Grammar Transfer Issues for Ten Languages

The following chart identifies areas in which speakers of various primary languages may ave some difficulty in acquiring
English grammar (syntax). The type of transfer error and its cause is oultined for each grammatical category.

Nouns
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE

POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND

Plural forms
omission of plural marker-s Cantonese, Korean,
I have 5 book. Mandarin (plus m/w
after number)
Possessive
avoidance of 's to describe
forms
possession.
- the children of my sister
instead of
- my sister's children
no marker for possessive forms
- house my friend
instead of
- my friend's house
Count versus
use of plural forms for English
noncount nouns
noncount nouns
the furnitures, the color of her hairs.

Articles
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE

POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND

omission of article
- He has job. Cantonese, Korean,
- His dream is to become lawyer, not
Mandarin, Indonesian
teacher.

omission of article in certain contexts,

such as to identify a profession

He is a teacher.
overuse of articles
- The honesty is the best policy. Indonesian
- This food is popular in the Japan.
- I like the cats.

Mandarin (sometime)
use of one for alan
He is one engineer.

Pronouns
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
 POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
Personal
use of pronouns with inappropriate
pronouns, Cantonese, Korean,
gender

gender He is my sister. Mandarin (only in

speaking), Indonesian
 Pronouns continued
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE

POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND

use of pronouns with inappropriate

Indonesian
gender

He is my sister.

use of inappropriate gender,

particulary with neuter nouns

The house is big. She is beautiful.

Personal
confusion of subject and object
pronoun forms Cantonese, Mandarin,
pronoun forms
- Him hit me. Indonesian
- I like she.
- Let we go.

use of incorrect number for pronouns Cantonese, Korean,

I saw many yellow flowers. It was
Mandarin, Indonesian
pretty.
omission of subject pronouns Korean

Michael isn't here. Is in school.

omission of object pronouns Cantonese, Mandarin,
That man is very rude, so nobody
Indonesian
likes.
omission of pronouns in clauses Indonesian
If not have jobs, they will not have
food.
use of pronouns with subject nouns Indonesian

- This car it runs very fast.

- Your friend he seems so nice.
- My parents they live in Vietnam.
avoidance of pronouns by repetition
Cantonese, Korean,
of nouns
Sara visits her grandfather every
Mandarin
Sunday, and Sara makes a meal.
Pronoun one
omission of the pronoun one Indonesian
I saw two nice cars, and I like the
small.
Possessive

forms confusion of possessive forms Cantonese, Mandarin,

The book is my. Indonesian

Adjectives
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
position of adjectives after nouns. Indonesian
I read a book interesting.
position of adjectives before certain
Cantonese, Korean,
pronouns.
This is interesting something. Mandarin, Indonesian
 Adjectives continued
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
Comparison

omission of markers for comparison

She is smart than me.

avoidance of -er and -est endings Korean, Indonesian

I am more old than my brother.

confusion of -ing

and -ed forms confusion of -ing and -ed forms Cantonese, Korean,

- The movie was bored. Mandarin

- I am very interesting in sports.

Verbs
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
Present tense
omission of s in present tense, third
Cantonese, Korean,
person agreement
She go to school every day. Mandarin, Indonesian

problems with irregular subject-verb

Cantonese, Korean,
agreement
Sue and Ed has a new house. Mandarin, Indonesian
Past tense
omission of tense markers Cantonese, Korean,
- I study English yesterday. Mandarin, Indonesian
- I give it to him yesterday.

confusion of present form and simple

Cantonese, Mandarin,
past of irregular verbs

I give it to him yesterday. Indonesian

incorrect use of present for the future Cantonese, Korean,

I come tomorrow. Mandarin, Indonesian
In negative
omission of helping verbs in negative
statements Cantonese, Korean,
statements
- I no understand. Mandarin
- I not get into university.
Perfect tenses
avoidance of present perfect where it
should be used
I live here for two years.

use of present perfect where past

Korean
perfect should be used
 Yesterday I have done that.

Past
use of past continuous for recurring
continuous Korean
action in the past
When I was young, I was studying a
lot.
Verbs as a noun
omission of intinitive marker to Cantonese, Mandarin,

Criticize people is not good. Indonesian

 Verbs continued
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
Use of two or more main verbs in one
clause without any connectors
I took a book studied at the library.

Linking verbs

Omission of linking verb Cantonese, Mandarin,

He hungry. Indonesian

Passive voice
Omission of helping verbs be in
Cantonese, Mandarin,
passive voice
The food finished. Indonesian

Avoidance of passive constructions

- They speak Creole here. Mandarin (they speak

- One speaks Creole here. Chinese here)
avoiding the alternate
- Creole is spoken here.
Transitive verbs
confusion of transitive and
versus Cantonese, Korean,
intransitive verbs
intransitive verbs He married with a nice girls. Mandarin
Phrasal verbs
confusion of related phrasal verbs Korean, Mandarin,
- I look after the word in the
Indonesian
dictionary.
instead of

- I look up the word in the dictionary.

have versus be
use of have instead of be
- I have hunger.
- I have right.
Adverbs
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
use of adjective form where adverbs
form is needed
Walk quite.
placement of adverbs before verbs
- At ten o'clock this morning my plane
Cantonese, Korean,
landed.
avoiding the alternate, Mandarin, Indonesian
- My plane landed at ten o'clock this
morning.
Prepositions
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
omission of prepositions Cantonese, Mandarin,

Money does not grow trees. Indonesian

 Complex Sentences
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
Relative clauses omission of relative pronouns
My grandfather was a generous man
helped everyone.
incorrect pronoun used to introduce a
Indonesian
relative clause
The house who is big.
 Complex Sentences Continued
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
Adverbial
inclusion of additional connecting
clauses Cantonese, Korean,
word
- Because he was reckless, so he
Mandarin
caused an accident.
- Although my parents are poor, but
they are very generous.
use of inconsistent tenses in
Cantonese, Mandarin
sentences with multiple clauses
- She speaks French before she
studied English.
- After she comes home, it was
raining.
- We will go to the beach if the
weather will be nice.
If versus when Confusion of if and when Korean, Mandarin (for
- If you get there, call me! Chinese, both are ok),
instead of Indonesian
- When you get there, call me!
Infinitives and Gerunds
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
use of present tense verbs in places
where gerunds or infinitives are used Korean, Mandarin,
in English
- Stop walk. Indonesian
- I want go there.
use of for in infinitive phrases Indonesian (use for see
They went for to see the movie. movie instead of to see
movie)
Sentence Structure
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND
omission of object Korean
He dyed (his hair).
Yes, I want (some).
lack of variety in the position of
Korean, Indonesian
clauses
- Because you weren't at home and I
couldn't find you, I left.
avoiding the alternate,
- I left because you weren't at home
and I couldn't find you.
clauses that describe earlier actions
Cantonese, Korean,
come first
- After I finish my homework, I will
Mandarin
watch TV.
avoiding the alternate,
- I will watch TV after I finish my
Homework.

placement of phrase with the indirect

Indonesian
object before the direct object
They gave to the girl the book.
Placement of modifiers between verb
Korean
and direct object
She speaks very well English.
use of fouble negatives Indonesian
I no see nobody.
use of clauses for other structures Indonesian

I want that you help me.

 Questions
GRAMMAR TYPE OF TRANSFER LANGUAGE
POINT ERROR IN ENGLISH BACKGROUND

avoidance of English inverted

question forms in yes/no questions in Cantonese, Korean,
favor, of tag questions or intonation

- You come tomorrow, OK? Mandarin, Indonesian

- He goes to school with you?
lack of subject-verb inversion in
Cantonese, Mandarin,
questions with helping verbs
- When she will be home? Indonesian
- Where you are going?

omission of do or did in questions Korean, Mandarin,

Where you went? Indonesian

Yes/no
incorrect answer form for yes/no
Questions Cantonese, Korean,
questions.
A: Do you want more food? Mandarin, Indonesian
B: I want.

A: Do you have a pen?

B: I not have.

positive answer to negative question Cantonese, Korean,

A: Aren't you going? Mandarin, Indonesian

B: Yes. When the person is not going

Tag
questions incorrect tag questions Cantonese, Korean,

You want to go home, are you? Mandarin, Indonesian

or Ten Languages

ry languages may ave some difficulty in acquiring

ultined for each grammatical category.

CAUSE OF TRANSFER

DIFFICULTY

Nouns do not change form to show the

plural in the primary language.

The use of a prepositional phrase to

express possession reflects the only
structure or a more common structure in
the primary language.

A noun's owner comes after the object in

the primary language.

Nouns that are count and noncount differ

between English and the primary language.

CAUSE OF TRANSFER

DIFFICULTY

Articles are either lacking or the distinction

between a and the is not paralleled in the
primary language.

The article is nor used in Spanish in this

context, but it is needed in English.

The article is used in the primary language

in places where it isn't used in English.

Learners sometimes confuse the articles

alan with one since articles either do not
exist in the primary language or serve a
different function.

CAUSE OF TRANSFER
 DIFFICULTY

The third person pronoun in the primary

language is gender free. The same
pronouns is used where English uses
masculine, feminine, and neuter pronouns,
resulting in confusion of pronoun forms in
English.
nued
CAUSE OF TRANSFER

DIFFICULTY

In spanish, subject pronouns are dropped

in everyday speech and the verb conveys
third-person agreement, effectively
collapsing the two pronouns and causing
transfer difficulty for subject pronouns in
English.

Inanimate nouns have feminine and

masculine gender in the primary language,
and the gender may be carried over into
English.

The same pronoun form is used for he/him,

she/her, and in some primary languages for
I/me and welus.

There is no number agreement in the

primary language.

Subject pronouns may be dropped in the

primary language and the verb ending
supplies information on number and/or
gender.

Direct objects are frequently dropped in the

primary language.

A subordinate clause at the beginning of a

sentence does not require a subject in the
primary language.
This type of redundant structure reflects the
popular "topic-comment" approach used in
the primary language: The speaker
mentions a topic and then makes a
comment on it.

It is common in the primary language to

repeat nouns rather than to use pronouns.

Adjectives can be used on their own in the

primary language, whereas English often
requires a noun or one.

Cantonese and Hmong speakers tend to

omit final n, creating confusion between my
and mine.

CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY
Adjectives commonly come after nouns in
the primary language.
Adjectives always come before words they
modify in the primary language.
nued
CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

Since there are no suffixes or inflections in

Khmer, the tendency is to omit them in
English.
Comparative and superlative are usually
formed with separate words in the primary
language, the equivalent of more and most
in English.

The adjective forms in the primary

language that correspond to the ones in
English do not have active and passive
meanings. In Korean, for many adjectives,
the same form is used for both active and
passive meanings, such as boring versus
bored.

CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

There is no subject-verb agreement in the

primary language.

Verbs forms do not change to indicate the

number of the subject in the primary
language.

Verbs in the primary language do not

change form to express tense.

Speakers of the primary language have

difficulty recognizing that merely a vowel
shift in the middle of the verb, rather than a
change in the ending of the verb, is
sufficient to produce a change of tense in
irregular verbs.

The primary languge allows the use of

present tense for the future.

Helping verbs are not used in negative

statements in the primary language.

The verb form either doesn't exist in the

primary language or has a different
function.

In the primary language a past marker,

e.g., yesterday, is inserted to indicate a
completes action and no other change is
necessary. In English when a past marker
is used, the verb form must change to past
perfect instead of present perfect.
In the primary language a past marker,
e.g., yesterday, is inserted to indicate a
completes action and no other change is
necessary. In English when a past marker
is used, the verb form must change to past
perfect instead of present perfect.

In the primary language, the past

continuous form can be used in contexts in
which English uses the expression used to
or the simple past.

Unlike English, Cantonese does not require

an infinitive marker when using a verb as a
noun.
ed
CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

In Hmong verbs can be connected without

and or any other conjunction (serial verbs)

The verb be is not required in all

sentences. In some primary languages, it is
implied in the adjective form. In others the
concept is expressed as a verb.

Passive voice in the primary language does

not require a helping verb.

Passive constructions do not exist in

Haitian Creole.

Verbs that do and do not take a direct

object differ between English and the
prmary language.

Phrasal verbs do not exist in the primary

language. There is often confusion over
their meaning in English.

Some Spanish constructions use have

where English uses be.

CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY
There are no suffix-derived adverb forms in
the primary language, and the adjective
form is used after the verb.

Adverbs usually come before verbs in the

primary language, and this tendency is
carried over into English.

s
CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

There are no exact equivalents of English

prepositions in Cantonese although there
are words to mark location and movement.
nces
CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

Relative pronouns are not required in

Vietnamese.

Hmong uses the same forms of relative

pronouns for both personal and inanimate
antecendents.
s Continued
CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

The primary language sometimes uses a

"balancing word" in the main clause.

The primary language lacks tense markers

so that matching the tenses of two verbs in
one sentence correctly can be difficult.
Learners may also try to analyze the tense
needed in English according to meaning,
which in some cases can result in the use
of an incorrect tense.

The primary language has one expression

that covers the use of English if and when
for the future.

erunds
CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

Either the -ing form does not exist in the

primary language, or learners tend to use
present tense verbs instead of gerunds
even if they do exist (Haitian Creole).

Spanish uses a prepositional form in similar

constructions, which is carried over into
English and translated as for.
ture
CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

Korean tends to omit objects and noun

phrases after verbs.

Since main clauses always come last in

Korean, there is a tendency to put the main
clause last in English. This is not an error in
English, but it leads to a lack of sentence
variety.

The pattern in the primary language is to

describe what happens first while later
occurrences follow. This is not an error in
English, but it leads to a lack of sentence
variety.

The phrase with the indirect object can

come before the direct object in Spanish.
The phrase with the indirect object can
come before the direct object in Spanish.

Word order, including the placement of

adverbials, is freer in the primary language
than in English.
Spanish requires double negatives in many
sentence structures.
Verbs that take direct objects versus those
that require clauses differ in the primary
language and English.
 CAUSE OF TRANSFER
DIFFICULTY

The primary language doesn't use subject-

verb inversion in questions.

In the primary language, word order is the

same in some questions and statements,
depending on the context.

In the primary language, there is no exact

counterpart to the do/did verb in questions.

In the primary language, learners tend to

answer yes by repeating the verb in the
question. They tend to say no by using not
and repeating the verb.

The appropriate response pattern differs

between the primary language and English.

The primary language has no exact

counterpart to tag questions, forms them
differently, or does not add do/did to
questions.
 Phonics Transfer Issues for Seven Languages

Sound Transfer (Phonology)

The symbol identifies areas in which these primary language speakers may have some difficulty pronouncing and perceivin
sound may not exist in the primary language, may exist but be pronounced somewhat differently, or may be confused with
production and perception issues impact phonics instruction.

Consonants
SOUND KOREAN MANDARIN INDONESIAN
/b/ as in bat
/k/ as in cat and kite
/d/ as in dog
/f/ as in fan
/g/ as in goat
/h/ as in hen
/j/ as in jacket
/l/ as in lemon
/m/ as in money
/n/ as in nail
/p/ as in pig
/r/ as in rabbit
/s/ as in sun
/t/ as in teen
/v/ as in video
/w/ as in wagon
/y/ as in yo-yo
/z/ as in zebra
/kw/ as in queen
/ks/ as in Xray
Short Vowel
SOUND KOREAN MANDARIN INDONESIAN
short a as in hat
short e as in set
short i as in sit
short o as in hot
short u as in cup
Long Vowel
SOUND KOREAN MANDARIN INDONESIAN
long a as in date
short e as in be
short i as in ice
short o as in road
short u as in true
or Seven Languages

have some difficulty pronouncing and perceiving spoken English. The

omewhat differently, or may be confused with another sound. Sound

Vowel Patterns
SOUND KOREAN MANDARIN INDONESIAN
oo as in book
aw as in saw
Diphthongs
SOUND KOREAN MANDARIN INDONESIAN
oy as in boy
ow as in how
R-controlled Vowel
SOUND KOREAN MANDARIN INDONESIAN
ir as in bird
ar as in hard
or as in form
air as in hair
ear as in hear
Consonant Digraphs
SOUND KOREAN MANDARIN INDONESIAN
sh as in shoe
ch as in chain
oth as in think
ng as in sing
Consonant Blends
SOUND KOREAN MANDARIN INDONESIAN
bl, tr, dr, etc.
(start of words)
as in black, tree, dress
ld, nt, rt, etc.
(start of words)
as in cold, tent, start

* Spanish speakers from Mexico or Central Amerika who also

speak Nahuatl or a Mayan language will be familiar with this
sound, written as an x in words like mixteca (pronounced
mishteca).
 Phonics Transfer Issues for Seven Languages

Sound-Symbol Transfer (Phonics)

The following chart identifies sound-symbol transfer issues for four languages that use the roman alphabet. (The
remaining three do not.) The symbol identifies symbols which do not represent the corresponding sound in the
writing system of the primary language.

Consonants Vowels and Vowel Patterns

SOUND-SYMBOLS INDONESIAN SOUND-SYMBOLS
b as in bat a as in bat
c as in cat aCe as in date
as in cent ai as in rain
d as in dog ay as in day
f as in fish au as in author
g as in goat aw as in saw
as in giant e as in bet
h as in hen ee as in seed
j as in jacket ea as in tea
k as in kite ew as in few
l as in lemon i as in sit
m as in moon iCe as in pipe
n as in nice o as in hot
p as in pig o as in rode
qu as in queen oo as in moon
r as in rabbit roll oo as in book
s as in sun oa as in boat
t as in teen tin ow as in row
v as in video ow as in how
w as in wagon ou as in sound
x as in Xray oi as in boil
y as in yo-yo oy as in boy
z as in zebra u as in cup
uCe as in june
Consonant Digraphs ui as in suit
SOUND-SYMBOLS INDONESIAN ue as in blue
sh as in shoe ** y as in try
ch as in chair ar as in star
th as in think er as in fern
as in that ir as in bird
or as in torn
ur as in burn

* In Indonesian, for the "r" sound -> similar with gurgling

** This is the "c" sound in Indonesian
n alphabet. (The
onding sound in the

wel Patterns
INDONESIAN

yam

Roll the toy