Tree - Species - Low - Manual Copaci

Integrated conservation of
tree species by botanic gardens:

a reference manual
Integrated conservation of tree species
by botanic gardens: a reference manual
Compiled by:
Sara Oldfield and Adrian C. Newton
November 2012 Acknowledgements
Many individuals have generously contributed their time

to the preparation of this manual and are acknowledged
with gratitude. Andrea Kramer provided substantial
Recommended citation: comments on an early draft and helped to shape the
Oldfield, S. and Newton, A.C. 2012. structure and content of the manual greatly enhancing
Integrated conservation of tree species by the final document. Larry Stritch critically reviewed the
botanic gardens: a reference manual. final draft and provided valuable improvements to the
Botanic Gardens Conservation International, text. Ildiko Whitton provided assistance with research
Richmond, United Kingdom throughout the preparation of the manual and prepared
case studies as noted in the text. Grateful thanks are
ISBN-10: 1-905164-44-0 also due to Bart C. OBrien, Joachim Gratzfeld, Dan
ISBN-13: 978-1-905164-44-8 Luscombe, Megan Marrison, Matt Parratt, Lorraine
Perrins, Simon Marshall and Mark Nicholson for the
Cover image: provision of expert case studies. Thank you also to
Barney Wilczak/Wilczak Photography.co.uk Professor Patricio Arce, Corey Barnes, Lillian Chua,
Allen Coombes, Tonya Lander, Dr Philip Moors, Maricela
Design: Rodriguez Acosta and Xiangying Wen. We acknowledge
Seascape. www.seascapedesign.co.uk the major contribution of Professor Zeng Qingwen to
the conservation of Magnolia spp. Zeng Qingwen
Published by prepared the case study on p 35. He died in the field
Botanic Gardens Conservation International whilst collecting Magnolia specimens in 2012 and will
Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, be remembered by the international botanical
Surrey, TW9 3BW, United Kingdom community for his skills, enthusiasm and willingness
BGCI 2012 to share information.
02 Integrated conservation of tree species by botanic gardens: a reference manual
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
2. Why conserve and restore tree diversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

2.1 Importance of tree diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .05
2.2 The need for action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .05
2.3 Policy context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .08
3. Conservation approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1 In situ approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
3.2 Ecological restoration and reintroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
3.3 Ex situ conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
3.4 Integrated conservation approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
4. A step-by-step guide to integrated conservation of tree species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.1 Step 1: Identify priorities for action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
4.2 Step 2: Plan and implement ex situ conservation approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
4.3 Step 3: Plan and implement reintroduction programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
4.4 Step 4: Develop and implement longer term conservation strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
5. Taking action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Annexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Annex 1: Further resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Annex 2: Principles of Access and Benefit Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Integrated conservation of tree species by botanic gardens: a reference manual 03
Foreword
This manual focuses our attention on tree conservation, The series of case studies the authors present provide
and is designed to guide and stimulate action to save a range of perspectives on tree conservation, including
threatened trees from extinction. Trees do not often population diversity assessments, propagation
receive special focus for conservation, yet they are techniques, ex situ and in situ approaches, and
enormously important and under threat worldwide. integration with planning, policy, monitoring, education,
As many as one in ten tree species is endangered, and sustainable use. As inspiring as they are, the case
threatened, or vulnerable. studies also paint a picture of how much more there is
to do.
Trees provide the structure for natural ecosystems
where they grow and habitat for myriad other living This book provides a valuable framework for integrated
things. They influence growing conditions, approaches to tree conservation. The need is great,
biogeochemical cycles, and light and water regimes, and the opportunities to make meaningful contributions
and sequester carbon that is of principal influence in to both conservation and our collective knowledge are
planetary climate trends. many. The authors and I hope this manual will spark
your attention and stimulate you to act to save the
Trees are also valuable for human use: timber, fiber, worlds trees.
food, fuel, and medicine. Because of this, they tend to
be harvested and often over utilized threatening the Gerard T. Donnelly, Ph.D.
very source of these values. Forest clearing for President and CEO
agriculture and development also threatens tree and The Morton Arboretum
forest biodiversity. And because of their long lifespans,
and often-constrained reproductive and dispersal
capabilities, trees are more susceptible to the effects of
rapid climate change.
For those of us associated with arboreta and botanical

gardens, we are in a position to address the challenge
of saving the worlds threatened tree species. We need
to do more than just include them in the plant
collections of our gardens. Effective tree conservation
may require a finessed combination of different kinds of
ex situ and in situ actions, ecological restoration and
plant reintroduction, and socio-economic and regulatory
considerations to truly secure them from threat.
With this book, Sara Oldfield and Adrian Newton bring

together pertinent thinking about plant conservation and
apply it to the special considerations associated with
tree conservation. They present step-by-step
guidelines that can be used in launching conservation
work with trees.
(Kemal Jufri)
1. Introduction
This reference manual has been developed to support This manual builds on A handbook for botanic gardens
the integrated conservation of threatened tree species on the reintroduction of plants to the wild published by
by botanic gardens and arboreta (referred to collectively BGCI in 1995 (Akeroyd and Wyse Jackson, 1995) and
as botanic gardens within the manual). It is aimed at the reflects the increasing imperative to restore and
staff and associates of the worlds botanic gardens, and conserve damaged ecosystems. It draws on both the
is designed to help the development, planning and scientific literature and on practical experiences gained
implementation of conservation activities focusing on in tree conservation projects from around the world. We
tree species. Botanic gardens are exceptionally well are grateful to a wide range of experts who contributed
placed to make an important contribution in this area, their knowledge and experiences, as acknowledged on
as they have access to the skills and techniques to p 01. The following sections first briefly consider why
identify, cultivate and propagate a wide range of trees. tree species should be conserved and restored, and
In addition, they hold important collections of living how integrated approaches to conservation can be
trees, seeds and other germplasm that can be of value developed. A step-by-step guide is then provided to
in supporting both in situ and ex situ conservation support the design and practical implementation of
efforts. integrated conservation approaches. While this manual
can only serve as a brief introduction to what is a large
Many botanic gardens are increasingly becoming and complex subject, it is hoped that it will both
involved in conservation activities that integrate in situ facilitate and encourage botanic gardens and land
and ex situ approaches to tree conservation, which are management agencies to develop integrated
typically undertaken in partnership with other conservation activities focusing on tree species.
organisations, such as national park agencies, forest
services, non-government organisations (NGOs) and
local communities. Case studies of such initiatives are
highlighted in this manual, to demonstrate how botanic
gardens can provide leadership in this area, leading to
highly successful outcomes for both plants and people.
Tree conservation is not without its challenges, however,
and therefore a further objective of this manual is to
help identify potential problems and pitfalls, and how
these may be overcome in practice.
There is an urgent need to conserve tree species.

Around 7,800 tree species are currently recorded as
threatened with extinction at the global scale (Oldfield
et al., 1998; Newton and Oldfield, 2008). However,
information is lacking on the status and distribution of
many suspected rare species of trees, and the true
figure is likely to be much higher. Trees are of
exceptional ecological importance, providing habitat for
a wide range of other organisms. Many of these trees
also benefit people, and are associated with social,
economic or cultural values. Consequently, their
continued decline or loss can have a major impact on
human wellbeing.
Sophora toromiro. (Magnus Lidn)

2. Why conserve and restore tree species?
2.1 Importance of tree species
Trees are of exceptionally high ecological, socio-

economic and cultural importance. As the principal
biomass component of forest ecosystems, they provide
habitat for at least half of Earths terrestrial biodiversity
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005), supporting
80% of amphibian, 75% of bird and 68% of mammal
species (Vi et al., 2009). Forest ecosystems play a major
role in the Earths biogeochemical processes, and
contain about 50% of the worlds terrestrial carbon
stocks (FAO, 2010; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
2005), highlighting their importance for moderating
human induced climate change. Trees and forest
ecosystems provide a wide range of benefits to people
including production of timber, fuelwood and fibre, and
ecosystem services such as clean water, flood protection
and prevention of soil erosion from watersheds, as well
as being of high cultural and spiritual value (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; UNEP, 2009). The total Araucaria in Conquillo National park, Chile
value of such services has been estimated at US$4.7 (P. Hollingsworth, RBG Edinburgh)
trillion per year (Costanza et al., 1997). Some 1.6 billion
people depend directly on trees for their livelihoods species with limited distributions and those with poor
(World Bank, 2004), and forest industries contribute regeneration and dispersal mechanisms. Climate
around $468 billion annually to the global economy (FAO, change could also potentially interact with other threats,
2011). Recent research has confirmed that high plant increasing the risk of drought and fire, as suggested for
diversity is needed to maintain provision of many example in the Amazon (Nepstad et al., 2008).
ecosystem services (Isbell et al., 2011).
The conservation status of the worlds tree species is
2.2 The need for action poorly understood. It is striking that many countries do
not yet possess a complete list of tree species occurring
The widespread loss and degradation of native forests within their borders, let alone assessments of their
is now recognised as a global environmental crisis. extinction risk. There are as many as 400,000 plant
From 2000-2005, global forest area declined by around species worldwide (Govaerts, 2001), and trees make up
20 million ha/yr (Hansen et al., 2010), with undisturbed approximately 25% of this total, although the total
primary forest declining by an estimated 4.2 million number of tree species that exists is not known with any
hectares (or 0.4%) annually (FAO, 2010). precision (Oldfield et al., 1998). An initial assessment of
The loss and degradation of forest ecosystems tree species involving around 300 experts was conducted
resulting from human activity are major causes of in 1998, which evaluated 14,000 taxa of which 7,886 were
global biodiversity loss (UNEP, 2009; Vi et al., 2009). found to be globally threatened with extinction (Oldfield et
Clearance of forest for agriculture, mining, urban and al., 1998). While subsequent assessments have continued
industrial development all contribute to the loss of to increase this total, many species have not yet been
forests and tree species in the wild. Management assessed (Newton and Oldfield, 2008). In addition, many
activities within forests, including burning, logging and species that are not currently threatened have
overgrazing also impact on forest structure, functions experienced major declines in abundance, including many
and processes and can additionally contribute to the that have been exploited for timber and other forest
loss of tree species. Climate change is an additional products. This highlights the widespread need for
over-arching threat, which may particularly affect conservation action focusing on tree species.
Case study 1: also causes reduced seed production and poor

Prunus africana (African cherry) recruitment, resulting in a lack of saplings and young
trees. The habitat of the African cherry has also been
Prunus africana is native to high-altitude, montane affected by deforestation and the establishment of exotic
habitats of tropical Africa. Commonly known as African tree plantations, which resulted in fragmented and
cherry, Red stinkwood or by its former scientific name genetically isolated populations and competition from
Pygeum africanum, this multiple-use, evergreen invasive alien species, respectively.
hardwood tree has significant economic and medicinal
value both for local communities and internationally. In the face of such complex threats to wild populations of
A combination of complex and inter-related economic, P. africana, the conservation strategies are similarly wide-
social and ecological factors contributed to the mounting ranging, with a focus on both ecological and economic
pressure on African cherry populations in the last factors. Sustainable wild harvest seems feasible only
decades of the 20th century. As a result, the species was within a robust and enforceable regulatory framework,
listed in Appendix II of CITES in 1995, regulating the trade underpinned by deterrent sanctions and strong
of P. africana products, and has been included in the community support. Wild harvest can be seen as an
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as Vulnerable interim phase until a complete transition into
since 1998. Subsequently, a shift has been observed from agroforestry or plantation production, which could
an exclusively wild harvest of the species towards reduce the pressure on natural resources.
increasing cultivation and domestication, complemented
by integrated conservation and development projects. Recent projects concentrate on the domestication and
small-scale cultivation of P. africana (e.g. in Buea,
African cherry has been highly valued for many Cameroon and in Tanzanian homegardens), as well as
generations across Africa for its durable and strong larger scale planting programmes (e.g. the reforestation
timber, the medicinal properties of its bark and leaves, in Lebialem Highlands, Cameroon). These schemes utilise
and as fuel-wood. The traditional beliefs and associated the fast growth rate of the plant and its suitability for
taboos of local people, for example in Cameroon, steep sites and take into account the considerable
protected and controlled the use of these trees in sacred genetic diversity amongst and within plant populations.
forests. Sustainable harvesting techniques limited the One of the advantages of cultivation is that the genotype
extent of bark removal and preserved the vascular of plants grown for pharmaceutical production can be
cambium, so that the tree could regenerate its bark. controlled according to demand. For example, a
reforestation and trade programme in Uganda utilised the
Large-scale commercial exploitation of P. africana began discovery that trees in the local national parks have the
with the patenting of the bark extract in 1972 as a highest concentration of the active pharmaceutical
treatment for benign prostatic hyperplasia. The tree ingredient in the country, and a nursery of superior
became an important source of income for highland genotypes was established to supply the farmers with
forest communities, especially in the main exporting the required planting stock. The Nile Basin Reforestation
countries of Cameroon, Madagascar, Kenya, and Project in Uganda - involving other African trees along
Equatorial Guinea, with an estimated output of 3,500 with P. africana and launched in 2009 in association with
tonnes per annum. However, growing international local community organisations - aims to generate 700
demand (mainly from Europe and the USA) for the raw local jobs and will count towards emission reductions
material and the economic hardship of many local under the Kyoto Protocol.
communities led to overharvesting.
The most significant constraints on conservation,
Although guidelines, regulations and management plans cultivation and reforestation of P. africana are limited
for sustainable harvest exist to varying degrees in seed availability owing to the late maturity of the plants
exporting countries, the scattered distribution of African (approximately 15 years), fluctuating yields and the
cherry and lack of resources in the range countries make intermediate/recalcitrant nature of the seeds. Tissue
monitoring and community control difficult. The low culture techniques offer a viable solution for rapid
prices paid to harvesters encourage unrestrained and multiplication of selected African cherry germplasm for
destructive collection in return for short-term financial cultivation purposes, helping to preserve valuable
gain and stifle the development of more expensive genetic resources, prevent the destructive sampling of
alternatives. Inappropriate or illegal practices - such as wild populations and assist in and ex situ conservation.
excessive or complete girdling, felling, or harvesting
immature trees - by unskilled or careless workers causes Source: Prepared by Ildiko Whitton with reference to
the destruction of trees and a serious decline in wild Cunningham (2005) and UNFCCC (2009)
populations of P. africana. The removal of mature trees
Case study 2:
Restoring dipterocarp forests constraints
in the utilisation of endangered species
Trees of the Dipterocarpaceae family dominate large

areas of forest in Southeast Asia and account for 80
percent of timber exports from the region. Many
dipterocarp species are threatened with extinction as a
result of general deforestation and logging pressures.
In general the species have a low density of reproductive
adults, depend on insects for pollination, have poor seed
dispersal and recalcitrant seeds. It has been suggested
that restoration of dipterocarp forest is likely to be via two
pathways: enrichment planting, planting seedlings of
selected species in degraded forest or complete forest
restoration by establishing a nurse canopy of fast-
growing light-demanding species followed by
under-planting with dipterocarps. Enrichment planting is
likely to be the most cost-effective but less beneficial in
terms of ecological functioning and local livelihoods.
Incorporation of endangered species of dipterocarps
should be considered in any restoration efforts. Technical
knowledge to propagate dipterocarps on a relatively large
scale exists but dipterocarp reproductive ecology
presents challenges. Seed production is unpredictable
with mast-fruiting. The sheer size of the trees can make
seed collecting difficult. Seeds need to be collected as
quickly as possible, protected from fungal infection,
overheating, physiological breakdown and then
germinated as soon as possible. An alternative approach
Prunus africana growing in Tooro Botanical Garden. is to collect wildlings (wild seedlings) from the forest
(BGCI) floor. Care should be taken not to over-collect wildlings as
this will impair natural regeration. Enrichment planting in
Indonesia typically uses plants propagated from stem
cuttings from wildlings. Ideally seed should be used in
propagation of dipterocarps for forest restoration but in
logged forest the seed production can be very low.
Identification of species is a key problem. Incorporation of
endangered species is likely to be dependent on both the
taxonomic expertise and supply of
seeds or cuttings from botanic gardens
and arboreta. Currently 264 species out
of a total of around 500 dipterocarp
species are recorded in botanic garden
collections based on the BGCI
Above: Flower of PlantSearch Database. Of these species
Dipterocarpus sarawakensis, in cultivation, 175 are recorded as
a species that is Critically globally threatened with extinction
Endangered in Peninsular according to the IUCN Red List.
Malaysia. (Wong, W.S.Y.)
Source: Kettle, 2010
Left: Fruit of Dipterocarpus
sarawakensis. (Wong, W.S.Y.)
Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the

contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been
enhanced, through conservation and restoration,
including restoration of at least 15% of degraded
ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate change
mitigation and adaptation and to combating
desertification.
The GSPC, first adopted in 2002, was revised in 2010

with plant conservation targets in line with the Strategic
Plan for Biodiversity. All targets of the GSPC are relevant
to the conservation of tree species. Targets specifically
relating to ex situ conservation, in situ conservation and
restoration of tree species are:
Target 4: At least 15 per cent of each ecological

region or vegetation type secured through effective
management and/or restoration.
Target 7: At least 75 per cent of known threatened

plant species conserved in situ.
Target 8: At least 75 per cent of threatened plant

species in ex situ collections, preferably in the country
of origin, and at least 20 per cent available for
recovery and restoration programmes.
Dipterocarpus sarawakensis. (Wong, W.S.Y.) This provides a clear policy context for linking the recovery
and restoration of natural populations of plant species with
ex situ collections, which is the focus of this manual.
2.3 Policy context
Other global policy initiatives relevant to forests and tree
The need for action to reduce the rate of biodiversity species include:
loss, the degradation of ecosystems and their
associated goods and ecosystem services, has been The United Nations Framework Convention on
recognized by a number of policy initiatives. At the Climate Change (UNFCCC). This is an international
global scale, the most important of these is the treaty adopted by 193 Parties in 1992 in an attempt to
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which reduce global climate change. Forest restoration,
provides a broad framework for the conservation of reforestation and afforestation are recognised as
all components of biodiversity. The CBD delivers its valuable approaches for climate change mitigation,
objectives through Programmes of Work. The through the capture and storage of carbon by trees.
conservation of tree species is integral to various Such approaches could potentially be supported by
Programmes including the Forestry Programme, the developing market for carbon. Regulated or
Protected Area Programme and Sustainable Use compliance carbon markets, governed by rules in the
Programme. It is particularly relevant to the cross- Kyoto Protocol of the UNFCCC, include Clean
cutting Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). Development Mechanism (CDM) projects of which
The CBDs Strategic Plan for Biodiversity agreed at the a number are forestry related. In addition there are
Tenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP10) voluntary carbon markets that are unregulated, but
in Nagoya, Japan in 2010 provides a new global which have voluntary project standards, such as the
framework on action for biodiversity, not only for the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Project Design
biodiversity-related conventions, but for the entire Standard (CCB) and Voluntary Carbon Standard
United Nations system. The Strategic Plan includes (VCS). These have been applied to a wide range of
a range of targets for the period 2011 - 2020. These conservation and forestry schemes, many of which
include: are operated by NGOs.
The United Nations Convention to Combat and the UN-REDD Programme (http://www.un-
Desertification (UNCCD). Combating desertification redd.org/). Revenues may be generated from the global
(i.e. the degradation of land in arid, semi-arid and dry market in carbon, which had reached US$125 billion by
sub-humid areas) is essential to ensure long term 2008; funding for REDD itself has already exceeded $6
productivity of drylands and the biodiversity that they billion (Stickler et al., 2009). The mechanism has been
support. The UNCCD was adopted in 1994 and aims criticized, however, for its focus on the single
to promote effective action through innovative local ecosystem service of carbon; there is a possibility that
programmes and supportive international other services and social issues could be adversely
partnerships. affected (Bullock et al., 2011; Stickler et al., 2009).
Potential negative social impacts include loss of
The Convention on International Trade in livelihoods or access to lands undergoing reforestation,
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna & Flora a risk that is particularly high in areas where land tenure
(CITES). This Convention provides an international is insecure. This highlights the need for an appropriate
legal framework for the regulation of trade in those institutional and regulatory environment to support
plant and animal species that are exploited restoration activities, and to ensure equitable delivery of
commercially for international trade. The treaty benefits at the local scale (Bullock et al., 2011). Current
operates through the issue and control of export and and potential roles of botanic gardens in relation to the
import permits for species, and their products, listed REDD+ process are set out in Probert et al. (2011).
in three Appendices. CITES certifies sustainable
trade in species, listed in Appendix II, that can In addition to such international policy initiatives, the
withstand current rates of exploitation, but prevents CBD also requires individual countries to develop
trade in those, listed in Appendix I, that face National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans
extinction. At present over 20 tree species are listed (NBSAP). By October 2010, 171 of the 193 Parties to
on the Appendices of CITES, including species for the CBD had developed NBSAPs. These are being re-
which case studies are included in this manual, such aligned with the GSPC Targets and the overall 2020
as Fitzroya cupressoides and Prunus africana. For biodiversity targets. Requirements for species
Appendix II species, monitoring of the levels of conservation are included in the National Plans that
export is required so that the species is maintained provide a strong policy basis for tree restoration. Many
throughout its range at a level consistent with its role additional countries have also developed additional
in the ecosystems in which it occurs. Synergies policies or legislation promoting species protection and
between CITES and CBD are promoted in various recovery, which may also relate to tree species.
ways at national and international scales, including
directly through targets of the GSPC.
In the context of mitigation of climate change, a

promising mechanism for funding forest restoration is
REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
forest Degradation), which aims to offer incentives for
developing countries to invest in low-carbon
approaches to sustainable development (Bullock et al.,
2011). Developed within the UNFCCC, and led by the
Coalition for Rainforest Nations (http://www.rainforest
coalition.org/), the original focus of REDD was to reduce
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
However, its focus has been expanded (as REDD+)
recently to include enhancement of forest carbon
stocks, which provides opportunities for supporting
forest restoration efforts. REDD+ activities are being
supported by national and local governments, NGOs
and the private sector, with support from a number of
development agencies and research institutes.
International initiatives in support of REDD and REDD+
include the World Banks Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility (http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/) Magnolia silvioi seedling in the wild. (A. Cogollo)
3. Conservation approaches
3.1 In situ conservation A number of related terms are widely used.

Rehabilitation emphasizes ecosystem recovery, without
It is generally recognized that the most effective way to including the re-establishment of some pre-existing
ensure the long-term survival and evolution of tree state as a management goal. Reclamation generally
species, and the ecological communities of which they refers to the environmental improvement of mined
are a part, is to maintain viable populations in their native lands, and may incorporate soil stabilization and
environment (Kramer et al., 2011). This is referred to as in aesthetic improvement (Newton, 2007). In this case
situ conservation. Typically this is achieved through the there may be less emphasis on restoring the original
designation and management of some form of protected biodiversity present at a degraded site, and greater
area, such as national parks, wilderness areas and emphasis on restoring productivity. Afforestation and
nature reserves (Newton, 2007). The extent of the global reforestation refer to the establishment of trees on a
network of protected areas continues to increase, with site, in the former case where no trees existed before,
nearly 133,000 areas now designated, representing 12% and in the latter case following deforestation
of the Earths terrestrial surface (Butchart et al., 2010). (Mansourian, 2005).
Parties to the CBD recently committed themselves to
raise this figure to 17% by 2020. Despite the substantial It is also helpful to differentiate approaches involving the
efforts being made to support the development and restoration of entire ecosystems or ecological
management of protected areas, many are currently communities, from those that focus on individual
under threat from human activities such as urban species. For example, conservation actions might focus
encroachment, infrastructural development, habitat on restoring populations of an individual tree species
conversion, illegal harvesting and fire (Chape et al., that had been depleted by timber harvesting. This could
2005). Additional problems include policy-related issues be achieved by artificial establishment of individuals of
such as weak government institutions, conflicting the tree species concerned, for example by enrichment
policies and resource tenure (Brandon et al., 1998). planting, using planting stock derived from an ex situ
Because of such problems, and the fact the coverage of population. If a species has been extirpated from its
protected area networks is not complete, additional original habitat, it may be a candidate for reintroduction,
conservation approaches are also required. which aims to re-establish new, self-sustaining
populations of a species in the locations where it
3.2 Ecological restoration and reintroduction occurred previously. In recent years, reintroduction has
increasingly been used as a plant conservation tool
The widespread environmental degradation that has (Falk et al., 1996). For example, one-fourth of the plant
occurred as a result of human activities has led to a species listed by the U.S. Endangered Species Act
growing interest in ecological restoration. This may be include reintroduction as a component of their recovery
defined as the process of assisting the recovery of an plan (Kramer et al., 2011). To be successful,
ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or reintroductions are dependent on the availability of
destroyed (Bullock et al., 2011). Ecological restoration appropriate material either from other nearby adapted
has grown rapidly over the past few decades, both in populations or from suitable ex situ populations.
terms of a scientific discipline and in terms of Integrated conservation approaches will therefore
environmental management practice (Nellemann and generally involve an element of reintroduction of an
Corcoran, 2010). Billions of dollars are now being individual species, as described in this manual.
invested in restoration actions throughout the world However, such reintroduction might form part of a
(Goldstein et al., 2008), supported by international broader effort to restore an entire ecosystem, as also
policy commitments such as the CBD. Many explored further below.
environmental organisations and community groups are
actively engaged in ecological restoration projects, but
increasingly restoration actions are also being
undertaken by other organisations, including
governments and large companies.
Case study 3: plant biodiversity. With over 50 acres, over 80,000 plants
Restoring native trees in the Kenyan propagated from over 1,400 species, the botanic garden is
Highlands a source of seed and plant material, and a model for
indigenous reforestation projects in East Africa. Ecological
Brackenhurst Botanic Garden is situated 25 km north of restoration has resulted in improvements in the avian and
Nairobi. There is a conference facility at the site that hosts insect fauna, in soil fertility, watershed protection and
corporate, secular, scientific and religious meetings from perennial stream flow.
across Africa. The land includes one side of a valley stretching
from a dam and thence downstream for 1.5 km. The other side Brackenhurst is of major importance as a model in Kenya
is Government land. Both sides of the valley were covered where 100,000 ha of the Mau forest (Kenyas major water
with exotic plantations of eucalyptus, cypress and Australian tower) has been destroyed over the last 20 years. Efforts
black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) typical of the district that has are being made to reforest on a large scale but the
lost over 99% of its native forest to coffee, tea and exotic tree challenges are similar to those faced by the Brackenhurst
plantations, smallholder agriculture, horticulture and urban reforestation project. In addition, negotiations are
expansion. In 2000/2001 efforts began to convert half of underway with tea growers to help replant steep valleys
Brackenhursts land (40 ha) from exotic tree plantations to with indigenous forest to prevent heavy siltation of rivers
indigenous forest. The vision was to create a forest and reservoirs. At present, periodic removal of eucalyptus
comprising only indigenous trees, shrubs and lianas from the (four acres of tea requires one acre of gum forest for drying
East African uplands. the tea) means that soil erosion is serious because
undergrowth below gum trees is minimal owing to the
Tree planting began in 2001 after clearing five acres of toxic qualities of eucalyptus oils in dead leaves. Replanting
eucalyptus, wattle and cypress. Although the project began as native forest near streams will help watershed protection
an arboretum, it has developed into a natural forest. This is and ensure year-round stream flow.
important as the biodiversity is much higher than in a mown
arboretum and has allowed a large variety of understorey and Brackenhurst garden and indigenous forest now has the
non-climax species to thrive, such as shrubs, lianas, largest cultivated in situ and ex situ plant biodiversity in
understorey Rubiaceae and Euphorbiaceae, orchids, ferns, East Africa. Many species on the IUCN Red List are
and herbaceous species. Concomitant with this has been an cultivated and many more species that should be listed.
increase in avian, small mammal and insect life. There are over 40 young specimens of the endemic
climber Embelia keniensis of which only five adult
Ten years later there is 20 ha of land under a growing forest of specimens are known to exist in the wild (and not yet on
between one and eleven years old, comprising about 300 the IUCN Red List).
species of trees, shrubs and lianas. The Garden and
Indigenous Forest is a now centre for East African upland Source: Mark Nicholson
Tree nursery at Brackenhurst Botanic Garden, Kenya. (BGCI)

3.3 Ex situ conservation

Case study 4:
Ex situ conservation can be defined as the conservation The dawn redwood conservation or
and maintenance of samples of living organisms outside museum collections?
their natural habitat, in the form of whole plants, seed,
pollen, vegetative propagules, tissue or cell cultures. As The Critically Endangered tree species that is most
many plant species are declining in abundance as a result widely represented in living collections is the dawn
of human activities, and increasing numbers are becoming redwood, Metasequoia glypterostroboides, which is
threatened with extinction, there is an increasing need for recorded in 187 botanic gardens and arboreta according
ex situ conservation approaches. Botanic gardens play a to BGCIs PlantSearch database. The species has been
major role in the ex situ conservation of plants, but a widely propagated and is cultivated in over 60 countries.
number of other organisations also maintain ex situ plant This attractive tree, the only species in its genus, was
collections including academic institutions, non-profit first described in 1941 from Hunan Province in China.
organizations, forest services and other government A few years later the largest population was logged for
agencies. Such collections can have value for research, timber. Seeds were initially sent to the Arnold Arboretum
horticulture and education, but here the focus is on their in Boston, USA. The original seed introductions were
potential value for conservation. derived from just three trees, and the genetic base of the
species in cultivation in botanic garden collections
The value of ex situ collections for conservation depends remains narrow today. In China, wild trees of
on three main factors (from Kramer et al., 2011): Metasequoia glypterostroboides are scattered in farmed
hilly areas with paddy fields and villages, and are also
1) The type of plant material collected (including present in at least one Forest Park, where the trees may
seeds, explants, and living plants), which varies have been planted before the scientific discovery of the
according to each species reproductive biology, species. A Conservation Committee was formed for the
seed characteristics, and/or adaptability to ex situ species shortly after its discovery and it has been legally
conditions. For species with orthodox seeds (i.e. able protected in China since 1983. There has been no
to be dried and stored at low temperatures for many conservation recovery plan for the species but it has
years and still remain viable), ex situ collections been widely planted within China and is now a common
maintained as seed banks provide the greatest direct landscape tree.
conservation value at the lowest cost. For species
with recalcitrant seeds (i.e. not able to be dried and A study of the genetic composition of wild and artificial
stored), tissue culture or cryopreservation collections populations of M. glypterostroboides was carried out by
can also provide high direct conservation value but at Li et al. (2005) in order to guide species recovery. This
a higher cost. Living plant collections can also be of study showed that the wild populations of this
conservation value, depending on how they are charismatic conifer had a wide range of genetic variation,
collected and maintained. whereas genetic variation in cultivated populations is
restricted. This is thought to be due to seed collection
2) The protocols used for collecting; in general, well- from a few productive and easily accessible maternal
documented, wild-collected ex situ collections that trees, reliance on one population for propagules, and the
capture as much genetic variation of the species as wide extent of vegetative propagation. Li et al. (2005)
possible will have the greatest conservation value. recommend that for M. glypterostoboides, special
Botanic gardens often maintain collections of living stations should be established to manage wild
plants represented by one or more specimens per populations from which to collect propagules for planting
species, and from sources that are of wild or non-wild at specially designed sites within the natural range. Each
(cultivated or unknown) origin. As only genetically wild population should have several ex situ genetic
diverse and representative collections are appropriate reserves and there should not be mixing of propagules
to directly support in situ conservation (e.g. through from other wild populations. The magnificent dawn
reintroduction), living collections represented by only a redwood trees in botanic gardens around the world are
few individuals will often be of limited value. However potent symbols for species conservation and are of
they can nevertheless be of indirect conservation value, greater importance for historical and landscape value
for example through research, horticulture and rather than for species recovery programmes.
education. It is also important to note that ex situ
collection efforts must be conducted carefully to ensure Source: Li et al. (2005)
wild populations are not placed at additional risk.
3) The subsequent maintenance of viable 3.4 Integrated conservation approaches

germplasm, which plays a critical role in determining
the ultimate conservation value of an ex situ In recent years, increasing emphasis has been placed
collection. Without proper curatorial management, on integrated conservation approaches, in which in- and
the conservation value of a collection, or the ex situ approaches are combined, often together with
collection itself, can be entirely lost. Collections with reintroduction and ecological restoration. The traditional
the most direct conservation application are idea that the role of botanic gardens was to hold
genetically diverse and representative of the species, cultivated stocks of threatened species during a period
and must be managed to ensure the material is of habitat degradation, in what has been described as
genetically sound and available for conservation the ark paradigm, is no longer believed to be sufficient
activities over the long-term. Many living collections (Havens et al., 2006). Rather, for botanic gardens to be
today do not meet these standards owing primarily to
genetic issues such as having too little genetic
diversity, being of unknown provenance, or losing
genetic diversity via drift or adaptation to cultivation
and hybridization. Management of ex situ collections
should also minimize the risk of loss due to random
events or natural disasters (such as staff changeover,
theft, fire, disease, or other catastrophic loss) by
ensuring that collections are maintained at more than
one site. Additionally, curatorial oversight of living
collections through time is crucial to maintaining
associations between collection data (e.g.
provenance) and specimens.
Case study 5:
Repatriation of Rhododendrons
The Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh has extensive

experience in the taxonomy, propagation and cultivation Demonstrating Rhododendron propagation at Cibodas
of Rhododendrons. Knowledge sharing and exchange of Botanic Garden. (BGCI)
material has contributed to the development of this
specialist expertise. In recent years the Garden has been they had been grown in Edinburgh. Of the 230 plants,
involved in the repatriation of Rhododendrons returning representing almost 100 species, more than 80 percent
plant material to the country of origin for re- established successfully. The main causes of death were
establishment in botanic gardens and/or in the wild. physiological disorders arising from transplant stress,
In 1994 a project to repatriate Rhododendron spp. drying out, pathogen attack and theft. Concurrent with
to Sichuan, China was initiated. Plants were raised the repatriation programme and aided by training from
vegetatively, mostly by semi-ripe wood cuttings grown Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, species stabilisation
in an open medium to accommodate washing for work for Rhododendron davidii and R.calophytum
phytosanitary reasons. In preparation for transit to China, endemics of Long Xi Reserve were undertaken by Hua Xi
the roots were placed in a water-soaked inert media of staff. A second repatriation exercise took place in 2005
vermiculite; plants were sealed individually in polythene in association with BGCI. Fourteen Rhododendron spp.
bags, packed in cardboard boxes with polystyrene to originally collected from Indonesia were repatriated to
insulate against temperature fluctuations. Repatriation the Cibodas Botanic Gardens from Royal Botanic
to Hua Xi Sub Alpine Botanic Garden was carried out in Gardens, Edinburgh. Training was provided by experts
the autumn to avoid stressing plants during the high from Edinburgh covering topics such as identification and
early summer temperatures sometimes experienced in taxonomy; field collection techniques, propagation and
the region. On arrival the plants were immersed in water collection data management.
for several hours. They were planted in raised nursery
beds in soil with similar properties to the media in which Source: Paterson (2003) and BGCI project report
Integrated conservation approaches deliberately seek a

broad base of information about a conservation problem
and employ a wide range of complementary tools to
accomplish a given objective (Falk, 1987). Such
approaches are typically highly site-specific and based
strongly on local context, in contrast to traditional
approaches that are more general in scope. Individual
approaches can be of value at different scales; for
example, seed banks are well suited to conserve
genetic diversity within a population, but are incapable
of conserving communities or ecosystems. However,
they may play a role as part of an overall integrated
strategy to address diversity at multiple levels of
organization. Rather than being viewed as separate and
distinct, in and ex situ conservation approaches can
therefore be viewed as part of a spectrum of
compatible, mutually reinforcing methods (Falk, 1987).
For example, Falk (1987) provides the example of the
successional management of a fire-adapted ecosystem,
such as a prairie or savanna, which may involve fencing,
site preparation, controlled burns, and reseeding with
native species. Such a management regime may differ
from a reintroduction program only in terms of the
number of years during which a particular species is
absent from the site, or from ecological restoration only
in terms of the number of species that are the focus of
Rhododendron forest in Guizhou, China. (Zhang Lehua) conservation efforts.
Integrated conservation of tree species therefore

effective with respect to conservation, the species includes both in situ and ex situ action, linked by
banking approach must be integrated with other restoration, reintroduction and collection, to support
conservation approaches focusing on habitats and species survival. This process can be supported by
ecosystems (Havens et al., 2006). research, horticulture and education that can ultimately
increase the success of conservation efforts (Figure 1).
The concept of integrated conservation of plant species Botanic gardens and related organizations can play a
is described by Falk (1987), who notes the need for major role in integrated plant conservation throughout
multiple conservation approaches to be employed. the world, and are uniquely positioned to be able to
Given the variety and complexity of threats to support such efforts (Havens et al., 2006).
biodiversity, a single approach, such as legal protection
for a species or the acquisition of land, is unlikely to be
successful. According to Falk (1987), integrated
conservation is based on the assessment and synthesis
of three sets of information:
(i) determination of the biological entity of concern,

including definition of the target level of biological
organization (such as species, sub-species, variety
or race);
(ii) identification of the threats to this entity; and
(iii) consideration of the full range of conservation

resources that may be brought to bear on the
problem. Warburgia a medicinal tree valued in Africa. (BGCI)
Fuelwood collection in the walnut forests of Kyrgyzstan. (J. Gratzfeld)
Integrated Plant Conservation
Germplasm
Seed bank
In situ Restoration Ex situ Cryopreservation
Tree diversity managed Tree diversity curated Micropropagation
and monitored in natural outside of natural
habitats Collection habitats Living Plants
Conservation collections
Reference collections
Display specimens
Research Horticulture Education

Reprouctive Propagation protocols, Interpretation,
biology, genetics, cultivation for training, awareness-
ecology reintroduction building
Figure 1. Integrated plant conservation combines in situ (on-site) and ex situ (off-site) conservation approaches to
support species survival. In situ conservation protects species in their native habitat, while ex situ conservation ensures
plant material is available for research, horticulture, and education activities that ultimately support reintroduction
efforts, to prevent species from going extinct. (Adapted from Kramer et al., 2011)
Case study 6: In order to recover Eucalyptus imlayensis, research

Increasing the chance of survival for an priorities include investigations into the causes of plant
imperiled Eucalyptus deaths and the factors affecting sexual reproduction both
in and ex situ, investigation of various propagation
Eucalyptus imlayensis, commonly known as Mount Imlay methods and the use of phosphate inoculation as a
mallee, is a rare Australian tree species at high risk of treatment of dieback. Recovery and threat abatement
extinction in its native New South Wales. The species is actions need to concentrate on monitoring the existing
listed as endangered under Australia's Environment plant population (health, recovery progress, effect of
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. It is habitat maintenance activities) and implementing
not currently included in the IUCN Red List but as the management protocols, developing seed collection
species is only known from a single population of about programmes and establishing live ex situ collections in
80 mature trees, it qualifies as Critically Endangered. partnership with botanic gardens, and raising public
awareness.
First described in 1980, Eucalyptus imlayensis is endemic
to the Mount Imlay National Park near the south-eastern In 2007, concerns over the population decline of this rare
coastal town of Eden in New South Wales, where it species prompted a collaboration between the Office of
occupies less than 4 m2 of the steep, rocky eastern slope Environment and Heritage (New South Wales
of the mountain summit at an altitude of about 860 m. Government), the Australian National Botanic Gardens
Its habitat is described as grassy sclerophyll woodland on with funding from the National Parks and Wildlife Service
skeletal soil, where mosses dominate the ground layer and help from volunteers. A trial recovery programme to
and a 3 m-high, closed shrubland (primarily made up of increase and strengthen the Eucalyptus imlayensis
Leptospermum scoparium) surrounds the Eucalyptus population has been established. The project had to
population. overcome the logistical difficulties of seed collection and
planting of the seedlings, as well as the challenges of
Studies carried out by E.A. James and K.L. McDougall propagation and after-care.
since 1998 showed a decline in the population of
Eucalyptus imlayensis, affecting both the health and the The remote location and the steep, rugged terrain of
number of individuals. Of the total stems in the Mount Imlay made access to the trees difficult.
population, a tenth fully lost their foliage and a third Specialised extendable seed collecting equipment was
showed more than 50% crown death by early 2001. used to reach the seeds from trees precariously
In addition, no fruit production was recorded between positioned on the edge of the mountain top. The seeds
2004 and 2007, and no evidence of seedlings or juvenile were collected with help from the Australian National
plants was found in the population since 1998. Botanic Gardens and propagated in their nurseries in
Significant clonal reproduction from large lignotubers is Canberra. By September 2011, 23 seedlings were
however known to occur. successfully propagated and ready to be planted in their
native habitat. The grant funded the transportation of
There are a number of identified and potential threats to supplies by helicopter to the mountain top and the
Eucalyptus imlayensis, including genetic and ecological building of remote boot-cleaning hygiene stations to
factors, pests and diseases. Above all, the extremely prevent the spread of pathogens. In order to establish
restricted geographic distribution, the very low number of the most favourable conditions for the plants, the
mature individuals from a small, narrowing gene pool and seedlings have been planted in different terrains.
unreliable sexual reproduction expose Eucalyptus Their development will be monitored and cared for with
imlayensis to the effects of catastrophic events, as well the help of volunteers. In addition, more seeds were
as minor ecological disturbances or modifications to its collected in September 2011 for a possible
habitat. In addition, insect damage by unknown, gall- supplementary planting in 2012.
forming psillids and a probable susceptibility to
Phytophthora cinnamomi - a soil-borne pathogen causing Source: Prepared by Ildiko Whitton with information from
dieback have also affected Eucalyptus imlayensis. The DSEWPC (2008) and NSW OEH (2011)
increased frequency and severity of dry periods, which
may be related to climate change, could also be a
possible threat to this species.
Case study 7: administrative competencies in Central Asia to raise

Towards integrated conservation of fruit environmental awareness and strengthen public
and nut trees in Kyrgyzstan outreach, as well as strengthen interest and participation
in conservation action.
As a region hailed for its botanical diversity in landraces,
local ecotypes and crop wild relatives, the Central Asian As elsewhere in the world, Kyrgyzstan is pursuing various
Kyrgyz Republic has been a focus country for a multitude research and ex situ conservation initiatives through
of related research and conservation efforts, especially living collections and germplasm banks, especially for
over the last thirty years. Home to some 4,100 vascular economically important plant species and their wild
plant species, this floral wealth includes over 130 species relatives. Living ex situ conservation collections are
of wild relatives of economically important crops found in especially maintained by Gareev Botanical Garden of the
Kyrgyzstans Tien Shan region, notably various fruit and National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic
nut bearing trees. Exploitation of timber and fuelwood, (NASKR), which hosts a large collection of fruit tree
grazing and fire, have been highlighted as major causes cultivars, in particular apples, pears and plums. There are
threatening the survival of many of these species and also a number of crop wild relatives including Malus
their populations. niedzwetzkyana, M. sieversii, Armenica vulgaris and
Prunus sogdiana. In collaboration with BGCI, outreach
As part of a highly interdisciplinary project funded by the activities and capacity of staff at Gareev Botanical Garden
UK Darwin Initiative between 2009 and 2012, BGCI has have been developed. Promotional materials as well as
been working with Gareev Botanical Garden of the an interpretational display exhibit about Kyrgyzstans
National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz Republic to fruit and nut forests have been established. Eight
develop public outreach activities. These focus on the species-specific panels and one display described the
importance to safeguard Kyrgyzstans fruit and nut conservation goals of this initiative. The exhibit provides
bearing tree species and the ecosystems they are part of. information on the species use, distribution and
Through the activities of Fauna & Flora International and a conservation status, in three languages. This project also
range of Kyrgyz partners, efforts have also begun to provided training and capacity building to a range of
strengthen the ex situ conservation of fruit and nut tree Kyrgyz institutions to support both the in and ex situ
species, and their potential reintroduction in the wild. conservation of fruit and nut tree species, including
national surveys of wild populations, support for the
Lack of facilities, resources and management capacity participatory management of native forests, and the
have hampered Kyrgyzstans botanic garden development collection and cultivation of plant material.
and environmental outreach capacity in recent years. This
represents a challenge for the region as whole. Enormous Source: Joachim Gratzfeld, BGCI
scope therefore exists to enhance institutional and
Walnut forest in Kyrgyzstan. (J. Gratzfeld)

4. A step-by-step guide to integrated

conservation of tree species
As indicated above, integrated plant conservation can likely to be successful if undertaken as a partnership, so
be considered as an iterative process, involving both in one of the first steps should be to develop good working
situ and ex situ approaches. The selection of which relationships with other organisations and stakeholders
conservation actions are appropriate in a particular case who share a common interest. Botanic gardens can play
will vary between species, locations, their native a leading role in developing such partnerships, gaining
ecosystem and the resources available. To be effective, public understanding and support and in identifying
integrated conservation approaches need to be priority actions.
designed carefully, to address the individual needs of
each specific situation. This manual cannot hope to The guidance presented below is organised as a series
provide a detailed prescription for any specific of discrete steps, but in reality the process may be
conservation problem. Rather, the intention here is to highly iterative, in response to the information that
provide some general guidance in the form of a flexible emerges during the process. The process is considered
strategic framework, which can potentially be adapted to here as four steps:
any given situation. A variety of case studies are
provided to illustrate how such a strategic framework 1. Step 1: Identify priorities for action
can be implemented in practice. However, it should be 2. Step 2: Plan and implement ex situ conservation
emphasized that the information presented here should approach
be viewed as a starting point, rather than as a strict 3. Step 3: Plan and implement reintroduction
protocol. Conservation is more of an art than a science programme
(Newton, 2007), and there is enormous scope for 4. Step 4: Develop and implement longer term
innovation and creativity in identifying cost-effective, conservation strategy
workable solutions to conservation problems.
4.1 Step 1: Identify priorities for action
The overall process of conserving a threatened species
can be divided into three stages (Wilcove, 2010): One of the fundamental principles of conservation
planning is that resources are always limited. As a
(i) identifying which species are threatened, result, decisions have to be made regarding which taxa
(ii) determining and implementing short term measures should be the focus of conservation efforts. Any action
to halt species decline and recovery, and then must be carefully planned and prioritized according to
(iii) determining and implementing longer term measures defined needs and goals. Such decisions are not
to rebuild viable populations. simple, and will reflect the particular interests of those
involved, and the different values of a particular taxon
The entire conservation process is dependent on held by different groups of people. Some species, for
successfully diagnosing why a particular species is example, might be accorded high priority because of
declining or under threat; conservation action will likely their exceptional cultural or economic significance,
be unsuccessful unless an accurate diagnosis is made. whereas others might be targeted because of their
Unfortunately, such diagnosis is often difficult, and many ecological roles. Maunder et al. (2004a) suggest that
interacting factors may be responsible (Sutherland, selection of threatened species for ex situ management
2000). Some suggested methods of identifying threats to can be guided by a range of factors including threat
species are presented below. level, legislative and institutional responsibilities,
likelihood of successful reintroduction, cost-
The following guide is designed to support a botanic effectiveness, relevant social and economic issues, and
garden that wishes to engage in integrated conservation curatorial preferences. These authors also suggest the
activities, focusing on one or more tree species. The five E criteria, which provide a simple heuristic to help
perspective of a botanic garden will likely differ from that identify species priorities (Maunder et al., 2004a):
of a conservation NGO, government agency or a local
community, whose priorities and way of working may be endangerment (selecting the most threatened taxa
very different. Ultimately, conservation actions are only needing ex situ support),
endemism (selecting threatened taxa that represent In some cases, prioritization based on threatened
a unique local or regional responsibility), status may rely on national assessments rather than
economic (selecting taxa that provide local or global threat status; information on national lists of
regional economic or social resources, such as threatened species can be found at
medicinal plants), www.nationalredlist.org. Other information on the
ecological (selecting taxa that have a role in conservation status of plants is often available from
maintaining ecological processes or supporting a number of different sources maintained by
habitat restoration), and government agencies and NGO organizations, which
emblematic (selecting threatened taxa that can be are specific to each individual country. Sources that
used as flagships for promoting landscape- and might be consulted include national Red Data Books
habitat-level conservation). or other lists of threatened plant species.
As noted by Maunder et al. (2004a), a further relevant Local importance of a species may provide a strong
criterion for selecting taxa is phylogenetic position. motivation for conservation, particularly where a
In other words, is the taxon the sole remaining species is valued for its uses or cultural importance.
representative of an ancient evolutionary lineage, or a Information on local or traditional values may be
sub-species that is the result of recent diversification of a anecdotal in many parts of the world, but it is
highly speciose group? In terms of their contribution to important not to discount such information as a basis
genetic diversity, losing 10 species from a group of closely for considering conservation action, particularly as it
related species is very different from losing 10 monotypic relates to local preferences and livelihoods.
genera or families (Maunder et al., 2004a). Perceived rarity because of declining availability of
resource is likely to be of more direct concern to local
Generally, decisions about which species should receive people than a formal conservation assessment.
priority for conservation action are made at the national
scale, a principle reinforced by the CBD. However, For institutions that cultivate plant collections (living
international collaboration in saving the worlds threatened plants, seed banks, or other types of germplasm),
trees is increasingly important, and there are a number of BGCI provides the PlantSearch database as a way to
examples of skill sharing and material exchange included quickly and easily determine the conservation status
in this manual. When considering the possibility of helping of plants in individual collections, including IUCN
to restore a threatened tree species in a country other status, crop wild relative status, other regional threat
than your own, it is important to consider principles of statuses, and the number of other gardens that
Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) as outlined in Annex 2. report maintaining the species in their collections.
This free service is available online at
In order to prioritize conservation and restoration action, a http://www.bgci.org
number of tools are available to identify which species are
under threat and to understand the circumstances that
have led to this threatened status. This information is a
necessary first step in determining not only which species
are most in-need of action, but also those that will benefit
most from different types of conservation intervention.
The following resources are available to help identify
threatened species in your region:
The IUCN Red List (www.iucnredlist.org) provides the

most reliable and robust source of information available
on the global conservation status of species.
Approximately 6,200 tree species are currently
included in the IUCN Red List. The IUCN/SSC Global
Tree Specialist Group is working on additional
assessments and aims to map and assess the
conservation status of all tree species by 2020.
Information on the conservation status of selected
groups not yet incorporated into the IUCN Red List can Practising Rhododendron propagation at Cibodas
be found at: www.globaltrees.org. Botanic Garden. (BGCI)
Case study 8: Propagation methods used for the toromiro tree include
Returning Sophora toromiro to the wild seed germination, vegetative propagation from cuttings
and micropropagation. As toromiro seeds are recalcitrant
Sophora toromiro, or toromiro, is a leguminous tree and the plants are very slow-growing, developing
endemic to the remote Easter Island (Rapa Nui), a small successful micropropagation techniques for this species
volcanic outcrop in the Pacific Ocean 3,700 km west of is an increasingly important task. The results of the latest
Chile. The tree has great cultural, historical and biological in vitro propagation experiments appear to be very
significance to the Polynesian islanders who highly value promising. However, the very limited availability of plant
its wood (for example, for carving religious statuettes) material is a significant constraint on experiments and
and see its reintroduction as recovering part of their future reintroduction projects. Not only are there fewer
heritage. The species is included in the IUCN Red List of than 10 recognised Sophora toromiro trees believed to
Threatened Species as Extinct in the Wild, surviving exist in the world, but some may be reaching the end of
only in cultivation primarily in the care of Chilean, their productive life.
European and Australian botanic gardens. Despite
several failed attempts in recent decades to reintroduce The low survival rate of plants from previous
toromiro to its native habitat, renewed efforts have reintroductions (e.g. a population of 150 plants in 1995)
recently been made. was assigned to the failure of root nodulation in plantlets
owing to a lack of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Toromiro trees
Within a century of the first description of toromiro in have a symbiotic relationship with these organisms in
1774, a dramatic population decline occurred following order to survive and their absence leads to nutrient
the human settlement of the island and the introduction deficiencies and exposure to attack from root nematodes.
of livestock. Natural groves were decimated by settlers This biological requirement makes both propagating and
cutting down the valuable, multi-purpose timber and re-establishing these plants in a significantly altered
livestock grazing on the bark. By 1917 only one remaining environment very challenging.
specimen was found growing in the Rano Kau crater,
which survived until 1962 when it was cut down for Degraded soil conditions on Easter Island remain one of
firewood. Forest clearance and agricultural activities the major problems faced by the current reintroduction
completely transformed the islands ecology the project. However, concerns of previous international
toromiro and its natural habitat were destroyed. undertakings about the views and opinions of the
islanders and the insufficient infrastructure for
Seeds collected by expeditions to the island provided the conservation projects seem to have been addressed. The
material for the first recorded cultivated plants in the early current project is led by a Chilean team of scientists, with
20th century. Specimens of known origin that currently the engagement of the islanders overseen by the Cultural
exist are descended from seeds collected by Thor Director of Easter Island. The project is based on the idea
Heyerdahl in 1958 and found predominantly in botanic of one Rapa Nui, one Toromiro, with the aim of planting
gardens. There are also several toromiro plants of around 5,000 trees to equal the number of islanders,
unconfirmed origin, mainly in private collections. Therefore, starting with 3,000 trees by the end of 2011. Young
the surviving stock covers a very narrow range of genetic students are educated about caring for the toromiro
diversity, and may include incorrectly identified congenerics plants and involved in the planting of 1,500 specimens
and specimens that hybridised through open pollination. held in a specially established temporary nursery on the
Island. The progress of reintroduced plants will be
The obscured genetic status and corresponding monitored with the help of volunteers and managed
conservation value of toromiro stocks was one of the using a dedicated website. The interest and participation
main constraints faced by botanic gardens involved in the of the local population is seen as the key to the expected
previous conservation efforts during the 1980s and success of the current project.
1990s. A global directory of cultivated toromiro trees
with associated data from genetic fingerprinting has been The case of the toromiro highlights the importance of ex
established in response. The identification of genuine situ collections and an integrated approach in
Sophora toromiro specimens remains central to the reintroduction projects, including the collaboration
conservation work of this species. Chilean scientists from between relevant institutions (e.g. botanic gardens,
the Universidad Catlica de Chile and Forestal Mininco, conservation authorities, scientific bodies) and the
a forestry development and conservation company, protected areas, together with a consideration of social
reported at the VI Plant Biology Meeting in Chile (2011) on and economic, as well as ecological, requirements.
recent molecular validation of over 20 specimens against
a control sample from the Sophora toromiro tree in the Source: Prepared by Ildiko Whitton with information from
Museum of Natural History of Santiago. Montero (2011) and from Professor Patricio Arce (In litt.).
In situations where lists of threatened tree species are can answer or help address research questions, and
lacking or are inadequate, botanic gardens can play a other government agencies or NGO organizations that
leading role in conducting assessments of conservation can contribute experience and expertise. When
status. Many members of the IUCN/SSC Global Tree planning an international project, finding a partner
Specialist Group are staff of botanic gardens, who are institution in the overseas country that can collaborate
often well placed to conduct conservation assessments and benefit from the work is an essential first step.
because of their field knowledge and access to
collections of herbarium specimens. Distribution maps To identify other potential partners within the botanic
based on such data can inform the assessment of garden community, BGCIs GardenSearch database can
conservation status, and help to identify regional or help connect institutions looking for an array of facilities
national endemics. If you are interested in conducting as well as expertise in research, conservation, and
conservation assessments of tree species, please education. For example, there are currently 228
contact the IUCN/SSC Global Tree Specialist Group for institutions worldwide listed in GardenSearch as
information and support. maintaining a seed bank, while 288 and 124 institutions
indicate they maintain plant conservation programs and
When considering how to prioritize activities, it is also restoration ecology research programs, respectively.
useful to consider the role that individual tree species When it comes to locating horticultural expertise on a
play within their natural ecosystems. Keystone species species and potential ex situ plant material, BGCIs
are ecologically pivotal species whose impact on a PlantSearch database provides a useful starting point.
community or ecosystem is disproportionately large in This online database allows users to identify the threat
relation to their abundance (Newton, 2007). Examples status of a tree species together with information on
include canopy dominant tree species, or species that whether the species is recorded in botanic garden
are an important food resource for animal species, such collections. PlantSearch also allows users to send
as many tropical palms. A tree species might be a a blind request to all gardens that indicate curating
candidate for ex situ conservation if it provides a food specific species, which can help identify possible
resource or habitat for another species of conservation collaborators, important species information, as well as
concern, such as a bird or mammal species. For possible plant material. In addition, for selected genera
example, the Afromontane species Prunus africana (see of woody plants, more detailed analyses have been
Case Study 1) is an important food resource for undertaken to identify ex situ collections. The results for
endemic birds such as Bannermans Turaco and Acer, Magnolia and Quercus can be found at:
Cameroon Mountain Greenbul, and endemic primates www.bgci.org/ourwork/globaltrees
such as Preusss Guenon (Cunningham and Mbenkum,
2003). 4.2.2 Selecting ex situ techniques.
4.2 Step 2: Plan and implement ex situ Ex situ approaches include field gene banks and in vitro
conservation approach banks, conservation stands or orchards, living
collections in botanic gardens, and seed banks
4.2.1 Identifying partners (conventional and cryogenic) (De-Zhu and Pritchard,
2009). To implement these approaches successfully,
Once a decision has been reached on which tree a variety of different techniques may be employed.
species to conserve, it is important to identify The precise choice of technique will depend on the
appropriate partners with whom to work. The case resources and capacity available, the characteristics of
studies throughout this manual highlight the crucial the species concerned and the particular conservation
need to form partnerships with the right skill sets and problem involved, and the cost-effectiveness of the
institutional affiliations to enhance the likelihood of techniques concerned (Table 1). The strengths and
success. There is significant scope for increased weaknesses of selected techniques are summarized
collaborative interaction between different sectors below, adapted from Maunder et al. (2004a):
involved in the conservation of trees, including for
example the forestry sector, academia, botanic gardens Cryopreservation: Seeds, pollen, or tissue is stored
and local communities. Identification of other partners frozen in liquid nitrogen. This technique is used for long-
will largely need to be done on a species-by-species term storage of plant material, but it requires substantial
basis, considering not only other botanic garden capital investment and access to trained technicians
partners, but also other public and private landholders and supplies of liquid nitrogen.
where the species occurs, academic institutions that
Case study 9: 2. Semi hard wood half hardened current years growth.
Assessment of propagation of nine 3. Semi hard lateral; side shoots (not favoured as cutting
threatened southern conifer tree species at material as the consequent plant grows in a sidewards
the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens direction).
4. Laterals with heel; usually taken from terminal or
The Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens (RTBG) covers ascendant growth to maximise the number of cuttings.
approximately 14.5 hectares and has a cool temperate 5. Wounded cuttings; removal of up to 5mm of bark at
climate. Its collection focus includes Tasmanias flora and basal end.
associated flora from the southern hemisphere. The RTBG
was therefore pleased to accept several large donations Cuttings which had the cambium tissue exposed
of Southern Hemisphere plant species between 1998 and (wounded and heel) were the most successful. Of the
2003. The majority were wild collected and provenanced. eight wounded cuttings seven had strike rates of 57%
Nine were globally threatened conifers: success and above with two having 100% strike rate.
Average strike rate was 73% with wounded hardwood
Acmopyle sahniana (Critically Endangered) being the least successful and wounded semi hard with
Afrocarpus usambarensis (Vulnerable) knob marginally more successful than semi hard. Only
Fitzroya cupressoides (Endangered) one group of heel cuttings was taken; these had an
Libocedrus chevalieri (Critically Endangered) average strike rate of 75% but due to the small sample
Libocedrus yateensis (Endangered) size, conclusions should not be drawn. Of the semi hard
Neocallitropsis pancheri (Endangered) only one group of cuttings were taken that were not
Pilgerodendron uviferum (Vulnerable) wounded these had an average strike rate of 66.6% but
Podocarpus salignus (Vulnerable) again, due to the small sample size, conclusions should
Widdringtonia schwarzii (Vulnerable) not be drawn. Lateral cuttings had an average of 62%
success. However this is an academic exercise as cuttings
The conifers primarily comprise a potted collection. In taken from laterals grow lateral trees. Lateral cuttings
order to maintain the collection within the available size are only taken in cases of extreme need! Hardwood
and space, propagation programs were carried out in cuttings did least well with an average of 41.5%.
2004/05; and also in 2008 and 2011. The nine species
listed were not all necessarily propagated each time. In In conclusion, observations on the propagation of these
some cases between 2004 and 2012 the health and species have revealed that more work is required to
vigour of the original plant declined as it remained in the ensure maximum success! For example additional work
largest pot size available. In the majority of cases only needs to be done on the closed cases (upturned plastic
small numbers of cuttings could be taken as most of the tubs which enclosed the cutting punnets), from
potted parent material is less than 3 metres in height and observations the health of the cuttings seems to benefit
therefore does not carry significant cutting material. from the higher humidity than those outside of the case
in the open, misted environment. However, this small
Various types of cuttings were taken using either Clonex case study showed that with conventional propagation
Purple Gel by Growth Technology, active constituent Indole techniques reasonable success can be achieved.
Butyric Acid 3g/l or Clonex Red Gel, active constituent
Indole Butyric Acid 8g/l. The cutting types were: Source: Compiled by Megan Marrison in collaboration
with Lorraine Perrins, Curator, Conservation Collections
1. Semi hard wood with a hardwood knob; terminal or and Subantarctic Flora and Simon Marshall, RTBG
ascendant growth with a small piece of hardwood at Horticultural Trainee.
the basal end.
Case study 10:

Involvement of local people in tree
restoration in Colombia
BGCI has been supporting the

restoration of endangered
Magnolia spp. in Colombia
working with local botanic
gardens. Workshops have
been held to promote input
from local communities.
The identification of key individuals in the local

community has proved one of the most useful
outcomes of these workshops. Not only can local
knowledge greatly benefit our understanding of the
distribution and ecology of threatened species, it can
also further our research into the restoration and
rehabilitation of wild populations.
In one such community workshop a participant was a

Above: Conifer cuttings in a closed case at the Royal farmer who also sold a range of timber species,
Tasmanian Botanical Gardens (RTBG) including the Endangered Magnolia yarumalensis.
Right: Flower of Magnolia yarumalensis. (A. Cogollo) Over the past ten years he had also been identifying
and collecting seedlings of this threatened Magnolia in
the forest, bringing them back to his nursery and
growing them on. The 2008 ex situ survey carried out
by BGCI identified only a single botanic garden to be
cultivating this particular Magnolia.
When the seedlings reached about 30 cm, the farmer

planted them back in the forest, in a range of locations
where he could monitor and help them establish
themselves over the subsequent years. The success of
this individual effort, carried out entirely on his own
initiative and with minimal resources, clearly
demonstrates that a wider restoration of wild
populations of M. yarumalensis is technically possible.
However, local community awareness-raising work
carried out so far by the garden only partially
addresses the broader drivers of habitat loss, which
will need to be tackled to ensure the long-term survival
of the remaining wild populations and the
reintroduced trees.
Source: Gibbs, 2010
A remnant tree of Magnolia yarumalensis. (W. Buitrago)

Seed banking: Seeds are stored in conditions of low Field gene bank: An open-air extensive planting used
moisture and temperature. This technique is routinely to maintain genetic diversity, an approach that is often
used for orthodox seeds of wild species, for which it is used for woody species, particularly those of high
an effective storage technique. Facilities can vary from economic value. Field space allocation allows extensive
small-scale (storage in airtight conditions over silica gel) genetic representation but represents a very long-term
to freezers and large-scale gene banks with walk-in horticultural investment with high recurrent maintenance
seed vaults. costs. There is a risk of hybridization between
accessions and taxa.
Tissue culture storage: Somatic tissue is stored in vitro
under temperature-and light-controlled conditions of Commercial cultivation: Plants are cultivated as a
slow growth. This technique is effective for the profit-generating horticultural or forestry crop, where
conservation of material over short time periods, but it management is dictated by commercial pressures.
requires significant initial capital investment and access There are few opportunities for genetic management or
to trained technicians and laboratory supplies. It should control of provenances. However, this method can
be used as a propagation rather than storage technique, generate large numbers of individuals of threatened taxa
with cryopreservation replacing tissue culture storage that can be used for restoration or reforestation
for long-term storage. approaches, thereby encouraging the planting of native
taxa and possibly reducing pressure on wild
Tissue culture propagation: Somatic tissue and seed populations.
are propagated in vitro; this technique is used for the
proliferation of clonal plants and controlled seedling Community garden: Plants are cultivated in village- or
production. It is effective for the propagation of difficult community maintained plots. Management is dictated
material (e.g. small amounts of vegetative tissue, by local community needs and available resources, with
immature seeds), but it requires a significant initial few opportunities for genetic management and control
capital investment and access to trained technicians of provenances. Community gardens are effective in
and laboratory supplies. maintaining valued plant resources, but carry a high risk
of artificial selection.
Cultivation in a dedicated conservation facility:
Plants are cultivated under a specific horticultural Inter (or cerca) situ: Plants are cultivated in
regime with the aim of cultivating and propagating horticulturally maintained near natural conditions, such
threatened species. Conditions are managed to as a managed population within restored semi-natural
minimize artificial selection, hybridization, and disease vegetation. This technique is effective in maintaining
transmission. This is usually a short-term activity to populations of threatened plants when natural habitats
produce material for recovery activities or to bulk up are extensively degraded. This technique allows
material for long-term seed storage. horticultural or forest management (e.g. weeding) in
semi-natural conditions, such as fenced exclosures.
Specialist cultivation in a controlled environment:
Plants are cultivated in an artificial environment (e.g. In situ horticulturally managed populations: Wild
heated glasshouses). A very high horticultural plants undergo some degree of species-specific
investment is needed, and space limitations often horticultural management, such as controlled hand
preclude adequate genetic representation. pollination. This method allows the horticultural, genetic,
and demographic management of threatened taxa
Cultivation in mixed display or reference collections: without the inherent risks of moving plants or
Plants are cultivated as part of reference collections propagules to ex situ facilities.
under ambient environmental conditions. The majority of
holdings in botanic gardens are held in such collections,
where the focus is on taxonomic representation or
horticultural display. However, this method carries a
high risk of artificial selection, hybridization, genetic drift
and disease transmission.
Case study 11:

Developing new techniques to conserve
critically endangered oaks in ex situ
collections
Seed banking is not an ex situ conservation option for

oak species, as acorns are recalcitrant. Micropropagation
and cryopreservation techniques are currently not viable
options for ex situ collection development either, as oaks
are challenging to propagate from anything other than
seeds owing to their high tannin content. This means
most if not all current ex situ collections of oaks are
found only in living collections, with unclear conservation
value.
To address this, BGCI US has undertaken a project with

the US Forest Service, Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical
Gardens Center for Research of Endangered Wildlife, and
Longwood Graduate Program to understand the
conservation value of current living collections of four
threatened oak species. The project is also undertaking Quercus georgiana. (A. Kramer)
research that will improve options for ex situ
conservation of these study species and other globally Project partners are working with the botanic gardens
threatened oaks. The species include: Q. acerifolia and arboreta curating living collections of these species
(Endangered), Q. arkansana (Vulnerable), Q. boyntonii in the United States to carry out genetic studies and
(Critically Endangered), and Q. georgiana (Endangered). micropropagation trials. BGCIs PlantSearch database
Among other threats, the continued survival of these was used to locate the species in ex situ collections.
species is increasingly threatened by a combination of The aims of the project are to:
stresses relating to climate change and the advance of
Sudden Oak Death (Phytophtora ramorum), making ex Determine genetic diversity of wild populations and
situ conservation an important conservation priority. living collections in order to make recommendations
for collection development that will increase the
conservation value of ex situ living collections for
these species, through the use of more collaborative
collection planning for conservation.
Determine micropropagation protocols for these taxa,

using material provided by botanic gardens and
arboreta that curate collections of these study
species. If micropropagation protocols are successful,
cryopreservation of plant material will be considered
as an additional long-term conservation option.
Planning interpretation that can be used as a part of

collection displays to help illustrate the important role
botanic garden collections play in supporting research
and conservation of threatened oak species.
Collecting field data on Quercus georgiana. (A. Kramer) Source: Kramer and Pence (2012).
Type of ex situ Genetic Longevity Relative costs Relative Notes

collection diversity per individual conservation value
Seed bank High (if proper High (with proper Low Reintroduction Seed storage is not
protocols storage) (if facilities exist) high possible for many tree
followed) Research high species particularly those
Education low of the humid tropics
Cryopreservation High (if proper High (with proper Intermediate Reintroduction Techniques for most tree
protocols storage) (if facilities exist) high species not yet available
followed) Research high
Education low
Tissue culture High (if proper Intermediate (with Intermediate Reintroduction Techniques for many
protocols proper storage) (if facilities exist) high tree species not yet
followed) Research high available
Education low
Conservation Intermediate Short (species High Reintroduction Cultivation is the only

collection/field generation length) intermediate option for many tree
gene bank Research high species; adaptation to
Education high cultivation and
hybridisation may be a
concern
Reference living Low* Short (species High Reintroduction Source may be

collection generation length) low* unknown, often one or
Research few individuals, likely
Intermediate* adaptation to cultivation
Education high
Display living Low* Short (species High Reintroduction Source often unknown,
collection generation length) low* often one or few
Research Low* individuals, likely
Education high adaptation to cultivation
Table 1. The relative conservation value of ex situ approaches. (* May have higher genetic diversity or conservation and
research value if material is wild-collected and maintained as multiple genetically diverse accessions, although adaptation
to cultivation and hybridisation is a concern.) Source: Adapted from Guerrant et al. (2004b) and Kramer et al. (2011).
4.2.3 Developing an ex situ conservation resource Populations are small and are often derived from a
small number of closely related founder individuals.
Once an appropriate ex situ conservation technique or The latter problem may not be evident, particularly if
combination of techniques has been selected, they will records of plant accessions have been lost, as can
need to be applied to develop a resource of germplasm or often be the case.
plant material, which could potentially be used to support
subsequent reintroduction efforts. The starting point would The cultivated stocks are subject to fluctuating
logically appear be to capitalise on the existing ex situ population size as a result of changing horticultural
resources that are available to a botanic garden, most fashions and episodic mortality events. This can affect
notably the living collections. However, the ex situ plant the genetic structure of the population.
populations associated with botanic gardens often have
the following characteristics (after Maunder et al., 2004b):
Often little or no associated ecological or biological These examples highlight the value of analyzing patterns
information is available to guide ex situ managers in of molecular marker variation in order to evaluate the
cultivating and managing the stocks. Many species potential value of ex situ populations for conservation.
may be difficult to propagate. They also highlight the need for caution when developing
an ex situ conservation resource, particularly when
There is little information on the history of the taxa in genetic information is lacking. Given such problems and
cultivation and often no satisfactory horticultural limitations, often there will be a need to both evaluate
protocols. Information on the geographic origins of the and further develop any ex situ resource, prior to any
accessions may be lacking or imprecise. reintroduction activities.
Individual plants are scattered through a number of Guidance on collecting material for ex situ conservation
collections with varying horticultural and curatorial of plant species is provided by Guerrant et al. (2004a).
capacity and hence differing patterns of regeneration Key questions include:
and mortality.
How many populations should be sampled per
Individuals are susceptible to artificial selection, species?
genetic drift, inbreeding, and hybridization with How many individuals should be sampled per
congenerics, limiting their conservation value. population?
How many propagules should be collected from each
Persistence in collections is highest for horticulturally individual?
amenable taxa and particularly for taxa with
ornamental display or commercial value. Many Guidance on developing an ex situ conservation resource
threatened species are not well represented in botanic is provided by the Center for Plant Conservation (CPC),
garden collections. who developed genetic sampling guidelines for
conservation collections of endangered plants (CPC,1991).
These problems are illustrated by the case of alerce These were further developed by Guerrant et al. (2004a).
(Fitzroya cupressoides), a threatened conifer native to The revised guidelines are organized around the following
southern South America. In the UK, the species has list of contextual questions, which are intended to assist
been cultivated in a number of gardens and arboreta practitioners in the process of balancing the many factors
since its introduction in 1849. In an attempt to evaluate that must be taken into account in collecting material of
the importance of this resource for ex situ conservation, threatened plant taxa (Guerrant et al., 2004a):
patterns of genetic variation were examined in 48 trees
from throughout the British Isles using molecular What purpose is the material intended to serve?
markers (Allnutt et al., 1998). All samples from the For example, many fewer propagules are needed to
cultivated trees of unknown origin, with one exception, develop germination and cultivation protocols, and the
were found to be genetically identical. This suggests that genetic considerations are very different from those for
virtually all of the F. cupressoides trees currently acquiring a genetically representative sample for long-
cultivated in the British Isles have been derived from a term storage or reintroduction.
single individual by vegetative propagation. Their value
for ex situ conservation is therefore likely to be extremely What material is available?
limited. In contrast, when the threatened Chilean vine What is the nature of the sampling universe (or the total
Berberidopsis corallina was examined in a similar way, number of plants that could potentially be sampled)?
the genetic variation within plants cultivated within Sample sizes appropriate for a species limited to one or
Britain was found to be comparable to that recorded in a few small populations are very different from those for
small natural populations (Ehtisham-Ul-Haq et al., 2001). a species known from 50 locations, each with a large
However, analyses suggested that only populations from population.
the northern part of the natural range of the species are Is seed storage an option, or must samples be
represented in cultivation. In a further example, patterns maintained as growing plants? It is generally much
of genetic variation were also examined in British ex situ easier and more economical to store large numbers of
populations of the threatened Chilean conifer seeds in a seed bank than it is to maintain fewer
Podocarpus salignus. Results provided evidence of actively growing plants in a botanic garden or other
novel hybridization with other species (P. hallii and P. non-native setting. However, depending on available
totara) that are endemic to New Zealand, but which are resources, seed storage may not necessarily be a
also present in the same arboreta (Allnut et al., 2001). realistic option, even for taxa with orthodox seeds.
What will it take to have enough material for use constraints in handling a species than by other
when needed, and is the benefit worth the cost? factors, so the total number generally is lower for
What sources and magnitude of attrition in a collection growing plants than for seed storage.
might be expected during storage and later use to
restore diversity to the wild? Not all propagules To develop reintroduction protocols, begin with the
collected will survive ex situ storage; indeed, some smallest collections necessary to address the
may be used to monitor their condition during storage, management questions being posed in the
and of those that survive, not all propagules planted experimental reintroductions.
out will successfully reproduce.
When is the short-term danger posed by collection To increase the probability of successfully
high enough to indicate that collection should be reintroducing self-sustaining populations of
spread over two or more years? In order for collection threatened plant species, collect from as large and
to be justified, the expected potential value of the diverse an array of suitable founders as is prudent,
sample must outweigh the short-term impact of given the sampling universe. Collect and maintain
collection. Under what circumstances might such separately seeds from each maternal line. Only in this
restrictions not apply and emergency salvage way can representation of the different founders be
collection be justified? known and controlled intentionally.
Based on an evaluation and revision of the CPC Collection for other purposes should be evaluated in
guidelines, Guerrant et al. (2004a) make the following light of their intrinsic estimated conservation value
recommendations: and in light of the cumulative impact of all collection
activities anticipated for those species and
For species with 50 or fewer populations, collect populations.
from as many populations as resources allow, up to
all 50. For species with more than 50 populations, If a species of conservation concern exists in ex situ
collect from as many populations as is practical, up collections, the survivorship, health, and genetic
to 50. For populations with 50 or fewer individuals, status of the off-site collections should be monitored.
collect from all known individuals; for populations To minimize genetic changes in ex situ conditions,
with more than 50 individuals, collect from 50. This emphasis should be placed on improving storage or
represents the ideal sample meant to serve the broad cultural conditions rather than or at least before
range of expected purposes, but it is recognised that additional wild collection.
in practice, and especially for very threatened
species, sample sizes will often be much smaller than
these benchmark guidelines.
For developing germination and propagation

protocols, or to determine seed storage behaviour,
use existing ex situ material if available. For extremely
rare taxa, it may be advisable to begin with pilot
studies using closely related but more common
congeners. If wild populations must be sampled,
begin with small collections from the largest and
most secure. Actual sample sizes should be
determined in consultation with those who will be
working with or who are familiar with the material
in question.
Maintain ex situ collections as dormant seed, if

possible. For seed storage, sample size is limited
mostly by available resources, such as the size of the
sampling universe, the impact of collection on wild
populations, and the technical capability to store
seeds for a long period of time. The limit for the Cibodas Botanic Garden and surrounding vegetation
number of growing plants is set more by the practical (Kemal Jufri)
To compensate for propagule mortality during

reintroduction, start with an estimate of desired Case study 12:
numbers of individuals surviving to reproduction in Propagation of Prumnopitys andina
a new founding population. Then, account for a south American conifer
expected losses during establishment. Some of
these calculated losses can be mitigated by Prumnopitys andina is an evergreen species of the
maintaining backup clonal material. Podocarpaceae that is native to Chile and Argentina.
It is considered Vulnerable in the wild. In general the
Less intense, frequent harvests of propagules are germination of podocarps is slow and unreliable.
expected to have lower impact on sampled A joint study between the UK Forestry Commission,
populations than more intense, infrequent harvests. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh and Universidad
To the degree possible, spread collection over two or Austral de Chile, Valdivia aimed to obtain as many
more years, especially for small populations. seedlings as possible from 1,270 fruits (female cones).
The fruits were from 12 different seed accessions
For populations of species with extremely low overall collected at 12 different locations in Chile. A secondary
numbers, particularly those that have 10 or fewer aim of the study was to increase germination rate,
reproductive individuals and a poor history of which was previously recorded to take up to four
recruitment or those that are known to be in years.
precipitous decline, collect up to 100 percent of seed
at the discretion of the permitted collector. Such A sequence was developed to raise seedlings within
collection levels assume that adequate facilities, one year. The steps involved were to completely
procedures, and resources are available to care for remove the fleshy sarcotesta; thoroughly wash the
the material and that such collections are part of a seed-coat; pretreat the imbibed seeds by incubating
more inclusive strategy that is endorsed by the them in moist peat and sand at daily alternating
appropriate regulatory authorities. temperatures of 10/15C for several months; carefully
cracking the seed coat in a vice and extracting the
When collecting plant material for ex situ conservation, embryo; culturing viable embryos on moist filter paper
it is also important to consider legal issues. Many at daily alternating temperatures of 20/30C (with
countries have legislation governing the collection of lights during the 30C phase); where necessary freeing
wild plant material particularly for species that are the cotyledons of all seedlings that became trapped in
threatened with extinction. It is necessary to check such the female gametophyte; transplanting seedlings to
legislation in the planning of any tree conservation conventional nursery conditions. The procedures were
project that involves taking material into an ex situ very effective but the seed cracking and embryo
collection. Always check with competent national extraction proved to be extremely time consuming and
authorities. In addition permission will be required from labour intensive. Extending the pretreatment period
land owners or land managers both for access to the was considered to be a likely alternative to the seed
land and removal of material from it. When planning to cracking.
work in an overseas country is important to be aware
that there may be different access rules to plant material This study formed part of an integrated conservation
for country nationals and foreigners, particularly if plant programme for threatened endemic forest species in
material may be exported. Some indigenous groups Chile which included research on the distribution,
have developed codes of practice for workers who wish conservation status, cultivation and genetic variation
to work on their lands. of threatened trees, the development of habitat
management plans for private land containing
The transfer of plant material between countries is threatened plants, developing the arboretum at
governed by various international Conventions. Certain Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia as an ex situ
tree species are covered by the provisions of CITES conservation centre and the provision of training in ex
(see Section 2.3, www.cites.org). Permits are required situ and in situ conservation methodologies.
for international trade in listed species. More broadly
the CBD has requirements for international transfer of Source: Gosling et al. (2005).
biodiversity under Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)
provisions. The principles of ABS are outlined in Annex
2. It is advisable to check the CBD website
(www.cbd.int) for information on national ABS laws.
Case Study 13: misting. After about four months the cuttings should
Propagation of Xanthocyparis vietnamensis have started to root, when they can then be potted on.
Xanthocyparis vietnamensis is a conifer that was Seed was brought over from Vietnam in 2010 and taken to
discovered in 1999 in the Bat Dai Son mountains of Ha the Forest Research Station at Alice Holt where they were x-
Giang Province in northern Vietnam, and is listed as rayed. This enabled selection of only the seeds that
Endangered by the IUCN Red List. Conservation action for appeared to be filled and healthy. The viable seed was
the species has been undertaken collaboratively by the stored in a domestic fridge at 4C. After five weeks of cold
Centre for Plant Conservation, Hanoi, Vietnam; Fauna & stratification the seeds were sown on April 4th 2011 into a
Flora International; International Conifer Conservation fine peat and bark mix (4:1 ratio) which was moistened
Programme, Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh; before sowing. Seeds were gently pushed into the compost
Bedgebury National Pinetum, UK; and Forest Research and then covered with a thin layer of coarse grit. The seed
Station, Alice Holt Lodge. trays were kept in a cool greenhouse and watered as
required. First germination occurred after 28 weeks on
The species was introduced into cultivation by the Royal October 19th 2011.
Botanic Gardens Edinburgh on the 17th November 2002
in the form of cutting material. Plants were subsequently Source: Dan Luscombe and Matt Parratt, Bedgebury
distributed to a few selected sites as part of the Arboretum
International Conifer Conservation Programme (Gardner,
2003) with Bedgebury National Pinetum being one of
them. Until recently propagation from seed had not been
attempted.
The most successful way to propagate Xanthocyparis

vietnamensis has been from semi-ripe heel cuttings
taken around November in the UK. The cuttings have a
much higher success rate if they are taken from younger
plants with lots of healthy foliage. The cuttings should
be about 10-15cm long and dipped in a semi-ripe rooting
hormone powder containing IBA. The cuttings are placed
in a tray making sure that the cuttings are close enough
together without touching one another, and placed on a
heated bench either under polythene or in a box and
misted. The cuttings should be kept from drying out by Xanthocyparis vietnamensis seedlings. (P. Drury)
4.3 Step 3: Plan and implement reintroduction can make a highly valuable contribution
reintroduction programme to the conservation of threatened species, when it is
successful. A key issue, therefore, is to identify the
Reintroduction refers to the placing of material of an lessons that can be learnt from both successes and
endangered species within its historic geographic failures. Falk et al. (1996) provide a comprehensive
range, in appropriate habitat. It can therefore be overview of plant reintroduction, including both
considered as a form of ecological restoration, which theoretical and practical aspects, and a number of
focuses on rescuing or recovering endangered species informative case studies. The reader is referred to this
(Armstrong and Seddon, 2008; Falk et al., 1996; authoritative source for further detail. Maschinski et al.
Maunder, 1992). Reintroduction of threatened plant (2012) present the CPC Best Reintroduction Practice
species can be very challenging, and has been the Guidelines, which provide additional detailed guidance.
subject of a high rate of failure, which has led some Further information is available from the IUCN, who
authors to question the overall value of the approach have also developed guidelines for plant reintroduction:
(Fahselt, 2007). On the other hand, as some of the case http://www.kew.org/conservation/RSGguidelines.html
studies presented in this manual illustrate,
4.3.1 Reintroduction strategy (iii) Propagate plant materials

Identify or develop cultivation protocols. Generally,
Kaye (2008) presents a concise step-by-step strategy standard horticultural techniques will be appropriate for
for guiding plant reintroductions, which emphasizes the propagating tree species; see the additional information
development and testing of hypotheses about factors presented below. Approaches used in forestry can also
that may affect success, allows for feedback through be very useful to successful propagation of tree species
adaptive management, and considers how success can in conservation projects.
be monitored and measured. This strategy is
summarized below (adapted from Kaye, 2008): (iv) Select appropriate site(s) for reintroduction
Logistical criteria include site ownership, access and
(i) Plan and set clear objectives management. Biological criteria include the need to
Identify a clear statement of objectives, for both state choose sites within historic geographic distribution,
and process, and for the short and long term. Many with appropriate environmental conditions (soil, climate,
conservation projects suffer from poorly defined altitude, aspect etc.), and where threats such as
objectives, and as a result, practical interventions can invasive species can be successfully managed. Small-
be poorly focused or ineffective. The identification of scale, pilot trials can be useful to help identify which
clear objectives also helps monitor progress. Also it is sites are most suitable.
important to obtain necessary permits.
(v) Prepare the site for plant establishment
(ii) Obtain source material for reintroduction There will typically be a need for some form of site
Collect seeds, cuttings, etc. from ex situ collections, preparation, such as clearing of competing vegetation.
such as seedbanks. Ensure that genetic diversity is Such vegetation may need to be cleared regularly,
maximised when deploying material, paying particular following outplanting, to avoid mortality of the young
attention to species that have a small neighbourhood tree. If present, the existing forest canopy may need to
or experience outbreeding depression. Also consider be manipulated (for example by thinning) to ensure that
the adaptive potential of the material to be planted. the light environment is appropriate for the species
Genetic material that has been obtained from plants concerned. Nurse plants may also help establishment of
growing in environmentally similar sites to the some species, particularly on highly degraded or dry
reintroduction site, in terms of soil, climate, altitude and sites. Protection from herbivory may be another key
latitude, is more likely to be adapted to local conditions. element of site preparation, for example through the use
Poorly adapted planting material is a major cause of of fencing or guards.
failure of reintroductions.
(vi) Conduct outplanting
Use a variety of outplanting and establishment
methods, and monitor their relative success, to help
inform future outplanting efforts. Consider implementing
outplanting as a designed experiment, to test
hypotheses about the factors influencing tree
establishment. This could involve manipulation of
factors such as existing vegetation cover, shade,
nutrient availability and herbivory. Monitor the
outplanting regularly, to replace plants that have died.
(viii) Employ adaptive management approaches

Adaptive management involves monitoring the results of
management interventions, and then using the results of
monitoring to guide future management activities. This
requires an effective monitoring programme to be
implemented. The cost of future monitoring needs to be
considered as part of the initial project planning. The
use of citizen scientists may be appropriate in some
cases. Further information on adaptive management is
Forest restoration at Brackenhurst Botanic Garden, presented below.
Kenya. (BGCI)
This study also revealed shortcomings of reintroduction

attempts:
insufficient monitoring following reintroduction

(usually ceasing after four years);
inadequate documentation, particularly for
reintroductions that are regarded as failures;
lack of understanding of the underlying reasons for
decline in existing plant populations;
overly optimistic evaluation of success based on
short-term results; and
poorly defined success criteria for reintroduction
projects.
These authors therefore conclude that the value of plant

reintroductions as a conservation tool could
be improved by: (1) an increased focus on species
biology; (2) using a higher number of transplants
(preferring seedlings rather than seeds); and (3) taking
better account of seed production and recruitment.
4.3.2 Propagation techniques
Problems in natural regeneration of rare and threatened

tree species may be one of the key factors in their decline.
Prunus sogdiana. (BGCI) Changes in population size and structure, for example as
a result of increasing isolation of individuals, may lead to
(ix) Communicate results to others decline in pollination and seed production. Loss of
It is important to communicate the results both pollinators can also be a critical issue. Frequently the
successes and failures to help guide reintroduction reasons for the lack of natural regeneration of tree species
efforts elsewhere. Consider ways to distribute findings are poorly understood. Propagation may therefore be
as soon as possible through networks and grey equally difficult. The horticultural skills and propagation
literature as well as publishing in refereed journals. research of botanic gardens are of great importance in
Increasingly, resources are being developed to foster both maintaining living collections and contributing to the
communication among practitioners, such as propagation of plant material for restoration in the wild.
http://www.conservationevidence.com/ Despite the difficulties in propagation, there is usually a
method that will succeed, and all attempts are worth
Godefroid et al. (2011) provide a very useful recent recording for species of conservation significance. There
review of plant reintroductions, from which some is a wide range of general publications on propagation
additional lessons can be learned. Results indicated techniques (see, for example MacDonald (2000) and Dirr
that survival, flowering and fruiting rates of reintroduced and Heuser (2006) for temperate trees and Longman
plants were generally rather low (on average 52%, 19% (2002-2003) for tropical species). In addition the
and 16%, respectively). A number of factors were International Plant Propagators Society is a rich source of
identified that positively influence plant reintroduction information. As noted by Blythe (2007) available
outcomes: information should always be viewed as a starting point,
rather than a strict protocol, as propagation requirements
working in protected sites, of a species can vary from place to place.
using seedlings, Experimentation is therefore a key activity in propagation.
increasing the number of reintroduced individuals, Information on propagation of a particular species from
mixing material from diverse populations, other botanic gardens is also worth considering. BGCIs
using transplants from stable source populations, PlantSearch database allows you to contact all gardens
site preparation or management effort, and holding records of a species in cultivation. An expanded
knowledge of the genetic variation of the target bibliography of references on the propagation of tree
species. species can be found at http://www.bgci.org.
The method of propagation, whether in a botanic and available resources (e.g., online search engines for
garden or local field nursery, will depend on the nature published and unpublished literature, etc.) to determine
and amount of tree material available and the availability if information is available on specific species of interest
of equipment and technical resources. The preferred (or related genera) that may inform decisions about
option for propagation of rare and threatened trees is propagation. For the many unique plant species that
from seed, helping to ensure that sufficient genetic botanic gardens curate, the expertise and facilities they
variation is present in the established population. Other maintain are invaluable when developing protocols for
options include vegetative propagation, propagation new and understudied species. Indeed, they may hold
from cuttings, micropropagation and grafting. the only propagation knowledge for a number of
Describing the protocols involved with these different threatened tree species, and there is a need to capture
types of propagation for different species is beyond the and make this information more widely accessible so
scope of this document, but summary information is that it can be used to support conservation and
presented in Table 2. Before work begins on any new restoration work.
species, it is important to consult with potential partners
Table 2. Overview of some propagation techniques used with tree species
Seed propagation: Seed germination requirements Grafting, joining two plants or parts of plants together
vary wildly depending on the species and the seed to enhance growth, is used to propagate plants that
conditions. Some seeds that appear ripe suffer from are difficult to reproduce by other means. A graft
immature embryos (e.g. Ilex, Magnolia spp.) and require consists of the scion and understock. The scion is a
a considerable after-ripening period (usually in warm short stem piece with two or more buds that will
temperatures) before the seed will germinate (Dirr & develop into the upper shoot of the plant. If the scion
Heuser, 2006). Germination rates are affected by factors is reduced to a single bud attached to a thin wood
such as the time of collection, cleaning procedures, slice the technique is known as bud grafting or
storage, moisture content of the seed and various budding. The understock also known as the rootstock
treatments given to induce germination. If enough seed or stock is the lower part that becomes the root
is available it is helpful to try various treatments system. Generally the chances of success in grafting
including combinations of warm and cold stratification. improve if the two plants are closely related
At the Morris Arboretum, all seeds that need taxonomically. Where two plants cannot be grafted
stratification are placed in plastic bags in moist perlite. they are said to be incompatible.
This allows the seed to uptake water but prevents
rotting (Dillard, 2005). Micropropagation involves growing plants from seed
or small pieces of tissue under sterile conditions on
Vegetative propagation: Woody plants can be specially selected growth media. This has been
propagated from leaf cuttings (including a leaf blade, immensely useful in plant conservation for the past
petiole and short piece of stem with the axillary bud). thirty years or so. Challenges include obtaining
More typically stem cuttings are used, categorised as appropriate material for propagation, for example that
softwood (emerging shoots), semi-hardwood derived from outdoor plants may be difficult to
(reasonably firm summer growth) and hardwood (last disinfect, prior to placing them in sterile culture. Once
seasons growth). Cuttings taken from the current established in culture, some species produce
seasons growth are typically 10-15 cm long with three phenolic compounds as a wound response and these
or four leaves retained and trimmed to reduce surface inhibit growth. To overcome this problem the tissue
area. Basal wounding prior to hormone application can needs to be transferred to fresh medium every four
be undertaken to improve rooting. After hormone weeks. Induction of roots can be challenging but can
application, cuttings are usually inserted into a flat or be enhanced by the appropriate application of auxins
propagator filled with a porous medium, and maintained (Tubesing, 1998).
at high humidity (Tubesing, 1998). Cuttings derived from
juvenile material (e.g. vegetative resprouts from cut
stems) may display higher rooting potential than those
derived from the shoots of mature trees.
Case study 14: The limited seed production in the wild is further
Propagation of endangered Sorbus spp. constrained by insect predation and climatic factors.
in Scotland Chip budding was trialled as an alternative as it requires
the collection of only a small amount of vegetative
There are currently 19 endemic species of Sorbus material. Again with appropriate permission, a twig with
(whitebeam) considered to be at risk of extinction in the several buds was removed from the wild tree of S.
UK (with 11 included in the IUCN Red List). The Isle of pseudomeinichii in August 2007. The following day buds
Arran off the south-west coast of Scotland has three were grafted onto Sorbus aucuparia rootstocks. To do
endemic species: Sorbus arranensis; S. pseudofennica this, a chip of bark was removed from the rootstock and
and S. pseudomeinichii. The latter has only been recently replaced by a chip from the bud-stick that contained a
discovered and is known only from one individual in the bud. Both chips were cut to expose the cambium layer.
wild. This single tree has now been fenced to prevent Grafting tape was used to seal the cut edges and hold the
further grazing damage and offer the potential for seed chip bud in place. The buds united after one month and
germination. Ex situ collections for the three Critically after growth was well established the top of the rootstock
Endangered species have been established at the Royal was cut off above the scion growth. The final step in chip
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Seed propagation and budding was to separate the growing scion from the
vegetative propagation by chip budding have been mother plant.
successfully carried out. Initially seeds were collected to
establish the ex situ collections. Permission was obtained The ex situ collections of the three endemic whitebeams
from Scottish Natural Heritage to collect fruit of all of Arran maintained at Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh
species. Unfortunately although S. pseudomeinichii are providing an insurance policy against loss of plants
seemed to be fruiting well, most of the seed were found in the wild and duplicates will be distributed to other
to be damaged by insects or pathogen infection. gardens. They will also be used to understand the
requirements for cultivation and propagation of these
Following collection, seed of S. pseudomeinichii were extremely rare species and for training students in
extracted from the fruit and rinsed under tap water. Ten practical conservation techniques.
seeds were sown in individual RootrainersTM with one
seed per cell. Seeds were not pre-treated. They were Source: McHaffie, Frachon and Robertson (2011).
sown in propriety seed compost and top-dressed with
flint grit. Of the ten seeds, one germinated in June 2007
producing a vigorous sapling of 50 cm by August 2011.
4.3.3 Site selection a recipient site that is similar, in terms of its

environmental characteristics, to locations where
The choice of an appropriate site on which to establish the species is thriving.
tree species is a particularly important part of the
reintroduction process. Foresters appreciate the Try to imagine the future conditions that the reintroduced
importance of correct species-site matching when population will face. Ongoing management and threat
establishing plantation forests, and the same principles abatement are essential for maintaining conditions
are relevant in a conservation context. If a species is not conducive to maintaining viable populations.
established on an ecologically appropriate site, then the
risks of failure will be high. Consider landscape-level processes. Think about any
recipient site in the context of the species broader
Maschinski et al. (2012) provide the following guidance distribution. A reintroduced population can serve an
in this context: important function of connecting existing populations by
forming a stepping stone between them, or by expanding
A number of factors influence a species ability to the extent of existing populations. Evaluating the
colonize a new site, including appropriate soil and landscape from the perspectives of topography,
climatic conditions, availability of associated species, ecosystem dynamics, and patterns of possible restoration
and ongoing management to address threats. Review trajectories will help determine the locations with greatest
what is known about a proposed recipient site. Seek likelihood of sustaining a reintroduced population.
Case study 15: develop incompletely, which will lead to a greatly reduced
Seed propagation of threatened germination rate. After collection, the aggregate fruits
Magnolia spp. should be placed in a shaded and cool place for drying,
to let the follicles dehisce and the seeds fall out.
Magnolias have large seeds that are relatively easy to
collect and they have simple dormancy, most temperate To remove the sarcotesta of seeds collected for
species requiring a moist-chilling period of two to three propagation, it is recommended to soak them in water for
months at approximately 5C to promote germination. more than three days, then squeeze the seeds and rub
The seeds are recalcitrant, losing viability rapidly under them against a sieve. The treated clean seeds may either
dry storage. be sowed in a greenhouse at once or stored over the
winter and sowed in the spring. In tropical and southern
The South China Botanic Garden has a rich collection of subtropical regions, the seeds of M. longipedunculata
Magnolias that includes specimens of ten Critically are usually sowed as soon as they are collected. In the
Endangered and thirteen Endangered Chinese species. north, the seeds are usually stored through winter and
Botanists from the Garden are studying the ecology and sowed in spring. Proper cold treatment and storage must
conservation status of a range of Magnolia species in the be employed. The seeds should be stored in clean, moist
wild, as a basis for conservation and reintroduction. One river-sands, and kept in a cool and shaded place. The
species being conserved is the recently discovered seeds should be rinsed in a fungicide or chlorine bleach
Magnolia longipedunculata, first described in 2004. solution prior to bagging to protect them against
Growing in evergreen forests in Guangdong, recent field diseases. The results of germination experiments show
surveys in three counties of the Province have identified that the best temperature for the germination of M.
only a single population of 11 mature M. longipedunculata seeds is 20-25oC and the germination
longipedunculata specimens and the species is is inhibited when the temperature is 30oC or below 10oC.
considered to be Critically Endangered. The duration from seed sowing to its germination usually
lasts 25-30 days. The process of germination lasts 12-15
In order to improve the germination rate, one of the most days from start to completion.
important issues is to collect the fruits at the appropriate
time. If the seeds are collected too early, they will Source: Zeng Quingwen
Fruit of Magnolia longipedunculata. (Zeng Qingwen)

To account for uncertainty, incorporate heterogeneity

into the reintroduction plan. Use multiple sites and
multiple microsites to test heterogeneity of conditions
needed for successful growth and survival of all life
stages of a species.
Because the fine-scale needs of tree species are

often unknown, using microsites as an experimental
factor is good practice. Measure abiotic conditions
(e.g. soil, precipitation, temperature) and biotic
conditions (e.g. presence of herbivores, mutualists,
invasive species) at the reintroduction site that are
associated with plant growth and reproduction.
Ensure that there are adequate areas for population
expansion (e.g. microsites are available within the
recipient site and adjacent suitable habitat is
available outside of the recipient site). If
environments conducive to positive population
growth are rare or nonexistent, additional
management activities, beyond simply reintroducing
young plants, will be necessary.
4.3.4 Adaptive management
As noted above, whichever tree conservation approach

is adopted, adaptive management techniques should be
employed. Particularly useful resources on this topic
have been developed by Foundations of Success (FOS),
a not-for-profit organization committed to improving the
practice of conservation through the process of
adaptive management. A number of information
resources are accessible from their website
(http://fosonline.org/); see Margoluis and Salafsky (1998)
and Salfasky et al. (2001, 2002). This brief account is
based on these sources, which should be consulted for
more details (see also Newton, 2007).
Adaptive management can be defined as the integration

of design, management and monitoring to
systematically test assumptions in order to adapt and
learn. It also offers a method by which research can be
incorporated into conservation action. The approach
includes the following elements:
Testing assumptions. This involves systematically

trying different management actions to achieve a
desired outcome. This depends on first thinking
about the situation at the specific project site,
developing a specific set of assumptions about what Cercocarpus traskiae. (A. Kramer)
is occurring and considering what actions could be
taken to affect these events. These actions are then
implemented and the results are monitored to assess
how they compare to the ones predicted at the
outset, on the basis of the assumptions.
Case study 16: Cercocarpus betuloides var. blancheae which occurs on

Santa Catalina Island mountain-mahogany adjacent land that is underlain by Catalina blue schist.
(Cercocarpus traskiae). Additional past and present threats include predation
and habitat disruption from non-native mammals (goats
The Santa Catalina Island mountain-mahogany eliminated from the island in 2003, pigs nearly
(Cercocarpus traskiae) is a small, broad-leaved, eliminated by 2007, bison, and mule deer), fire, and non-
evergreen tree in the rose family (Rosaceae) that grows native invasive plant species.
on saussurite gabbro substrate in a single canyon (Wild
Boar Gully) on the west side of Santa Catalina Island, Los Currently, there is no federal or state mandated recovery
Angeles County, California. It is widely cited as plan for Cercocarpus traskiae. Should genetic analysis of
Californias rarest native tree, and most consider it to be the Santa Monica Mountains population and of the living
the rarest native tree in the continental United States specimens in cultivation reveal additional pure
(Wallace et al., 2007). When this species was first individuals with alleles not present in the wild population
discovered by Blanche Trask in March of 1897, there was on Santa Catalina Island, vegetative propagules from
an estimated population of 40 to 50 individuals. these plants could be reintroduced to the island
Currently, in the wild on Santa Catalina Island, there are population. However, due to the geographically
six known pure Santa Catalina Island mountain- restricted habitat and the limited gene pool of the
mahogany plants, five plants of hybrid origin, and species, the future prospects for this species will
numerous seedlings. A suspected seventh pure mature continue to be of critical concern.
individual was found in 2008 in the Wild Boar Gully
watershed. There is a small population of plants from the The species has been successfully propagated
Santa Monica Mountains (on the mainland in Los Angeles vegetatively. The best results from cultivated clonal
County) that need further testing to determine their plants (grown from cuttings from the wild) growing
relationship to Cercocarpus traskiae. at Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden in Claremont
California that have been recorded are: (i) 26 softwood
There is also a living cultivated specimen at the tip cuttings were wounded and treated with 10% DipN
University of Californias Blake Estate in Kensington, Grow and were inserted in a plastic nursery flat of
California that was reportedly collected by Willis Linn compacted perlite. (ii) 45 firm tip cuttings were wounded
Jepson in the early 1900s, and should its identity be and treated with 20% DipN Grow and were struck in a
confirmed, it may further expand the gene pool for this plastic nursery flat of compacted perlite on December 18,
rare species. Additional living specimens are known from 1997. Both of these approaches led to high success rates.
the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden (Claremont,
California), the Regional Parks Botanic Garden (in Tilden Plants have been grown from wild collected seed of
Regional Park, Berkeley, California), the Santa Barbara Cercocarpus traskiae at Rancho Santa Ana Botanic
Botanic Garden (Santa Barbara, California), the San Garden on very few occasions. The most successful group
Francisco Botanical Garden at Strybing Arboretum (San of seedlings of wild origin was raised in 1969 from seed
Francisco, California), and the University of California collected and sown in 1968. In this case, a trace amount
Botanical Garden at Berkeley. Plants grown from seeds of seed (less than one-eighth ounce) was sown in a
from the type specimen were reported and documented mixture of loam, peat moss, perlite, and sphagnum on
as growing in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco and in October 9, 1968 that was then placed in a refrigerator at
Mill Valley (Marin County) in the 1930s, though it is not 38 oF until they were removed to ambient conditions on
known if any of these specimens (or their progeny) are November 20, 1968. From this test, a total of 23 seedlings
still alive (Everett 1957, RSABG Herbarium specimens were potted up in 1969 into successively larger
6211, 7480, 15457). containers.
Cercocarpus traskiae was listed under the California Source: Bart C. OBrien, Rancho Santa Ana Botanic
Endangered Species Act as Endangered by the State of Garden, Claremont, California; see also Wallace et al.
California in 1982, and was listed as Endangered on (2007).
August 8, 1997 under the Federal Endangered Species
Act. On Santa Catalina Island, Cercocarpus traskiae is
threatened by hybridization with another species,
Adaptation. If the expected results were not 4.4. Step 4: Develop and implement longer
obtained, then the assumptions were wrong, the term conservation strategy
actions were poorly executed, the conditions at the
project site have changed or the monitoring was The successful reintroduction of trees into the wild will
faulty. Adaptation involves changing assumptions not necessarily guarantee their long-term survival.
and interventions in response to the information To achieve this, development and implementation of
obtained as a result of monitoring. This is the defining a long-term conservation strategy is required. This will
feature of adaptive management. typically require long-term commitment and support
from a range of partners, including the landowners or
Learning. This refers to the process of systematically local communities on whose land the tree populations
documenting the management process, and the are present. Such a strategy will need to address the
results achieved. This helps avoid repeating the same threatening process or factors responsible for the
mistakes in the future. decline in the species of interest. Without an effective
diagnosis of these threats, conservation will ultimately
The adaptive management process typically involves six be unsuccessful, and therefore some suggestions are
steps (Figure 2). provided below for identification of threats. A further
Figure 2. The adaptive management

process (from Salafsky et al. 2001).
The starting point of the cycle
C
Develop a involves identifying the overall
monitoring plan mission. Step A involves assessing
to test your the conditions and determining the
D assumptions B major threats to biodiversity at the

Develop a project site. Using a conceptual
Implement
management management plan model, the project team defines
& monitoring that maximizes relations between key threats, other
plans results & factors and elements of biodiversity
learning at the project site. Step B involves
using this model to develop a project
management plan that outlines the
E A results that the project team would
Analyze data Design an
like to accomplish and the specific
& communicate explicit model of
actions that will be undertaken to
results your system
reach them. Step C involves
developing a monitoring plan for
assessing progress. Step D involves
Start Iterate implementing the management
Clarify groups Use results to actions and monitoring plan.
mission adapt & learn Step E involves analysing the data
collected during monitoring and
communicating this information to
the appropriate audiences.
Results of this analysis are used to
change the project and learn how to
improve it in the future. Based on
feedback information, there may be
a need to modify the conceptual
model, management plan, or
monitoring plan.
effects on biodiversity can be either negative or positive,

whereas the term threat implies only negative impacts.
However, it should be remembered that different authors
interpret these terms in different ways. Salafsky et al.
(2002) list many of the most widespread threats to
biodiversity.
Robinson (2005) identifies the following main methods

of assessing threats:
Conceptual modelling, used to illustrate the relation

between threats and their impacts, and for providing
a strategic framework for identifying appropriate
management interventions. Such approaches can be
implemented very simply, for example by producing a
diagram that illustrates the main features of an
ecological system and how they are interconnected.
This can then be used to explore the potential
Community involvement in tree conservation. (BGCI) impacts of different threats on the system.
point is that species may be dependent on a range of Threat matrices. Matrices can vary from simple
other species for their survival, including those involved tables to complex logical frameworks linking different
in pollination, seed dispersal, and maintenance of a threats and interventions to conservation targets.
suitable growing environment. It may therefore be Matrices are relatively simple to implement and can
necessary to consider reintroductions of threatened readily be updated, but their dependence on
species as just one element of an approach that aims to subjective information is a weakness. An example of
restore entire ecological communities or ecosystems. a threat matrix is illustrated in Table 3.
Some information on such approaches is also provided
below. Participatory threat mapping, which can involve
use of pictorial maps or diagrams to elicit information
4.4.1 Identification of threats about changes in forest habitat quality or quantity, or
the status of individual species, when working with
Effective conservation depends strongly on a full community groups.
appreciation of the causes of biodiversity loss. Yet
identifying such threats or threatening processes often GIS-based mapping, incorporating quantitative
receives surprisingly little attention from either spatial data. Direct threats, such as habitat
conservation managers or researchers. There is fragmentation, can be assessed and displayed by
enormous scope for improving methods for assessing using GIS. Spatial or statistical models of land cover
threats and diagnosing their impacts, and improving the change can be used to explore and illustrate the
quality of information available to support practical potential impacts of different threats on forest extent,
conservation management (Newton, 2007). However, structure and composition.
identifying the precise causes of decline in the
abundance of a particular species can often be Wilson et al. (2005) provide a detailed review of the
surprisingly difficult. concept of vulnerability in conservation planning, noting
that information on threatening processes and the
Different types of threat may be identified. Direct threats relative vulnerability of areas and features to these
are those that are directly responsible for loss or threats pervades the planning process. Pressey et al.
degradation of forests, or their associated biodiversity. (1996) defined vulnerability as the likelihood or
Indirect threats are the underlying causes of such direct imminence of biodiversity loss to current or impending
threats. For example, an underlying threat such as a threatening processes. Wilson et al. (2005) extend this
government policy may be responsible for the direct definition by distinguishing three dimensions of
threat of forest conversion to agriculture. Other terms vulnerability, exposure, intensity, and impact, and
used to describe threats include drivers or pressures; provide the following information regarding their
these terms may be preferred because they imply that measurement:
Exposure can be measured either as the probability As noted by Wilson et al. (2005), a comprehensive
of a threatening process affecting an area over a assessment of vulnerability would consider all of the
specified time, or the expected time until an area is threats affecting an area and also include the dynamic
affected. Exposure is commonly measured responses of threats to conservation actions.
categorically, for example as high, medium, or Combining vulnerability scores for multiple threats can
low suitability for agriculture, but has also been be achieved by differentially weighting threats to reflect
measured on continuous scales by some authors. their relative importance, ideally informed by their
Maps can be produced illustrating the relative respective impacts. It should also be remembered that
exposure of different areas to a particular threat. risk analysis and hazard assessment are widely
practiced by foresters, and a substantial literature exists
Intensity measures might include magnitude, on this topic, which could potentially be of value in a
frequency, and duration of the threat. Examples conservation context (Newton, 2007). Some methods
include livestock density, volume of timber extracted used as a basis for assessing risk are described briefly
per hectare of a forest type, or the density of an below for some of the most important types of
invasive plant species. Intensity can also be disturbance (after Newton, 2007).
estimated categorically, and can be mapped across
whole planning areas. Fire. Forest fire risk is generally assessed by identifying
the potentially contributing variables and integrating
Impact refers to the effects of a threatening process them into a mathematical expression or index. The
on particular features such as the distribution, index is used to indicate the level of risk, and can be
abundance, or likelihood of persistence of a species mapped. A wide variety of different approaches are
of interest. For example, logging is likely to have a used to produce such indices, which vary particularly
much greater impact on those species of high timber in terms of the timescales involved. Estimates of the
value than on other species that are not directly probability of fire occurrence are typically based on
targeted during harvesting. Impact might also variables such as the amount and type of fuel available
depend on the spatial pattern of the threatening for burning, topographic variables, vegetation
process, for example on the degree of connectivity characteristics and meteorological variables.
between forest patches retained after logging
operations. Wind. A number of different approaches to analysing
and modelling windthrow risk have been developed.
As conservation planning is generally spatial, a key Statistical models use empirical information on
issue is whether vulnerability can be mapped, and damage collated over a number of years in selected
therefore integrated with other spatial information such areas, whereas deterministic models consider tree or
as forest cover, boundaries of management units etc. stand characteristics and the windiness of a site or
According to Wilson et al. (2005), this requires mapping the critical wind speed.
of spatial predictions of the future distribution of
threatening processes. Maps of exposure can be based Herbivory. The determination of browsing damage
on the current distributions of threats and knowledge of on forest regeneration at a given time can be used to
variables that could predispose areas or features to forecast impacts in the future, for example when the
those threats. For example, the likelihood of forest timber is harvested or when the function of the forest
conversion to agriculture is often related to the is seen to have been compromised. The effects of
suitability of the soil for agricultural crops, topography, browsing and the resulting damage can be decades
and proximity to infrastructure or population centers. apart. In order to estimate the long-term impacts of
Impact is the most difficult dimension of vulnerability to browsing, indicators may need to be specified for
map, as this may require feature-specific information on young forest stands at the time when top-twig
the effects of different levels of intensity, spatial browsing is no longer possible. Ultimately the risk of
information on features relative to variations in intensity, damage by herbivores is a function of animal
and ways of integrating this information across behaviour, something that is difficult to predict but is
assemblages of species, sets of vegetation types, also an active area of research.
or other groups of features (Wilson et al. 2005).
Deforestation. Research has indicated that

deforestation can be related to a range of factors,
such as population density, population growth,
agricultural expansion, income levels and amount
of timber harvesting. Typically, deforestation is
assessed by comparing the forest cover at different
times by means of remote sensing images. The
factors responsible for deforestation, such as
proximity to roads or towns, can then be analysed
statistically.
Wuhan Botanic Garden. (BGCI)
Activity Extent Impact Permanence Degree Description and rationale
Harvesting Localized Mild Short term 1 Harvesting primarily involves collection of nuts
(1) (1) (1) for consumption by local residents. Harvesting
occurs near an adjacent village, and harvesters
generally leave large areas undisturbed.
Road Scattered Moderate Medium term 8 A road is planned through a portion of a

(2) (2) (2) protected area. The actual impact of
construction will be minimized by using
environmental best practices. It is a gravel
access road, and will only be used seasonally
by park staff and visitors with permits.
Tourism Localized High Short term 9 Tourists have recently begun to drive
(3) (3) (1) motorized, off-road vehicles through sensitive
forest areas. Tourists footwear and recreational
devices can introduce invasive species
including fungal diseases.
Poaching Widespread High Medium term 18 Animal species that play a crucial role in
(3) (3) (2) the dispersal and colonisation of tree species
are being poached.
Alien species Widespread High Long term 27 Invasive alien species (such as Hedychium,
(3) (3) (3) wild ginger) are spreading through the
forest, limiting seeding establishment for
native trees.
Dam building Throughout Severe Permanent 64 There is a large-scale hydro-electric dam

(4) (4) (4) planned that would flood at least half of the
protected area.
Table 3. Example of a simple method of scoring the different pressures or threats affecting a forest area (modified from
Ervin, 2003). Here, different human activities have been scored on a simple scale with respect to three variables:
extent, impact and permanence. Extent is the area across which the impact of the activity occurs. Impact is the
degree, either directly or indirectly, to which the threat affects overall forest resources. Permanence is the length of time
needed for the affected area to recover with or without human intervention. A combined score (Degree) has been
produced by multiplying the individual scores together.
4.4.2 Ecological restoration approaches represents a significant departure from such approaches
(Table 4). The development and application of FLR has
Chazdon (2008) provides a recent overview of the become a major activity of the WWF and the IUCN Forest
ecological restoration of forests, highlighting the Programmes, and is further supported by development of
progress being made in many countries towards the Global Partnership on Forest Landscape Restoration
reversing recent forest loss and degradation. Some (http://www.ideastransformlandscapes.org/), which now
initiatives have been highly successful, such as the Area involves more than 25 organizations. Further details of
de Conservacin in Guanacaste in Costa Rica and the the FLR approach are provided by Lamb and Gilmour
Auroville project in India, which have restored native (2003), Mansourian et al. (2005), Rietbergen-McCracken
forest over extensive areas. However, many restoration et al. (2007), Newton and Tejedor (2011) and Newton
projects have faced significant challenges, such as the et al. (2012).
difficulty of addressing multiple threats and of
overcoming severe ecological degradation. Different approaches to forest restoration vary in terms
of their relative cost, their benefits to biodiversity and
One approach of particular value is Forest Landscape their potential impact on provision of other ecological
Restoration (FLR). The concept of FLR was first services, such as water regulation and nutrient cycling
developed by WWF and IUCN in response to the (Table 5). In general, the preferred method will be to
widespread failure of more traditional approaches to allow the forest to recover naturally through a process
forest restoration. Such traditional approaches have often of succession (passive restoration). For such
been site-based, and typically focused on one or a few successional recovery to occur, the following conditions
forest products, relied heavily on tree planting of a limited must be met (Lamb and Gilmour, 2003):
number of species, and failed to address the root causes
of forest loss and degradation (Dudley et al., 2005). FLR The disturbing agent or agents must be removed.
If disturbances such as uncontrolled fire, timber
harvesting or grazing continue, succession is
interrupted and recovery is unlikely.
Plants and animals must remain at the site or in

the region as a source of new colonists, and must be
able to move across the landscape and recolonize
the degraded area. The more distant these source
populations are, the slower the recolonization
process. Potentially, connecting habitat fragments or
stepping stones can increase the rate of the
recovery process. This is an argument for planning
forest restoration at the landscape scale.
Soils at the site must remain reasonably intact.

If severe erosion has taken place or if fertility has
been depleted the soils may no longer be suitable
for the original species, and other species (perhaps
not native to the area) may come to dominate.
Weed species, invasive exotic species or animal

pests must be excluded or controlled if the original
community is to be re-established successfully.
In some situations the forest may be so degraded that

natural recovery will be very limited. In such situations
there may be a need to establish trees artificially,
through methods such as direct seeding or planting of
tree seedlings (Table 5). Key decisions that will need to
(Brent Stirton/Getty images/WWF UK) be made include (Newton, 2007):
What should the spatial distribution and relative

abundance of planted trees be? Field surveys of Case study 17:
soil characteristics and topographic variation across Native trees and shrubs for forest
the site to be restored, together with autoecological restoration in Madagascar
information about the tree species selected, can be
used to ensure that species are correctly matched to Forest restoration is underway at various scales in
the microsites on which they are to be established. Madagascar to increase forest connectivity, enhance
If the aim is to mimic natural forest structures, then protected areas, restore mine sites and restore habitat
spacing of trees should be irregular, and individuals for individual species. Production and plantation of
of each species should be grouped. young plants requires significant investment and
would benefit from increased exchange of information
How should planting stock be sourced? For native between different projects to improve likelihood of
forest establishment to be successful, planting success. Missouri Botanical Garden is working with a
material should be well adapted to the site conditions, local NGO, Fikambanana Miaro ny Sohisika eto
and therefore local sources should be used. Tampoketsana (FMST), and other partners to study,
conserve and expand the Ankafobe Forest, which
How much of the area should be forested? Open contains much of the remaining population of the
spaces within forest areas can be important as Critically Endangered tree Schizolaena tampoketsana.
wildlife habitat, and therefore as much as 30%-40%
of an area may be left unplanted initially, both to The Ankafobe Forest area consists of fragments of humid
provide long-term open space and to provide areas evergreen forest surrounded by anthropogenic
for future tree establishment by natural regeneration grassland. Fire breaks and patrols are used to promote
or planting. natural regeneration of the forest and active restoration
is being undertaken using young plants of native shrubs
Another key issue is the need to monitor restoration and trees. In January 2008, seedlings from 19 species
progress, ideally as part of an adaptive management were planted. The species used were those for which
cycle (see Section 4.3.4). Many restoration projects ripe seed samples could be collected during the previous
neglect this important aspect. Once restoration targets or two years. The seedlings had been raised in an outdoor
management goals have been identified, indicators will nursery established by the project in the local village of
need to be developed to help track progress towards Firarazana. The nursery consists of shaded propagation
these goals. As a minimum, there will be a need to beds constructed of local wood with bamboo culms to
monitor the size and structure of the populations of provide shade. The seeds were cleaned by removing
reintroduced tree species, but the monitoring process from the fruit and washing, with damaged seeds
might usefully be extended to include variables such as discarded. They were sown immediately in compost
natural regeneration of young trees, extent of forest cover, consisting of one third well-rotted manure, one third river
presence of pollinators and seed dispersers, etc. Newton sand and one third top soil from the forest. When the
(2007) provides a comprehensive overview of techniques seedlings had at least one real leaf they were
that can be used for monitoring of forest ecosystems. transplanted into polyethylene pots containing compost
and grown in shaded nursery beds. They were gradually
habituated to light and planted out when between 8-20
months old. They were planted early in the wet season
on upper valley slopes of wooded grassland that was
formerly forest. Each seedling was planted in a large hole
where well-rotted manure had been mixed with the soil.
Four to ten seedlings from each species were selected
randomly for monitoring and marked with numbered
stakes. The native species planted out in 2008 showed
considerable variation in survival and growth rates
highlighting the benefits of conducting species trials as
part of forest restoration.
Source: Birkinshaw et al. (2009)

Tooro Botanical Garden involving the community.
(BGCI)
Table 4. Elements of Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR); from Mansourian (2005).
Forest landscape retoration is implemented at a It involves identifying and negotiating tradeoffs.

landscape scale rather than a single site - that is to In relation to the above point, when a consensus
say, planning for forest restoration is done in the cannot be reached, different interest groups need
context of other elements: social, economic, and to negotiate and agree on what may seem like a
biological, in the landscape. This does not less than optimal solution if taken from one
necessarily imply planting trees across an entire perspective, but a solution that when taken from
landscape but rather strategically locating forests the whole groups perspective can be acceptable
and woodlands in areas that are necessary to to all.
achieve an agreed set of functions (e.g. habitat for
a specific species, soil stabilization, provision of It places the emphasis not only on forest quantity
building materials for local communities). but also on forest quality. Decision-makers often
think predominantly about the area of trees to be
It has both a socioeconomic and an ecological planted when considering restoration, yet often
dimension. People who have a stake in the state of improving the quality of existing forests can yield
the landscape are more likely to engage positively bigger benefits for a lower cost.
in its restoration.
It aims to restore a range of forest goods, services,
It implies addressing the root causes of forest loss and processes, rather than forest cover per se. It is
and degradation. Restoration can sometimes be not just the trees themselves that are important,
achieved simply by removing whatever caused the but often all of the accompanying elements that go
loss of forest in the first place (such as perverse with healthy forests, such as nutrient cycling, soil
incentives and grazing animals). This also means stabilization, medicinal and food plants, forest
that without removing the cause of forest loss and dwelling animal species, etc. Including the full
degradation, any restoration effort is likely to be range of potential benefits in the planning process
in vain. makes the choice of restoration technique,
locations, and tree species much more focused.
It opts for a package of solutions. There is no It also allows more flexibility for discussions on
single restoration technique that can be applied to tradeoffs with different stakeholders, by providing
all situations. In each case a number of elements a diversity of values rather than just one or two.
need to be covered, but how to do that depends
on the local conditions. The package may include Forest landscape restoration goes beyond
practical techniques, such as agroforestry, establishing forest cover per se. Its aim is to
enrichment planting, and natural regeneration at achieve a landscape containing valuable forests,
a landscape scale, but also embraces policy for instance partly to provide timber, partly mixed
analysis, training and research. with subsistence crops to raise yields and protect
the soils, as well as partly improving biodiversity
It involves a range of stakeholders in planning and habitat and increasing the availability of
decision-making to achieve a solution that is subsistence goods.
acceptable and therefore sustainable. The decision
of what to aim for in the long term when restoring a
landscape should ideally be made through a
process that includes representatives of different
interest groups in the landscape in order to reach,
if not a consensus, at least a compromise that is
acceptable to all.
Aloe dichotoma (SANBI)
Method Relative direct cost Relative rate of Potential ecological

biodiversity gain services benefit
(a) Prime focus of biodiversity restoration
Passive restoration low slow high
Enrichment planting lowmedium slowmedium high
Direct seeding lowmedium medium high
Scattered plantings low slow medium
Close plantings of a few species medium medium high
Intensive plantings after mining high fast high
(b) Prime focus on productivity and biodiversity
Managing secondary forests lowmedium medium high
Enrichment plantings low-medium medium mediumhigh
Agroforestry mediumhigh medium mediumhigh
Monoculture plantations with buffers high slow medium
Mosaics of monocultures high slow lowmedium
Mixed species plantations high slow medium
Enhanced understorey development low slow mediumhigh
Table 5. Relative costs and benefits of various methods of overcoming forest degradation (from Lamb and Gilmour, 2003)
4.4.3 Implementing a long-term integrated

conservation strategy
Sutherland (2000) provides a valuable account of the

elements of successful conservation strategies, which
are relevant to the integrated approaches considered
here. Such elements include (Sutherland, 2000):
Development of effective conservation plans.

Many projects are unsuccessful because of poor
planning, particularly in situations where the projects
are complex and involve many partners. It is
important to review all available evidence and options
to ensure that the appropriate approaches have been
identified. The planning process involves identifying
appropriate priorities, organising activities in a logical
and achievable sequence, assigning responsibilities
for action, involving the local public, determining
budgets for the plan and its components, and
identifying how to monitor and evaluate the success
of the actions undertaken.
Organisational management. Organisational

problems are a major weakness of many conservation Ceiba trichistandra a tree of threatened tropical dry
programmes. Leadership is an important aspect, in forests in Ecuador. (BGCI)
terms of providing direction, inspiration, confidence
and enthusiasm. Managers need to create simple demand for change. Bringing about such change
systems, clear measures for monitoring success of often requires tenacity and a rather visionary view of
those factors that are of real importance (e.g. possible long-term solutions. Creation of an NGO is
population size of the species of concern), clear often a useful way of furthering a particular cause,
individual or team responsibilities, and the capacity for which can unite those who share common interests.
individuals to work together on projects. Effective fund
raising is likely to be an important part of organisational Managing exploitation and sustainable use.
management, which brings its own challenges. Overexploitation is a major threat to many species.
However, many species are also of vital support to
Education. It is essential to consider the educational human livelihoods. Approaches are therefore required
potential of any conservation project, because that enable species to be harvested and managed
ultimately the success of the project will depend on sustainably. How this can be achieved in practice for
public support, and the political and financial support tree species is considered by Newton (2008). It is
that can follow on from this. Overcoming indifference recommended that in such cases where a species is
to conservation problems is likely to depend on supporting human livelihoods, approaches for
opportunities to appreciate areas and species, and sustainable use are included as part of an integrated
education to highlight the ecological, aesthetic, approach to conservation. In this way, the
cultural, spiritual, recreational and economic conservation action can make a positive contribution
importance of species. Although conservation to sustainable development and poverty alleviation,
education often focuses on scientific arguments, a which is likely to strengthen public support. Areas set
wider perspective is likely to generate wider support. aside for nature conservation through formal
protection status, areas managed for commercial
Policy changes. The main methods of bringing forestry on a sustainable basis or community run
about change are education, persuasion, economic forest management all provide opportunities for in
incentives and changes in the law. The latter can situ conservation of threatened trees, as does on-
potentially be achieved by campaigning, which is farm conservation.
often an activity undertaken by conservation
organisations. This can generate public concern and
5. Taking action
The integrated conservation and restoration of challenges. We hope this reference manual will be
threatened tree species is urgently required and thought provoking and stimulate action. Access to
presents an exciting opportunity for botanic gardens. financial resources may be challenging but the need for
Such activities provide an opportunity for botanic ecological restoration is becoming more widely
gardens to demonstrate conservation leadership and recognised. Restoring tree populations and tree
demonstrate the valuable role they play to public and diversity is an essential component of this. The Global
private land management agencies and to society at Trees Campaign a joint initiative of BGCI and Fauna &
large, by becoming active participants in addressing the Flora International aims to conserve the worlds most
threats to tree species, the ecosystems they are part of, threatened tree species and their habitats. The recently
and the livelihoods of people that depend on them. launched Ecological Restoration Alliance of botanic
There are many factors to consider in planning action gardens, coordinated by BGCI, brings together botanic
and relatively few success stories to build on. Much of gardens with a plan to restore 100 degraded and
the existing literature on reintroductions relates to damaged ecosystems worldwide. Please join us in
herbaceous plants and there is a need to address the sharing your experiences and taking action to conserve
gap for trees for which there are some different and restore the worlds imperilled trees.
Mahogany growing in its natural habitat. (Juan Pablo Moreiras / FFI)

References
Akeroyd, J. and Wyse Jackson, P. (1995). A handbook Chape S., Harrison, J., Spalding, M. and Lysenko, I.
for botanic gardens on the reintroduction of plants to (2005). Measuring the extent and effectiveness of
the wild. Botanic Gardens Conservation International, protected areas as an indicator for meeting global
Kew, Richmond, UK. biodiversity targets. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B, 360, 443455.
Allnutt, T.R., Thomas, P., Newton, A.C. and Gardner, M.
F. (1998). Genetic variation in Fitzroya cupressoides Chazdon, R.L. (2008). Beyond deforestation: restoring
cultivated in the British Isles, assessed using RAPDs. forests and ecosystem services on degraded lands.
Botanical Journal of Edinburgh, 55(3), 329-341. Science, 320, 1458-1460.
Allnutt, T.R., Courtis, J.R., Gardner, M. and Newton, A.C. Costanza R., dArge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S.,
(2001). Genetic variation in wild Chilean and cultivated Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S.,
British populations of Podocarpus salignus D. Don ONeill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., and
(Podocarpaceae). Edinburgh Journal of Botany, 58(3), Van den Belt, M.. (1997). The value of the worlds
459-473. ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387,
253-260.
Armstrong, D.P. and Seddon, P.J. (2008). Directions in
reintroduction biology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Cunningham, A.B. and Mbenkum, F.T. (2003).
23, 2025. Sustainability of harvesting Prunus africana bark in
Cameroon. A medicinal plant in international trade.
Birkinshaw, C., Andrianjafy, M. and Rasolofonirina, J-J. People and plants working papers, no. 2. UNESCO.
(2009). Survival and growth of seedlings of 19 native Paris, France.
tree and shrub species planted in degraded forest as
part of a forest restoration project in Madagascars Cunningham, A.B. (2005). CITES Significant Trade
highlands. Madagascar Conservation and Development, Review of Prunus africana.
4(2), 128-131. http://www.cites.org/eng/com/pc/EC-PC16-10-02.pdf
Blythe, E.K. (2007). Dispelling myths in plant DSEWPC (2008) Approved Conservation Advice for
propagation information. Combined Proceedings Eucalyptus imlayensis (Imlay Mallee). Department of
International Plant Propagators Society, 57, 657-659. Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and
Communities (DSEWPC) - Australian Government.
Brandon, K., Redford, K.H. and Sanderson, S.E. (eds.) [Online] 2008. [Cited: 14 November 2011.]
(1998). Parks in Peril. People, Politics and Protected http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/
Areas. Island Press, Washington D.C. species/pubs/12623-conservation-advice.pdf.
Bullock, J.M., Aronson, J., Newton, A.C., Pywell, R.F. and De-Zhu, L. and Pritchard, H.W. (2009). The science and
Rey-Benayas, J.M. (2011). Restoration of ecosystem economics of ex situ plant conservation. Trends in Plant
services and biodiversity: conflicts and opportunities. Science, 14(11), 614-621.
Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 26(10), 541-549.
Dillard, S. (2005). Propagating wild collected seed of
Butchart, S.H.M., Walpole, M., Collen, B. et al. (2010). woody species. Combined Proceedings International
Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Plant Propagators Society, 55, 393-394.
Science, 328 (5982), 1164-1168.
Dirr, M.A. and Heuser, C.W. (2006). The reference
CPC (Center for Plant Conservation). 1991. Genetic manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to tissue
sampling guidelines for conservation collections of culture. Second Edition. Timber Press, Portland.
endangered plants. In: Falk, D.A. and Holsinger, K.E.
(eds.) Genetics and conservation of rare plants. Oxford
University Press, New York.
Dudley, N., Mansourian, S. and Vallauri, D. (2005). Gosling, P.G., Ives, L.M., Cunningham, V.J., Hechenleitner
Forest Landscape Restoration in context. In: V, P., Brownless, P. and Thomas, P. (2005). Preliminary
Mansourian, S., Vallauri, D., Dudley, N. (eds.), Forest advice on fruit handling, seed pretreatment and
restoration in landscapes: beyond planting trees. germination of embryos of Prumnopitys andina.
Springer, New York, USA: pp. 37. Sibbaldia, 3, 41-50.
Ehtisham-Ul-Haq, M., Allnutt, T.R., Armesto, J.J., Smith, Govaerts, R. (2001). How many species of seed plants are
C., Gardner, M., and Newton, A.C. (2001). Patterns of there? Taxon, 50, 1085-1090.
genetic variation in the threatened Chilean vine
Berberidopsis corallina Hook. f. sampled in and ex situ, Guerrant, E.O. Jr., Fiedler, P.L., Havens, K. and Maunder,
detected using RAPD markers. Annals of Botany, 87(6), M. (2004a). Revised genetic sampling guidelines for
813-821. conservation collections of rare and endangered plants. In
Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in
Ervin, J. (2003). WWF: Rapid Assessment and the wild, edited by E. O. Guerrant Jr., K. Havens, and M.
Prioritization of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) Maunder, pp. 41938.: Island Press, Washington D.C.
Methodology. WWF Gland, Switzerland.
Guerrant, E.O., Havens, K. and Maunder, M. (Eds.)
Fahselt, D. (2007). Is transplantation an effective means (2004b). Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species
of preserving vegetation? Canadian Journal of Botany, survival in the wild. Island Press, Washington D.C.
85, 10071017.
Hansen, M.C., Stehman, S.V. and Potapov, P.V. (2010).
Falk, D.A. (1987). Integrated conservation strategies for Quantification of global forest cover loss. Proceedings of
endangered plants. Natural Areas Journal, 7, 118123. the National Academy of Sciences USA, 107, 8650-8655.
Falk, D.A., Millar, C.I., and Olwell, P.. (1996). Restoring Havens, K., Vitt, P., Maunder, M., Guerrant, E.O. and
Diversity: Strategies for Reintroduction of Endangered Dixon, K. (2006). Ex situ plant conservation and beyond.
Plants. Island Press. BioScience, 56(6), 525-531.
FAO. (2010). Global forest resources assessment, 2010 Isbell, F., Calcagno, V., Hector, A., Connolly, J., Harpole,
Main report. FAO Forestry Paper 163. Rome, Italy. W.S., Reich, P.B., Scherer-Lorenzen, M., Schmid, B.,
(Also available at www.fao.org/forestry/fra/fra2010/en/). Tilman, D., van Ruijven, J., Weigelt, A., Wilsey, B.J.,
Zavaleta, E.S. and Loreau, M. (2011). High plant diversity
FAO (2011). State of the Worlds Forests 2011. FAO, is needed to maintain ecosystem services. Nature, 477,
Rome. 199-202.
Gardner, M.F. (2003) The International Conifer Kaye, T.N. (2008). Vital steps toward success of
Conservation Programme. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS), endangered plant reintroductions. Native Plants Journal,
615, 405-409. 9(3), 313322.
Gibbs, D. (2010) Conserving trees through partnership. Kettle, C.J. 2010. Ecological considerations for using
Roots, 7(2): 9-11. dipterocarps for ecological restoration in SouthEast Asia.
Biodivers. Cons. 19:1137-1151.
Godefroid, S., Piazza, C., Rossi, G., Buord, S., Stevens,
AD., Aguraiuja, R., Cowell, C., Weekley, C.W., Vogg, G., Kramer, A., Hird, A., Shaw, K., Dosman, M. and Mims, R.
Iriondo, J.M., Johnson, I., Dixon, B., Gordon, D., (2011). Conserving North Americas threatened plants:
Magnanon, S., Valentin, B., Bjureke, K., Koopman, R., Progress report on Target 8 of the Global Strategy for
Vicens, M., Virevaire, M., and Vanderborght, T. (2010). Plant Conservation. Botanic Gardens Conservation
How successful are plant species reintroductions? International US.
Biological Conservation, 144, 672-682.
Kramer, A., and Pence, V. (2012). The challenges of ex
Goldstein, J.H., Pejchar, L. and Daily, G.C. (2008). Using situ conservation for threatened oaks. International Oaks
return-on-investment to guide restoration: a case study (Journal of the International Oak Society). In press.
from Hawaii. Conservation Letters, 1, 236-243.
Lamb, D. and Gilmour, D. (2003). Rehabilitation and Maunder, M., Guerrant, E.O., Havens, K. and Dixon,
restoration of degraded forests. IUCN and WWF, Gland, K.W. (2004a). Realizing the full potential of ex situ
Switzerland. contributions to global plant conservation. In Ex Situ
plant conservation: supporting species survival in the
Li, Y., Chen, Z., Zhang, X., Wu, T., Lu, H., and Cai, Y. wild, edited by E.O. Guerrant Jr., K. Havens, and M.
(2005). Genetic differences between wild and artificial Maunder. Pp. 389-418. Society for Ecological
populations of Metasequoia glyptostroboides: Restoration International and Center for Plant
Implications for Species Recovery. Conservation Conservation. Island Press, Washington.
Biology, 19(1), 224231.
Maunder, M., Havens, K., Guerrant, E.O., and Falk, D.A.
Longman, K.A. (2002). Preparing to plant tropical trees. (2004b). Ex situ methods: a vital but underused set of
Commonwealth Secretariat, London. conservation resources. In: Ex situ plant conservation:
supporting species survival in the wild, edited by E.O.
Longman, K.A. (2002). Rooting cuttings of tropical trees. Guerrant Jr., K. Havens, and M. Maunder. Pp. 3-20.
Commonwealth Secretariat, London. Society for Ecological Restoration International and
Center for Plant Conservation. Island Press,
Longman, K.A. (2002). Tropical trees: a practical manual Washington.
for growing good nursery stock. Commonwealth
Secretariat, London. McHaffie, H., Frachon, N. and Robertson, A. (2011).
Starting a conservation collection of Sorbus
Longman, K.A. (2003). Raising seedlings of tropical pseudomeinichii the Catacol whitebeam. Sibbaldia, 9,
trees. Commonwealth Secretariat, London. 171-178.
MacDonald, B. (2000). Practical woody plant Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems
propagation for nursery growers. Timber Press, Oregon. and human well-being: current state and trends. Island
Press, Washington D.C.
Mansourian, S. (2005). Overview of forest restoration
strategies and terms. In Forest Restoration in Montero, E.T. (ed.) (2011) Plan Nacional de
Landscapes. Beyond Planting Trees, eds. S. Conservacin del Toromiro - Sophora toromiro. CONAF.
Easter Island
Mansourian, D. Vallauri and N. Dudley, pp. 8-13.
Springer, New York. Nellemann, C. and Corcoran, E. (eds.) (2010). Dead
planet, living planet - biodiversity and ecosystem
Mansourian, S., Vallauri, D. and Dudley, N. (eds.) (2005). restoration for sustainable development. United Nations
Forest restoration in landscapes. Beyond planting trees. Environment Programme, Arendal, Norway.
Springer, New York. http://www.grida.no/publications/rr/dead-planet/
Margoluis, R., and Salafsky, N. (1998). Measures of Nepstad, D.C., Stickler, C.M., Soares-Filho, B., and
success: designing, managing, and monitoring Merry, F. (2008). Interactions among Amazon land use,
conservation and development projects. Island Press, forests and climate: prospects for a near-term forest
Washington, D.C. tipping point. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 363, 1737-1746.
Maschinski, J., Albrecht, M.A., Monks, L. and Haskins, Newton, A.C. (2007). Forest ecology and conservation: a
K.E. (2012). Center for Plant Conservation best handbook of techniques. Oxford University Press,
reintroduction practice guidelines. In Plant Oxford.
reintroduction in a changing climate. Promises and
perils, edited by J. Maschinski and K.E. Haskins. Pp. Newton, A.C. (2008). Conservation of tree species
277-306. Island Press, Washington. through sustainable use: how can it be achieved in
practice? Oryx, 42(2), 195-205.
Maunder, M. (1992) Plant reintroduction: an overview.
Biodiversity and Conservation 1 (1):51 -61 Newton, A.C. and Oldfield, S. (2008). Red Listing the
world's tree species: a review of recent progress.
Endangered Species Research, 6, 137-147.
Newton, A.C., del Castillo, R.F., Echeverra, C., Salafsky, N., Margoluis, R., Redford, K. and Robinson, J.
Geneletti, D., Gonzlez-Espinosa, M., Malizia, L., (2002). Improving the practice of conservation: a
Premoli, A.C., Rey Benayas, J.M., Smith-Ramrez, C., conceptual framework and agenda for conservation
and Williams-Linera, G. (2012). Forest landscape science. Conservation Biology, 16, 1469-1479.
restoration in the drylands of Latin America. Ecology
and Society 17 (1), 21. [online] URL: Stickler, C.M., Nepstad, D.C., Coe, M.T., McGrath, D.G.,
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss1/art21/ Rodrigues, H.O., Walker, W.S., Soares, B.S. and
Davidson, E.A. (2009) The potential ecological costs and
Newton, A.C., and N. Tejedor (Eds.) (2011). Principles cobenefits of REDD: a critical review and case study
and practice of forest landscape restoration: case from the Amazon region. Global Change Biology, 15,
studies from the drylands of Latin America. IUCN, 2803-2824.
Gland, Switzerland.
Sutherland, W.J. (2000). The conservation handbook.
NSW OEH (2011). Rescue mission to save critically research, management and policy. Blackwell Science,
endangered far south coast Eucalypt. New South Wales Oxford. UK.
Government - Office of Environment and Heritage (NSW
OEH). [Online] 2011. [Cited: 14 November 2011.] Tubesing, C.E. (1998). Magnolias with a future:
http://www.anbg.gov.au/gardens/about/media/11-09- propagation and nursery culture. In: Hunt, D. (ed.)
07-Mt-Imlay.pdf. Magnolias and their allies. Proceedings of an
International Symposium, Royal Holloway, University of
Oldfield, S., Lusty, C. and MacKinven, A. (1998). The London, Egham, Surrey, UK, April 1996. Published for
world list of threatened trees. World Conservation Press, the International Dendrology Society and the Magnolia
WCMC, Cambridge. Society.
Paterson, D. (2003). Repatriation of rhododendron UNEP (2009) Vital forest graphics. FAO, UNEP, UNFF.
plants to China. Sibbaldia, 1, 29-34. UNEP GRID Arendal, Norway.
Pressey, R.L., Ferrier, S., Hager, T.C., Woods, C.A., Tully, UNFCCC (2009). Uganda Nile basin Reforestation
S.L. and Weinman, K.M. (1996). How well protected are Project No 3. Project Design Document (CDM-SSC-AR-
the forests of north eastern New South Wales? Analyses PDD) (Version 02). Bonn, Germany.
of forest environments in relation to formal protection
measures, land tenure and vulnerability to clearing. Vi, J.-C., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. (eds.) (2009).
Forest Ecology and Management, 85, 311333. Wildlife in a changing world an analysis of the 2008
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Gland,
Probert, C., Ali, N and Sharrock, S. (Comp.) (2011). Switzerland: IUCN. 180 pp.
A REDD+ manual for botanic gardens. Botanic Gardens
Conservation International, Richmond, UK & Royal Wallace, G.D., Elam, D. and McBride, J. (reviewers).
Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, UK. (2007). Cercocarpus traskiae (Catalina Island mountain-
mahogany) five-year review: summary and evaluation.
Rietbergen-McCracken, J., S. Maginnis, and A. Sarre. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Carlsbad Fish and
2007. The forest landscape restoration handbook. Wildlife Office, Carlsbad, California. 15 pages.
Earthscan, London, UK.
Wilcove, D.S. (2010) Endangered species management:
Robinson, D. (2005). Assessing and addressing threats the U.S. experience. In: Conservation biology for all,
in restoration programmes. In Forest restoration in edited by N.J. Sodhi and P.R. Ehrlich, pp. 220-
landscapes. Beyond planting trees. eds. S. Mansourian, 235.Oxford University Press, Oxford.
D. Vallauri and N. Dudley, pp. 73-77. Springer, New
York. Wilson, K., Pressey, B., Newton, A., Burgman, M.,
Possingham H. and Weston, C. (2005). Measuring and
Salafsky, N., Margoluis, R. and Redford, K. (2001). incorporating vulnerability into conservation planning.
Adaptive management: a tool for conservation Environmental Management, 35 (5), 527-543.
practitioners. Biodiversity Support Program,
Washington, D.C. World Bank (2004). Sustaining forests: a development
strategy. World Bank, Washington DC.
Annex 1: Further resources
ANPC: The Australian Network for Plant Conservation help researchers assess potential agroforestry trees
(www.anbg.gov.au/anpc/) has a number of publications for uses other than those commonly known, such as
on ex situ conservation and translocation timber;
(reintroduction) of threatened species.
provide indicators for the economic assessment of
ArbNet: ArbNet (www.ArbNet.org) is an online, species through yield information on tree products.
interactive community of arboreta that supports the
common purposes and interests of tree-focused public CPC: The Center for Plant Conservation
gardens. ArbNet facilitates the exchange of information (www.centerforplantconservation.org) has produced
and the sharing of knowledge, experience, and other essential resources on ex situ conservation and
resources to help arboreta achieve their goals. The reintroduction. These include a reintroduction registry,
ultimate goal of ArbNet and its member arboreta is to numerous books that provide background and
encourage the planting and conservation of trees and recommended protocols for ex situ and reintroduction
other plants for a greener, healthier, and more beautiful activities.
world. ArbNet is sponsored and coordinated by The
Morton Arboretum, in cooperation with the American FAO: Extensive information on forest management and
Public Gardens Association and Botanic Gardens forest genetic resources can be found at:
Conservation International. www.fao.org/forestry
ATF: The Agroforestree Database Floradata: www.florabank.org.au is an information

(www.worldagroforestry.org) is a species reference and system designed to help in growing Australian native
selection guide for agroforestry trees. In the context of plants. It collates plant species collection and propagation
the database, agroforestry trees are those that are information on around 5,000 Australian species.
deliberately grown or kept in integrated land-use A particular focus is on species used in rehabilitation.
systems and are often managed for more than one
output. They are expected to make a significant Global Trees Campaign: The Global Trees Campaign
economic or ecological impact, or both. is a joint programme of BGCI and Fauna & Flora
International (FFI) that aims to conserve the worlds
The main objective of the database is to provide detailed most threatened trees and the habitats where they
information on a number of species to field workers and grow. The website www.globaltrees.org provides
researchers who are engaged in activities involving trees examples of tree conservation projects for individual
suitable for agroforestry systems and technologies. It is tree species that are of global conservation concern.
designed to help them make rational decisions regarding
the choice of candidate species for defined purposes. GSPC Toolkit: The web-based GSPC Toolkit has been
Information for each species covers species identity, developed to provide assistance in the implementation
ecology and distribution, propagation and management, of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation of the
functional uses, pests and diseases and a bibliography. CBD. The toolkit www.plants2020.net provides a guide
To date, more than 500 species have been included. to the GSPC and its 16 targets with extensive links to
The specific aims of the database are to: resources on plant conservation and restoration.
enable quick and efficient access to a consolidated International Conifer Conservation Programme:
pool of information on tree species that can assume The International Conifer Conservation Programme,
useful production or service functions, or both; established in 1991, combines taxonomic, conservation,
genetic and horticultural research with international
provide a tool that will assist with the selection of capacity building for conifer conservation. Further
species for use in agroforestry and related research details at: www.rbge.org.uk/science/genetics-and-
using factors that are relevant to the chosen conservation/international-conifer-conservation-
agroforestry technologies; programme
International Plant Propagators Society: Some internet resources on forest restoration are listed
www.ipps.org is a membership organization for below:
professionals involved in plant propagation. The website
provides access to abstracts from papers presented at UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre
the conferences held annually in each of the IPPS www.unep-wcmc.org/restoration_626.html
regions around the world together with searchable UNEP WCMC provides a range of resources relevant to
indexes of papers arranged by subject, author and plant biodiversity conservation, including details of a series of
name. Access is also provided to the Plant Tissue case studies of forest restoration projects throughout
Culture Information Exchange. the world.
The Native Plants Website: is an online source of Global Partnership on Forest Landscape Restoration
propagation information for species of the US. Initially www.ideastransformlandscapes.org/
designed by the USDA Forest Service, propagation The Global Partnership is a network of governments,
protocols describe target seedling specifications and organizations, communities and individuals active in
how to collect seeds or cuttings; how to grow the plant forest restoration at the landscape scale. The
in a nursery; how to harvest the plants, seeds or partnership is designed to support international efforts
cuttings; and how to outplant them. at forest restoration by fostering information exchange,
www.nativeplantnetwork.org/network/ and by linking policy and practice.
The New Zealand Plant Conservation Network: was IUCN Forest Conservation Programme
established in 2003 with the vision that 'no indigenous www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/forest/about_for
species of plant will become extinct nor be placed at est_conserv/
risk of extinction as a result of human action or One of the key elements of the work of the IUCN Forest
indifference, and that the rich, diverse and unique plant Programme focuses on Forest Landscape Restoration
life of New Zealand will be recognised, cherished and (FLR). This is achieved through a number of field-based
restored. www.nzpcn.org.nz/ projects. IUCN also provides a number of useful
publications to support FLR implementation.
WWFs Forest Conservation Programme

wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/how_we_work/conservatio
n/forests/forestlandscapes/
WWF has established a global network of over 300
forest conservation projects in nearly 90 countries,
including a portfolio of forest landscape restoration
programmes undertaken in collaboration with IUCN.
WWF has adopted a target to restore forests in 20
landscapes of outstanding importance within priority
ecoregions by 2020.
The Society for Ecological Restoration (SER)

International www.ser.org/
A non-profit organization with more than 2000 members
worldwide, widely recognized as a source for expertise
on restoration science, practice and policy. Although it
does not engage in restoration projects directly itself,
the Society supports dialogue and information
exchange through its website and through publication of
journals such as Restoration Ecology. Guidelines for the
management of restoration projects are provided here:
http://www.ser.org/content/guidelines_ecological_restor
ation.asp
Cercocarpus traskiae at Rancho Santa Ana Botanic
Garden (A. Kramer)
Annex 2: Principles of Access and Benefit

Sharing
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has as Terminology
one of its three objectives the equitable sharing of the
benefits of biodiversity. To enable this, Article 15 of the Various terms are defined by the Nagoya Protocol as
Convention addresses the terms and conditions for follows:
access to genetic resources and benefit sharing. In CBD
terminology, access and benefit sharing is generally Utilization: to conduct research and development on
referred to as ABS. The sovereignty of States over their the genetic and/or biochemical composition of genetic
natural resources is enshrined in the Convention as resources, including through the application of
provided for in Article 15. This Article also provides that biotechnology as defined in Article 2 of the Convention.
access to these resources shall be subject to prior
informed consent and that access shall be based on Biotechnology: any technological application that uses
mutually agreed terms in order to ensure the sharing of biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives
benefits arising from the commercial or other utilization thereof, to make or modify products or processes for
of these genetic resources. specific use.
In 2010, the Parties to the CBD adopted the Nagoya Derivative: a naturally occurring biochemical compound
Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair resulting from the genetic expression or metabolism of
and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their biological or genetic resources, even if it does not
Utilization. By helping to ensure benefit sharing, the contain functional units of heredity.
Nagoya Protocol creates incentives to conserve and
sustainably use genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol It will take some time to see how these terms are
also covers traditional knowledge associated with interpreted by governments and stakeholders, and
genetic resources and the sharing of benefits arising interpretations may vary. For example, it is not yet clear
from its use. how or whether straight ex situ plant conservation is
included as utilization if no genetic research is
Botanic gardens hold in cultivation representatives of up conducted.
to onethird of the vascular plant species of the world,
much of it obtained before the provisions of the CBD Access
came into effect. Accordingly, botanic gardens have
very special responsibilities and obligations to ensure In the Nagoya Protocol, countries can decide whether
that they follow fair and ethical policies relating to or not to require Prior Informed Consent (PIC) for
access to and use of their collections and benefit access to genetic resources and associated traditional
sharing that are fully in accordance with the terms of the knowledge. Those that do so must ensure that there are
CBD, the Nagoya Protocol and relevant national clear legislative, administrative or policy measures for
legislation. International collaboration in biodiversity obtaining PIC, with a permitting system in place.
conservation and ecological restoration is very well- Countries also need to set up clear procedures for
established but is it essential to ensure that the requiring and setting up Mutually Agreed Terms (MAT) in
principles of ABS are respected when plant material is writing. As is already the case, some countries may
exchanged between countries. choose to require prior informed consent in certain
cases (for example in national parks) but not in others
(for example on private land).
Prior Informed Consent ABS authorities
In practice, prior informed consent takes the form of Each country will need to set up a national focal point,
collecting permits and material acquisition agreements, to provide information on how to gain access and whom
which define the uses to which plant material covered to contact, and one or more national competent
by the agreement can be put. Such agreements may authorities, responsible for granting access or issuing
also cover obligations for the exchange of information written evidence that access requirements have been
derived or resulting from research on, or from other uses met (if access is granted by others, such as provincial
of the material concerned. authorities or indigenous communities). The authority
information will be posted on the ABS ClearingHouse.
Traditional Knowledge
ABS ClearingHouse
The Protocol will require countries to work out how
traditional knowledge can be accessed with the prior The ABS ClearingHouse will be the central information
informed consent or involvement of indigenous and point for the protocol, where countries will share details
local communities. They will need to consider of implementation, including what legal/administrative/
communities customary laws, protocols and policy measures are in place and ABS authority contact
procedures, and work out, with these communities, how information, as well as information on permits issued.
to inform potential users about their obligations. We are They may also include information on indigenous and
likely to see the development of more community local community authorities, model clauses for
protocols and model contractual clauses, and these agreements, models and methods for monitoring
should greatly assist botanical institutions working with genetic resources, and codes of conduct and best
traditional knowledge. practices.
Benefit sharing Compliance
An annex of potential benefits is provided by the Countries are expected to take measures to make sure
Nagoya Protocol. As well as the use of genetic that genetic resources/traditional knowledge have been
resources, there are now several specific provisions on accessed with prior informed consent and under
sharing benefits from use of traditional knowledge with mutuallyagreed terms. They also need to encourage
the indigenous and local communities concerned. providers and users to include dispute resolution
mechanisms in their mutually agreed terms, and to set
Non-commercial research up measures for access to justice and mechanisms for
recognition and enforcement of foreign judgements and
Countries are required to create conditions to promote awards.
and encourage research which contributes to the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, Countries also must take measures to monitor and to
particularly in developing countries, including through enhance transparency about the utilization of genetic
simplified measures on access for non-commercial resources. Measures include setting up one or more
research purposes, taking into account the need to checkpoints to collect or receive information on PIC,
address a change of intent for such research. source, mutually agreed terms and/or use; users will
need to provide information to them, and checkpoints
This last part means that permits and agreements are will then send that information on to the relevant
likely to have clauses requiring users to ask for new PIC national authorities, the party providing PIC and the
for commercial research, though the understanding of ABS clearing house. Many countries may designate
what is commercial may vary between different patent offices and/or competent national authorities as
mutually agreed terms. checkpoints.
Conservation and sustainable use
Users and providers are encouraged to direct benefits

towards conservation and sustainable use. This article
is useful support for the work that botanic gardens are
already engaged in doing.
Model clauses
Countries will be encouraged to develop, update and

use sectoral and crosssectoral model contractual
clauses for mutually agreed terms, and the Protocols
governing body will periodically take stock of their use.
Luckily for those gardens conducting noncommercial
research and needing some guidance, the Swiss
Academy of Sciences has recently developed a model
agreement with a range of options for different
circumstances and concerns, based in part on analysis
of many agreements already in use by a range of
institutions (including some botanical gardens), and this
may be a good starting point. Gardens managers would
do well to familiarise themselves with this model
agreement and work out how it relates to their
institutions collaborations and concerns.
Codes of conduct
Countries should encourage development/update/use

of voluntary codes of conduct, guidelines and best
practices and/or standards on ABS, and the Protocols
governing body will periodically take stock of their use.
Botanic gardens have been among the very first user
communities to develop such measures in the
framework of the IPEN (International Plant Exchange
Network) code of conduct. This is presently being
examined in line with Protocol. BGCI will endeavor to
share new information on these topics via its website.
Conifer propagation at the Royal Tasmanian Botanical
For further information on the Nagoya Protocol, Gardens (RTBG)
please refer to the following:
An Explanatory Guide to the Nagoya Protocol on

Access and Benefit-sharing, IUCN:
https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/an_explanatory_gu
ide_to_the_nagoya_protocol.pdf
ABS tools elaborated by the Swiss Academy of

Sciences: http://abs.scnat.ch/downloads/index.php
The CBD web pages on the Nagoya Protocol:

http://www.cbd.int/abs/
The Ecological Restoration Alliance of botanic gardens
brings together the expertise, skills and plant resources of
botanic gardens worldwide to restore damaged and
degraded ecosystems. Launched in 2012, the Alliance
aims to restore 100 sites in different ecosystems,
responding to a United Nations target to restore at least
15% of the worlds damaged ecosystems.
The Global Trees Campaign is undertaken through a

partnership between FFI and BGCI, working with a wide
range of other organizations around the world, to save
the worlds most threatened trees and the habitats in
which they grow through the provision of information,
delivery of conservation action and support for
sustainable use.
Botanic Gardens
Conservation International
Descanso House, 199 Kew Road,

Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, U.K.
Tel: +44 (0)20 8332 5953

E-mail: info@bgci.org
https://twitter.com/bgci
Internet: www.bgci.org

Tree - Species - Low - Manual Copaci

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tree - Species - Low - Manual Copaci

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tree - Species - Low - Manual Copaci

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the purpose of the manual?

What is the purpose of the manual?

What are some examples of conservation approaches discussed in the manual?

What are some examples of conservation approaches discussed in the manual?

Integrated conservation of

tree species by botanic gardens:

November 2012 Acknowledgements

Many individuals have generously contributed their time

2. Why conserve and restore tree diversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

4. A step-by-step guide to integrated conservation of tree species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

For those of us associated with arboreta and botanical

With this book, Sara Oldfield and Adrian Newton bring

There is an urgent need to conserve tree species.

Sophora toromiro. (Magnus Lidn)

2. Why conserve and restore tree species?

2.1 Importance of tree species

Trees are of exceptionally high ecological, socio-

Case study 1: also causes reduced seed production and poor

Trees of the Dipterocarpaceae family dominate large

Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the

The GSPC, first adopted in 2002, was revised in 2010

Target 4: At least 15 per cent of each ecological

Target 7: At least 75 per cent of known threatened

Target 8: At least 75 per cent of threatened plant

In the context of mitigation of climate change, a

3.1 In situ conservation A number of related terms are widely used.

Tree nursery at Brackenhurst Botanic Garden, Kenya. (BGCI)

3.3 Ex situ conservation

3) The subsequent maintenance of viable 3.4 Integrated conservation approaches

The Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh has extensive

Integrated conservation approaches deliberately seek a

Integrated conservation of tree species therefore

(i) determination of the biological entity of concern,

(ii) identification of the threats to this entity; and

(iii) consideration of the full range of conservation

Fuelwood collection in the walnut forests of Kyrgyzstan. (J. Gratzfeld)

Integrated Plant Conservation

Research Horticulture Education

Case study 6: In order to recover Eucalyptus imlayensis, research

Case study 7: administrative competencies in Central Asia to raise

Walnut forest in Kyrgyzstan. (J. Gratzfeld)

4. A step-by-step guide to integrated

The IUCN Red List (www.iucnredlist.org) provides the

Case study 10:

BGCI has been supporting the

The identification of key individuals in the local

In one such community workshop a participant was a

When the seedlings reached about 30 cm, the farmer

Source: Gibbs, 2010

A remnant tree of Magnolia yarumalensis. (W. Buitrago)

Case study 11:

Seed banking is not an ex situ conservation option for

To address this, BGCI US has undertaken a project with

Determine micropropagation protocols for these taxa,

Planning interpretation that can be used as a part of

Type of ex situ Genetic Longevity Relative costs Relative Notes

Conservation Intermediate Short (species High Reintroduction Cultivation is the only

Reference living Low* Short (species High Reintroduction Source may be

For developing germination and propagation