Class Xi Geogaphy

FUNDAMENTALS
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OF
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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TEXTBOOK
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ISBN 81-7450-518-0
First Edition
March 2006 Phalguna 1927 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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FOREWORD
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The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that childrens
life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks
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a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our
system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi
and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement
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this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the
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maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these
measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred
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system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
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The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
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information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as

the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and
sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we
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perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed

body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in

implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching

days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
childrens life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and
space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
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groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
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responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory
committee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the higher secondary
level, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor M.H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
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which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of
Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and
contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and
suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
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Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
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TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
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CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT THE HIGHER
SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,
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Kolkata
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CHIEF ADVISOR
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M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
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Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Indu Sharma, PGT, Geography, RIE Demonstration School, Ajmer
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K. Kumaraswamy, Professor, Department of Geography, Bharatidasan

University, Tiruchirapalli
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K. N. Prudhvi Raju, Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu

University, Varanasi
K. S. Sivasami, Professor (Retd.), Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

L. Cajee, Reader, Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University,

Shillong
P. K. Malik, Lecturer, Geography, Govt. College, Tavru, Gurgaon
S. R. Jog, Professor (Retd.), Department of Geography, University of Pune, Pune
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Aparna Pandey, Lecturer, Geography, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the
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contribution of Ashok Diwakar, Lecturer, Geography, Govt. College, Sector-9,
Gurgaon in the development of this textbook.
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The Council also gratefully acknowledges the support of individuals and
organisations as listed below for providing various photographs, and other materials
such as articles used in this textbook : R. Vaidyanadhan (Fig. 6.3 and 7.1);
N. S. Saini (Fig. 6.4, 6.7 and 7.4); Y. Ramesh and Krishnam Raju, VSVG, (USA)
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(Fig. 7.11); K. N. Prudhvi Raju (Fig. 7.2, 7.5, 7.7, 7.9, 7.12 and 7.15); ITDC/Ministry
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of Tourism, Govt. of India, (Fig. 11.1 and 11.2); Ministry of Environment and
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Forests, Govt. of India (Fig. 16.1, 16.2, 16.3 and 16.4); The Times of India, New
Delhi (Photograph on earthquake destruction, Collage on tsunami on page 25
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and global warming on page 109); Social Science Textbook for Class VIII, Part II
(NCERT, 2005), (Photographs related to volcanoes on page 26-27).
Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head, Department
of Education in Social Sciences and Humanties for her support and finalising
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this textbook.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Ishwar Singh
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and Arvind Sharma, DTP Operators; Sameer Khatana and Amar Kumar Prusty,
Copy Editors; Bharat Sanwaria, Proof Reader; Dinesh Kumar, Computer Incharge,
who have helped in giving a final shape to this book. The contribution of the
Publication Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged.
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C ONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
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UNIT I : GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 1-12
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1. Geography as a Discipline 2
UNIT II : THE EARTH 13-38
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2. The Origin and Evolution of the Earth 14
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3. Interior of the Earth 21
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4. Distribution of Oceans and Continents 30
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UNIT III : LANDFORMS 39-74
5. Minerals and Rocks 40
6. Geomorphic Processes 45
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7. Landforms and their Evolution 58

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UNIT IV : CLIMATE 75-110

8. Composition and Structure of Atmosphere 76
9. Solar Radiation, Heat Balance and Temperature 79

10. Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems 88

11. Water in the Atmosphere 98
12. World Climate and Climate Change 103
UNIT V : WATER (OCEANS) 111-125

13. Water (Oceans) 112
14. Movements of Ocean Water 120
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UNIT VI : LIFE ON THE EARTH 126-140

15. Life on the Earth 127
16. Biodiversity and Conservation 135
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GLOSSARY 141-144
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
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Fundamental Rights
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Right to Equality
before law and equal protection of laws;
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irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
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of opportunity in public employment;
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by abolition of untouchability and titles.
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Right to Freedom
of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
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of protection of life and personal liberty;

of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
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Right against Exploitation

for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.

Right to Freedom of Religion

freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
freedom to manage religious affairs;
freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
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for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
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Right to Constitutional Remedies

by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.
UNIT
I
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
This unit deals with
Geography as an integrating discipline; as a science of spatial
attributes
Branches of geography; importance of physical geography
CHAPTER
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
Y
ou have studied geography as one of the of the earths surface. The understanding and
components of your Social Science course the skills obtained in modern scientific
upto the secondary stage. You are techniques such as GIS and computer
already aware of some of the phenomena of cartography equip you to meaningfully
geographical nature in the world and its contribute to the national endeavour for
different parts. Now, you will study Geography development.
as an independent subject and learn about the Now the next question which you may like
physical environment of the earth, human to ask is What is geography? You know that
activities and their interactive relationships. earth is our home. It is also the home of many
Therefore, a pertinent question you can ask at other creatures, big and small, which live on
this stage is Why should we study the earth and sustain. The earths surface is
geography? We live on the surface of the earth. not uniform. It has variations in its physical
Our lives are affected by our surroundings in features. There are mountains, hills, valleys,
many ways. We depend on the resources to plains, plateaus, oceans, lakes, deserts and
sustain ourselves in the surrounding areas. wilderness. There are variations in its social
Primitive societies subsisted on natural means and cultural features too. There are villages,
of subsistence, i.e. edible plants and animals. cities, roads, railways, ports, markets and
With the passage of time, we developed many other elements created by human beings
technologies and started producing our food across the entire period of their cultural
using natural resources such as land, soil and development.
water. We adjusted our food habits and This variation provides a clue to the
clothing according to the prevailing weather understanding of the relationship between the
conditions. There are variations in the natural physical environment and social/cultural
resource base, technological development, features. The physical environment has
adaptation with and modification of physical provided the stage, on which human societies
environment, social organisations and cultural enacted the drama of their creative skills with
development. As a student of geography, you the tools and techniques which they invented
should be curious to know about all the and evolved in the process of their cultural
phenomena which vary over space. You learn development. Now, you should be able to
about the diverse lands and people. You attempt the answer of the question posed
should also be interested in understanding the earlier as to What is geography? In very
changes which have taken place over time. simple words, it can be said that geography
Geography equips you to appreciate diversity is the description of the earth. The term
and investigate into the causes responsible for geography was first coined by Eratosthenese,
creating such variations over time and space. a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.). The word has
You will develop skills to understand the globe been derived from two roots from Greek
converted into maps and have a visual sense language geo (earth) and graphos (description).
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 3
Put together, they mean description of the earth. changing earth and untiring and ever-active
The earth has always been seen as the abode human beings. Primitive human societies were
of human beings and thus, scholars defined directly dependent on their immediate
geography as, the description of the earth as environment. Geography, thus, is concerned
the abode of human beings. You are aware of with the study of Nature and Human
the fact that reality is always multifaceted and interactions as an integrated whole. Human
the earth is also multi-dimensional, that is is an integral part of nature and nature has
why many disciplines from natural sciences the imprints of human. Nature has influenced
such as geology, pedology, oceanography, different aspects of human life. Its imprints can
botany, zoology and meteorology and a be noticed on food, clothing, shelter and
number of sister disciplines in social sciences occupation. Human beings have come to terms
such as economics, history, sociology, political with nature through adaptation and
science, anthropology, etc. study different modification. As you already know, the present
aspects of the earths surface. Geography is society has passed the stage of primitive
different from other sciences in its subject societies, which were directly dependent on
matter and methodology but at the same time, their immediate physical environment for
it is closely related to other disciplines. sustenance. Present societies have modified
Geography derives its data base from all the their natural environment by inventing and
natural and social sciences and attempts their using technology and thus, have expanded the
synthesis. horizon of their operation by appropriating and
We have noted that there exist variations utilising the resources provided by nature. With
over the surface of the earth in its physical as the gradual development of technology, human
well as cultural environment. A number of beings were able to loosen the shackles of their
phenomena are similar and many are dissimilar. physical environment. Technology helped in
It was, therefore, logical to perceive geography reducing the harshness of labour, increased
as the study of areal differentiation. Thus, labour efficiency and provided leisure to
geography was perceived to study all those human beings to attend to the higher needs of
phenomena which vary over space. life. It also increased the scale of production
Geographers do not study only the variations and the mobility of labour.
in the phenomena over the earths surface The interaction between the physical
(space) but also study the associations with environment and human beings has been very
the other factors which cause these variations. succinctly described by a poet in the following
For example, cropping patterns differ from dialogue between human and nature (God).
region to region but this variation in cropping You created the soil, I created the cup, you
pattern, as a phenomenon, is related to created night, I created the lamp. You created
variations in soils, climates, demands in the wilderness, hilly terrains and deserts; I
market, capacity of the farmer to invest and created flower beds and gardens. Human
technological inputs available to her/him. beings have claimed their contribution using
Thus, the concern of geography is to find out natural resources. With the help of technology,
the causal relationship between any two human beings moved from the stage of
phenomena or between more than one necessity to a stage of freedom. They have put
phenomenon. their imprints everywhere and created new
A geographer explains the phenomena in possibilities in collaboration with nature. Thus,
a frame of cause and effect relationship, as it we now find humanised nature and
does not only help in interpretation but also naturalised human beings and geography
foresees the phenomena in future. studies this interactive relationship. The space
The geographical phenomena, both the got organised with the help of the means of
physical and human, are not static but highly transportation and communication network.
dynamic. They change over time as a result of The links (routes) and nodes (settlements of all
the interactive processes between ever types and hierarchies) integrated the space and
4 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
gradually, it got organised. As a social science The present world is being perceived as a global
discipline, geography studies the spatial village. The distances have been reduced by
organisation and spatial integration. better means of transportation increasing
Geography as a discipline is concerned with accessibility. The audio-visual media and
three sets of questions: information technology have enriched the data
(i) Some questions are related to the base. Technology has provided better chances
identification of the patterns of natural of monitoring natural phenomena as well as
and cultural features as found over the the economic and social parameters.
surface of the earth. These are the Geography as an integrating discipline has
questions about what? interface with numerous natural and social
(ii) Some questions are related to the sciences. All the sciences, whether natural or
distribution of the natural and human/ social, have one basic objective, of
cultural features over the surface of the understanding the reality. Geography
earth. These are the questions about attempts to comprehend the associations of
where? phenomena as related in sections of reality.
Taken together, both these questions take Figure 1.1 shows the relationship of geography
care of distributional and locational aspects of with other sciences. Every discipline, concerned
the natural and cultural features. These with scientific knowledge is linked with
questions provided inventorised information of geography as many of their elements vary over
what features and where located. It was a very space. Geography helps in understanding the
popular approach during the colonial period. reality in totality in its spatial perspective.
These two questions did not make geography Geography, thus, not only takes note of the
a scientific discipline till the third question was differences in the phenomena from place to
added. place but integrates them holistically which
(iii) The third question is related to the may be different at other places. A geographer
explanation or the causal relationships is required to have a broad understanding of
between features and the processes and all the related fields, to be able to logically
phenomena. This aspect of geography integrate them. This integration can be
is related to the question, why? understood with some examples. Geography
Geography as a discipline is related to influences historical events. Spatial distance
space and takes note of spatial characteristics itself has been a very potent factor to alter the
and attributes. It studies the patterns of course of history of the world. Spatial depth
distribution, location and concentration of provided defence to many countries,
phenomena over space and interprets them particularly in the last century. In traditional
providing explanations for these patterns. It warfare, countries with large size in area, gain
takes note of the associations and inter- time at the cost of space. The defence provided
relationships between the phenomena over by oceanic expanse around the countries of
space and interprets them providing the new world has protected them from wars
explanations for these patterns. It also takes being imposed on their soil. If we look at the
note of the associations and inter-relationships historical events world over, each one of them
between the phenomena resulting from the can be interpreted geographically.
dynamic interaction between human beings In India, Himalayas have acted as great
and their physical environment. barriers and provided protection but the
passes provided routes to the migrants and
GEOGRAPHY AS AN INTEGRATING DISCIPLINE invaders from Central Asia. The sea coast has
Geography is a discipline of synthesis. It encouraged contact with people from East and
attempts spatial synthesis, and history Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa. Navigation
attempts temporal synthesis. Its approach is technology helped European countries to
holistic in nature. It recognises the fact that colonise a number of countries of Asia and
the world is a system of interdependencies. Africa, including India as they got accessibility
through oceans. The geographical factors have econometrics. Maps are prepared through
modified the course of history in different parts artistic imagination. Making sketches, mental
of the world. maps and cartographic work require
Every geographical phenomenon undergoes proficiency in arts.
change through time and can be explained
temporally. The changes in landforms, climate, Geography and Social Sciences
vegetation, economic activities occupations and
cultural developments have followed a definite Each social science sketched in Figure 1.1 has
historical course. Many geographical features interface with one branch of geography. The
result from the decision making process by relationships between geography and history
different institutions at a particular point of have already been outlined in detail. Every
time. It is possible to convert time in terms of discipline has a philosophy which is the raison
space and space in terms of time. For example, detre for that discipline. Philosophy provides
it can be said that place A is 1,500 km from roots to a discipline and in the process of its
place B or alternately, it can also be said that evolution, it also experiences distinct historical
place A is two hours away (if one travels by processes. Thus, the history of geographical
plane) or seventeen hours away (if one travels thought as mother branch of geography is
by a fast moving train). It is for this reason, included universally in its curricula. All the
time is an integral part of geographical studies social science disciplines, viz. sociology,
as the fourth dimension. Please mention other political science, economics and demography
three dimensions? study different aspects of social reality. The
Figure1.1 amply depicts the linkages of branches of geography, viz. social, political,
geography with different natural and social economic and population and settlements are
sciences. This linkage can be put under two closely linked with these disciplines as each
segments. one of them has spatial attributes. The core
concern of political science is territory, people
Physical Geography and Natural Sciences
and sovereignty while political geography is
All the branches of physical geography, as also interested in the study of the state as a
shown in Figure 1.1, have interface with natural spatial unit as well as people and their political
sciences. The traditional physical geography behaviour. Economics deals with basic
is linked with geology, meteorology, hydrology attributes of the economy such as production,
and pedology, and thus, geomorphology, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each
climatology, oceanography and soil geography of these attributes also has spatial aspects and
respectively have very close link with the here comes the role of economic geography to
natural sciences as these derive their data from study the spatial aspects of production,
these sciences. Bio-Geography is closely related distribution, exchange and consumption.
to botany, zoology as well as ecology as human Likewise, population geography is closely
beings are located in different locational niche.
linked with the discipline of demography.
A geographer should have some proficiency
The above discussion shows that
in mathematics and art, particularly in drawing
geography has strong interface with natural
maps. Geography is very much linked with the
and social sciences. It follows its own
study of astronomical locations and deals with
latitudes and longitudes. The shape of the earth methodology of study which makes it distinct
is Geoid but the basic tool of a geographer is a from others. It has osmotic relationship with
map which is two dimensional representation other disciplines. While all the disciplines have
of the earth. The problem of converting geoids their own individual scope, this individuality
into two dimensions can be tackled by does not obstruct the flow of information as in
projections constructed graphically or case of all cells in the body that have individual
mathematically. The cartographic and identity separated by membranes but the flow
quantitative techniques require sufficient of blood is not obstructed. Geographers use
proficiency in mathematics, statistics and data obtained from sister disciplines and
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Figure 1.1 : Geography and its relation with other subjects

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
attempt synthesis over space. Maps are very BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (BASED ON
effective tools of geographers in which the SYSTEMATIC APPROACH)
tabular data is converted into visual form to
bring out the spatial pattern. 1. Physical Geography
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (i) Geomorphology is devoted to the study

of landforms, their evolution and related
Please study Figure 1.1 for recapitulation. It has processes.
very clearly brought out that geography is an (ii) Climatology encompasses the study of
interdisciplinary subject of study. The study of structure of atmosphere and elements
every subject is done according to some of weather and climates and climatic
approach. The major approaches to study types and regions.
geography have been (i) Systematic and (iii) Hydrology studies the realm of water
(ii) Regional. The systematic geography approach over the surface of the earth including
is the same as that of general geography. This oceans, lakes, rivers and other water
approach was introduced by Alexander Von bodies and its effect on different life
Humboldt, a German geographer (1769-1859) forms including human life and their
while regional geography approach was activities.
developed by another German geographer and a (iv) Soil Geography is devoted to study the
contemporary of Humboldt, Karl Ritter processes of soil formation, soil types,
(1779-1859). their fertility status, distribution and
In systematic approach (Figure 1.2), a use.
phenomenon is studied world over as a whole,
2. Human Geography
and then the identification of typologies or
spatial patterns is done. For example, if one is (i) Social/Cultural Geography encom-
interested in studying natural vegetation, the passes the study of society and its
study will be done at the world level as a first spatial dynamics as well as the cultural
step. The typologies such as equatorial rain elements contributed by the society.
forests or softwood conical forests or monsoon (ii) Population and Settlement Geography
forests, etc. will be identified, discussed and (Rural and Urban). It studies population
delimited. In the regional approach, the world growth, distribution, density, sex ratio,
is divided into regions at different hierarchical migration and occupational structure
levels and then all the geographical phenomena etc. Settlement geography studies the
in a particular region are studied. These characteristics of rural and urban
regions may be natural, political or designated settlements.
(iii) Economic Geography studies economic
region. The phenomena in a region are studied
activities of the people including
in a holistic manner searching for unity in
agriculture, industry, tourism, trade,
diversity.
and transport, infrastructure and
Dualism is one of the main characteristics
services, etc.
of geography which got introduced from the
(iv) Historical Geography studies the
very beginning. This dualism depended on the historical processes through which the
aspect emphasised in the study. Earlier scholars space gets organised. Every region has
laid emphasis on physical geography. But undergone some historical experiences
human beings are an integral part of the earths before attaining the present day status.
surface. They are part and parcel of nature. They The geographical features also
also have contributed through their cultural experience temporal changes and these
development. Thus developed human form the concerns of historical
geography with emphasis on human activities. geography.
Figure 1.2 : Branches of geography based on systematic approach
(v) Political Geography looks at the space 3. Biogeography

from the angle of political events and The interface between physical geography
studies boundaries, space relations and human geography has lead to the
between neighbouring political units, development of Biogeography which
delimitation of constituencies, election includes:
scenario and develops theoretical (i) Plant Geography which studies the
framework to understand the political spatial pattern of natural vegetation in
behaviour of the population. their habitats.
(ii) Zoo Geography which studies the (c) Field Survey Methods
spatial patterns and geographic (d) Geo-informatics comprising
characteristics of animals and their techniques such as Remote
habitats. Sensing, GIS, GPS, etc.
(iii) Ecology /Ecosystem deals with the The above classification gives a
scientific study of the habitats comprehensive format of the branches of
characteristic of species. geography. Generally geography curricula is
(iv) Environmental Geography concerns
taught and learnt in this format but this
world over leading to the realisation of
format is not static. Any discipline is bound
environmental problems such as land
gradation, pollution and concerns for to grow with new ideas, problems, methods
conservation has resulted in the and techniques. For example, what was once
introduction of this new branch in manual cartography has now been
geography. transformed into computer cartography.
Technology has enabled scholars to handle
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY BASED ON REGIONAL large quantum of data. The internet provides
APPROACH (FIGURE1.3) extensive information. Thus, the capacity to
1. Regional Studies/Area Studies attempt analysis has increased tremendously.
Comprising Macro, Meso and Micro GIS has further opened vistas of knowledge.
Regional Studies GPS has become a handy tool to find out exact
2. Regional Planning locations. Technologies have enhanced the
Comprising Country/Rural and Town/ capacity of attempting synthesis with sound
Urban Planning theoretical understanding.
3. Regional Development You will learn some preliminary aspects of
4. Regional Analysis these techniques in your book, Practical work
There are two aspects which are common in Geography Part I (NCERT, 2006). You will
to every discipline, these are: continue to improve upon your skills and
(i) Philosophy learn about their application.
(a) Geographical Thought
(b) Land and Human Interaction/ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Human Ecology
(ii) Methods and Techniques This chapter appears in the book entitled
(a) Cartography including Computer Fundamentals of Physical Geography. The
Cartography contents of the book clearly reflect its scope.
(b) Quantitative Techniques/Statistical It is therefore, appropriate to know the
Techniques importance of this branch of geography.
Figure 1.3 : Branches of geography based on regional approach

Physical geography includes the study of sea-food, oceans are rich in mineral resources.
lithosphere (landforms, drainage, relief and India has developed the technology for
physiography), atmosphere (its composition, collecting manganese nodules from oceanic
structure, elements and controls of weather bed. Soils are renewable resources, which
and climate; temperature, pressure, winds, influence a number of economic activities such
precipitation, climatic types, etc.), hydrosphere as agriculture. The fertility of the soil is both
(oceans, seas, lakes and associated features naturally determined and culturally induced.
with water realm) and biosphere ( life forms Soils also provide the basis for the biosphere
including human being and macro-organism accommodating plants, animals and micro
and their sustaining mechanism, viz. food organisms.
chain, ecological parameters and ecological
balance). Soils are formed through the process What is Geography?
of pedogenesis and depend upon the parent
rocks, climate, biological activity and time. Geography is concerned with the description
and explanation of the areal differentiation of
Time provides maturity to soils and helps in
the earths surface.
the development of soil profiles. Each element Richard Hartshorne
is important for human beings. Landforms
provide the base on which human activities are Geography studies the differences of
located. The plains are utilised for agriculture. phenomena usually related in different parts
of the earths surface.
Plateaus provide forests and minerals.
Hettner
Mountains provide pastures, forests, tourist
spots and are sources of rivers providing water
to lowlands. Climate influences our house The study of physical geography is
types, clothing and food habits. The climate emerging as a discipline of evaluating and
has a profound effect on vegetation, cropping managing natural resources. In order to
pattern, livestock farming and some achieve this objective, it is essential to
industries, etc. Human beings have developed understand the intricate relationship between
technologies which modify climatic elements physical environment and human beings.
in a restricted space such as air conditioners Physical environment provides resources, and
and coolers. Temperature and precipitation human beings utilise these resources and
ensure the density of forests and quality of ensure their economic and cultural
grassland. In India, monsoonal rainfall sets the development. Accelerated pace of resource
agriculture rhythm in motion. Precipitation utilisation with the help of modern technology
recharges the ground water aquifers which has created ecological imbalance in the world.
later provides water for agriculture and Hence, a better understanding of physical
domestic use. We study oceans which are the environment is absolutely essential for
store house of resources. Besides fish and other sustainable development.
EXERCISES
1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following scholars coined the term Geography?
(a) Herodotus (c) Galileo
(b) Erathosthenese (d) Aristotle
(ii) Which one of the following features can be termed as physical feature?
(a) Port (c) Plain
(b) Road (d) Water park
(iii) Make correct pairs from the following two columns and mark the correct
option.
1. Meteorology A. Population Geography

2. Demography B. Soil Geography
3. Sociology C. Climatology
4. Pedology D. Social Geography
(a) 1B,2C,3A,4D (c) 1D,2B,3C,4A

(b) 1A,2D,3B,4C (d) 1C,2A,3D,4B
(iv) Which one of the following questions is related to cause-effect relationship?
(a) Why (c) What
(b) Where (d) When
(v) Which one of the following disciplines attempts temporal synthesis?
(a) Sociology (c) Anthropology
(b) Geography (d) History
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What important cultural features do you observe while going to school?
Are they similar or dissimilar? Should they be included in the study of
geography or not? If yes, why?
(ii) You have seen a tennis ball, a cricket ball, an orange and a pumpkin.
Which one amongst these resembles the shape of the earth? Why have
you chosen this particular item to describe the shape of the earth?
(iii) Do you celebrate Van Mahotsava in your school? Why do we plant so many
trees? How do the trees maintain ecological balance?
(iv) You have seen elephants, deer, earthworms, trees and grasses. Where do
they live or grow? What is the name given to this sphere? Can you describe
some of the important features of this sphere?
(v) How much time do you take to reach your school from your house? Had
the school been located across the road from your house, how much time
would you have taken to reach school? What is the effect of the distance
between your residence and the school on the time taken in commuting?
Can you convert time into space and vice versa?
(i) You observe every day in your surroundings that there is variation in
natural as well as cultural phenomena. All the trees are not of the same
variety. All the birds and animals you see, are different. All these different
elements are found on the earth. Can you now argue that geography is
the study of areal differentiation?
(ii) You have already studied geography, history, civics and economics as
parts of social studies. Attempt an integration of these disciplines
highlighting their interface.
Project Work
Select forest as a natural resource.
(i) Prepare a map of India showing the distribution of different types of forests.
(ii) Write about the economic importance of forests for the country.
(iii) Prepare a historical account of conservation of forests in India with focus
on Chipko movements in Rajasthan and Uttaranchal.
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UNIT
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pu II
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THE EARTH
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Origin and evolution of the earth; Interior of the earth; Wegeners

continental drift theory and plate tectonics; earthquakes and
volcanoes
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CHAPTER
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

OF THE EARTH
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D
o you remember the nursery rhyme argument. At a later date, the arguments
Twinkle, twinkle little star? considered of a companion to the sun to have
been coexisting. These arguments are called
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Starry nights have always attracted us since binary theories. In 1950, Otto Schmidt in
the childhood. You may also have thought of Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany
somewhat revised the nebular hypothesis,
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these stars and had numerous questions in
your mind. Questions such as how many stars though differing in details. They considered that
are there in the sky? How did they come into the sun was surrounded by solar nebula
containing mostly the hydrogen and helium
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existence? Can one reach the end of the sky?
May be many more such questions are still
there in your mind. In this chapter, you will
along with what may be termed as dust. The
friction and collision of particles led to formation
of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were
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learn how these twinkling little stars were

formed. With that you will eventually also read formed through the process of accretion.
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the story of origin and evolution of the earth. However, scientists in later period took up
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the problems of origin of universe rather than

that of just the earth or the planets.
EARLY THEORIES
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Origin of the Earth MODERN THEORIES

A large number of hypotheses were put forth Origin of the Universe
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by different philosophers and scientists The most popular argument regarding the origin
regarding the origin of the earth. One of the of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is also
earlier and popular arguments was by German called expanding universe hypothesis. Edwin
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philosopher Immanuel Kant. Mathematician Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the
Laplace revised it in 1796. It is known as universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies
Nebular Hypothesis. The hypothesis considered move further and further apart. You can
that the planets were formed out of a cloud of experiment and find what does the expanding

material associated with a youthful sun, which universe mean. Take a balloon and mark some
was slowly rotating. Later in 1900, Chamberlain points on it to represent the galaxies. Now, if
and Moulton considered that a wandering star you start inflating the balloon, the points marked
approached the sun. As a result, a cigar-shaped on the balloon will appear to be moving away
extension of material was separated from the from each other as the balloon expands.
solar surface. As the passing star moved away, Similarly, the distance between the galaxies is
the material separated from the solar surface also found to be increasing and thereby, the
continued to revolve around the sun and it universe is considered to be expanding.
slowly condensed into planets. Sir James Jeans However, you will find that besides the increase
and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this in the distances between the points on the
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 15
balloon, the points themselves are expanding. The expansion of universe means increase
This is not in accordance with the fact. Scientists in space between the galaxies. An alternative
believe that though the space between the to this was Hoyles concept of steady state. It
galaxies is increasing, observations do not considered the universe to be roughly the same
support the expansion of galaxies. So, the at any point of time. However, with greater
balloon example is only partially correct. evidence becoming available about the
expanding universe, scientific community at
present favours argument of expanding
universe.
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The Star Formation
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The distribution of matter and energy was not
even in the early universe. These initial density
differences gave rise to differences in
gravitational forces and it caused the matter
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to get drawn together. These formed the bases
for development of galaxies. A galaxy contains
a large number of stars. Galaxies spread over
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vast distances that are measured in thousands
of light-years. The diameters of individual
pu galaxies range from 80,000-150,000 light
years. A galaxy starts to form by accumulation
Figure 2.1 : The Big Bang of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large
The Big Bang Theory considers the cloud called nebula. Eventually, growing
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following stages in the development of the nebula develops localised clumps of gas. These
clumps continue to grow into even denser
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universe.
gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of
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(i) In the beginning, all matter forming the

stars. The formation of stars is believed to have
universe existed in one place in the form
taken place some 5-6 billion years ago.
of a tiny ball (singular atom) with an
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unimaginably small volume, infinite A light year is a measure of distance and

temperature and infinite density. not of time. Light travels at a speed of
(ii) At the Big Bang the tiny ball exploded 300,000 km/second. Considering this,
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violently. This led to a huge expansion. the distances the light will travel in one
It is now generally accepted that the year is taken to be one light year. This
equals to 9.461 10 12 km. The mean
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event of big bang took place 13.7 billion

distance between the sun and the earth
years before the present. The expansion is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light
continues even to the present day. As it years, it is 8.311minutes.
grew, some energy was converted into

matter. There was particularly rapid

Formation of Planets
expansion within fractions of a second
after the bang. Thereafter, the The following are considered to be the stages
expansion has slowed down. Within first in the development of planets :
three minutes from the Big Bang event, (i) The stars are localised lumps of gas
the first atom began to form. within a nebula. The gravitational force
(iii) Within 300,000 years from the Big within the lumps leads to the formation
Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K of a core to the gas cloud and a huge
(Kelvin) and gave rise to atomic matter. rotating disc of gas and dust develops
The universe became transparent. around the gas core.
(ii) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts in the same period sometime about 4.6 billion
getting condensed and the matter years ago. Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was
around the core develops into small- also considered a planet. However, in a meeting
rounded objects. These small-rounded of the International Astronomical Union, a
objects by the process of cohesion develop decision was taken that Pluto like other celestial
into what is called planetesimals. objects (2003 UB313)discovered in recent past
Larger bodies start forming by collision, may be called dwarf planet. Some data regarding
and gravitational attraction causes the our solar system are given in the box below.
material to stick together. Planetesimals
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are a large number of smaller bodies. Why are the inner planets rocky while
(iii) In the final stage, these large number of others are mostly in gaseous form?
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small planetesimals accrete to form a
fewer large bodies in the form of planets. The difference between terrestrial and jovian
planets can be attributed to the following
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM conditions:
(i) The terrestrial planets were formed in the
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Our Solar system consists of eight planets. The close vicinity of the parent star where it
nebula from which our Solar system is supposed was too warm for gases to condense to
to have been formed, started its collapse and core solid particles. Jovian planets were
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formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago and formed at quite a distant location.
the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years (ii) The solar wind was most intense nearer
ago. Our solar system consists of the sun (the
pu the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust
star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller from the terrestrial planets. The solar winds
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge were not all that intense to cause similar
quantity of dust-grains and gases. removal of gases from the Jovian planets.
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Out of the eight planets, mercury, venus,

(iii) The terrestrial planets are smaller and
earth and mars are called as the inner planets
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their lower gravity could not hold the
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as they lie between the sun and the belt of

escaping gases.
asteroids the other four planets are called the outer
planets. Alternatively, the first four are called
The Moon
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Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are made

up of rock and metals, and have relatively high The moon is the only natural satellite of the
densities. The rest four are called Jovian or Gas earth. Like the origin of the earth, there have
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Giant planets. Jovian means jupiter-like. Most been attempts to explain how the moon was
of them are much larger than the terrestrial formed. In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested
planets and have thick atmosphere, mostly of that initially, the earth and the moon formed a
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helium and hydrogen. All the planets were formed single rapidly rotating body. The whole mass
The Solar System

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Distance* 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.182 30.058
Density@ 5.44 5.245 5.517 3.945 1.33 0.70 1.17 1.66
Radius# 0.383 0.949 1.000 0.533 11.19 9.460 4.11 3.88
Satellites 0 0 1 2 16 about 18 about 17 8
* Distance from the sun in astronomical unit i.e. average mean distance of the earth is 149,598,000
km = 1 @ Density in gm/cm3
# Radius: Equatorial radius 6378.137 km = 1
became a dumb-bell-shaped body and started getting separated depending on their

eventually it broke. It was also suggested that densities. This allowed heavier materials (like
the material forming the moon was separated iron) to sink towards the centre of the earth
from what we have at present the depression and the lighter ones to move towards the
occupied by the Pacific Ocean. surface. With passage of time it cooled further
However, the present scientists do not and solidified and condensed into a smaller size.
accept either of the explanations. It is now This later led to the development of the outer
generally believed that the formation of moon, surface in the form of a crust. During the
as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of giant formation of the moon, due to the giant impact,
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impact or what is described as the big splat. the earth was further heated up. It is through
A body of the size of one to three times that of the process of differentiation that the earth
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mars collided into the earth sometime shortly forming material got separated into different
after the earth was formed. It blasted a large layers. Starting from the surface to the central
part of the earth into space. This portion of parts, we have layers like the crust, mantle,
blasted material then continued to orbit the outer core and inner core. From the crust to the
earth and eventually formed into the present core, the density of the material increases. We
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moon about 4.44 billion years ago. shall discuss in detail the properties of each of
this layer in the next chapter.
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
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Do you know that the planet earth initially was Evolution of Atmosphere and Hydrosphere
a barren, rocky and hot object with a thin The present composition of earths atmosphere
atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. This is
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far from the present day picture of the earth.
Hence, there must have been some events
is chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen.
You will be dealing with the composition and
structure of the earths atmosphere in Chapter 8.
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processes, which may have caused this change There are three stages in the evolution of
from rocky, barren and hot earth to a beautiful the present atmosphere. The first stage is
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planet with ample amount of water and
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marked by the loss of primordial atmosphere.

conducive atmosphere favouring the existence In the second stage, the hot interior of the earth
of life. In the following section, you will find
contributed to the evolution of the atmosphere.
out how the period, between the 4,600 million
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Finally, the composition of the atmosphere was

years and the present, led to the evolution of
modified by the living world through the
life on the surface of the planet.
process of photosynthesis.
The earth has a layered structure. From
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The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and

the outermost end of the atmosphere to the
helium, is supposed to have been stripped off
centre of the earth, the material that exists is
as a result of the solar winds. This happened
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not uniform. The atmospheric matter has the

not only in case of the earth, but also in all the
least density. From the surface to deeper
terrestrial planets, which were supposed to
depths, the earths interior has different zones
have lost their primordial atmosphere through
and each of these contains materials with
different characteristics. the impact of solar winds.

During the cooling of the earth, gases and

How was the layered structure of the water vapour were released from the interior
earth developed? solid earth. This started the evolution of the
present atmosphere. The early atmosphere
largely contained water vapour, nitrogen,
Evolution of Lithosphere carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and very
The earth was mostly in a volatile state during little of free oxygen. The process through which
its primordial stage. Due to gradual increase the gases were outpoured from the interior is
in density the temperature inside has called degassing. Continuous volcanic
increased. As a result the material inside eruptions contributed water vapour and gases
Geological Time Scale

Eons Era Period Epoch Age/ Years Life/ Major Events
Before Present
Quaternary Holocene 0 - 10,000 Modern Man
Pleistocene 10,000 - 2 million Homo Sapiens
Cainozoic Tertiary Pliocene 2 - 5 million Early Human Ancestor
(From 65 Miocene 5 - 24 million Ape: Flowering Plants
million years and Trees
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to the Oligocene 24 - 37 million Anthropoid Ape
present Eocene 37 - 58 Million Rabbits and Hare
times)
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Palaeocene 57 - 65 Million Small Mammals :
Rats Mice
Mesozoic Cretaceous 65 - 144 Million Extinction of Dinosaurs
65 - 245
Jurassic 144 - 208 Million Age of Dinosaurs
Million
Triassic 208 - 245 Million Frogs and turtles
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Mammals
Permian 245 - 286 Million Reptile dominate-replace
amphibians
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Carboniferous 286 - 360 Million First Reptiles:
Palaeozoic Vertebrates: Coal beds
245 - 570 Devonian 360 - 408 Million Amphibians
pu Million Silurian 408 - 438 Million First trace of life on land:
Plants
Ordovician 438 - 505 Million First Fish
Cambrian 505 - 570 Million No terrestrial Life :
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Marine Invertebrate
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Proterozoic 570 - 2,500 Million Soft-bodied arthropods
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Archean 2,500 - 3,800 Million Blue green Algae:

Pre- Unicellular bacteria
Cambrian
Hadean 3,800 - 4,800 Million Oceans and Continents
570 Million
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- 4,800 form Ocean and

Million Atmosphere are rich in
Carbon dioxide
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Origin of 5,000 Million Origin of the sun

Stars 5,000 -
13,700
Supernova Million 12,000 Million Origin of the universe
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Big Bang 13,700 Million
to the atmosphere. As the earth cooled, the that the oceans are as old as 4,000 million

water vapour released started getting years. Sometime around 3,800 million years
condensed. The carbon dioxide in the ago, life began to evolve. However, around
2,500-3,000 million years before the present,
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the
the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life
temperature further decreased causing more
was confined to the oceans for a long time.
condensation and more rains. The rainwater Oceans began to have the contribution of
falling onto the surface got collected in the oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
depressions to give rise to oceans. The earths Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen,
oceans were formed within 500 million years and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to
from the formation of the earth. This tells us flood the atmosphere.
Origin of Life inanimate matter into living substance. The

record of life that existed on this planet in
The last phase in the evolution of the earth
different periods is found in rocks in the form
relates to the origin and evolution of life. It is of fossils. The microscopic structures closely
undoubtedly clear that initially the earth or related to the present form of blue algae have
even the atmosphere of the earth was not been found in geological formations much older
conducive for the development of life. Modern than some 3,000 million years. It can be
scientists refer to the origin of life as a kind of assumed that life began to evolve sometime
chemical reaction, which first generated 3,800 million years ago. The summary of
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complex organic molecules and assembled evolution of life from unicellular bacteria to the
them. This assemblage was such that they modern man is given in the Geological Time
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could duplicate themselves converting Scale on page 18.
EXERCISES
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(i) Which one of the following figures represents the age of the earth?
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(a) 4.6 million years (c) 4.6 billion years
(b) 13.7 billion years (d) 13.7 trillion years
pu (ii) Which one of the following has the longest duration?
(a) Eons (c) Era
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(b) Period (d) Epoch

(iii) Which one of the following is not related to the formation or modification
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of the present atmosphere?
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(a) Solar winds (c) Degassing

(b) Differentiation (d) Photosynthesis
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(iv) Which one of the following represents the inner planets?

(a) Planets between the sun and the earth
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(b) Planets between the sun and the belt of asteroids

(c) Planets in gaseous state
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(d) Planets without satellite(s)

(v) Life on the earth appeared around how many years before the present?
(a) 13.7 billion (c) 4.6 billion

(b) 3.8 million (d) 3.8 billion

(i) Why are the terrestrial planets rocky?
(ii) What is the basic difference in the arguments related to the origin of the
earth given by :
(a) Kant and Laplace
(b) Chamberlain and Moulton
(iii) What is meant by the process of differentiation?

(iv) What was the nature of the earth surface initially?
(v) What were the gases which initially formed the earths atmosphere?
(i) Write an explanatory note on the Big Bang Theory.
(ii) List the stages in the evolution of the earth and explain each stage in
brief.
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Project Work
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Collect information about the project Stardust (website: www.sci.edu/public.html
and www.nasm.edu) along the following lines.
(i) Which is the agency that has launched this project?
(ii) Why are scientists interested in collecting Stardust?
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(iii) Where from the Stardust is being collected?
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C
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CHAPTER
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
W
hat do you imagine about the nature SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR
of the earth? Do you imagine it to be The earths radius is 6,370 km. No one can
a solid ball like cricket ball or a reach the centre of the earth and make
hollow ball with a thick cover of rocks i.e. observations or collect samples of the material.
lithosphere? Have you ever seen photographs Under such conditions, you may wonder how
or images of a volcanic eruption on the scientists tell us about the earths interior and
television screen? Can you recollect the the type of materials that exist at such depths.
emergence of hot molten lava, dust, smoke, fire Most of our knowledge about the interior of
and magma flowing out of the volcanic crater? the earth is largely based on estimates and
The interior of the earth can be understood only inferences. Yet, a part of the information is
obtained through direct observations and
by indirect evidences as neither any one has nor
analysis of materials.
any one can reach the interior of the earth.
The configuration of the surface of the earth Direct Sources
is largely a product of the processes operating The most easily available solid earth material
in the interior of the earth. Exogenic as well as is surface rock or the rocks we get from mining
endogenic processes are constantly shaping areas. Gold mines in South Africa are as deep
the landscape. A proper understanding of the as 3 - 4 km. Going beyond this depth is not
physiographic character of a region remains possible as it is very hot at this depth. Besides
mining, scientists have taken up a number of
incomplete if the effects of endogenic processes
projects to penetrate deeper depths to explore
are ignored. Human life is largely influenced
the conditions in the crustal portions. Scientists
by the physiography of the region. Therefore, world over are working on two major projects
it is necessary that one gets acquainted with such as Deep Ocean Drilling Project and
the forces that influence landscape Integrated Ocean Drilling Project. The
development. To understand why the earth deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so
shakes or how a tsunami wave is generated, it far reached a depth of 12 km. This and many
is necessary that we know certain details of the deep drilling projects have provided large
interior of the earth. In the previous chapter, volume of information through the analysis of
you have noted that the earth-forming materials collected at different depths.
materials have been distributed in the form of Volcanic eruption forms another source of
obtaining direct information. As and when the
layers from the crust to the core. It is interesting
molten material (magma) is thrown onto the
to know how scientists have gathered
surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption
information about these layers and what are it becomes available for laboratory analysis.
the characteristics of each of these layers. This However, it is difficult to ascertain the depth of
is exactly what this chapter deals with. the source of such magma.
Indirect Sources information about the interior of the earth.

Hence, we shall discuss it in some detail.
Analysis of properties of matter indirectly
provides information about the interior. We
Earthquake
know through the mining activity that
temperature and pressure increase with the The study of seismic waves provides a complete
increasing distance from the surface towards picture of the layered interior. An earthquake
the interior in deeper depths. Moreover, it is in simple words is shaking of the earth. It is a
also known that the density of the material also natural event. It is caused due to release of
increases with depth. It is possible to find the energy, which generates waves that travel in
rate of change of these characteristics. Knowing all directions.
the total thickness of the earth, scientists have
estimated the values of temperature, pressure Why does the earth shake?
and the density of materials at different depths. The release of energy occurs along a fault. A
The details of these characteristics with fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
reference to each layer of the interior are Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite
discussed later in this chapter. directions. As the overlying rock strata press
Another source of information are the them, the friction locks them together. However,
meteors that at times reach the earth. However, their tendency to move apart at some point of
it may be noted that the material that becomes time overcomes the friction. As a result, the
available for analysis from meteors, is not from blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide
the interior of the earth. The material and the past one another abruptly. This causes a
structure observed in the meteors are similar release of energy, and the energy waves travel
to that of the earth. They are solid bodies in all directions. The point where the energy is
developed out of materials same as, or similar released is called the focus of an earthquake,
to, our planet. Hence, this becomes yet another alternatively, it is called the hypocentre. The
source of information about the interior of the energy waves travelling in different directions
earth. reach the surface. The point on the surface,
The other indirect sources include nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is
gravitation, magnetic field, and seismic activity. the first one to experience the waves. It is a point
The gravitation force (g) is not the same at directly above the focus.
different latitudes on the surface. It is greater
near the poles and less at the equator. This is Earthquake Waves
because of the distance from the centre at the
equator being greater than that at the poles. All natural earthquakes take place in the
The gravity values also differ according to the lithosphere. You will learn about different
mass of material. The uneven distribution of layers of the earth later in this chapter. It is
mass of material within the earth influences sufficient to note here that the lithosphere refers
this value. The reading of the gravity at different to the portion of depth up to 200 km from the
places is influenced by many other factors. surface of the earth. An instrument called
These readings differ from the expected values. seismograph records the waves reaching the
Such a difference is called gravity anomaly. surface. A curve of earthquake waves recorded
Gravity anomalies give us information about on the seismograph is given in Figure 3.1. Note
the distribution of mass of the material in the that the curve shows three distinct sections
crust of the earth. Magnetic surveys also each representing different types of wave
provide information about the distribution of patterns. Earthquake waves are basically of two
magnetic materials in the crustal portion, and types body waves and surface waves. Body
thus, provide information about the waves are generated due to the release of energy
distribution of materials in this part. Seismic at the focus and move in all directions travelling
activity is one of the most important sources of through the body of the earth. Hence, the name
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH 23
body waves. The body waves interact with the propagation. As a result, it creates density
surface rocks and generate new set of waves differences in the material leading to stretching
called surface waves. These waves move along and squeezing of the material. Other three
the surface. The velocity of waves changes as waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
they travel through materials with different propagation. The direction of vibrations of
densities. The denser the material, the higher S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction
is the velocity. Their direction also changes as in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs
they reflect or refract when coming across and crests in the material through which they
materials with different densities. pass. Surface waves are considered to be the
most damaging waves.
Emergence of Shadow Zone

Earthquake waves get recorded in seismo-
graphs located at far off locations. However,
there exist some specific areas where the waves
are not reported. Such a zone is called the
shadow zone. The study of different events
reveals that for each earthquake, there exists
Figure 3.1 : Earthquake Waves
an altogether different shadow zone. Figure 3.2
There are two types of body waves. They (a) and (b) show the shadow zones of P and
are called P and S-waves. P-waves move faster S-waves. It was observed that seismographs
and are the first to arrive at the surface. These located at any distance within 105 from the
are also called primary waves. The P-waves epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and
are similar to sound waves. They travel S-waves. However, the seismographs located
through gaseous, liquid and solid materials. beyond 145 from epicentre, record the arrival
S-waves arrive at the surface with some time of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. Thus, a
lag. These are called secondary waves. An zone between 105 and 145 from epicentre was
important fact about S-waves is that they can identified as the shadow zone for both the types
travel only through solid materials. This of waves. The entire zone beyond 105 does not
characteristic of the S-waves is quite receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is
important. It has helped scientists to much larger than that of the P-waves. The
understand the structure of the interior of the shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band
earth. Reflection causes waves to rebound around the earth between 105 and 145 away
whereas refraction makes waves move in from the epicentre. The shadow zone of S-waves
different directions. The variations in the is not only larger in extent but it is also a little
direction of waves are inferred with the help of over 40 per cent of the earth surface. You can
their record on seismograph. The surface draw the shadow zone for any earthquake
waves are the last to report on seismograph. provided you know the location of the epicentre.
These waves are more destructive. They cause (See the activity box on page 28 to know how to
displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse locate the epicentre of a quake event).
of structures occurs.
Types of Earthquakes
Propagation of Earthquake Waves
(i) The most common ones are the tectonic
Different types of earthquake waves travel in earthquakes. These are generated due to
different manners. As they move or propagate, sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
they cause vibration in the body of the rocks (ii) A special class of tectonic earthquake is
through which they pass. P-waves vibrate sometimes recognised as volcanic
parallel to the direction of the wave. This exerts earthquake. However, these are confined
pressure on the material in the direction of the to areas of active volcanoes.
(v) The earthquakes that occur in the areas

of large reservoirs are referred to as
reservoir induced earthquakes.
10
Measuring Earthquakes
5
The earthquake events are scaled either
according to the magnitude or intensity of the
shock. The magnitude scale is known as the
Richter scale. The magnitude relates to the
energy released during the quake. The
105 105
magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers,
0-10. The intensity scale is named after
Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity
scale takes into account the visible damage
145 145 caused by the event. The range of intensity scale
is from 1-12.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is a natural hazard. The following
are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:
(i) Ground Shaking
(ii) Differential ground settlement
(iii) Land and mud slides
(iv) Soil liquefaction
(v) Ground lurching
(vi) Avalanches
(vii) Ground displacement
105 105 (viii) Floods from dam and levee failures
(ix) Fires
(x) Structural collapse
(xi) Falling objects
(xii) Tsunami
The first six listed above have some bearings
upon landforms, while others may be
considered the effects causing immediate
Figure 3.2 (a) and (b) : Earthquake Shadow Zones
concern to the life and properties of people in
the region. The effect of tsunami would occur
(iii) In the areas of intense mining activity, only if the epicentre of the tremor is below
sometimes the roofs of underground oceanic waters and the magnitude is
mines collapse causing minor tremors. sufficiently high. Tsunamis are waves
These are called collapse earthquakes. generated by the tremors and not an
(iv) Ground shaking may also occur due to earthquake in itself. Though the actual quake
the explosion of chemical or nuclear activity lasts for a few seconds, its effects are
devices. Such tremors are called explosion devastating provided the magnitude of the
earthquakes. quake is more than 5 on the Richter scale.
Frequency of Earthquake Occurrences STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The earthquake is a natural hazard. If a tremor The Crust
of high magnitude takes place, it can cause
heavy damage to the life and property of It is the outermost solid part of the earth. It is
people. However, not all the parts of the globe brittle in nature. The thickness of the crust
necessarily experience major shocks. We shall varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
be discussing the distribution of earthquakes Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the
and volcanoes with some details in the next continental crust. The mean thickness of
oceanic crust is 5 km whereas that of the
continental is around 30 km. The continental
crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain
systems. It is as much as 70 km thick in the
Himalayan region.
It is made up of heavier rocks having
density of 3 g/cm3. This type of rock found in
the oceanic crust is basalt. The mean density
of material in oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.
The Mantle
The portion of the interior beyond the crust is
A view of the damaged Aman Setu at the LOC called the mantle. The mantle extends from
in Uri, due to an earthquake
Mohos discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
chapter. Note that the quakes of high The upper portion of the mantle is called
magnitude, i.e. 8+ are quite rare; they occur asthenosphere. The word astheno means
once in 1-2 years whereas those of tiny types weak. It is considered to be extending upto 400
occur almost every minute. km. It is the main source of magma that finds
been released out in the recent past. The layer

below the solid crust is mantle. It has higher
density than that of the crust. The mantle
contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere.
It is from this that the molten rock materials
find their way to the surface. The material in
the upper mantle portion is called magma.
Once it starts moving towards the crust or it
reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
The material that reaches the ground includes
lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs,
ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen
compounds, sulphur compounds and minor
amounts of chlorene, hydrogen and argon.
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature
of eruption and the form developed at the
surface. Major types of volcanoes are as follows:
Figure 3.4 : The interior of the earth
its way to the surface during volcanic Shield Volcanoes

eruptions. It has a density higher than the Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes
crusts (3.4 g/cm 3 ). The crust and the are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth.
uppermost part of the mantle are called The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous
lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
The lower mantle extends beyond the
asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
The Core
As indicated earlier, the earthquake wave
velocities helped in understanding the
existence of the core of the earth. The core-
mantle boundary is located at the depth of
2,900 km. The outer core is in liquid state while
the inner core is in solid state. The density of
material at the mantle core boundary is around
5 g/cm3 and at the centre of the earth at 6,300 Shield Volcano
km, the density value is around 13g/cm3. The
core is made up of very heavy material mostly
constituted by nickel and iron. It is sometimes
referred to as the nife layer.
VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

You may have seen photographs or pictures of
volcanoes on a number of occasions. A volcano
is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten
rock material lava escape to the ground. A
volcano is called an active volcano if the
materials mentioned are being released or have Cinder Cone
examples. These volcanoes are mostly made more than 50 m. Individual flows may extend
up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid for hundreds of km. The Deccan Traps from
when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes India, presently covering most of the
are not steep. They become explosive if Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger flood
somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, basalt province. It is believed that initially the
they are characterised by low-explosivity. The trap formations covered a much larger area
upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain than the present.
and throws out the cone at the top of the vent
and develops into cinder cone. Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
Composite Volcanoes These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.

There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more
These volcanoes are characterised by than 70,000 km long that stretches through
eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas all the ocean basins. The central portion of this
than basalt. These volcanoes often result in ridge experiences frequent eruptions. We shall
explosive eruptions. Along with lava, large be discussing this in detail in the next chapter.
quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes
find their way to the ground. This material VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings
leading to formation of layers, and this makes Intrusive Forms
the mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
The lava that is released during volcanic
eruptions on cooling develops into igneous
rocks. The cooling may take place either on
reaching the surface or also while the lava is
still in the crustal portion. Depending on the
location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks
are classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the
surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the
crust). The lava that cools within the crustal
portions assumes different forms. These forms
are called intrusive forms. Some of the forms
Composite Volcano are shown in Figure 3.5.
Caldera
These are the most explosive of the earths
volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that
when they erupt they tend to collapse on
themselves rather than building any tall
structure. The collapsed depressions are called
calderas. Their explosiveness indicates that
the magma chamber supplying the lava is not
only huge but is also in close vicinity.
Flood Basalt Provinces

These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that
flows for long distances. Some parts of the
world are covered by thousands of sq. km of
thick basalt lava flows. There can be a series of
flows with some flows attaining thickness of Figure 3.5 : Volcanic Landforms
Batholiths conduit from below. It resembles the surface

A large body of magmatic material that cools volcanic domes of composite volcano, only
in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the these are located at deeper depths. It can be
regarded as the localised source of lava that
form of large domes. They appear on the surface
finds its way to the surface. The Karnataka
only after the denudational processes remove
plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite
the overlying materials. They cover large areas, rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are
and at times, assume depth that may be several examples of lacoliths or batholiths.
km. These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are
the cooled portion of magma chambers. Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills
Lacoliths As and when the lava moves upwards, a
These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies portion of the same may tend to move in a
with a level base and connected by a pipe-like horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak
Activity : Locating an Epicentre
For this you will need

Data from 3 seismograph stations about the time of arrival of P-waves, S-waves.
Procedure
1. Find the time of arrival of P and S-waves of the given quake for the three stations for which
you have the data.
2. Compute the time lag between the arrival of P and S-waves for each station; it is called time
lag. (Note that it is directly related to the distance of the seismograph from the focus.)
A. Basic rule : For every second of time lag, the earthquake is roughly 8 km away from you.
3. Using the rule quoted above, convert the time lag into distance ( # seconds of time lag * 8)
for each station.
4. On a map locate the seismograph stations.
5. Draw circles, taking the seismograph stations as the centre, with the radius equal to the
distance you have calculated in the previous step. (Do not forget to convert distance as per
the map scale.)
6. These circles will intersect each other in a point. This point is the location of the epicentre.
In normal practice, the epicentres are located using computer models. They take into account
the structure of the earths crust. The locations with accuracy within a few hundred metres
can be achieved. The procedure outlined here is a much simplified version of what is normally
done, although the principle is the same.
In the following diagram, the epicentre is located using this procedure. It also contains a
table giving necessary data. Why dont you try for yourself ?
Data
Arrival time of
Station P-waves S-waves
Hour Min. Sec. Hour Min. Sec.
S1 03 23 20 03 24 45
S2 03 22 17 03 23 57
S3 03 22 00 03 23 55
Scale of the map 1cm = 40km
plane. It may get rested in different forms. In while the thick horizontal deposits are
case it develops into a saucer shape, concave called sills.
to the sky body, it is called lapolith. A wavy
mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at Dykes
the base of synclines or at the top of anticline
When the lava makes its way through cracks
in folded igneous country. Such wavy materials
and the fissures developed in the land, it
have a definite conduit to source beneath in
the form of magma chambers (subsequently solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
developed as batholiths). These are called the It gets cooled in the same position to develop a
phacoliths. wall-like structure. Such structures are called
The near horizontal bodies of the dykes. These are the most commonly found
intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
sheet, depending on the thickness of the These are considered the feeders for the eruptions
material. The thinner ones are called sheets that led to the development of the Deccan traps.
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following earthquake waves is more destructive?
(a) P-waves (c) Surface waves
(b) S-waves (d) None of the above
(ii) Which one of the following is a direct source of information about the
interior of the earth?
(a) Earthquake waves (c) Gravitational force
(b) Volcanoes (d) Earth magnetism
(iii) Which type of volcanic eruptions have caused Deccan Trap formations?
(a) Shield (c) Composite
(b) Flood (d) Caldera
(iv) Which one of the following describes the lithosphere:
(a) upper and lower mantle (c) crust and core
(b) crust and upper mantle (d) mantle and core

(i) What are body waves?
(ii) Name the direct sources of information about the interior of the earth.
(iii) Why do earthquake waves develop shadow zone?
(iv) Briefly explain the indirect sources of information of the interior of the
earth other than those of seismic activity.
(i) What are the effects of propagation of earthquake waves on the rock mass
through which they travel?
(ii) What do you understand by intrusive forms? Briefly describe various
intrusive forms.
CHAPTER
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS
AND CONTINENTS
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In the previous chapter, you have studied the theory in 1912. This was regarding the
interior of the earth. You are already familiar distribution of the oceans and the continents.
with the world map. You know that continents According to Wegener, all the continents
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cover 29 per cent of the surface of the earth formed a single continental mass and mega
and the remainder is under oceanic waters. ocean surrounded the same. The super
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The positions of the continents and the ocean continent was named PANGAEA, which meant
bodies, as we see them in the map, have not all earth. The mega-ocean was called
been the same in the past. Moreover, it is now PANTHALASSA, meaning all water. He argued
a well-accepted fact that oceans and
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continents will not continue to enjoy their
present positions in times to come. If this is
that, around 200 million years ago, the super
continent, Pangaea, began to split. Pangaea first
broke into two large continental masses as
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so, the question arises what were their positions Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the
in the past? Why and how do they change their northern and southern components
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positions? Even if it is true that the continents respectively. Subse-quently, Laurasia and
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and oceans have changed and are changing Gondwanaland continued to break into various
their positions, you may wonder as to how smaller continents that exist today. A variety of
scientists know this. How have they determined
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evidence was offered in support of the

their earlier positions? You will find the answers continental drift. Some of these are given below.
to some of these and related questions in this
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chapter. Evidence in Support of the Continental Drift

CONTINENTAL DRIFT The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit)
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Observe the shape of the coastline of the Atlantic The shorelines of Africa and South America
Ocean. You will be surprised by the symmetry facing each other have a remarkable and
of the coastlines on either side of the ocean. No
unmistakable match. It may be noted that a
wonder, many scientists thought of this

map produced using a computer programme

similarity and considered the possibility of the
to find the best fit of the Atlantic margin was
two Americas, Europe and Africa, to be once
presented by Bullard in 1964. It proved to be
joined together. From the known records of the
quite perfect. The match was tried at 1,000-
history of science, it was Abraham Ortelius, a
fathom line instead of the present shoreline.
Dutch map maker, who first proposed such a
possibility as early as 1596. Antonio Pellegrini
Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans
drew a map showing the three continents together.
However, it was Alfred Wegenera German The radiometric dating methods developed in
meteorologist who put forth a comprehensive the recent period have facilitated correlating the
argument in the form of the continental drift rock formation from different continents across
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS 31
the vast ocean. The belt of ancient rocks of Force for Drifting
2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches
Wegener suggested that the movement
with those from western Africa. The earliest
responsible for the drifting of the continents
marine deposits along the coastline of South
was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force.
America and Africa are of the Jurassic age. The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation
This suggests that the ocean did not exist prior of the earth. You are aware of the fact that the
to that time. earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at
the equator. This bulge is due to the rotation
Tillite of the earth. The second force that was
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It is the sedimentary rock formed out of suggested by Wegenerthe tidal forceis due
deposits of glaciers. The Gondawana system to the attraction of the moon and the sun that
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of sediments from India is known to have its develops tides in oceanic waters. Wegener
counter parts in six different landmasses of the believed that these forces would become
Southern Hemisphere. At the base the system effective when applied over many million years.
has thick tillite indicating extensive and However, most of scholars considered these
forces to be totally inadequate.
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prolonged glaciation. Counter parts of this
succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island,
Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia besides Post-Drift Studies
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India. Overall resemblance of the Gondawana It is interesting to note that for continental drift,
type sediments clearly demonstrates that these most of the evidence was collected from the
landmasses had remarkably similar histories. continental areas in the form of distribution of
The glacial tillite provides unambiguous
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evidence of palaeoclimates and also of drifting
of continents.
flora and fauna or deposits like tillite. A number
of discoveries during the post-war period
added new information to geological literature.
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Particularly, the information collected from the

Placer Deposits ocean floor mapping provided new dimensions
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for the study of distribution of oceans and
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The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold

in the Ghana coast and the absolute absence continents.
of source rock in the region is an amazing fact.
Convectional Current Theory
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The gold bearing veins are in Brazil and it is

obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the
are derived from the Brazil plateau when the possibility of convection currents operating in
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two continents lay side by side. the mantle portion. These currents are
generated due to radioactive elements causing
Distribution of Fossils thermal differences in the mantle portion.
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Holmes argued that there exists a system of

When identical species of plants and animals
such currents in the entire mantle portion. This
adapted to living on land or in fresh water are
was an attempt to provide an explanation to
found on either side of the marine barriers, a
the issue of force, on the basis of which
problem arises regarding accounting for such

contemporary scientists discarded the

distribution. The observations that Lemurs continental drift theory.
occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some
to consider a contiguous landmass Lemuria Mapping of the Ocean Floor
linking these three landmasses. Mesosaurus
was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish Detailed research of the ocean configuration
water. The skeletons of these are found only revealed that the ocean floor is not just a vast
in two localities : the Southern Cape province plain but it is full of relief. Expeditions to map
of South Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil. the oceanic floor in the post-war period
The two localities presently are 4,800 km apart provided a detailed picture of the ocean relief
with an ocean in between them. and indicated the existence of submerged
mountain ranges as well as deep trenches, Abyssal Plains

mostly located closer to the continent margins.
The mid-oceanic ridges were found to be most These are extensive plains that lie between the
active in terms of volcanic eruptions. The dating continental margins and mid-oceanic ridges.
of the rocks from the oceanic crust revealed The abyssal plains are the areas where the
the fact that they are much younger than the continental sediments that move beyond the
continental areas. Rocks on either side of the margins get deposited.
crest of oceanic ridges and having equi-distant
locations from the crest were found to have Mid-Oceanic Ridges
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remarkable similarities both in terms of their This forms an interconnected chain of
constituents and their age. mountain system within the ocean. It is the
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longest mountain-chain on the surface of the
Ocean Floor Configuration earth though submerged under the oceanic
In this section we shall note a few things related waters. It is characterised by a central rift
to the ocean floor configuration that help us in system at the crest, a fractionated plateau and
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the understanding of the distribution of flank zone all along its length. The rift system
continents and oceans. You will be studying at the crest is the zone of intense volcanic
the details of ocean floor relief in Chapter activity. In the previous chapter, you have been
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13. The ocean floor may be segmented into introduced to this type of volcanoes as mid-
three major divisions based on the depth oceanic volcanoes.
as well as the forms of relief. These divisions
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
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are continental margins, deep-sea basins and
mid-ocean ridges. Study the maps showing the distribution of
seismic activity and volcanoes given in Figure
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4.2. You will notice a line of dots in the central

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parts of the Atlantic Ocean almost parallel to
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the coastlines. It further extends into the Indian

Ocean. It bifurcates a little south of the Indian
subcontinent with one branch moving into
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East Africa and the other meeting a similar line

from Myanmar to New Guiana. You will notice
that this line of dots coincides with the mid-
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oceanic ridges. The shaded belt showing

another area of concentration coincides with
the Alpine-Himalayan system and the rim of
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the Pacific Ocean. In general, the foci of the

earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges
Figure 4.1 : Ocean Floor
are at shallow depths whereas along the
Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the

Continental Margins Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-seated ones.

The map of volcanoes also shows a similar
These form the transition between continental
pattern. The rim of the Pacific is also called rim
shores and deep-sea basins. They include
of fire due to the existence of active volcanoes in
continental shelf, continental slope, continental
this area.
rise and deep-oceanic trenches. Of these, the
deep-oceanic trenches are the areas which are
CONCEPT OF SEA FLOOR SPREADING
of considerable interest in so far as the
distribution of oceans and continents is As mentioned above, the post-drift studies
concerned. provided considerable information that was not
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Figure 4. 2 : Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes

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available at the time Wegener put forth his (iv) The sediments on the ocean floor are
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concept of continental drift. Particularly, the unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were
mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic expecting, if the ocean floors were as old
studies of rocks from oceanic regions revealed as the continent, to have a complete
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the following facts : sequence of sediments for a period of much

(i) It was realised that all along the mid- longer duration. However, nowhere was the
oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are sediment column found to be older than
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common and they bring huge amounts of 200 million years.

lava to the surface in this area. (v) The deep trenches have deep-seated
(ii) The rocks equidistant on either sides of the earthquake occurrences while in the mid-
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crest of mid-oceanic ridges show oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have
remarkable similarities in terms of period shallow depths.
of formation, chemical compositions and These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic
magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the properties of the rocks on either sides of the

mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity mid-oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose
and are the youngest. The age of the rocks his hypothesis, known as the sea floor
increases as one moves away from the spreading. Hess argued that constant
crest. eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause
(iii) The ocean crust rocks are much younger the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new
than the continental rocks. The age of rocks lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust
in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than on either side. The ocean floor, thus spreads.
200 million years old. Some of the continental The younger age of the oceanic crust as well
rock formations are as old as 3,200 million as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does
years. not cause the shrinking of the other, made Hess
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is
Figure 4. 3 : Sea floor spreading
think about the consumption of the oceanic PLATE TECTONICS
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crust. He further maintained that the ocean Since the advent of the concept of sea floor
floor that gets pushed due to volcanic spreading, the interest in the problem of
eruptions at the crest, sinks down at the
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oceanic trenches and gets consumed. revived. It was in 1967, McKenzie and Parker
The basic concept of sea floor spreading has and also Morgan, independently collected the
been depicted in Figure 4.3. available ideas and came out with another
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The motions of the continents during the past 540

million years. 1. Africa; 2. South America;
3. Antarctica; 4. Australia; 5. India; 6. China; 7. North
America; 8. Europe; 9. and 10. Siberia (Emilani, 1992)
Figure 4.4 : Position of continents through geological past

concept termed Plate Tectonics. A tectonic (ii) North American (with western Atlantic
plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a floor separated from the South American
massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock, plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
generally composed of both continental and (iii) South American (with western Atlantic
oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally
floor separated from the North American
over the asthenosphere as rigid units. The
plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle
with its thickness range varying between 5-100 (iv) Pacific plate
km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the (v) India-Australia-New Zealand plate
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continental areas. A plate may be referred to (vi) Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
as the continental plate or oceanic plate (vii) Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.
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depending on which of the two occupy a larger Some important minor plates are listed
portion of the plate. Pacific plate is largely an below:
oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian plate may be (i) Cocos plate : Between Central America
called a continental plate. The theory of plate and Pacific plate
tectonics proposes that the earths lithosphere is
is
(ii) Nazca plate : Between South America
divided into seven major and some minor plates. and Pacific plate
Young Fold Mountain ridges, trenches, and/or
(iii) Arabian plate : Mostly the Saudi Arabian
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faults surround these major plates (Figure 4.5).
landmass
The major plates are as follows :
(i) Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic (iv) Philippine plate : Between the Asiatic and
plate
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Figure 4.5 : Major and minor plates of the world

(v) Caroline plate : Between the Philippine Transform Boundaries

and Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
Where the crust is neither produced nor
(vi) Fuji plate : North-east of Australia.
destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past
These plates have been constantly moving
each other. Transform faults are the planes of
over the globe throughout the history of the
separation generally perpendicular to the mid-
earth. It is not the continent that moves as
oceanic ridges. As the eruptions do not take
believed by Wegener. Continents are part of a
all along the entire crest at the same time, there
plate and what moves is the plate. Moreover, it
is a differential movement of a portion of the
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may be noted that all the plates, without
plate away from the axis of the earth. Also, the
exception, have moved in the geological past,
rotation of the earth has its effect on the
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and shall continue to move in the future as well.
separated blocks of the plate portions.
Wegener had thought of all the continents to
have initially existed as a super continent in How do you think the rate of plate
the form of Pangaea. However, later discoveries movement is determined?
reveal that the continental masses, resting on
is
the plates, have been wandering all through the
Rates of Plate Movement
geological period, and Pangaea was a result of
bl
converging of different continental masses that The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field
were parts of one or the other plates. Scientists that parallel the mid-oceanic ridges help
using the palaeomagnetic data have determined
pu scientists determine the rates of plate
the positions held by each of the present movement. These rates vary considerably. The
continental landmass in different geological Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5
periods (Fig 4.4). Position of the Indian sub- cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise near Easter
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continent (mostly Peninsular India) is traced Island, in the South Pacific about 3,400 km
with the help of the rocks analysed from the west of Chile, has the fastest rate (more than
re
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Nagpur area. 15 cm/yr).

There are three types of plate boundaries:
Force for the Plate Movement
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Divergent Boundaries
At the time that Wegener proposed his theory
Where new crust is generated as the plates pull of continental drift, most scientists believed
C
away from each other. The sites where the that the earth was a solid, motionless body.
plates move away from each other are called However, concepts of sea floor spreading and
spreading sites. The best-known example of the unified theory of plate tectonics have
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divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. emphasised that both the surface of the earth
At this, the American Plate(s) is/are separated and the interior are not static and motionless
from the Eurasian and African Plates. but are dynamic. The fact that the plates move
is now a well-accepted fact. The mobile rock

Convergent Boundaries beneath the rigid plates is believed to be

Where the crust is destroyed as one plate dived moving in a circular manner. The heated
under another. The location where sinking of material rises to the surface, spreads and
a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. begins to cool, and then sinks back into deeper
There are three ways in which convergence can depths. This cycle is repeated over and over to
occur. These are: (i) between an oceanic and generate what scientists call a convection cell
continental plate; (ii) between two oceanic or convective flow. Heat within the earth comes
plates; and (iii) between two continental from two main sources: radioactive decay and
plates. residual heat. Arthur Holmes first considered
this idea in the 1930s, which later influenced

Harry Hess thinking about seafloor spreading.
The slow movement of hot, softened mantle
that lies below the rigid plates is the driving
force behind the plate movement.
MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE

The Indian plate includes Peninsular India
d
and the Australian continental portions. The
subduction zone along the Himalayas forms
the northern plate boundary in the form of
he
continent continent convergence. In the east,
it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of
Myanmar towards the island arc along the
Java Trench. The eastern margin is a
is
spreading site lying to the east of Australia in
the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific. The
Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of
bl
Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana
coast and joins the spreading site from the
Red Sea rift southeastward along the Chagos
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Archipelago. The boundary between India
and the Antarctic plate is also marked by
oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running
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in roughly W-E direction and merging into the

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spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
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India was a large island situated off the

Australian coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys
Sea separated it from the Asian continent till
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about 225 million years ago. India is supposed

to have started her northward journey about
200 million years ago at the time when Pangaea
C
broke. India collided with Asia about 40-50 Figure 4.6 : Movement of the Indian plate
million years ago causing rapid uplift of the plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event
Himalayas. The positions of India since about
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that occurred was the outpouring of lava and

71 million years till the present are shown in formation of the Deccan Traps. This started
the Figure 4.6. It also shows the position of somewhere around 60 million years ago and
the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian continued for a long period of time. Note that
plate. About 140 million years before the

the subcontinent was still close to the equator.

present, the subcontinent was located as From 40 million years ago and thereafter, the
south as 50oS. latitude. The two major plates event of formation of the Himalayas took place.
were separated by the Tethys Sea and the Scientists believe that the process is still
Tibetan block was closer to the Asiatic continuing and the height of the Himalayas is
landmass. During the movement of the Indian rising even to this date.
EXERCISES

(i) Who amongst the following was the first to consider the possibility of
Europe, Africa and America having been located side by side.
(a) Alfred Wegener (c) Abraham Ortelius
(b) Antonio Pellegrini (d) Edmond Hess
(ii) Polar fleeing force relates to:
d
(a) Revolution of the Earth (c) Rotation of the earth
(b) Gravitation (d) Tides
he
(iii) Which one of the following is not a minor plate?
(a) Nazca (c) Philippines
(b) Arabia (d) Antarctica
is
(iv) Which one of the following facts was not considered by those while
discussing the concept of sea floor spreading?
(a) Volcanic activity along the mid-oceanic ridges.
bl
(b) Stripes of normal and reverse magnetic field observed in rocks of ocean
floor.
(c) Distribution of fossils in different continents.
pu (d) Age of rocks from the ocean floor.
(v) Which one of the following is the type of plate boundary of the Indian plate
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along the Himalayan mountains?

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(a) Ocean-continent convergence
o R
(b) Divergent boundary

(c) Transform boundary
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(d) Continent-continent convergence

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(i) What were the forces suggested by Wegener for the movement of the
continents?
(ii) How are the convectional currents in the mantle initiated and maintained?
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(iii) What is the major difference between the transform boundary and the
convergent or divergent boundaries of plates?
(iv) What was the location of the Indian landmass during the formation of the
Deccan Traps?


(i) What are the evidences in support of the continental drift theory?
(ii) Bring about the basic difference between the drift theory and Plate
tectonics.
(iii) What were the major post-drift discoveries that rejuvenated the interest
of scientists in the study of distribution of oceans and continents?
Project Work
Prepare a collage related to damages caused by an earthquake.
d
he
is
UNIT
III
bl
pu LANDFORMS
be T
re
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Rocks and minerals major types of rocks and their

characteristics
tt E
Landforms and their evolution

C
Geomorphic processes weathering, mass wasting, erosion

and deposition; soils formation
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CHAPTER
MINERALS AND ROCKS
d
he
T
he earth is composed of various kinds Though the number of elements making
of elements. These elements are in solid up the lithosphere are limited they are
form in the outer layer of the earth and combined in many different ways to make up
is
in hot and molten form in the interior. many varieties of minerals. There are at least
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the 2,000 minerals that have been named and
earth is composed of eight elements like
bl
identified in the earth crust; but almost all the
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium,
commonly occurring ones are related to six
sodium, potassium and magnesium (Table 5.1),
major mineral groups that are known as major
and the rest is constituted by titanium,
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hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, rock forming minerals.
carbon, nickel and other elements. The basic source of all minerals is the hot
magma in the interior of the earth. When
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Table 5.1 : The Major Elements of the Earths Crust

magma cools, crystals of minerals appear and
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Sl. No. Elements By Weight(%) a systematic series of minerals are formed in
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1. Oxygen 46.60 sequence to solidify so as to form rocks.

2. Silicon 27.72 Minerals such as coal, petroleum and natural
3. Aluminium 8.13
gas are organic substances found in solid,
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4. Iron 5.00
5. Calcium 3.63 liquid and gaseous forms respectively.
6. Sodium 2.83 A brief information about some important
7. Potassium 2.59
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8. Magnesium 2.09
minerals in terms of their nature and physical
9. Others 1.41 characteristics is given below :
The elements in the earths crust are rarely

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found exclusively but are usually combined with PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

other elements to make various substances.
(i) External crystal form deter-
These substances are recognised as minerals. mined by internal arrangement of

the molecules cubes, octahe-

Thus, a mineral is a naturally occurring drons, hexagonal prisms, etc.
organic and inorganic substance, having (ii) Cleavage tendency to break in
an orderly atomic structure and a definite given directions producing
chemical composition and physical relatively plane surfaces result
properties. A mineral is composed of two of internal arrangement of the
or more elements. But, sometimes single molecules may cleave in one or
more directions and at any angle
element minerals like sulphur, copper,
to each other.
silver, gold, graphite etc. are found.
MINERALS AND ROCKS 41
SOME MAJOR MINERALS AND

(iii) Fracture internal molecular
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
arrangement so complex there are
no planes of molecules; the crystal
Feldspar
will break in an irregular manner,
not along planes of cleavage. Silicon and oxygen are common elements in
(iv) Lustre appearance of a material all types of feldspar and sodium, potassium,
without regard to colour; each calcium, aluminium etc. are found in specific
mineral has a distinctive lustre like feldspar variety. Half of the earths crust is
metallic, silky, glossy etc. composed of feldspar. It has light cream to
d
(v) Colour some minerals have salmon pink colour. It is used in ceramics and
characteristic colour determined glass making.
he
by their molecular structure
malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite etc., Quartz
and some minerals are coloured by
It is one of the most important components of
impurities. For example, because
sand and granite. It consists of silica. It is a
of impurities quartz may be white,
hard mineral virtually insoluble in water. It is
is
green, red, yellow etc.
(vi) Streak colour of the ground powder
white or colourless and used in radio and radar.
of any mineral. It may be of the
It is one of the most important components of
granite.
bl
same colour as the mineral or may
differ malachite is green and gives
green streak, fluorite is purple or Pyroxene
pu green but gives a white streak. Pyroxene consists of calcium, aluminum,
(vii) Transparency transparent: light magnesium, iron and silica. Pyroxene forms
rays pass through so that objects 10 per cent of the earths crust. It is commonly
can be seen plainly; translucent found in meteorites. It is in green or black
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light rays pass through but will colour.

get diffused so that objects cannot
re
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be seen; opaque light will not pass Amphibole

at all.
(viii) Structure particular arrange- Aluminium, calcium, silica, iron, magnesium
ment of the individual crystals; are the major elements of amphiboles. They
tt E
fine, medium or coarse grained; form 7 per cent of the earths crust. It is in
fibrous separable, divergent, green or black colour and is used in asbestos
radiating. industry. Hornblende is another form of
C
(ix) Hardness relative resistance amphiboles.

being scratched; ten minerals are
selected to measure the degree of Mica
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hardness from 1-10. They are: It comprises of potassium, aluminium,

1. talc; 2. gypsum; 3. calcite; magnesium, iron, silica etc. It forms 4 per cent
4. fluorite; 5. apatite; 6. feldspar; of the earths crust. It is commonly found in
7. quartz; 8. topaz; 9. corundum; igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is used in

10. diamond. Compared to this for electrical instruments.

example, a fingernail is 2.5 and
glass or knife blade is 5.5. Olivine
(x) Specific gravity the ratio between
the weight of a given object and Magnesium, iron and silica are major elements
the weight of an equal volume of of olivine. It is used in jewellery. It is usually a
water; object weighed in air and greenish crystal, often found in basaltic rocks.
then weighed in water and divide Besides these main minerals, other minerals
weight in air by the difference of the like chlorite, calcite, magnetite, haematite,
two weights. bauxite and barite are also present in some
quantities in the rocks.
Metallic Minerals Igneous Rocks

These minerals contain metal content and can As igneous rocks form out of magma and lava
be sub-divided into three types: from the interior of the earth, they are known
(i) Precious metals : gold, silver, platinum as primary rocks. The igneous rocks (Ignis
etc. in Latin means Fire) are formed when magma
(ii) Ferrous metals : iron and other metals cools and solidifies. You already know what
often mixed with iron to form various magma is. When magma in its upward
kinds of steel. movement cools and turns into solid form it is
d
(iii) Non-ferrous metals : include metals called igneous rock. The process of cooling and
like copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium solidification can happen in the earths crust
he
etc. or on the surface of the earth.
Igneous rocks are classified based on
Non-Metallic Minerals texture. Texture depends upon size and
arrangement of grains or other physical
These minerals do not contain metal content.
conditions of the materials. If molten material
is
Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are examples
is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains
of non-metallic minerals. Cement is a mixture may be very large. Sudden cooling (at the
of non-metallic minerals. surface) results in small and smooth grains.
bl
Intermediate conditions of cooling would result
ROCKS
in intermediate sizes of grains making up
The earths crust is composed of rocks. A igneous rocks. Granite, gabbro, pegmatite,
pu
rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
Rock may be hard or soft and in varied
basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff are some of
the examples of igneous rocks.
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colours. For example, granite is hard, soapstone

is soft. Gabbro is black and quartzite can be Sedimentary Rocks
re
milky white. Rocks do not have definite
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The word sedimentary is derived from the Latin

composition of mineral constituents. word sedimentum, which means settling. Rocks
Feldspar and quartz are the most common (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the
tt E
minerals found in rocks. earths surface are exposed to denudational

agents, and are broken up into various sizes
Petrology is science of rocks. A petrologist of fragments. Such fragments are transported
C
studies rocks in all their aspects viz., by different exogenous agencies and
mineral composition, texture, structure, deposited. These deposits through compaction
origin, occurrence, alteration and turn into rocks. This process is called
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relationship with other rocks. lithification. In many sedimentary rocks, the

layers of deposits retain their characteristics
As there is a close relation between rocks even after lithification. Hence, we see a number
and landforms, rocks and soils, a geographer of layers of varying thickness in sedimentary

requires basic knowledge of rocks. There are rocks like sandstone, shale etc.
many different kinds of rocks which are Depending upon the mode of formation,
grouped under three families on the basis of sedimentary rocks are classified into three major
their mode of formation. They are: (i) Igneous groups: (i) mechanically formed sandstone,
Rocks solidified from magma and lava; conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks the result of examples; (ii) organically formed geyserite,
deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples;
processes; (iii) Metamorphic Rocks formed out (iii) chemically formed chert, limestone, halite,
of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation. potash etc. are some examples.
MINERALS AND ROCKS 43
Metamorphic Rocks major groups foliated rocks and non-foliated

rocks. Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist,
The word metamorphic means change of form.
marble, quartzite etc. are some examples of
These rocks form under the action of pressure,
metamorphic rocks.
volume and temperature (PVT) changes.
Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced
ROCK CYCLE
down to lower levels by tectonic processes or
when molten magma rising through the crust Rocks do not remain in their original form for
comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the long but may undergo transformation. Rock
underlying rocks are subjected to great cycle is a continuous process through which
d
amounts of pressure by overlying rocks. old rocks are transformed into new ones.
Metamorphism is a process by which already Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other
he
consolidated rocks undergo recrystallisation rocks (sedimentary and metamorphic) form
and reorganisation of materials within original from these primary rocks. Igneous rocks can
rocks. be changed into metamorphic rocks. The
Mechanical disruption and reorganisation fragments derived out of igneous and
is
of the original minerals within rocks due to metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary
breaking and crushing without any
appreciable chemical changes is called dynamic
bl
metamorphism. The materials of rocks
chemically alter and recrystallise due to
thermal metamorphism. There are two types
pu
of thermal metamorphism contact meta-
morphism and regional metamorphism. In
contact metamorphism the rocks come in
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contact with hot intruding magma and lava

and the rock materials recrystallise under high
re
temperatures. Quite often new materials form
o R
out of magma or lava are added to the rocks.

In regional metamorphism, rocks undergo
recrystallisation due to deformation caused by
tt E
Fig 5.1 : Rock Cycle

tectonic shearing together with high
temperature or pressure or both. In the process
rocks. Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn
C
of metamorphism in some rocks grains or

into fragments and the fragments can be a
minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such
source for formation of sedimentary rocks. The
an arrangement of minerals or grains in
crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and
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metamorphic rocks is called foliation or

lineation. Sometimes minerals or materials of sedimentary) once formed may be carried
different groups are arranged into alternating down into the mantle (interior of the earth)
thin to thick layers appearing in light and dark through subduction process (parts or whole
of crustal plates going down under another

shades. Such a structure in metamorphic

rocks is called banding and rocks displaying plate in zones of plate convergence) and the
banding are called banded rocks. Types of same melt down due to increase in
metamorphic rocks depend upon original temperature in the interior and turn into
rocks that were subjected to metamorphism. molten magma, the original source for
Metamorphic rocks are classified into two igneous rocks (Figure 5.1).
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following are the two main constituents of granite?
(a) Iron and nickel (c) Silica and aluminium
(b) Iron and silver (d) Iron Oxide and potassium
(ii) Which one of the following is the salient feature of metamorphic rocks?
d
(a) Changeable (c) Crystalline
(b) Quite (d) Foliation
he
(iii) Which one of the following is not a single element mineral?
(a) Gold (c) Mica
(b) Silver (d) Graphite
(iv) Which one of the following is the hardest mineral?
is
(a) Topaz (c) Quartz
(b) Diamond (d) Feldspar
bl
(v) Which one of the following is not a sedimentary rock?
(a) Tillite (c) Breccia
2.
pu (b) Borax (d) Marble
Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What do you mean by rocks? Name the three major classes of rocks.
be T
(ii) What is an igneous rock? Describe the method of formation and

re
characteristics of igneous rock.
o R
(iii) What is meant by sedimentary rock? Describe the mode of formation of

sedimentary rock.
tt E
(iv) What relationship explained by rock cycle between the major type of rock?
C
(i) Define the term mineral and name the major classes of minerals with
their physical characteristics.
(ii) Describe the nature and mode of origin of the chief types of rock at the
no N
earths crust. How will you distinguish them?

(iii) What are metamorphic rocks? Describe the types of metamorphic rock
and how are they formed?

Project Work
Collect different rock samples and try to recognise them from their physical
characteristics and identify their family.
CHAPTER
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
d
he
A
fter learning about how the earth was forces continuously elevate or build up parts
born, how it evolved its crust and other of the earths surface and hence the exogenic
inner layers, how its crustal plates processes fail to even out the relief variations
is
moved and are moving, and other information of the surface of the earth. So, variations remain
on earthquakes, the forms of volcanism and as long as the opposing actions of exogenic and
about the rocks and minerals the crust is endogenic forces continue. In general terms,
bl
composed of, it is time to know in detail about the endogenic forces are mainly land building
the surface of the earth on which we live. Let forces and the exogenic processes are mainly
us start with this question.
pu land wearing forces. The surface of the earth is
sensitive. Humans depend on it for their
Why is the surface of the earth uneven? sustenance and have been using it extensively
and intensively. So, it is essential to understand
be T
The earths crust is dynamic. You are well its nature in order to use it effectively without
re
aware that it has moved and moves vertically disturbing its balance and diminishing its
o R
and horizontally. Of course, it moved a bit faster potential for the future. Almost all organisms
in the past than the rate at which it is moving contribute to sustain the earths environment.
now. The differences in the internal forces However, humans have caused extensive
tt E
operating from within the earth which built up damage to the environment through over use
the crust have been responsible for the of resources. Use we must, but must also leave
variations in the outer surface of the crust. The it potential enough to sustain life through the
C
earths surface is being continuously subjected future. Most of the surface of the earth had and
to external forces induced basically by energy has been shaped over very long periods of time
(sunlight). Of course, the internal forces are still (hundreds and thousands of years) and
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active though with different intensities. That because of its use and misuse by humans its
means, the earths surface is being potential is being diminished at a fast rate. If
continuously subjected to by external forces the processes which shaped and are shaping
originating within the earths atmosphere and the surface of the earth into varieties of forms

by internal forces from within the earth. The (shapes) and the nature of materials of which
external forces are known as exogenic forces it is composed of, are understood, precautions
and the internal forces are known as endogenic can be taken to minimise the detrimental effects
forces. The actions of exogenic forces result in of human use and to preserve it for posterity.
wearing down (degradation) of relief/elevations
and filling up (aggradation) of basins/ GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
depressions, on the earths surface. The You would like to know the meaning of
phenomenon of wearing down of relief geomorphic processes. The endogenic and
variations of the surface of the earth through exogenic forces causing physical stresses and
erosion is known as gradation. The endogenic chemical actions on earth materials and
bringing about changes in the configuration ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

of the surface of the earth are known as
The energy emanating from within the earth is
geomorphic processes. Diastrophism and the main force behind endogenic geomorphic
volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes. This energy is mostly generated by
processes. These have already been discussed radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and
in brief in the preceding unit. Weathering, mass primordial heat from the origin of the earth.
wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic This energy due to geothermal gradients and
geomorphic processes. These exogenic heat flow from within induces diastrophism
processes are dealt with in detail in this chapter. and volcanism in the lithosphere. Due to
d
Any exogenic element of nature (like water, variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow
ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and from within, crustal thickness and strength,
he
transporting earth materials can be called a the action of endogenic forces are not uniform
geomorphic agent. When these elements of and hence the tectonically controlled original
nature become mobile due to gradients, they crustal surface is uneven.
remove the materials and transport them over
is
slopes and deposit them at lower level. Diastrophism
Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents
All processes that move, elevate or build up
especially exogenic, unless stated separately,
portions of the earths crust come under
bl
are one and the same.
diastrophism. They include: (i) orogenic
A process is a force applied on earth
processes involving mountain building
materials affecting the same. An agent is a
pu through severe folding and affecting long and
mobile medium (like running water, moving ice narrow belts of the earths crust; (ii) epeirogenic
masses, wind, waves and currents etc.) which processes involving uplift or warping of large
removes, transports and deposits earth parts of the earths crust; (iii) earthquakes
be T
materials. Running water, groundwater, involving local relatively minor movements;

glaciers, wind, waves and currents, etc., can
re
(iv) plate tectonics involving horizontal
o R
be called geomorphic agents. movements of crustal plates.

In the process of orogeny, the crust is
Do you think it is essential to distinguish severely deformed into folds. Due to epeirogeny,
tt E
geomorphic agents and geomorphic there may be simple deformation. Orogeny is

processes? a mountain building process whereas
epeirogeny is continental building process.
C
Gravity besides being a directional force

Through the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny,
activating all downslope movements of matter
earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can be
also causes stresses on the earths materials.
faulting and fracturing of the crust. All these
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Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave and

processes cause pressure, volume and
tide induced currents and winds. Without temperature (PVT) changes which in turn
gravity and gradients there would be no induce metamorphism of rocks.
mobility and hence no erosion, transportation

and deposition are possible. So, gravitational Epeirogeny and orogeny, cite the
stresses are as important as the other differences.
geomorphic processes. Gravity is the force that
is keeping us in contact with the surface and it
is the force that switches on the movement of Volcanism
all surface material on earth. All the movements Volcanism includes the movement of molten
either within the earth or on the surface of the rock (magma) onto or toward the earths
earth occur due to gradients from higher surface and also formation of many intrusive
levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low and extrusive volcanic forms. Many aspects of
pressure areas etc. volcanism have already been dealt in detail
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 47
under volcanoes in the Unit II and under processes and their respective driving forces.
igneous rocks in the preceding chapter in this It should become clear from this chart that for
unit. each process there exists a distinct driving force
or energy.
What do the words volcanism and As there are different climatic regions on
volcanoes indicate? the earths surface owing to thermal gradients
created by latitudinal, seasonal and land and
water spread variations, the exogenic
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
geomorphic processes vary from region to
d
The exogenic processes derive their energy region. The density, type and distribution of
from atmosphere determined by the ultimate vegetation which largely depend upon
energy from the sun and also the gradients
he
created by tectonic factors.
Why do you think that the slopes or

gradients are created by tectonic factors?
is
Gravitational force acts upon all earth
materials having a sloping surface and tend to
bl
produce movement of matter in down slope
direction. Force applied per unit area is called
stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing Figure 6.1 : Denudational processes and their
driving forces
pu
or pulling. This induces deformation. Forces
acting along the faces of earth materials are
shear stresses (separating forces). It is this
precipitation and temperature exert influence
indirectly on exogenic geomorphic processes.
be T
stress that breaks rocks and other earth Within different climatic regions there may be
materials. The shear stresses result in angular local variations of the effects of different climatic
re
displacement or slippage. Besides the elements due to altitudinal differences, aspect
o R
gravitational stress earth materials become variations and the variation in the amount of
subjected to molecular stresses that may be insolation received by north and south facing
caused by a number of factors amongst which slopes as compared to east and west facing
tt E
temperature changes, crystallisation and slopes. Further, due to differences in wind

melting are the most common. Chemical velocities and directions, amount and kind of
processes normally lead to loosening of bonds
C
precipitation, its intensity, the relation between

between grains, dissolving of soluble minerals precipitation and evaporation, daily range of
or cementing materials. Thus, the basic reason temperature, freezing and thawing frequency,
that leads to weathering, mass movements, and
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depth of frost penetration, the geomorphic

erosion is development of stresses in the body processes vary within any climatic region.
of the earth materials.
As there are different climatic regions on What is the sole driving force behind all
the earths surface the exogenic geomorphic the exogenic processes?

processes vary from region to region.

Temperature and precipitation are the two Climatic factors being equal, the intensity
important climatic elements that control of action of exogenic geomorphic processes
various processes. depends upon type and structure of rocks. The
All the exogenic geomorphic processes are term structure includes such aspects of rocks
covered under a general term, denudation. The as folds, faults, orientation and inclination of
word denude means to strip off or to uncover. beds, presence or absence of joints, bedding
Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion planes, hardness or softness of constituent
and transportation are included in denudation. minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral
The flow chart (Figure 6.1) gives the denudation constituents; the permeability or impermeability
etc. Different types of rocks with differences in

their structure offer varying resistances to
various geomorphic processes. A particular
rock may be resistant to one process and non-
resistant to another. And, under varying
climatic conditions, particular rocks may
exhibit different degrees of resistance to
geomorphic processes and hence they operate
at differential rates and give rise to differences
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in topography. The effects of most of the
exogenic geomorphic processes are small and
slow and may be imperceptible in a short time
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span, but will in the long run affect the rocks
severely due to continued fatigue.
Finally, it boils down to one fact that the
differences on the surface of the earth though Figure 6.2 : Climatic regimes and depth of weathering
mantles (adapted and modified from Strakhov, 1967)
is
originally related to the crustal evolution
continue to exist in some form or the other due
to differences in the type and structure of earth Activity
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materials, differences in geomorphic processes
and in their rates of operation. Mark the latitude values of different
Some of the exogenic geomorphic processes climatic regimes in Figure 6.2 and
compare the details.
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have been dealt in detail here.
WEATHERING There are three major groups of weathering

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Weathering is action of elements of weather and processes : (i) chemical; (ii) physical or
mechanical; (iii) biological weathering processes.
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climate over earth materials. There are a
Very rarely does any one of these processes ever
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number of processes within weathering which

act either individually or together to affect the operate completely by itself, but quite often a
earth materials in order to reduce them to dominance of one process can be seen.
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fragmental state.
Chemical Weathering Processes
Weathering is defined as mechanical A group of weathering processes viz; solution,
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disintegration and chemical decom- carbonation, hydration, oxidation and

position of rocks through the actions of reduction act on the rocks to decompose,
various elements of weather and climate. dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state
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through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface

As very little or no motion of materials and/or soil water and other acids. Water and
takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with
on-site process. heat must be present to speed up all chemical

reactions. Over and above the carbon dioxide

Is this little motion which can occur
present in the air, decomposition of plants and
sometimes due to weathering synonymous
animals increases the quantity of carbon
with transportation? If not, why?
dioxide underground. These chemical
Weathering processes are conditioned by reactions on various minerals are very much
many complex geological, climatic, topographic similar to the chemical reactions in a laboratory.
and vegetative factors. Climate is of particular
importance. Not only weathering processes Solution
differ from climate to climate, but also the depth When something is dissolved in water or acids,
of the weathering mantle (Figure 6.2). the water or acid with dissolved contents is
called solution. This process involves removal Many clay minerals swell and contract during
of solids in solution and depends upon wetting and drying and a repetition of this
solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids. process results in cracking of overlying
On coming in contact with water many solids materials. Salts in pore spaces undergo rapid
and repeated hydration and help in rock
disintegrate and mix up as suspension in
fracturing. The volume changes in minerals
water. Soluble rock forming minerals like
due to hydration will also help in physical
nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are weathering through exfoliation and granular
affected by this process. So, these minerals are disintegration.
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easily leached out without leaving any residue
in rainy climates and accumulate in dry Oxidation and Reduction
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regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate and In weathering, oxidation means a combination
calcium magnesium bicarbonate present in of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or
limestones are soluble in water containing hydroxides. Oxidation occurs where there is
carbonic acid (formed with the addition of ready access to the atmosphere and
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carbon dioxide in water), and are carried away oxygenated waters. The minerals most
in water as solution. Carbon dioxide produced commonly involved in this process are iron,
by decaying organic matter along with soil manganese, sulphur etc. In the process of
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water greatly aids in this reaction. Common oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the
salt (sodium chloride) is also a rock forming disturbance caused by addition of oxygen. Red
colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown
mineral and is susceptible to this process of
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solution.
in an environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place. Such conditions exist
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Carbonation
usually below the water table, in areas of
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and stagnant water and waterlogged ground. Red
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bicarbonate with minerals and is a common colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish
process helping the breaking down of or bluish grey.
These weathering processes are inter-
feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon
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related. Hydration, carbonation and oxidation

dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is
go hand in hand and hasten the weathering
absorbed by water, to form carbonic acid that process.
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acts as a weak acid. Calcium carbonates and

magnesium carbonates are dissolved in
Can we give iron rusting as an example
carbonic acid and are removed in a solution
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of oxidation? How essential is water in

without leaving any residue resulting in cave
chemical weathering processes? Can
formation. chemical weathering processes dominate
in water scarce hot deserts?
Hydration

Hydration is the chemical addition of water.

Minerals take up water and expand; this Physical Weathering Processes
expansion causes an increase in the volume of Physical or mechanical weathering processes
the material itself or rock. Calcium sulphate depend on some applied forces. The applied
takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such as
more unstable than calcium sulphate. This overburden pressure, load and shearing stress;
process is reversible and long, continued (ii) expansion forces due to temperature
repetition of this process causes fatigue in the changes, crystal growth or animal activity;
rocks and may lead to their disintegration. (iii) water pressures controlled by wetting and
drying cycles. Many of these forces are applied temperatures, this internal movement among
both at the surface and within different earth the mineral grains of the superficial layers of
materials leading to rock fracture. Most of the rocks takes place regularly. This process is
physical weathering processes are caused by most effective in dry climates and high
thermal expansion and pressure release. These elevations where diurnal temperature changes
processes are small and slow but can cause are drastic. As has been mentioned earlier
great damage to the rocks because of though these movements are very small they
continued fatigue the rocks suffer due to make the rocks weak due to continued fatigue.
repetition of contraction and expansion. The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand
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more than the rock at depth and this leads to
Unloading and Expansion the formation of stress within the rock resulting
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in heaving and fracturing parallel to the
Removal of overlying rock load because of
surface. Due to differential heating and
continued erosion causes vertical pressure
resulting expansion and contraction of surface
release with the result that the upper layers of
layers and their subsequent exfoliation from
the rock expand producing disintegration of
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the surface results in smooth rounded surfaces
rock masses. Fractures will develop roughly
in rocks. In rocks like granites, smooth
parallel to the ground surface. In areas of
surfaced and rounded small to big boulders
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curved ground surface, arched fractures tend
called tors form due to such exfoliation.
to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs
of rock. Exfoliation sheets resulting from
pu What is the difference between exfoliation
expansion due to unloading and pressure domes and exfoliated tors?
release may measure hundreds or even
thousands of metres in horizontal extent. Large,
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smooth rounded domes called exfoliation Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
domes (Figure 6.3) result due to this process.
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Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice
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within pores and cracks of rocks during

repeated cycles of freezing and melting. This
process is most effective at high elevations in
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mid-latitudes where freezing and melting is

often repeated. Glacial areas are subject to frost
wedging daily. In this process, the rate of
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freezing is important. Rapid freezing of water

causes its sudden expansion and high pressure.
The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks
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and small inter granular fractures to become

wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.
Figure 6.3 : A large exfoliation dome in granite rock Salt Weathering

near bhongir (Bhuvanagiri) town in Andhra Pradesh

Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action,
Temperature Changes and Expansion hydration and crystallisation. Many salts like
calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and
Various minerals in rocks possess their own barium have a tendency to expand. Expansion
limits of expansion and contraction. With rise of these salts depends on temperature and
in temperature, every mineral expands and their thermal properties. High temperature
pushes against its neighbour and as ranges between 30 and 50 oC of surface
temperature falls, a corresponding contraction temperatures in deserts favour such salt
takes place. Because of diurnal changes in the expansion. Salt crystals in near-surface pores
cause splitting of individual grains within

rocks, which eventually fall off. This process of
falling off of individual grains may result in
granular disintegration or granular foliation.
Salt crystallisation is most effective of all
salt-weathering processes. In areas with
alternating wetting and drying conditions salt
crystal growth is favoured and the neighbouring
grains are pushed aside. Sodium chloride and
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gypsum crystals in desert areas heave up
overlying layers of materials and with the result
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polygonal cracks develop all over the heaved
surface. With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks Fig.6.4 : Exfoliation (Flacking) and granular
down most readily, followed by limestone, disintegration
sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite etc. temperature changes. Exfoliation domes and
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tors result due to unloading and thermal
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND WEATHERING expansion respectively.
Biological weathering is contribution to or
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removal of minerals and ions from the SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
weathering environment and physical changes Weathering processes are responsible for
due to growth or movement of organisms.
pu breaking down the rocks into smaller
Burrowing and wedging by organisms like fragments and preparing the way for formation
earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in of not only regolith and soils, but also erosion
exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and mass movements. Biomes and bio-
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and assists in the penetration of moisture and diversity is basically a result of forests
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air. Human beings by disturbing vegetation, (vegetation) and forests depend upon the depth
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ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in of weathering mantles. Erosion cannot be
mixing and creating new contacts between air, significant if the rocks are not weathered. That
water and minerals in the earth materials. means, weathering aids mass wasting, erosion
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Decaying plant and animal matter help in the and reduction of relief and changes in
production of humic, carbonic and other acids landforms are a consequence of erosion.
which enhance decay and solubility of some Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the
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elements. Plant roots exert a tremendous enrichment and concentrations of certain

pressure on the earth materials mechanically valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium,
copper etc., which are of great importance for
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breaking them apart.

the national economy. Weathering is an
SPECIAL EFFECTS OF WEATHERING important process in the formation of soils.
Exfoliation When rocks undergo weathering, some

This has already been explained under materials are removed through chemical
physical weathering processes of unloading, or physical leaching by groundwater and
thermal contraction and expansion and salt thereby the concentration of remaining
weathering. Exfoliation is a result but not a (valuable) materials increases. Without
process. Flaking off of more or less curved such a weathering taking place, the
sheets of shells from over rocks or bedrock concentration of the same valuable
results in smooth and rounded surfaces material may not be sufficient and
(Figures 6.3; 6.4). Exfoliation can occur due economically viable to exploit, process and
to expansion and contraction induced by refine. This is what is called enrichment.
MASS MOVEMENTS the three forms of movements. Figure 6.5 shows

the relationships among different types of mass
These movements transfer the mass of rock
movements, their relative rates of movement
debris down the slopes under the direct
and moisture limits.
influence of gravity. That means, air, water or
ice do not carry debris with them from place to
place but on the other hand the debris may
carry with it air, water or ice. The movements
of mass may range from slow to rapid,
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affecting shallow to deep columns of materials
and include creep, flow, slide and fall. Gravity
exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and
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the products of weathering. So, weathering is
not a pre-requisite for mass movement though
it aids mass movements. Mass movements are
very active over weathered slopes rather than
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over unweathered materials.
Mass movements are aided by gravity and
no geomorphic agent like running water,
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glaciers, wind, waves and currents participate
in the process of mass movements. That means Figure 6.5 : Relationships among different types of
mass movements, their relative rates of movement
mass movements do not come under erosion
pu and moisture limits (after Whitehead, 2001)
though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of
materials from one place to another. Materials Mass movements can be grouped under
over the slopes have their own resistance to two major classes: (i) slow movements;
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disturbing forces and will yield only when force (ii) rapid movements.
is greater than the shearing resistance of the
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Slow Movements
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materials. Weak unconsolidated materials,

thinly bedded rocks, faults, steeply dipping Creep is one type under this category which
beds, vertical cliffs or steep slopes, abundant can occur on moderately steep, soil covered
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precipitation and torrential rains and scarcity slopes. Movement of materials is extremely
of vegetation etc., favour mass movements. slow and imperceptible except through
Several activating causes precede mass extended observation. Materials involved can
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movements. They are : (i) removal of support be soil or rock debris. Have you ever seen fence
from below to materials above through natural posts, telephone poles lean downslope from
or artificial means; (ii) increase in gradient and their vertical position and in their linear
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height of slopes; (iii) overloading through alignment? If you have, that is due to the creep
addition of materials naturally or by artificial effect. Depending upon the type of material
involved, several types of creep viz., soil creep,
filling; (iv) overloading due to heavy rainfall,
talus creep, rock creep, rock-glacier creep etc.,
saturation and lubrication of slope materials;

can be identified. Also included in this group

(v) removal of material or load from over the
is solifluction which involves slow downslope
original slope surfaces; (vi) occurrence of flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris
earthquakes, explosions or machinery; saturated or lubricated with water. This process
(vii) excessive natural seepage; (viii) heavy is quite common in moist temperate areas
drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and where surface melting of deeply frozen ground
rivers leading to slow outflow of water from and long continued rain respectively, occur
under the slopes or river banks; (ix) indis- frequently. When the upper portions get
criminate removal of natural vegetation. saturated and when the lower parts are
Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost impervious to water percolation, flowing occurs
growth and other causes), flow and slide are in the upper parts.
Rapid Movements discontinuities in the rock, the degree of

weathering and the steepness of the slope.
These movements are mostly prevalent in
Depending upon the type of movement of
humid climatic regions and occur over gentle materials several types are identified in this
to steep slopes. Movement of water-saturated category.
clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle Slump is slipping of one or several units of
terraces or hillsides is known as earthflow. rock debris with a backward rotation with
Quite often, the materials slump making step- respect to the slope over which the movement
like terraces and leaving arcuate scarps at their takes place (Figure 6.6). Rapid rolling or sliding
heads and an accumulation bulge at the toe.
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When slopes are steeper, even the bedrock
especially of soft sedimentary rocks like shale
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or deeply weathered igneous rock may slide
downslope.
Another type in this category is mudflow.
In the absence of vegetation cover and with
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heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered
materials get saturated with water and either
slowly or rapidly flow down along definite
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channels. It looks like a stream of mud within
a valley. When the mudflows emerge out of
Figure 6.6 : Slumping of debris with backward rotation
channels onto the piedmont or plains, they can
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be very destructive engulfing roads, bridges
of earth debris without backward rotation of
and houses. Mudflows occur frequently on the
mass is known as debris slide. Debris fall is
slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanoes.
nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical
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Volcanic ash, dust and other fragments turn

or overhanging face. Sliding of individual rock
into mud due to heavy rains and flow down as
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masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces
tongues or streams of mud causing great
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is rockslide. Over steep slopes, rock sliding is

destruction to human habitations.
very fast and destructive. Figure 6.7 shows
A third type is the debris avalanche, which
landslide scars over steep slopes. Slides occur
is more characteristic of humid regions with
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as planar failures along discontinuities like

or without vegetation cover and occurs in
bedding planes that dip steeply. Rock fall is
narrow tracks on steep slopes. This debris
free falling of rock blocks over any steep slope
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avalanche can be much faster than the

keeping itself away from the slope. Rock falls
mudflow. Debris avalanche is similar to snow
occur from the superficial layers of the rock
avalanche.
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In Andes mountains of South America

and the Rockies mountains of North
America, there are a few volcanoes which
erupted during the last decade and very

devastating mudflows occurred down

their slopes during eruption as well as
after eruption.
Landslides
These are relatively rapid and perceptible
movements. The materials involved are
relatively dry. The size and shape of the Figure 6.7 : Landslide scars in Shiwalik Himalayan ranges
detached mass depends on the nature of near river Sarada at India-Nepal border, Uttar Pradesh
face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from erosion it is not a pre-condition for erosion to
rockslide which affects materials up to a take place. Weathering, mass-wasting and
substantial depth. erosion are degradational processes. It is
erosion that is largely responsible for
Between mass wasting and mass continuous changes that the earths surface is
movements, which term do you feel is undergoing. As indicated in Figure 6.1,
most appropriate? Why? Can solifluction denudational processes like erosion and
be included under rapid flow movements? transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
Why it can be and cant be? The erosion and transportation of earth
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materials is brought about by wind, running
water, glaciers, waves and ground water. Of
In our country, debris avalanches and
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these the first three agents are controlled by
landslides occur very frequently in the
climatic conditions. They represent three states
Himalayas. There are many reasons for
this. One, the Himalayas are tectonically
of matter gaseous (wind), liquid (running
active. They are mostly made up of water) and solid (glacier) respectively.
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sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated
and semi-consolidated deposits. The Can you compare the three climatically
slopes are very steep. Compared to the controlled agents?
Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering
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Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the The erosion can be defined as application
Western Ghats along the west coast are of the kinetic energy associated with the agent
relatively tectonically stable and are
pu to the surface of the land along which it moves.
mostly made up of very hard rocks; but,
Kinetic energy is computed as KE = 1/2 mv2
still, debris avalanches and landslides
occur though not as frequently as in the
where m is the mass and v is the velocity.
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Himalayas, in these hills. Why? Many Hence the energy available to perform work will
slopes are steeper with almost vertical depend on the mass of the material and the
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cliffs and escarpments in the Western velocity with which it is moving. Obviously then
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Ghats and Nilgiris. Mechanical weathering you will find that though the glaciers move at
due to temperature changes and ranges very low velocities due to tremendous mass are
is pronounced. They receive heavy more effective as the agents of erosion and wind,
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amounts of rainfall over short periods. being in gaseous state, is less effective.
So, there is almost direct rock fall quite The work of the other two agents of erosion-
frequently in these places along with
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waves and ground water is not controlled by

landslides and debris avalanches.
climate. In case of waves it is the location along
the interface of litho and hydro sphere
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coastal region that will determine the work

EROSION AND DEPOSITION
of waves, whereas the work of ground water is
Erosion involves acquisition and transportation determined more by the lithological character
of rock debris. When massive rocks break into of the region. If the rocks are permeable and

smaller fragments through weathering and soluble and water is available only then karst
any other process, erosional geomorphic topography develops. In the next chapter we
agents like running water, groundwater, shall be dealing with the landforms produced
glaciers, wind and waves remove and by each of these agents of erosion.
transport it to other places depending upon Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The
the dynamics of each of these agents. Abrasion erosional agents loose their velocity and hence
by rock debris carried by these geomorphic energy on gentler slopes and the materials
agents also aids greatly in erosion. By erosion, carried by them start to settle themselves. In
relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn other words, deposition is not actually the work
down. That means, though weathering aids of any agent. The coarser materials get
deposited first and finer ones later. By of the weathered material) which is the basic
deposition depressions get filled up. The same input for soil to form. First, the weathered
erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers, material or transported deposits are colonised
wind, waves and groundwater act as by bacteria and other inferior plant bodies like
aggradational or depositional agents also. mosses and lichens. Also, several minor
What happens to the surface of the earth organisms may take shelter within the mantle
due to erosion and deposition is elaborated in and deposits. The dead remains of organisms
the next chapter on landforms and their and plants help in humus accumulation. Minor
evolution. grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and
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trees will start growing through seeds brought
There is a shift of materials in mass in by birds and wind. Plant roots penetrate
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movements as well as in erosion from one down, burrowing animals bring up particles,
place to the other. So, why cant both be mass of material becomes porous and sponge-
treated as one and the same? Can there
like with a capacity to retain water and to permit
be appreciable erosion without rocks
the passage of air and finally a mature soil, a
undergoing weathering?
complex mixture of mineral and organic
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products forms.
SOIL FORMATION
Is weathering solely responsible for soil
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Soil and Soil Contents formation? If not, why?
You see plants growing in soils. You play in

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the ground and come into contact with soil. Pedology is soil science. A pedologist is a
You touch and feel soil and soil your clothes soil-scientist.
while playing. Can you describe it?
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A pedologist who studies soils defines soil

as a collection of natural bodies on the earths Soil-forming Factors
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surface containing living and/or dead matter
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and supporting or capable of supporting plants. Five basic factors control the formation of soils:
Soil is a dynamic medium in which many (i) parent material; (ii) topography; (iii) climate;
chemical, physical and biological activities go (iv) biological activity; (v) time. In fact soil
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on constantly. Soil is a result of decay, it is also forming factors act in union and affect the
the medium for growth. It is a changing and action of one another.
developing body. It has many characteristics
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that fluctuate with the seasons. It may be Parent Material

alternatively cold and warm or dry and moist.
Parent material is a passive control factor in
Biological activity is slowed or stopped if the
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soil becomes too cold or too dry. Organic matter soil formation. Parent materials can be any in-
increases when leaves fall or grasses die. The situ or on-site weathered rock debris (residual
soil chemistry, the amount of organic matter, soils) or transported deposits (transported
the soil flora and fauna, the temperature and soils). Soil formation depends upon the texture

the moisture, all change with the seasons as (sizes of debris) and structure (disposition of
well as with more extended periods of time. individual grains/particles of debris) as well
That means, soil becomes adjusted to as the mineral and chemical composition of the
conditions of climate, landform and vegetation rock debris/deposits.
and will change internally when these Nature and rate of weathering and depth of
controlling conditions change. weathering mantle are important considerations
under parent materials. There may be
Process of Soil Formation differences in soil over similar bedrock and
dissimilar bedrocks may have similar soils
Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first on above them. But when soils are very young
weathering. It is this weathering mantle (depth and have not matured these show strong links
with the type of parent rock. Also, in case of climates and in areas with intermediate
some limestone areas, where the weathering precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate
processes are specific and peculiar, soils will nodules (kanker) are formed.
show clear relation with the parent rock. Temperature acts in two ways increasing
or reducing chemical and biological activity.
Topography Chemical activity is increased in higher
Topography like parent materials is another temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures
passive control factor. The influence of (with an exception of carbonation) and stops
topography is felt through the amount of in freezing conditions. That is why, tropical soils
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exposure of a surface covered by parent with higher temperatures show deeper profiles
materials to sunlight and the amount of and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain
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surface and sub-surface drainage over and largely mechanically broken materials.
through the parent materials. Soils will be thin Biological Activity
on steep slopes and thick over flat upland
areas. Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy
and percolation of water is good, soil formation the parent materials from the beginning and also
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is very favourable. Soils over flat areas may at later stages help in adding organic matter,
develop a thick layer of clay with good moisture retention, nitrogen etc. Dead plants
accumulation of organic matter giving the soil provide humus, the finely divided organic matter
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dark colour. In middle latitudes, the south of the soil. Some organic acids which form
facing slopes exposed to sunlight have different during humification aid in decomposing the
conditions of vegetation and soils and the north
pu minerals of the soil parent materials.
facing slopes with cool, moist conditions have Intensity of bacterial activity shows up
some other soils and vegetation. differences between soils of cold and warm
climates. Humus accumulates in cold climates
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Climate as bacterial growth is slow. With undecomposed

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Climate is an important active factor in soil organic matter because of low bacterial activity,
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formation. The climatic elements involved in soil layers of peat develop in sub-arctic and tundra
development are : (i) moisture in terms of its climates. In humid tropical and equatorial
intensity, frequency and duration of climates, bacterial growth and action is intense
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precipitation - evaporation and humidity; and dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving
(ii) temperature in terms of seasonal and very low humus content in the soil. Further,
diurnal variations. bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous
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Precipitation gives soil its moisture content nitrogen from the air and convert it into a
which makes the chemical and biological chemical form that can be used by plants. This
activities possible. Excess of water helps in the process is known as nitrogen fixation.
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downward transportation of soil components Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root
through the soil (eluviation) and deposits the nodules of leguminous plants and fixes nitrogen
same down below (illuviation). In climates like beneficial to the host plant. The influence of large
wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents

not only calcium, sodium, magnesium, etc., is mechanical, but, it is nevertheless

potassium etc. but also a major part of silica is important in soil formation as they rework the
removed from the soil. Removal of silica from soil up and down. In case of earthworms, as
the soil is known as desilication. In dry climates, they feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of
because of high temperature, evaporation the soil that comes out of their body changes.
exceeds precipitation and hence ground water
is brought up to the surface by capillary action Time
and in the process the water evaporates leaving Time is the third important controlling factor
behind salts in the soil. Such salts form into a in soil formation. The length of time the soil
crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical forming processes operate, determines
maturation of soils and profile development. A

Is it necessary to separate the process of
soil becomes mature when all soil-forming
soil formation and the soil forming control processes act for a sufficiently long time
factors? developing a profile. Soils developing from
recently deposited alluvium or glacial till are
Why are time, topography and parent
considered young and they exhibit no horizons
material considered as passive control or only poorly developed horizons. No specific
factors in soil formation? length of time in absolute terms can be fixed
for soils to develop and mature.
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EXERCISES
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(i) Which one of the following processes is a gradational process?
(a) Deposition (c) Volcanism
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(b) Diastrophism (d) Erosion
(ii) Which one of the following materials is affected by hydration process?
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(a) Granite (c) Quartz
(b) Clay (d) Salts
pu (iii) Debris avalanche can be included in the category of:
(a) Landslides (c) Rapid flow mass movements
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(b) Slow flow mass movements (d) Subsidence

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(i) It is weathering that is responsible for bio-diversity on the earth. How?

(ii) What are mass movements that are real rapid and perceptible? List.
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(iii) What are the various mobile and mighty exogenic geomorphic agents and
what is the prime job they perform?
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(iv) Is weathering essential as a pre-requisite in the formation of soils? Why?

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(i) Our earth is a playfield for two opposing groups of geomorphic processes.
Discuss.
(ii) Exogenic geomorphic processes derive their ultimate energy from the suns
heat. Explain.

(iii) Are physical and chemical weathering processes independent of each

other? If not, why? Explain with examples.
(iv) How do you distinguish between the process of soil formation and soil-
forming factors? What is the role of climate and biological activity as two
important control factors in the formation of soils?
Project Work
Depending upon the topography and materials around you, observe and record
climate, possible weathering process and soil contents and characteristics.
CHAPTER
LANDFORMS AND THEIR

EVOLUTION
d
he
A
fter weathering processes have had a part of the earths surface from one landform
their actions on the earth materials into another or transformation of individual
making up the surface of the earth, the landforms after they are once formed. That
is
geomorphic agents like running water, ground means, each and every landform has a history
water, wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. of development and changes through time. A
It is already known to you that erosion causes landmass passes through stages of
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changes on the surface of the earth. Deposition development somewhat comparable to the
follows erosion and because of deposition too, stages of life youth, mature and old age.
changes occur on the surface of the earth.
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As this chapter deals with landforms and
their evolution first start with the question,
What are the two important aspects of
the evolution of landforms?
what is a landform? In simple words, small to
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medium tracts or parcels of the earths surface The evolutionary history of the continually
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are called landforms. changing surface of the earth is essential to be
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understood in order to use it effectively without

If landform is a small to medium sized disturbing its balance and diminishing its
part of the surface of the earth, what is a potential for the future. Geomorphology deals
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landscape? with the reconstruction of the history of the

surface of the earth through a study of its
Several related landforms together make forms, the materials of which it is made up of
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up landscapes, (large tracts of earths surface). and the processes that shape it.
Each landform has its own physical shape, size, Changes on the surface of the earth owe
materials and is a result of the action of certain mostly to erosion by various geomorphic
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geomorphic processes and agent(s). Actions agents. Of course, the process of deposition too,
of most of the geomorphic processes and by covering the land surfaces and filling the
agents are slow, and hence the results take a basins, valleys or depressions, brings changes
long time to take shape. Every landform has a in the surface of the land. Deposition follows

beginning. Landforms once formed may erosion and the depositional surfaces too are
change in their shape, size and nature slowly ultimately subjected to erosion. Running water,
or fast due to continued action of geomorphic ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are
processes and agents. powerful erosional and depositional agents
Due to changes in climatic conditions and shaping and changing the surface of the earth
vertical or horizontal movements of land- aided by weathering and mass wasting
masses, either the intensity of processes or the processes. These geomorphic agents acting
processes themselves might change leading to over long periods of time produce systematic
new modifications in the landforms. Evolution changes leading to sequential development of
here implies stages of transformation of either landforms. Each geomorphic agent produces
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 59
its own assemblage of landforms. Not only this, is linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys.
each geomorphic process and agent leave their Most of the erosional landforms made by
distinct imprints on the landforms they running water are associated with vigorous and
produce. You know that most of the youthful rivers flowing over steep gradients.
geomorphic processes are imperceptible With time, stream channels over steep gradients
functions and can only be seen and measured turn gentler due to continued erosion, and as a
through their results. What are the results? consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating
These results are nothing but landforms and active deposition. There may be depositional
their characteristics. Hence, a study of forms associated with streams flowing over steep
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landforms, will reveal to us the process and slopes. But these phenomena will be on a small
agent which has made or has been making scale compared to those associated with rivers
flowing over medium to gentle slopes. The
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those landforms.
gentler the river channels in gradient or slope,
Most of the geomorphic processes are the greater is the deposition. When the stream
imperceptible. Cite a few processes which beds turn gentler due to continued erosion,
can be seen and a few which cant be downward cutting becomes less dominant and
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seen. lateral erosion of banks increases and as a
consequence the hills and valleys are reduced
As the geomorphic agents are capable of to plains.
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erosion and deposition, two sets erosional
or destructional and depositional or Is complete reduction of relief of a high
constructional of landforms are produced
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by them. Many varieties of landforms develop
by the action of each of the geomorphic agents Overland flow causes sheet erosion.
depending upon especially the type and Depending upon irregularities of the land
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structure i.e. folds, faults, joints, fractures, surface, the overland flow may concentrate into
hardness and softness, permeability and narrow to wide paths. Because of the sheer
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friction of the column of flowing water, minor
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impermeability, etc. There are some other

independent controls like (i) stability of sea or major quantities of materials from the
level; (ii) tectonic stability of landmasses; (iii) surface of the land are removed in the direction
of flow and gradually small and narrow rills
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climate, which influence the evolution of

landforms. Any disturbance in any of these will form. These rills will gradually develop into
three controlling factors can upset the long and wide gullies; the gullies will further
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systematic and sequential stages in the deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give rise
development and evolution of landforms. to a network of valleys. In the early stages,
In the following pages, under each of the down-cutting dominates during which
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geomorphic regimes i.e. running water, irregularities such as waterfalls and cascades
groundwater, glaciers, waves, and winds, first a will be removed. In the middle stages, streams
brief discussion is presented as to how cut their beds slower, and lateral erosion of
landmasses are reduced in their relief through valley sides becomes severe. Gradually, the
valley sides are reduced to lower and lower

erosion and then, development of some of the

erosional and depositional landforms is dealt with. slopes. The divides between drainage basins
are likewise lowered until they are almost
RUNNING WATER completely flattened leaving finally, a lowland
of faint relief with some low resistant remnants
In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall called monadnocks standing out here and
running water is considered the most important there. This type of plain forming as a result of
of the geomorphic agents in bringing about the stream erosion is called a peneplain (an almost
degradation of the land surface. There are two plain). The characteristics of each of the stages
components of running water. One is overland of landscapes developing in running water
flow on general land surface as a sheet. Another regimes may be summarised as follows:
Youth
Streams are few during this stage with poor
integration and flow over original slopes
showing shallow V-shaped valleys with no
floodplains or with very narrow floodplains
along trunk streams. Streams divides are broad
and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
Meanders if present develop over these broad
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upland surfaces. These meanders may
eventually entrench themselves into the
uplands. Waterfalls and rapids may exist where
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local hard rock bodies are exposed.
Mature
During this stage streams are plenty with good
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integration. The valleys are still V-shaped but
deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have
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wider floodplains within which streams may
flow in meanders confined within the valley.
The flat and broad inter stream areas and
swamps and marshes of youth disappear and
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the stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and
rapids disappear.
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Old
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Smaller tributaries during old age are few with Figure 7.1 : The Valley of Kaveri river near Hogenekal,
gentle gradients. Streams meander freely over Dharmapuri district, Tamilnadu in the form of gorge
vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow
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lakes, etc. Divides are broad and flat with lakes,

swamps and marshes. Most of the landscape
is at or slightly above sea level.
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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
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Valleys
Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills
will gradually develop into long and wide

gullies; the gullies will further deepen, widen

and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Depending Figure 7.2 : An entrenched meander loop of river Colorado
in USA showing step-like side slopes of its valley
upon dimensions and shape, many types of typical of a canyon
valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon,
etc. can be recognised. A gorge is a deep valley is wider at its top than at its bottom. In fact, a
with very steep to straight sides (Figure 7.1) and canyon is a variant of gorge. Valley types depend
a canyon is characterised by steep step-like upon the type and structure of rocks in which
side slopes (Figure 7.2) and may be as deep as they form. For example, canyons commonly
a gorge. A gorge is almost equal in width at its form in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks
top as well as its bottom. In contrast, a canyon and gorges form in hard rocks.
Potholes and Plunge Pools River Terraces

Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or less River terraces are surfaces marking old valley
circular depressions called potholes form floor or floodplain levels. They may be bedrock
because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion surfaces without any alluvial cover or alluvial
of rock fragments. Once a small and shallow terraces consisting of stream deposits. River
depression forms, pebbles and boulders get terraces are basically products of erosion as
collected in those depressions and get rotated they result due to vertical erosion by the stream
by flowing water and consequently the into its own depositional floodplain. There can
depressions grow in dimensions. A series of such be a number of such terraces at different
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depressions eventually join and the stream heights indicating former river bed levels. The
valley gets deepened. At the foot of waterfalls river terraces may occur at the same elevation
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also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form on either side of the rivers in which case they
because of the sheer impact of water and are called paired terraces (Figure 7.3).
rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes
at the base of waterfalls are called plunge pools.
These pools also help in the deepening of valleys.
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Waterfalls are also transitory like any other
landform and will recede gradually and bring
the floor of the valley above waterfalls to the
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level below.
Incised or Entrenched Meanders

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In streams that flow rapidly over steep
gradients, normally erosion is concentrated on
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the bottom of the stream channel. Also, in the Figure 7.3 : Paired and unpaired river terraces
case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion
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on the sides of the valleys is not much when
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compared to the streams flowing on low and When a terrace is present only on one side
gentle slopes. Because of active lateral erosion, of the stream and with none on the other side
streams flowing over gentle slopes, develop or one at quite a different elevation on the other
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sinuous or meandering courses. It is common side, the terraces are called unpaired terraces.
to find meandering courses over floodplains Unpaired terraces are typical in areas of slow
and delta plains where stream gradients are uplift of land or where the water column
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very gentle. But very deep and wide meanders changes are not uniform along both the banks.
can also be found cut in hard rocks. Such The terraces may result due to (i) receding water
meanders are called incised or entrenched after a peak flow; (ii) change in hydrological
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meanders (Figure 7.2). Meander loops develop regime due to climatic changes; (iii) tectonic
over original gentle surfaces in the initial stages uplift of land; (iv) sea level changes in case of
of development of streams and the same loops rivers closer to the sea.
get entrenched into the rocks normally due to

erosion or slow, continued uplift of the land DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS

over which they start. They widen and deepen
over time and can be found as deep gorges and
canyons in hard rock areas. They give an Alluvial Fans
indication on the status of original land Alluvial fans (Figure 7.4) are formed when
surfaces over which streams have developed. streams flowing from higher levels break into
foot slope plains of low gradient. Normally very
What are the differences between incised coarse load is carried by streams flowing over
meanders and meanders over flood and mountain slopes. This load becomes too heavy
delta plains? for the streams to be carried over gentler
gradients and gets dumped and spread as a as a low cone. Unlike in alluvial fans, the
broad low to high cone shaped deposit called deposits making up deltas are very well sorted
alluvial fan. Usually, the streams which flow with clear stratification. The coarsest materials
over fans are not confined to their original settle out first and the finer fractions like silts
channels for long and shift their position across and clays are carried out into the sea. As the
the fan forming many channels called delta grows, the river distributaries continue
distributaries. Alluvial fans in humid areas to increase in length (Figure 7.5) and delta
show normally low cones with gentle slope from continues to build up into the sea.
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Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars
Deposition develops a floodplain just as
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erosion makes valleys. Floodplain is a major
landform of river deposition. Large sized
materials are deposited first when stream
channel breaks into a gentle slope. Thus,
normally, fine sized materials like sand, silt and
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clay are carried by relatively slow moving
waters in gentler channels usually found in the
plains and deposited over the bed and when
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the waters spill over the banks during flooding
Figure 7.4 : An alluvial fan deposited by a hill stream above the bed. A river bed made of river
on the way to Amarnath, Jammu and Kashmir
pu deposits is the active floodplain. The floodplain
above the bank is inactive floodplain. Inactive
head to toe and they appear as high cones with
floodplain above the banks basically contain
steep slope in arid and semi-arid climates.
two types of deposits flood deposits and
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channel deposits. In plains, channels shift

Deltas
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laterally and change their courses occasionally
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Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a leaving cut-off courses which get filled up
different location. The load carried by the rivers gradually. Such areas over flood plains built
is dumped and spread into the sea. If this load up by abandoned or cut-off channels contain
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is not carried away far into the sea or distributed coarse deposits. The flood deposits of spilled
along the coast, it spreads and accumulates waters carry relatively finer materials like silt
and clay. The flood plains in a delta are called
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delta plains.
Natural levees and point bars (Figure 7.6)
are some of the important landforms found
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associated with floodplains. Natural levees are

found along the banks of large rivers. They are
low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits
along the banks of rivers, quite often cut into

individual mounds. During flooding as the

water spills over the bank, the velocity of the
water comes down and large sized and high
specific gravity materials get dumped in the
immediate vicinity of the bank as ridges. They
are high nearer the banks and slope gently
away from the river. The levee deposits are
coarser than the deposits spread by flood
Figure 7.5 : A satellite view of part of Krishna river waters away from the river. When rivers shift
delta, Andhra Pradesh laterally, a series of natural levees can form.
Meander is not a landform but is only a

type of channel pattern. This is because of
(i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle
gradients to work laterally on the banks;
(ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits
making up the banks with many irregularities
which can be used by water exerting pressure
laterally; (iii) coriolis force acting on the fluid
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water deflecting it like it deflects the wind. When
the gradient of the channel becomes extremely
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low, water flows leisurely and starts working
Figure 7.6 : Natural levee and point bars
laterally. Slight irregularities along the banks
slowly get transformed into a small curvature
Point bars are also known as meander bars. in the banks; the curvature deepens due to
They are found on the convex side of meanders deposition on the inside of the curve and
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of large rivers and are sediments deposited in
erosion along the bank on the outside. If there
a linear fashion by flowing waters along the
is no deposition and no erosion or undercutting,
bank. They are almost uniform in profile and in
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width and contain mixed sizes of sediments. If the tendency to meander is reduced. Normally,
there more than one ridge, narrow and elongated in meanders of large rivers, there is active
depressions are found in between the point bars.
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Rivers build a series of them depending upon undercutting along the concave bank.
the water flow and supply of sediment. As the
rivers build the point bars on the convex side,
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the bank on the concave side will erode actively.

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In what way do natural levees differ from
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point bars?
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Meanders
In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow
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in straight courses. Loop-like channel patterns

called meanders develop over flood and delta
plains (Figure 7.7).
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Figure 7.7 : A satellite scene showing meandering

Burhi Gandak river near Muzaffarpur, Bihar, showing Figure 7.8 : Meander growth and cut-off loops and
a number of oxbow lakes and cut-offs slip-off and undercut banks
The concave bank is known as cut-off bank is more in the valley, channel bars and islands
which shows up as a steep scarp and the of sand, gravel and pebbles develop on the floor
convex bank presents a long, gentle profile and of the channel and the water flow is divided
is known as slip-off bank (Figure 7.8). As into multiple threads. These thread-like streams
meanders grow into deep loops, the same may of water rejoin and subdivide repeatedly to give
get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection points a typical braided pattern (Figure 7.9).
and are left as ox-bow lakes.
Braided Channels
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When rivers carry coarse material, there can be
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selective deposition of coarser materials causing
formation of a central bar which diverts the flow
towards the banks; and this flow increases
lateral erosion on the banks. As the valley
widens, the water column is reduced and more
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and more materials get deposited as islands
and lateral bars developing a number of
separate channels of water flow. Deposition
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and lateral erosion of banks are essential for Figure 7.9 : Satellite scenes showing braided channel
the formation of braided pattern. Or, segments of Gandak (right) and Son (left) rivers
alternatively, when discharge is less and load
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Figure 7.10 : Various karst features

GROUNDWATER as solution forms first and if the bottom of a

sinkhole forms the roof of a void or cave
Here the interest is not on groundwater as a underground, it might collapse leaving a large
resource. Our focus is on the work of hole opening into a cave or a void below
groundwater in the erosion of landmasses and (collapse sinks). Quite often, sinkholes are
evolution of landforms. The surface water covered up with soil mantle and appear as
percolates well when the rocks are permeable, shallow water pools. Anybody stepping over
thinly bedded and highly jointed and cracked. such pools would go down like it happens in
After vertically going down to some depth, the quicksands in deserts. The term doline is
water under the ground flows horizontally
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sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks.
through the bedding planes, joints or through Solution sinks are more common than collapse
the materials themselves. It is this downward sinks. Quite often the surface run-off simply
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and horizontal movement of water which goes down swallow and sink holes and flow as
causes the rocks to erode. Physical or underground streams and re-emerge at a
mechanical removal of materials by moving distance downstream through a cave opening.
groundwater is insignificant in developing When sink holes and dolines join together
landforms. That is why, the results of the work because of slumping of materials along their
is
of groundwater cannot be seen in all types of margins or due to roof collapse of caves, long,
rocks. But in rocks like limestones or dolomites narrow to wide trenches called valley sinks or
rich in calcium carbonate, the surface water Uvalas form. Gradually, most of the surface of
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as well as groundwater through the chemical the limestone is eaten away by these pits and
process of solution and precipitation trenches, leaving it extremely irregular with a
deposition develop varieties of landforms. These
pu maze of points, grooves and ridges or lapies.
two processes of solution and precipitation are Especially, these ridges or lapies form due to
active in limestones or dolomites occurring differential solution activity along parallel to
either exclusively or interbedded with other sub-parallel joints. The lapie field may
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rocks. Any limestone or dolomitic region eventually turn into somewhat smooth
showing typical landforms produced by the limestone pavements.
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action of groundwater through the processes
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of solution and deposition is called Karst Caves

topography after the typical topography
developed in limestone rocks of Karst region In areas where there are alternating beds of
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in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea. rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with
The karst topography is also characterised limestones or dolomites in between or in areas
where limestones are dense, massive and
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by erosional and depositional landforms.

occurring as thick beds, cave formation is
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS prominent. Water percolates down either
through the materials or through cracks and
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joints and moves horizontally along bedding

Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and planes. It is along these bedding planes that
Limestone Pavements the limestone dissolves and long and narrow
to wide gaps called caves result. There can be
Small to medium sized round to sub-rounded

a maze of caves at different elevations

shallow depressions called swallow holes form
depending upon the limestone beds and
on the surface of limestones through solution.
intervening rocks. Caves normally have an
Sinkholes are very common in limestone/karst
opening through which cave streams are
areas. A sinkhole is an opening more or less
discharged. Caves having openings at both the
circular at the top and funnel-shapped towards
ends are called tunnels.
the bottom with sizes varying in area from a
few sq. m to a hectare and with depth from a
Depositional Landforms
less than half a metre to thirty metres or more.
Some of these form solely through solution Many depositional forms develop within the
action (solution sinks) and others might start limestone caves. The chief chemical in limestone
is calcium carbonate which is easily soluble in GLACIERS

carbonated water (carbon dioxide absorbed
rainwater). This calcium carbonate is deposited Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land
when the water carrying it in solution (continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a vast
evaporates or loses its carbon dioxide as it sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot
trickles over rough rock surfaces. of mountains) or as linear flows down the
slopes of mountains in broad trough-like
Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called
glaciers (Figure 7.12). The movement of glaciers
Stalactites hang as icicles of different
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diameters. Normally they are broad at their
bases and taper towards the free ends showing
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up in a variety of forms. Stalagmites rise up
from the floor of the caves. In fact, stalagmites
form due to dripping water from the surface or
through the thin pipe, of the stalactite,
immediately below it (Figure 7.11).
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Figure 7.12 : A glacier in its valley
pu is slow unlike water flow. The movement could
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be a few centimetres to a few metres a day or

even less or more. Glaciers move basically
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because of the force of gravity.
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We have many glaciers in our country

moving down the slopes and valleys in
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Himalayas. Higher reaches of Uttaranchal,

Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir, are places to see some of them.
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Do you know where one can see river

Bhagirathi is basically fed by meltwaters
from under the snout (Gaumukh) of the
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Gangotri glacier. In fact, Alkapuri glacier

feeds waters to Alakananda river. Rivers
Alkananda and Bhagirathi join to make
river Ganga near Deoprayag.

Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because

of friction caused by sheer weight of the ice.
Figure 7.11 : Stalactites and stalagmites in limestone caves The material plucked from the land by glaciers
(usually large-sized angular blocks and
Stalagmites may take the shape of a fragments) get dragged along the floors or sides
column, a disc, with either a smooth, rounded of the valleys and cause great damage through
bulging end or a miniature crater like abrasion and plucking. Glaciers can cause
depression. The stalagmite and stalactites significant damage to even un-weathered rocks
eventually fuse to give rise to columns and and can reduce high mountains into low hills
pillars of different diameters. and plains.
As glaciers continue to move, debris gets the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called
removed, divides get lowered and eventually cirque or tarn lakes. There can be two or more
the slope is reduced to such an extent that cirques one leading into another down below
glaciers will stop moving leaving only a mass in a stepped sequence.
of low hills and vast outwash plains along with
other depositional features. Figures 7.13 and Horns and Serrated Ridges
7.14 show various glacial erosional and Horns form through head ward erosion of the
depositional forms described in the text. cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers
cut headward until their cirques meet, high,
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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called
horns form. The divides between cirque side
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Cirque walls or head walls get narrow because of
Cirques are the most common of landforms in progressive erosion and turn into serrated or
glaciated mountains. The cirques quite often saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as
are found at the heads of glacial valleys. The artes with very sharp crest and a zig-zag
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accumulated ice cuts these cirques while outline.
moving down the mountain tops. They are
deep, long and wide troughs or basins with The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn
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and the highest peak in the Himalayas,
very steep concave to vertically dropping high
Everest are in fact horns formed through
walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water
headward erosion of radiating cirques.
can be seen quite often within the cirques after
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Figure 7.13 : Some glacial erosional and depositional forms (adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
Glacial Valleys/Troughs Some amount of rock debris small enough to

be carried by such melt-water streams is
Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped
washed down and deposited. Such glacio-
with broad floors and relatively smooth, and
fluvial deposits are called outwash deposits.
steep sides. The valleys may contain littered
Unlike till deposits, the outwash deposits are
debris or debris shaped as moraines with
roughly stratified and assorted. The rock
swampy appearance. There may be lakes
fragments in outwash deposits are somewhat
gouged out of rocky floor or formed by debris
rounded at their edges. Figure 7.14 shows a
within the valleys. There can be hanging valleys
few depositional landforms commonly found
at an elevation on one or both sides of the main
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in glaciated areas.
glacial valley. The faces of divides or spurs of
such hanging valleys opening into main glacial
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Moraines
valleys are quite often truncated to give them
an appearance like triangular facets. Very deep They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till.
glacial troughs filled with sea water and Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris
making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral
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called fjords/fiords. moraines form along the sides parallel to the
glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a
What are the basic differences between terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped
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glacial valleys and river valleys? ridge (Fig. 7.13). There can be many lateral
moraines on either side in a glacial valley. These
moraines partly or fully owe their origin to glacio-
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The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped
fluvial waters pushing up materials to the sides
of glaciers. Many valley glaciers retreating
by the melting glaciers is called glacial till. Most rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over their
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of the rock fragments in till are angular to sub- valley floors. Such deposits varying greatly in
angular in form. Streams form by melting ice thickness and in surface topography are called
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ground moraines. The moraine in the centre of the
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at the bottom, sides or lower ends of glaciers.

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Figure 7.14 : A panoramic diagram of glacial landscape with various depositional landforms
(adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines is

What is the difference between till and
called medial moraine. They are imperfectly alluvium?
formed as compared to lateral moraines.
Sometimes medial moraines are indistinguishable
from ground moraines. WAVES AND CURRENTS
Eskers Coastal processes are the most dynamic and
hence most destructive. So, dont you think it
When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows is important to know about the coastal
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on the surface of the ice or seeps down along processes and forms?
the margins or even moves through holes in Some of the changes along the coasts take
the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the
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place very fast. At one place, there can be
glacier and flow like streams in a channel erosion in one season and deposition in
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the another. Most of the changes along the coasts
ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with are accomplished by waves. When waves break,
ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like the water is thrown with great force onto the
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boulders and blocks along with some minor shore, and simultaneously, there is a great
fractions of rock debris carried into this stream churning of sediments on the sea bottom.
settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier Constant impact of breaking waves drastically
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and after the ice melts can be found as a affects the coasts. Storm waves and tsunami
sinuous ridge called esker. waves can cause far-reaching changes in a
pu short period of time than normal breaking
Outwash Plains waves. As wave environment changes, the
intensity of the force of breaking waves changes.
The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains
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or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets Do you know about the generating forces
are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the behind waves and currents? If not, refer
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form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join
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to the chapter on movements in ocean

to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and waters.
clay.
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Other than the action of waves, the coastal

Distinguish between river alluvial plains landforms depend upon (i) the configuration
and glacial outwash plains. of land and sea floor; (ii) whether the coast is
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advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating

(submerging) landward. Assuming sea level to
Drumlins be constant, two types of coasts are considered
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Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like to explain the concept of evolution of coastal
features composed mainly of glacial till with landforms: (i) high, rocky coasts (submerged
some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes coasts); (ii) low, smooth and gently sloping
of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice sedimentary coasts (emerged coasts).

movement. They may measure up to 1 km in

length and 30 m or so in height. One end of HIGH ROCKY COASTS
the drumlins facing the glacier called the stoss Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers appear
end is blunter and steeper than the other end to have been drowned with highly irregular
called tail. The drumlins form due to dumping coastline. The coastline appears highly
of rock debris beneath heavily loaded ice indented with extension of water into the land
through fissures in the glacier. The stoss end where glacial valleys (fjords) are present. The
gets blunted due to pushing by moving ice. hill sides drop off sharply into the water. Shores
Drumlins give an indication of direction of do not show any depositional landforms
glacier movement. initially. Erosion features dominate.
Along high rocky coasts, waves break with Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic
great force against the land shaping the hill changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
sides into cliffs. With constant pounding by Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build
waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves
gradually minimise the irregularities along the The west coast of our country is a high
shore. rocky retreating coast. Erosional forms
The materials which fall off, and removed dominate in the west coast. The east
from the sea cliffs, gradually break into smaller coast of India is a low sedimentary coast.
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fragments and roll to roundness, will get Depositional forms dominate in the east
deposited in the offshore. After a considerable coast.
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period of cliff development and retreat when
coastline turns somewhat smooth, with the
addition of some more material to this deposit What are the various differences between
in the offshore, a wave-built terrace would a high rocky coast and a low sedimentary
coast in terms of processes and
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develop in front of wave-cut terrace. As the
erosion along the coast takes place a good landforms?
supply material becomes available to longshore
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currents and waves to deposit them as beaches EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
along the shore and as bars (long ridges of sand
and/or shingle parallel to the coast) in the
pu Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks
nearshore zone. Bars are submerged features
and when bars show up above water, they are Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms
called barrier bars. Barrier bar which get keyed usually found where erosion is the dominant
shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep
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up to the headland of a bay is called a spit.

When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth and may range from a few m to 30 m or even
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of a bay and block it, a lagoon forms. The more. At the foot of such cliffs there may be a
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lagoons would gradually get filled up by flat or gently sloping platform covered by rock
sediments from the land giving rise to a coastal debris derived from the sea cliff behind. Such
plain. platforms occurring at elevations above the
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average height of waves is called a wave-cut

LOW SEDIMENTARY COASTS terrace. The lashing of waves against the base
of the cliff and the rock debris that gets
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Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear smashed against the cliff along with lashing
to extend their length by building coastal waves create hollows and these hollows get
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plains and deltas. The coastline appears widened and deepened to form sea caves. The
smooth with occasional incursions of water in roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede
the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. The land further inland. Retreat of the cliff may leave
slopes gently into the water. Marshes and some remnants of rock standing isolated as

swamps may abound along the coasts. small islands just off the shore. Such resistant
Depositional features dominate. masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill
When waves break over a gently sloping are called sea stacks. Like all other features,
sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get sea stacks are also temporary and eventually
churned and move readily building bars, coastal hills and cliffs will disappear because
barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons of wave erosion giving rise to narrow coastal
would eventually turn into a swamp which plains, and with onrush of deposits from over
would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. the land behind may get covered up by
The maintenance of these depositional features alluvium or may get covered up by shingle or
depends upon the steady supply of materials. sand to form a wide beach.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS develop attached to headlands/hills. The

barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of the
Beaches and Dunes bay gradually extend leaving only a small
opening of the bay into the sea and the bay
Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are
will eventually develop into a lagoon. The
dominated by deposition, but may occur as
lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment
patches along even the rugged shores. Most of
coming from the land or from the beach itself
the sediment making up the beaches comes
(aided by wind) and a broad and wide coastal
from land carried by the streams and rivers or plain may develop replacing a lagoon.
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from wave erosion. Beaches are temporary
features. The sandy beach which appears so Do you know, the coastal off-shore bars
permanent may be reduced to a very narrow
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offer the first buffer or defence against
strip of coarse pebbles in some other season. storm or tsunami by absorbing most of
Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized their destructive force. Then come the
materials. Beaches called shingle beaches barriers, beaches, beach dunes and
contain excessively small pebbles and even mangroves, if any, to absorb the
is
cobbles. destructive force of storm and tsunami
Just behind the beach, the sands lifted and waves. So, if we do anything which
winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be disturbs the sediment budget and the
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deposited as sand dunes. Sand dunes forming mangroves along the coast, these coastal
long ridges parallel to the coastline are very forms will get eroded away leaving human
common along low sedimentary coasts.
pu habitations to bear first strike of storm
and tsunami waves.
Bars, Barriers and Spits
WINDS
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A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea

in the off-shore zone (from the position of low
Wind is one of the two dominant agents in hot
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tide waterline to seaward) lying approximately
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deserts. The desert floors get heated up too

parallel to the coast is called an off-shore bar.
much and too quickly because of being dry
An off-shore bar which is exposed due to
and barren. The heated floors heat up the air
further addition of sand is termed a barrier
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directly above them and result in upward

bar. The off-shore bars and barriers commonly
movements in the hot lighter air with
form across the mouth of a river or at the
turbulence, and any obstructions in its path
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entrance of a bay. Sometimes such barrier bars

sets up eddies, whirlwinds, updrafts and
get keyed up to one end of the bay when they
downdrafts. Winds also move along the desert
are called spits (Figure 7.15). Spits may also
floors with great speed and the obstructions
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in their path create turbulence. Of course, there

are storm winds which are very destructive.
Winds cause deflation, abrasion and impact.
Deflation includes lifting and removal of dust

and smaller particles from the surface of rocks.

In the transportation process sand and silt act
as effective tools to abrade the land surface.
The impact is simply sheer force of momentum
which occurs when sand is blown into or
against a rock surface. It is similar to sand-
blasting operation. The wind action creates a
number of interesting erosional and
Figure 7.15 : A satellite picture of a part of Godavari depositional features in the deserts.
river delta showing a spit In fact, many features of deserts owe their
formation to mass wasting and running water deposition of sediment from basin margins, a
as sheet floods. Though rain is scarce in deserts, nearly level plain forms at the centre of the
it comes down torrentially in a short period of basin. In times of sufficient water, this plain is
time. The desert rocks devoid of vegetation, covered up by a shallow water body. Such
exposed to mechanical and chemical types of shallow lakes are called as playas
weathering processes due to drastic diurnal where water is retained only for short duration
temperature changes, decay faster and the due to evaporation and quite often the playas
torrential rains help in removing the weathered contain good deposition of salts. The playa
materials easily. That means, the weathered plain covered up by salts is called alkali flats.
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debris in deserts is moved by not only wind
but also by rain/sheet wash. The wind moves Deflation Hollows and Caves
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fine materials and general mass erosion is
Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare
accomplished mainly through sheet floods or
soil, gets blown out by persistent movement
sheet wash. Stream channels in desert areas
of wind currents in one direction. This process
are broad, smooth and indefinite and flow for
may create shallow depressions called
a brief time after rains.
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deflation hollows. Deflation also creates
numerous small pits or cavities over rock
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and
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abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow
Pediments and Pediplains
depressions called blow outs are created, and
Landscape evolution in deserts is primarily
pu some of the blow outs become deeper and
concerned with the formation and extension of wider fit to be called caves.
pediments. Gently inclined rocky floors close
to the mountains at their foot with or without Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks
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a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily
Such rocky floors form through the erosion of
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susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are
mountain front through a combination of
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worn out quickly leaving some remnants of

lateral erosion by streams and sheet flooding. resistant rocks polished beautifully in the
Erosion starts along the steep margins of shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and a
the landmass or the steep sides of the
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broad and rounded pear shaped cap above.

tectonically controlled steep incision features Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table
over the landmass. Once, pediments are formed top and quite often, the remnants stand out
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with a steep wash slope followed by cliff or free like pedestals.

face above it, the steep wash slope and free face
retreat backwards. This method of erosion is List the erosional features carved out by
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termed as parallel retreat of slopes through wind action and action of sheet floods.
backwasting. So, through parallel retreat of
slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the
expense of mountain front, and gradually, the

mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg Wind is a good sorting agent. Depending upon
which is a remnant of the mountain. Thats how the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains are
the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low moved along the floors by rolling or saltation
featureless plains called pediplains. and carried in suspension and in this process
of transportation itself, the materials get sorted.
Playas When the wind slows or begins to die down,
Plains are by far the most prominent landforms depending upon sizes of grains and their
in the deserts. In basins with mountains and critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.
hills around and along, the drainage is towards So, in depositional landforms made by wind,
the centre of the basin and due to gradual good sorting of grains can be found. Since
wind is there everywhere and wherever there are equally important. There can be a great
is good source of sand and with constant wind variety of dune forms (Figure 7.16).
directions, depositional features in arid regions Crescent shaped dunes called barchans
can develop anywhere. with the points or wings directed away from
wind direction i.e., downwind, form where the
Sand Dunes wind direction is constant and moderate and
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune where the original surface over which sand is
formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation moving is almost uniform. Parabolic dunes
form when sandy surfaces are partially covered
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with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes
are reversed barchans with wind direction
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being the same. Seif is similar to barchan with
a small difference. Seif has only one wing or
point. This happens when there is shift in wind
conditions. The lone wings of seifs can grow
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very long and high. Longitudinal dunes form
when supply of sand is poor and wind
direction is constant. They appear as long
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ridges of considerable length but low in height.
Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular
pu to wind direction. These dunes form when the
wind direction is constant and the source of
sand is an elongated feature at right angles to
the wind direction. They may be very long and
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low in height. When sand is plenty, quite often,

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the regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose
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their individual characteristics. Most of the

dunes in the deserts shift and a few of them
will get stabilised especially near human
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Figure 7.16 : Various types of sand dunes

Arrows indicate wind direction habitations.
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EXERCISES
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(i) In which of the following stages of landform development, downward cutting
is dominated?
(a) Youth stage (c) Early mature stage

(b) Late mature stage (d) Old stage

(ii) A deep valley characterised by steep step-like side slopes is known as
(a) U-shaped valley (c) Blind valley
(b) Gorge (d) Canyon
(iii) In which one of the following regions the chemical weathering process is
more dominant than the mechanical process?
(a) Humid region (c) Arid region
(b) Limestone region (d) Glacier region
(iv) Which one of the following sentences best defines the term Lapies ?
(a) A small to medium sized shallow depression
(b) A landform whose opening is more or less circular at the top and
funnel shaped towards bottom
(c) A landform formed due to dripping water from surface
(d) An irregular surface with sharp pinnacles, grooves and ridges
(v) A deep, long and wide trough or basin with very steep concave high walls
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at its head as well as in sides is known as:
(a) Cirque (c) Lateral Moraine
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(b) Glacial valley (d) Esker
(i) What do incised meanders in rocks and meanders in plains of alluvium
indicate?
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(ii) Explain the evolution of valley sinks or uvalas.
(iii) Underground flow of water is more common than surface run-off in
bl
limestone areas. Why?
(iv) Glacial valleys show up many linear depositional forms. Give their
pu locations and names.
(v) How does wind perform its task in desert areas? Is it the only agent
responsible for the erosional features in the deserts?
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(i) Running water is by far the most dominating geomorphic agent in shaping
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the earths surface in humid as well as in arid climates. Explain.
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(ii) Limestones behave differently in humid and arid climates. Why? What is
the dominant and almost exclusive geomorphic process in limestone areas
tt E
and what are its results?

(iii) How do glaciers accomplish the work of reducing high mountains into low
hills and plains?
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Project Work
no N
Identify the landforms, materials and processes around your area.

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UNIT
he
IV
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CLIMATE
bl
pu
Atmosphere compositions and structure; elements of weather
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and climate
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Insolation angle of incidence and distribution; heat budget
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of the earth heating and cooling of atmosphere (conduction,

convection, terrestrial radiation, advection); temperature factors
tt E
controlling temperature; distribution of temperature horizontal

and vertical; inversion of temperature
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Pressure pressure belts; winds-planetary seasonal and local,

air masses and fronts; tropical and extra tropical cyclones
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Precipitation evaporation; condensation dew, frost, fog,

mist and cloud; rainfall types and world distributon
World climates classification (Koeppen), greenhouse effect,
global warming and climatic changes

CHAPTER
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

OF ATMOSPHERE
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he
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an a person live without air? We eat Table 8.1 : Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere
food two - three times a day and drink
Constituent Formula Percentage by Volume
water more frequently but breathe
is
every few seconds. Air is essential to the Nitrogen N2 78.08
survival of all organisms. Some organisms like Oxygen O2 20.95
Argon Ar 0.93
humans may survive for some time without
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Carbon dioxide CO2 0.036
food and water but cant survive even a few
Neon Ne 0.002
minutes without breathing air. That shows the Helium He 0.0005
reason why we should understand the
pu
atmosphere in greater detail. Atmosphere is a
mixture of different gases and it envelopes the
Krypto
Xenon
Hydrogen
Kr
Xe
H2
0.001
0.00009
0.00005
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earth all round. It contains life-giving gases like

oxygen for humans and animals and carbon Gases
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dioxide for plants. The air is an integral part of
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Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very

the earths mass and 99 per cent of the total
important gas as it is transparent to the
mass of the atmosphere is confined to the
incoming solar radiation but opaque to the
height of 32 km from the earths surface. The
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outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part

air is colourless and odourless and can be felt of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some
only when it blows as wind. part of it towards the earths surface. It is
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largely responsible for the green house effect.

Can you imagine what will happen
The volume of other gases is constant but the
to us in the absence of ozone in the
volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in
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atmosphere?
the past few decades mainly because of the
burning of fossil fuels. This has also increased
the temperature of the air. Ozone is another
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE important component of the atmosphere found

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water between 10 and 50 km above the earths
vapour and dust particles. Table 8.1 shows surface and acts as a filter and absorbs the
details of various gases in the air, particularly ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and
in the lower atmosphere. The proportion of prevents them from reaching the surface of the
gases changes in the higher layers of the earth.
atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be
almost in negligible quantity at the height of Water Vapour
120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water Water vapour is also a variable gas in the
vapour are found only up to 90 km from the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In
surface of the earth. the warm and wet tropics, it may account for
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE 77
four per cent of the air by volume, while in the The zone separating the tropsophere from
dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions, stratosphere is known as the tropopause. The
it may be less than one per cent of the air. Water air temperature at the tropopause is about
vapour also decreases from the equator minus 800C over the equator and about minus
towards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the 45oC over the poles. The temperature here is
insolation from the sun and preserves the nearly constant, and hence, it is called the
earths radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blanket tropopause. The stratosphere is found above
allowing the earth neither to become too cold the tropopause and extends up to a height of
nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to 50 km. One important feature of the
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the stability and instability in the air. stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and
he
Dust Particles shields life on the earth from intense, harmful
form of energy.
Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere,
small solid particles, which may originate from which extends up to a height of 80 km. In this
different sources and include sea salts, fine soil, layer, once again, temperature starts
is
smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated decreasing with the increase in altitude and
particles of meteors. Dust particles are reaches up to minus 100C at the height of 80
generally concentrated in the lower layers of km. The upper limit of mesosphere is known
bl
the atmosphere; yet, convectional air currents as the mesopause. The ionosphere is located
may transport them to great heights. The between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
higher concentration of dust particles is found
pu It contains electrically charged particles known
in subtropical and temperate regions due to as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere.
dry winds in comparison to equatorial and Radio waves transmitted from the earth are
polar regions. Dust and salt particles act as reflected back to the earth by this layer.
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hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour Temperature here starts increasing with height.
condenses to produce clouds. The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above
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STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere consists of different layers with
tt E
varying density and temperature. Density is

highest near the surface of the earth and
decreases with increasing altitude. The column
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of atmosphere is divided into five different

layers depending upon the temperature
condition. They are: troposphere, stratosphere,
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mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.

The troposphere is the lowermost layer of
the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km
and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near

the poles and about 18 km at the equator.

Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the
equator because heat is transported to great
heights by strong convectional currents. This
layer contains dust particles and water vapour.
All changes in climate and weather take place
in this layer. The temperature in this layer
decreases at the rate of 1C for every 165m of
height. This is the most important layer for all
biological activity. Figure 8.1 : Structure of atmosphere
the thermosphere is known as the exosphere. Elements of Weather and Climate

This is the highest layer but very little is known
about it. Whatever contents are there, these are The main elements of atmosphere which are
extremely rarefied in this layer, and it gradually subject to change and which influence human
merges with the outer space. Although all life on earth are temperature, pressure, winds,
layers of the atmosphere must be exercising humidity, clouds and precipitation. These
influence on us, geographers are concerned elements have been dealt in detail in Chapters
with the first two layers of the atmosphere. 9, 10 and 11.
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EXERCISES
he
(i) Which one of the following gases constitutes the major portion of the
atmosphere?
is
(a) Oxygen (c) Argon
(b) Nitrogen (d) Carbon dioxide
bl
(ii) Atmospheric layer important for human beings is:
pu (a) Stratosphere (c) Troposphere

(b) Mesosphere (d) Ionosphere
(iii) Sea salt, pollen, ash, smoke soot, fine soil these are associated with:
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(a) Gases (c) Water vapour

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(b) Dust particles (d) Meteors
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(iv) Oxygen gas is in negligible quantity at the height of atmosphere:

(a) 90 km (c) 100 km
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(b) 120 km (d) 150 km

(v) Which one of the following gases is transparent to incoming solar radiation
C
and opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation?

(a) Oxygen (c) Helium
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(b) Nitrogen (d) Carbon dioxide

(i) What do you understand by atmosphere?

(ii) What are the elements of weather and climate?

(iii) Describe the composition of atmosphere.
(iv) Why is troposphere the most important of all the layers of the atmosphere?
(i) Describe the composition of the atmosphere.
(ii) Draw a suitable diagram for the structure of the atmosphere and label it
and describe it.
CHAPTER
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE

AND TEMPERATURE
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he
D
o you feel air around you? Do you The solar output received at the top of the
know that we live at the bottom of a atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the
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huge pile of air? We inhale and exhale variations in the distance between the earth and
but we feel the air when it is in motion. It means the sun. During its revolution around the sun,
air in motion is wind. You have already learnt the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million
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about the fact that earth is surrounded by air km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is
all around. This envelop of air is atmosphere called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is
which is composed of numerous gases. These
pu the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This
gases support life over the earths surface. position is called perihelion. Therefore, the
The earth receives almost all of its energy annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd
from the sun. The earth in turn radiates back January is slightly more than the amount
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to space the energy received from the sun. As received on 4th July. However, the effect of this
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a result, the earth neither warms up nor does variation in the solar output is masked by
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it get cooled over a period of time. Thus, the other factors like the distribution of land and
amount of heat received by different parts of sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this
the earth is not the same. This variation causes variation in the solar output does not have
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pressure differences in the atmosphere. This great effect on daily weather changes on the
leads to transfer of heat from one region to the surface of the earth.
other by winds. This chapter explains the
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Variability of Insolation at
process of heating and cooling of the
the Surface of the Earth
atmosphere and the resultant temperature
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distribution over the earths surface. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary
during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors
SOLAR RADIATION that cause these variations in insolation are : (i)
the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of

The earths surface receives most of its energy inclination of the suns rays; (iii) the length of the
in short wavelengths. The energy received by day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v)
the earth is known as incoming solar radiation the configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
which in short is termed as insolation. The last two however, have less influence.
As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, The fact that the earths axis makes an angle
the suns rays fall obliquely at the top of the of 66 with the plane of its orbit round the sun
atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very has a greater influence on the amount of
small portion of the suns energy. On an insolation received at different latitudes. Note the
average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. variations in the duration of the day at different
cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere. latitudes on solstices given in Table 9.1.
The second factor that determines the colour of the sky are the result of scattering of
amount of insolation received is the angle of light within the atmosphere.
Table 9.1 : Length of the Day in Hours and Minutes on Winter and Summer Solstices in the Northern Hemisphere
Latitude 0 20 40 60 90
December 22 12h 00m 10h 48m 9h 8m 5h 33m 0
June 21 12 h 13h 12m 14h 52m 18h 27m 6 months
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inclination of the rays. This depends on the Spatial Distribution of Insolation
latitude of a place. The higher the latitude the at the Earths Surface
less is the angle they make with the surface of
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the earth resulting in slant sun rays. The area The insolation received at the surface varies
covered by vertical rays is always less than the from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about
slant rays. If more area is covered, the energy 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum insolation
gets distributed and the net energy received is received over the subtropical deserts, where
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per unit area decreases. Moreover, the slant rays the cloudiness is the least. Equator receives
are required to pass through greater depth of comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
the atmosphere resulting in more absorption, Generally, at the same latitude the insolation
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scattering and diffusion. is more over the continent than over the oceans.
In winter, the middle and higher latitudes
pu receive less radiation than in summer.
HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE

There are different ways of heating and cooling
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of the atmosphere.
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The earth after being heated by insolation
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transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near

to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact
with the land gets heated slowly and the upper
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layers in contact with the lower layers also get

heated. This process is called conduction.
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Conduction takes place when two bodies of

unequal temperature are in contact with one
Figure 9.1 : Summer Solstice
another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer
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The Passage of Solar Radiation to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until
through the Atmosphere both the bodies attain the same temperature or
the contact is broken. Conduction is important
The atmosphere is largely transparent to short in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.
wave solar radiation. The incoming solar

The air in contact with the earth rises

radiation passes through the atmosphere
before striking the earths surface. Within the vertically on heating in the form of currents
troposphere water vapour, ozone and other and further transmits the heat of the
gases absorb much of the near infrared atmsphere. This process of vertical heating of
radiation. the atmosphere is known as convection. The
Very small-suspended particles in the convective transfer of energy is confined only
troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to to the troposphere.
the space and towards the earth surface. This The transfer of heat through horizontal
process adds colour to the sky. The red colour movement of air is called advection. Horizontal
of the rising and the setting sun and the blue movement of the air is relatively more important
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 81
than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes, accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its
most of dirunal (day and night) variation in temperature. This can happen only if the
daily weather are caused by advection alone. amount of heat received in the form of insolation
In tropical regions particularly in northern equals the amount lost by the earth through
India during summer season local winds called terrestrial radiation.
loo is the outcome of advection process. Consider that the insolation received at the
top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While
Terrestrial Radiation passing through the atmosphere some amount
The insolation received by the earth is in short of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed.
d
waves forms and heats up its surface. The earth Only the remaining part reaches the earth
after being heated itself becomes a radiating surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back
he
body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere to space even before reaching the earths
in long wave form. This energy heats up the surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected back
atmosphere from below. This process is known from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the
as terrestrial radiation. snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The
is
The long wave radiation is absorbed by the reflected amount of radiation is called the
atmospheric gases particularly by carbon albedo of the earth.
dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14
bl
the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the units within the atmosphere and 51 units by
earths radiation. the earths surface. The earth radiates back
The atmosphere in turn radiates and 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
pu
transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount
of heat received from the sun is returned to
Of these, 17 units are radiated to space
directly and the remaining 34 units are
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space, thereby maintaining constant temperature absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units

at the earths surface and in the atmosphere. absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units
re
through convection and turbulence and 19
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Heat Budget of the Planet Earth

units through latent heat of condensation).
Figure 9.2 depicts the heat budget of the planet 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere
earth. The earth as a whole does not
tt E
(14 units from insolation +34 units from

C
no N

Figure 9.2 : Heat budget of the earth

terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back heat which is measured in terms of
into space. Thus, the total radiation temperature. While heat represents the
returning from the earth and the atmosphere molecular movement of particles comprising a
respectively is 17+48=65 units which substance, the temperature is the measurement
balance the total of 65 units received from in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a
the sun. This is termed the heat budget or place) is.
heat balance of the earth.
This explains, why the earth neither warms Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution
d
up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of The temperature of air at any place is influenced
heat that takes place. by (i) the latitude of the place; (ii) the altitude
he
of the place; (iii) distance from the sea, the air-
Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the mass circulation; (iv) the presence of warm and
Earths Surface cold ocean currents; (v) local aspects.
As explained earlier, there are variations in the
amount of radiation received at the earths The latitude : The temperature of a place
is
surface. Some part of the earth has surplus depends on the insolation received. It has been
radiation balance while the other part has explained earlier that the insolation varies
according to the latitude hence the
bl
deficit.
Figure 9.3 depicts the latitudinal variation temperature also varies accordingly.
in the net radiation balance of the earth the
pu The altitude : The atmosphere is indirectly
atmosphere system. The figure shows that heated by terrestrial radiation from below.
there is a surplus of net radiation balance Therefore, the places near the sea-level record
between 40 degrees north and south and the higher temperature than the places situated
be T
regions near the poles have a deficit. The at higher elevations. In other words, the
surplus heat energy from the tropics is
re
temperature generally decreases with
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redistributed pole wards and as a result the increasing height. The rate of decrease of
tropics do not get progressively heated up due temperature with height is termed as the
to the accumulation of excess heat or the high normal lapse rate. It is 6.5C per 1,000 m.
tt E
latitudes get permanently frozen due to excess

deficit. Distance from the sea : Another factor that
influences the temperature is the location of a
C
place with respect to the sea. Compared to land,

the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat
slowly. Land heats up and cools down quickly.
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Therefore, the variation in temperature over the

sea is less compared to land. The places
situated near the sea come under the

moderating influence of the sea and land

breezes which moderate the temperature.
Air-mass and Ocean currents : Like the land

Figure 9.3 : Latitudinal variation in net and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also
radiation balance affects the temperature. The places, which
come under the influence of warm air-masses
Temperature
experience higher temperature and the places
The interaction of insolation with the that come under the influence of cold air-
atmosphere and the earths surface creates masses experience low temperature. Similarly,
the places located on the coast where the warm northern hemisphere the land surface area is
ocean currents flow record higher temperature much larger than in the southern hemisphere.
than the places located on the coast where the Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean
cold currents flow. currents are well pronounced. In January the
isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean
Distribution of Temperature and to the south over the continent. This can
be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean. The
The global distribution of temperature can well presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream
be understood by studying the temperature and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern
d
distribution in January and July. The Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend
temperature distribution is generally shown towards the north. Over the land the
he
on the map with the help of isotherms. The temperature decreases sharply and the
Isotherms are lines joining places having equal isotherms bend towards south in Europe.
temperature. Figure 9.4 (a) and (b) show the It is much pronounced in the Siberian
distribution of surface air temperature in the plain. The mean January temperature along
is
month of January and July. 60 E longitude is minus 20 C both at 80 N
In general the effect of the latitude on and 50 N latitudes. The mean monthly
temperature is well pronounced on the map, temperature for January is over 27 C, in
bl
as the isotherms are generally parallel to the equatorial oceans over 24 C in the tropics
latitude. The deviation from this general trend and 2 C - 0 C in the middle latitudes
is more pronounced in January than in July,
pu and 18 C to 48 C in the Eurasian
especially in the northern hemisphere. In the continental interior.
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N

Figure 9.4 (a) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January
d
he
is
bl
pu
Figure 9.4 (b) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N

Figure 9.5 : The range of temperature between January and July

The effect of the ocean is well pronounced inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off
in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms during the night, and by early morning hours,
are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the earth is cooler than the air above. Over polar
the variation in temperature is more gradual areas, temperature inversion is normal
than in the northern hemisphere. The isotherm throughout the year.
of 20 C, 10 C, and 0 C runs parallel to 35 S, Surface inversion promotes stability in the
45 S and 60 S latitudes respectively. lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and
In July the isotherms generally run dust particles get collected beneath the
parallel to the latitude. The equatorial oceans inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill
d
record warmer temperature, more than 27C. the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs
Over the land more than 30C is noticed in in mornings are common occurrences
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the subtropical continental region of Asia, especially during winter season. This inversion
along the 30 N latitude. Along the 40 N runs commonly lasts for few hours until the sun
the isotherm of 10 C and along the 40 S the comes up and beings to warm the earth.
temperature is 10 C. The inversion takes place in hills and
is
Figure 9.5 shows the range of mountains due to air drainage. Cold air at the
temperature between January and July. The hills and mountains, produced during night,
highest range of temperature is more than 60 flows under the influence of gravity. Being
bl
C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like
continent. This is due to continentality. The water and moves down the slope to pile up
least range of temperature, 3C, is found
pu deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with
between 20 S and 15 N. warm air above. This is called air drainage. It
protects plants from frost damages.
INVERSION TEMPERATURE
be T
OF
Normally, temperature decreases with increase Planks law states that hotter a body,
re
z
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in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At the more energy it will radiate and
times, the situations is reversed and the shorter the wavelength of that
normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called radiation.
tt E
Inversion of temperature. Inversion is usually z Specific heat is the energy needed to

of short duration but quite common raise the temperature of one gram of
nonetheless. A long winter night with clear substance by one Celsius.
C
skies and still air is ideal situation for

no N
EXERCISES


(i) The sun is directly overhead at noon on 21st June at:
(a) The equator (c) 23.5 N
(b) 23.5 S (d) 66.5 N
(ii) In which one of the following cities, are the days the longest?
(a) Tiruvanantpuram (c) Hyderabad
(b) Chandigarh (d) Nagpur
(iii) The atmosphere is mainly heated by the:

(a) Short wave solar radiation (c) Long wave terrestrial radiation
(b) Reflected solar radiation (d) Scattered solar radiation
(iv) Make correct pairs from the following two columns.
(i) Insolation (a) The difference between the mean
temperature of the warmest and the coldest
months
d
(ii) Albedo (b) The lines joining the places of equal
temperature
he
(iii) Isotherm (c) The incoming solar radiation
(iv) Annual range (d) The percentage of visible light reflected by
an object
(v) The main reason that the earth experiences highest temperatures in the
is
subtropics in the northern hemisphere rather than at the equator is :
(a) Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud cover than equatorial areas.
bl
(b) Subtropical areas have longer day hours in the summer than the
equatorial.
pu (c) Subtropical areas have an enhanced green house effect compared
to equatorial areas.
(d) Subtropical areas are nearer to the oceanic areas than the equatorial
locations.
be T

re
o R
(i) How does the unequal distribution of heat over the planet earth in space
and time cause variations in weather and climate?
(ii) What are the factors that control temperature distribution on the surface
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of the earth?
(iii) In India, why is the day temperature maximum in May and why not after
C
the summer solstice?

(iv) Why is the annual range of temperature high in the Siberian plains?
no N

(i) How do the latitude and the tilt in the axis of rotation of the earth affect
the amount of radiation received at the earths surface?
(ii) Discuss the processes through which the earth-atmosphere system

maintains heat balance.

(iii) Compare the global distribution of temperature in January over the
northern and the southern hemisphere of the earth.
Project Work
Select a meteorological observatory located in your city or near your town. Tabulate
the temperature data as given in the climatological table of observatories :
(i) Note the altitude, latitude of the observatory and the period for which the
mean is calculated.
(ii) Define the terms related to temperature as given in the table.

(iii) Calculate the daily mean monthly temperature.
(iv) Draw a graph to show the daily mean maximum, the daily mean minimum and the mean
temperature.
(v) Calculate the annual range of temperature.
(vi) Find out in which months the daily range of temperature is the highest and the lowest.
(vii) List out the factors that determine the temperature of the place and explain the possible
d
causes for temperature variation in the months of January, May, July and October.
Example
he
Observatory : New Delhi (Safdarjung)
Latitude : 2835 N
Based on observations : 1951 - 1980
is
Altitude above mean sea level : 216 m
Month Mean of Mean of Highest Lowest
bl
Daily Daily Recorded Recorded
Max.(C) Min.(C) (C) (C)
pu January 21.1 7.3 29.3 0.6
May 39.6 25.9 47.2 17.5
be T
Daily mean monthly temperature

re
21.1+7.3
o R
January = 14.2OC
2
39.6+25.9
tt E
May = 32.75OC
2
Annual range of temperature

C
Mean Max. Temperature in May - Mean Temperature in January

Annual range of temperature = 32.75C 14.2C = 18.55C
no N

CHAPTER
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
E
arlier Chapter 9 described the uneven pressure is measured with the help of a
distribution of temperature over the mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
surface of the earth. Air expands when Consult your book, Practical Work in
heated and gets compressed when cooled. This Geography Part I (NCERT, 2006) and learn
results in variations in the atmospheric about these instruments. The pressure
pressure. The result is that it causes the decreases with height. At any elevation it varies
movement of air from high pressure to low from place to place and its variation is the
pressure, setting the air in motion. You already primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which
know that air in horizontal motion is wind. moves from high pressure areas to low
Atmospheric pressure also determines when pressure areas.
the air will rise or sink. The wind redistributes
the heat and moisture across the planet, Vertical Variation of Pressure
thereby, maintaining a constant temperature In the lower atmosphere the pressure
for the planet as a whole. The vertical rising of
decreases rapidly with height. The decrease
moist air cools it down to form the clouds and amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m
bring precipitation. This chapter has been increase in elevation. It does not always
devoted to explain the causes of pressure
decrease at the same rate. Table 10.1 gives
differences, the forces that control the the average pressure and temperature at
atmospheric circulation, the turbulent pattern
selected levels of elevation for a standard
of wind, the formation of air masses, the atmosphere.
disturbed weather when air masses interact
with each other and the phenomenon of violent Table 10.1 : Standard Pressure and Temperature at
tropical storms. Selected Levels
Level Pressure in mb Temperature C
ATMOSPHERIC P RESSURE
Sea Level 1,013.25 15.2
Do you realise that our body is subjected to a
1 km 898.76 8.7
lot of air pressure. As one moves up the air
gets varified and one feels breathless. 5 km 540.48 17. 3
The weight of a column of air contained in 10 km 265.00 49.7
a unit area from the mean sea level to the top
of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric The vertical pressure gradient force is much
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is larger than that of the horizontal pressure
expressed in units of milibar. At sea level the gradient. But, it is generally balanced by a
average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 nearly equal but opposite gravitational force.
milibar. Due to gravity the air at the surface is Hence, we do not experience strong upward
denser and hence has higher pressure. Air winds.
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ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS 89
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure purposes of comparison. The sea level pressure

distribution is shown on weather maps.
Small differences in pressure are highly
Figure 10.1 shows the patterns of isobars
significant in terms of the wind direction and
corresponding to pressure systems. Low-
pressure system is enclosed by one or more
isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.
High-pressure system is also enclosed by one
or more isobars with the highest pressure in
the centre.
World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure

The world distribution of sea level pressure in
January and July has been shown in Figures
10.2 and 10.3. Near the equator the sea level
Figure 10.1 : Isobars, pressure and wind systems in pressure is low and the area is known as
Northern Hemisphere
equatorial low. Along 30 N and 30o S are
velocity. Horizontal distribution of pressure is found the high-pressure areas known as the
studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. subtropical highs. Further pole wards along
Isobars are lines connecting places having 60o N and 60o S, the low-pressure belts are
equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles
of altitude on pressure, it is measured at any the pressure is high and it is known as the polar
station after being reduced to sea level for high. These pressure belts are not permanent
Figure 10.2 : Distribution of pressure (in millibars) January
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Figure 10.3 : Distribution of pressure (in millibars) July
in nature. They oscillate with the apparent Pressure Gradient Force

movement of the sun. In the northern
The differences in atmospheric pressure
hemisphere in winter they move southwards
produces a force. The rate of change of pressure
and in the summer northwards.
with respect to distance is the pressure
Forces Affecting the Velocity gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where
and Direction of Wind the isobars are close to each other and is weak
where the isobars are apart.
You already know that the air is set in motion
due to the differences in atmospheric pressure. Frictional Force
The air in motion is called wind. The wind
It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at
blows from high pressure to low pressure. The
the surface and its influence generally extends
wind at the surface experiences friction. In
upto an elevation of 1 - 3 km. Over the sea
addition, rotation of the earth also affects the
surface the friction is minimal.
wind movement. The force exerted by the
rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis Coriolis Force
force. Thus, the horizontal winds near the
earth surface respond to the combined effect The rotation of the earth about its axis affects
of three forces the pressure gradient force, the direction of the wind. This force is called
the frictional force and the Coriolis force. In the Coriolis force after the French physicist who
addition, the gravitational force acts described it in 1844. It deflects the wind to the
downward. right direction in the northern hemisphere and
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to the left in the southern hemisphere. The The wind circulation around a low is
deflection is more when the wind velocity is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high
high. The Coriolis force is directly proportional it is called anti cyclonic circulation. The
to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the direction of winds around such systems
poles and is absent at the equator. changes according to their location in
The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the different hemispheres (Table 10.2).
pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient The wind circulation at the earths surface
force is perpendicular to an isobar. The higher around low and high on many occasions is
the pressure gradient force, the more is the closely related to the wind circulation at higher
velocity of the wind and the larger is the level. Generally, over low pressure area the air
deflection in the direction of wind. As a result of will converge and rise. Over high pressure area
these two forces operating perpendicular to each the air will subside from above and diverge at
other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows the surface (Figure10.5). Apart from
around it. At the equator, the Coriolis force is convergence, some eddies, convection
zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the currents, orographic uplift and uplift along
isobars. The low pressure gets filled instead of fronts cause the rising of air, which is essential
getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
cyclones are not formed near the equator.
Pressure and Wind
The velocity and direction of the wind are the
net result of the wind generating forces. The
winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above
the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled mainly by the
pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When
isobars are straight and when there is no Figure 10.5 : Convergence and divergence of winds
friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced
by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind
blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known General circulation of the atmosphere
as the geostrophic wind (Figure 10.4). The pattern of planetary winds largely depends
on : (i) latitudinal variation of atmospheric
heating; (ii) emergence of pressure belts; (iii)
the migration of belts following apparent path
of the sun; (iv) the distribution of continents
and oceans; (v) the rotation of earth. The pattern
of the movement of the planetary winds is
called the general circulation of the
atmosphere. The general circulation of the
atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water
circulation which influences the earths
Figure 10.4 : Geostropic Wind
Table 10.2 : Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and Anticyclones
Pressure System Pressure Condition Pattern of Wind Direction

at the Centre Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Cyclone Low Anticlockwise Clockwise

Anticyclone High Clockwise Anticlockwise
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climate. A schematic description of the general The general circulation of the atmosphere
circulation is shown in Figure 10.6. also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds
of the atmosphere initiate large and slow
moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn
provide input of energy and water vapour into
the air. These interactions take place rather
slowly over a large part of the ocean.
General Atmospheric Circulation and

its Effects on Oceans
Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean

is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation. The warm water
of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts
towards South American coast and
replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such
appearance of warm water off the coast
Figure 10. 6 : Simplified general circulation of Peru is known as the El Nino. The El
of the atmosphere Nino event is closely associated with the
pressure changes in the Central Pacific
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence and Australia. This change in pressure
Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused condition over Pacific is known as the
by high insolation and a low pressure is southern oscillation. The combined
created. The winds from the tropics converge phenomenon of southern oscillation and
at this low pressure zone. The converged air El Nino is known as ENSO. In the years
rises along with the convective cell. It reaches when the ENSO is strong, large-scale
the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of variations in weather occur over the
14 km. and moves towards the poles. This world. The arid west coast of South
causes accumulation of air at about 30o N and America receives heavy rainfall, drought
S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the occurs in Australia and sometimes in
ground and forms a subtropical high. Another India and floods in China. This
reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it phenomenon is closely monitored and is
reaches 30o N and S latitudes. Down below used for long range forecasting in major
near the land surface the air flows towards the parts of the world.
equator as the easterlies. The easterlies from
either side of the equator converge in the Inter Seasonal Wind
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such
circulations from the surface upwards and The pattern of wind circulation is modified in
vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the different seasons due to the shifting of regions
tropics is called Hadley Cell. In the middle of maximum heating, pressure and wind belts.
latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold The most pronounced effect of such a shift is
air that comes from the poles and the rising noticed in the monsoons, especially over
warm air that blows from the subtropical high. southeast Asia. You would be studying the
At the surface these winds are called westerlies details of monsoon in the book India : Physical
and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell. At polar Environment (NCERT, 2006). The other local
latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the deviations from the general circulation system
poles and blows towards middle latitudes as are as follows.
the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar
Local Winds
cell. These three cells set the pattern for the
general circulation of the atmosphere. The Differences in the heating and cooling of earth
transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to surfaces and the cycles those develop daily or
higher latitudes maintains the general annually can create several common, local or
circulation. regional winds.
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Land and Sea Breezes as the valley breeze. During the night the
slopes get cooled and the dense air descends
As explained earlier, the land and sea absorb
and transfer heat differently. During the day the into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool
air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining
land heats up faster and becomes warmer than
the sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises into the valley is called katabatic wind. Another
type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side
giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the
of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these
sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea
is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from winds, while crossing the mountain ranges
condense and precipitate. When it descends
sea to land is created and the wind blows from
the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night down the leeward side of the slope the dry air
gets warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry
the reversal of condition takes place. The land
air may melt the snow in a short time.
loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The
pressure gradient is from the land to the sea
Air Masses
and hence land breeze results (Figure 10.7).
When the air remains over a homogenous area
for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. The homogenous
regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast
plains. The air with distinctive characteristics
in terms of temperature and humidity is called
an airmass. It is defined as a large body of air
having little horizontal variation in temperature
and moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over
which air masses form, are called the source
regions.
The air masses are classified according to
the source regions. There are five major source
regions. These are: (i) Warm tropical and
subtropical oceans; (ii) The subtropical hot
deserts; (iii) The relatively cold high latitude
oceans; (iv) The very cold snow covered
continents in high latitudes; (v) Permanently
ice covered continents in the Arctic and
Antarctica. Accordingly, following types of air-
masses are recognised: (i) Maritime tropical
(mT); (ii) Continental tropical (cT); (iii) Maritime
polar (mP); (iv) Continental polar (cP);
(v) Continental arctic (cA). Tropical air masses
are warm and polar air masses are cold.
Fronts
When two different air masses meet, the
Figure 10.7 : Land and sea breezes boundary zone between them is called a
front. The process of formation of the
Mountain and Valley Winds
fronts is known as frontogenesis. There
In mountainous regions, during the day the are four types of fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm;
slopes get heated up and air moves upslope (c) Stationary; (d) Occluded. When the
and to fill the resulting gap the air from the front remains stationary, it is called a
valley blows up the valley. This wind is known stationary front. When the cold air moves
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anticlockwise cyclonic circulation. The cyclonic

circulation leads to a well developed extra
tropical cyclone, with a warm front and a cold
front. The plan and cross section of a well
developed cyclone is given in Figure 10.9.
There are pockets of warm air or warm sector
wedged between the forward and the rear cold
air or cold sector. The warm air glides over the
cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over
the sky ahead of the warm front and cause
precipitation. The cold front approaches the
warm air from behind and pushes the warm
air up. As a result, cumulus clouds develop
along the cold front. The cold front moves faster
than the warm front ultimately overtaking the
warm front. The warm air is completely lifted
up and the front is occluded and the cyclone
dissipates.
The processes of wind circulation both at
the surface and aloft are closely interlinked.
Figure 10.8 : Vertical Sections of : (a) Warm Front; The extra tropical cyclone differs from the
(b) Cold Front; (c) Occluded Front tropical cyclone in number of ways. The extra
tropical cyclones have a clear frontal system
towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is
called the cold front, whereas if the warm air
mass moves towards the cold air mass, the
contact zone is a warm front. If an air mass is
fully lifted above the land surface, it is called
the occluded front. The fronts occur in middle
latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient
in temperature and pressure. They bring
abrupt changes in temperature and cause the
air to rise to form clouds and cause precipitation.
Extra Tropical Cyclones

The systems developing in the mid and high
latitude, beyond the tropics are called the
middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones. The
passage of front causes abrupt changes in the
weather conditions over the area in the middle
and high latitudes.
Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar
front. Initially, the front is stationary. In the
northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the
south and cold air from the north of the front.
When the pressure drops along the front, the
warm air moves northwards and the cold air
move towards, south setting in motion an Figure 10. 9 : Extra tropical cyclones
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which is not present in the tropical cyclones. A schematic representation of the vertical
They cover a larger area and can originate over structure of a mature tropical cyclonic storm
the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones is shown in Figure 10.10.
originate only over the seas and on reaching A mature tropical cyclone is characterised
the land they dissipate. The extra tropical by the strong spirally circulating wind around
cyclone affects a much larger area as the centre, called the eye. The diameter of the
compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind circulating system can vary between 150 and
velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher 250 km.
and it is more destructive. The extra tropical The eye is a region of calm with subsiding
cyclones move from west to east but tropical air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there
cyclones, move from east to west. is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater
height reaching the tropopause. The wind
reaches maximum velocity in this region,
Tropical Cyclones
reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall
originate over oceans in tropical areas and rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus
move over to the coastal areas bringing about and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the
large scale destruction caused by violent outer region. The diameter of the storm over
winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian
This is one of the most devastating natural ocean is between 600 - 1200 km. The system
calamities. They are known as Cyclones in the moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.
Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, The cyclone creates storm surges and they
Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South inundate the coastal low lands. The storm
China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western peters out on the land.
Australia.
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify
over warm tropical oceans. The conditions
favourable for the formation and intensification
of tropical storms are: (i) Large sea surface with
temperature higher than 27 C; (ii) Presence
of the Coriolis force; (iii) Small variations in the
vertical wind speed; (iv) A pre-existing weak-
low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic
circulation; (v) Upper divergence above the sea
level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm, comes
from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the
centre of the storm. With continuous supply
of moisture from the sea, the storm is further
strengthened. On reaching the land the
moisture supply is cut off and the storm
dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone
crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 20o N
latitude generally, recurve and they are more Figure 10.10 : Vertical section of the tropical cyclone
destructive. (after Rama Sastry)
2015-16
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes greater height. This causes precipitation. Later,

downdraft brings down to earth the cool air
Other severe local storms are thunderstorms and the rain. From severe thunderstorms
and tornadoes. They are of short duration, sometimes spiralling wind descends like a
occurring over a small area but are violent. trunk of an elephant with great force, with very
Thunderstorm s a re caused by intense low pressure at the centre, causing massive
convection on moist hot days. A thunderstorm destruction on its way. Such a phenomenon is
is a well-grown cumulonimbus cloud called a tornado. Tornadoes generally occur
producing thunder and lightening. When the in middle latitudes. The tornado over the sea
clouds extend to heights where sub-zero is called water spouts.
temperature prevails, hails are formed and they These violent storms are the manifestation
come down as hailstorm. If there is insufficient of the atmospheres adjustments to varying
moisture, a thunderstorm can generate dust- energy distribution. The potential and heat
storms. A thunderstorm is characterised by energies are converted into kinetic energy in
intense updraft of rising warm air, which these storms and the restless atmosphere again
causes the clouds to grow bigger and rise to returns to its stable state.
EXERCISES

(i) If the surface air pressure is 1,000 mb, the air pressure at 1 km above the
surface will be:
(a) 700 mb (c) 900 mb
(b) 1,100 mb (d) 1,300 mb
(ii) The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone normally occurs:
(a) near the Equator (b) near the Tropic of Cancer
(c) near the Tropic of Capricorn (d) near the Arctic Circle
(iii) The direction of wind around a low pressure in northern hemisphere is:
(a) clockwise (c) anti-clock wise
(b) perpendicular to isobars (d) parallel to isobars
(iv) Which one of the following is the source region for the formation of air
masses?
(a) the Equatorial forest (c) the Siberian Plain
(b) the Himalayas (d) the Deccan Plateau
(i) What is the unit used in measuring pressure? Why is the pressure measured
at station level reduced to the sea level in preparation of weather maps?
(ii) While the pressure gradient force is from north to south, i.e. from the
subtropical high pressure to the equator in the northern hemisphere,
why are the winds north easterlies in the tropics.
(iii) What are the geotrophic winds?
(iv) Explain the land and sea breezes.
2015-16

(i) Discuss the factors affecting the speed and direction of wind.
(ii) Draw a simplified diagram to show the general circulation of the
atmosphere over the globe. What are the possible reasons for the formation
of subtropical high pressure over 30o N and S latitudes?
(iii) Why does tropical cyclone originate over the seas? In which part of the
tropical cyclone do torrential rains and high velocity winds blow and why?
Project Work
(i) Collect weather information over media such as newspaper, TV and radio
for understanding the weather systems.
(ii) Read the section on weather in any newspaper, preferably, one having a
map showing a satellite picture. Mark the area of cloudiness. Attempt to
infer the atmospheric circulation from the distribution of clouds. Compare
the forecast given in the newspaper with the TV coverage, if you have
access to TV. Estimate, how many days in a week was the forecast were
accurate.
2015-16
CHAPTER
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
d
he
Y
ou have already learnt that the air EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
contains water vapour. It varies from
zero to four per cent by volume of the The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
is
atmosphere and plays an important role in the is added or withdrawn due to evaporation and
weather phenomena. Water is present in the condensation respectively. Evaporation is a
atmosphere in three forms namely gaseous, process by which water is transformed from
bl
liquid and solid. The moisture in the liquid to gaseous state. Heat is the main cause
atmosphere is derived from water bodies for evaporation. The temperature at which the
through evaporation and from plants through water starts evaporating is referred to as the
latent heat of vapourisation.
pu
transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous
exchange of water between the atmosphere, the
oceans and the continents through the
Increase in temperature increases water
absorption and retention capacity of the given
parcel of air. Similarly, if the moisture content
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processes of evaporation, transpiration,

condensation and precipitation. is low, air has a potentiality of absorbing and
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Water vapour present in the air is known retaining moisture. Movement of air replaces
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as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer.
different ways. The actual amount of the water Hence, the greater the movement of air, the
vapour present in the atmosphere is known as greater is the evaporation.
tt E
the absolute humidity. It is the weight of water The transformation of water vapour into
vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed water is called condensation. Condensation is
in terms of grams per cubic metre. The ability caused by the loss of heat. When moist air is
C
of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity
on its temperature. The absolute humidity to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess
differs from place to place on the surface of the water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it
no N
earth. The percentage of moisture present in directly condenses into solid form, it is known
the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity as sublimation. In free air, condensation results
at a given temperature is known as the relative from cooling around very small particles
humidity. With the change of air temperature, termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei.

the capacity to retain moisture increases or Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean
decreases and the relative humidity is also are particularly good nuclei because they
affected. It is greater over the oceans and least absorb water. Condensation also takes place
over the continents. when the moist air comes in contact with some
The air containing moisture to its full colder object and it may also take place when
capacity at a given temperature is said to be the temperature is close to the dew point.
saturated. It means that the air at the given Condensation, therefore, depends upon the
temperature is incapable of holding any amount of cooling and the relative humidity of
additional amount of moisture at that stage. the air. Condensation is influenced by the
The temperature at which saturation occurs volume of air, temperature, pressure and
in a given sample of air is known as dew point. humidity. Condensation takes place: (i) when
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 99
the temperature of the air is reduced to dew condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is
point with its volume remaining constant; (ii) described as smog. The only difference between
when both the volume and the temperature are the mist and fog is that mist contains more
reduced; (iv) when moisture is added to the air moisture than the fog. In mist each nuceli
through evaporation. However, the most contains a thicker layer of moisture. Mists are
favourable condition for condensation is the frequent over mountains as the rising warm
decrease in air temperature. air up the slopes meets a cold surface. Fogs
After condensation the water vapour or the are drier than mist and they are prevalent where
moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the warm currents of air come in contact with cold
d
following forms dew, frost, fog and clouds. currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which
Forms of condensation can be classified on the condensation takes place around nuclei
he
basis of temperature and location. provided by the dust, smoke, and the salt
Condensation takes place when the dew point particles.
is lower than the freezing point as well as
higher than the freezing point. Clouds
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or
is
Dew
tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation
When the moisture is deposited in the form of of the water vapour in free air at considerable
water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid
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elevations. As the clouds are formed at some
objects (rather than nuclei in air above the height over the surface of the earth, they take
surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant various shapes. According to their height,
leaves, it is known as dew. The ideal conditions expanse, density and transparency or
pu
for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high
relative humidity, and cold and long nights.
opaqueness clouds are grouped under four
types : (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus;
For the formation of dew, it is necessary that (iv) nimbus.
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the dew point is above the freezing point.

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Cirrus
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Frost
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes
Frost forms on cold surfaces when (8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detatched
condensation takes place below freezing point clouds having a feathery appearance. They are
tt E
(00C), i.e. the dew point is at or below the always white in colour.
freezing point. The excess moisture is deposited
C
in the form of minute ice crystals instead of Cumulus

water droplets. The ideal conditions for the
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They
formation of white frost are the same as those
are generally formed at a height of 4,000 -
no N
for the formation of dew, except that the air

7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be seen
temperature must be at or below the freezing
scattered here and there. They have a flat base.
point.
Stratus

Fog and Mist

As their name implies, these are layered clouds
When the temperature of an air mass
covering large portions of the sky. These clouds
containing a large quantity of water vapour falls
are generally formed either due to loss of heat
all of a sudden, condensation takes place within
or the mixing of air masses with different
itself on fine dust particles. So, the fog is a cloud
temperatures.
with its base at or very near to the ground.
Because of the fog and mist, the visibility
Nimbus
becomes poor to zero. In urban and industrial
centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They
help the formation of fog and mist. Such a form at middle levels or very near to the surface
of the earth. These are extremely dense and Precipitation

opaque to the rays of the sun. Sometimes, the
The process of continuous condensation in free
clouds are so low that they seem to touch the
air helps the condensed particles to grow in
ground. Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses
size. When the resistance of the air fails to hold
of thick vapour.
them against the force of gravity, they fall on to
the earths surface. So after the condensation
of water vapour, the release of moisture is
known as precipitation. This may take place
in liquid or solid form. The precipitation in the
d
form of water is called rainfall, when the
temperature is lower than the 00C, precipitation
he
takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow
and is called snowfall. Moisture is released in
the form of hexagonal crystals. These crystals
form flakes of snow. Besides rain and snow,
is
other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail,
Figure 11.1 though the latter are limited in occurrence and
are sporadic in both time and space.
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Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen
melted snow-water. When a layer of air with
pu the temperature above freezing point overlies
a subfreezing layer near the ground,
precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
Raindrops, which leave the warmer air,
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encounter the colder air below. As a result, they

solidify and reach the ground as small pellets
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of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which
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they are formed.

Sometimes, drops of rain after being
released by the clouds become solidified into
tt E
small rounded solid pieces of ice and which

reach the surface of the earth are called
C
hailstones. These are formed by the rainwater

passing through the colder layers. Hailstones
have several concentric layers of ice one over
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the other.
Types of Rainfall
Figure 11.2
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified

into three main types the convectional,

Identify these cloud types which are orographic or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.
shown in Figure 11.1 and 11.2.
Convectional Rain
A combination of these four basic types can
The, air on being heated, becomes light and
give rise to the following types of clouds: high
clouds cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus; rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it
middle clouds altostratus and altocumulus; expands and loses heat and consequently,
low clouds stratocumulus and nimbostratus condensation takes place and cumulous
and clouds with extensive vertical clouds are formed. With thunder and lightening,
development cumulus and cumulonimbus. heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 101
long. Such rain is common in the summer or the continents. The rainfall is more over the
in the hotter part of the day. It is very common oceans than on the landmasses of the world
in the equatorial regions and interior parts of because of being great sources of water.
the continents, particularly in the northern Between the latitudes 350 and 400 N and S of
hemisphere. the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern
coasts and goes on decreasing towards the
Orographic Rain west. But, between 450 and 650 N and S of
equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is
When the saturated air mass comes across a first received on the western margins of the
d
mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, continents and it goes on decreasing towards
it expands; the temperature falls, and the the east. Wherever mountains run parallel to
moisture is condensed. The chief characteristic the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal
he
of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes plain, on the windward side and it decreases
receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the towards the leeward side.
windward side, when these winds reach the On the basis of the total amount of annual
other slope, they descend, and their precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the
is
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take world are identified as follows.
in moisture increases and hence, these leeward The equatorial belt, the windward slopes
slopes remain rainless and dry. The area of the mountains along the western coasts in
bl
situated on the leeward side, which gets less the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas
rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. It of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of
is also known as the relief rain.
pu over 200 cm per annum. Interior continental
areas receive moderate rainfall varying from
Cyclonic Rain 100 - 200 cm per annum. The coastal areas of
the continents receive moderate amount of
You have already read about extra tropical
be T
rainfall. The central parts of the tropical land

cyclones and cyclonic rain in Chapter 10.
and the eastern and interior parts of the
re
Please consult Chapter 10 to understand
temperate lands receive rainfall varying
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cyclonic rainfall.
between 50 - 100 cm per annum. Areas lying
in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the
World Distribution of Rainfall continents and high latitudes receive very low
tt E
Different places on the earths surface receive rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum. Seasonal
different amounts of rainfall in a year and that distribution of rainfall provides an important
aspect to judge its effectiveness. In some
C
too in different seasons.

In general, as we proceed from the equator regions rainfall is distributed evenly
towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing throughout the year such as in the equatorial
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steadily. The coastal areas of the world receive belt and in the western parts of cool temperate
greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of regions.

EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following is the most important constituent of the
atmosphere for human beings?
(a) Water vapour (c) Dust particle
(b) Nitrogen (d) Oxygen
(ii) Which one of the following process is responsible for transforming liquid
into vapour?
(a) Condensation (c) Evaporation
(b) Transpiration (d) Precipitation
(iii) The air that contains moisture to its full capacity :
(a) Relative humidity (c) Absolute humidity
(b) Specific humidity (d) Saturated air
d
(iv) Which one of the following is the highest cloud in the sky?
(a) Cirrus (c) Nimbus
he
(b) Stratus (d) Cumulus
(i) Name the three types of precipitation.
is
(ii) Explain relative humidity.
(iii) Why does the amount of water vapour decreases rapidly with altitude?
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(iv) How are clouds formed? Classify them.
pu (i)
(ii)
Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation.
What are forms of condensation? Describe the process of dew and frost
formation.
be T
re
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Project Work
Browse through the newspaper from 1st June to 31st December and note the news
about extreme rainfall in different parts of the country.
tt E
C
no N

CHAPTER
WORLD CLIMATE AND

CLIMATE CHANGE
d
he
T
he world climate can be studied by related them to the distribution of vegetation
organising information and data on and used these values for classifying the
climate and synthesising them in climates. It is an empirical classification based
is
smaller units for easy understanding, on mean annual and mean monthly
description and analysis. Three broad temperature and precipitation data. He
approaches have been adopted for classifying introduced the use of capital and small letters
bl
climate. They are empirical, genetic and to designate climatic groups and types.
applied. Empirical classification is based on Although developed in 1918 and modified over
observed data, particularly on temperature
pu a period of time, Koeppens scheme is still
and precipitation. Genetic classification popular and in use.
attempts to organise climates according to their Koeppen recognised five major climatic
causes. Applied classification is for specific groups, four of them are based on temperature
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purpose. and one on precipitation. Table 12.1 lists the

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climatic groups and their characteristics
o R
KOEPPE N S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION according to Koeppen. The capital letters : A,C,

OF CLIMATE
D and E delineate humid climates and B dry
climates.
tt E
The most widely used classification of climate The climatic groups are subdivided into
is the empirical climate classification scheme types, designated by small letters, based on
developed by V. Koeppen. Koeppen identified seasonality of precipitation and temperature
C
a close relationship between the distribution characteristics. The seasons of dryness are
of vegetation and climate. He selected certain indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s,
values of temperature and precipitation and where f corresponds to no dry season,
no N
Table 12.1 : Climatic Groups According to Koeppen
Group Characteristics

A - Tropical Average temperature of the coldest month is 18 C or higher
B - Dry Climates Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation
C - Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years is higher than minus 3C but below 18C
D - Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3 C or below
E - Cold Climates Average temperature for all months is below 10 C
H - High Land Cold due to elevation

m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and islands of East Indies. Significant amount of
s - summer dry season. The small letters a, b, rainfall occurs in every month of the year as
c and d refer to the degree of severity of thunder showers in the afternoon. The
temperature. The B- Dry Climates are temperature is uniformly high and the annual
subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe range of temperature is negligible. The
or semi-arid and W for deserts. The climatic maximum temperature on any day is around
30C while the minimum temperature is
types are listed in Table 12.2. The distribution
around 20C. Tropical evergreen forests with
of climatic groups and types is shown in
dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are
Table 12.1.
d
found in this climate.
Table 12.2 : Climatic Types According to Koeppen
he
Group Type Letter Code Characteristics
Tropical wet Af No dry season
A-Tropical Humid
Climate Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal, short dry season
is
Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi arid or dry
bl
Subtropical desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
B-Dry Climate
Mid-latitude steppe BSk Mid-latitude semi arid or dry
pu Mid-latitude desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry
Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
C-Warm
temperate (Mid- Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
latitude) Climates
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Marine west coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool summer
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D-Cold Snow- Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter
o R
forest Climates Subarctic Dw Winter dry and very severe

Tundra ET No true summer
E-Cold Climates
tt E
Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice
H-Highland Highland H Highland with snow cover

C
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over
no N
of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The sun the Indian sub-continent, North Eastern part
being overhead throughout the year and the of South America and Northern Australia.
presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer. Winter
(ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid. is dry. The detailed climatic account of this

Annual range of temperature is very low and climatic type is given in the book on India:
annual rainfall is high. The tropical group is Physical Environment.
divided into three types, namely (i) Af- Tropical
wet climate; (ii) Am - Tropical monsoon climate; Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)
(iii) Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate.
Tropical wet and dry climate occurs north and
south of Af type climate regions. It borders with
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
dry climate on the western part of the continent
Tropical wet climate is found near the equator. and Cf or Cw on the eastern part. Extensive
The major areas are the Amazon Basin in South Aw climate is found to the north and south of
America, western equatorial Africa and the the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining parts
WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 105
of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, often causing famine. Rain occurs in short
Sudan and south of Central Africa. The annual intense thundershowers in deserts and is
rainfall in this climate is considerably less than ineffective in building soil moisture. Fog is
that in Af and Am climate types and is variable common in coastal deserts bordering cold
also. The wet season is shorter and the dry currents. Maximum temperature in the summer
season is longer with the drought being more is very high. The highest shade temperature of
severe. Temperature is high throughout the 58 C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on
year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the 13 September 1922. The annual and diurnal
greatest in the dry season. Deciduous forest and ranges of temperature are also high.
d
tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.
Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C
he
Dry Climates : B
Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend
Dry climates are characterised by very low from 30 - 50 of latitude mainly on the eastern
rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of and western margins of continents. These
plants. These climates cover a very large area climates generally have warm summers with
is
of the planet extending over large latitudes from mild winters. They are grouped into four types:
15 - 60 north and south of the equator. At (i) Humid subtropical, i.e. dry in winter and
low latitudes, from 15 - 30, they occur in the hot in summer (Cwa); (ii) Mediterranean (Cs);
bl
area of subtropical high where subsidence and (iii) Humid subtropical, i.e. no dry season and
inversion of temperature do not produce mild winter (Cfa); (iv) Marine west coast climate
rainfall. On the western margin of the
pu (Cfb).
continents, adjoining the cold current,
particularly over the west coast of South Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)
America, they extend more equatorwards and
Humid subtropical climate occurs poleward of
be T
occur on the coast land. In middle latitudes,

Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, mainly in
from 35 - 60 north and south of equator, they
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North Indian plains and South China interior
are confined to the interior of continents where
o R
plains. The climate is similar to Aw climate

maritime-humid winds do not reach and to
except that the temperature in winter is warm.
areas often surrounded by mountains.
Dry climates are divided into steppe or
tt E
Mediterranean Climate (Cs)

semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
They are further subdivided as subtropical As the name suggests, Mediterranean climate
C
steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at occurs around Mediterranean sea, along the
latitudes from 15 - 35 and mid-latitude west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at between 30 - 40 latitudes e.g. Central
no N
latitudes between 35 - 60. California, Central Chile, along the coast in

south eastern and south western Australia.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical These areas come under the influence of sub
Desert (BWh) Climates tropical high in summer and westerly wind in

winter. Hence, the climate is characterised by

Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical
hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter. Monthly
desert (BWh) have common precipitation and
average temperature in summer is around
temperature characteristics. Located in the
25 C and in winter below 10C. The annual
transition zone between humid and dry
precipitation ranges between 35 - 90 cm.
climates, subtropical steppe receives slightly
more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate
for the growth of sparse grasslands. The rainfall
in both the climates is highly variable. The Humid subtropical climate lies on the eastern
variability in the rainfall affects the life in the parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes.
steppe much more than in the desert, more In this region the air masses are generally
unstable and cause rainfall throughout the Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
year. They occur in eastern United States of
Cold climate with dry winter occurs mainly
America, southern and eastern China,
over Northeastern Asia. The development of
southern Japan, northeastern Argentina,
pronounced winter anti cyclone and its
coastal south Africa and eastern coast of
weakening in summer sets in monsoon like
Australia. The annual averages of precipitation
reversal of wind in this region. Poleward
vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in
summer temperatures are lower and winter
summer and frontal precipitation in winter are
temperatures are extremely low with many
common. Mean monthly temperature in
d
locations experiencing below freezing point
summer is around 27C, and in winter it varies
temperatures for up to seven months in a year.
from 5-12 C. The daily range of temperature
Precipitation occurs in summer. The annual
he
is small.
precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.
Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb) Polar Climates (E)

Marine west coast climate is located poleward Polar climates exist poleward beyond 70
is
from the Mediterranean climate on the west latitude. Polar climates consist of two types:
coast of the continents. The main areas are: (i) Tundra (ET); (ii) Ice Cap (EF).
Northwestern Europe, west coast of North
bl
America, north of California, southern Chile, Tundra Climate (ET)
southeastern Australia and New Zealand. Due The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the
to marine influence, the temperature is
pu types of vegetation, like low growing mosses,
moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for lichens and flowering plants. This is the region
its latitude. The mean temperature in summer of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently
months ranges from 15-20C and in winter
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frozen. The short growing season and water

4-10C. The annual and daily ranges of logging support only low growing plants.
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temperature are small. Precipitation occurs During summer, the tundra regions have very
o R
throughout the year. Precipitation varies long duration of day light.

greatly from 50-250cm.
Ice Cap Climate (EF)
tt E
Cold Snow Forest Climates (D)

The ice cap climate (EF) occurs over interior
Cold snow forest climates occur in the large Greenland and Antartica. Even in summer, the
C
continental area in the northern hemisphere temperature is below freezing point. This area
between 40-70 north latitudes in Europe, receives very little precipitation. The snow and
Asia and North America. Cold snow forest ice get accumulated and the mounting pressure
no N
climates are divided into two types: (i) Df- cold causes the deformation of the ice sheets and
climate with humid winter; (ii) Dw- cold climate they break. They move as icebergs that float in
with dry winter. The severity of winter is more the Arctic and Antarctic waters. Plateau Station
pronounced in higher latitudes. , Antarctica ,79S, portray this climate.

Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df) Highland Climates (H)

Cold climate with humid winter occurs Highland climates are governed by topography.
poleward of marine west coast climate and mid In high mountains, large changes in mean
latitude steppe. The winters are cold and temperature occur over short distances.
snowy. The frost free season is short. The Precipitation types and intensity also vary
annual ranges of temperature are large. The spatially across high lands. There is vertical
weather changes are abrupt and short. zonation of layering of climatic types with
Poleward, the winters are more severe. elevation in the mountain environment.
CLIMATE CHANGE crop failures, of floods and migration of people

tell about the effects of changing climate. A
The earlier chapters on climate summarised
number of times Europe witnessed warm, wet,
our understanding of climate as it prevails now.
cold and dry periods, the significant episodes
The type of climate we experience now might
were the warm and dry conditions in the tenth
be prevailing over the last 10,000 years with
and eleventh centuries, when the Vikings
minor and occasionally wide fluctuations. The
settled in Greenland. Europe witnessed Little
planet earth has witnessed many variations in
Ice Age from 1550 to about 1850. From about
climate since the beginning. Geological records
1885-1940 world temperature showed an
d
show alteration of glacial and inter-glacial
upward trend. After 1940, the rate of increase
periods. The geomorphological features,
in temperature slowed down.
he
especially in high altitudes and high latitudes,
exhibit traces of advances and retreats of
Causes of Climate Change
glaciers. The sediment deposits in glacial lakes
also reveal the occurrence of warm and cold The causes for climate change are many. They
periods. The rings in the trees provide clues can be grouped into astronomical and
is
about wet and dry periods. Historical records terrestrial causes. The astronomical causes are
describe the vagaries in climate. All these the changes in solar output associated with
evidences indicate that change in climate is a sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and
bl
natural and continuous process. cooler patches on the sun which increase and
India also witnessed alternate wet and dry decrease in a cyclical manner. According to
periods. Archaeological findings show that the
pu some meteorologists, when the number of
Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool sunspots increase, cooler and wetter weather
climate around 8,000 B.C. The period 3,000- and greater storminess occur. A decrease in
1,700 B.C. had higher rainfall. From about sunspot numbers is associated with warm and
be T
2,000-1,700 B.C., this region was the centre drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not
re
of the Harappan civilisation. Dry conditions statistically significant.
o R
accentuated since then. An another astronomical theory is

In the geological past, the earth was warm Millankovitch oscillations, which infer cycles
some 500-300 million years ago, through the in the variations in the earths orbital
tt E
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods. characteristics around the sun, the wobbling
During the Pleistocene epoch, glacial and of the earth and the changes in the earths axial
tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation
C
inter-glacial periods occurred, the last major

peak glacial period was about 18,000 years received from the sun, which in turn, might
ago. The present inter-glacial period started have a bearing on the climate.
no N
10,000 years ago. Volcanism is considered as another cause

for climate change. Volcanic eruption throws
Climate in the recent past
up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere. These
Variability in climate occurs all the time. The aerosols remain in the atmosphere for a

nineties decade of the last century witnessed considerable period of time reducing the suns
extreme weather events. The 1990s recorded radiation reaching the Earths surface. After the
the warmest temperature of the century and recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic
some of the worst floods around the world. The eruptions, the average temperature of the earth
worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, fell to some extent for some years.
south of the Sahara desert, from 1967-1977 The most important anthropogenic effect
is one such variability. During the 1930s, on the climate is the increasing trend in the
severe drought occurred in southwestern Great concentration of greenhouse gases in the
Plains of the United States, described as the atmosphere which is likely to cause global
dust bowl. Historical records of crop yield or warming.
Global Warming it will take for earths atmospheric system to

recover from any change brought about by the
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the
latter.
atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The
The largest concentration of GHGs in the
atmosphere also transmits the incoming solar
atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission
radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long
of CO 2 comes mainly from fossil fuel
wave radiation emitted upwards by the earths
combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests and
surface. The gases that absorb long wave
oceans are the sinks for the carbon dioxide.
radiation are called greenhouse gases. The
Forests use CO 2 in their growth. So,
processes that warm the atmosphere are often
d
deforestation due to changes in land use, also
collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect.
increases the concentration of Co2. The time
he
taken for atmospheric CO2 to adjust to changes
The term greenhouse is derived from the
analogy to a greenhouse used in cold in sources to sinks is 20-50 years. It is rising
areas for preserving heat. A greenhouse at about 0.5 per cent annually. Doubling of
is made up of glass. The glass which is concentration of CO2 over pre-industrial level
transparent to incoming short wave solar is used as an index for estimating the changes
is
radiation is opaque to outgoing long wave in climate in climatic models.
radiation. The glass, therefore, allows in Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are products
more radiation and prevents the long of human activity. Ozone occurs in the
bl
wave radiation going outside the glass stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert
house, causing the temperature inside oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays do
the glasshouse structure warmer than
pu not reach the earths surface. The CFCs which
outside. When you enter a car or a bus,
during summers, where windows are
drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone.
closed, you feel more heat than outside. Large depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica.
Likewise during winter the vehicles with The depletion of ozone concentration in the
be T
closed doors and windows remain warmer stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This
allows the ultra violet rays to pass through the
re
than the temperature outside. This is
o R
another example of the greenhouse effect. troposphere.

International efforts have been initiated for
Greenhouse Gases(GHGs) reducing the emission of GHGs into the
tt E
atmosphere. The most important one is the

The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon Kyoto protocol proclaimed in 1997. This
dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), protocol went into effect in 2005, ratified by
C
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone 141 nations. Kyoto protocol bounds the 35
(O3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) industrialised countries to reduce their
and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with emissions by the year 2012 to 5 per cent less
no N
GHGs and affect their concentration in the than the levels prevalent in the year 1990.
atmosphere. The increasing trend in the concentration
The effectiveness of any given GHG of GHGs in the atmosphere may, in the long
molecule will depend on the magnitude of the run, warm up the earth. Once the global

increase in its concentration, its life time in the warming sets in, it will be difficult to reverse it.
atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation The effect of global warming may not be
that it absorbs. The chlorofluorocarbons uniform everywhere. Nevertheless, the adverse
(CFCs) are highly effective. Ozone which effect due to global warming will adversely affect
absorbs ultra violet radiation in the the life supporting system. Rise in the sea level
stratosphere is very effective in absorbing due to melting of glaciers and ice-caps and
terrestrial radiation when it is present in the thermal expansion of the sea may inundate
lower troposphere. Another important point to large parts of the coastal area and islands,
be noted is that the more time the GHG leading to social problems. This is another
molecule remains in the atmosphere, the longer cause for serious concern for the world
community. Efforts have already been initiated annual near surface temperature over land
to control the emission of GHGs and to arrest from 1856-2000, relative to the period
the trend towards global warming. Let us hope 1961-90 as normal for the globe.
the world community responds to this challenge An increasing trend in temperature was
and adopts a lifestyle that leaves behind a discernible in the 20th century. The greatest
livable world for the generations to come. warming of the 20th century was during the
One of the major concerns of the world two periods, 1901-44 and 1977-99. Over each
today is global warming. Let us look at how of these two periods, global temperatures rose
much the planet has warmed up from the by about 0.4C. In between, there was a slight
d
temperature records. cooling, which was more marked in the
Temperature data are available from the Northern Hemisphere.
middle of the 19th century mostly for western The globally averaged annual mean
he
Europe. The reference period for this study is temperature at the end of the 20th century was
1961-90. The temperature anomalies for the about 0.6C above that recorded at the end of
earlier and later periods are estimated from the the 19th century. The seven warmest years
average temperature for the period 1961-90. during the 1856-2000 were recorded in the
is
The annual average near-surface air last decade. The year 1998 was the warmest
temperature of the world is approximately year, probably not only for the 20th century
14C. The time series show anomalies of but also for the whole millennium.
bl
pu
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N

Write an explanatory note

on global warming.
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following is suitable for Koeppens A type of climate?
(a) High rainfall in all the months
(b) Mean monthly temperature of the coldest month more than freezing
point
d
(c) Mean monthly temperature of all the months more than 18o C
(d) Average temperature for all the months below 10 C
he
(ii) Koeppens system of classification of climates can be termed as :
(a) Applied (b) Systematic (c) Genetic (d) Empirical
(iii) Most of the Indian Peninsula will be grouped according to Koeppens system
under:
is
(a) Af (b) BSh (c) Cfb (d) Am
(iv) Which one of the following years is supposed to have recorded the warmest
bl
temperature the world over?
(a) 1990 (b) 1998 (c) 1885 (d) 1950
pu (v) Which one of the following groups of four climates represents humid
conditions?
(a) ABCE
be T
(b) ACDE
re
o R
(c) BCDE
(d) ACDF
tt E
(i) Which two climatic variables are used by Koeppen for classification of the
climate?
C
(ii) How is the genetic system of classification different from the empirical
one?
no N
(iii) Which types of climates have very low range of temperature?

(iv) What type of climatic conditions would prevail if the sun spots increase?

(i) Make a comparison of the climatic conditions between the A and B

types of climate.
(ii) What type of vegetation would you find in the C and A type(s) of climate?
(iii) What do you understand by the term Greenhouse Gases? Make a list of
greenhouse gases.
Project Work
Collect information about Kyoto declaration related to global climate changes.
UNIT
V
WATER (O CEANS)
Hydrological Cycle
Oceans submarine relief; distribution of temperature and
salinity; movements of ocean water-waves, tides and currents
2015-16
CHAPTER
WATER (OCEANS)
C
an we think of life without water? It is the ocean to land and land to ocean. The
said that the water is life. Water is an hydrological cycle describes the movement of
essential component of all life forms that water on, in, and above the earth. The water
exist over the surface of the earth. The creatures cycle has been working for billions of years
on the earth are lucky that it is a water planet, and all the life on earth depends on it. Next to
otherwise we all would have no existence. Water air, water is the most important element
is a rare commodity in our solar system. There required for the existence of life on earth. The
is no water on the sun or anywhere else in the distribution of water on earth is quite uneven.
solar system. The earth, fortunately has an Many locations have plenty of water while
abundant supply of water on its surface. Hence,
others have very limited quantity. The
our planet is called the Blue Planet.
hydrological cycle, is the circulation of water
within the earths hydrosphere in different
HYDROLOGICAL C YCLE
forms i.e. the liquid, solid and the gaseous
Water is a cyclic resource. It can be used and phases. It also refers to the continuous
re-used. Water also undergoes a cycle from exchange of water between the oceans,
Figure 13.1 : Hydrological Cycle
2015-16
WATER (OCEANS) 113
Table 13.1 : Water on the Earths sur face crisis in different parts of the world spatially
Reservoir Volume Percentage and temporally. The pollution of river waters
(Million of the Total has further aggravated the crisis. How can you
Cubic km ) intervene in improving the water quality and
augmenting the available quantity of water?
Oceans 1,370 97.25
Ice Caps 29 2.05 RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
and Glaciers
Groundwater 9.5 0.68 The oceans are confined to the great
Lakes 0.125 0.01 depressions of the earths outer layer. In this
Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005
section, we shall see the nature of the ocean
basins of the earth and their topography. The
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
oceans, unlike the continents, merge so
Streams 0.0017 0.0001
and Rivers
naturally into one another that it is hard to
demarcate them. The geographers have divided
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004
the oceanic part of the earth into five oceans,
namely the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian,
Table 13.2 : Components and Processes Southern ocean and the Arctic. The various
of the Water Cycle seas, bays, gulfs and other inlets are parts of
Components Processes these four large oceans.
A major portion of the ocean floor is found
Water storage Evaporation between 3-6 km below the sea level. The land
in oceans Evapotranspiration
Sublimation under the waters of the oceans, that is, the
ocean floor exhibits complex and varied
Water in the Condensation
atmosphere Precipitation
features as those observed over the land
(Figure 13.2). The floors of the oceans are
Water storage in Snowmelt runoff rugged with the worlds largest mountain
ice and snow to streams
ranges, deepest trenches and the largest plains.
Surface runoff Stream flow freshwater These features are formed, like those of the
storage infiltration
continents, by the factors of tectonic, volcanic
Groundwater storage Groundwater and depositional processes.
discharge springs
Divisions of the Ocean Floors
atmosphere, landsurface and subsurface and The ocean floors can be divided into four major
the organisms. divisions: (i) the Continental Shelf; (ii) the
Table 13.1 shows distribution of water on Continental Slope; (iii) the Deep Sea Plain;
the surface of the earth. About 71 per cent of (iv) the Oceanic Deeps. Besides, these divisions
the planetary water is found in the oceans. The there are also major and minor relief features
remaining is held as freshwater in glaciers and in the ocean floors like ridges, hills, sea
icecaps, groundwater sources, lakes, soil mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
moisture, atmosphere, streams and within life.
Nearly 59 per cent of the water that falls on Continental Shelf
land returns to the atmosphere through The continental shelf is the extended margin
evaporation from over the oceans as well as of each continent occupied by relatively
from other places. The remainder runs-off on shallow seas and gulfs. It is the shallowest part
the surface, infiltrates into the ground or a part of the ocean showing an average gradient of
of it becomes glacier (Figure 13.1). 1 or even less. The shelf typically ends at a
It is to be noted that the renewable water very steep slope, called the shelf break.
on the earth is constant while the demand is The width of the continental shelves vary
increasing tremendously. This leads to water from one ocean to another. The average width
2015-16
of continental shelves is about 80 km. The Continental Slope

shelves are almost absent or very narrow along
The continental slope connects the continental
some of the margins like the coasts of Chile,
shelf and the ocean basins. It begins where the
the west coast of Sumatra, etc. On the contrary,
bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops
the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the
off into a steep slope. The gradient of the slope
largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in
region varies between 2-5. The depth of the
width. The depth of the shelves also varies. It
slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while
The slope boundary indicates the end of the
in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
continents. Canyons and trenches are observed
The continental shelves are covered with
in this region.
variable thicknesses of sediments brought
down by rivers, glaciers, wind, from the land
and distributed by waves and currents. Massive Deep Sea Plain
sedimentary deposits received over a long time Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the
by the continental shelves, become the source ocean basins. These are the flattest and
of fossil fuels. smoothest regions of the world. The depths
vary between 3,000 and 6,000m. These plains
are covered with fine-grained sediments like
clay and silt.
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.
The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow
basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper than
the surrounding ocean floor. They occur at the
bases of continental slopes and along island
arcs and are associated with active volcanoes
and strong earthquakes. That is why they are
very significant in the study of plate
movements. As many as 57 deeps have been
explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific
Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the
Indian Ocean.
Minor Relief Features
Apart from the above mentioned major relief

features of the ocean floor, some minor but
significant features predominate in different
parts of the oceans.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains

of mountains separated by a large depression.
The mountain ranges can have peaks as high
as 2,500 m and some even reach above the
oceans surface. Iceland, a part of the mid-
Figure 13.2 : Relief features of ocean floors Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
2015-16
WATER (OCEANS) 115
Seamount receive more heat due to their contact with

larger extent of land than the oceans in
It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising
the southern hemisphere.
from the seafloor that does not reach the surface
(iii) Prevailing wind : the winds blowing from
of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin.
the land towards the oceans drive warm
These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall. The Emperor
surface water away form the coast
seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands
resulting in the upwelling of cold water
in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
from below. It results into the longitudinal
variation in the temperature. Contrary to
Submarine Canyons
this, the onshore winds pile up warm
These are deep valleys, some comparable to the water near the coast and this raises the
Grand Canyon of the Colorado river. They are temperature.
sometimes found cutting across the continental (iv) Ocean currents : warm ocean currents
shelves and slopes, often extending from the raise the temperature in cold areas while
mouths of large rivers. The Hudson Canyon is the cold currents decrease the
the best known submarine canyon in the world. temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf
stream (warm current) raises the
Guyots temperature near the eastern coast of
It is a flat topped seamount. They show North America and the West Coast of
evidences of gradual subsidence through Europe while the Labrador current (cold
stages to become flat topped submerged current) lowers the temperature near the
mountains. It is estimated that more than north-east coast of North America.
10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the All these factors influence the temperature
Pacific Ocean alone. of the ocean currents locally. The enclosed seas
in the low latitudes record relatively higher
Atoll temperature than the open seas; whereas the
enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower
These are low islands found in the tropical temperature than the open seas.
oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding
a central depression. It may be a part of the Horizontal and Vertical Distribution
sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a of Temperature
body of fresh, brackish, or highly saline water.
The temperature-depth profile for the ocean
TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATERS water shows how the temperature decreases
with the increasing depth. The profile shows a
This section deals with the spatial and vertical boundary region between the surface waters
variations of temperature in various oceans. of the ocean and the deeper layers. The
Ocean waters get heated up by the solar energy boundary usually begins around 100 - 400 m
just as land. The process of heating and cooling below the sea surface and extends several
of the oceanic water is slower than land. hundred of metres downward (Figure 13.3).
This boundary region, from where there is a
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution rapid decrease of temperature, is called the
The factors which affect the distribution of thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total
temperature of ocean water are : volume of water is found below the thermocline
(i) Latitude : the temperature of surface water in the deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures
decreases from the equator towards the approach 0 C.
poles because the amount of insolation The temperature structure of oceans over
decreases poleward. middle and low latitudes can be described as
(ii) Unequal distribution of land and water : a three-layer system from surface to the bottom.
the oceans in the northern hemisphere The first layer represents the top layer of
2015-16
warm oceanic water and it is about 500m thick hemisphere record relatively higher temperature
with temperatures ranging between 20 and than in the southern hemisphere. The highest
25 C. This layer, within the tropical region, is temperature is not recorded at the equator but
present throughout the year but in mid slightly towards north of it. The average annual
latitudes it develops only during summer. temperatures for the northern and southern
The second layer called the thermocline hemisphere are around 19 C and 16 C
layer lies below the first layer and is characterised respectively. This variation is due to the
by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing unequal distribution of land and water in the
depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick. northern and southern hemispheres. Figure
13.4 shows the spatial pattern of surface
temperature of the oceans.
It is a well known fact that the maximum
temperature of the oceans is always at their
surfaces because they directly receive the heat
from the sun and the heat is transmitted to
the lower sections of the oceans through the
process of convection. It results into decrease
of temperature with the increasing depth, but
the rate of decrease is not uniform throughout.
The temperature falls very rapidly up to the
depth of 200 m and thereafter, the rate of
decrease of temperature is slowed down.
S ALINITY OF OCEAN W ATERS
All waters in nature, whether rain water or
ocean water, contain dissolved mineral salts.
Salinity is the term used to define the total
content of dissolved salts in sea water
(Table 13.4). It is calculated as the amount of
salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of
seawater. It is usually expressed as parts per
thousand (o/ oo) or ppt. Salinity is an important
property of sea water. Salinity of 24.7 o/oo has
been considered as the upper limit to
Figure 13.3 : Thermocline demarcate brackish water.
Factors affecting ocean salinity are
The third layer is very cold and extends mentioned below:
upto the deep ocean floor. In the Arctic and (i) The salinity of water in the surface layer
Antartic circles, the surface water temperatures of oceans depend mainly on evaporation
are close to 0 C and so the temperature change and precipitation.
with the depth is very slight. Here, only one (ii) Surface salinity is greatly influenced in
layer of cold water exists, which extends from coastal regions by the fresh water flow
surface to deep ocean floor. from rivers, and in polar regions by the
The average temperature of surface water processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
of the oceans is about 27C and it gradually (iii) Wind, also influences salinity of an area
decreases from the equator towards the poles. by transferring water to other areas.
The rate of decrease of temperature with (iv) The ocean currents contribute to the
increasing latitude is generally 0.5C per salinity variations. Salinity, temperature
latitude. The average temperature is around and density of water are interrelated. Hence,
22C at 20 latitudes, 14 C at 40 latitudes any change in the temperature or density
and 0 C near poles. The oceans in the northern influences the salinity of water in an area.
2015-16
WATER (OCEANS) 117
Figure 13.4 : Spatial pattern of surface temperature (C) of the oceans
Red Sea, it is as high as 41o/ oo, while in the

Highest salinity in water bodies
Lake Van in Turkey (330 o/oo), estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates
Dead Sea (238 o/ oo), from 0 - 35 o /oo, seasonally. In hot and dry
Great Salt Lake (220 o/oo) regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity
sometimes reaches to 70 o /oo.
The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean
Table 13.4 : Dissolved Salts in Sea Water is mainly due to its shape and larger areal
(gm of Salt per kg of Water) extent. Salinity decreases from 35 o/ oo - 31 o/oo
on the western parts of the northern
Chlorine 18.97
hemisphere because of the influx of melted
Sodium 10.47
water from the Arctic region. In the same way,
Sulphate 2.65
Magnesium 1.28
after 15 - 20 south, it decreases to 33 o /oo .
Calcium 0.41
The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean
Potassium 0.38 is around 36 o /oo. The highest salinity is
Bicarbonate 0.14 recorded between 15 and 20 latitudes.
Bromine 0.06 Maximum salinity (37 o/oo) is observed between
Borate 0.02 20 N and 30 N and 20 W - 60 W. It gradually
Strontium 0.01 decreases towards the north. The North Sea,
in spite of its location in higher latitudes,
records higher salinity due to more saline water
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY brought by the North Atlantic Drift. Baltic Sea
The salinity for normal open ocean ranges records low salinity due to influx of river waters
between 33o/oo and 37 o /oo. In the land locked in large quantity. The Mediterranean Sea
2015-16
120 60 60 120
120 60 60 120
Figure13.5 : Surface salinity of the Worlds Oceans
records higher salinity due to high evaporation. water to ice or evaporation, or decreased by
Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due the input of fresh waters, such as from the
to enormous fresh water influx by rivers. See rivers. Salinity at depth is very much fixed,
the atlas to find out the rivers joining Black Sea. because there is no way that water is lost, or
The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is the salt is added. There is a marked difference
35 o/ oo. The low salinity trend is observed in in the salinity between the surface zones and
the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water. the deep zones of the oceans. The lower salinity
On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher water rests above the higher salinity dense
salinity due to high evaporation and low influx water. Salinity, generally, increases with depth
of fresh water. Figure 13.5 shows the salinity of and there is a distinct zone called the halocline,
the Worlds oceans. where salinity increases sharply. Other factors
being constant, increasing salinity of seawater
Vertical Distribution of Salinity causes its density to increase. High salinity
Salinity changes with depth, but the way it seawater, generally, sinks below the lower
changes depends upon the location of the sea. salinity water. This leads to stratification by
Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of salinity.
EXERCISES

(i) Identify the element which is not a part of the hydrological cycle
(a) Evaporation (c) Precipitation
(b) Hydration (d) Condensation
2015-16
WATER (OCEANS) 119
(ii) The average depth of continental slope varies between

(a) 2-20m (c) 20-200m
(b) 200-2,000m (d) 2,000-20,000m
(iii) Which one of the following is not a minor relief feature in the oceans:
(a) Seamount (c) Oceanic Deep
(b) Atoll (d) Guyot
(iv) Salinity is expressed as the amount of salt in grams dissolved in sea
water per
(a) 10 gm (c) 100 gm
(b) 1,000 gm (d) 10,000 gm
(v) Which one of the following is the smallest ocean:
(a) Indian Ocean (c) Atlantic Ocean
(b) Arctic Ocean (d) Pacific Ocean
(i) Why do we call the earth a Blue Planet?
(ii) What is a continental margin?
(iii) List out the deepest trenches of various oceans.
(iv) What is a thermocline?
(v) When you move into the ocean what thermal layers would you encounter?
Why the temperature varies with depth?
(vi) What is salinity of sea water?
(i) How are various elements of the hydrological cycle interrelated?
(ii) Examine the factors that influence the temperature distribution of the
oceans.
Project Work
(i) Consult the atlas and show ocean floor relief on the outline of the world
map.
(ii) Identify the areas of mid oceanic ridges from the Indian Ocean.
2015-16
CHAPTER
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER
d
he
T
he ocean water is dynamic. Its physical wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks. The
characteristics like temperature, largest waves are found in the open oceans.
salinity, density and the external Waves continue to grow larger as they move
is
forces like of the sun, moon and the winds and absorb energy from the wind.
influence the movement of ocean water. The Most of the waves are caused by the wind
horizontal and vertical motions are common driving against water. When a breeze of two
bl
in ocean water bodies. The horizontal motion knots or less blows over calm water, small
refers to the ocean currents and waves. The ripples form and grow as the wind speed
vertical motion refers to tides. Ocean currents increases until white caps appear in the
pu
are the continuous flow of huge amount of
water in a definite direction while the waves
breaking waves. Waves may travel thousands
of km before rolling ashore, breaking and
are the horizontal motion of water. Water moves dissolving as surf.
be T
ahead from one place to another through ocean A waves size and shape reveal its origin.
re
currents while the water in the waves does not Steep waves are fairly young ones and are
o R
move, but the wave trains move ahead. The probably formed by local wind. Slow and
vertical motion refers to the rise and fall of water steady waves originate from far away places,
in the oceans and seas. Due to attraction of possibly from another hemisphere. The
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the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised maximum wave height is determined by the
up and falls down twice a day. The upwelling strength of the wind, i.e. how long it blows and
of cold water from subsurface and the sinking the area over which it blows in a single direction.
C
of surface water are also forms of vertical Waves travel because wind pushes the
motion of ocean water. water body in its course while gravity pulls the
crests of the waves downward. The falling water
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WAVES pushes the former troughs upward, and the

Waves are actually the energy, not the water
as such, which moves across the ocean surface.

Water particles only travel in a small circle as a

wave passes. Wind provides energy to the
waves. Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean
and the energy is released on shorelines. The
motion of the surface water seldom affects the
stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans. As
a wave approaches the beach, it slows down.
This is due to the friction occurring between
the dynamic water and the sea floor. And, when
the depth of water is less than half the Figure14.1 : Motion of waves and water molecules
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER 121
wave moves to a new position (Figure 14.1). is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force
The actual motion of the water beneath the causes tidal bulge on the other side (Figure
waves is circular. It indicates that things are 14.2).
carried up and forward as the wave The tide-generating force is the difference
approaches, and down and back as it passes. between these two forces; i.e. the gravitational
attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.
Characteristics of Waves On the surface of the earth, nearest the moon,
Wave crest and trough : The highest and pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater
lowest points of a wave are called the crest than the centrifugal force, and so there is a net
d
and trough respectively. force causing a bulge towards the moon. On
Wave height : It is the vertical distance the opposite side of the earth, the attractive
he
from the bottom of a trough to the top of force is less, as it is farther away from the moon,
a crest of a wave. the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there
Wave amplitude : It is one-half of the wave is a net force away from the moon. It creates
height. the second bulge away from the moon. On the
surface of the earth, the horizontal tide
is
Wave period : It is merely the time interval
between two successive wave crests or generating forces are more important than the
troughs as they pass a fixed point. vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges.
bl
Wavelength : It is the horizontal distance
between two successive crests.
Wave speed : It is the rate at which the
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wave moves through the water, and is
measured in knots.
Wave frequency : It is the number of waves
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passing a given point during a one-

second time interval.
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TIDES
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The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once

or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of
the sun and the moon, is called a tide.
C
Movement of water caused by meteorological

effects (winds and atmospheric pressure
changes) are called surges. Surges are not
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regular like tides. The study of tides is very

complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great
variations in frequency, magnitude and height. Figure14.2 : Relation between gravitational
The moons gravitational pull to a great forces and tides

extent and to a lesser extent the suns

gravitational pull, are the major causes for the The tidal bulges on wide continental
occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulges
force, which is the force that acts to counter hit the mid-oceanic islands they become low.
balance the gravity. Together, the gravitational The shape of bays and estuaries along a
pull and the centrifugal force are responsible coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides.
for creating the two major tidal bulges on the Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
earth. On the side of the earth facing the moon, magnitudes. When the tide is channelled
a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite side between islands or into bays and estuaries
though the gravitational attraction of the moon they are called tidal currents.
Spring tides : The position of both the sun and

Tides of Bay of Fundy, Canada
the moon in relation to the earth has direct
The highest tides in the world occur in bearing on tide height. When the sun, the moon
the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. and the earth are in a straight line, the height
The tidal bulge is 15 - 16 m. Because of the tide will be higher. These are called spring
there are two high tides and two low tides tides and they occur twice a month, one on
every day (roughly a 24 hour period); then full moon period and another during new moon
a tide must come in within about a six period.
hour period. As a rough estimate, the tide
d
rises about 240 cm an hour (1,440 cm Neap tides : Normally, there is a seven day
divided by 6 hours). If you have walked interval between the spring tides and neap
down a beach with a steep cliff alongside
he
tides. At this time the sun and moon are at
(which is common there), make sure you
right angles to each other and the forces of the
watch the tides. If you walk for about an
sun and moon tend to counteract one another.
hour and then notice that the tide is
The Moons attraction, though more than twice
coming in, the water will be over your
as strong as the suns, is diminished by the
is
head before you get back to where you
started!
counteracting force of the suns gravitational
pull.
Once in a month, when the moons orbit is
bl
Types of Tides closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high
Tides vary in their frequency, direction and and low tides occur. During this time the tidal
movement from place to place and also from
pu range is greater than normal. Two weeks later,
time to time. Tides may be grouped into various when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee),
types based on their frequency of occurrence the moons gravitational force is limited and
the tidal ranges are less than their average
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in one day or 24 hours or based on their height.

heights.
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Tides based on Frequency When the earth is closest to the sun
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(perihelion), around 3rd January each year,

Semi-diurnal tide : The most common tidal tidal ranges are also much greater, with
pattern, featuring two high tides and two low unusually high and unusually low tides. When
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tides each day. The successive high or low tides the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion),
are approximately of the same height. around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are
much less than average.
C
Diurnal tide : There is only one high tide and The time between the high tide and low tide,
one low tide during each day. The successive when the water level is falling, is called the ebb.
high and low tides are approximately of the The time between the low tide and high tide,
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same height. when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood.
Mixed tide : Tides having variations in height
are known as mixed tides. These tides generally Importance of Tides

occur along the west coast of North America Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun
and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean. positions which are known accurately, the
tides can be predicted well in advance. This
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth helps the navigators and fishermen plan their
Positions activities. Tidal flows are of great importance
The height of rising water (high tide) varies in navigation. Tidal heights are very important,
appreciably depending upon the position of especially harbours near rivers and within
sun and moon with respect to the earth. estuaries having shallow bars at the entrance,
Spring tides and neap tides come under this which prevent ships and boats from entering
category. into the harbour. Tides are also helpful in
desilting the sediments and in removing Differences in water density affect vertical
polluted water from river estuaries. Tides are mobility of ocean currents. Water with high
used to generate electrical power (in Canada, salinity is denser than water with low salinity
France, Russia, and China). A 3 MW tidal and in the same way cold water is denser than
power project at Durgaduani in Sunderbans warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while
of West Bengal is under way. relatively lighter water tends to rise. Cold-water
ocean currents occur when the cold water at
OCEAN CURRENTS the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the
equator. Warm-water currents travel out from
Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. the equator along the surface, flowing towards
d
They represent a regular volume of water in a the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
definite path and direction. Ocean currents are
he
influenced by two types of forces namely :
(i) primary forces that initiate the movement of Types of Ocean Currents
water; (ii) secondary forces that influence the The ocean currents may be classified based on
currents to flow. their depth as surface currents and deep water
The primary forces that influence the currents : (i) surface currents constitute about
is
currents are: (i) heating by solar energy; 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these
(ii) wind; (iii) gravity; (iv) coriolis force. Heating waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
by solar energy causes the water to expand. (ii) deep water currents make up the other 90
bl
That is why, near the equator the ocean water per cent of the ocean water. These waters move
is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle around the ocean basins due to variations in
latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient the density and gravity. Deep waters sink into
and water tends to flow down the slope. Wind
pu the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where
blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the the temperatures are cold enough to cause the
water to move. Friction between the wind and density to increase.
the water surface affects the movement of the Ocean currents can also be classified
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water body in its course. Gravity tends to pull based on temperature : as cold currents and
the water down the pile and create gradient warm currents: (i) cold currents bring cold
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variation. The Coriolis force intervenes and
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water into warm water areas. These currents

causes the water to move to the right in the are usually found on the west coast of the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the continents in the low and middle latitudes
southern hemisphere. These large accumulations (true in both hemispheres) and on the east
tt E
of water and the flow around them are called coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern
Gyres. These produce large circular currents Hemisphere; (ii) warm currents bring warm
in all the ocean basins.
C
water into cold water areas and are usually

observed on the east coast of continents in the
Characteristics of Ocean Currents low and middle latitudes (true in both
hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere
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Currents are referred to by their drift. they are found on the west coasts of continents
Usually, the currents are strongest near in high latitudes.
the surface and may attain speeds over
five knots. At depths, currents are Major Ocean Currents

generally slow with speeds less than 0.5

knots. We refer to the speed of a current Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by
as its drift. Drift is measured in terms the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and
of knots. The strength of a current refers
coriolis force. The oceanic circulation pattern
to the speed of the current. A fast current
roughly corresponds to the earths atmospheric
is considered strong. A current is usually
circulation pattern. The air circulation over the
oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly
strongest at the surface and decreases
anticyclonic (more pronounced in the southern
in strength (speed) with depth. Most
hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere).
currents have speeds less than or equal
The oceanic circulation pattern also
to 5 knots.
corresponds with the same. At higher latitudes,
d
he
is
bl
pu
be T
Fig.14.3 : Major currents in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans

re
Effects of Ocean Currents
o R
where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the

oceanic circulation follows this pattern. In
Ocean currents have a number of direct and
regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the
indirect influences on human activities. West
monsoon winds influence the current
tt E
coasts of the continents in tropical and

movements. Due to the coriolis force, the warm
subtropical latitudes (except close to the
currents from low latitudes tend to move to the
equator) are bordered by cool waters. Their
right in the northern hemisphere and to their
C
average temperatures are relatively low with a

left in the southern hemisphere.
narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There is
The oceanic circulation transports heat
fog, but generally the areas are arid. West coasts
from one latitude belt to another in a manner
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of the continents in the middle and higher

similar to the heat transported by the general
latitudes are bordered by warm waters which
circulation of the atmosphere. The cold waters
cause a distinct marine climate. They are
of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards
characterised by cool summers and relatively
warmer water in tropical and equatorial
mild winters with a narrow annual range of

regions, while the warm waters of the lower

temperatures. Warm currents flow parallel to
latitudes move polewards. The major currents
the east coasts of the continents in tropical and
in the different oceans are shown in Figure14.3.
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and
rainy climates. These areas lie in the western
Prepare a list of currents which are margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones. The
found in Pacific, Atlantic and Indian
mixing of warm and cold currents help to
Oceans.
replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of
How is the movement of currents
planktons, the primary food for fish population.
influenced by prevailing winds? Give
The best fishing grounds of the world exist
some examples from Figure14.3.
mainly in these mixing zones.
EXERCISES

(i) Upward and downward movement of ocean water is known as the :
(a) tide (c) wave
(b) current (d) none of the above
(ii) Spring tides are caused :
d
(a) As result of the moon and the sun pulling the earth gravitationally
in the same direction.
he
(b) As result of the moon and the sun pulling the earth gravitationally
in the opposite direction.
(c) Indention in the coast line.
(d) None of the above.
is
(iii) The distance between the earth and the moon is minimum when the moon
is in :
(a) Aphelion (c) Perihelion
bl
(b) Perigee (d) Apogee
(iv) The earth reaches its perihelion in:
pu (a) October
(b) September
(c) July
(d) January
be T
(i) What are waves?

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(ii) Where do waves in the ocean get their energy from?
o R
(iii) What are tides?

(iv) How are tides caused?
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(v) How are tides related to navigation?

C
(i) How do currents affect the temperature? How does it affect the temperature
of coastal areas in the N. W. Europe?
(ii) What are the causes of currents?
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Project Work
(i) Visit a lake or a pond and observe the movement of waves. Throw a stone
and notice how waves are generated.

(ii) Take a globe and a map showing the currents of the oceans. Discuss why
certain currents are warm or cold and why they deflect in certain places
and examine the reasons.
d
he
is
UNIT
bl
pu VI
LIFE EARTH
be T
ON THE
re
o R

tt E
Biosphere importance of plants and other organisms;

ecosystems, bio-geo chemical cycle and ecological balance;
biodiversity and conservation
C
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CHAPTER
LIFE ON THE EARTH
d
he
B
y now you might have realised that all ECOLOGY
units of this book have acquainted you
You have been reading about ecological and
with the three major realms of the
is
environmental problems in newspapers and
environment, that is, the lithosphere, the
magazines. Have you ever thought what
atmosphere and the hydrosphere. You know
ecology is? The environment as you know, is
bl
that living organisms of the earth, constituting
made up of abiotic and biotic components. It
the biosphere, interact with other environmental
would be interesting to understand how the
realms. The biosphere includes all the living
pu diversity of life-forms is maintained to bring a
components of the earth. It consists of all plants
kind of balance. This balance is maintained in
and animals, including all the micro-
a particular proportion so that a healthy
interaction between the biotic and the abiotic
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Life on the earth is found almost components goes on.

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everywhere. Living organisms are found The interactions of a particular group of
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from the poles to the equator, from the organisms with abiotic factors within a
bottom of the sea to several km in the particular habitat resulting in clearly defined
air, from freezing waters to dry valleys, energy flows and material cycles on land, water
tt E
from under the sea to underground water

and air, are called ecological systems.
lying below the earths surface.
C
The term ecology is derived from the Greek

organisms that live on the planet earth and their word oikos meaning house, combined
interactions with the surrounding environment. with the word logy meaning the science
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Most of the organisms exist on the lithosphere of or the study of . Literally, ecology is
and/or the hydrosphere as well as in the the study of the earth as a household,
atmosphere. There are also many organisms of plants, human beings, animals and
micro-organisms. They all live together
that move freely from one realm to the other.
as interdependent components. A

The biosphere and its components are very German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who
significant elements of the environment. These used the term as oekologie in 1869,
elements interact with other components of the became the first person to use the term
natural landscape such as land, water and ecology. The study of interactions
soil. They are also influenced by the between life forms (biotic) and the
atmospheric elements such as the temperature, physical environment (abiotic) is the
science of ecology. Hence, ecology can be
rainfall, moisture and sunlight. The
defined as a scientific study of the
interactions of biosphere with land, air and interactions of organisms with their
water are important to the growth, physical environment and with each other.
development and evolution of the organism.
A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality ecosystem includes lakes, ponds, streams,
of the physical and chemical factors that marshes and bogs.
constitute the general environment. A system
Structure and Functions of Ecosystems
consisting of biotic and abiotic components is
known as ecosystem. All these components in The structure of an ecosystem involves a
ecosystem are inter related and interact with description of the available plant and animal
each other. Different types of ecosystems exist species. From a structural point of view, all
with varying ranges of environmental ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors.
conditions where various plants and animal Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature,
d
species have got adapted through evolution. sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil
This phenomenon is known as ecological conditions, inorganic substances (carbon
he
adaptation. dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, etc.). Biotic factors include the
Types of Ecosystems
producers, the consumers (primary,
Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial secondary, tertiary) and the decomposers. The
and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be producers include all the green plants, which
is
further be classified into biomes. A biome is a manufacture their own food through
plant and animal community that covers a photosynthesis. The primary consumers
large geographical area. The boundaries of include herbivorous animals like deer, goats,
bl
different biomes on land are determined mainly mice and all plant-eating animals. The
by climate. Therefore, a biome can be defined carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals
as the total assemblage of plant and animal like snakes, tigers and lions. Certain carnivores
pu
species interacting within specific conditions.
These include rainfall, temperature, humidity
that feed also on carnivores are known as top
carnivores like hawks and mongooses.
Decomposers are those that feed on dead
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and soil conditions. Some of the major biomes

of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and organisms (for example, scavengers like
re
tundra biomes. Aquatic ecosystems can be vultures and crows), and further breaking
o R
classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems. down of the dead matter by other decomposing
Marine ecosystem includes the oceans, agents like bacteria and various micro-
estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater organisms.
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C
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Figure 15.1 : Structure and functions of ecosystems

LIFE ON THE EARTH 129
The producers are consumed by the aquatic and altitudinal biomes. Some features
primary consumers whereas the primary of these biomes are given in Table 15.1.
consumers are, in turn, being eaten by the
secondary consumers. Further, the secondary Biogeochemical Cycles
consumers are consumed by the tertiary The sun is the basic source of energy on which
consumers. The decomposers feed on the dead all life depends. This energy initiates life
at each and every level. They change them into processes in the biosphere through
various substances such as nutrients, organic photosynthesis, the main source of food and
and inorganic salts essential for soil fertility. energy for green plants. During photosynthesis,
Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together
d
carbon dioxide is converted into organic
through a foodchain (Figure 15.1). For compounds and oxygen. Out of the total solar
example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a insolation that reaches the earths surface, only
he
paddy stalk is eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed in
eaten by a snake, which is then consumed by photosynthesis. More than half is used for plant
a hawk. This sequence of eating and being respiration and the remaining part is
eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from temporarily stored or is shifted to other
one level to another is known as the food-chain.
is
portions of the plant.
Transfer of energy that occurs during the Life on earth consists of a great variety of
process of a foodchain from one level to living organisms. These living organisms exist
another is known as flow of energy. However, and survive in a diversity of associations. Such
bl
food-chains are not isolated from one another. survival involves the presence of systemic flows
For example, a mouse feeding on grain may such as flows of energy, water and nutrients.
be eaten by different secondary consumers
pu These flows show variations in different parts
(carnivores) and these carnivores may be eaten of the world, in different seasons of the year
by other different tertiary consumers (top and under varying local circumstances. Studies
carnivores). In such situations, each of the have shown that for the last one billion years,
be T
carnivores may consume more than one type the atmosphere and hydrosphere have been
of prey. As a result, the food- chains get composed of approximately the same balance
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interlocked with one another. This inter-
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of chemical components. This balance of the

connecting network of species is known as food chemical elements is maintained by a cyclic
web. Generally, two types of food-chains are passage through the tissues of plants and
recognised: grazing food-chain and detritus animals. The cycle starts by absorbing the
tt E
food-chain. In a grazing food-chain, the first chemical elements by the organism and is
level starts with plants as producers and ends returned to the air, water and soil through
with carnivores as consumers at the last level,
C
decomposition. These cycles are largely

with the herbivores being at the intermediate energised by solar insolation. These cyclic
level. There is a loss of energy at each level movements of chemical elements of the
which may be through respiration, excretion
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biosphere between the organism and the

or decomposition. The levels involved in a food- environment are referred to as biogeochemical
chain range between three to five and energy cycles. Bio refers to living organisms and geo
is lost at each level. A detritus food-chain is to rocks, soil, air and water of the earth.
based on autotrophs energy capture initiated There are two types of biogeochemical

by grazing animals and involves the cycles : the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle.
decomposition or breaking down of organic In the gaseous cycle, the main reservoir of
wastes and dead matter derived from the nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean. In
grazing food-chain. the sedimentary cycle, the main reservoir is the
soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of
Types of Biomes the earths crust.
In the earlier paragraphs, you have learnt the The Water Cycle
meaning of the term biome. Let us now try to
identify the major biomes of the world. There All living organisms, the atmosphere and the
are five major biomes forest, desert, grassland, lithosphere maintain between them a
Table 15.1 : World Biomes

Climatic
Biomes Subtypes Regions Soil Flora and Fauna
Characteristics
Forest A. Tropical A1. 10 N-S A1. Temp. 20-25C, A1. Acidic, A1. M u l t i - l a y e r e d
1. Equatorial A2. 10 - 25 N-S evenly distributed poor in canopy tall and
2. Deciduous B. Eastern North A2. Temp. 25-30C, nutrients large trees
B. Temperate America, N.E. Rainfall, ave. ann. A2. Rich in A2. Less dense, trees
C. Boreal Asia, Western 1,000mm, seasonal nutrients of medium height;
and Central B. Temp. 20-30 C, B. Fertile, many varieties co-
Europe Rainfall evenly en-riched exist. Insects,
d
C. Broad belt of distributed 750- with bats, birds and
Eurasia and 1,500mm, Well- decaying mammals are
he
North America defined seasons litter common species
(parts of and distinct winter. C. Acidic and in both
Siberia, C. Short moist moder- poor in B. Moderately dense
Alaska, ately warm nutrients, broad leaved trees.
Canada and summers and long thin soil With less diversity
Scandinavia) cold dry winter; cover of plant species.
is
very low Oak, Beach, Maple
temperatures. etc. are some
Precipitation mostly common species.
snowfall Squirrels, rabbits,
bl
400 -1,000mm skunks, birds,
black bears,
pu mountain lions etc.
C. Evergreen conifers
like pine, fur and
spruce etc. Wood
peckers, hawks,
be T
bears, wolves,
deer, hares and
re
bats are common
o R
animals
Desert A. Hot and Dry A. S a h a r a , A. Temp. 20 - 45C. Rich in A-C. Scanty vege-
desert Kalahari, B. 21 - 38C. nutrients with tation; few large
tt E
B. Semi arid Marusthali, C. 15 - 35C. little or no mammals,

desert Rub-el-Khali D. 2 - 25C organic matter insects, reptiles
C. Coastal B. Marginal areas A-D Rainfall is less than and birds
C
desert of hot deserts 50 mm D. Rabbits, rats,

D. Cold desert C. Atacama antelopes
D. Tundra climatic and ground
regions squirrels
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Grassland A. Tropical A. Large areas A. Warm hot A. Porous with A. Grasses; trees
Savannah of A f r i c a , climates, Rainfall thin layer of and large shrubs
B. Temperate Australia, 500-1,250 mm humus. absent; giraffes
Steppe South B. Hot summers and B. Thin floccu- zebras, buffalos,

America and cold winter. lated soil, leopards, hyenas,

India Rainfall 500 - rich in bases elephants, mice,
B. P a r t s of 900 mm moles, snakes
Eurasia and and worms etc.,
North America are common
animals
B. Grasses; occ-
asional trees
such as cotton-
woods, oaks and
willows; gazelles,
zebras, rhin-
oceros, wild
horses, lions,
varieties of birds,
worms, snakes
etc., are common
animals
Aquatic A. Freshwater A. Lakes, streams, A-B Temperatures vary A. Water, swamps Algal and other aquatic
B. Marine rivers and widely with cooler air and marshes and marine plant
wetlands temperatures and communities with
B. Oceans, coral high humidity B.Water, tidal varieties of water
d
reefs, lagoons swamps and dwelling animals
and estuaries marshes
he
Altitudinal Slopes of high Temperature and Regolith over Deciduous to tundra
mountain ranges precipitation vary slopes vegetation varying
like the Himalayas, depending upon according to altitude
the Andes and the latitudinal zone
is
Rockies
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous dioxide and are returned to the atmosphere
bl
form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle (Figure 15.2).
(Chapter 13 of this book).
pu
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living
organisms. It forms the basic constituent of
be T
all the organic compounds. The biosphere

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contains over half a million carbon compounds
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in them. The carbon cycle is mainly the

conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion
is initiated by the fixation of carbon dioxide
tt E
from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.

Such conversion results in the production of
carbohydrate, glucose that may be converted
C
to other organic compounds such as sucrose,

starch, cellulose, etc. Here, some of the
carbohydrates are utilised directly by the plant Figure 15.2 : Carbon Cycle
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itself. During this process, more carbon dioxide

The Oxygen Cycle
is generated and is released through its leaves
or roots during the day. The remaining Oxygen is the main by-product of
carbohydrates not being utilised by the plant photosynthesis. It is involved in the oxidation

become part of the plant tissue. Plant tissues of carbohydrates with the release of energy,
are either being eaten by the herbivorous carbon dioxide and water. The cycling of
animals or get decomposed by the micro- oxygen is a highly complex process. Oxygen
organisms. The herbivores convert some of the occurs in a number of chemical forms and
consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide combinations. It combines with nitrogen to
for release into the air through respiration. The form nitrates and with many other minerals
micro-organisms decompose the remaining and elements to form various oxides such as
carbohydrates after the animal dies. The the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others.
carbohydrates that are decomposed by the Much of oxygen is produced from the
micro-organisms then get oxidised into carbon decomposition of water molecules by sunlight
during photosynthesis and is released in the Other Mineral Cycles

atmosphere through transpiration and
Other than carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and
respiration processes of plants.
hydrogen being the principal geochemical
components of the biosphere, many other
The Nitrogen Cycle
minerals also occur as critical nutrients for
Nitrogen is a major constituent of the plant and animal life. These mineral elements
atmosphere comprising about seventy-nine required by living organisms are obtained
per cent of the atmospheric gases. It is also an initially from inorganic sources such as
essential constituent of different organic phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and potassium.
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compounds such as the amino acids, nucleic They usually occur as salts dissolved in soil
acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments. Only water or lakes, streams and seas. Mineral salts
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a few types of organisms like certain species of come directly from the earths crust by
soil bacteria and blue green algae are capable weathering where the soluble salts enter the
of utilising it directly in its gaseous form. water cycle, eventually reaching the sea. Other
Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is salts are returned to the earths surface through
fixed. Ninety per cent of fixed nitrogen is sedimentation, and after weathering, they again
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biological. The principal source of free nitrogen enter the cycle. All living organisms fulfill their
is the action of soil micro-organisms and mineral requirements from mineral solutions
associated plant roots on atmospheric nitrogen in their environments. Other animals receive
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found in pore spaces of the soil. Nitrogen can their mineral needs from the plants and animals
also be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and they consume. After the death of living
cosmic radiation. In the oceans, some marine
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animals can fix it. After atmospheric nitrogen and water through decomposition and flow.
has been fixed into an available form, green
plants can assimilate it. Herbivorous animals Ecological Balance
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feeding on plants, in turn, consume some of it.

Ecological balance is a state of dynamic
Dead plants and animals, excretion of
equilibrium within a community of organisms
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nitrogenous wastes are converted into nitrites
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in a habitat or ecosystem. It can happen when

by the action of bacteria present in the soil.
the diversity of the living organisms remains
Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into
relatively stable. Gradual changes do take
nitrates that can be used again by green plants.
place but that happens only through natural
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There are still other types of bacteria capable

succession. It can also be explained as a stable
of converting nitrates into free nitrogen, a
balance in the numbers of each species in an
process known as denitrification (Figure 15.3).
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ecosystem. This occurs through competition

and cooperation between different organisms
where population remains stable. This balance
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is brought about by the fact that certain species

compete with one another determined by the
environment in which they grow. This balance
is also attained by the fact that some species
depend on others for their food and

sustenance. Such accounts are encountered

in vast grasslands where the herbivorous
animals (deer, zebras, buffaloes, etc.) are found
in plenty. On the other hand, the carnivorous
animals (tigers, lions, etc.) that are not usually
in large numbers, hunt and feed on the
herbivores, thereby controlling their
population. In the plants, any disturbance in
the native forests such as clearing the forest
Figure 15.3 : Nitrogen Cycle for shifting cultivation usually brings about a
change in the species distribution. This change the ecosystem. This has destroyed its originality
is due to competition where the secondary and has caused adverse effects to the general
forest species such as grasses, bamboos or environment. Ecological imbalances have
pines overtakes the native species changing brought many natural calamities like
the original forest structure. This is called floods, landslides, diseases, erratic climatic
succession. occurrences, etc.
Ecological balance may be disturbed due There is a very close relationship between
to the introduction of new species, natural the plant and animal communities within
hazards or human causes. Human interference particular habitats. Diversity of life in a
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has affected the balance of plant communities particular area can be employed as an
leading to disturbances in the ecosystems. indicator of the habitat factor. Proper
Such disturbances bring about numerous knowledge and understanding of such factors
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secondary successions. Human pressure on provide a strong base for protecting and
the earths resources has put a heavy toll on conserving the ecosystems.
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EXERCISES
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pu (i) Which one of the following is included in biosphere?

(a) only plants (c) only animals
(b) all living and non-living organisms (d) all living organisms
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(ii) Tropical grasslands are also known as :

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(a) the prairies (c) the steppes
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(b) the savannas (d) none of the above

(iii) Oxygen combines with iron found in the rocks to form :
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(a) iron carbonate (c) iron oxides

(b) iron nitrites (d) iron sulphate
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(iv) During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide combines with water in the

presence of sunlight to form :
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(a) proteins (c) carbohydrates

(b) amino acids (d) vitamins

(i) What do you understand by the term ecology?

(ii) What is an ecological system? Identify the major types of ecosystems in
the world.
(iii) What is a food-chain? Give one example of a grazing food-chain identifying
the various levels.
(iv) What do you understand by the term food web? Give examples.
(v) What is a biome?

(i) What are bio-geochemical cycles? Explain how nitrogen is fixed in the
atmosphere.
(ii) What is an ecological balance? Discuss the important measures needed
to prevent ecological imbalances.
Project Work
(i) Show the distribution of the different biomes on the outline map of the
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world with a note highlighting the important characteristics of each biome.
(ii) Make a note of trees, shrubs and perennial plants in your school campus
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and devote half a day to observe the types of birds which come to the
garden. Can you describe the diversity of birds?
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CHAPTER
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
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ou have already learnt about the the earth are today extinct. Biodiversity is not
geomorphic processes particularly found evenly on the earth. It is consistently
weathering and depth of weathering richer in the tropics. As one approaches the
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mantle in different climatic zones. See the polar regions, one finds larger and larger
Figure 6.2 in Chapter 6 in order to recapitulate. populations of fewer and fewer species.
You should know that this weathering mantle Biodiversity itself is a combination of two
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is the basis for the diversity of vegetation and words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety). In
hence, the biodiversity. The basic cause for simple terms, biodiversity is the number and
such weathering variations and resultant variety of organisms found within a specified
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biodiversity is the input of solar energy and
water. No wonder that the areas that are rich
geographic region. It refers to the varieties of
plants, animals and micro-organisms, the
in these inputs are the areas of wide spectrum genes they contain and the ecosystems they
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of biodiversity. form. It relates to the variability among living

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organisms on the earth, including the
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Biodiversity as we have today is the result variability within and between the species and
of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. Before that within and between the ecosystems.
the advent of humans, our earth Biodiversity is our living wealth. It is a result
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supported more biodiversity than in any

of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary
other period. Since, the emergence of
humans, however, biodiversity has begun
history.
Biodiversity can be discussed at three
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a rapid decline, with one species after

another bearing the brunt of extinction levels : (i) Genetic diversity; (ii) Species diversity;
due to overuse. The number of species (iii) Ecosystem diversity.
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globally vary from 2 million to 100 million,

with 10 million being the best estimate. Genetic Diversity
New species are regularly discovered
most of which are yet to be classified (an Genes are the basic building blocks of various
estimate states that about 40 per cent of life forms. Genetic biodiversity refers to the

fresh water fishes from South America variation of genes within species. Groups of
are not classified yet). Tropical forests are individual organisms having certain
very rich in bio-diversity. similarities in their physical characteristics are
called species. Human beings genetically
Biodiversity is a system in constant belong to the homo sapiens group and also
evolution, from a view point of species, as well differ in their characteristics such as height,
as from view point of an individual organism. colour, physical appearance, etc., considerably.
The average half-life of a species is estimated This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic
at between one and four million years, and 99 diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of
per cent of the species that have ever lived on population of species.
Species Diversity ecosystem evolves and sustains without any

reason. That means, every organism, besides
This refers to the variety of species. It relates to
extracting its needs, also contributes something
the number of species in a defined area. The
of useful to other organisms. Can you think of
diversity of species can be measured through
the way we, humans contribute to the
its richness, abundance and types. Some areas
sustenance of ecosystems. Species capture
are more rich in species than others. Areas rich
and store energy, produce and decompose
in species diversity are called hotspots of
organic materials, help to cycle water and
diversity (Figure 16.5).
nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix
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atmospheric gases and help regulate the
Ecosystem Diversity
climate. These functions are important for
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You have studied about the ecosystem in the ecosystem function and human survival. The
earlier chapter. The broad differences between more diverse an ecosystem, better are the
ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats chances for the species to survive through
and ecological processes occurring within each adversities and attacks, and consequently, is
ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem more productive. Hence, the loss of species
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diversity. The boundaries of communities would decrease the ability of the system to
(associations of species) and ecosystems are not maintain itself. Just like a species with a high
very rigidly defined. Thus, the demarcation of genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high
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ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex. biodiversity may have a greater chance of
adapting to environmental change. In other
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ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is
likely to be.
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Economic Role of Biodiversity

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For all humans, biodiversity is an important
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resource in their day-to-day life. One important

part of biodiversity is crop diversity, which is
also called agro-biodiversity. Biodiversity is
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seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn

upon for the manufacture of food,
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pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. This

Figure 16.1 : Grasslands and sholas in Indira Gandhi
National Park, Annamalai, Western Ghats an concept of biological resources is responsible
example of ecosystem diversity for the deterioration of biodiversity. At the same
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time, it is also the origin of new conflicts dealing

Importance of Biodiversity with rules of division and appropriation of
natural resources. Some of the important
Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to economic commodities that biodiversity
the development of human culture and, in

supplies to humankind are: food

turn, human communities have played a major crops, livestock, forests, fish, medicinal
role in shaping the diversity of nature at the resources, etc.
genetic, species and ecological levels.
Biodiversity plays the following roles: Scientific Role of Biodiversity
ecological, economic and scientific.
Biodiversity is important because each species
Ecological Role of Biodiversity can give us some clue as to how life evolved
and will continue to evolve. Biodiversity also
Species of many kinds perform some function helps in understanding how life functions and
or the other in an ecosystem. Nothing in an the role of each species in sustaining
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 137
ecosystems of which we are also a species. This The International Union of Conservation of
fact must be drawn upon every one of us so Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
that we live and let other species also live their classified the threatened species of plants and
lives. animals into three categories for the purpose
It is our ethical responsibility to consider of their conservation.
that each and every species along with us have
an intrinsic right to exist. Hence, it is morally Endangered Species
wrong to voluntarily cause the extinction of any
It includes those species which are in danger
species. The level of biodiversity is a good
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of extinction. The IUCN publishes information
indicator of the state of our relationships with
about endangered species world-wide as the
other living species. In fact, the concept of
Red List of threatened species.
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biodiversity is an integral part of many human
cultures.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
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Since the last few decades, growth in human
population has increased the rate of
consumption of natural resources. It has
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accelerated the loss of species and habitation
in different parts of the world. Tropical regions
which occupy only about one-fourth of the
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total area of the world, contain about three-
fourth of the world human population. Over-
exploitation of resources and deforestation
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have become rampant to fulfil the needs of large

population. As these tropical rain forests
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contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth, Figure 16.2 : Red Panda an endangered species
destruction of natural habitats have proved
disastrous for the entire biosphere.
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Natural calamities such as earthquakes,

floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires,
droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and
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fauna of the earth, bringing change the

biodiversity of respective affected regions.
Pesticides and other pollutants such as
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hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy

the weak and sensitive species. Species which
are not the natural inhabitants of the local
habitat but are introduced into the system, are

called exotic species. There are many

examples when a natural biotic community of Figure 16.3 : Zenkeria Sebastinei a critically
endangered grass in Agasthiyamalai peak (India)
the ecosystem suffered extensive damage
because of the introduction of exotic species.
Vulnerable Species
During the last few decades, some animals like
tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles, minks This includes the species which are likely to
and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers be in danger of extinction in near future if the
for their horn, tusks, hides, etc. It has resulted factors threatening to their extinction continue.
in the rendering of certain types of organisms Survival of these species is not assured as their
as endangered category. population has reduced greatly.
Rare Species conservation strategy has suggested the

following steps for biodiversity conservation:
Population of these species is very small in the
(i) Efforts should be made to preserve the
world; they are confined to limited areas or
species that are endangered.
thinly scattered over a wider area.
(ii) Prevention of extinction requires proper
planning and management.
(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants,
timber trees, livestock, animals and
their wild relatives should be preserved;
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(iv) Each country should identify habitats
of wild relatives and ensure their
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protection.
(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest
and nurse their young should be
safeguarded and protected.
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(vi) International trade in wild plants and
animals be regulated.
To protect, preserve and propagate the
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variety of species within natural boundaries,
Figure 16.4 : Humbodtia decurrens Bedd highly rare the Government of India passed the Wild Life
endemic tree of Southern Western Ghats (India)
pu (Protection) Act, 1972, under which national
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY parks and sanctuaries were established and
biosphere reserves declared. Details of these
Biodiversity is important for human existence. biosphere reserves are given in the book India:
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All forms of life are so closely interlinked that Physical Environment (NCERT, 2006).
disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in
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There are some countries which are situated
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the others. If species of plants and animals in the tropical region; they possess a large
become endangered, they cause degradation number of the worlds species diversity. They
in the environment, which may threaten are called mega diversity centres. There are
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human beings own existence. 12 such countries, namely Mexico, Columbia,

There is an urgent need to educate people Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Democratic Republic of
to adopt environment-friendly practices and Congo, Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia,
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reorient their activities in such a way that our Indonesia and Australia in which these centres
development is harmonious with other life forms are located. In order to concentrate resources
and is sustainable. There is an increasing on those areas that are most vulnerable, the
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consciousness of the fact that such conservation International Union for the Conservation of
with sustainable use is possible only with the Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
involvement and cooperation of local identified certain areas as biodiversity hotspots

communities and individuals. For this, the (Figure 16.5). Hotspots are defined according
development of institutional structures at local to their vegetation. Plants are important
levels is necessary. The critical problem is not because these determine the primary
merely the conservation of species nor the productivity of an ecosystem. Most, but not all,
habitat but the continuation of process of of the hotspots rely on species-rich ecosystems
conservation. for food, firewood, cropland, and income from
The Government of India along with 155 timber. In Madagascar, for example, about 85
other nations have signed the Convention of per cent of the plants and animals are
Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at found nowhere else in the world, Other
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. The world hotspots in wealthy countries are facing
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 139
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Figure 16.5 : Ecological hotspots in the world

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different types of pressures. The islands of that are threatened by introduced species and
Hawaii have many unique plants and animals land development.
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EXERCISES
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(i) Conservation of biodiversity is important for :
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(a) Animals (c) Plants

(b) Animals and plants (d) All organisms

(ii) Threatened species are those which :

(a) threaten others
(b) Lion and tiger
(c) are abundant in number
(d) are suffering from the danger of extinction
(iii) National parks and sanctuaries are established for the purpose of :
(a) Recreation (c) Pets
(b) Hunting (d) Conservation
(iv) Biodiversity is richer in :

(a) Tropical Regions (c) Temperate Regions
(b) Polar Regions (d) Oceans
(v) In which one of the following countries, the Earth Summit was held?
(a) the UK (c) Brazil
(b) Mexico (d) China
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(i) What is biodiversity?
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(ii) What are the different levels of biodiversity?
(iii) What do you understand by hotspots?
(iv) Discuss briefly the importance of animals to human kind.
(v) What do you understand by exotic species?
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(i) What are the roles played by biodiversity in the shaping of nature?
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(ii) What are the major factors that are responsible for the loss of biodiversity?
What steps are needed to prevent them?
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Project Work
Collect the names of national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves of the
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state where your school is located and show their location on the map of India.
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FUNDAMENTALS

Research and Training, 2006 108, 100 Feet Road

Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454

Production Officer : Vikas B. Meshram

Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT Cover

Published at the Publication Division by the Illustrations Cartography

information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as

perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed

implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching

groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.

K. Kumaraswamy, Professor, Department of Geography, Bharatidasan

K. N. Prudhvi Raju, Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu

L. Cajee, Reader, Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University,

The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the

UNIT II : THE EARTH 13-38

7. Landforms and their Evolution 58

UNIT IV : CLIMATE 75-110

10. Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems 88

UNIT V : WATER (OCEANS) 111-125

UNIT VI : LIFE ON THE EARTH 126-140

of protection of life and personal liberty;

Right against Exploitation

Right to Freedom of Religion

Right to Constitutional Remedies

Figure 1.1 : Geography and its relation with other subjects

BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (i) Geomorphology is devoted to the study

Figure 1.2 : Branches of geography based on systematic approach

(v) Political Geography looks at the space 3. Biogeography

Figure 1.3 : Branches of geography based on regional approach

1. Multiple choice questions.

1. Meteorology A. Population Geography

(a) 1B,2C,3A,4D (c) 1D,2B,3C,4A

This unit deals with

Origin and evolution of the earth; Interior of the earth; Wegeners

THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

learn how these twinkling little stars were

the problems of origin of universe rather than

Origin of the Earth MODERN THEORIES

(i) In the beginning, all matter forming the

unimaginably small volume, infinite A light year is a measure of distance and

event of big bang took place 13.7 billion

matter. There was particularly rapid

Out of the eight planets, mercury, venus,

as they lie between the sun and the belt of

Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are made

The Solar System

Distance* 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.182 30.058

Density@ 5.44 5.245 5.517 3.945 1.33 0.70 1.17 1.66

Radius# 0.383 0.949 1.000 0.533 11.19 9.460 4.11 3.88

Satellites 0 0 1 2 16 about 18 about 17 8

became a dumb-bell-shaped body and started getting separated depending on their

marked by the loss of primordial atmosphere.

Finally, the composition of the atmosphere was

The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and

not uniform. The atmospheric matter has the

During the cooling of the earth, gases and

Geological Time Scale

Archean 2,500 - 3,800 Million Blue green Algae:

- 4,800 form Ocean and

Origin of 5,000 Million Origin of the sun