utilized in buildings using either a local

approach, a central system, or some combination of the two. The two
approaches are distinguished by the size of the controlled spaces and by
how the control inputs are integrated into the system.
A local lighting system is divided into independently controllable areas,

their size and form typically dictated by the geometry of the building
areas or according to functional needs. Sensor inputs are wired directly to
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the local lighting and HVAC control rather than to a central location.
Therefore, each module is essentially independent of other modules.
Sensors that can detect daylight availability can be especially effective in
these situations.
Central systems generally combine several local areas. Some central

microprocessor systems are intended to handle either the lighting and
mechanical (HVAC) systems or both. Total building energy management
control and monitoring functions are easier with central systems.
7.2.2.1 System Integration. One advantage of a lighting control

system is that the illumination can be automatically adjusted to suit the
activity or tasks. With proper programming and appropriate sensors,
some processors can control the lighting systems as well as the
mechanical systems of the building. A common system allows the
optimum control of energy use and also minimizes programming and
training needs. By the use of distributive processing configuration, the
difference between mechanical and lighting inputs and control strategies
are easily meet. The local processor can be designed for the specific
inputs and control outputs as well as the needed interface with the central
processor.
All lighting control system has 3 major components: a logic circuit, a

sensing device, and a power controller. The function and wiring system
must link these components. The controller such as switch, relay or
dimmer is the business end of a control system that changes the output of
the light source. The logic circuit is the one that decides when to supply
electric lighting and the intensity. It receives the information from the
sensor. Several sensors can be combined in a single system.
Control strategies can have different and overlapping sets of

hardware requirements. Some combination of strategies, such as
daylighting and lumen maintenance, the equipment needed is essentially
identical to that needed for both. Therefore, the economic benefit of
employing several strategies with the same equipment can increase the
cost effectiveness of the control system investment.
7.2.2.2 Hardwiring. There are several methods available for linking

the lighting control system elements. The control device itself is usually
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hardwired to a lighting system before the supply and the ballast. Some
electronic ballasts incorporate circuitry to vary the output of the light
source over a wide range, effectively combining the control equipment
and ballast into one integrated package.
7.2.2.3 Power Line Carrier. The power line carrier is a

communication method that is looking for some application in
retrofitting control installations. By permitting communication between
the processor and the control equipment directly over the existing power
lines, extensive rewiring is being eliminated. Moreover, some wiring
systems in older buildings can significantly reduce the effective range of
communications between the sensor, the processor and the controller.
There are limitations to capacity and speed of these systems. Care must
be taken to ensure that all of the control equipment on the power line is
compatible as a system and suitable for the application. Several factors
contribute to a successful installation, but often poor power quality and
pre-existing power line carrier systems can compromise the proper
operation of these systems.
7.2.2.4 Radio Links. Radio-controlled system eliminates the need

for wiring between the sensor, the processor and the controller. These
systems are expensive but have some applications in outdoor systems
and high bay warehouses where the controlled luminaires are difficult to
access and maintain. They are also suited for retrofitting where control
wiring would be difficult or expensive to install.
7.2.3 Degree of Control Automation and Zoning
Controls vary in degree of automation, from manual to highly automatic.

In terms of energy conservation, automatic controls can reduce energy
consumption since they do not depend on human activity. In terms of
cost and occupant response, automatic controls are not the most
effective. Permitting occupants to override the automatic operation when
needed is very important, especially when programmable controls are
utilized for scheduling purposes. A strict lighting schedule can be applied
if automatic control can be locally overridden when necessary.
7.2.3.1 Zoning. Compliance with energy codes needs much closer

coordination between the electrical engineer and the mechanical engineer
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who design the HVAC system. Lighting and mechanical areas should
match for coordinated control. In most cases this results in areas sized
from 80 m2 to 300 m2. There is a tradeoff between the size of the control
area and the cost of the system. Smaller areas are more costly both in
equipment and in installation cost but have greater flexibility and
potential for lowering lighting operating costs. Some control strategies,
especially day lighting and task tuning are best applied with small
control areas, 10 to 40 m2, while scheduling and lumen maintenance can
be used effectively even if the control areas correspond to the area
illuminated by an entire branch circuit, approximately 100 to 4002.
7.3—LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT
7.3.1 Manual Switching
The energy savings attainable through switching should be the initial

consideration in developing the plan for lighting circuits. The most
common practice is to permit manual control of lighting. The design and
the location of the manual control affect the energy consumption of the
building. The energy savings depend on the willingness of the persons to
utilize the switching system; the convenience and flexibility of switching
greatly affect the extent of any lighting energy savings. Occupants of
private offices are the most likely to use switches to modulate the
illumination in their area and to do their part in saving energy. Light
reminder stickers can improve occupant’s switching behavior.
Each lighting plan presents a unique set of switching circumstances. The

following general provisions should be considered:
1. Each office or space should have its own control switch, and
those with daylighting should have at least two-level
switching.
2. In large open areas, similar work areas should be grouped
together on one circuit.
3. When single or two lamp luminaires are used, adjacent
luminaires should be placed on alternate circuits to provide
for half and full illumination.
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4. When three lamp fluorescent luminaires are used, the middle

lamps should be connected to a separate circuit from the
outer lamps. This produces three level lighting systems with
one-third, two thirds and full light levels.
5. When four lamp luminaires are used, the inside pair of lamps
should be connected to a circuit separate from the outer pair
to provide half and full light levels.
6. Task areas high illumination should be on separate switches.
7. Luminaires along windows should be wired on separate
circuits and controlled independently.
8. Effective labeling may cause occupants to use simple wall
switches.
7.3.2 Timing and Sensing Devices
7.3.2.1 Timing Devices. The function of the timer is to control

lighting in response to known or scheduled activities of events, wherein;
turning of lights that is not needed is achieved. Timers range in
complexity from simple integral timers to microprocessors that can
program a sequence of events for years at a time. Coupled with
microprocessors, timers can control multiple events and lighting effects.
As a general rule, some form of override must be provided. To
accommodate deviation from the preset schedule, the override should
automatically reset to the programmed functions after a suitable period.
Such timers can be effective in bathrooms in hotels, communication
equipment rooms and certain stack applications where occupancy sensors
cannot effectively cover the whole area.
With a simple integral timer, the load is switched on and kept

energized for a preset time. Timer limits range from a few minutes to
twelve hours. Some models have a hold position for continuous service.
These units can handle lighting loads of up to 20 amperes.
An electromechanical timer is driven by an electric motor, with

contacts actuated by mechanical stops or arms affixed to the clock face.
Timers have periods from 24 hours to 7 days and can include
astronomical correction to compensate for seasonal variations. They can
initiate numerous on-off operations. Some units are available with up to
16 hours of back up power on the timing mechanism in case of power
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failure. Some can actuate a momentary contact switch to provide on and

off signals for actuating low voltage relays. Wall mounted units are also
available to control local loads such as security lighting.
Electronic timers provide programmable selection of several

switching operations and typically can be controlled to the nearest
minute over a 7-day period. These devices offer the same switching
options as the electromechanical timers. Battery backup is available to
protect the system from power failures.
7.3.2.2 Photo-sensors. Photo-sensors use electronic components that

transform visible radiation into an electrical signal, which is then used to
control another system. Generally these sensors are either immune to or
filtered from UV and IR radiation. Some sensors generate a control
signal roughly proportional to the irradiance on the photo sensor. The
control signal can activate two modes of operation. The first, the photo-
sensor output activates a simple on-off relay. The second, a variable
output signal is made and sent to a controller that continuously adjusts
the output of the lighting system.
When photo sensors for interior applications are used in connection

with relays for on-off control they should use a “dead band”, that is, the
illumination above which the lamps are switched off should be higher
than the illumination below which they are switched on. These prevent
unnecessary on-off cycling near the threshold illumination levels. It is
also important to consider that switching lights on and off can disturb
occupants. A photo sensor can be an integral part of a luminaire, can be
remote from the luminaire that it controls, or can control a relay that
operates several luminaires. A photo sensor can also be used in
conjunction with a timer which can switch lights off or lower their
output.
Photo sensors used in outdoor applications are usually oriented to the

north. This assures more constant illumination on the sensor, as there is
no direct sunlight contribution. The sensors are adjustable with respect
to light levels for activation. Photo sensors designed for outdoor lighting
should not be used to control interior lighting because of their limited
sensitivity and adjustability.
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Systems that continuously vary their output disproportionately in

response to varying photo sensor irradiance are cost effective when used
for window or daylighting strategies. The photo sensor detects an
increase in illumination and sends a mix signal to the controller to
decrease the illumination from artificial lighting source. These systems
can be adjusted by stepped or continuous dimming and are effective
when used for lumen maintenance.
The use of photo sensors to control interior lighting is not trivial;

proper design, placement and calibration are critical. Several techniques
are presently used. Placement of the sensor on the task surface has the
advantage of direct measurement of task illumination but there can be
difficulty in wiring the sensor to the controller and in ensuring that the
sensor does not damage and is not damaged by the task materials. The
second and most common method places the sensor on the ceiling,
oriented toward the task. Third method measures the daylight entering
through the fenestration; best results are achieved when sunlight does not
directly shine on the sensor. A fourth method measures the external
illumination directly. All methods need the sensor output to be adjusted
to match the illumination on the task as nearly as possible. An accurate
and easy means to calibrate the response of the sensor is essential.
Lumen maintenance strategies typically use the second method, and
daylighting strategies can use any of the three methods.
Another consideration with interior lighting is the amount of area

controlled by one sensor. The most important guide is that all of the areas
controlled by one sensor should have the same task activity, illumination
requirements and the surrounding. The space controlled should have the
same daylight illumination conditions. The entire area should be
contiguous, having no high walls or partitions to divide it. This is
effective only if the task area monitored is truly typical and free of
brightness extremes.
7.3.2.3 Occupancy/Motion Sensors. The primary function of

occupancy sensors is to automatically switch off luminaires when spaces
are unoccupied to reduce energy use. Electrical consumption is reduced
by cutting the number of hours the luminaires are operating. This method
offers the best savings and payback of all control options. The failure of
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an occupancy sensor installation is almost always a result of poor sensor

placement or incorrect equipment selection.
Occupancy/motion sensors provide local on-off control of luminaires

in response to the presence or absence of occupants in a space.
Occupancy is sensed by audio, ultrasonic, passive infrared, or optical
means. These devices are designed to switch lights on as an occupant
enters and keep them on while he or she remains in the space; lights are
switched off after a preset time following the departure of the occupant.
The normal movements of a person should sustain lighting in the
occupied space. Inactive and quiet activities such as word processing,
reading or using telephone, however, may not be detected and lights
being switched off can frustrate occupants in these situations. These
nuisance actions can be minimized by suitable product selection and
proper sensor location. Occupancy/motion sensors can be mounted in
many ways; they can be recessed or surface mounted on the ceiling,
corners, or walls; they can replace wall switches; and they can plug into
receptacles. The floor area covered by individual sensors can range from
15m2 in individual offices or workstations to 200 m2 in large assembly
areas. Larger areas can be controlled by adding more sensors.
When selecting a sensor and planning for its location, the designer
should ensure that all important movements within the controlled area
are detected subject to the avoidance of false positive responses;
responses to movement by inanimate objects inside the room or by
people outside the entrance. It should also be recognized that the
operating life of lamps can be reduced by ballast starting circuitry, and
frequency of switching.
Large areas can require multiple sensors and power devices for
multiple circuits. Several combinations are available, with remote
sensors, a variety of sensor technologies and coverage patterns, and
voltage specific power packs.
Ultrasonic occupancy/motion sensors transmit a low power, high

frequency signal and receive a reflected signal using the Doppler shift to
sense movement in an area. The frequency of ultrasonic sensor is usually
between 25000 and 40000 hertz. Ultrasonic occupancy/motion sensors
are normally better at detecting small movements and detecting
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movements around modular walls. Most ultrasonic occupancy/motion

sensors should not be mounted on ceilings above 4 to 5 m.
There have been reports of ultrasonic occupancy/motion sensors

interfering with hearing aids.
Passive infrared (PIR) sensors detect the changes in infrared patterns

across their segmented detection areas, tuned to the region of human
body temperature. PIR occupancy and motion sensors have a line of sight
coverage pattern with very predictable pickup patterns. They can be
masked for controlling unwanted coverage.
7.4—IMPACT OF LIGHTING CONTROLS
HVAC Effects. Lighting can be responsible for a major portion of a

building’s HVAC load. Therefore, lighting loads have major influence
on both air conditioning loads and fan operation. Lighting loads affect
the initial cost of the HVAC system as well as its annual consumption. If
lighting controls are utilized to reduce the lighting consumption, it is
important that the HVAC system and controls be designed to respond to
changes in the operation of the lighting system. With the trend toward
the use of daylighting to augment the lighting system, it is necessary to
consider the effects of the glazing system on the heating and air
conditioning system and its controls. Daylighting can increase the initial
cost and the annual consumption if daylighting system is not carefully
designed. Several modern occupancy sensors have dedicated control
output for the simultaneous control of lighting and HVAC equipment.
By properly integrating the HVAC system and its controls with the
lighting system often both the initial cost of the HVAC system and
consumption can be reduced. In order to achieve these benefits, the
HVAC system must be properly designed with zoning and effective
controls. The type of HVAC system is extremely important if full
savings are to be attained from lighting controls. Especially in existing
buildings where the air distribution system is either multi-zone, double
duct or terminal reheat system. These systems supply a constant amount
of air and vary the supply air temperature in order to maintain the area
temperature.
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In building designs, the use of multi-zone and terminal reheat systems

has been eliminated by building energy codes. Most commercial systems
use numerous small single zone units or variable air volume
(VAV)systems where the area temperature is maintained by an air supply
of a contant temperature and varying volume.
Lighting controls can be integrated with HVAC system within the

building energy management and control system (EMCS). The primary
application is the scheduling of the start and stop of various loads. The
EMCS computer can also be used to consider the time of imposition of
the various loads needed for optimal start and stop and the thermal
storage effects of the building mass.
Another consideration that affects energy consumption of the air

conditioning system is the part load efficiency of the air conditioning,
including the energy dissipated by fans and motors. Unless the air
conditioning components and controls are designed to take into account
the part load efficiency, the potential savings of air conditioning system
from lighting controls will not be achieved.
7.4.1 Electrical Equipment Effects
7.4.1.1 Switching. Controls that switch lamps on and off excessively

can reduce fluorescent and HID lamp life. Increased cycling does not
decrease ballast life and reliability. The actual service life of lamps can
be extended by eliminating of unnecessary burning hours.
7.4.1.2 Interference. Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) or

electromagnetic interference (EMI) is inherent in all control systems that
rapidly switch a portion of input power.
There are two areas of concern with regard to radio noise: conducted
emission and radiated emission. Conducted emission is the noise fed
directly into the power line by the device drawing power from that line.
Radiated emission is the electrical noise radiated by the lamps in the
luminaire, with the power line possibly acting as an antenna. Conducted
emission follows the power line itself as a path of propagation.
Generally, at high frequencies this noise is limited to the downstream
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portion of the circuit, from the branch transformer to the devices in

question.
In most commercial and industrial buildings the lighting power

circuits are contained within metal conduits. These conduits attenuate
radiated electromagnetic energy and limit the radio noise to the circuits
contained within the same conduit. Conducted emissions are of concern
to the extent that they interfere with the lighting control system and any
other devices on the same branch circuit feeds, such as computers or
security systems. Control systems use passive and active filters to keep
the conducted emissions within allowable limits.
With shielded power lines, radiated noise is limited to the radio noise
emitted directly from the controller and luminaire. It is of concern to the
extent that other devices within the immediate area of the controller and
luminaire can be affected. The primary antenna within the luminaire is
the lamp itself. While all ballasts, lamps, and control systems emit radio
noise that can interfere with some equipment. There are precautions that
ballast and control manufacturers can take to reduce such noise. For
conventional ones, the noise is a type and magnitude that can be more
easily suppressed or designed out of the ballast. There are also luminaires
with conductive lenses specifically designed to attenuate the EMI
radiated by the lamps.
7.4.2 Power Quality
The power quality of electrical switching systems has become a concern

to utilities with regard to power factor, safety and interference. Most
incandescent dimming techniques use phase control in which the voltage
to the lamp is reduced by high speed switching. This distorts the
sinusoidal line current, producing other frequencies and leading to a
decrease in the power factor.
The designer should be aware of potential harmonics as they can

overload the neutral conductor in three phase electrical distribution
systems, which can damage its insulation, overheat transformers and
distort the voltage at points of coupling. In addition, if only a single leg
of a three phase system is dimmed, the system becomes unbalanced,
further increasing the neutral current. In practice no problems have
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actually been attributed to the generation of harmonics by lighting

control systems to date, but designers and engineers should become
familiar with the issues when using these advanced lighting technologies.
Very low harmonic content electronic ballasts can have a high in rush
current associated with the front end power filtering. Consult the specific
manufacturer’s literature for detailed information on this.
7.4.3 Human Performance Effects
Lighting control systems can have a positive effect on the working

environment, provided that they add to the comfort and the aesthetics of
a space. Controls can have further economic benefit if the productivity of
the occupants is increased. This is true, for example, where visual display
terminals (VDTs) are used because the brightness of reflected images is
reduced by dimming the lighting. In general, the ceiling and task lighting
can be controlled in zones over a wide range of illumination to adjust the
lighting to the specific requirement of the spaces.
Care should be taken when attempting to reduce peak power demand or

energy use to ensure that illumination is not reduced below the
requirement for visual tasks in the space. Audible noise, flicker and
source color changes caused by dimmer controls can also affect
performance.
7.4.3.1 Illumination. The illumination determines the visual

adaptation level, which has been demonstrated to affect performance in
visual tasks such as reading, inspecting and assembling. Control systems
must be designed so that the lighting system can provide proper
illumination for these tasks.
7.4.3.2 Audible Noise. Lighting control systems can produce audible

noise in the environment, which can be a source of annoyance. The
manufacturer should be consulted to minimize the noise produced by the
control system. Noise control strategies include careful lamp selection,
enhanced dimmer filtering and remote dimmer locations.
7.4.3.3 Flicker. Controls that modify waveforms can cause excessive

flicker. Flicker is noticeable if the variation in light amplitude is
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sufficiently high. Even imperceptible flicker can cause eyestrain and

fatigue at 50 Hz. While theoretically less of a problem at 60 Hz, some
people are still sensitive to flicker. Proposed control systems should
therefore be examined for their effect on flicker.
Flicker is typically greater with uncoated HID lamps than fluorescent

lamps. This is because the phosphors in a fluorescent lamp continue to
generate light throughout the ac cycle. Most phosphor coated HID lamps
exhibit this reduced flicker. HPS lamps have high flicker because of the
rapid recombination of sodium ions. Lamps should be selected that
minimize flicker. Electronic fluorescent and HID ballasts should be
selected because they drive the lamps without flicker. Flicker reduction
can be attained with HID lamps by placing luminaires in room on
different supply phases.
7.4.3.4 Color Changes. During lamp dimming, there can be a small

shift in lamp color with fluorescent lamps. This color shift is not usually
considered significant, but it is noticeable, especially with warm CCT
lamps. Other light sources including incandescent lamps exhibit a more
significant color shift. Care must be exercised when using such lamps.
They should not be dimmed to levels that alter the aesthetics of the
space, cause discomfort to the occupants, or affect tasks in which color
rendition is essential. One approach is to limit the range of dimming so
that no color shift is apparent. On the other hand, the shift in
incandescent lighting to a lower color temperature by dimming can
actually be desirable in certain applications, such as restaurants, where a
warmer atmosphere can be inviting.
7.5—COST ANALYSIS
The approach used to evaluate the economics of lighting systems can be

extended to include systems with controls. Basically, the procedure
involves adding the cost of the control system to the rest of the lighting
system equipment costs and determining how the use of the controls
affects operating costs. Since lighting controls can affect not only the
operation of the lighting system but also other building energy systems,
all of the system interrelationships must be considered. In office
buildings, for example, lighting controls that vary the output of the
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general lighting in response to daylight, also change the amount and

location of heat generated in the building. As the building’s cooling
system take this into account, the HVAC costs are affected. Some
lighting control systems can also affect the electrical system by changing
the power factor, high in rush currents and high harmonic currents, the
performance of the lighting system itself can be altered in terms of
efficacy, lamp life and ballast life.
Energy savings depend on the size of the space, availability of daylight,

work schedule, activities being performed and the attitude and training of
the occupants. To estimate the energy that could be saved by using
automatic controls, the areas to be controlled should be divided into
small areas of similar function and occupancy, such as private offices
with windows and open-plan sales offices. Users should establish a
valuable use scenario for each small area, including:
• Hours of use
• Fixed or flexible work schedules
• Weekly, monthly, or yearly changes in schedule
• Periods when areas are unoccupied
• Cleaning crew schedules
• Use of daylight to reduce electric lighting
7.5.1 Cost Considerations
Some costs normally associated with the installation and operation of

lighting control systems include:
• Control hardware, including sensors, control and monitoring

station equipment, cabling and over current protection
• Interface equipment
• Installation and setup labor
• Maintenance labor and spare parts
• Energy costs and utility rate structures
7.5.1.1 Economic Analysis Techniques. Lighting controls are

frequently cost justified on the basis of expected energy cost savings
over a period of time.
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7.5.1.2 Sources of Cost and Performance Data. Although cost

information for lighting control hardware is easily obtained, performance
information that affects operating and other system cost is not readily
available and can be site specific. The main operating cost factors are the
system input power and operating hours. Accurate estimates for on-off
control systems can be made if the operating period of the system is
known, but the systems with variable power inputs must be measured or
carefully simulated. It can be helpful to construct a profile of system
input power versus time or use computer modeling, especially if
daylighting, time of day utility rates, or other special considerations
apply.
Studies reveal that the impact of occupancy sensors is highly

dependent on the application. The energy reduction attained from the
proper use of occupancy sensors has been measured to be from 10 to 50
%.
7.6—Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI)
DALI is the new interface standard for digital ECGs (IEC 929), and
enables all the necessary functions of ECGs to be controlled digitally. A
DALI ECG is capable of carrying out commands from a controller; its
capabilities go far beyond that of the traditional analogue 1-10V
interface. There are three main criteria defined by DALI systems:
• Digital addressability
• Digital processing
• Digital communication
DALI was created by all the leading ECG manufacturers acting together
to define the functions of a DALI ECG and DALI- compliant loads in a
lighting system. It enables ECGs to send status messages and store scene
values. Each DALI ECG can store 16 group assignments and 16 scenes.
DALI is not a system but an interface definition.
Not all digital-ECGs or digital light control systems are based on DALI
and therefore may not be compatible. If the products comply with the
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DALI standard, the products of the different suppliers can be combined

with each other; however, the modules may provide different features.
7.6.1 DALI Advantages to Lighting Designers
The DALI technology provides many key benefits for lighting designers
such as:
(a) Simple Wiring of Controls. Hardwire control groups are

eliminated; each individual device has only a power input and digital
control input which are non-polarized, eliminating potential costly
installation errors. Controls are wired using the same type of standard
wire as is used for power.
(b) Control of Individual Lights. Up to sixteen (16) different light

levels, fade times and rates can be programmed and stored in the ballast
memory. Each DALI loop can support up to sixty four (64) individual
addresses.
(c) Flexible Group Control. Each DALI loop can support up to

sixteen (16) individual groups and each ballast may belong to any or all
of the sixteen available groups for unpararelled lighting scene
definitions. Simultaneous control of all units is possible at any time
through broadcast addressing.
Software control allows easy configuration and modification. Dimming

specifications can be finalized much later in a project and buildings can
be adapted more easily to meet client’s future needs. Lighting designs
can be programmed and simulated on a PC for later downloading into the
installation. This commissioning method also offers the flexibility of
room layout changes without rewiring.
Simple interface with Building Management Systems (BMS) DALI can

add valuable extra flexibility through its feedback of lighting system
information to the BMS, allowing automatic identification of failed
lamps and ballasts as well as central monitoring of ballast power and
dimming levels. In the simplest situation, the BMS can be used for
central overrides such as timed on/off switching or dimming.
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7.6.2 DALI Advantages to Facility Managers
(a) Increased Space Flexibility. Various instructions can be

programmed to accommodate different lighting tasks and situations, such
as:
• Meeting spaces that require different lighting scenes for

multiple types of uses or events
• Open offices where users can control their own lighting
• Areas such as lobbies or restaurants that reflect time of day
lighting changes
(b) Simple Modification. Lighting modifications in response to

changes in area usage or occupancy are done quickly and easily through
a PC, PDA or infrared (IR) remote control. No rewiring is needed.
(c) Low Maintenance Costs. Diagnostic status of each ballast and

lamp is fed to a central monitor for proactive identification of failures or
non-responsive fixture. Multiple service trips are eliminated.
(d) Energy Savings. Energy consumption can be reduced by 30-60

% through day lighting (dimming of lamps in response to changing
amounts of natural light) and switching strategies such as occupancy
sensors and scheduled on/off switching. Peak demand charges can also
be avoided with well-planned control set points.
7.6.3 DALI Advantages to Building Occupants
(a) Customized Lighting Preferences. Any combination of ballasts

can be grouped and controlled to accommodate the preferences of
individual building occupants.
(b) More Comfortable Lighting. Continuous automatic adjustment

of fluorescent lighting in response to changing ambient light levels
provides a constant light level on the working surface. Logarithmic
dimming technology matches the eye’s sensitivity. Eyestrain is also
eliminated due to better flicker management of luminaires.
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(c) Individual Control. The DALI system can be configured to

allow the occupants control and fine-tuning of light levels.
(d) Easy Modification. When needs change, ballast can simply be

reprogrammed instead of disruptive moving and rewiring of fixtures.
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Chapter 8. Lighting System Design
INTRODUCTION
The design of a lighting system for indoor and outdoor general

illumination is considered to be more of an art than a science as
described in Chapter 1 and involves many variable factors.
The factors for indoor include the size and shape of the space; the types
of finishes on the ceilings, walls, and floors; the details of the
construction; the economic considerations of both the initial and the
operating costs; the compatibility of the lighting system with the
architectural design; and the type of activities that will be carried out in
that particular area.
For the outdoor, only the light that reaches the surface directly from the
luminaire is considered. Light reflected from surrounding surfaces may
be ignored. Light control is very important as well as proper beam
spread selection.
8.1—BASIC INDOOR/INTERIOR LIGHTING DESIGN
The fundamental requirement for the design of indoor lighting system is

to provide sufficient light for the performance of the visual task to enable
the person to do these tasks efficiently and accurately, and at the same
time to create a comfortable environment with a minimum of eyestrain
and fatigue. It also promotes safety by preventing accidents often caused
by poor visibility.
The designer must have some information about the visual tasks, as
follows:
• Usual task to be performed;
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CHAPTER 8. LIGHTING SYSTEM DESIGN
• Age of person who will perform the task;

• Importance of speed and accuracy;
• Design of surrounding area (reflectance of task background).
8.1.1 Objectives and Design Considerations.
On the basis of design consideration, the designer must first and foremost
determine the objectives and purpose in the design of interior lighting as
shown below:
(a) Seeing Task (Determination of the Required Level of

Illumination) Providing proper lighting for the seeing task is the basic
reason for the design calculation. Seeing tasks relating to different areas
(i.e. offices, schools, industries, and institutions) are shown in Appendix
C with recommended illumination level.
(b) Quality Required. The quality of light involves the comfort of

the seeing environment. The factors to consider for quality of light are
glare, luminance ratios, diffusion, and color. Since lighting quality
requirements vary with the application, specific recommendations and
suggestions are given in the same Appendix as stated above.
(c) Quantity Required. The quantity of light involves adequate

levels of illumination for the average person under normal condition.
(d) Area Atmosphere. Analyze the environment in which the

lighting system will operate. For example, are dirt, water vapor,
explosive gases or corrosive vapor present? Dirt may be classified as
adhesive, attracted or inert and it may come from intermittent or constant
sources.
(e) Area Description and Use. A complete description is required

for each area to be lighted. This include the physical characteristics such
as room dimensions, room reflectances, work locations or location of
work-plane, and the operating characteristics of the lighting system such
as the hours of operations per day (hours per start for fluorescent lamps)
and annual hours of use of the system.
(f) Selection of System and Luminaire. Selection of the type of

luminaire for a given application depends upon the requirements and
218
conditions found in items (a) to (e) above and are classified on the basis
of their distribution pattern; that is, on the relative amount of light
projected upward and/or downward from the luminaire. Most
manufacturers list these as direct, semi-direct, general diffuse, direct-
indirect, semi-indirect, and indirect. (See Chapter 6 – Lighting Systems
and Luminaires.)
8.1.2 Determining Average Illuminance
The average illuminance level can be determined when a given

number of luminaires that are used in a space is known. Alternatively,
the number of luminaires can be determined given the average
illuminance level. This calculation method is called Lumen or Zonal
Cavity Method.
The Lumen or Zonal Cavity Method calculation is preferable

when applied to interior task-oriented spaces for a general uniform
lighting system. This method assumes the following conditions:
• the room is empty,

• the room surfaces are diffuse,
• the illuminance on each surface is uniformly distributed over that
surface, and
• the width to length ratio is approximately 1.0 to 1.6.
Within the room, the illuminance is determined based on the

horizontal plane, which is considered as the work plane. The work plane
is measured at the height of the visual task. In an office, this would
generally be at a height of 0.75 meter (around 2.5 feet) above the floor,
the average office table height. In the corridor, the work plane is usually
considered to be the floor.
However, it is worthwhile to note that the Lumen Method is not a

complete design method since this horizontal illuminance is just one of
the many considerations in the lighting design process.
The general equation for the illuminance in a work space is as follows:

Ø(TOTAL) x CU x LLF
EWP = AWP
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where:
EWP = average maintained illuminance on the work plane, lx
Ø(TOTAL) = total system lamp lumen output, lm
CU = coefficient of utilization
LLF = light loss factor
AWP = area of the work plane, m2
Detailed discussions on the above parameter are as follows:
(a) Work Plane Illuminance (EWP) is the average maintained

luminous flux that hits the work plane per unit area of work plane. It is
the amount of light received on a unit area of surface (density). The unit
of measurement is lux (lx).
(b) Total System Lamp Lumen Output (ØTOTAL) refers to the

quantity of initial light produced by all lamps within all the luminaires
that are lighting a space. The computation uses the manufacturer’s lamp
lumen rating. The unit of measurement is lumen (lm).
(c) Coefficient of Utilization (CU) is a measure of the efficiency of

the system in distributing lumens to the work plane. It is the ratio of the
lumens that reaches the work plane to the total lumens given off by the
lighting system’s lamps.
All lumens from the lamps in the lighting system generally do not
reach the work plane. Some of them are absorbed within the luminaire
while others by the walls, ceiling, floors and other room surfaces before
reaching the work plane. The fraction of the luminous flux emitted by the
lamps that reaches the work plane in a space is the coefficient of
utilization (CU). See glossary for definition.
Coefficient of utilization (CU) would be 0.50 if 50 percent of the

light given off by the lamps reaches the work plane. In some cases, the
CU can be greater than 1.0. This is because there are recurring
reflections, which permit light to hit the work plane more than once. For
example, light hitting the work plane can be reflected from the floor, to
the ceiling, and back to the floor. It must be calculated each time it
passes through the work plane. Thus, in rooms with high reflectances,
and for luminaires with a high optical efficiency, the CU can approach
and possibly exceed 1.0.
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In the determination of the Coefficient of Utilization (CU), the

following factors are to be considered:
(1) Luminaire Efficiency. It is the ratio of luminous flux reproduced

by the luminaire to the luminous flux produced by the lamps.
The surfaces of the luminaires absorbed some of the lights with
efficiencies typically ranging from 50 to 70 percent. Usually,
luminaires with higher efficiencies will have higher CU values
because they provide more light to the room. The other factors
that influence the CU will determine the luminaire efficiency.
(2) Intensity Distribution. The intensity distribution of the

luminaire is the quantity of light reaching the work plane.
Let’s consider two rooms with identical room surface

reflectances and both of the same size. Then assume one room
contains a luminaire with a widespread distribution, and the
other a luminaire with the same lumen output that focuses light
toward the work plane. In the room with widespread distribution,
more of the light is reflected off the ceiling and walls where
some of the light is absorbed. Therefore, less light reaches the
work plane. In this case, the room with the widespread
distribution luminaire has a lower CU than the room with the
more focused distribution, assuming that the two luminaires have
the same optical efficiency.
(3) Reflectances. The room surface reflectance is the ratio of the

light reflected from the room surface to the light falling on it.
This plays a significant role in combination with the luminaire
distribution.
Let’s again compare two rooms of the same size with identical
widespread distribution luminaires. One room has dark walls of
low reflectance while the other has white walls of high
reflectance. The dark wall reflects less light to the work plane
due to absorption of more lights. Therefore, dark walls have
lower CU than white walls.
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(4) Room Geometry. The room geometry refers to the shape, form
or figure of the room surface. It is an important consideration
because it affects how easily light can be directed to the work
plane.
Let us once again compare two rooms of identical ceiling height

and surface reflectances. One room has dimension of 5 m x 5 m
while the other has 10 m x 10 m. Both rooms have luminaries
spaced at 2.5 m on center. More of the light strikes the work
plane in the larger room before reflecting off the walls than small
room. Hence, larger room has higher CU since more lights
produced by the lamps reach the work plane directly.
Assuming all the parameters constant, in wide room with low

ceiling, more light will reach the work plane than in narrow
room with higher ceiling. Therefore, larger CU values can be
expected as the room being considered becomes wider or lower.
(d) Light Loss Factor (LLF). The Light Loss Factor (LLF) is the
ratio of the illuminance when it reaches its lower level (just before
corrective action takes place) to the initial level. It is an estimate of the
conditions under which the system will operate considering the
atmospheric conditions, the frequency of cleaning and the depreciation of
the lighting effect.
Light loss factor is an adjustment to an illuminance calculation in

relation to the actual field conditions. It refers to the differences in lamp
lumen output, reflectance and transmittance of luminaire components,
and room-surface reflectance between ideal laboratory conditions and the
actual environment. It is necessary to consider these losses to accurately
reflect the system’s performance in a real environment. The total light
loss factor (LLF) is the product of all the individual factors that
contribute to the loss of light. It is also known as “Maintenance Factor”.
Light loss factor are divided into two categories, unrecoverable and
recoverable. Unrecoverable factors are those attributed to equipment
and site conditions and cannot be changed with normal maintenance
while the recoverable factors can be affected by maintenance, such as
cleaning and relamping luminaires, or by cleaning or painting room
surfaces (i.e. they change overtime).
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(1) Unrecoverable Light Loss Factor. As stated above, the

unrecoverable factors are those attributed to equipment and site
conditions that cannot be changed with normal maintenance
procedure such as luminaire ambient temperature factor, heat
extraction thermal factor, line voltage to luminaire factor, ballast
factor, ballast lamps photometer factor, equipment operating
factor, lamp position (tilt) factor and luminaire surface
depreciation.
a. Luminaire Ambient Temperature Factor. Variation in

ambient temperature above or below those normally
encountered in interiors has little effect on the light output of
incandescent and HID lamps, but they significantly affect
fluorescent lamps. Each particular lamp-luminaire
combination has its own distinctive characteristic of light
output against ambient temperature.
b. Heat Extraction Thermal Factor. The heat extraction

thermal factor is the fractional lumen loss or gain due to the
airflow. Air handling fluorescent luminaries are integrated
with the HVAC system as a means of introducing or
removing air from the room. This airflow will have an effect
on lamp temperature and consequently on lamp lumens.
c. Line Voltage to Luminaire Factor (Supply voltage to

luminaire). For each light source, its light output is affected
by variations in the supply voltage. For incandescent types,
small deviations from rated lamp voltage cause
approximately three per cent change in lumens for each one
per cent change in primary voltage. Fluorescent luminaire
output changes approximately one per cent for each two and
a half per cent change in primary voltage. See Figure 8.1.
d. Ballast Factor (BF). The ballast factor is the ratio of the

lamp lumens generated on commercial ballasts to those
generated on the test reference ballasts. The ballast factor for
good quality fluorescent ballasts is nominally 0.95. See
Chapter 5 –Energy-Efficient Fluorescent Ballasts.
223
Source: Adapted from IES Lighting Handbook, 1995 Reference and

Application Volume (New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America, 1995)
Figure 8.1 Light Output Change Due to Voltage Change
e. Ballast Lamp Photometer Factor. The ballast lamp

photometer factor is the effect of the temperature within the
luminaire when different lamp and ballast combination is
used. Initially, luminaire is tested with a particular lamp and
ballast combination. When a different combination is used,
the effect of temperature relative to a manufacturer’s rated
lumens may change. This effect within the luminaire may
cause the lamp to operate at less than the rated output. This
decrease in lumen is also considered in the determination of
the luminaire’s CU.
f. Equipment Operating Factor. The equipment operating

factor is the collective effect on the HID lamps lumen output
which depend on the ballast, lamp operating position, and
the effect of power reflected from the luminaire back onto
the lamp.
224
g. Lamp Position (Tilt) factor. The lamp position factor is the

ratio of luminous flux in the given operating position to that
of in the test position. It is the sensitivity of some HID lamps
lumen output to its orientation. Particularly, the metal halide
lamps decrease their lumen output when they are tilted from
their rated horizontal or vertical position. As in sports
lighting, there is a considerable effect when the metal halide
luminaires are aimed.
h. Luminaire Surface Depreciation Factor (LSD). Luminaire

surface depreciation results from adverse changes in metal,
paint, and plastic components that result in permanently
reduced light output. Because of the complex relationship
between the light-controlling elements of luminaries using
more than one type of material it is difficult to predict losses
due to deterioration of materials. No factors are available at
present.
(2) Recoverable Light Loss Factor. The recoverable factors are

those that can be changed by regular scheduled maintenance,
such as cleaning and relamping luminaires and cleaning and
painting room surfaces. These are lamp lumen depreciation,
luminaire dirt depreciation, room surface dirt depreciation and
lamp burnouts.
a. Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor (LLD). All lamps

deteriorate in lumen output through life. The light output of
an incandescent lamp decreases because of (tungsten)
filament evaporation. In addition, for fluorescent lamps,
light output decreases as it burns because of phosphor
deterioration and loss of active material from the cathodes,
which causes tube blackening. Information about lamp
lumen depreciation is available from manufacturers’ tables
and graphs for lumen depreciation and mortality of the
chosen lamp. Rated average life should be determined for
the specific hours per start; it should be known when
burnouts would begin in the lamp life cycle. From these
facts, a practical group relamping cycle can be established.
225
b. Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor (LDD). With the

passage of time, dirt accumulates on the lamps and on the
surfaces of the luminaires. This dirt absorbs some of the
light. The resulting loss of light is accounted for by the
luminaire dirt depreciation factor. Luminaires are divided
into six (6) maintenance categories (Category I to VI), which
involves the intervals for cleaning (typically in months) and
atmospheric conditions (see Figure 8.2). In addition, there
are five (5) degrees of operating atmosphere, very clean
(VC), clean (C), medium (M), dirty (D), and very dirty
(VD). See Table 8.1.
c. Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor (RSDD). With

the passage of time, the accumulation of dirt on the surfaces
of the room further reduces the amount of light that reaches
the work plane. The exact effect of dirt on light loss varies
according to the size and proportions of the room (that is, the
room cavity ratio), the type of operating atmosphere, and the
luminaire distribution type. To take this into account, Table
8.2 has been developed to provide Room Surface Dirt
Depreciation (RSDD) factors for use in calculating
maintained average illumination levels.
226
Figure 8.2 Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD) Factors
d. Lamp Burnouts Factor (LBO). Lamp burnouts contribute

to loss of light. If lamps are not replaced promptly after
burnout, the average illumination level will be decreased
proportionately. For example, when series sequence
fluorescent ballasts are used and one lamp fails, both lamps
go out. The Lamp Burnout (LBO) factor is the ratio of the
lamps remaining lighted to the total, for the maximum
number of burnouts permitted.
e. Area of Work Plane (AWP). The area of work plane is the

region of the entire working surface where task is performed
such as office table. In other application, for instance hotel
lobby, the work plane is the floor area. The Lumen or Zonal
Cavity Method calculates the average illuminance of the
entire area of the space. In reality, the illuminance level is at
its maximum near the center of the room and slightly less
towards the walls for a given uniform arrangement of
luminaires.
227
Table 8.1 Five Degrees of Dirt Conditions
Very Clean Clean Medium Dirty Very Dirty
Generated Dirt None Very little Noticeable but Accumulate Constant
not heavy rapidly accumulation

Ambient Dirt None (or none Some (almost Some enters area Large amount Almost none
enters area) none enters) enters area excluded
Removal or Filtration Excellent Better than Better than Only fans or None
average average blowers if any
Adhesion None Slight Enough to be High—probably High
visible after due to oil,
some months humidity, or
228
static
Examples High grade High grade Mill offices; Heat treating; Similar to Dirty
offices, not near offices, not near paper processing; high speed but luminaires
production; production; light machining printing; rubber within immediate
laboratories; laboratories; processing area of
clean rooms clean rooms contamination
Table 8.2 Room Surface Dirt Depreciation (RSDD) Factors
229
Source: Adapted from the IES Lighting Handbook, 1995 Reference and Application Volume
8.1.3 Indoor Lighting Calculations.
The design of lighting systems requires knowledge of basic lighting

terms combined with simple mathematical or graphical presentation and
techniques.
The methods and calculations in the lighting design system presented in

this Chapter are based on the recommended procedures of the
Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) of North America. The formulas
presented are only meant to be a general overview on the design
calculation.
In indoor lighting calculations, the luminaires are installed in an enclosed

space or area. The calculations consider not only the light reaching the
work plane (an imaginary horizontal plane at the height at which the task
will be performed assumed to be 0.75 meter) directly from the luminaires
but light reflected from the room surfaces as well (Figure 8.3). The
reflectances of the room surfaces are therefore important in indoor
calculations and affect the coefficient of utilization and therefore the
efficiency of lighting system.
Useful Light = Direct + Indirect Component

Figure 8.3 Indoor Lighting
(a) The Lumen or Zonal Cavity Method is usually the method used
in indoor lighting calculations. It is based on calculating the percentage
230
of the luminous flux or light radiated from the lamp that falls within the
area being lighted.
This method is used to design general overall lighting of the

room. This method calculates the illuminance that represents the average
of the values at all points over the entire work plane of the room. The
lumen method applies a factor known as the coefficient of utilization
(CU) to the total lumens emitted by the light source (lamp lumens) to
arrive at the number of lumens delivered to the lighted area.
The lumen method is based on the definition of illuminance as

luminous flux per unit area:
Luminous Flux (∅)

Illuminance (E) = Eq 8.1
area
Since the illuminance level applies to the work plane, and the
work plane for general lighting covers the whole room:
total luminous flux falling on the work plane

E= Eq. 8.2
area of room
Now consider a room in which the lighting has already been

installed. By noting the number of luminaires in the room and the
number and type of lamps installed in each luminaire, the total lumens
generated by the lamps can easily be calculated:
TILL = total lamps x initial lumens per lamp Eq. 8.3
Where: TILL = is the total initial lamp lumens
Not all these lamp lumens reach the work plane, as some are
trapped within the luminaire and some are absorbed by the room
surfaces. Before the illuminance at the work plane can be calculated, it is
necessary to establish a factor that represents the ratio between the
231
lumens reaching the work plane and the total lamp lumens. This factor is
known as the coefficient of utilization (CU). Thus,
total lumens falling on the work plane

CU = Eq. 8.4
total initial lamp lumens
(b) The Coefficient of Utilization represents the efficiency of the

whole lighting system, including the luminaires and the space (room) in
which they are installed. It does not include the efficiency (efficacy) of
the light source itself.
The coefficient of utilization depends on a number of factors,
(1) Type of luminaire. Its efficiency and distribution pattern and

type and light source used.
(2) Reflectance of room surfaces. The higher the reflectance

factors of the ceilings, walls, and floors, the greater the
percentage of the lamp lumens that will be redirected to the work
plane. (See Figure 8.4)
Figure 8.4 Room Reflectances
232
(3) Mounting height of the luminaire. The greater the height, the
greater the area of the wall surfaces is illuminated, which in turn
absorbs more of the lamp lumens.
(4) Area of the room. The larger the room, the greater the number
of luminaires required. The light distributed from each luminaire
overlaps one another, helping to increase the overall lighting
level.
(5) Proportions of room. A room maybe long and narrow or

square. A square room has a higher coefficient of utilization than
a long narrow room, all factors being the same.
Typical dimensions of different room sizes:
Small room : width = height

Medium room : width = 2x height
Large room : width = 4x height
In determining and computing the coefficient of utilization, the

effects of the luminaire mounting height, the room size and
proportions, and the height of the work plane are taken into account.
As shown in Figure 8.5, the cross section of a room is divided into
three separate cavities.
Figure 8.5 Room Cavities
233
The space between the ceiling and the luminaire plane is the ceiling
cavity, the space between the luminaire plane and the work plane is
the room cavity, and the space between the work plane and the floor
is the floor cavity. The cavity ratios (CR) for these three cavities are
determined by using the following formula:
5h x (room length + room width)

CR = Eq. 8.5
room length x room width
5hRC x (L + W)
Room-cavity Ratio, RCR = LxW
5hCC x (L + W) hCC
Ceiling-cavity Ratio, CCR = LxW = RCR hRC
5hFC x (L + W) hFC
Floor-cavity Ratio, FCR = LxW = RCR hRC
NOTE: For a given room, the cavity ratios are in direct proportion to their
respective cavity heights. For the case where the luminaires are mounted on the
surface of the ceiling or are recessed into the ceiling, the ceiling cavity ratio is zero.
The room cavity ratio is also directly proportional to the height of the
room cavity (hRC), which is also the mounting height of the luminaire
above the work plane. The greater the mounting height is, the greater
value of the RCR factor (for the same width and length).
Since the coefficient of utilization is based on the room cavity ratio,

it is necessary to treat this cavity as if there were a ceiling surface at
the luminaire plane and a floor surface at the work plane level as
shown in Figure 8.5. Therefore, it is necessary to convert the actual
ceiling reflectance into an effective ceiling cavity reflectance (pCC).
Similarly, the actual floor reflectance must be converted to an
effective floor cavity reflectance (pFC).
234
Combining the previous relationships gives:
TILL x CU
E= Area Eq. 8.6
Where:
E = average illuminance at the work plane
From the time that a new lighting system is first used, the lighting
level gradually decreases because of aging. The recommended
lighting levels are based on minimum values that should be
maintained over the operating life of the system. Therefore, it is
necessary to provide higher initial illuminance levels to compensate
for the loss of light with time.
Hence, the Light Lost Factor (LLF) equation is:
LLF = LLD x LDD x RSDD x BF Eq. 8.7
With reference to Eq. 8.6, the illuminance E in that relationship

represents the initial value, that is, the lighting level when the system
is first turned on. To include the light loss factor, the equation
expands to:
TILL x CU x LLF
E= Area Eq. 8.8
Where E is the minimum average illuminance at the work plane just

before corrective action is taken.
(c) Calculation of Number of Luminaires. In Eq. 8.3, the

assumption made is that the lighting system already exists and Eq.
8.6 and Eq. 8.8 therefore will give the illuminance level for that
lighting system. However, this is not the situation for most lighting
235
layout problems. What is required is a method of calculating the

number of luminaires that will be required to provide the
recommended minimum levels of illuminance.
The relationship of Eq. 8.8 can be rearranged as follows:
E x Area
TILL = CU x LLF
where: TILL = the total initial lamp lumens required

E = recommended minimum illuminance
No. of luminaires = TILL Eq. 8.9

no. of lamps x initial lumens
per luminaire per lamp
The value of E used in Eq. 8.8 can only be a target value. The
number of luminaires calculated using Eq 8.8 and 8.9 can therefore
only be considered as the theoretical number required, as a practical
layout may dictate an adjustment to this number. Examples of design
for indoor lighting systems are provided in Appendix E.
8.2—BASIC OUTDOOR/EXTERIOR LIGHTING DESIGN
Outdoor lighting (except those of roadway lighting) refers to the lighting

of open level areas with luminaires mounted above grade, typically on
poles or structures. Applications include open parking areas, walkways,
bikeways, storage yards, and sport facilities.
Exterior lighting calculations are very similar to interior calculations,

except that no light reflectances from room surfaces are calculated.
However, some technical factors have to be considered in designing and
236
evaluating an exterior lighting system such as glare, visibility, color,

illuminance, luminance, and brightness.
Exterior lighting designers generally allow the user to aim the fixture
(interior programs usually assume the fixture will be parallel to the
floor). Factors involved in exterior lighting calculation include the
following:
Plan dimensions of the of site to be studied/lighted

Points on the site where illuminance is required
Luminaire photometry
Mounting heights, site locations, orientations, and tilt of luminaries
Lumen output of the specified lamp
Light loss factors due to lamp aging, ballast factor, and luminaire
dirt accumulation
The most common form of exterior lighting analysis is the calculation of

illuminance on horizontal and vertical planes. Horizontal planes usually
are used for roadways, pathways, and parking lots, while vertical planes
are typically used for sports fields and automobile display areas.
8.2.1 Point-by-point Method. It is frequently necessary to calculate

illumination levels at specific points to determine the lighting uniformity
and minimum values. The point-by-point method is also useful for
selecting the light distribution of the luminaire to insure that there will be
no hot spots.
This calculation method relies on the inverse square law, the cosine law
and the photometric distribution of the luminaire. This method for
determining lighting design is more accurate than the lumen method, but
it is more complex.
The formula below is mainly used for exterior lighting. If several

luminaires contribute to the illumination at a point, the resultant
illumination is determined by totaling the contribution of each luminaire
to the plane where the point is located. (Please see Figure 8.6.)
luminance pt. A = cd(Cos θ)

D2
237
luminance pt. A = cd (Cos3 θ)

MH2
Where:
MH = mounting height, meters
cd = luminous intensity, candela
D = distance of light source to pt. A, meters
θ = angle of light from vertical, degrees
Figure 8.6 Components of Point-by-Point Method
8.2.2 Design Factors.
This guideline sets out the factors that need to be taken into account
when designing outdoor lighting systems. They are listed not necessarily
in the order of importance, as follows:
(a) Recommended Illumination Level. There are two important

factors that have to be considered in an outdoor environment. They are
surface luminance and source luminance. Surface luminance includes
horizontal and vertical surfaces. Examples of lighted outdoor horizontal
surfaces are roadways, bike path, sidewalks, and parking lots. Lighted
vertical surfaces include people’s faces and bodies, building facades,
238
signs, structures, statutes, and landscape features such as trees. Surface

luminance adds interest and depth to an outdoor scene and can be
necessary for good outdoor visibility and security. It is important to see
the effect of lighting, not the source.
Source luminance does not only involve the lamp but also the
luminaire’s reflector, refractor, lens, or louver. In order to minimize
glare, source luminance in the typical direction of view should be
minimized. Typical viewing angles lie between 45° and 85°.
Luminances from bollards, landscape lights, and floodlights should be
low to attract minimal attentions.
There is a recommended illumination for each type of application.

Refer to Appendix C: Levels of Illumination Currently Recommended.
(b) Classification of Luminaire Light Distribution. Proper

distribution of the light flux from luminaires is one of the essential
factors in outdoor area lighting. The light emanating from the luminaires
is directionally controlled and proportioned in accordance with the
requirements for seeing and visibility. Light distribution is generally
designed for a typical range for conditions which include luminaire
mounting height, transverse (overhang) location of the luminaires,
longitudinal spacing of luminaires, widths of areas to be effectively
lighted, arrangement of luminaires, percentage of lamp light directed
toward the pavement and adjacent areas, and maintained efficiency of the
system.
Luminaire light distribution may be classified with respect to three

criteria:
(1) Vertical light distribution. This describes how far the light
reaches along the length of the area parallel to it. Vertical light
distributions are divided into three groups, short, medium, and
long. Classification is based on the distance from the luminaire
to where-the beam of maximum candlepower strikes the surface
area.
(2) Lateral light distribution. The luminaire's transverse

(projection) light distribution (perpendicular to the area) can be
considered as types I, II, III, IV and V as shown in Figure 8.7.
239
Figure 8.7 Types of Lateral Light Distribution
(3) Photometric Distribution. This is classified according to the

cutoff characteristics: full cutoff, cutoff, semicutoff, and
noncutoff. These classifications show what the maximum
intensity of the light is above 180° and above 90° as shown
below. These categories should be taken into consideration
when glare or spill light may be a concern. It is divided into four
categories:
a. Full Cutoff. A luminaire’s light distribution is designated as

a full cutoff (Figure 8.8) when the candlepower per 1,000
lamp lumens does not numerically exceed 0 (0 %) at or
above a vertical angle of 90° above nadir (horizontal) and
100 (10 %) at or above a vertical angle of 80° above nadir.
This applies to any lateral angle around the luminaire.
Figure 8.8 Full Cutoff
240
b. Cutoff. These fixtures (Figure 8.9) are designed to prevent

the horizontal dissipation of light, and minimize glare even
in locations where there is little background light. For
maximum brightness (uniformity ratio of illuminance) the
area lights must be spaced close together. A luminaire light
distribution is designated as cutoff when the candlepower
per 1000 lamp lumens does not numerically exceed 25
(2.5%) at an angle of 90° above nadir (horizontal), and 10%
at a vertical angle of 80° above nadir. This applies to any
lateral angle around the luminaire.
Figure 8.9 Cutoff
c. Semi-Cutoff. These fixtures (Figure 8.10) are designed to

spread light laterally as much as possible while at the same
time restricting the amount of horizontal light. This is
currently the most widely used fixture for general street
lighting. A luminaire light distribution is designated as
semi-cutoff when the candlepower per 1000 lamp lumens
does not numerically exceed 50 (5%) at an angle of 90°
above nadir (horizontal), and 20% at a vertical angle of 80°
above nadir. This applies to any lateral angle around the
luminaire.
d. Non-Cutoff. These fixtures (Figure 8.11) are designed to

not restrict horizontal light. They can be used in locations
where the surroundings are bright, such as when there are
many nearby buildings that also give off much light, or when
bright and glittering illumination is desired. The category
241
when there is no candlepower limitation in the zone above

maximum candlepower.
Figure 8.10 Semi-Cutoff
Figure 8.11 Non-Cutoff
(c) Working Voltage. It is important that the systems voltage be

checked. A voltage drop of 5% is allowable.
(d) Aesthetics. It should be observed that the lighting system is

only used during dark periods, but the installation must also be
aesthetically acceptable.
(e) Maintenance Factor (MF). Light Loss Depreciation (LLD) and

Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD) are things that should be considered
to establish the value of the maintenance factor. Values of maintenance
factor may be found in the lighting and manufacturer’s catalogues.
Keeping the exterior lighting system performing at its designed

level requires a considerable effort in maintenance. In order to endure
242
weather conditions, exterior lighting equipment should be designed with

enclosures and seals that may not be necessary in interior lighting
equipment.
The mounting height and location of the exterior lighting equipment

may make access difficult for maintenance purposes. In such conditions,
group maintenance should be carefully programmed where lamps and
luminaires in a system are replaced, cleaned, and inspected on scheduled
interval. Such program should include luminaire cleaning and
replacement of auxiliary equipment like lenses, gaskets, ballasts, ignitors,
photocells and others.
In utmost condition, it is desirable to conduct component testing

during routine maintenance and replace equipment as necessary. To
maintain the minimum performance level and reduce frequent lamp
burnouts, it is necessary to perform the regular scheduled maintenance
religiously.
Aimed luminaires should be fixed and locked in its position so that

in conducting maintenance it does not change the aiming position.
(f) Utilization Factor (UF). This is the percentage of rated lamp

lumens which will fall on either of the two strip-like areas of infinite
length, one extending in front of the luminaire and the other behind the
luminaire when the luminaire is level and oriented over the area to be
lighted in a manner equivalent to that in which it was tested.
8.2.3 Average Illuminance Equation.
The general equation for the illuminance in a space is as follows:
φ (TOTAL) x CU x LLF
ES = AS
Where:
ES = average maintained illuminance on the surface
area
243
φ (TOTAL) = total system lamp lumen output, (lumen)

LLF = light loss factor
AS = area of the surface, (m2)
8.2.4 Area Design Considerations
It is necessary to know or determine five items in the design of area

lighting: size of area (width and length); pole spacing; pole height;
luminaire type; and determination of the required number of lamps and
luminaires.
(a) Size of Area. By knowing the width and length of the area to be
lighted, height and spacing of poles can be determined.
(b) Pole Spacing. The area that can be lighted by a single pole with
reasonable uniformity is four times the mounting height (MH), or the
light coverage is two times the MH on each side of a pole (Figure 8.12).
When using more than one pole, spacing between poles should ideally be
not more than four times MH (Figures 8.13 and 8.14). Closer spacing
provides even better uniformity and fewer shadows. However,
sometimes the arithmetic of specific area dimensions suggest that the 4
times spacing be exceeded slightly so as to avoid the expense of buying
poles 1.5 meters higher. In no case should the spacing exceed 4.5 times
the pole height.
Whenever possible, deviation from the average spacing shall not be

more than 10%. Where spacing is not uniform, the average spacing shall
be considered in the calculation of the illumination.
(c) Pole Height. Since the lighted area from each pole is 4 times
MH, the 4x rule of thumb is used to determine pole height. Divide the
width and length of area by 4x per pole when poles are inside the lighted
area; or when at the perimeter of the lot, but not at the corners. (Figures
8.13 and 8.14). For 2 poles use 8x; 3 poles use 12x; and so on and so
forth. When poles are at the corners of a lot, use 4x for each space
between poles.
244
Figure 8.12 Light Projection
Figure 8.13 Interior Poles
Figure 8.14 Perimeter Poles
245
In situations where other pole attachments such as transformers,

capacitor banks, etc., affect the design mounting height, luminaires may
be installed higher or lower depending upon the condition. Whenever
possible, higher mounting height is preferable.
Example: Area 70 meters long, 30 meters wide

70m 30m
= 8.75 meters pole = 7.5 meters pole
8 4
One of the two choices can be made. Use a 9-meter pole or use 8-
meter pole on a 0.75 meter concrete base. From a cost standpoint, use the
8- meter pole. Fixture mounting height is 8.75 meters. Spacing to
mounting height is very close to 4x down the length of the lot.
70 m
15 m
30 m 17.5 m 35 m 17.5 m
Best solution: 8 m pole on 0.75 base for MH of 8.75 m.
Table 8.3 shows the suggested mounting height of luminaries for a

particular lamp wattage.
Table 8.3 Suggested Mounting Heights
Lamp Wattage, W Mounting Height, m

70 to 175 4.5 to 6
250 6 to 7.6
400 7.6 to 18
1,000 18 to 30
246
(d) Luminaire Type. Luminaires or fixtures can be divided into two

categories. The first category is fixed aiming. These are mounted on a
pole or wall and produce a specific pattern of light that cannot be
changed or can be changed only slightly by moving the lamp position
within the reflector. These luminaires are usually aimed straight down.
They have their highest utilization when they are installed within the area
they are lighting. Street lighting, parking lots, and high-mast area
luminaires fall in this category.
Floodlights are the second category. These can be aimed. Floodlights
are available in a number of beam spreads (see Figure 8.9 Types of
Lateral Light Distribution). They can be mounted individually or in
clusters to light a few hundred square meter or several hectares mounting
from one direction. The aiming point for flood lightings is normally
twice (2x) the mounting height. If the edge of the area being lighted is at
a distance less than twice (2x) the mounting height, aim the center of the
beam 2/3 of the distance to the edge.
Example:
Given: Mounting Height (MH) = 12 meters
Distance to be lighted = 21 meters
Required: Aiming point
Solution:
Aiming Pt. = (2/3) x 21 m

= 14 m
8.2.5 Rule of Thumb Method.
Below is the Rule of Thumb Method for determining the required

number of lamps and luminaires needed, taking into consideration the
light source desired for the particular application.
(1) Determining recommended illumination level. For the

recommended outdoor light illuminance level, refer to Appendix C.
Figure 8.15 shows the graph calculations for rule of thumb method.
247
Figure 8.15 Graph–Calculations, Rule of Thumb Method
(2) From the above Figure, locate the desired illumination level
on the left side of the graph and read across until it intersects dark
diagonal line representing the light source choice.
(3) Read straight down to the bottom scale of the graph to

determine the watts/square m factor.
(4) Multiply the watts/square m by the total square meter of the

area to obtain the total watts needed to light the area:
Total watts = area (l x w) x watts/sq. meter
(5) Divide the total watts by the desired lamp watts to obtain the
total number of lamps and luminaires required.
248
8.3 OBTRUSIVE (STRAY) LIGHTING
The Commission Internationale de I’Eclairage (International Commission

on Illumination) defined obtrusive light as “unwanted light, which
because of quantitative, directional, or spectral attributes, in a given
context, gives rise to annoyance, discomfort, distraction, or a reduction in
the ability to see essential information.”
The objectionable lighting problems such as sky glow, light trespass, and
glare are not only associated with roadway lighting but also other
outdoor installations including billboards. Designers should address these
issues and promote energy efficient and good lighting practices
whenever possible.
Misdirected or misapplied outdoor lighting is a concern for aesthetic,

environmental and energy management reasons. This Chapter identifies
some of the issues and suggests lighting design solutions.
The impact of obtrusive lighting upon human, animal or plant life is

outside the scope of this Section, but should not be ignored by designers
and engineers responsible for outdoor lighting.
8.3.1 Stray Lighting
An important issue that the outdoor lighting designer must be concerned

with is stray lighting caused by glare, light trespass and urban sky glow.
This means that the solution to a significant part of the problem is in the
hands of the lighting designer.
8.3.1.1 Sky Glow. Sky glow is the term used to describe the added
sky brightness caused by the scattering of electric light into the
atmosphere, particularly from outdoor lighting in urban areas.
This phenomenon is of concern to astronomers and to a lesser extent,

the general public who like to see the moon and stars, or just wish to
enjoy the natural nighttime environment.
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Sky brightness is attributed to the following factors: urban/suburban

growth; lighting designs that disregard glare calculations and
precautions; inappropriate lighting equipment selection and installation.
8.3.1.2 Light Trespass. The term light trespass describes light that
strays from its intended target and illuminates adjacent properties.
In outdoor lighting system design, light should fall basically around

the area to be illuminated. Light should not fall in places where it is not
wanted such as residential areas (stray light entering their windows or
intruding upon their property), annoying people. It may also interfere
with the performance of various electronic security equipment (detectors
and cameras).
An acceptable level of light trespass is typically 0.01-footcandle,

which is equivalent to moon light. Avoid using high masts fixtures close
to residential areas, hospitals, hotels, and airports.
8.3.1.3 Glare. Glare is defined as when some portion of the emitting

or reflecting surface of the luminaire is directly observable by drivers,
and the resulting illuminance at the eye of the driver results in either
discomfort or disability glare. It reduces the ability of the driver to
distinguish objects clearly. Discomfort glare is produced by most outdoor
lighting equipment when it is observed against a dark background.
8.3.2 Mitigating Obstrusive Light
8.3.2.1 New Lighting Design. The least expensive and the most
successful approach to obtrusive light problems is prevention. The
lighting design engineer should address this concern in the initial
planning and construction phase.
8.3.2.2 Existing Lighting Design Installation. Remedial mitigation

is usually the most expensive approach, since it often involves replacing
or modifying the existing installation of lighting equipment.
Some possible corrective measures include:
(a) Changing the existing luminaire to one with a different light

distribution. The preferred luminaire will have no (or minimal) up-light
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component and reduced intensity in the direction of the residential area

and adjacent environment.
(b) Relocating pole(s) and luminaire(s) to less offending

location(s).
(c) Installing external light shield(s) on luminaire(s). While this

is the least expensive alternative, it is not the most effective. Care must
be taken to secure the shields to the luminaires so as not to create a
maintenance problem.
(d) Combining timers with dimmers so that outdoor lights can be

dimmed (at certain times) to the minimum levels needed, reducing the
impact of stray light.
8.4—COMPUTER AIDED LIGHTING DESIGN SOFTWARES
A wide variety of computer programs are available from lighting

manufacturers to perform interior and exterior lighting calculations.
Some programs are very simple, while others are complex and can even
interface with computer-aided design.
The following is a list of some of the software packages available at the

time of this printing. These software packages are not intended as a
substitute for creating design but as an aid to the design process.
(a) General Electric Philippines

• A GE Lighting Application Design and Analysis
(ALADAN)
• EUROPIC
(b) OSRAM Philippines
• DiaLux
• Light@work
(c) Philips Lighting and Electronics
• CalcuLux
(d) FUMACO Incorporated
• RELUX 1 (Version 2.4 and 3.0)
• DiaLux
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Chapter 9. Lighting System Maintenance
9.1—LIGHTING MAINTENANCE
Proper lighting maintenance is essential to high quality and efficient

lighting. Systematic lighting management methods and services from
lighting specialists can help organize the process and assure continued
high performance of any lighting system.
Lighting maintenance is more than simply replacing lamps and ballasts

when they fail. Facility managers today must manage their lighting
resources (i.e., fixtures, lamp/ballast inventory, labor, energy) to sustain
the quality of a lighting system.
The light output of a luminaire decreases with age and use, and the
energy input may increase over time. Because the human eye is
extremely adaptive to gradually changing lighting conditions, most
occupants do not notice the gradual decline in light levels. Eventually,
however, the reduction will affect the appearance of the space and the
productivity and safety of the occupants.
In the past, lighting designers have dealt with this problem by increasing
the number of fixtures or lamps to compensate for the future light loss.
While this simplifies maintenance, it is not an acceptable solution due to
the added initial equipment cost, energy cost, and energy-related
pollution.
9.1.1 Maintenance Action Checklist
(a) Group relamp to reduce lumen depreciation and maintenance

costs.
(b) Clean fixtures at time of relamping, more often in dirty locations.
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CHAPTER 9. LIGHTING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
(c) Write a lighting maintenance policy.
(d) Design lighting upgrade projects to incorporate effective

maintenance
(e) Get help when needed from the following resources.
(1) lighting management companies

(2) consultants
(3) distributors
(4) manufacturers
9.2—MAINTAINING LIGHT LEVEL
9.2.1 Group Relamping. In group relamping, all lamps are replaced

just prior to the time in their rated life when burnouts begin to occur and
lamps are greatly depreciated in light output. This is done to ensure
lighting levels are maintained.
(a) Record and evaluate the lighting level in all areas, especially
after all new lamps are in place.
(b) Conduct periodic light output checks with a lux meter to monitor
change in light levels.
9.2.2 Cleaning. Even in areas where air is well filtered, enough dirt
accumulates on lamps, lenses or louvers and reflectors to reduce light
significantly. Below are tips for cleaning fixtures:
(a) Clean lighting fixtures whenever lamps are replaced.

(b) In areas where doors allow outside air or filtering is not
adequate, clean at least twice a year.
(c) Wipe plastic lenses with damp, not dry cloth (a mild detergent
may be needed).
(d) Small cell louver panels, including parabolic wedge louvers,
should be removed and dipped in mild detergent solution, then air-dried.
(e) Do not wipe luminaire or lamps while fixture is energized.
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9.2.3 Spot Relamping. In spot relamping, lamps are replaced when it

ceases operation unexpectedly or fails to light up after turning it on.
Relamp immediately when lamp fails to light up to avoid damage to
ballasts.
9.2.4 Advantage of Group Relamping and Cleaning
(a) Saves money, time, and energy

(b) Improves overall system efficiency
(c) Reduces maintenance time and costs
(d) Efficiently utilizes maintenance personnel
(e) Reduces lamp and ballast inventory
(f) Reduces material costs through bulk purchasing practices
(g) Provides higher maintained light level
(h) Prevents unnecessary ballast degradation caused by ballasts
trying to start expired lamps
9.3—MAINTENANCE PLANNING
Many maintenance managers are hesitant to replace lamps that are still
operating. But group relamping and cleaning can be less expensive than
sporadic spot maintenance. Through strategic planning and performance
management of the overall lighting system, costs can be reduced and
lighting quality improved. Below are different steps in maintenance
planning:
Step 1: Define Existing Condition. The first step in planning a

lighting maintenance strategy is to define the existing condition of the
lighting systems. Evaluate the following:
(a) type of lamps and ballasts in use

(b) average age of the lamps/ballasts
(c) total annual hours of lighting operation
(d) product costs
(e) spot replacement labor costs
(f) group replacement labor costs
(g) energy costs
(h) the rate of dirt accumulation
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Step 2: Establish a Relamping Interval. Identify an appropriate time

to group the relamping of lighting system. First, you must determine an
acceptable level of light loss and an acceptable number of lamp failures
(or spot replacements).
Step 3: Predict Light Loss Factor. With the above information, it is

possible to evaluate existing and future light loss. The mortality, lumen
depreciation, and dirt depreciation curves are used to determine the
maintained illumination, which is the average illumination expected over
time. An overall light loss factor is applied to initial illumination value to
obtain the maintained illumination value. The formula for light loss
factor (LLF) is discussed in Chapter 8.
Step 4: Develop a Maintenance Method. There are several factors to

consider when planning a lighting maintenance strategy.
(a) Use existing staff, hire new staff, or use a contractor.

(b) Complete during regular hours, nights, or weekends.
(c) Manage quality control.
(d) Dispose of lamps and ballasts responsibly.
(e) Re-lamp building-wide or in zones.
(f) Establish product types.
(g) Establish testing procedures for different types of lamps.
Step 5: Budget for Maintenance. Budgeting is the most difficult

part of planning a maintenance program. Spot maintenance of a lighting
system can be sporadic on a daily basis, but the annual cost will be
constant after the first few years. Strategic maintenance on the other hand
is easier to manage on daily basis and may cost less overall, but the cost
fluctuates each year.
Because budgets are often established a year in advance, it is necessary

to predict relamp timing and budget accordingly. As an alternative,
completing an equal portion of the group maintenance each year can
level lighting maintenance budgets.
Step 6: Write a Lighting Maintenance Policy. For a lighting

maintenance program to be most effective, it needs to be carried out
256
regularly over the life of the lighting system. You can write a lighting
maintenance policy once you have completed a lighting management
analysis, developed a method, and established a budget.
This will help in getting the program approved and will enable the plan
to be carried out by other personnel in the future or in other facilities.
Include justification for the maintenance plan, so that future managers
can understand the importance of effective maintenance. Most important,
it will assure a systematic continuation of the program.
Step 7: Implement the Strategy. A well-planned strategy can be easy

to implement. Many companies use outside contractors to complete
major tasks and then use inside staff to provide spot maintenance. Others
contract with an outside lighting or electrical company to completely
manage the lighting system. Similarly, an outside company can designate
and train a lighting management team within the company.
Whichever method you select, strategic lighting maintenance is a

predictable task and reduces unscheduled maintenance requirements.
Step 8: Getting Help. As the demand for planned lighting maintenance

has increased, so have the services offered by the lighting industry. The
following are some resources available to help analyze, plan, and
implement efficient lighting maintenance.
(a) Lamp Manufacturers. Although strategic lighting management

can save energy and labor costs, group maintenance will usually require
the use of more lamps. As a result, lamp manufacturers have an interest
in providing assistance in analyzing lighting management strategies.
Most of the assistance is valuable and reliable and offered free (or at low
cost). Contact your lamp supplier or manufacturer for information.
Assistance from lamp manufacturers is available from several sources.
(1) local factory representatives

(2) distributors
(3) software tools
(4) training programs
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(b) Energy Service Companies (ESCOs). Energy Service

Companies (ESCOs) are maintenance or electrical contractors who offer
energy savings solutions and services. Some specialize in lighting
installations, upgrade, management, and maintenance. Many offer free,
low cost or saving sharing schemes for the service to identify optimum
lighting retrofits and maintenance programs.
Some ESCOs may offer consulting services to help develop in-house

lighting management programs, but most are interested in providing
upgrade installation and maintenance contract services.
9.4 —TROUBLESHOOTING AND

MAINTENANCE TIPS
Planned lighting maintenance entails more than simply changing lamps

and cleaning. It is also an opportunity to efficiently locate and repair
defective or broken components causing system problems. See chapter 5
on Light Systems for diagrams and explanations of the circuits described
in this section.
9.4.1 Preheat Fluorescent Lamp Circuits
Troubleshooting
1. Replace existing lamps with lamps known to be operative.

2. Use only lamp types that are listed on the ballast label. Check to
make certain lamps can be used on preheat circuits.
3. Replace existing starters with starters known to be operative and
of proper rating, if changing to electronic ballast is not possible.
4. Check luminaire wiring for incorrect connections, loose
connections or broken lampholders or wires. Refer to the wiring
diagram printed on the ballast.
5. Check the ballast to see if the label agrees with the application,
with regard to temperature limitations and lamps. Replace the
ballast if faulty or inappropriate. Always change to an
appropriate electronic ballast when you must change ballasts.
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Maintenance Hints
1. Deactivated lamps should be replaced as quickly as possible.

Cycling lamps cause abnormal currents to flow in the ballast,
which will cause ballast heating and thereby reduce ballast life.
2. Lamp cycling will also reduce starter life.
9.4.2 Rapid-Start Fluorescent Lamp Circuits
Constant heater current is essential for proper starting of all rapid-start

lamps. It is also essential for proper lamp operation.
Troubleshooting
1. If a lamp requires 5-6 seconds to start, one electrode may not be

receiving the cathode heating current. This usually results in
excessive darkening of that end of the lamp, which is visible
after a short period of operation. With lamps removed from the
sockets, check heater voltages. This can be done with available
testers, which have a flashlight lamp mounted on a fluorescent
lamp base. If a voltmeter is used, a 10-Ω, 10-W resistor should
be inserted in parallel with the meter. The meter should measure
at least 3 V. If proper voltage is found, check for poor contact
between lamp holder and base pins or contacts on the lamp.
Also check for proper spacing of lamp holders. If no voltage is
measured, check for open circuit caused by poor or improper
connections, broken or grounded wires, or open heater circuit of
the ballast. Verify that the wiring conforms exactly to the ballast
label diagram.
2. If one lamp is out and the other lamp is operating at low
brightness or if both lamps are out, only one lamp may have
failed. Note that two-lamp magnetic and some electronic circuits
are of a series design.
3. Replace the ballast if the output voltage is not within its rated
voltage, or if no voltage is present after determining that the
input voltage to the ballast is correct.
259
Maintenance Hints
1. Failed lamps should be replaced as quickly as possible. Rapid-

start lamps require both heater current and starting voltage for
proper operation. If either is missing, poor starting or short lamp
life will result. In a two-lamp series circuit, one lamp can fail
and the second lamp will operate at reduced current. This
condition will reduce the life of the second lamp.
2. Lamps should be kept reasonably clean. All rapid-start lamps
are coated with a silicone to provide reliable starting in
conditions of high humidity. However, dirt can collect on the
lamp surface and then absorb moisture when the humidity is
high, thus nullifying the silicone coating and making the starting
unreliable.
9.4.3 Instant-Start Fluorescent Lamp Circuits
Two-lamp circuits can be of either lead-lag or series-sequence design.

Lead-lag ballasts operate lamps in a parallel circuit meaning that if one
lamp fails, the other should continue to operate properly. Series-
sequence ballasts operate lamps in series, meaning that if one lamp fails,
the other will fail or glow dimly.
Troubleshooting
1. Replace existing lamps with lamps known to be operative.

2. Check lampholders for broken or burned contacts or discolored
plastic in the holders, indicating high temperature. Check circuit
for improper or broken wires. Refer to the wiring diagram on the
ballast.
3. If the ballast is suspected of being defective, replace it with one
known to be operative. Measurement of output ballast voltages
in the luminaire is difficult because the primary circuit of the
ballast is automatically disconnected when a lamp is removed. If
the ballast must be changed, always upgrade the fixture to an
appropriate type of electronic ballast.
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Maintenance Hints
1. Deactivated lamps should be replaced as soon as possible. In a

two-lamp series magnetic circuit, one lamp can fail and the
second lamp will operate at low brightness. This condition will
reduce the life of the second lamp and also will cause all
abnormal current to flow in the ballast, giving rise to ballast
heating and a reduction in ballast life.
2. Flickering instant-start or "slimline" lamps, which show heavy
end blackening, should be replaced, even if the lamps are
lighted. This condition is known as lamp rectification and will
cause reduced ballast life if it is allowed to persist.
9.4.4 Mercury Lamps. (Note: Whenever possible, use HPS or Metal

Halide, for better efficiency)
Troubleshooting
1. Replace the lamp with one known to be operative. Be sure the

operative lamp is at room temperature, as hot lamps will not
restart immediately.
2. Check that the lamp is properly seated and that its base eyelet
and shell make proper contact in the lampholder.
3. Check the ballast nameplate. Make sure that ballast and lamp
designations match. Refer to the system of lamp and ballast
designations developed by the lamp industry and IEC or
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
4. Check the ballast wiring. If a multiple-tapped primary-winding
ballast is used, be sure the connected tap matches the supply
voltage.
5. Check the supply circuit wiring for open circuit or incorrect
connections.
6. Replace the ballast if no output voltage can be obtained and
make sure that line voltage is properly connected to the ballast
input terminals. If you must replace the ballast, it would be better
to retrofit the fixture to a more efficient HPS or Metal Halide
equivalent, by changing the ballast and lamp (plus ignitor and
capacitor, as required).
261
7. If a lamp fails prematurely, especially if it does so repeatedly in

the same way in the same luminaires check for the following:
a. Cracks or breaks in the bulb will allow air to enter the lamp
and cause arc tube shell failure. This can be caused by rough
handling, by contact with metal surfaces of a bulb changer
tool or metal parts of the luminaire, or by water droplets
falling on an operating lamp.
b. Overly blackened or swollen arc tubes may indicate
excessive lamp Current and over-wattage operation. See
items 3, 4 and 5 above. Also, the ballast may have failed
due to a component failure, Such as a shorted capacitor or
core winding.
If the power is lost in an HID ballast-lamp combination for even a

few cycles, the lamp will extinguish itself and then have to cool
down somewhat, re-ignite, and warm up again before reaching
maximum light output.
Caution: To prevent electric shock hazard, always turn off the

power before removing or installing lamps. This is especially
important when removing lamps that may have cracked or broken
outer envelopes. Unless the power is turned off, the exposed metal
parts of the internal lamp structure will be connected to power and
touching them will cause an electric shock. Always follow safety
guidelines.
Maintenance Hints
1. If multiple-tapped ballasts are used, check to be sure that the tap

matches the supply voltage to which the ballast tap is connected.
Connecting a given line voltage to a tap marked for a higher
voltage will give low light output due to under-wattage
operation. Connecting it to a tap marked for a lower voltage will
cause, poor lamp lumen maintenance and short lamp and ballast
life due to over-wattage operation.
2. The line voltage should be reasonably free of voltage
fluctuations. A variety of ballast types are available that provide
262
an appropriate percentage of lamp wattage regulation with

respect to the percentage of line voltage variation.
3. Lamp-and-ballast combinations must be chosen so that their
electrical characteristics match. This can be assured by
following the system of lamp and ballast designations developed
by the lamp industry and IEC or ANSI. Incorrect matching of
lamp and ballast may result in short life and equipment damage.
4. Lamps should be handled carefully. Rough handling can cause
scratches or cracks in outer glass envelopes, resulting in short
lamp life and possible injury.
Caution: If the outer envelope of a lamp is broken or punctured, the

arc tube will continue to burn for many hours. Turn off the power
and replace the lamp immediately. Certain types of lamps are
available that will automatically extinguish if the outer envelope is
broken or punctured.
9.4.5 Metal Halide Lamps
Follow the recommendations and all cautionary measures given for

mercury lamps, as these also apply to metal halide lamps. The following
additional information is also pertinent.
Troubleshooting
1. Many metal halide lamps are to be used only in specified

operating positions. Short life and improper light and color
Output will result if this is not done.
2. The time to restart automatically after a short power interruption
may be much longer than for mercury lamps. This is not a lamp
defect or a cause for lamp replacement.
3. It is normal for metal halide lamps to have a short delay between
the time that circuit is energized and the time the lamp starts.
4. Slight color shifts from lamp to lamp are characteristic of some
metal halide lamps. Also, one to two days of' burning in an
installation may be required to stabilize the color of a lamp and
the uniformity among a group of lamps.
263
Caution: Follow lamp manufacturers' recommendations with respect

to allowed use of metal halide lamps in open or enclosed luminaires.
Maintenance Hints
1. If a metal halide lamp is to be moved from one luminaire to

another, keep it in the orientation in which it was installed while
transferring it. If the lamp is rotated, its color will take time to
restabilize.
2. Operate metal halide lamps only in their allowed operating
positions.
9.4.6 High-Pressure Sodium Lamps
Troubleshooting
1. Follow steps 1 through 6 listed for mercury lamps.

2. If lamps fail prematurely, especially if' they do so repeatedly in
the same way or in the same luminaire, check the following:
a. Same as item 7 of 9.4.4 Mercury Lamps

b. Excessive discoloration of the arc tube or a metallic deposit
on the inside walls of the outer envelope may indicate over
wattage operation. See items 3, 4 and 5 under Mercury
Lamps. Also, ballast components may have failed; for
example, a capacitor or the core winding may be shorted.
3. A high-pressure sodium lamp must be started with an igniter. If

both the old and a known good lamp fail to start, steps must be
taken to determine if the igniter or the ballast or perhaps both are
defective. First make certain that the proper line voltage is
correctly connected to the ballast input. Obtain a ballast tester (a
flashlight lamp mounted on a fluorescent lamp base) or
voltmeter and follow the manufacturer's instructions to
determine the defect.
Caution: Do not connect a voltmeter or multimeter to an open or

inoperative high-pressure sodium socket. The high-voltage pulse
from the igniter will damage the meter
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Maintenance Hints
1. Follow steps 1 through 4 for mercury lamps.

2. High-pressure sodium lamps have a vacuum in the space
between the ceramic arc tube and the outer envelope. Handle
these lamps carefully, since vacuum lamps are known to make
an inordinately loud noise if the glass should break when
dropped.
3. In case the outer envelope breaks during lamp operation,
ultraviolet emission is not a problem.
Caution: To prevent electric shock, always turn off the power before
removing or installing lamps. This is especially important when
removing lamps that may have cracked or broken outer envelopes.
Unless the power is turned off, the exposed metal parts of the
internal lamp structure will be live, and touching them will cause an
electric shock.
9.4.7 Low-pressure Sodium Lamps
Troubleshooting
1. Replace lamp with a lamp known to be operative.

2. Check the lampholder for proper seating of the lamp and for
proper contact.
3. Check the ballast nameplate reading for compatibility.
4. Check the ballast wiring. If a multiple-tapped ballast is used, be
sure the ballast tap matches the supply voltage at the ballast.
5. Check the circuit wiring for open circuit or incorrect
connections.
6. Check the grounding of the luminaires.
7. Replace the ballast.
8. If lamps fail prematurely, check for the following:
a. Lamp breakage. Check lamps for cracks or scratches in the

outer bulb. These can be caused by rough handling, by
contact with metal surfaces in the bulb changer or luminaire,
or by moisture falling on an overheated bulb
265
b. Bulb touching the luminaire, the lampholder or any other

hard surface.
9. If the arc tube is cracked, blackened or swollen early in life, or if

the connecting leads inside the outer bulb are damaged, check
for the following:
a. Over wattage operation. Check the ballast rating, the voltage

at the ballast and whether the proper tap on the ballast is
being used.
b. Excessive current. Check if the ballast is shorted. Check for
possible voltage surges or transients on the supply line.
Caution: Do not replace the bulb until the circuit is checked and
the cause of the trouble has been corrected.
Maintenance Hints
1. If multiple-tapped ballasts are used, check to be sure the tap

matches the supply voltage at the ballast. Low voltage will
cause low light output, poor lumen maintenance and reduced
lamp life. High voltage will cause short lamp life.
2. The circuit should be reasonably free from voltage fluctuations.
Replacement ballasts should match the particular voltage,
frequency and lamp type.
3. The proper lamp type should be used for the ballast in
installation. Incorrect matching of lamp and ballast may result in
short lamp life or lamps going on and off repeatedly.
5. Lamps should be handled carefully to avoid breakage.
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Chapter 10. Basic Lighting Energy Audit
INTRODUCTION
As discussed in Chapter 1, Electric light sources are probably the most

commonly used electrical equipment. Lighting is a principal user of
electrical energy in commercial buildings, accounting for about 30% of
commercial sector consumption. For buildings using newer lighting
technology, lighting consumption can be reduced by approximately 20 to
40%. This represents a significant opportunity to save energy in
commercial buildings and to reduce the environmental emissions that
accompany the electrical power generation process.
When attempting energy savings, lighting is probably the first place in a

facility to look for savings because changes are usually easy, inexpensive
and have a quick payback period. This information will help to determine
the operating cost and the potential savings available from lighting
efficiencies.
This Chapter will provide basic concepts and information in conducting

energy audit and survey and make recommendations that will result in
both efficient and effective lighting systems. Audit detailed process and
program and others will be not be covered by this Chapter.
10.1—DEFINITION
A lighting audit is a detailed, systematic evaluation of the existing

conditions of lighted spaces and the performance of lighting systems.
The audit is characterized by detailed data collection, measurements, and
an in-depth analysis of the data, usually performed by third-party lighting
technical specialists.
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CHAPTER 10. BASIC LIGHTING ENERGY AUDIT
10.2—PURPOSE
The main purpose of a lighting audit is:
(a) To gather information concerning the characteristics and the

current condition of lighting systems and the lighted environment.
(b) To quantify the potential monetary savings and benefits for the
owner/occupants.
(c) To determine if lighting upgrade is possible within the constraints

(time and budget) imposed by the building establishment owner or
operator.
10.3—TYPES OF AUDIT
The three basic types of surveys and audits are the walk-thru audit, the
intermediate audit (mini-audit), and the comprehensive audit. These
three types form a hierarchy from the simple walk-thru audit to the
comprehensive audit, which is the most complex. The intermediate
survey is used for those situations that are too complex for a walk-thru
survey and too simple for a comprehensive audit.
10.3.1 The Walk-Thru Audit
The walk-thru audit is the simplest type and is usually performed while
the lighting technical specialists simply walks through a facility (hence
the name). The intent of the walk-thru survey, the simplest type, is to
collect just enough information in a short period of time to make
effective recommendations. It is performed to gather quickly the most
meaningful facts needed for a one-on-one retrofit. For the most basic
walk-thru survey, no fixtures are counted and no calculation of power
density is made. There is little analysis beyond simple payback, and a
brief report describes the existing systems, outlines the proposed
improvements, and reports the estimated payback.
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10.3.2 The Intermediate Audit or Preliminary Audit
The intermediate is a hybrid of a walk-thru survey and comprehensive

audit, containing elements of each. It is more detailed than a walk-thru
survey, and the data collection is usually done by a small team of two or
three lighting technical specialists.
The financial analysis made for the intermediate audit usually is more
than simple payback, but it still may not include a full-scale life-cycle
costing procedure. Calculations are usually performed for the complete
project instead of on a fixture or component basis. Reports usually
include equipment inventories, power densities, limited evaluation of
upgrade or relighting alternatives, and payback.
10.3.3 The Comprehensive Audit or Detailed Audit
The comprehensive audit is performed when the highest level of detail is

required and is usually conducted by small teams of two or three. At this
level the auditor’s focus on visual tasks and the worker’s productivity as
well as on lighting equipment is fully identified and counted, and a
detailed evaluation of lighting quality improvements is outlined. An
extensive analysis is performed, including life cycle costing.
The need for collecting thorough equipment details is to provide multiple

upgrade options or a relighting plan. To provide the detailed information
required, all lighting equipment must be fully identified and counted.
Attention will be paid to the actual mix of lamps and ballasts in use.
A comprehensive report describes the condition of existing lighting

systems and outlines several upgrade options, including relighting, with
an analysis of each. Both positive and negative aspects of each measure
considered should be reported so that the client can make an informed
choice. Maintenance savings are calculated and reported, as well as the
potential for productivity improvements. Ad description of the new look
of the upgraded or relighted spaces may be included, supported by
drawings or perhaps even rendered using a computer program with an
advanced graphics package.
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10.4—THE LIGHTING SYSTEM AUDITOR
A good lighting system auditor or evaluator should have experience in

the field of energy efficiency with specialized experience in lighting
energy audits and energy efficient lighting.
Auditors shall possess good interpersonal and communication skills

and also be skilled in interview techniques because some of the critical
information for an audit must be obtained from interviews with key
building personnel.
10.5—EVALUATING LIGHTING SYSTEMS
To evaluate lighting systems means to examine or carefully appraise

them. There are three (3) major steps in evaluating lighting systems:
(a) Performing a Lighting Audit. The characteristics of each

lighting system need to be assessed, including operating conditions,
operating hours, and maintenance.
(b) Identifying Opportunities for Improvements. Improvements

are the changes that raise the existing condition of the lighted
environment to a more desirable condition or to a more excellent quality,
that is, that make the lighted environment better. What to change and
how to change will depend on the particular focus of the analyst and the
objectives of the upgrade or relighting project.
(c) Calculating Savings and Potential Payback. Savings may be

calculated either as simple payback (SPB) or using life cycle costing
(LCC). Different types of lighting system operating cost should also be
considered before arriving at calculating the SPB and LCC. See Chapter
11 for sample calculations.
270
10.6—MEASURING AND MONITORING

EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENT
Below are the list of measuring and monitoring equipment required in

the conduct of lighting system audit;
(a) Clamp-on Power Meter. Measures, computes and display

circuit load at a given time (measurement taken at the circuit breaker and
other circuit disconnecting means).
(b) Clamp-on Data Logger Power Meter. Automatically log and

interface to laptop computer the recorded data for power consumption
over a period of time.
(c) True RMS AC Clamp Meter and Hybrid Recorder. Measure

flow of current in a conductor, capable of measuring power consumption,
line voltage, insulation resistance in mega-ohm and temperature. It can
measure electrical parameters without interrupting power utilization.
271
(d) Energy Analyzer with Computer Interface. Records unit hour

summary, peak/valley, demand summary and monitor phase angle.
Automatic line monitoring is done thru connection of meter clamp.
(e) Flexible Transducer. Measure large ampere flow of current in a

conductor to monitor its total ampere flow (accessory to the clamp-
meters).
(f) Lux Meter. Measure light illumination levels over the specific
area (workplane and room surroundings).
(g) Two-way Radio. Use for fast communication and coordination

of activity during the conduct of audit especially for large area.
272
(h) Binocular. Views nearer and closer readings to some far and
elevated location of lighting system and installed meter and indicators in
the site.
(i) Steel Tape and Roller Measure. Use to measure distances and
dimensions of rooms.
10.7—POTENTIAL OF ENERGY SAVINGS AND

PAYBACK PERIOD
10.7.1 Simple Payback (SPB)
SPB relates to how long it takes to recover an initial investment in a cost-

saving measure, assuming the annual savings remain constant and the
time value of money is unimportant. To calculate simple payback,
simply divide the initial investment by the annual savings.
10.7.2 Life-Cycle Costing (LCC)
LCC is an economic method of project evolutions that takes into account

all costs arising from the ownership, operation, maintenance, and
273
disposal of a lighting project. Instead of focusing on the short-term time

to pay back that SPB does, LCC considers long-term economic
performance. Life cycle cost is the total cost of owning, operating,
maintaining, and disposing of a lighting system over a given period of
time with all costs adjusted (discounted) to reflect the time value of
money.
10.7.3 Lighting System Cost
(a) Lighting Energy Cost. Annual lighting energy cost is generally

determined by multiplying annual kWh (energy consumption) by the cost
per kWh.
(b) Replacement Lamp Cost. A lamp's rated life is the number of

hours, which elapse before half the lamps in a large group of lamps burn
out. If lamps are left in place until they burn out, this can be determined
by dividing the annual hours of use by the rated life of the lamp.
(c) Lamp Replacement Labor Cost. Determine lamp replacement

labor cost by multiplying the average number of new lamps installed
each year by the time (in hours) required to install each. Then multiply
the product by the hourly rate of the persons who install the replacement
lamps.
(d) Ballast Replacement Cost. Most conventional ballasts last from

10 to 12 years. Determine the anticipated life of the types of ballasts
installed, and divide it into the cost to effect a replacement (labor and
materials included). Multiply the result by the number of ballasts (of
each type of luminaire) installed.
(e) Maintenance Costs. Maintenance costs typically include the cost

of regular lamp and fixture cleaning.
(f) Annual Operating and Maintenance Cost. The annual

operating and maintenance (O&M) cost of the system involved is the
sum of energy cost, replacement lamp cost, lamp replacement labor cost,
ballast replacement cost and other maintenance costs. The overall
operating and maintenance costs are substantially more than the cost of
energy alone.
274
10.8—LIGHTING AUDIT REPORT
The layout and style of the Main Report is at the discretion of the Auditor.
The report should be presented in a clear, concise and logical format. The
report should include at minimum the following:
(a) Overview of the activities at the area audited (existing lighting

systems) and the main energy end-users;
(b) Details of the scope of the Audit including the areas, systems and
activities assessed;
(c) The status of the energy management system at the site audited;
(d) The current energy performance of the site and of each of the energy
systems assessed in the Audit;
(e) The recommendations should also match comprehensive

solutions to current task needs and provide flexibility for future needs
(several upgrade options, including relighting, with a detailed analysis of
each). The Auditor should confirm the technical feasibility of each
recommendation.
(f) The Audit recommendations quantified in terms of energy savings

and payback period.
10.9—EXISTING LIGHTING SYSTEM CONDITIONS
To conduct a lighting audit you will first need basic lighting information,
such as the number of lights, their location, and their time in use to help
you understand the current energy use attributed to lighting in the
facility. This information will help understand how much you are
currently spending and the potential savings available from lighting
efficiencies. Use the worksheet below to assess your current lighting
conditions.
275
The purpose of using this lighting system audit form is to ensure a

consistent and systematic approach to and execution of a lighting audit.
Note that not every parameter listed below will be relevant to every
location/area.
Table 10.1 Existing Lighting System Conditions

Assessment Worksheet
Name of Organization:
Address:
Contact Person:
Tel no. / e-mail Address :
Type of Audit Conducted :
Date Audit Conducted :
Name of Auditor/s :
1. Area and Location Audited : ___________________

2. Dimensions of Area Audited : ___________________
3. Visual task performed : ___________________
4. Age of Person Performed
the Task : ___________________
5. Importance of Speed and
Accuracy : ___________________
6. Light Source
6.1 Location of Lamps : ___________________
6.2 Type of Lamps : ___________________
6.3 Number of Lamps : ___________________
6.4 Lamp Wattage Rating : ___________________
6.5 Mounting Height : ___________________
7. Lamp ballast
7.1 Type of ballast : ___________________
7.2 Number of lamps per
ballast : ___________________
7.3 Watts per ballast : ___________________
8. Type of Reflector : ___________________
9. Type of Refractors : ___________________
10. Surrounding Reflectances : ___________________
276
11. Availability of daylight : ___________________

12. Method of Control
12.1 Type Manual Switching : ___________________
12.2 Type of Automatic
Switching : ___________________
13. Light Level at Workplane : ___________________
14. Area Light Power Density : ___________________
(W/m2) : ___________________
15. Hours per week the fixture
in operation : ___________________
16. Maintenance/Cleaning Schedule : ___________________
17. Conditions of the space for
dirt depreciation : ___________________
18. Safety and Security
Measures Required : ___________________
19. Energy Consumption per month
20. Electricity cost per kilowatt hour
(kWh) : ___________________
21. Electricity Demand Charges : ___________________
22. Others (Observations/Comments)
277
278
Chapter 11. Economic Analysis of Lighting
11.1—THE ROLE OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS IN LIGHTING
Economic Analysis in lighting must be viewed as a framework for which

the requirement of the user can be properly taken into account. The
decision to retrofit the lighting system should consider the economic
needs of the owner. When the lighting of certain area fails to
complement the architecture of the space, its rental value will not be
achieved. Thus, a decision to retrofit the lighting system will be an
economic decision.
A lighting economic analysis for new or existing system should be as

follows:
• Comparison of alternative system

• Evaluation of maintenance techniques and procedures
• Evaluation of energy management technologies and strategies
• Determination of lighting effect on other building system
• Budget plan and cash flow
• Simplify lighting system characteristics to a cost measure
• Determination of the lighting benefit relative to its cost (cost-
benefit analysis)
11.2—LIGHTING COST COMPARISONS
Over the years, many techniques have been proposed for comparing the
set of one lighting system against the other system. The method can be
classified into two categories (see Table 11.1):
279
CHAPTER 11. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF LIGHTING
(a) First level analysis method, which neglect the time value of
money.
(b) Second level analysis considers the time value of the money.
The term time value of money refers to the depreciated value of money
at a specified time in the future.
Table 11.1 Lighting Cost Comparison Methods
First-Level Analysis Methods* Second-Level Analysis Methods

Cost of light Life-cycle cost-benefit analysis
Simple payback Savings-investment ratio
Simple rate of return Internal rate of return
*Generally not recommended for large or complex projects.
11.3—THE COST OF LIGHT
The simplest cost analysis is by comparing the initial cost and other least
expensive cost. Thus, if lamp A costs P60 and lamp B costs P50, lamp B
is selected. If the lamps are identical in performance, the decision can be
easily arrived. However, to attain certain benefit of light, both cost and
benefits must enter into analysis for us to obtain a meaningful result.
The idea of cost per unit lighting produced have been developed as basic
measures of lighting. This cost of light will be expressed in pesos per
million lumen hours.
The cost of light can be expressed by the following equation:
1.0 P+h
+ WR = X Eq. 11.1
Q L
280
Where:
X = unit cost of a lamp (pesos/106lm x h),
Q = mean lamp flux (thousand lumens),
P = lamp price (pesos)
h= labor cost to replace one lamp(pesos)
L = average rated lamp life (thousand of hours),
W = mean input power per lamp (including losses) (watts),
R = energy cost (pesos/kilowatt-hour).
Example:
Two lamps that have identical light output (i. e., 3 000 lumens) except
for their rated life. Lamp 1 has a rated life of 1000 hours, and lamp 2 has
a rated life of 10000 ours. Using the cost of light for a lighting system
with the following parameters:
Q = 3 000 lumens = 3 (1 000 lumens)

P = P250.00
h = P250.00
L = 1 for lamp 1 (1 000 hours)
L = 10 for lamp 2 (10 000 hours)
W = 40 watts
R = P10.00 per kilowatt-hour
X1 = 1.0 (P 250 + 250) + (40 x 10)

3.0 1
1.0 900
=
3.0 1 hrs
P 300
=
Million lumen - hours
X2 = 1.0 (P 250 + 250) + (40 x 10)

3.0 10
281
1.0 500 + (40 x 10)

=
3.0 10
450
=
3
= P 150
Million lumen hours
Care should be exercised in using the above equation since it did not
include luminaire, which housed the lamp. If a new efficient
replacement lamp will be introduced by calculating Equation 1 twice,
one for the existing lamp and the other for the new lamp, you could
come up with the approximate cost to produce one million lumen hours
with each of the two lamps individually. But, if they differed in physical
size, shapes and operating temperature, efficiency of the luminaires,
clearing requirements, intensity distribution, or maintenance
characteristics, each one could affect the cost.
Another setback of the cost-of-light method is that it does not consider

the monetary depreciation. But if the project life is short (say, two years
or less) or if it involves temporary lighting, the cost of the money may
have little effect. Therefore, this method can still be useful.
11.4—SIMPLE PAYBACK
Today, first-level method commonly used in lighting industry is the

simple payback. This payback offer information on the amount of time
required for an investment to be paid off. It is defined as initial cost
divided by the annual cash saving:
I
P = Eq. 11.2
A
Where:
P = payback period (years),
I = investment cost (pesos),
A = annual saving (pesos).
282
Frequently asked question concerning the desirability of replacing

existing lighting system with a new technology is “How long will the
system pay for itself?”. For example, an office building may estimate
that a lighting modification will save about Php100,000.00 in energy cost
annually. The cost in purchasing and installing the modification is
Php 500,000.00. Thus the simple payback period would be:
P = Php 500,000/ P 100,000 = 5 years
This is actually a risk assessment tool posing as a profitability metric. It

cannot answer the investment is profitable. Rather, it responds to the
concerns of the future and hopes to recoup the investment as soon as
possible.
The problem with this method is that, if the savings from system A
(which has a shorter payback than system B) decrease sharply every year
after the payback period while the savings of system B remain steady.
The payback method will lead one to select an inferior alternative.
Therefore, the payback method cannot be used when the alternatives
have non-uniform savings.
Like the cost-of-light method, simple payback is best suited for short-
lived projects for which interest rates is not so important. But this can be
helpful as an initial screening for projects with a payback period of
within one to two years. However, a project that did not pass on this
screening method should not be rejected, since it may still be profitable
after more rigorous analysis based on a second-level method.
11.5—SIMPLE RATE OF RETURN
The simple rate of return is simply the reciprocal of the payback:
ROR = A x 100% Eq. 11.3

I
Where:
ROR = rate of return, (%)

A = annual savings (Pesos)
I = investment cost (Pesos)
283
Thus if the system saves Php1,000,000.00/yr and requires an initial

investment of Php5,000,000.00 its simple rate of return is Php
1,000,000.00/Php5,000,000.00 or 20%, equivalent to a 5-year payback.
The advantages and disadvantages of this method is identical to those of
the payback method. It is simple to apply and understand, but it cannot
deal with non-uniform savings stream or unequal lives.
11.6—LIFE-CYCLE COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS (LCCBA)
The first-level method is generally not recommended for large complex

projects because they may lead to serious errors. The second-level
method, Life-Cycle Cost-Benefit Analysis (LCCBA) is approved by the
experts in managerial economics from all industries.
LCCBA uses a differential costing. The time value of money is

considered. An outline for comparing new interior lighting system is
shown on Worksheet (Table 11.2). In the Worksheet, the two lighting
system alternatives are compared. Both systems must be assumed to have
equal functional benefits or requirements, and other additional benefits
that do have economic value to the owner. The method can be expanded
using the same format comparison of additional options.
Table 11.2 Worksheet for LCCBA
System 1 System 2
A. Initial Costs
1. Lighting system—initial installed
costs, all parts and labor:
2. Total power consumed in lighting
system (kW) (including ballast and
transformer)
3. *Air-conditioning tons required to
dissipate heat from Lighting
(kW / 3.516):
4. First cost of air-conditioning tons
in line A3 @ P/ ton:
5. Reduction in first cost of heating
equipment (in negative number)
6. Utility rebates (enter financial
incentive as a negative number)
284
System 1 System 2
7. Other first costs cause by the
presence of the lighting systems:
(e.g. Insurance)
8. Subtotal mechanical and electrical
installed cost:
(A1+A4+A5+A6+A7) take note of
sign
9. Initial taxes:
10. Total costs(A8+A9)
11. Installed cost per square meter
(memo only, not included in
calculation):
12. Watts of lighting per square meter
(memo only, not included in
calculation):
13. Residual (salvage) value at end of
economic life:(use negative value
if money received for the salvage,
positive if the cost incurred to
dispose of the system at end of
life)
B. Annual Power and Maintenance Costs
1. Luminaire energy
[operating hours x kW x (P/kWh)]:
2. *Air-conditioning energy
[operating hours x tons x kW/ton
x (P/kWh)]:
3. Air-conditioning maintenance
(tons from A3 x P/ton):
4. *Reduction in heating cost:
5. Reduced heating maintenance
(MBtu x P / MBtu):
6. Other annual costs produce by the
lighting system:
7. *Cost of lamps annually (see
notes):
8. *Cost of ballast replacement (see
notes):
9. Luminaire washing cost
(number of luminaires x cost per
luminaire):
10. Annual insurance cost:
11. Annual property tax cost:
12. *Subtotal, annual power and
maintenance (with income tax):
285

System 1 System 2
B. Annual Power and Maintenance Costs
13. *Income tax effect of depreciation:
C. Comparisons
1. *Present worth:
A10 + P(A13) + P(B12 + B13)
2. *Annual cost:
A(A10) + A(A13) + B12 + B13
In section C, P represents the present worth factor, and A represents the
annual cost factor described in the text.
11.6.1 NOTES on the LCCBA Worksheet.
Since the analysis of lighting system economics is predominantly cost

analysis, the system used is that costs are positive and the revenues,
savings and benefits are considered negative.
The worksheet can be used to analyze new construction as well as

lighting retrofits. For lighting retrofits, the existing system can be
identified as System 1, each line item should reflect the associated costs.
If the initial costs for the existing system are mostly zero, maintenance
costs on the existing system should be considered. Proposed replacement
cost for the system should consider the equipment being re-used (e.g.,
most of the existing electrical wiring). Input value should reflect the
lamp/ballast/luminance combined performance and cost characteristic
values.
Section A
(A3) All lighting system will produce heat into the building, which
should be dissipated by the air-conditioning system. One ton of air
conditioning can dissipate the heat generated by 3.516 kW of lighting
(equivalent to 12,000 Btu/h). If the lighting system choice alters the size
of the air-conditioning equipment, the appropriate equipment size should
be entered so that the difference in refrigeration tonnage will be
286
considered between alternate lighting conditions. If the air-conditioning

equipment does not change, enter a zero on this line.
NOTE: Interior and exterior shading devices and glazing conditions

will affect the air conditioning load if daylight system is analyzed
Section B
(B2) The number of tons of air-conditioning should come from A3. it

is approximately 1.25 kilowatts per ton.
(B4) This is the reduction in the annual cost of fuel for heating
equipment due to increased heat obtained from the lighting system. The
number of heating hours can be obtained by the formula.
Heating hours = (lighting hours) x 0.85 – (cooling hours)
The heat from the lighting system in Mbtu is given by this formula:
Heat from lighting system:
= (kW of lighting) x (0.0034 Mbtu/kWh) x (heating hours)

Annual reduction in heating energy costs:
:
= (Mbtu of heat from lighting) x (fuel cost per Mbtu)
NOTE: Consideration should be given if daylighting is used specially as

the effect of shading devices on air conditioning cost.
287
Table 11.3 Conversion Factors for Various Fuels
Fuel Fuel Unit Energy Fuel to Obtain

Efficiency 1 Mbtu
Electric heat 1.0 0.0034 Mbtu/kWh 293 kWh
Coal 0.65 30 Mbtu/ton 0.05 ton
No. 2 fuel oil 0.70 0.14 Mbtu/gal 10 gal
Natural gas 0.70 1.0 Mbtu/mCF 1.4 mCF/Mbtu
(B7) If spot relamping is used, then the lamp cost per year will be:
Lamp cost per year =

(cost for spot replacement of one lamp) x (no. of lamps in the system)
(lamp life) / (annual burning hours)
For group relamping, use:
Lamp cost per year = (cost/lamp of group relamping) X (number

of lamp replaced/yr)
Either way, the number on this line should be peso amount.
(B8) To annualize ballast cost, use:
Ballast cost per year =
(cost to replace one ballast) x (number of ballast in the system)

(ballast life) / (annual burning hours)
Where:
A = cost to replace one ballast,
B = number of ballasts,
L = annual burning hours,
(B12) (B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 + B5 + B6 + B7 + B8 + B9 + B10 + B11) x (1- ITR)

ITR = income tax rate
288
(B13) Depreciation will reduce owner income tax liability.

The annual depreciation is given by:
Initial cost from A10

D=
Economic life of system
If a given tax rate (ITR) is expressed as a decimal fraction then tax effect is
T = D x ITR.
This is entered as a negative value, since it is a saving.
Section C
(C1) A present-worth comparison is done by finding "time zero"

equivalents of all future costs and adding those to the initial costs of line
A10. Eq. 11.5 is used to convert the residual value (A13).
(C2) An annual-cost comparison requires that all one-time costs

(initial costs and residual values) be converted to annual equivalents.
These are then added to the annual energy and maintenance costs. Use
Eq. 11.6 to convert the initial cost of line A10 to its annual equivalent.
The residual value (line A13) is converted to an annual value using Eq.
11.7.
11.6.2 Financial Equations
After completing the Worksheet, the second step is to make all terms into
the time equivalent to allow for comparison. The following equations are
used to take the time value of money into consideration:
The single present-worth factor is calculated as follows;
P=F x 1 Eq.11.4
(1 + i)n
289
Where:
P = present worth, or the equivalent value at present (pesos),

F = future worth, or the amount in the future (pesos),
n = number of years,
i = opportunity or interest rate per annum as a decimal
fraction (e.g. 5% equals 0.05).
In other words, one will be willing to spend P pesos now as to pay F pesos at
time n years in the future.
The uniform present-worth factor is determined by the following equation:
P = A x (1 + i) -n 1
n
Eq.11.5
i(1 + i)
Where:
P = present worth, or the equivalent value at present (pesos),
A = annual payment amount (pesos),
fraction.
The equation converts annual amounts into a single present value. There
is no difference between making annual payment of A pesos for the next
n year and paying P pesos today.
The uniform capital recovery factor is
A=P x i(1 + i)n Eq.11.6

(1 + i)n - 1
Where:
P = present worth, or amount at present (pesos),
fraction .
290
This is the reciprocal of the uniform present-worth factor, the uniform

capital recovery factor, is the annual amount which, in a uniform stream,
is equivalent to P pesos today.
The uniform sinking fund factor is determined by:
A=F x i Eq. 11.7

(1 + i)n - 1
Where:
F = future worth or amount in the future (pesos),
fraction .
This equation is an equal stream of annual amounts that is equivalent to

some specified amount at a specific time in the future. Again, there is no
cost difference between the offer of F pesos at n years from now and the
offer of A pesos each year for n years.
The present worth of an escalating annual cost can be determined by one

of several formulas. The general form is
n
P=∑ A (1 + r)k Eq. 11.8(a)
k= 1
(1 + i)k
Where:
P = present worth, or amount at present time(pesos),
A = initial annual payment, amount (pesos),
i = opportunity or interest rate per annum,
r = rate of escalation, or percentage by which the annual
payment increase each year, as a decimal fraction.
291
If the initial interest rate, i, and the rate of escalation, r, are the same, the
equation becomes,
P = An Eq. 11.8(b)
If i and r are different, Eq. 11.8(b) becomes;
(1 + r) [(1 + i)n – (1 + r)n]

P=A x (1 – r)(1 + i)n Eq.11.8(c)
Where:
P = present worth, or annual amount at present (pesos),
A = initial annual payment, amount (pesos),
i = opportunity or interest rate per annum,
r = rate of escalation, or percentage by which the annual
payment increase each year, as a decimal fraction
(e.g. 5% equals 0.05).
The system comparison can be made either way. Either by the residual
value (line A13 from Table 11.2) and annual costs (lines B12 and B13)
which can be converted to their present values using Eqs. 11.4 and 11.5
respectively, or by the total initial cost (line A10 from Table 11.2) and
the residual value (line A13), which can be converted to annualize
amounts using Eqs. 11.6 and 11.7, respectively. Once all costs for a
system have been converted to either annual equivalents or present-
worth equivalents, they can be computed to obtain a single value for
each system. Both systems can now be compared on the basis of a single
number. These approaches are summarized in section C of Table 11.2.
An additional condition can be injected if an estimate is available for the

expected rate of cost increase over time for any of the costs (for
example, if it is predicted that the cost of energy will increase 5% each
year over the planning horizon). Using Eq 11.8 (a), (b), or (c), escalation
292
rates of this type can be applied to the annual costs of lines B1 through
B11 of Table11.2.
11.6.3 Notes on the Use of Equations 11.4 through 11.8
Equations 11.4 through 11.8 imply that one peso today is not the same in
value to one peso a year from now. This is easily seen from the example
of Php 5,000.00 deposited that bears 5% annual interest. At the end of
one year, the amount has grown to Php 5000.00 plus 5%, or Php
5250.00. Therefore, Php 5,000.00 today is in some sense equivalent to
Php 5,250.00 one year from today. In terms of Eq 11.4;
P=F x 1
(1 + i)n
Php5,000 = Php5,250 x 1
(1 + 0.05)1
If we want to know how much should be deposited today in order to yield

Php100,000 in 20 years after at an interest rate of 5%. Using Equation 11.4;
P = Php100,000 x 1
(1 + 0.05)20
= Php37,689
Again, Php37,689.00 today is equivalent to Php100,000.00 in 20 years with an

interest rate of 5%.
Similarly, if the depositor in the previous example does not have Php37,689.00
today to deposit how much money must be set aside each year over the next
20 years in order to have Php 100,000.00 on hand at the end of that period.
Using Equation 11.7 ;
293
A=F x i
(1 + i)n - 1
= Php100,000 x 0.05
(1 + 0.05)20 - 1
= Php3,024
Twenty annual payments of Php3,024.00 are equivalent to Php

100,000.00 20 years from now, at 5% interest rate. One might be willing to
put up Php3,024.00 annually in maintenance costs to avoid the need to
replace a lighting system at a cost of Php100,000.00 after 20 years.
To illustrate the use, of Eq. 11.5, consider a lighting retrofit that saves
Php 10,000 .00 annually in energy costs over the next 10 years. How much
should one be willing to pay for this retrofit today if the interest rate is 6%?
P = A x (1 + i) -n 1
n
i(1 + i)
P = Php10,000 x (1 + 0.06)10 - 1
0.06(1 + 0.06)10
= Php73,601
So Php73,601 today is equivalent to a stream of equal payments (or receipts)

of Php 10,000.00 annually for 10 years at 6% interest.
294
Appendix A. Checklist of Energy-Saving
Guidelines
Appendix A contains recommendations for the development of an
energy management program for new construction and existing spaces.
The list can be scanned quickly to determine which ideas may be
applicable for a particular installation. The designer should review these
guidelines in consultation with the client and consider those which meet
the needs of the client and occupants.
Lighting Needs
Visual tasks: Identify specific visual tasks and
specification locations to determine recommended
illuminance for tasks and for
surrounding areas.
Safety and esthetics Review lighting requirements for given
applications to satisfy safety and
esthetic criteria.

Over lighted In existing spaces, identify

application applications where maintained
illumination is greater than
recommended. Reduce energy by
adjusting illuminance to meet
recommended levels.

Groupings: similar Group visual tasks having the same
visual tasks illuminance requirements, and avoid
widely separated workstations.
Task lighting
Illuminate work surfaces with
luminaires properly located in or on
furniture; provide lower ambient
Luminance ratios levels.
Use wall washing and lighting of
 decorative objects to balance
 brightness’s.
297
APPENDIX A. CHECKLIST OF ENERGY-SAVING GUIDELINES
Space Design and Utilization

Space plan When possible, arrange for occupants
working after hours to work in close
proximity to one another.
Room surfaces Use light colors for walls, floors,
ceilings and furniture to increase
utilization of light, and reduce
connected lighting power to achieve
required illuminance. Avoid glossy
finishes on room and work surfaces to
limit reflected glare.
Space utilization: Use modular branch circuit wiring to
branch circuit allow for flexibility in moving,
wiring relocating or adding luminaires to suit
changing space configurations.
Light building for occupied periods
Space utilization: only, and when required for security or

occupancy cleaning purposes (see chapter 31,
Lighting Controls).

Daylighting
Daylight If daylighting can be used to replace
compensation some electric lighting near fenestration
during substantial periods of the day,
lighting in those areas should be
circuited so that it may be controlled
manually or automatically by
switching or dimming.
Daylight sensing Daylight sensors and dimming systems

can reduce electric lighting energy.
 Daylight control Maximize the effectiveness of existing

 fenestration-shading controls (interior

 and exterior) or replace with proper

devices or shielding media.
298
 Space utilization Use daylighting in transition zones, in

lounge and recreational areas, and for
functions where the variation in color,
intensity and direction may be
desirable. Consider applications where
daylight can be utilized as ambient
lighting, supplemented by local task
lights.
Lighting Sources: Lamps and Ballasts
 Source efficacy Install lamps with the highest
 efficacies to provide the desired light
 source color and distribution
 requirements.
Fluorescent lamps Use T8 or T5 fluorescent and high-

wattage compact fluorescent systems
for improved source efficacy and color
quality.
Ballasts Use electronic or energy efficient

ballasts with fluorescent lamps.
HID Use high-efficacy metal halide and

high-pressure sodium light sources for
exterior floodlighting.
Incandescent Where incandescent sources are

necessary, use reflector halogen lamps
with IR recycling for increased
efficacy.
Compact fluorescent Use compact fluorescent lamps, where

possible, to replace incandescent
sources.
Lamp wattage In existing spaces, use reduced-wattage

reduced-wattage lamps where illuminance is too high
lamps but luminaire locations must be
maintained for uniformity.
299
Caution: These lamps are not

recommended where the ambient space
temperature may fall below 16oC
(60oF).
Control compatibility If a control system is used, check

compatibility of lamps and ballasts
with the control device.
System change Substitute metal halide and high-

  pressure sodium systems for existing
mercury vapor lighting systems.
Luminaires
Maintained Select luminaires which do not collect
efficiency dirt rapidly and which can be easily
cleaned.
Improved Improved maintenance procedures may

maintenance enable a lighting system with reduced
wattage to provide adequate
illumination throughout system or
component life.
Luminaire efficiency Check luminaire effectiveness for task

replacement or lighting and for overall efficiency; if
relocation ineffective or inefficient, consider
replacement or relocation.
Heat removal When luminaire temperatures exceed

optimal system operating temperatures,
consider using heat removal luminaires
to improve lamp performance and
reduce heat gain to the space. The
decrease in lamp temperature may,
however, actually increase power

consumption.
Maintained Select a lamp replacement schedule for

efficiency all light sources, to more accurately
300
predict light loss factors and possibly

decrease the number of luminaires
 required.
Lighting Controls
Switching: local Install switches for local and
control convenient control of lighting by
occupants. This should be in
combination with a building-wide
system to turn lights off when the
building is unoccupied.
Selective switching Install selective switching of

luminaires according to groupings of
working tasks and different working
hours.
Low-voltage Use low-voltage switching systems to

switching systems obtain maximum switching capability.
Master control Use a programmable low-voltage

system master switching system for the entire
building to turn lights on and off
automatically as needed, with
overrides at individual areas.
Multipurpose spaces Install multicircuit switching or preset

dimming controls to provide flexibility
when spaces are used for multiple
purposes and require different ranges
of illuminance for various activities.
Clearly label the control cover plates.
"Tuning" illuminance Use switching and dimming systems as
a means of adjusting illuminance for
variable lighting requirements.
Scheduling Operate lighting according to a

predetermined schedule.
301
Occupancy / motion Use occupancy / motion sensors for

sensors unpredictable patterns of occupancy.
Lumen maintenance Fluorescent dimming systems may be

utilized to maintain illuminance
throughout lamp life, thereby saving
energy by compensating for lamp-
lumen depreciation and other light loss
factors.

Ballast switching Use multilevel ballasts and local
inboard-outboard lamp switching
  where a reduction in illuminances is
sometimes desired.
Operation and Maintenance
 Education Analyze lighting used during working
 and building cleaning periods, and
 institute an education program to have
 personnel turn off incandescent lamps
 promptly when the space is not in use,

fluorescent lamps if the space will not

 be used for 5 min or longer, and HID
 lamps (mercury, metal halide, high-
 pressure sodium) if the space will not
be used for 30 min or longer.
 Parking Restrict parking after hours to specific
 lots so lighting can be reduced to
 minimum-security requirements in
 unused parking areas.


 Custodial service Schedule routine building cleaning

 during occupied hours.

 Reduced illuminance Reduce illuminance during building
 cleaning periods.
 Cleaning schedules Adjust cleaning schedules to minimize
 time of operation, by concentrating
 cleaning activities in fewer spaces at

302
 the same time and by turning off lights

 in unoccupied areas.

 Program evaluation Evaluate the present lighting
 maintenance program, and revise it as
 necessary to provide the most efficient
 use of the lighting system.

 Cleaning and Clean luminaires and replace lamps on

 maintenance a regular maintenance schedule to
 ensure proper illuminance levels are
 maintained.

 Regular system Check to see if all components are in

 checks good working condition. Transmitting
 or diffusing media should be
 examined, and badly discolored or

deteriorated media replaced to improve
efficiency.
Renovation of Replace outdated or damaged
 luminaires luminaires with modern ones which

have good cleaning capabilities and

 which use lamps with higher efficacy
 and good lumen maintenance
characteristics.
 Area maintenance Trim trees and bushes that may be

 obstructing outdoor luminaire
distribution and creating unwanted
shadows.
303
304
Appendix B. Efficient Lighting Initiative
(ELI) Voluntary Technical Specification
1. Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) should meet the performance

specifications below:
Laboratory and Test Performance Specifications

Requirements
Must be accredited according to ISO/IEC
17025 and qualified for pertinent lighting
product tests by a recognized national or
Laboratory Facility regional accreditation body. (See the ELI
Certification Protocol on the ELI website.)
A copy of the accreditation document
must be provided to ELI.
Performed at 25±1 °C in an international
Testing Conditions standard atmosphere with maximum
relative humidity of 65%.
Measurements should be recorded from
Position and Initial products in vertical base-up position, after
Burn-in an initial burn-in period of 100 hours, at
stabilized light output and current.
The applicants shall submit a separate set
of test reports for each individual model.
The test reports for the lowest wattage
model in each certification unit as
described in 4.1 and 4.3 must be from
testing laboratories which meet the
Test Data and Sample conditions described above. For other
Size rated wattages in the same certification
unit, the test reports from non-accredited
testing laboratories are recognized.
Test data must be from the model for

which qualification is sought. Values
indicated on the Product Application
Form–Self-ballasted Compact Fluorescent
Lamps should be the testing data from the
samples tested. Measurements of
305
APPENDIX B. ELI VOLUNTARY TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
photometric and electrical characteristics

must be submitted for 8 units of the same
model.
Longevity of Test Longevity of test results is two years,
Results unless the applicant can document to
ELI’s satisfaction that older test results
accurately portray the performance of the
present model.
Electrical Performance Specifications

Characteristics
Electromagnetic and Comply with CISPR 15 and relevant local
Radio Frequency regulations.
Interference
Harmonic Comply with harmonic current limits set
by IEC 61000-3-2.
Power Factor Power factor shall be ≥ 0.5 at maximum
power.
Electromagnetic Comply with IEC 61547 and all relevant
Compatibility local regulations if available.
Interference
Transient Protection Comply with IEC 61547.
Operating Performance Specifications

Characteristics
Operating Conditions The product package must declare the
operating temperature conditions.
In such conditions, with 92%~106% rated
voltage, the lamp can start reliably and
maintain stable operation.
Minimum Starting The product package must declare the
Temperature minimum starting temperature and any
other conditions (such as installation in an
enclosed luminaire) that would affect
either reliable starting or the starting
time.
Starting time CFL must continuously illuminate within
1.5 second of being switched on at
25±1oC and 92 % of rated voltage.
Lifetime Must have a minimum rated lifetime of
6,000 hours as defined in 3.11. Rated
lifetime should be clearly indicated in
hours on product packaging.
306
The full lifetime test shall be measured in

accordance with IEC 60969. The full
lifetime test results are allowed not to
accompany with the Product Application
Lamps. However, the full lifetime test
results shall officially be submitted upon
completion of the lifetime testing. ELI
reserves the right to withdraw the use of
the logo if the test results do not meet the
ELI specification, or require the applicants
to revise the rated lifetime indicated on the
product packaging if the actual full life
time testing results do not meet the
claimed rated lifetime.
Safety Must comply with IEC 60968 and relevant
local regulations.
Light Characteristics Performance Specifications

Correlated Color Must comply with IEC 60969 and the
Temperature color tolerance shall be within 5SDCM
from the target values.
Correlated color temperature (CCT) must
appear on the product packaging.
Color Rendering Index Color Rendering Index (CRI) should be at
least 80, as measured in accordance with
CIE13.3.
Lumen Maintenance The luminous flux of the lamp must be >
80% of initial levels at 40% rated of
model’s rated lifetime. Luminous flux
shall be measured according to IEC
60969.
Efficiency Specifications
Lamp wattage shall be classified based on the rated wattage, but the
test wattage shall be within ± 15% of rated wattage. Initial luminous
efficacy shall be calculated from initial luminous flux and input
power for the specific lamps measured at 25±1oC and at rated
voltage. Where the rated voltage is a range, then the test voltage
shall be: (a) the nominal voltage of the country/region of intended
use; or; (b) the mid point of test voltage shall be: (a) the nominal
307
voltage of the country/region of intended use; or; (b) the mid point of
efficacy (lm/W) of the lamps applying for ELI shall not be less than
the value indicated in the table.
Input Initial Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

Power of Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)
Lamp (W) 6500K 5000K 4000K 3500K 3000K 2700K
≥ 5 to < 9 46 50
≥ 9 to < 15 52 55
≥ 15 to < 25 57 60
≥ 25 to ≤ 60 62 65
The minimum initial luminous efficacy of a lamp model with a cover

(no reflector) shall be no less than 85% of the requirements indicated
in the above table. Separate applications must be made for models
offered with a cover option.
The produce packaging must clearly state the performance of the

following characteristics:
Rated power in watts, and

Rated operating voltage, and
Light output in lumens (luminous flux).
Other Specifications
Requirements Specifications
Label and Comparison Product packaging, enclosed literature, or
of Self-ballasted product specification sheet shall list the
Compact Fluorescent diameter of lamp tubes and the lamp-cap
Lamps to General type, and the length, efficiency and color
Lighting Service rendering index of the lamp.
The packaging or enclosed literature

should specify the rated luminous flux of
the lamps, and should note its equivalency
compared to the luminous flux of an
incandescent lamp for general lighting
service (GLS). The equivalent GLS must
be elected in accordance with IEC 60064.
308
Light output (lm) Power of standard

GLS (W)
≥230 25
≥415 40
≥570 50
≥715 60
≥940 75
≥1,227 90
≥1,350 100
≥2,180 150
≥3,090 200
Materials Lamp and lamp package must comply with
any local regulations regarding disclosure
and disposal, including regulations
regarding toxic materials such as
mercury.
ELI encourages manufacturers to inform
all purchasers about environmentally
responsible options for disposal or
recycling of lamps at end of the useful
lamp life.
Quality Management Manufacturers shall have in place and
System implement a Quality Management System
in accordance with ISO 9001-2000 or
equivalent (equivalency to be determined
by ELI).
Product Use Guidance The manufacturer or distributor shall offer
a clear and credible guidance in the
relevant local language on how to select
compatible components to create a highly
efficient lighting system.
Warranty Purchaser may replace a defective ELI-
certified lamp at point of purchase within
12 months from the date of purchase.
A written no-questions-asked warranty in
at least one applicable local language and
a local address for consumer contacts and
complaints must be included with product
when purchased.
309
2. Double-capped Fluorescent Lamps
Double-capped Fluorescent Lamp should meet the performance

specifications below:
Laboratory and Test Performance Specifications
Requirements
Must be accredited according to ISO/IEC
17025 and qualified for pertinent lighting
product tests by a recognized national or
Laboratory Facility regional accreditation body. (See the ELI
Certification Protocol on the ELI website.)
A copy of the accreditation document
must be provided to ELI.
Performed at 25±1 °C in an international
Testing Conditions standard atmosphere with maximum
relative humidity of 65%; the light
characteristics of high efficient preheated
cathode double-capped T5 fluorescent
lamps shall be performed at 35±1 °C.
Measurements should be recorded from
Position and Initial products in vertical base-up position, after
Burn-in an initial burn-in period of 100 hours, at
stabilized light output and current.
The applicants shall submit a separate set
of test reports for each individual model.
The test reports for the lowest wattage
model in each certification unit as
described in 4.1 and 4.3 must be from
testing laboratories, which meet the
Test Data and Sample conditions described above. For other
Size rated wattages in the same certification
unit, the test reports from non-accredited
testing laboratories are recognized.
Test data must be from the model for

which qualification is sought. Values
indicated on the Product Application
Lamps should be the testing data from the
samples tested. Measurements of
photometric and electrical characteristics
must be submitted for 8 units of the same
model.
310
Longevity of Test Longevity of test results is two years,

Results unless the applicant can document to
ELI’s satisfaction that older test results
accurately portray the performance of the
present model.
Operating Performance Specifications
Characteristics
Operating Conditions The product package must declare the
operating temperature conditions.
At 10 °C – 50 °C, with 92%~106% rated
voltage, the lamp can start reliably and
maintain stable operation.
Starting Time The product package must declare the
minimum starting temperature and any
other conditions (such as installation in an
enclosed luminaire) that would affect
either reliable starting or the starting
time.
Starting time Comply with starting characteristics limits
set by IEC 60081.
Lifetime Must have a minimum rated lifetime of
15,000 hours as defined in 3.9. Rated
lifetime should be clearly indicated in
hours on product packaging.
Method of test for the life of a lamp shall

be in accordance with IEC 60081. The
full lifetime testing may be conducted by
manufacturers’ testing facilities or by any
other non-accredited testing facilities.
ELI, nevertheless, may request
clarification and/or additional supporting
documents as appropriate, and reserves the
right to accept or reject the test reports
submitted. Requirements of longevity of
test result in this specification and validity
period of the test report specified in the
ELI Qualification Protocol are not
applicable to the full lifetime test report of
double-capped fluorescent lamp..
Safety Must comply with IEC 61195 and relevant
local regulations.
311
Light Characteristics Performance Specifications

Correlated Color Must comply with IEC 60081 and the
Temperature color tolerance shall be within 5SDCM
from the target values.
Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)
must appear on the product packaging.
Color Rendering Index Color Rendering Index (CRI) should be at
least 80, as measured in accordance with
CIE13.3.
Lumen Maintenance The luminous flux of the lamp must be >
90% of initial levels at 40% rated of
model’s rated lifetime. Luminous flux
shall be measured according to IEC
60081.
Efficiency Specifications
Lamp wattage shall be classified based on the rated wattage, but the
test wattage shall be within 105% + 0.5 W of rated wattage.
Initial luminous efficacy shall be calculated from initial luminous

flux and input power for the specific lamps measured at rated voltage
and specified temperature. The value of initial luminous efficacy
(lm/W) of the lamps applying for ELI shall not be less than the value
indicated in the table.
Input Power Initial Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

of Lamp Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)
(W) 6500K 5000K 4000K 3500 3000 2700K
K K
≥ 14 to < 21 60 65
≥ 22 to < 35 70 75
≥ 36 to < 65 78 83
NOTE: This table and requirements are not applicable to high

efficient preheated cathode double-capped T5 fluorescent Note: This
table and requirements are not applicable to high efficient preheated
cathode double-capped T5 fluorescent lamps.
High efficient preheated cathode double-capped T5 fluorescent lamps

that adopt high frequency shall meet the following luminous
efficiency requirements as specified in Table 3.
312
Input Initial Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

Power of Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)
Lamp (W) 6500K 5000K 4000K 3500K 3000K 2700K
≥ 14 to < 21 80 85
≥ 22 to < 35 90 95
The produce packaging must clearly state the performance of the
following characteristics:
Rated power input in watts, and
Light output in lumens.
Other Specifications
RequirementsSpecifications
Label Product packaging, enclosed literature, or product
specification sheet shall list the diameter of lamp
tubes and the lamp-cap type, and the length,
efficiency and color rendering index of the lamp.
The packaging or enclosed literature should specify
the rated luminous flux of the lamp.
Materials Lamp and lamp package must comply with any
local regulations regarding disclosure and
disposal, including regulations regarding toxic
materials such as mercury.
ELI encourages manufacturers to inform all
purchasers about environmentally responsible
options for disposal or recycling of lamps at end of
the useful lamp life.
Quality Manufacturers shall have in place and implement a
Management Quality Management System in accordance with
System ISO 9001-2000 or equivalent (equivalency to be
determined by ELI).
Product Use The manufacturer or distributor shall offer a clear
Guidance and credible guidance in the relevant local language
on how to select compatible components to create a
highly efficient lighting system.
Warranty Purchaser may replace a defective ELI-certified
lamp at point of purchase within 12 months from
the date of purchase.
A written no-questions-asked warranty in at least
one applicable local language and a local address
for consumer contacts and complaints must be
included with product when purchased.
313
314
Appendix C. Levels of Illumination Currently
Recommended
While the convenience of this table sometimes lists locations rather

than tasks, the recommended lux values have been arrived at for specific
visual tasks. The tasks selected for this purpose have been more difficult
ones that commonly occur in the various areas.
In order to assure these values at all times, higher initial levels
should be provided as required by the maintenance conditions.
Where task are located near the perimeter room of a special
consideration should be given to the arrangement of the luminaires in
order to provide the recommended level of illumination on the task.
The illumination levels shown in the table are intended to be
minimum on the task irrespective of the plane in which it is located. In
some instances, denoted by a (†), the values shown will be for equivalent
sphere illumination, E8. The commonly used lumen method of
illumination calculation that gives results only for a horizontal work
plane cannot be used to calculate or predetermine Es values. The ratio of
vertical to horizontal illumination will generally vary from 1/3 for
luminaires having narrow distribution to ½ for luminaires of wide
distribution. For a more specific determination one of the point
calculation methods should be used. Where the levels thus achieved are
inadequate, special luminaire arrangements should be used or
supplemental lighting equipment employed.
Supplementary luminaires may be used in combination with general
lighting to achieve these levels. The general lighting should be not less
than 200 lux and should contribute at least one-tenth the total
illumination level.
Many of the following values have appeared, or in the future will
appear, in other reports of the Society, some of which is jointly
sponsored with other agencies and organizations.
315
APPENDIX C. LEVELS OF ILLUMINATION CURRENTLY RECOMMENDED
Interior Lighting
Area lux
Aircraft Manufacturing
Stock parts
Production 1100
Inspection 220
Parts manufacturing
Drilling, riveting, screw fastening 750
Spray booths 1100
Sheet aluminum layout and template work, shaping, and
smoothing of small parts for fuselage, wing sections,
cowling, etc. 1100j
Welding
General illumination 50
Precision manual arc welding 10800a
Subassembly
Landing gear, fuselage, wing sections, cowling and
other large units. 1100
Final assembly
Placing of motors, propellers, wing
sections, landing gear 1100
Inspection of assemble ship and its equipment 1100
Machine tool repairs 1100
Aircraft hangars
Repair service only 1100
Armories
Drill 220
Exhibition 320
Art galleries
General 320
On paintings (supplementary) 320b
On statuary and other displays 1100c
Assembly
Rough easy seeing 320
Rough difficult seeing 540
Medium 1100
Fine 5400a
Extra fine 10800a
Auditoriums
Assembly only 160
Exhibitions 320
Social activities 50
316
Automobile showrooms (see Stores)

Automobile manufacturing
Frame assembly 540
Chassis assembly line 1100
Final assembly, inspection line 2200
Body manufacturing
Parts 750
Assembly 1100
Finishing and inspecting 2200
Bakeries
Mixing rooms 540
Face of shelves (vertical illumination) 320
Inside the mixing bowl (vertical mixers) 540
Fermentation room 320
Make-up room
Bread 320
Sweet yeast-raised products 540
Proofing room 320
Oven room 320
Fillings and other ingredients 540
Decorating and icing
Mechanical 540
Hand 1100
Scales and thermometers 540
Wrapping room 320
Banks
Lobby
General 540
Writing areas 750†
Tellers' stations 1600†
Posting and keypunch 1600†
Barbers shops and beauty parlors 1100
Book binding
Folding, assembling, pasting, etc. 750
Cutting, punching, stitching 750
Embossing and inspection 2200
Breweries
Brew house 320
Boiling and keg washing 320
Filling (bottles, cans, kegs) 540
Candy making 540

Box department
317
Chocolate department
Husking, winnowing, fat extraction 540
crushing and refining, feeding
Bean cleaning, sorting, dipping, packing, 540
wrapping 1100
Milling
Cream making 540
Mixing, cooking, molding 540
Gum drops and jellied forms 1100
Hand decorating
Hard candy 540
Mixing, cooking, molding 1100
Die cutting and sorting 1100
Kiss making and wrapping
Canning and preserving 540
Initial grading raw materials samples 1100
Tomatoes 2200a
Color grading (cutting rooms)
Preparation
Preliminary sorting 540
Apricots and peaches 1100
Tomatoes 1600
Olives 1100
Cutting and pitting 1100
Final sorting
Canning 1100
Continuous-belt canning 1100
Sink canning 540
Hand packing 1100
Olives 2200f
Examination of canned samples
Container handling 2200a
Inspection 750
Can unscramblers 320
Labeling and cartoning
Central station
Air-conditioning, equipment, air preheater and fan 110
floor, ash sluicing
Auxiliaries, battery rooms, boiler feed pumps, tanks 220
compressors, gauge area 110
Boiler platforms 220
Burner platforms 110
Cable room, circulatory, or pump bay 540
318
Chemical laboratory
Coal conveyor, crusher, feeder, scale areas, 110
pulverizer, fan area, transfer tower
Condensers, deaerator floor, evaporator floor, heater 110
floors
Control rooms (see Control rooms) 220
Hydrogen and carbon dioxide manifold area. 110
Precipitators 220
Screen house 110
Soot or sag blower platform 110
Steam headers and throttles 220
Switchgear, power 220
Telephone equipment room 110
Tunnels or galleries, piping 220
Turbine bay sub-basement 320
Turbine room 220
Visitor's gallery 220
Water treating area
Chemical works
Hand furnaces, boiling tanks, stationary driers, 320
stationary and gravity crystallizers
Mechanical furnaces, generators and stills,
mechanical driers, evaporators, filtration, 320
mechanical crystallizers, bleaching
Tanks for cooking, extractors, percolators, nitrators, 320
electrolytic cells
Churches and synagogues 1100e
Altar, ark, reredos 320e
Choir4 and chancel 320†
Classrooms 540e
Pulpit, rostrum (supplementary illumination)
Main worship area4 160e
Light and medium interior 320d
For churches with special zeal
Art glass windows (test recommended) 540
Light color 1100
Medium color 5400
Dark color 10800
Especially dense windows
Clay products and cements
Grinding, filter presses, kiln rooms 320
Molding, pressing, cleaning, trimming 320
Enameling 1100
319
Color and glazing—rough work 1100

Color and glazing—fine work 3200a
Cleaning and pressing industry
Checking and sorting 540
Dry and wet cleaning and steaming 540
Inspection and spotting 5400a
Pressing 1600
Repair and alternation 2200a
Cloth products
Cloth inspection 21500a
Cutting 3200a
Sewing 5400a
Pressing 3200a
Clothing manufacture (men's)
Receiving, opening, storing, shipping 320
Examining (perching) 21500a
Sponging, decating, winding, measuring 320
Piling up and marking 1100
Cutting 3200a
Pattern making, preparation of trimming, piping,
Canvas and shoulder pads 540
Fitting, bundling, shading, stitching 320
Shops 1100
Inspection 5400a
Pressing 3200a
Sewing 5400a
Club and lodge rooms
Lounge and reading rooms 320
Auditoriums (see Auditoriums)
Coal tipples and cleaning plants
Breaking, screening 110
Picking 3200a
Control rooms and dispatch rooms
Control rooms
Vertical face of switchboards
Simplex or section of duplex facing operators:
Type A—large centralized control room 1676 mm
(66 inches) above floor 540
Type B—Ordinary control room 1676 mm (66
inches) above floor 320
Section of duplex facing away from operator 320
Bench boards (horizontal level) 540
Area inside duplex switch board 110
320
Rear of all switchboards 110

Emergency lighting, all areas 30
Dispatch boards
Horizontal plane (desk level) 540
Vertical ace of board [1219 mm (48 inches) above floor,
facing operator]:
System load dispatch room 540
Secondary dispatch room 320
Cotton gin industry
Overhead equipment—separators, driers, grid cleaners,
stick machines, conveyers, feeders and catwalks 320
Gin stand 540
Control console 540
Lint cleaner 540
Bale press 320
Court rooms
Seating area 320
Court activity area 750
Dairy farms (see farms)
Dairy products
Fluid milk industry
Boiler room 320
Bottle storage 320
Bottle sorting 540f
f
Bottle washers
Can washers 300
Cooling equipment 300
Filling: inspection 1100
Gauges (on face) 540
Laboratories 1100
Meter panels (on face) 5400
Pasteurizers 320
Separators 320
Storage refrigerator 320
Tanks, vats
Light interiors 220
Dark interiors 1100
Thermometer (on face) 540
Weighting room 320
Scales 750
Dance halls 50
Depots, terminals, and stations
Waiting room 320
321
Ticket offices
General 1100†
Ticket rack and counters 1100†
Rest rooms and smoking room 320
Baggage checking 540
Concourse 110
Platforms 2200
Toilets and washrooms 320
Dispatch boards (see control rooms)
Drafting room (see offices)
Electrical equipment manufacturing
Impregnating 540
Insulating: coil winding 1100
Testing 1100
Electrical Generating Station (see Central Station)
Elevators, freight and passenger 220
Engraving (wax) 2200a
Explosives
Hand furnaces, boiling tanks, stationary driers, stationary
and gravity crystallizers 320
Mechanical furnace, generators and stills, mechanical
driers, evaporators filtration, mechanical crystallizers 320
Tanks for cooking, extractors, filtration, percolators,
nitrators 320
Farm—dairy
Milking operation area (milking parlor and stall
barn)
General 220
Cow's udder 540
Milk handling equipment and storage area (milk
house or milk room)
General 220
Washing area 1100
Bulk tank interior 1100
Loading platform 220
Feeding area (stall barn feed alley, pens, loose
housing feed area) 220
Feeding storage area—forage
Haymow 30
Hay inspection area 220
Ladders and stairs 220
Silo 30
Silo room 220
322
Feed storage area—grain and concentrate

Grain bin 30
Concentrate storage area 110
Feed Processing area 110
Livestock housing area (community, maternity, individual
calf pens, and loose housing holding and resting areas) 75
Machine storage area (garage and machine shed) 50
Farm shop area
Active storage area 110
General shop area (machinery repair, rough sawing 320
Rough bench and machine work (painting, fine storage,
ordinary sheet, metal work, welding, medium
bench work) 540
Medium bench work and machine work (fine
woodworking, drill press, metal lathe, grinder) 1100
Miscellaneous
Farm office 750†
Restrooms 320
Pump house 220
Farms—poultry (see Poultry industry)
Fire hall (see Municipal buildings)
Flour mills
Rolling, sitting, purifying 540
Packing 320
Product control 1100
Cleaning, screens, man lifts, aisleways and walkways, bin
checking 320
Forge shops 540
Foodservice facilities
Dinning areas
Cashier 540
Intimate type
Light environment 110
Subdued environment 30
For cleaning 220
Leisure type
Light environment 320
Subdued environment 160
Quick service type
Bright surroundingsn 110
Normal surroundingsn 540
Food displays—twice the general level but not under 540
Kitchen, commercial
323
Inspection, checking, preparation, and pricing 750

Entrance foyer 320
Marquee
Dark surroundings 320
Bright surroundings 540
Foundries
Annealing (furnaces) 320
Cleaning 320
Core making
Fine 1100
Medium 540
Grinding and chipping 1100
Inspection
Fine 5400a
Medium 1100
Molding
Medium 1100
Large 540
Pouring 540
Sorting 540
Copula 220
Shakeout 320
Garage—automobile and truck
Service garages
Repairs 1100
Active traffic areas 2200
Parking garages
Entrance 540
Traffic lanes 110
Storage 50
Gasoline station (see Service station)
Glass works
Mix and furnace rooms, pressing and lehr, glassblowing
machines 320
Grinding, cutting glass to size, silvering 540
Fine grinding, beveling, polishing 1100
Inspection, etching and decorating 2200f
Glove manufacturing
Pressing 3200a
Knitting 1100
Sorting 1100
Cutting 3200a
Sewing and inspection 5400a
324
Hangars (see aircraft hangars)

Hat manufacturing
Dyeing, stiffening, braiding, cleaning, refining 1100
Forming, sizing, pouncing, flanging, finishing, ironing 2200
Sewing 5400a
Homes (see Residences)
Hospitals
Anesthetizing and preparation room 320
Autopsy and morgue
Autopsy room 1100
Autopsy table 10800
Museum 540
Morgue, general 220
Central sterile supply
General, work room 320
Work table 540
Glove room 540
Syringe room 1600
Needle sharpening 1600
Storage area 320
Issuing sterile supplies 540
Corridor
General in nursing areas—daytime 220
General in nursing areas—night (rest period) 30
Operating, delivery, recovery, and laboratory suites and
service areas 320
Cystoscopic room
General 1100
Cystoscopic table 26900
Dental suite
Operatory, general 750
Instrument cabinet 1600
Dental entrance to oral cavity 10800
Prosthetic laboratory bench 1100
Recovery room, general 50
Recovery room, local for observation 750
(EEG) encephalographic suite
Office (see Offices)
Work room, general 320
Work room, desk and table 1100
Examining room 320
Preparation rooms, general 320
Preparation rooms, local 540
325
Storage, records, charts 320

Electromyographic suite
Same as EEG but provisions for reducing level in
preparation area to 1
Emergency operating room
General 1100
Local 2150
EKG, BMR, and specimen room
General 3200
Specimen table 540
EKG machine 540
Examination and treatment room
General 540
Examining table 1100
Exit, at floor 50
Eye, ear, nose, and throat suite
Darkroom (variable) 0-110
Eye examination and treatment 540
Ear, nose, throat room 540
Flower room 110
Formula room
Bottle washing 320
Preparation and filling 540
Fracture room
General 540
Fracture table 2200
Splint closet 540
Plaster sink 540
Intensive care nursing areas
General 320
Local 1100
Laboratories
General 540
Close work areas 1100
Linens (see Laundries)
Sorting soiled linen 320
Central (clean) linen room 320
Sewing room, general 320
Sewing room, work area 1100
Linen closet 110
Lobby (or entrance foyer)
During day 540
During night 220
326
Locker rooms 220

Medical records room 1100†
Nurses station
General—day 750†
General—night 320
Desk for records and charting 750†
Table for doctor's making or viewing reports 750†
Medicine counter 1100†
Nurses gown room
General 320
Mirror for grooming 540
Nurseries, infant
General 320
Examining, local and bassinet 110
Examining and treatment table 110
Nurses station and work space (see Nurses Station)
Obstetrical suite
Labor room, general 220
Labor room, local 110
Scrub-up area 320
Delivery room, general 110
Substerilizing room 320
Delivery table 26900
Clean-up room 320
Recovery room, local 1100
Patients rooms (private and wards)
General 220
Reading 320
Observation(by nurse) 20
Night light, maximum at floor (variable) 5
Examining light 110
Toilets 320
Pediatric nursing unit
General, crib room 220
General, bedroom 110
Reading 320
Playroom 320
Treatment room, general 540
Treatment room, local 1100
Pharmacy
Compounding and dispensing 1100
Manufacturing 540
327
Parenteral solution room 540

Active storage 320
Alcohol vault 110
Radioisotope facilities
Radiochemical laboratory, general 320
Uptake or scanning room 220
Examining table 540
Retiring room
General 110
Local for reading 320
Solarium
General 220
Stairways 220
Surgical suite
Instrument and sterile supply room 320
Clean-up room, instrument 1100
Scrub-up area (variable) 2200
Operating room, general (variable) 2200
Operating table 26900
Recovery room, local 1100
Anesthesia storage 220
Substerilizing room 320
Therapy, physical
General 220
Exercise room 320
Treatment cubicles, local 320
Whirlpool 220
Lip reading 1600
Office (see Office)
Therapy, occupational
Work area, general 320
Work tables or benches, ordinary 540
Work table or benches, fine work 1100
Toilets 320
Utility room
General 220
Work counter 540
Waiting rooms, or areas
General 220
X-ray suite
328
Radiographic, general 110

Fluoroscopic, general (variable) 0-540
Deep and superficial therapy 110
Control room 110
Film viewing room 320
Darkroom 110
Light room 320
Filing room, developed film 320
Storage, undeveloped films 110
Dressing rooms 110
Hotels
Bathrooms
Mirror 320
General 110
Bedrooms
Reading (books, magazine, newspapers) 320
Inkwriting 320
Make-up 320
General 110
Corridors, elevator, and stairs 220
Entrance foyer 320
Front office 540
Linen room
Sewing 110
General 220
Lobby
General lighting 110
Reading and working area 320
Marquee
Dark surroundings 320
Bright surroundings 540
Ice making—engine and compressor room 220
Inspection
Ordinary 540
Difficult 1100
Highly difficult 2200
Very difficult 5400a
Most difficult 10800a
Iron and steel manufacturing
Open hearth
Stock yard 110
Charging floor 220
Pouring slide
329
Slag pits 220

Control platform 320
Mold yard 50
Hot top 320
Hot top storage 110
Checker cellar 110
Buggy and door repair 320
Stripping yard 220
Scrap stockyard 110
Mixer building 320
Calcining building 110
Skull cracker 110
Rolling mills
Blooming, slabbing, hot strip, hot sheet. 320
Cold strip, plate 320
Pipe, rod, tube, wire drawing 540
Merchant and sheared plate 320
Tin plate mills
Tinning and galvanizing 540
Cold strip rolling 540
Motor room, machine room 540
Inspection
Black plate, bloom and billet chipping 1100
Tin plate and other bright surfaces. 2200j
Jewelry and watch manufacturing 5400a
Kitchens (see Foodservice facilities or residences)
Laundries
Washing 320
Flat work ironing, weighing, listing, marking 540
Machine and press finishing, sorting 750
Fine hand ironing 1100
Leather manufacturing
Cleaning, tanning and stretching, vats 320
Cutting, fleshing and stuffing 540
Finishing and scarfing 1100
Leather working
Pressing, winding, glazing 2200
Grading, matching, cutting, scarfing and sewing 3200a
Library
Reading area
Reading printed material 320†
Study and note taking 750†
Conference areas 320†
330
Seminar rooms 750†

Book stacks (30 inches above floor)
Active stacks 320r
Inactive stacks 50r
Book repair and binding 750
Cataloging 750†
Card files 1100†
Carrels, individual study areas 750†
Circulation desks 750†
Rare book rooms —archives
Storage areas 320
Reading areas 1100†
Map, picture, and print rooms
Storage areas 320
Use area 1100†
Audiovisual area
Preparation rooms 750
Viewing rooms (variable) 750
Television receiving room (shield viewing screen) 750
Audio listening areas
General 320
For note taking 750†
Record inspection table 1100a
Microform areas
Files 750†
Viewing areas 320
Locker room 220
Machine shops
Rough bench and machine work 540
Medium bench and machine work, ordinary automatic
machines, rough grinding, medium buffing and polishing 1100
Fine bench and machine work, fine automatic machines,
medium grinding, fine buffing and polishing 540a
Extra-fine bench and machine work, grinding, fine work 10800a
Materials handling
Wrapping, packing, labeling 540
Picking stock, classifying 320
Loading, trucking 220
Inside truck bodies and freight car 110
Meat packaging
Slaughtering 320
Cleaning, cutting, cooking, grinding, canning, packing 1100
Municipal buildings—fire and police
331
Police
Identification 1600†
Jail cells and interrogation rooms 320
Fire hall
Dormitory 220
Recreation room 320
Wagon room 320
Museums (see Art Gallery)
Nursing homes
Corridors and interior ramps 220
Stairways other than exits 320
Exit stairways and landings, on floor 50
Doorways 110
Administrative and lobby areas, day 540
Administrative and lobby areas, night 220
Chapel or quite area, general 50
Chapel or quite area, local for reading 320
Physical therapy 220
Occupational therapy 320
Work table, course work 1100
Work table fine work 2200
Recreation area 540
Dining area 320
Patient care units (or room), general 220
Patient care room, reading 320
Nurse's station, general
Day 540†
Night 220
Nurse's desk, for charts and records 750†
Nurse's medicine cabinet 1100†
Utility room, general 220
Utility room, work counter 540
Pharmacy area, general 320
Pharmacy, compounding, and dispensing area 1100
Janitor's closet 150
Toilet and bathing facilities 300
Barber and beautician areas 500
Offices
Drafting room
Detailed drafting and designing, cartography 2200†
Rough layout drafting 1600†
Accounting offices
Auditing, tabulating, bookkeeping, business machine
332
operation, computer operation 1600†

General offices
Reading poor reproduction, business machine operation,
computer operation 1600†
Reading handwriting in hard pencil pr poor paper,
reading fair reproductions, active filing, mail sorting 1100†
Reading handwriting in ink or medium pencil or good
quality paper, intermittent filing 750†
Private offices
Reading poor reproductions, business machine operation 1600†
Reading handwriting in hard pencil on poor paper,
reading fair reproductions 1100†
Reading handwriting in ink or medium pencil on good
quality paper 7500†
Reading high contrast or well-printed materials 330†
Conferring and interviewing 330
Conference room
Critical seeing task 1100†
Conferring 330
Note-taking during projection (variable) 330
Corridors 220k
Packing and boxing (see Materials handling)
Paint manufacturing
General 320
Comparing mix with standard 2200a
Paint shops 540

Dipping, simple spraying, firing
Rubbing, ordinary hand painting and finishing art, stencil 540
and special spaying 1100
Fine hand painting and finishing 320a
Extra-fine hand painting and finishing
Paper-box manufacturing 540
General manufacturing area
Paper manufacturing 320
Beaters, grinding, calendaring 540
Finishing, cutting, trimming, papermaking machines 750
Hand counting, wet end of paper machine 1100
Paper machine reel, paper inspection, and laboratories 1600
Rewinder 320
Plating 1100
Polishing and burnishing
Power plants (see Central station)
333
Post offices 320

Lobby, on tables 1100
Sorting, mailing etc.
Poultry industry (see also Farm—dairy)
Brooding, production, and laying houses 220
Feeding, inspection, cleaning 320
Charts and records 540
Thermometers, thermostats, time clocks
Hatcheries 220
General area and loading platform 320
Inside incubators 160
Dubbing station 1080
Sexing
Egg handling, packing and shipping 540
General cleanliness 540
Egg quality inspection 220
Loading platform, egg storage area, etc.
Egg processing 750
General lighting
Fowl processing plant 750
General (excluding killing and unloading area) 1100
Government inspection station and grading stations 220
Unloading and killing area
Feed storage 110
Grain, feed rations 110
Processing 320
Charts and records 50
Machine storage area (garage and machine shed)
Printing industry
Type foundries 1100
Matrix making, dressing type 540
Font assembly—sorting 1100
Casting
Printing plants 2200a
Color inspection and appraisal 1100
Machine composition 1100
Composing room 750
Presses 1600
Imposing stones 1600
Proofreading
Electrotyping 110
Molding, routing, finishing, leveling molds, trimming 540
Blocking, tinning 540
334
Electroplating
Photoengraving 540
Etching, staging, blocking 1100
Routing, finishing, proofing 1100
Tint laying, masking
Professional offices (see Hospitals)
Receiving and shipping (see Materials handling)
Residences
Specific visual tasks1 160
Dinning 540
Grooming, shaving, make-up
Handcraft 750
Ordinary seeing tasks 1100
Difficult seeing tasks 1600
Very difficult seeing tasks 2200
Critical seeing tasks 500
Ironing (hand and machine)
Kitchen duties 1600
Food preparation and cleaning 540
Serving and other non-critical tasks
Laundry 540
Preparation, sorting, inspection 540
Tub area- soaking, tinting 320
Washer and dryer areas
Reading and writing 750†
Handwriting reproductions and poor copies 320†
Books, magazines, newspapers
Reading piano or organ scores 1600
Advanced (substandard size) 750
Advance 320
Simple
Sewing (hand ad machine) 220
Dark fabrics 1100
Medium fabrics 540
Light fabrics 320
Occasional-high contrast 750†
Study 320
Table games
General lighting 110m
Conversation, relaxation, entertainment 110m
Passage areas, for safety 320
Areas involving visual tasks, other than kitchen 540
Kitchen
335
Restaurants (see Foodservice facilities)

Rubber goods—mechanical
Stock preparation 320
Plasticating, milling, Banbury 540
Calendaring 540
Fabric preparation, stock cutting, hose looms 540
Extruded products 540
Molded products and curing 220a
Inspection
Rubber tire manufacturing 320
Banbury
Tread stock 540
General
Booking and inspecting, extruder, check weighing, width 1100q
measuring
Calendaring 320
General 540
Letoff and windup
Stock cutting 320
General 1100q
Cutters and splicers 540
Bead Building
Tire Building 540
General 1600a
At machine 320
In-process stock
Curing 320
General 750a
At molds
Inspection 1100
General 3200q
At tires 220
Storage
Sawmills 3200a
Grading redwood lumber
Schools
Tasks 320†
Reading printed material 750†
Reading pencil writing
Spirit duplicated material 320†
Good 1100†
Poor 1100a
Drafting, benchwork 1600a
336
Lip reading, chalkboards, sewing

Classrooms 750
Art rooms 1100a†
Drafting room
Home economics rooms 1600a
Sewing 540
Cooking 540
Ironing 750
Sink activities 750†
Note-taking areas 1100
Laboratories
Lecture rooms 750
Audience area 1600a
Demonstration area
Music rooms 320†
Simple scores 750g†
Advance scores 1100a
Shops 1600a
Sight-saving room 750†
Study halls 750†
Typing 220
Corridors and stairways
Dormitories 110
General 320†
Reading books, magazines, newspapers 750†
Study desk
Service space (see also Storage rooms) 220
Stairways, corridors 220
Elevators, freight and passenger 320
Toilets and wash rooms
Service stations 320
Service bays 540
Sales room 1100
Shelving and displays 160
Rest rooms 50
Storage
Sheet metal works 540
Miscellaneous, ordinary bench work. 540
Presses, shears, stamps, spinning, medium bench work 540
Punches 2200j
Tin plate inspection, galvanized 2200j
Scribing
Shoe manufacturing—leather
337
Cutting and stitching 3200a

Cutting table
Marking, buttonholing, skiving, sorting, vamping, 3200a
counting 3200a
Stitching, dark materials
Making and finishing, nailers, sole layers, welt beaters and
scarfers, trimmers, welters, lasters, edge setters, sluggers,
randers, wheelers, treers, cleaning, spraying, buffing, 2200
polishing, embossing
Shoe manufacturing—rubber 320
Washing, coating, mill run compounding
Varnishing, vulcanizing, calendaring, upper and sole 540
Cutting 1100
Sole rolling, lining making and finishing processes
Shop-windowso
Daytime lighting 2200
General 10800
Feature
Nighttime lighting
Main business districts—highly competitive 220
General 1080
Feature
Secondary business districts or small towns 1100
General 5400
Feature
Open-front stores (see display lighting under Stores)
Soap manufacturing 320
Kettle houses, cutting, soap chip and powder
Stamping, wrapping and packing, filling and packing soap 540
powder
Airway (see Service space)
Steel (see Iron and steel)
Stone crushing and screening
Belt conveyor tubes, main line shafting spaces, chute 110
rooms, inside of bins 110
Primary breaker room, auxiliary breakers under bins 220
Screens
Storage battery manufacturing 540
Molding of grids
Storage rooms or warehouses 50
Inactive
Active 110
Rough bulky 220
338
Medium 540
Fine
Storeso 320
Circulation areas
Merchandizing areas 1100
Service 2200
Self-service
Showcases and wall cases 2200
Service 5400
Self-service
Feature displays 5400
Service 10800
Self service
Alteration room 540
General 1600
Pressing 2200
Sewing
Fitting room 5400
Dressing areas 2200
Fitting areas 320
Stockrooms 540
Structural steel fabrication
Sugar refining 540
Grading 220a
Color inspection
Testing 540
General 2200a
Extra-fine instruments, scales, etc.
Textile mills—cotton 320
Opening, mixing, picking 540
Carding and drawing 540
Slubbing, roving, spinning, spooling
Beaming and splashing on comb 540
Gray goods 1600
Denims
Inspection 1600
Gray goods (hand turning) 540a
Denims (rapidly moving) 1600
Automatic trying-in 1100
Weaving 2200
Drawing-in by hand
Textile mills—silk and synthetics
Manufacturing
339
Soaking, fugitive tinting, and conditioning or setting of 320

twist
Winding, twisting, rewinding and coning, quilling, slashing 540
Light thread 2200
Dark thread
Warping (silk or cotton system)
On creel, on running ends, on reel, on beam, on warp at 1100
beaming 2200
Drawing-in on heddles and reed 1100
Weaving
Textiles mills—woolen and worsted 320
Opening, blending, picking 1100a
Grading 540
Carding, combing, recombing and gilling
Drawing 540
White 1100
Colored
Spinning (frame) 540
White 110
Colored
Spinning (mule) 540
White 110
Colored
Twisting 540
White
Winding 320
White 540
Colored
Warping 1100
White 1100
White (at reed) 1100
Colored 320a
Colored (at reed)
Weaving 1100
White 2200
Colored
Gray-goods room 1600
Burling 3200a
Sewing 750
Folding 540
Wet finishing, fulling, scouring, crabbing, drying 110a
Dyeing 750
Dry finishing, napping, conditioning, pressing 1100
340
Dry finishing, shearing 21500

Inspecting (perching) 750
Folding
Theatres and motion picture house
Auditoriums 50
During intermission 1
During picture 50
Foyer 220
Lobby
Tobacco products 320
Drying, stripping, general 2200a
Grading and sorting 320
Toilets and wash rooms 1100
Upholstering—automobile, coach, furniture
Warehouse (see Storage rooms)
Welding 540
General illumination 10800a
Precision manual arc welding
Woodworking 320
Rough sawing and bench work
Sizing, planing, rough sanding, medium quality machine 540
and bench work, gluing, veneering, cooperage 1100
Fine bench and machine work, fine sanding and finishing
Exterior Lighting
Building (construction)
General construction 110
Excavation work 20
Building exteriors
Entrances
Active (pedestrian and/or conveyance) 50
Inactive (normally locked, infrequently used) 10
Vital locations or structures 50
Building surrounds 10
Buildings and monuments, floodlighted
Bright surrounding
Light surfaces 160
Medium light surfaces 220
Medium dark surfaces 320
Dark surfaces 540
Dark surroundings
Light surfaces 50
Medium light surfaces 110
341
Medium dark surfaces 160

Dark surfaces 220
Bulletin and poster boards
Bright surroundings
Light surfaces 540
Dark surfaces 110
Dark surrounding
Light surfaces 220
Dark surfaces 540
Central station
Catwalks 20
Cinder dumps 1
Coal storage area 1
Coal unloading
Dock (loading or unloading zone) 50
Barge storage area 5
Car dumper 5a
Tipple 50
Conveyors 20
Entrances
Generating or servicing building
Main 110
Secondary 20
Gate house
Pedestrian entrance 110
Conveyor entrance 50
Fence 2
Fuel-oil delivery headers 50
Oil storage tanks 10
Open yard 2
Platforms—boiler, turbine deck 50
Roadway
Between or along buildings 10
Not bordered by buildings 5
Substation
General horizontal 20
Specific vertical (on disconnects) 20
Coal yards (protective) 2
Dredging 20
Farms—dairy and poultry
General inactive areas (protective lighting) 2
General active areas (paths, steps, rough storage, barn lots) 10
Service areas (fuel storage, shop, feed lots, building
342
entrances) 30
Flags, floodlighted (see Bulletin and poster boards)
Gardensp
General lighting 5
Path, steps, away from house 10
Backgrounds—fences, walls, trees, shrubbery 20
Flowers beds, rock gardens 50
Trees, shrubbery, when emphasized 50
Focal points, large 110
Focal points, small 220
Gasoline station (see Service stations)
Highways (see Service stations)
Loading and unloading platforms 220
Freight car interiors 110
Lumber yards 10
Parking areas
Self-parking area 10
Attendant-parking area 20
Piers
Freight 220
Passenger 220
Active shipping area surrounds 50
Prison yards 50
Quarries 50
Railroad yards
Retarder classification yards
Receiving yard
Switch points 20
Body of yards 10
Hump area (vertical) 220
Control tower and retarder area (vertical) 110
Head end 50
Body 10
Pull-out end 20
Dispatch or forwarding yard 10
Hump and car rider classification yard
Receiving yard
Switch points 20
Body of yard 10
Hump area 50
Flat switching yards
Side of cars (vertical) 50
Switch points 20
343
Trailer-on flatcars
Horizontal surface of flatcar 50
Hold-down points (vertical) 50
Container-on-flatcars 30
Service station (at grade)
Dark surrounding
Approach 16
Driveway 16
Pump island area 20
Building faces (exclusive of glass) 10r
Service areas 30
Landscape highlights 20
Light surrounding
Approach 30
Driveway 50
Pump island area 320
Building faces (exclusive of glass) 320r
Service areas 75
Landscape highlights 50
Ship yards
General 50
Ways 110
Fabrication areas 320
Smokestacks with advertising messages
(see Bulletin and poster boards)
Storage yards
Active 220
Inactive 10
Water tanks with advertising messages
(see Bulletin and poster boards)
Sports Lighting
Archery (indoor)
Target, tournament 540r
Target, recreational 320r
Shooting line, tournament 220
Shooting line recreational 110
Archery (outdoor)
Target, tournament 110r
Target, recreational 50r
Shooting line, tournament 110
Shooting line recreational 50
Badminton
344
Tournament 320
Club 220
Recreational 110
Baseball
Major league
Infield 1600
Outfield 1100
AA and AAA league
Infield 750
Outfield 540
A and B league
Infield 540
Outfield 320
C and D league
Infield 320
Outfield 220
Semi-pro and municipal league
Infield 220
Outfield 160
Recreational
Infield 160
Outfield 110
Junior league (Class I and Class II)
Infield 320
Outfield 220
On seats during game 20
On seats before and after game 50
Basketball
College and professional 540
College intramural and high school 320
Recreational (outdoor) 110
Bathing beaches
On land 10
45 m (150 feet) from shore 30r
Billiards
Tournament 540
Recreational 320
Bowling
Tournament
Approaches 110
Lanes 220
Pins 540r
Recreational
345
Approaches 110
Lanes 110
Pins 320r
Bowling on the green
Tournament 110
Recreational 50
Boxing or wrestling (ring)
Championship 5400
Professional 2200
Amateur 1100
Seats during bout 20
Seats before and after bout 50
Casting—bait, dry-fly, wet-fly 110

Pier or dock
Target [at 24 m (80 feet) for bait casting and 15 m (50 feet) 50r
for wet or dry-fly casting)
Combination (outdoor)
Baseball/football 220
Infield 160
Outfield and football
Industrial softball/football 220
Infield 160
Industrial softball/6-man football 220
Infield 160
Croquet or Roque 110
Tournament 50
Recreational
Curling
Tournament 540
Tees 320
Rink
Recreational 220
Tees 110
Rink
Fencing 540
Exhibitions 320
Recreational
Football
Distance from nearest sideline to the farthest row of
spectators 1100
346
Class I Over 30 m (100 feet) 540

Class II 15 m (50 feet) to 30 m (100 feet) 320
Class III 9 m (30 feet) to 15 m (50 feet) 220
Class IV under 9 m (30 feet) 110
Class V no fixed seating facilities
It is generally conceded that the distance between the
spectators and the play is the first consideration in
determining the class and lighting requirements. However,
the potential seating capacity of the strands should also be
considered and the following ratio is suggested: Class I for
over 30,000 spectators; Class II for 10,000 to 30,000; Class
III for 5,000 to 10,000; and Class IV for under 5,000
spectators
Footballs, Canadian—rugby (see Football)
Football, six-man 220
High school or college 10
Jr. high and recreational
Golf 50
Tee 10, 30r
Fairway 50
Green
Driving range 50r
At 182 m (200 yards) 110
Over tee area 110
Miniature 110
Practice putting green
Gymnasiums (refer to individual sports listed) 540
Exhibitions, matches 320
General exercising 110
Assemblies 50
Dances 220
Lockers and shower rooms
Handball 540
Tournament
Club 320
Indoor—four-wall or squash 220
Outdoor—two-court
Recreational 220
Indoor—four-wall or squash 110
Outdoor—two-court 220
Hockey, field
Hockey, ice (indoor) 1100
College or professional 540
347
Amateur 220
Recreational
Hockey, ice (outdoor) 540
College or professional 220
Amateur 110
Recreational
Horse shoes 110
Tournament 50
Recreational 220
Horse shows
Jai-alai 1100
Professional 750
Amateur 50
Playgrounds
Racing (outdoor) 220
Auto
Bicycle 320
Tournament 220
Competitive 110
Recreational 320
Dog
Dragstrip 110
Staging area 220
Acceleration, 402 m (1320 feet) 160
Deceleration, first 201 m (660 feet) 110
Deceleration, second 201 m (660 feet) 50
Shutdown, 250 m (820 feet) 220
Horse 220
Motor (midget of motorcycle)
Rifle [45 m (50 yards)—outdoor] 50r
On target 110
Firing point 50
Range
Rifle and pistol range (indoor) 110r
On target 220
Firing point 110
Range
Rodeo
Arena 540
Professional 320
Amateur 110
Recreational 50
Pens and chutes
348
Roque (see Croquet)

Shuffleboard (indoor) 320
Tournament 20
Recreational
Shuffleboard (outdoor) 110
Tournament 50
Recreational
Skating 110
Roller rink 110
Ice rink, indoor 50
Ice rink outdoor 10
Lagoon, pond, or flooded area
Skeet 320r
Targets [at 18 m (60 feet)] 50
Firing points
Skeet and trap (combination) 320r
Targets [at 30m (100 feet) for trap, 18m (60 feet) for skeet). 50
Firing points 10
Ski slope
Soccer (see Football)
Softball
Professional and championship 540
Infield 320
Outfield
Semi-professional 320
Infield 220
Outfield
Industrial league 220
Infield 160
Outdoor
Recreational (6-pole) 110
Infield 75
Outfield
Slow pitch, tournament—see industrial league
Slow pitch, recreational (6-pole)—see recreational (6-pole)
Squash (see Handball)
Swimming (indoor) 540
Exhibitions 320
Recreational
Underwater—100 lamp lumens per square foot of surface
area
Swimming (outdoor) 220
Exhibitions 110
349
Recreational
Underwater—60 lamp lumens per square foot of surface
area
Tennis, lawn (indoor) 540
Tournament 320
Club 220
Recreational
Tennis lawn (outdoor) 320
Tournament 220
Club 110
Recreational
Tennis, table 540
Tournament 320
Club 220
Recreational
Trap 30r
Targets [at 30 m (100 feet)] 50
Firing points
Volley ball 220
Tournament 110
Recreational
Transportation Lighting
Aircraft
Passenger compartment
General 50
Reading (at seat) 220
Airports
Hangar apron 10
Terminal building apron
Parking area 5
Loading area 20r
Automobiles
License plates 5
Rail conveyance
Boarding or exiting 110
Fare box (rapid transit train) 160
Vestibule (commuter and inter-city trains) 110
Aisles 110
Advertising cards (rapid transit and commuter trains) 320
Back-lighted advertising cards (rapid transit and commuter
trains) —250 fL (857 cd/m2) maximum
Reading 320†
350
Rest room (inter-city trains) 220

Dining area (inter-city train) 540
Food preparation (inter-city train) 750
Lounge (inter-city train)
Table games 320
Sleeping car
Normal reading 320†
Prolonged seeing 750†
Railways mail cars
Mail bag racks and letter cases 320
Mail storage 160
Road conveyances
Step well and adjacent ground area 110
Fare box 160
General lighting (for seat selection and movement)
City and inter-city buses and city stop 110
Inter-city buses at city bus at country stop 20
School bus while moving 160
School bus at stops 320
Advertising cards 320
Back-lighted advertising cards (see Rail conveyances)
Reading 320†
Emergency exit (school bus) 50
Ships
Living areas
State rooms and Cabins
Reading and writing 320w†
Prolonged seeing 750u†
Baths (general lighting) 110
Mirrors (personal grooming) 540
Barber shop and beauty parlor 540
On subject 1100
Day rooms
General lighting 220w
Desks 540w†
Dinning rooms and mess rooms 220
Enclosed promenades
Entrances and passageways
General 110
351
Daytime embarkation 320

Gymnasium
Hospital
Dispensary (general lighting) 320u
Operating room
General lighting 540u
Doctor's office 320u
Operating table 22000
Wards
Reading 320
Toilets 220
Libraries and lounges
Reading 320u†
Prolonged seeing 720u†
Purser's office 220u
Shopping areas 220
Smoking areas 220
Smoking rooms 160
Stairs and foyers 220
Recreation area
Ball rooms 160w
Cocktail lounges 160w
Swimming pools
General 160w
Underwater
Outdoors—60 lamp lumens/square or foot surface
area
Indoors—100 lamp lumens/square of surface area
Theaters
Auditorium
General 110w
During picture 10
Navigating areas
Chart room
General 10
On chart table 50u †
Gyro room 220
Radar room 220
Radio room 110u
Radio room, passenger foyer 110
352
Ships offices
General 220u
On desks and work tables 540u†
Wheelhouse 110u
Service Areas
Food preparation
General 220u
Butcher shop 220u
Galley 320u
Pantry 220u
Thaw room 220u
Sculleries 220u
Food storage (non-refrigerated) 110
Refrigerated spaces (ship’s stores) 50
Laundries
General 220u
Machine and press finishing, sorting 540
Lockers 50
Offices
General 220
Reading 540u†
Passenger Counter 540u†
Storerooms 50
Telephone exchange 220
Operating areas
Access and casing 110
Battery room 110
Boiler rooms 220u
Cargo handling (weather deck) 50u
Control stations (except navigating areas)
General 220
Control consoles 320
Gage and control boards 320
Switchboards 320
Engine rooms 220u
Generator and switchboard rooms 220u
Fan rooms (ventilation & air conditioning) 110
Motor rooms 220
Motor generator rooms (cargo handling) 110
Pump room 110
Shaft alley 110
Shaft alley escape 30
Steering gear room 220
353
Windlass rooms 110

Workshops
General 320u
On top of work bench 540u
Tailor shop 540u
Cargo holds
Permanent luminaires 30u
Passageways and trunks 10
* Minimum on the task of anytime for young adults with normal and better
than 20/20 corrected vision. For general notes see beginning of tabulation.
For other notes see end of tabulation.
† Equivalent sphere illumination. See general notes at beginning of

tabulation.
* Minimum on the task at any time. For general notes see beginning of
tabulation.
a
Obtained with a combination of general lighting plus specialized
supplementary lighting. Care should be taken to keep within recommended
luminance ratios. There seeing tasks generally involve the discrimination
of fine detail for long periods of time and under conditions of poor
contrast. The design and installation of the combination system must not
only provide a sufficient amount of light, but also the proper direction of
light, diffusion, color and eye protection. As far as possible it should
eliminate direct and reflected glare as well as objectionable shadows.
b
Dark paintings with fine detail should have 2 or 3 times higher
illumination.
c
In some cases, much more than 1100 lux is necessary to bring out the
beauty of the statuary.
d
Reduced or dimmed during sermon, prelude or meditation.
e
Two-thirds this value if interior finishes are dark (less than 10 per cent
reflectance) to avoid high luminance ratios, such as between hymnbook
pages and surround. Careful planning is essential for good design.
f
Special lighting such that (1) the luminous area shall be large enough to
cover the surface which is being inspected and (2) the luminance be within
354
the limits necessary to obtain comfortable contrast conditions. This

involves the use of sources of large area and relatively low luminance in
which the sources luminance is the principal factor rather than the lux
produced at a given point.
g
For close inspection, 540 lux.
h
Pencil handwriting, reading of reproductions and poor copies 750 lux.
i
For close inspection, 540 lux. This may be done in the bathroom, but if the
dressing table is provided, local lighting should provide the level
recommended.
j
The specular surface of material may necessitate special consideration in
selection and placement of lighting equipment, or orientation of the work.
k
Or not less than 1/5 the level in adjacent areas.
l
For size of task plane.
m
General lighting for these areas need not be uniform in character.
n
Including street and nearby establishments.
o
(a) Values are illumination on the merchandise on display or being
appraised. The plane in which lighting is important may vary from
horizontal to vertical. (b) Specific appraisal areas involving difficult seeing
may be lighted to substantially higher levels. (c) Color rendering of
fluorescent lamps is important. Incandescent and fluorescent usually are
combined for best appearance of merchandise. (d) Illumination may often
be made non-uniform to tie in with merchandising layout.
p
Values based on a 25 per cent reflectance, which is average for vegetation
and typical outdoor surfaces. These figures must be adjusted to specific
reflectances of materials lighted for equivalent brightness’s. Levels give
satisfactory brightness patterned when viewed from dimly lighted terraces
or interiors. When viewed from dark areas, they may be reduced by at least
½; or they may be double when a high key is desired.
q
Localized general lighting.
r
Vertical.
355
s
Level shown are based on visual considerations. Otherwise for public
attraction and increased business considerations, practice is as follows:
Class Approaches Lanes Pins

Tournament 750 lx 1100 lx 2200 lx Vertical
Recreational 540 lx 750 lx 16000 lx

Vertical
u
Supplementary lighting should be provided in this space to produce the
higher levels of lighting required for specific seeing tasks involved.
w
The lux values vary widely, depending on the effect desired, the decorative
scheme, and the use made of room; the lighting system should provided at
least the recommended minimum illumination levels.
356
Appendix D. Metal Halide and High
Pressure Sodium (HPS)
Lamps Tables
METAL HALIDE LAMPS
Bulb Base ANSI Lumens Rated Color
Ballast Ave. Life MOL LCL Temp.
Type Initial Mean Hours in. in. K CRI
70 WATTS
T6 G12 M85 or 6200 4750 6000 315/16 23/16 3000 85
M98(Alt)
T6 R7s M85 or 6200 4750 10000 45/8 21/4 3000 85
M98(Alt)
BD17 Med M98 6200 4470 7500 57/16 33/8 3000 85
M98 5890 3800 7500 57/16 33/8 3000 85
PAR30L Med M98 4100 3140 6000 43/4 3000 85
M98 4100 3140 6000 43/4 3000 85
150 WATTS
T6 RX7s M81 or 13500 10350 7000 53/8 25/8 3000 85
M102(Alt)
T6 G12 M81 or 13500 10350 6000 45/8 21/4 3000 85
M102(Alt)
357
APPENDIX D. METAL HALIDE AND HPS TABLES
HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS

Bulb Base ANSI Lumens Rated Color
Ballast Ave. Life MOL LCL Temp.
Type Initial Mean Hours in. in. K CRI
35 WATTS
B17 Med S76 2250 2025 16000 5 7/16 3 7/16 1900 22
S76 2250 2025 16000 57/16 3 7/16 1900 22
S76 2150 1935 16000 57/16 3 7/16 1900 22
50 WATTS
B17 Med S68 4000 3600 24000+ 5 7/16 3 7/16 1900 22
S68 4000 3600 24000+ 5 7/16 3 7/16 1900 22
S68 3800 3420 24000+ 5 7/16 3 7/16 1900 22
Ed231/2 Mog S68 4000 3600 24000+ 7 3/4 5 1900 22
S68 4000 3600 24000+ 7 3/4 5 1900 22
S68 3800 3420 24000+ 7 3/4 5 1900 22
70 WATTS
B17 Med S62 6400 5450 24000+ 5 7/16 3 7/16 1900 22
S62 6400 5450 24000+ 5 7/16 3 7/16 1900 22
S62 5950 5050 24000+ 5 7/16 3 7/16 1900 22
Ed231/2 Mog S62 6400 5450 24000+ 7 3/4 5 1900 22
S62 6400 5450 24000+ 7 3/4 5 1900 22
S62 5950 5050 24000+ 7 3/4 5 1900 22
S62 6400 5050 40000 7 3/4 5 1900 22
100 WATTS
B17 Med S54 9500
S54 9500
S54 8800
Ed231/2 Mog S54 9500
S54 9500
S54 8800
S54 9500
358
APPENDIX E. ILLUMINATION CALCULATIONS
Appendix E. Illumination Calculations

EXAMPLES OF ILLUMINATION DESIGN
The calculations presented below using various tables are only meant to
give the user of this manual a general overview of the design of lighting
system, showing individual steps from the selection of the recommended
luminance level up to the design of lighting layout.
Example E1
Efficiency Method of Illumination Calculation:

Illumination of a conference room with luminaries each with 2 x 24W
compact fluorescent lamps.
Room dimensions
L =15.00 m (length)
W = 8.00 m (width)
H = 3.40 m (ceiling-to-floor height)
h = 2.55 m (luminaire-to-work plane height)
Required quality of light
Conference room:
Light color,
Ra group 2A
Illuminance
E = 300 lux
Selected lamp
2 x 24 W, Light Color Warm
Luminous flux per lamp, φ = 1 800 lumen
Lighting design data is available in some format for most luminaires.
357
Table E1.1
Luminaries ceiling mounted
Reflectances
ρ
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.3
Wall 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.3
Surface 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Room
factor
(index) Room utilization factor in %
K
0.6 73 46 37 44 36 66 36 42 35 35
0.8 82 57 47 54 46 74 45 51 44 44
1.0 91 66 56 62 54 80 53 59 52 51
1.25 98 75 65 70 62 85 61 66 60 59
1.5 103 82 73 76 69 89 67 72 66 65
2.0 109 91 82 84 78 94 75 78 73 72
2.5 114 98 90 90 84 97 81 83 79 77
3.0 117 103 96 95 90 99 86 87 83 82
4.0 120 109 103 100 95 101 91 91 88 86
5.0 122 113 107 103 98 103 93 93 91 89
This table shows the room utilization factor for numerous combinations of
room factors and reflectances (always assuming ideal dispersion). The
illuminance E required in a room of area L x W is achieved with n
luminaires that have an efficiency ηLB and with lamps with a luminous flux
φ.
Luminaire efficiency and light distribution of 2 x 24 W compact

fluorescent lamps
Efficiency = η = 0.58
358
Reflectances (ρ)
ρ Ceiling = 0.8
ρ Wall = 0.5
ρ Work surface = 0.3
Room utilization factor (uf)

From Table F1,
uf = 0.91
Calculation:
LxW 15 x 8
k= = = 2
H(L + W) 2.55(15 + 8)
ExLxW 300 x 15 x 8
N= = = 18.95
n x φ x η x uf 2 x 1800 lm x 0.58 x 0.91
where:
k – Room Factor (Room Index)
E – Illuminance, lux
L – Length, meter
W – Width, meter
h – Height of Work Plane, meters
n – Number of Lamps
φ − Luminous Flux (Initial Lumens), lumens
η − Luminaire Efficiency
uf – Utilization Factor
N – Number of Luminaires
Result:
18 luminaires (N is rounded up)
359
Recommended arrangement:
3 rows of 6 luminaires
Example E3
360
Example E2
Shopping Mall
Width = 15 m
Length = 100 m
Ceiling height = 3.5 m
Desired Illumination = 400 lux
Type of Luminaire = 200 mm downlight with 26W compact fluorescent
lamp (CFL)
Average maintained Illuminance: 400 lux
Lamp data: 26W (CFL)
Lamp flux: 1 800 lumen (as per manufacturer’s data)
Luminaire data:
200 mm diameter downlight with 2 x 26W CFL
Selection of Coefficient of Utilization
Step 1: Fill in all information in sketch
ρc = 70%
hrc = 3.5m
ρw = 50%
ρf = 70%
L (Length) = 100 m W (width) = 15 m h (height) = 3.5 m
361
Step 2: Determine Cavity Ratio

If from manufacturer’s data, CU table are given based on Room
Cavity Ratio
5h (L + W)
RCR =
LxW
5(3.5m) (100 + 15)m

= (100 x 15) m2
= 1.34
If from manufacturer's data, CU table are given based on

Room Index
where:
LxW
Room Index (k) =
H (L + W)
100 x 15
k = = 3.72
3.5 (100 + 15)
Step 3: Obtain effective cavity reflectance:
Ceiling : ρcc = 70%

Wall : ρw = 50%
Floor : ρfc = 20%
Step 4: Obtain Coefficient of Utilization from manufacturer's data:

Based on Fig. 9-28 of IESNA Handbook at RCR 1.34 at
70/50/20 reflectance
RCR CU
1 0.66
1.34 X
2 0.60
by interpolation CU at 1.34
RCR = 0.64
362
Step 5: Compute for the Light Loss Factor (LLF)
LLF = BF x LLD x LDD x RSDD
Ballast Factor (BF) = 0.95

LLD (as per Figure 6.3 of IESNA Handbook, 9th Edition)
= Lumen Maintenance (LLD) of CFL (double) is
85%
LDD under luminaire maintenance category I at very
clean room using Table 8.1 where maintenance
frequency is every 12 months LDD = 0.96
Since luminaire is Direct downlight (as per Figure 8.4
of ELI handbook)
% Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor (RSDDF) is
12%
At 12% RCR of 1.34

10% 0.98
12% x
20% 0.96
by Interpolation, x = 0.976 (RSDD)

LLF = 0.95 x 0.85 x 0.96 x 0.976
LLF = 0.76
Step 6: Compute for Total Initial Lamp Lumens (TILL) using

Equation 8.8
400 lux (15m x 100m)
TILL =
(0.64) (0.76)
= 1 233 552.63 lumens
Step 7: Calculate the required numbers of luminaries using

Equation 8.9. From table lamp manufacturer’s data, the
initial lamp lumens of 26W CFL = 1 800 lumens
363
Numbers of luminaires:
1 233 552.63 lumens
= (2 lamps/luminaire)(1 800 lumens/luminaire)
= 343 luminaires
Step 8: Select a practical layout for the luminaire.

Spacing Criterion, SC = spacing distance/mounting height
As per Figure 9-28 of IESNA Handbook, for 200 mm
open reflector using 2 x 26W CFL, SC = 1.5
Spacing distance = 1.5m x 3.5 m = 5.25 m
For this distance, 343 luminaires required to achieve 400
lux illumination cannot be placed for the given area.
Step 9: Calculate Luminaire Spacing using Figure 6.46(a),

Chapter 6
Number of luminaires per row = (15m-5.25m)/5.25 = ~ 2
Number of luminaires per column
= 343/2 (luminaries) x 5.25 m (spacing)
= 903 m which exceeded 150 m. Spacing Criterion
with this case is not applicable
Assuming spacing at end rows = 1 m
Number of luminaires/row = 15-2(1)/2 = 6.5
~ 7 luminaires/row
Transverse spacing = 15-2(l)/6= 2.17 m
Total length at each row = 6 x 2.17 m = 13 m
Space at end rows = 15-13/2 = 1 m
Number of luminaires/column = 343/7
= 49 luminaires/column
Longitudinal spacing = 100-2(1)/48 = 2.04 m
Total length at each column = 48 x 2.04 m = 98 m
Space at end rows = 100m-98m/2 = 1 m
Total luminaires = 7 x 49 = 343 luminaires
364
Step 10: Draw plan of the room and indicate the locations of
luminaires:
L = 100m
1m N/column = 49 luminaires
W = 15m
2.17m N/rows = 7 luminaires
1m
2.04m
Step 11: Calculate the actual minimum maintained lighting level:

E = 343/343 x 400 lux = 400 lux
(within the target value)
Step 12: Calculate the Unit Power Density (UPD) or connected

load; from manufacturers data, the power input of 2 x
26W CFL using conventional ballast = 90watts, or using
electronic ballast = 70 watts
(90W/luminaire)(343 luminaires)
UPD =
(15m)(100m)
= 20.58W/m2
365
Example E3
Shopping Mall
Width = 15 m
Length = 100 m
Ceiling height = 3.5 m
Desired Illumination = 400 lux
Type of Luminaire = 200 mm downlight with 70W Metal Halide Lamp
Lamp Flux: 6600 lumens (from manufacturer’s data)
from Table (Figure 9-28) of IESNA handbook CU of metal halide
downlight #10 at 70/50/20 reflectance & RCR of 1.34
Step 1: Compute for the coefficient of utilization (based on RCR

computed on Example E2 Step 2)
RCR CU
1 0.69
1.34 x
2 0.63
by interpolation: x (CU) = 0.67
Step 2: Compute for the Light Loss Factor (LLF)
LLF = BF x LLD x LDD x RSDD
Ballast Factor (BF) = 0.95 generally for this type

of luminaire
LLD of metal halide lamp = 0.85 generally for
this type of luminaire
LDD = 0.96 generally for this type of luminaire
RSDD = 0.976
LLF = 0.95 x 0.85 x 0.96 x 0.976

LLF = 0.76
(400lux )(15m x 100m)

Step 3: TILL = (0.67) (0.76) = 1 783 318.93 lumens
366
Step 4: Compute for the number of luminaires

1 783 318.93 lumens
N= = 179 luminaires
6 600 lumens/luminaire
Step 5: Select practical layout for the luminaire
Compute for the number of luminaires/row
Spacing Criterion, SC = 1.2, does not apply since total of

179 luminaires cannot be placed on the given area.
Assuming spacing criterion = 0.9
Spacing distance between luminaries

= Mounting Height x SC
Spacing (Longitudinal) = 3.5 m x 0.9 = 3.15 m
Step 6: Calculate luminaire spacing
Number of luminaires/column = 100 ÷ 3.15

= 31 luminaires
Total length of column = (31-1) x 3.15m = 94.5 m
Space at end of column = (100-94.5) ÷ 2 = 2.75 m
Total luminaires at each row = 179 ÷ 31 = 5.7

~ 6 luminaires
Transverse spacing = [15m – 2(1.175m)] ÷ 5 = 2.53 m
Total length of each row = 5 x 2.53m = 12.65 m
Space at ends of row = (15 – 12.65) ÷ 2 = 1.175 m
367
Step 7: Recompute the number of luminaires
Total number of luminaires = 6 x 31 = 186 luminaires
Step 8: Draw plan of the room and indicate the locations of

luminaires:
L = 100m
1.175m N column = 31
W = 15m
2.53m N row = 6
2.75m
3.15m
Step 9: Calculate the actual maintained lighting level
E = 186 x 400 lux = 415 lux (within target value)

179
Step 10: Calculate the Unit Power Density (UPD) of the

connected load, from lamp manufacturer’s data, the
power input of 70W metal halide lamp = 81.5 Watts
total power
UPD =
area
= (81.5 W/luminaire)(186 luminaires)
(15m)(100m)
= 10.1 W/m2
368
Example E4
Shopping Mall: Same as Examples E2 and E3
Type of Luminaire = 50% 26W CFL Pinlight, 50% 70W Metal Halide
with reflector recessed mounted
To achieve 400 Lux = 200 Lux of CFL + 200 Lux of Metal Halide Lamp
200 lux for CFL = 343 x 50% = 172 luminaires (see Example E2 Step 7)
200 lux for MH = 186 x 50% = 93 luminaires (see Example E3 Step 7)
Arrange Luminaires
For Metal Halide Lamps:

Assuming 6 luminaire/row as per computation shown in Example E3
93/6 = 15.5 ~ 16 column
Total MH Luminaires = 6 x 16 = 96 luminaires

E = 96/93 x 200 lux = 206 lux
Spacing:
Longitudinal = 100-2 (1.175)/15 = 6.51 m
Transverse = 15-2 (1.175)/5 = 2.53 m
For CFL Lamps:

Number of lamps/column = 172
Number of luminaires/column = 172/6 = 28
2 rows of CFL placed in between of Metal Halide downlights, so
total CFL fixture for 15 columns = 15 x 2 = 30 luminaires/column
Spacing of CFL in between MH downlights

Spacing of downlights = 6.51 m
To put 2 rows of downlight in between MH
Spacing between column will be = 6.51/3 = 2.17 m
369
Draw floor plan:
CFL lamps MH lamps
6.51m
L=100m
1.175m
N/column = 46 luminaires
W=15m
2.53m
N/row = 6 luminaires
1.175m
2.17m
2.17m
2.17m
Example E5
Indoor Carpark
Width = 75 m
Length = 100 m
Ceiling-to-Floor height = 3.8 m
Desired Illumination Level = 200 lux
Type of Luminaire = Low Bay 175W Metal Halide Die-cast
aluminum alloy casing, Electrostatic
plastic spray finish, Polycarbonate with
multi-lined prism reflector’s surface
finish
Step 1: Calculate Utilization Factor
Since manufacturer’s catalog expressed CU table on Room

Index and not on Room Cavity Ratio (RCR):
370
5h(L + W)
As per formula, RCR=
(L x W)
5(3.8) x (100 + 75)

RCR = = 0.443
(1 x 75)
Ceiling reflectance = 50
Wall reflectance = 50
RCR CU
0 0.80
0.443 x
1 0.69
By interpolation
1–0 0.69 – 0.80
=
0.443 – 0 x – 0.80
x = -0.11(0.443) + 0.80
CU = 0.75
Step 2: Compute for Light Loss Factor
LLF = BF x LLD x LDD x RSDDF
BF = 0.95 generally for this type of luminaire

LLD = 0.85 generally for this type of luminaire
LDD = 0.84 for Luminaire at dirty room using
Table 8.2 where maintenance frequency is annual
Since Luminaire is direct luminaire, % Room Surface Dirt

Depreciation Factor (RSDDF) under dirty environment is
22% RSDDF at 0.443 RCR = 0.95
LLF = 0.95 x 0.85 x 0.84 x 0.95

= 0.644
371
Step 3: Compute for the Total Initial Lamp Lumen (TILL) using
Equation 8.8
(200 lux)(75m x 100m)

TILL = = 3 105 590 lumens
(0.75) (0.644)
Step 4: Calculate the required number of luminaires using Equation

8.9.
Lamp Lumen of 175W Metal Halide Lamp = 12900 lumens

(generally)
3 105 590 lumens
Number of Luminaires =
12 900 lumens/luminaire
= 241 luminaires
Select practical layout of luminaire
Spacing Criterion = spacing distance/mounting

height = 1.7
Spacing distance between luminaire

Transverse Spacing = 1.7 x 3.8m = 6.46 m
Number of rows = (75/6.46) = 12

Space at end of rows = (75-(11 x 6.46))/2 = 1.97 m
Number of luminaire per row = 241/12 = 20 luminaires
(19 spans)
Spacing (Longitudinal) = 100-2(1.97)/19 = 5.05 m
Total Number of Luminaire = 12 rows x 20 luminaires/row
= 240 luminaires
Step 5: Calculate the actual minimum maintained illuminance;
E = 240/241 x 200 lux

= 199.2 lux (within the target value)
372
Step 6: Calculate the Unit Power density (UPD)
Power Input of 175W Metal Halide = 188.5W/unit
(188.5W/luminaire)(240 luminaires)
UPD =
(75m)(100m)
= 6.03 W/m2
Example E6
Indoor Single Tennis Court – Club Level
Example of Design of Lighting System: Indoor Tennis Court

The calculation presented below using various tables are only meant to
give the user of this manual a general overview of the design of lighting
system, showing individual steps from the selection of the recommended
luminance level, the right luminaire to the design of lighting layout.
Example: Indoor Tennis Court with 2 adjacent court

Size of Court: 36 m x 30 m
Size of playing area: 24 m x 11 m
Ceiling height: 10 m
Luminaire mounting height: 7 m
Desired illumination: 300-500 lux
GENERAL INFORMATION
Project Identification: Indoor Tennis Court
Average Maintained Illuminance: 300-500 lux (for recreational tennis)
Type of Luminaire:
White Louver Ball Proof (Sports Hall) Luminaire with protective wire
guard, with tilting mechanism which allow tilting up to 30 degrees
without rotational torque ideal for tennis application.
Power Consumption: 112 W
Dimension of Luminaire: 231 mm x 1200 mm
373
Lamp: 2x54W T5 Linear Fluorescent Lamps

Lamp Data:
Lumen Output: 5000 lumens/lamp
Lamp Lumen Depreciation (Lumen maintenance from
manufacturers data) = 95%
Ballast to be used: Electronic Ballast
Ballast Loss Factor (BLF) = 1.0
Making the ball visible is the key

objective in designing a tennis
court. This is to ensure that the
ball is illuminated wherever it is
still in play. This might require a
lit volume extension to 4 meters
above the net, 1 meter outside the
sidelines and 2 meters behind the
baseline.
Figure E6.1 Light Volume Requirements for a Tennis Court
374
SELECTION OF COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION
Step 1: Fill in all information in sketch
ρcc = 70%
10m
7m
36m ρw = 50%
ρfc = 20%
30m
Step 2: Determine Cavity Ratio

If from manufacturers data CU table are given based on
Room Cavity Ratio
5h x (L + W)
RCR = (equation 1)
LxW
5(7.0m)(36 + 30)m
=
(36 x 30) m2
= 2.14
If from manufacturer’s data, CU table are given based on

Room Index where
LxW
Room Index (RI) = (equation 2)
h(L + W)
30 x 36
(RI) = = 2.34
7(30+36)
375
Step 3: Obtain effective cavity reflectance:
Ceiling : ρcc = 70%

Wall : ρw = 50%
Floor : ρfc = 20%
Step 4: Obtain Coefficient of Utilization from manufacturers data

From manufacturer’s data: at Room Index (RI) of 2.34 at
70/50/20 reflectance
Ball Proof Luminaire Table of Coefficient of Utilization

taken from manufacturer’s data for 2x54W T5 lamps
Room Index 1.0 2.0 2.34 3.0

CU at 70/50/20
reflectance 44 58 x 63
by interpolation CU at 2.72 Room Index = 0.60
Step 5: Compute for the Light Loss factor

LLF = Ballast factor x LLD x LDD x RSDD (equation 3)
BALLAST FACTOR of electronic ballast used = 1.0 (based
on manufacturer’s data)
LLD (as per manufacturer’s data) = Lumen maintenance
(LLD) of 54WT5 Linear Fluorescent lamps = 95%
LDD under Luminaire maintenance category I at medium
clean room using Figure 8.2 where maintenance frequency is
every 12 months LDD = 0.90
Since Luminaire is Direct Luminaire Type and subject to 12
months cleaning interval, % Room Surface Dirt Depreciation
Factor (RSDDF) = 18%
376
At 18% RCR of 2.14

10% 0.98
18% x
20% 0.96
By Interpolation, RSDD = 0.976
substitute computed values to equation 3

LLF = 1.0 x 0.95x 0.90 x 0.976
LLF = 0.83
Step 6 : Compute for the total number of luminaires required to

achieve maintained illumination of 500 lux from the formula
(Lumen Method)
N x n x Φ x CU x MF(LLF)
E= (equation 4)
Area
where:
E = maintained illuminance (Lux)
N = number of luminaires
n = number of lamp/s per luminaire
Φ = luminous flux or initial lumen of lamp (lumen)
MF(LLF) = light loss factor or maintenance factor
from equation 4
ExA
N=
n x Φ x CU x LLF
500 lux (36 x 30m)
=
2 x 5 000 lumen x 0.60 x 0.83
N = 108 luminaires
377
Step 7: Select a practical lay out for the luminaire
Design considerations for indoor tennis court.
Arrangement and position of the luminaire is critical and

there are many factors to consider:
1. The right type of luminaire for application.
a. Should be best suited for tennis application, a ball
proof luminaire is required with wire guard and deep
luminaire to reduce glare to players and spectators.
b. With tilting mechanism to project lamp output inside
the playing area .
2. Contrast can increase visibility much more effectively
rather than increased illuminance.
a. Should create sufficient contrast between the ball and
its background to allow players to see it. It may
involve placing a dark and deliberately unlit
background behind a light ball.
3. Spacing of luminaire
a. When the ball hits the floor it momentary meets its
own shadow, and the players eye uses this to
determine the precise time of the bounce, ideally, a
symmetrical dark shadow should fall underneath the
ball; this is created by light from directly overhead-
either from indirect or from closely-spaced direct
luminaire.
378
Transversely mounted luminaries

produced symmetrical shadows. Louvers
increases the depth of shadow under the
ball, aiding visibility. Deep louvers reduce
glare to participants and spectators.
<Poor luminaire spacing cause uneven

illumination at certain height.
Figure E6.2
Figure E6.3
379
To minimize disturbance for players, light sources where possible,

should be placed well outside their primary field of view. In tennis,
luminaries are best positioned to either side of the court where players
seldom look, rather than directly overhead or either end.
Step 8. So for this example lets arrange the computed luminaries

based on the recommendation above:
Lets place rows of luminaires 1 meter outside of the
tramlines (sideline) and extending 3 meters beyond the
baseline. Each court has its dedicated lighting as any scheme
that seeks to light 2 adjacent courts from one row of
luminaires does not work. (Refer to Figure E6.4)
Luminaires are tilted 30 degrees directed inside the court.
Length of playing area to be lighted = 30 m

Luminaire length = 1.2 m/luminaire
30 m
Number of luminaire/row = = 25 luminaires/row
1.2 m
Step 9: Compute for the final total number of luminaires
Final total number of luminaries = (25 luminaires/row) (2
rows/court)(2 courts) = 100 luminaires
which is 5 luminaires less than the computed values based

on average maintained illuminance of 500 lux.
Step 10: Calculate the actual maintained lighting level based on the
final number of luminaries computed.
100
E= x 500 lux = 463 lux still within the range of
108 300-500 lux
380
Step 11: Calculate the initial Unit Power Density (UPD)

From manufacturer’s data, the power consumption of
2 x 54 W T5 luminaire = 112 W
total power
UPD =
area
100 luminaires x 112 W/luminaire
=
36 m x 30 m
11 200 W
=
10 080 m2
= 10.37 W/m²
In this example the Unit Power Density (UPD) of

10.37 W/m² is low and therefore lighting system is efficient,
compared to using Metal Halide which has a greater UPD
value.
So the final arrangement of luminaire in the court is shown

in the figure below.
381
A side lighting technique with

continuous lamp (25 sets/row)
white louvered luminaries
complete with protective steel
rods (wire guard) within the louver
.
Luminaires are mounted on
trunking that has a tilting
mechanism up to 30 degrees
to direct light inward of the play
area from the sideline.
Figure E6.4
In this design arrangements of luminaries (continuous rows in the

sidelines) the key objective is to light the volumetric space above the
court rather than the plane of the court.
Ballproof Luminaire w/ tilting mechanism Photometric Data of 2x54W Luminaire
Figure E6.5 Luminaire Data (Based on manufacturer’s catalog)
382
Step 12. From the final arrangement of luminaire compute for the
actual Illumination at certain points using Point Method
Calculation:
At center court (9, 15m), from the formula of Inverse Cosine

Law
I Cos Ø
EI =
D²
where: I = Luminous Intensity, candela

D = distance of luminaire from the calculation point
Total illuminance at calculation point shall be the summation

of illuminance of 50 luminaires
Et = E1 + E2 + ………E50
Luminaire 1 is located at (0, 0.6)
Distance of luminaire from calculation point = 15-0.6 = 14.4

m
Ø = arctan (x²+y²) = arctan sqrt(9+14.4²)/7 = 67.60²

H
Compute for D (refer to figure)
D = (x²+y²+z²)
= (9² + 14.4² + 7²)
= 18.37 m
Elevation angle = 67.60-30 = 37.60 since luminaire is tilted

30o at 37.60
Luminance distribution as per photometric
data = 300 cd/1000 lumen
383
Luminous Flux (Initial Lumen Output) for 54W T5

luminaire = 5 000 lumens, as per manufacturer’s data
I = 5 000 lumen x 300 cd/1000 lumen

I = 1 500 cd
1 500 cd Cos(37.60°)
E1 =
18.37²
E1 = 3.52 lux
Refer to the tabulated illuminance computed per luminaire

Et at (9, 15) = summation of all illuminance computed per
luminaire
Et = 438.86 lux
within target range of 300-500 lux
Continuous luminaire
x²+y²+z²
Ø
7m
d= x² + y² ψ
6.5m 12m
1m
13m
3m
Figure E6.6 Illustration of Angles and Dimensions
384
Example E7
Outdoor Single Tennis Court – Club Level
18.3 m
11 m
9.14 m
24 m
.
400W Floodlights 12 m
30.48 m
Figure E7.1
Calculation Procedures:
The following procedures apply to sports lighting design using the point
method calculations with direct distribution luminaires.
This calculation method relies on inverse square law, the cosine law and
photometric distribution of the luminaire.
1. Based on the type of sport, skill level of play, size of the facility;
television broadcasting circumstances, and or architectural or
structural requirements, determine the design criteria, such as
illuminance.
385
Tennis Court:
Size of Court (Play area): 24 m x 11 m

Lighted Area (PPA): 18 m x 30 m
Required Illumination for Class IV (club-level use)
(recreational & social play only, with secondary consideration for
spectators):
E = 300-500 lux
Illumination requirements for other Class of Play:
Class I. For competition play in large-capacity areas and stadium

with up to 200 000 spectators.
E = 1 500 lux
Class II. For competition play with fewer than 5 000 spectators.
E = 1 000 lux
Class III. For competition play primarily for players, though with
due consideration for spectators.
E = 750 lux
2. Make preliminary selection of light sources and luminaires based on

their photometric data, such as lumen output, beam angle, candela
and lumen distributions, color rendition, and lamp life.
Assuming outdoor luminaire (Floodlights of 400W, metal halide

lamp to be used)
Lumen Output (Luminous Flux Φ) of 400W MH as per

manufacturers data :
Φ = 39 000 lumens
386
Beam angle: Wide beam Type 6 (NEMA Classification)

Photometric data of Luminaires (as per manufacturer’s catalog).
Distribution for this luminaire (as per manufacturer’s catalog)
3. Use the lumen method to determine the appropriate number of

luminaires.
N x Φ x CU x LLF
E=
Area
E x Area
N=
Φ x CU x LLF
5(6)(18 + 30)
RCR = = 2.67
(18 x 30)
since open area , wall & ceiling reflectance = 0
Generally,
CU = 0.80
Compute for the Light Loss Factor
LLF = BF x LLD x LDD x RSDDF
General data:
BF = 0.95
LLD = 80%
LDD = Floodlights luminaire classified as maintenance
category V, and since in outdoor applications, very
dirty conditions are expected
From Figure 8.2 of ELI:
LDD = 0.70 assuming yearly (12months) cleaning period is

selected
387
RSDD from Table 8.2, Percent expected dirt depreciation for

12 months cleaning interval = 30% since luminaire
is a direct Luminaire at computed RCR of 2.67 from
the table
RSDF = 0.935
LLF = 0.95 x 0.80 x 0.70 x 0.935
LLF = 0.50
N x Φ x CU x LLF
E=
Area
300 lux (30 x 18)

N= = 11 luminaires
39 000 lumens x 0.80 x 0.50
To make it even let assume 12 luminaires placed individually at Post
4. Assign locations and mounting heights of these luminaires based on

the guidelines given. As per Fig. 20-13 IESNA,
14 to 15.24 m
11.6 to 12.8 m
10.6 to 12.2 m
9.74 to 11 m
8 to 9.84 m
6.1 to 7.6 m
6.1 m
3.6 m
1.8 m
9.84 to 10.6 m (1 court)
18 to 19.8 m (2 courts)
Center line of court or

playing area
Figure E7.2 Outdoor Tennis.
388
Recommended mounting heights of luminaires on poles for

various setbacks, classes of play, and facilities. Angle A should
be a minimum of 25º for sharp cutoff type luminaires and a
minimum of 30º for floodlights.
Height of post = 6m (within 6.1m-7.6m limit for Class IV)

Post Location = 30ft (within 9.84m-10.6m from the center of the
court)
Other option is to mount 2 luminaires in 7m post to reduce the

number of post required, but on this example let us use individual
luminaire placed in a 6m post.
5. Confirm the selection of beam spread and rough aiming (luminaire

inclination) by manual calculation at few selected grid points
(usually aiming is based on center court).
Then compute for the inclination, luminaire is directed to the center

of the court at point along its axis.
x = 9.84m
Figure E7.3 The Illuminance at the center of the court along

Post#1 Luminaire located at point (0,0) , aimed at center
court along its axis (30, 0) is given by the equation
389
I (Ø) Cos Ø
E=
D²
The Luminous Intensity distribution for 400W Floodlights are shown

in Figure 7.4. The angle required to determine the luminous intensity
are calculated as follows: From geometric principles,
Ø = arctan (X²+ Y²)/z

ψ = arctan (y/x)
Solve the Equations
Ø = arctan 30² + 0²
19.68
= 56.73°
Therefore angle of inclination of luminaire = 56° within limit as per

Fig.20-13 of IESNA.
D = V x² + y² + z²
D = (33)² + 0² + (19.68)²
D = 38.42 ft
Plot 12 luminaires in the area, luminaire is distributed equally to

court area of 11 m x 24 m.
Spacing = 24m/5 = 4.8 m
390
(12, 9.84)
Figure E7.4 Luminous Intensity Distribution of 400W Floodlights
Since there are 12 luminaires installed, each luminaire contributes to

the illumination at a point, take for instance at center court (net),
located at (12m, 9.84m) the resultant illumination is determined by
totaling the contribution of each luminaire to the plane where the
point is located.
Please refer to Figure E7.4.
E at center court (12, 9.84)
= E (p1+p2+p3+p4+p5+p6+p7+p8+p9+p10+p11+p12)
At center court (12, 9.84) influence by Post 1, 6, 7 & 12
391
(12)² + (9.84)²
Ø = arctan = 68.31°
6
Elevation Angle Г = 68.31°-56= 12.31° since floodlight is tilted at

56°
ψ = arctan (9.84/12) =37.31°

D= (12)² + (9.84)² + (6)²
D = 16.23 m
Determine Luminous Intensity Distribution @ (12.31°, 37.31°) based

on the table above. By interpolation
LI = 290 cd/Klumen= 290 cd/1000 lumen

I = LI x Φ
I = 290 cd/1000 lumen x 39 000 lumen = 11 310 cd
11 310 cd x Cos 68.31°
E= = 1.47 fc x 10.76 lux/fc
(53.26)²
= 15.86 lux
E1 = 15.86 x 4 = 63.44 lux resultant of p1, p6, p7 & p12

P2, P5, P8, P11 (same point center court at net), 12, 9.84
x = 12 - 4.8 = 7.2 m
y = 9.84 m
z=6m
D = (7.2)² + (9.84)² + (6)²

D = 42.96 ft
Ø = arctan ( 7.2)² + (9.84)² / 6
Ø= 62.73°
Г = 62.73 - 56 = 6.73°
ψ = arctan (9.84/7.2) = 51.79°
392
Luminous Intensity distribution at (6.73, 51.79°)

by interpolation = 302 cd/klumen
I = 302 cd/klumen x 39 klumen

I = 11 778 cd
11 778 cd Cos 62.73

E= = 2.92 fc = 31.46 lux
(42.96)²
E2 = Ep2, Ep5, Ep8, Ep12
E2 = 31.46 lux x 4 = 125.85 lux
E3 at p3, p4, p9, p10 same point center court at net

(12, 9.84)
x = 12m - 9.6m = 2.4 m

y = 9.84 m
z=6m
D = (2.4)² + (9.84)² + (6)²

D = 11.2 m
Ø = arctan (2.4)² + (9.84)² / 6 = 57.60°
Г = 57.60 – 56 = 1.6°
ψ = arctan (9.84/2.4) = 75.3°
Luminous Intensity Distribution at 1.6, 75.3° = 308 cd/klumen

308 cd/klumen x 39 000 lumen x Cos 57.60°
E =
(11.2)²
E = 4.78 fc = 51.43 lux
E3 = 51.43 x 4 = 205.72 lux
Resultant Illumination at center Court (12m, 9.84m)
E total center court = E1 + E2 + E3
393
Et = 63.44+ 125.85 +205.72

Et = 395
Repeat the process by varying the number of luminaire, location,

mounting height, and aiming directions until the target illuminance at
each points meet the required illuminance level.
Intermediate Calculation Results at Various Points Lux
394
CFL lamps MH lamps
6.51m
L=100m
1.175m
395
W=15m
2.53m
1.175m
2.17m
2.17m
2.17m
CFL lamps MH lamps

6.51m
L=100m
1.175m
W=15m
2.53m
1.175m
2.17m
2.17m
2.17m
396
Appendix F. Tables
397
Table F1 Percent Effective Ceiling or Floor Cavity Reflectances for
Various Reflectance Combinations*
398
APPENDIX F. TABLES
APPENDIX F. TABLES
Table F1 Continued
399
APPENDIX F. TABLES
Table F2 Coefficient of Utilization for Typical Luminaires
400
APPENDIX F. TABLES
Table F2 (Continued)
401
APPENDIX F. TABLES
402
APPENDIX F. TABLES
403
APPENDIX F. TABLES
404
APPENDIX F. TABLES
405
APPENDIX F. TABLES
406
APPENDIX F. TABLES
407
APPENDIX F. TABLES
408
APPENDIX F. TABLES
409
APPENDIX F. TABLES
Table F3 Multiplying Factor for Effective Floor Cavity

Reflectances Other Than 20% (0.2)
410
APPENDIX F. TABLES
Table F4 Illuminance Categories: Commercial, Institutional,

Residential, and Public Assembly Interiors
ILLUMINANCE
AREA/ACTIVITY
Category
Auditoriums
Assembly C
Social activity B
Drafting
Tracing paper: high contrast
low contrast E
F
Educational facilities
Science laboratories E
Lecture rooms: audience (see Reading)
demonstration F
Offices
General and private offices (see Reading)
Lobbies, lounges, and reception areas C
Off-set printing and duplicating areas D
Reading
Copied tasks: photocopies D
Handwritten tasks: carbon copies E
Residences
General lighting: conversation, relaxation, B
and entertainment
Reading: books, magazines, and D
newspapers
Service areas C
Stairways and corridors C
Toilets and washrooms
Source: Adapted from IES Lighting Handbook, 1995 Reference and Application
Volume (New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 1995).
Refer to this Handbook for a complete listing of areas and activities.
411
APPENDIX F. TABLES
Table F5 Initial Lumen of High Pressure Lamps
Type of Lamps Wattage Initial

Lumens
High Pressure Sodium Clear 100 9500
150 16000
250 26000
400 50000
High Pressure Mercury 175 8500

250 11500
400 20000
412
Appendix G. Ballast Wiring Diagrams
G.1. Rapid Start
a. One lamp (for metal case)
b. Two lamp in series (for metal case)
c. One lamp (for plastic case)
d. Two lamp in series (for plastic case)
413
APPENDIX G. BALLAST WIRING DIAGRAMS
e. One lamp
f. Two lamp in series
g. Three lamp two in series and one parallel
h. Four lamp two in series and two in parallel
414
i. One lamp
j. Two lamps parallel
k. Three lamps in parallel
l. Four lamps in parallel
415
G.2. Instant Start
a. One lamp
b. Two lamps in parallel
c. Three lamps in parallel
416
d. Four lamps in parallel
e. One lamp
f. Two lamps in parallel
417
g. Three lamps in parallel
418

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MANUAL OF

Department of Energy (DOE), Philippines

All rights in this manual are reserved. No copyright is claimed to

First Printing, December 2007

With climate change already affecting our lives, there is a need

The purpose of this guideline is to provide a reference to

I am confident that with our concerted efforts, we will be able to

In the past years since the IIEE-ELI Manual of Practice on Efficient

The Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.

It is the objective of the IIEE that this Manual be used as a reference

IIEE STANDARDS COMMITTEE

The “MANUAL OF PRACTICE ON EFFICIENT LIGHTING”, was

In the course of its conceptualization and production, which spanned

In particular, special thanks to the following individuals who in their

Moreover, we would also like to recognize the support and participation

The MANUAL OF PRACTICE ON EFFICIENT LIGHTING is a

Thank you very much.

IIEE STANDARDS COMMITTEE

It is with sheer delight that I heed the invitation of the Institute of

The technological advances of this world have driven humanity to

In the Philippines, the Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that at

This book enables the lighting user and practitioner to be a catalyzing

Long after foreign-assisted interventions are closed, this book will be

11 August 2006, Makati City, Philippines

Lighting, on the other hand, is the application of light to illuminate

1.1.1 Radiant Energy, Light and Color

Light is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the eye

The color of light is determined by its wavelength. Visible energy with

Figure 1.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The region with slightly longer wavelengths immediately adjacent to the

However, without a reasonable proportion of red or blue in its output, a

How to see colors depends on the wavelengths emitted by the light

In pigments, however, a primary color is defined as one that subtracts or

Figure 1.2 Additive Mixing (Light)

Figure 1.3 Subtractive Mixing

1.1.2 The Eye and Vision

Figure 1.4 The Human Eye

Figure 1.5 Rods and Cones in the Retina

Figure 1.6 Relative Spectral Sensitivity of the Eye

1.2.1 Lighting Terminologies Introduction

A basic understanding of lighting fundamentals is essential for specifiers

1.2.1.1 Lighting Concepts and Units

(a) Luminous Flux (Φ). All the radiated power emitted by a

Unit: lumen (lm)

(b) Luminous Intensity (I). Generally speaking, a light source

Light intensity is the measure of light

(c) Illuminance (E). Illuminance (E) is a measure of the amount

(d) Luminance (L). The luminance (L) is the brightness of an

Unit: candela/m2 (cd/m2)

(e) Luminous Efficacy (η). Luminous efficacy indicates the

(f) Luminaire Efficiency. Luminaire efficiency (also known as

1.2.2 Laws for Point Sources of Light

(a) Inverse Square Law. In order to determine the required

To understand this law, consider a cone-shaped beam of light coming

Figure 1.7 Inverse Square Law

From figure above, if the surface is moved further away to a distance

The LUMINOUS INTENSITY is a measure of how much flux is

Figure 1.8 Inverse Square Law – Example

For example, in Figure 1.8, the luminous intensity of a spotlight