Arctic Engineering Module 3c

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This is Jon Zufelt welcoming you to Module #3C Bearing Capacity of Floating Ice Sheets. The floating part is important
because it is the material properties of the ice that determine strength and therefore bearing capacity.

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The most idealized and simplest case of bearing capacity is given in this figure with a point load acting perfectly in the
center of a floating ice block. The block has buoyancy due to its density being less than that of water. If the block did not
have an extra load on it and you didnt know its density, you could figure out the density by knowing that the weight of the
block must be equal to the weight of the volume of water that is displaced. As in the case shown, if the block has an area
of A and has a depth of submergence z, then its weight is equal to A times z times the unit weight of water (gamma sub
w). Since we usually can assume a density or unit weight of ice, we can calculate the maximum load that a floating block
can hold. For the maximum loading case, the block submergence depth z, is equal to its thickness, h and the maximum
load P is given by A times h times the difference between the ice and water density. If the load is not perfectly centered,
however, the block will have an induced moment and tip or flip over.

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This figure shows a load applied to an idealized infinite ice sheet. By infinite, we mean that there are no effects due to
attachment at the edges of the sheet. Think of it as a load out in the middle of a lake as opposed to the load on a small
puddle ice sheet where the attachment at the edges provides additional support. Away from the load, the buoyancy force
supports the ice sheet and is given as a pressure on the underside of the sheet equal to the unit weight of the ice times
the ice thickness (or density times gravity times ice thickness). Closer to the load, deflection occurs due to the load and an
additional pressure is required to keep the load afloat. This additional pressure is equal to the unit weight of water times
the local deflection. The sheet can act as a membrane and deflect below the piezometric head line but any cracks will
allow water onto the surface of the sheet which results in additional load on the sheet. Ice sheets respond to loads by
elastic and creep deformations depending on the strain rate. If the load is too great (or too concentrated) the tensile
strength of the ice will be exceeded at the lower surface and cracks will begin to form, lessening the load carrying capacity
of the ice sheet.

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The loading type is really dependent on the strain rate. At low strain rates, deformation is by creep, while at high strain
rates the sheet deforms elastically. Short term loads allow the sheet to deform elastically. These loads might be due to
slow moving loads on an ice cover (like a person walking across a frozen pond). Moving loads are characterized by
movements that are quick enough to cause the ice sheet to deflect and then return to normal, possibly setting up a
resonance. Problems with moving loads often occur as a vehicle traveling across an ice sheet approaches the shore.
Finally, long-term loads are those that allow the ice sheet to deform under creep, such as a drill rig on the ice or long-term
storage of materials on the ice.

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Under a short-term load, the ice sheet behaves as an elastic, brittle material. If we assume that the ice cover can be
described as an elastic plate on an elastic foundation, we can solve the bearing capacity and deflection analytically (or
through a theoretical solution). As long as the elastic stresses under the load are less than the tensile strength of the
bottom of the sheet, this analytical solution is valid. If the tensile strength is exceeded, however, the sheet cracks. Further
loading causes radial cracks to form extending from the loading point out for a distance of about 2-3 characteristic lengths.
Then circumferential cracks form around the loaded area. Eventually, the sheet will break through.

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The next few slides show some break-through experiments conducted in the test basin at CRREL with fresh water ice.
You can see the break-through at the point of loading, the radial cracks extending out from the loading point, and the
circumferential cracks.

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This plot shows the loading (in kiloNewtons) vs. deflection at the loading point (in mm). You can see a reduction in the
loading before the break-through which could be due to cracks allowing water onto the ice surface (which would increase
the total load on the ice but reduce measured load applied).

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These two photos show the significant micro cracking between the major radial cracks.

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The deflection is described in the analytical solution by a differential equation that is presented and solved in both of our
texts. The solution results in an expression for the Characteristic Length of the ice sheet as shown here. The factor D is
further defined as well with gamma sub w equal to the unit weight of water, capital E is the Elastic Modulus of the ice, h is
the ice thickness, and nu is the Poisson ratio for the ice sheet. The figure provides characteristic length versus sheet
thickness for several values of Elastic Modulus and a Poissons ratio of 0.3.

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The maximum tensile stress, before the first crack appears, can be calculated with the formula shown here. As noted before, characteristic length
depends on the Elastic Modulus and thickness of the ice sheet. So, as the loaded area radius increases (as a/L increases
in the figure), the value of C and hence the maximum tensile stress decreases. The effect is that for a given maximum
tensile stress, the lower C allows a larger load P for a given ice sheet. This means that as you distribute the load over a
larger radius, the sheet can carry a larger load. Also shown on the plot is the value of C if the load is placed over a square
area at the edge of a semi-infinite ice sheet (think of this as the edge of an ice sheet with open water beyond). Values of C
are higher, indicating a lower allowable value of load which is what you would expect at the edge of an ice sheet.

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Experience with floating drilling platforms in the arctic has resulted in accepted values of maximum allowable tensile
stress. For sea ice, 550 kPa (or 80 psi) is customary while a value of 690 kPa (or 100 psi) can be used for freshwater ice.
The values customarily used for elastic modulus were obtained by measurements using strain gages embedded in very
thick ice platforms (ice islands). 690 MPa is used for calculations of deflections immediately after a load is placed on an
ice sheet. The Elastic Modulus decreases with time due to creep deformation and thus for long term loads, a value of only
55 MPa is used.

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A long data history of break-through loads and ice thicknesses has resulted in some very good empirical relations for
short-term bearing capacity. The Army actually did a series of experiments where different sized vehicles were loaded
until an ice sheet failed. The form of the empirical relation is P=A * h-squared where P is the load, h is the allowable
thickness and A is a coefficient that depends on the condition of the ice, ice temperature, factor of safety desired, and the
units used. For a load in tons and ice thickness in inches, the relation is P=h-squared/16 or h=4*P to the 1/2 power. The
relation for load in metric tons and thickness in centimeters as well as the relation for load in megaNewtons and the
thickness in meters are given in this slide. Of course these values are for clear competent ice. White, bubble-filled, or
snow-ice should be considered to be only half as strong or equivalent to half as much clear ice.

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This slide shows a plot of actual break-through loads for short-term loadings vs. ice thickness. The best fit lines to this
data show P=1.93 * h-squared or P=1.75 * h-squared which is a bit higher than the formula on the previous slide of P=h-
squared. This difference could be due to the ice sheets not being clear, or not being strong ice.

Table 8-1 on page 8-9 of the Ice Engineering EM provides additional information to assist in vehicle operations on an ice
sheet. The table gives values of ice thickness required for different weights of tracked and wheeled vehicles for two
different ambient temperature ranges. There is also a recommendation for the distance between vehicles. As the air
temperature rises above freezing, the ice sheet will begin to lose its strength (especially at the surface). Continued warm
temperatures significantly reduce the bearing capacity.

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Moving loads present additional difficulties due to the inertia of the ice and water. A load on an ice sheet deflects the
sheet in a bowl-shaped area. As the load moves across the sheet, the deflection bowl (and the water that is being
displaced) is also moving. Just as with a boat moving through the water, the moving deflection bowl sets up a gravity
wave. If the deflection is great enough and the speed is high enough, a wave begins to form in front of the moving load.
While this is less evident in deep water, as the water depth decreases, the wave grows and attempts to break as it nears
the shore (similar to a beach wave). The most critical time is when a moving vehicle approaches the shore line. Not only
does the critical speed become less, the ice thickness near the shore is often less as well. The slide shows the formulas
for critical speed (which is really the wave speed) for both deep water and shallow water conditions.

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Long term loads are characterized by creep deformation. When a load is initially placed on the sheet, deflection occurs.
The effect of creep is that this vertical deflection increases with time due to the Elastic Modulus and characteristic length
decreasing with time. The maximum deflection of an elastic ice sheet (but still less than the freeboard of the sheet) is
given by w-max=P/(rho-water times g times the characteristic length squared). As stated before, the Elastic Modulus for
an initially loaded ice sheet would be 690 megaPascals while that of a long-term loaded sheet would only be 55
megaPascals. It is important to limit the long-term deflection of the ice sheet to its freeboard. That way, even as the sheet
continues to creep, water shouldnt leak up onto the surface through cracks (causing additional loading). By limiting the
deflection to the freeboard, the effects of creep are that the long-term load is about 3 to 4 times smaller than the allowable
short-term load.

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What if youre not sure how long youre going to load the ice sheet, or not certain of the Elastic Modulus? One of the best
ways to ensure that you dont deflect more than the freeboard is to drill a hole in the sheet near your load. As long as the
water doesnt come up onto the ice, you should be safe. This is the ice fishermans rule: if your truck tires are getting wet,
its time to move.

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We often need to significantly load an ice sheet, whether for construction or safe passage across a river. Methods to
increase the bearing capacity of the ice sheet include distributing the load over a larger area. This might be done by
spreading out your items to be stored rather than stacking them up. Other ways to increase the bearing capacity include
increasing the Elastic Modulus or increasing the ice thickness. The latter can be accomplished by removing the snow
cover (which is really an insulation layer) from the ice sheet to induce ice growth or by periodically flooding the ice sheet in
thin layers, thereby building up the thickness. A final method of increasing bearing capacity is to reduce the time of
loading such that you maintain short-term loading conditions.

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So in summary, the bearing capacity of floating ice sheets depends on the type of loading, whether short-term , moving, or
long-term. Many parameters influence the bearing capacity including the Elastic Modulus, characteristic length, ice
thickness, loading area, and time of loading. Creep deformation and cracking can accelerate the failure of ice sheets and
the available freeboard of the sheet should also be monitored.

The homework assignments look at some practical aspects of bearing capacity. It can be found under the assignments
section of the website and will be due on April 24th.

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