Herbert Buttereld

C . T. M c I N T I R E

Herbert Buttereld
HISTORIAN AS DISSENTER

Yale University Press

New Haven &
London
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
About Buttereld

[He] brought to an end an epoch of historical writing.

Owen Chadwick, 1968

. . . the most original historian of his generation.

Noel Annan, 1999

He introduced me to the historical Jesus.

Eve Bogle, 1986

Q. Did you ever meet Buttereld?

A. Yes.
Q. What did you think of him?
A. A likeable man.
Q. Did you read any of his books?
A. Not if I could help it.
Lord Dacre (Hugh Trevor-Roper), 1986

By Buttereld

And nothing is more plausible to the unthinking than a past that has
been made to appear like the world that they know in their own lifetime.
On the past, 1969

[I]n the case of two brothers brought up in very much the same way, we
have the one who becomes a nonconformist minister because his father
was a nonconformist minister, while his brother becomes a militant
atheist because his father was a nonconformist minister.
On historical explanation, 1971
We can do worse than remember a principle which both gives us a rm
Rock and leaves us the maximum elasticity for our minds: the principle:
Hold to Christ, and for the rest be totally uncommitted.
On certainty and exibility, 1949

The twentieth-century situation seems to me to require what I have

called the insurgent type of Christianitynot the kind which binds up
its fortunes with the defence of the status quo. By insurgent Chris-
tianity . . . I mean the kind of Christianity which . . . is constantly ready
to return to rst principles, to make a fresh dip into the Gospels and the
New Testament revelation.
On dissent, 1956
Contents

Introduction ix
Chronology xxi
1 Aspirations 1
2 Art and Science 27
3 Reconciler 51
4 General Horizons 78
5 Patriotic History 102
6 Professor 133
7 Religion 164
8 Public Figure 202
9 On War and Historiography 235
10 Master and Aggression 270
11 World Ideas, World Politics 292
12 The Top and After the Top 319
viii Contents

13 Going Global 334

14 Nothing but History and Religion 363
Conclusion 403
List of Abbreviations 419
Notes 421
Bibliography 473
Index 493

Photos follow page 132

 Introduction

It was the fallacy of Whiggish history! the student concluded her history
essay triumphantly, and the professor, nodding in agreement, gave her the high-
est mark in the class. For decades the accusation resounded in colleges and uni-
versities throughout the English-speaking world. Little did most of the accusers
know that they were evoking the rhetorical power of Herbert Buttereld.
Butterelds little book The Whig Interpretation of History made his name
as a historian. When he published it in 1931, he was a Fellow of Peterhouse,
Cambridge, a lecturer in history in Cambridge University, barely thirty-one,
slight of build, and very shy. The book, really just a rambling essay, was
similarly unimposing. Readers found it difcult to fathom, yet somehow pro-
vocative and compelling. The oddness of the phrase Whig interpretation of
history lodged it in the memory, and it came easily off the tongue. They
recognized a fault they discerned in themselves.
Buttereld identied an understanding of history that had dominated the
culture of Europe and North America. As a way of viewing history, he charged,
it committed the fallacy of reading the past wholly in the light of the present.
He referred to the metanarrative that told of history as progress towards
something approved in the present or for the hoped-for future. It involved the
tendency to write history in a way that drew straight lines from people and
events deemed desirable in the past to what we like most about our own

ix
x Introduction

culture, society, and religion. The effect was to write history as a success story,
especially history that ratied, justied, even gloried the hegemony of the
powerful in the world.
Buttereld had in mind the liberal Whig historians of the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries, champions of English liberty and opponents of the
conservative Tories, who drew an ever-extending line of inevitability from the
Magna Carta of 1215 to their own society. They were sure that their England
embodied the fullness of civil and religious liberty. But Butterelds readers
realized that his observation readily transferred to other cases where they
could see the fallacy operating: economic and political historians who justify
the domination of the world by white capitalists, American historians who
chronicle the sure rise of the United States to imperial power, social historians
who document the triumph of the middle classes, and religious historians who
embroider particular ecclesiastical traditions as direct fulllment of Martin
Luther or the apostles or Thomas Aquinas or John Wesley.
For countless historians, religious thinkers, and students, Butterelds point
represented one of the most signicant historical insights gained in the twen-
tieth century. They found the Whiggish fallacy everywherein books, at their
universities, in institutional narratives, in special historical elds, in conversa-
tions, in the press, on Wall Street, in Parliament, at the White House, in
Hollywood. The British Library placed the publication of The Whig Inter-
pretation of History in its Chronology of Modern Britain as one of the most
important cultural events of the twentieth century, one of only seven history
books to receive the distinction.
So complete was the stigmatization of Whiggish history that it became what
Annabel Patterson called one of the reigning conventions of the modern
Anglo-American academy. Patterson, who felt troubled by the bookhis
early tiradefound herself adopting the culture of the duel as she threw
down a challenge to this orthodoxy that is most often associated with
the name of Herbert Buttereld. She announced, I propose to reinstate a
whig interpretation of history, in deance of the historiographical orthodoxy
that declares such an interpretation archaic and procedurally mistaken. She
then thrust forward a new whig interpretation of history.
The Whig Interpretation of History was merely the most quotable of Butter-
elds works. Denis Brogan adjudged that there is none of his books, not
even the earliest, which does not display an originality of approach and judg-
ment. Indeed, Noel Annan, not a person known to curry favour with any-
one, regarded Buttereld as the most original historian of his generation.
Virtually every one of his twenty-two books, and quite a few of his articles, left
traces of the deep presence of his thought in the territories he inhabited, even
 Introduction xi

among people who never heard of him. The epigraphs let us hear quickly
about Buttereld from others, and from Buttereld himself on things that
mattered to him.
Several of his books in particular enjoyed enormous inuence, and this
study gives them due attention: The Whig Interpretation of History for under-
standing history (1931), Christianity and History (1949) for the history of
religion, Origins of Modern Science (1949) for the history of science, Man on
His Past (1955) for the history of historical writing, and the combination of
Christianity, Diplomacy and War (1953) with International Conict in the
Twentieth Century (1960) for the study of international relations. In the age of
the Internet, Amazon.com offered continuing access to almost all his books,
and a search for Herbert Buttereld yielded thousands of hits.
Butterelds life-journey began in October 1900, during the nal months
of late Victorian England, in a low-income working-class Methodist family
within the remote industrial village of Oxenhope in West Yorkshire, England.
By the power of his academic achievements he constructed a path for himself
from the workers cottage in Oxenhope to the top of the high-standing culture
of Cambridge University as well as to preeminence in the historical profes-
sion in the twentieth century, with a knighthood from the queen. He died in
Sawston, a village south of Cambridge, in July 1979. The shift of his horizon
from the village to the globe recapitulated the tale of the modern world as a
whole.
His high marks in school examinations won him the scholarship money that
catapulted him from Oxenhope to Cambridge. He entered Peterhouse as an
undergraduate in 1919, along with hordes of others after the Great War in the
largest new cohort in history. Here he studied history under the tutelage of
Harold Temperley, already a luminary in the Cambridge scene and a gure of
consequence in the peace settlements of the Great War just ended. Here, too,
he encountered Lord Acton, the liberal aristocrat historian, by then long dead
but very much a presence in historical discourse in Cambridge. He also en-
countered Leopold von Ranke, the German conservative master-historian,
also long dead, but still hugely prominent in the intellectual milieu of Cam-
bridge. Peterhouse kept Buttereld in Cambridge, electing him a Research
Fellow, soon a full Fellow, and later, in 1954, the Master of Peterhouse. Within
Cambridge University, on a parallel track, he became a lecturer in history,
and then, in a society where professorships are few, he held consecutively
two of the most prestigious chairs, Professor of Modern History from 1944
and Regius Professor of Modern History from 1963. In 1968 he retired to
Sawston, where for another decade he continued to expand his horizons. The
Buttereld chronology in this book gives the short story of his life, and the
xii Introduction

photographs let us see him, and two of his dwellings, at timely moments over
the years.
During the sixty years of his life in Cambridge, he was surrounded by
perhaps the most remarkable assemblage of historians in one spot in the world
in the twentieth century. To name their names is enough to make the point,
and we shall see them appearing in this study. It is astonishing how many of
them became the subject of a book and the recipient of a festschrift. Buttereld
spent decades with many of these people. The pleasure of their company was
no doubt mixed. With many he benetted from the intellectual interaction.
With a few he developed relations of deep and genuine affection. Among the
whole, as within Cambridge generally, he experienced and no doubt partici-
pated in what Maurice Cowling called the culture of placid malice inform-
ing their human relationships.
Looking at Buttereld we are struck immediately by the sheer range, the
variety, and the oceanity of his interests. And what he said and wrote on
virtually all the topics he touched made an impact. The festschrift presented to
him after his retirement caught the point in its title, The Diversity of History.
He delighted in the problems of handling the complexity of general history.
He deed the expectation then gaining ascendancy that the scholar and the
teacher must specialize. At the same time, however, he placed upon himself
the demands made upon the specialist, especially in the construction of his
method. His library and research notes show that he worked up a reading
knowledge of many languages over the years: Russian, German, Italian, Span-
ish, and Latin to join his knowledge of French learned at school, some Dutch,
and a start in Hebrew and Greek for reading the Bible. The interplay of the
specialist and the generalist characterized his career. In this study we are able
to watch Buttereld as he participates in the conversations of one eld after
another over many decades.
Prior to The Whig Interpretation of History Buttereld had already pub-
lished The Historical Novel: An Essay in 1924, and with that little book he had
made his entrance into the world of general thinking about history. He con-
tinued over the length of his career to produce articles and books on historiog-
raphy, historical thinking, and the history of historical writing. The most obvi-
ously historiographical included The Englishman and His History (1944),
History and Human Relations (1951), Man on His Past (1955), George III and
the Historians (1957), and The Origins of History (1981). His career-long
preoccupation with Lord Acton revolved around the theme of historical under-
standing.
He had also published The Peace Tactics of Napoleon, 180608 in 1929, a
highly detailed work of research, focused on France and Russia, but spanning
 Introduction xiii

the continent. He eventually wrote a small book entitled simply Napoleon

(1939). He traced out his interest in European international political history in
two directions. One was a persistent emphasis on general European history.
The topic surfaced in his lectures in the Cambridge Faculty of History as well
as in his long-time desire to produce the Concise Cambridge Modern History.
The other was the sustained treatment of international political theory.
Among the pieces he produced were Christianity, Diplomacy and War (1953),
International Conict in the Twentieth Century (1960), and Diplomatic In-
vestigations (1966). To this list we could add The Statecraft of Machiavelli
(1940).
After Whig Interpretation, he turned to the history of England in the eigh-
teenth century. The initial topic was the life of Charles James Fox, his aim
being to write a detailed biography. This enlarged into an abiding interest in
the reign of George III. His Statecraft of Machiavelli grew out of his questions
about George III, as did George III, Lord North, and the People, 17791780
(1949), George III and the Historians (1957), and a string of articles.
The history of science occupied his attention from the 1930s onwards,
arising from his study of general European history. The yield on this topic
included many articles, lectures, a couple of edited works, and above all The
Origins of Modern Science (1949). Education was important to him, espe-
cially what goes on within universities. For two years, 19591961, he got to
put his ideas into practice when he served as the highest executive ofcer of
Cambridge University. His articles and lectures on education were numerous,
with the most visible being The Universities and Education Today (1962). The
history of ideas was always important to him, especially within European
history. Late in life, he expanded well beyond Europe to examine the historical
ideas of Islam, the Chinese, ancient Mesopotamia, and Egypt as well as Greece
and Rome. The Origins of History (1981) was the most notable of the results.
The topic that especially animated him was religion, notably Christianity as
a historical religion, and the attempt to understand the work of God in history.
The topic of religion unavoidably connected with his concentration upon
historiography and historical thinking. His most prominent work on religion
was Christianity and History (1949), but there were also Christianity in Euro-
pean History (1951), History and Human Relations (1951), Writings on
Christianity and History (1979), and a host of articles and lectures. Most of
what he investigated beyond Europe in his later years connected in his mind
with religion.
Besides this formidable range of topics we are also struck by the persistence
of a number of intellectual questions that occupied Butterelds mind. Certain
issues concerned him deeply, and he sought to gure them out with intensity.
xiv Introduction

We have no doubt about the sincerity of his convictions and the authenticity of
his quest. He raised most of his queries quite early, and he continued to con-
sider virtually the same matters throughout his career. His questions touched
upon history, politics, religion, morality, science, and war. It is uncanny how
many of his concerns were also central questions of his times. Along with his
generation, he experienced and responded to the collapse of Victorian society,
the Great War of 19141918, the dominance of science, the achievements of
technology, the Bolshevik revolution, the capitalist Depression, Hitler, Stalin,
World War II, the bomb, the Cold War, consumer expansionism, impoverish-
ment of the masses, decolonization, American world power, Viet Nam, and all
the rest of the wonders, atrocities, and boredom of the twentieth century.
Butterelds questions were many, but they can be referred to a number of
groups of concerns. In this study we are able to track in detail how this
historian gave himself to these issues over the course of a lifetime. Themes
about history and religion predominate in this book, since he was a historian
for whom religion mattered and a religious thinker for whom historical under-
standing was crucial. In historiography, he never gave up trying to understand
historical study as a science. But at the same time he never let go of his interest
in the effects of the historians religion, politics, and personal orientation on
historical writing. In diplomatic history and international relations, he queried
the exercise of power among states. In eighteenth-century studies, he medi-
tated on the early reign of George III and the right relations among political
intentions and self-interest in the operation of public affairs. In the history of
science, he thought about what happened when the big names of science were
no longer the centre of the analysis. In education, he worried about how to
support learning and originality when confronted by the unrelenting advance
of the examination system. In connection with anything touching upon hu-
man affairs, he upheld the centrality of individual persons. In academic stud-
ies, he struggled with the question of the role of moral judgments made by the
scholar or the analyst. In religion, he needed to know how the work of God,
the operation of Providence, informed human history.
The theme of dissent runs through this book. Whenever something Butter-
eld proposed caught on he expressed surprise. And, as in the case of the Whig
interpretation of history, when his ideas gained wide acceptance he expressed
alarm. Buttereld seemed an unlikely gure to achieve dominance in anything.
Everything about him, from his personality, physique, and social origins to his
convictions about history, religion, morality, politics, and education repre-
sented counter-hegemony. Noel Annan called him an iconoclast and ob-
served how he scorned every orthodoxy. He also noted the adversative style
of Butterelds writings in which assertions were followed a few pages later by
 Introduction xv

counter-assertions. People commented on his twinkling eyes, his impish man-

ner, his mischievous talk. They noticed how heartily he could laugh, even
giggle, in any setting, especially the most august. Buttereld responded with
intellectual and even bodily dissent from whatever prevailed. As we shall see,
his criticism of the Whig interpretation of history proved to be merely one of
his creative provocations of thought. He repeatedly pushed against the domi-
nant modes of thought.
Buttereld was a lifelong, active Methodist, with a piety marked by con-
templation, humane reverence for individual persons, tolerance, and devotion
to God. In the most profound sense his Methodist spirituality animated his
historical work. The term dissent, following upon the older term noncon-
formity, traditionally applied to Methodist resistance to the alliance of the
Church of England with the English state. Long after English Methodists had
made their peace with the Anglican establishment and had themselves come to
form part of Englands religious status quo, Buttereld continued to speak
with the voice of dissent. In this study I use the notion of dissent, like noncon-
formity, in a way that is compatible with his usage. I do not reserve the term
for the eye-riveting cases of yesteryearthose who went to the stake, got
imprisoned, always voted no in Parliament.
Buttereld transvalued the notion of dissent into an ethic of living in tension
with any established system, even, indeed especially, when he occupied a posi-
tion of authority or privilege within the system. This entailed for him the
practice of distancing himself from the requirements and expectations of the
dominant powers in historical study, the university, religion, politics, and so-
ciety. Buttereld deliberately used his thought to unsettle the thought of oth-
ers. As a teacher, Owen Chadwick has said, he liked to disturb, even to
shock; though never crudely nor as with a bludgeon. Edward Norman noted
the layers of his scepticism, and his profoundly sceptical and subtle mind.
Challenge to the ruling intellectual clarities marked his way of being in the
world.
People found it hard to gure out Butterelds politics. A lineup of people
counted him as a conservative. Noel Annan called him a radical conservative.
Annabel Patterson associated him with the Tory views of Lewis Namier and
David Hume. The neo-Marxist journal Radical Philosophy made him a reac-
tionary. But another lineup asserted the opposite. Maurice Cowling was sure
that he was never a gure of the Right. Cowling and J. C. D. Clark thought
of him as an Asquithean Liberal, playing the fair-minded umpire, xed in a
version of progressivism represented by Herbert Asquith, the leader of a sec-
tion of the Liberal party when Buttereld was coming of age. Richard Ac-
land felt that Buttereld might be close to socialism. By contrast, still others
xvi Introduction

acknowledged the difculty of classifying Buttereld at all. Patrick Cosgrave

observed about Buttereld that although fascinated by politics, he could
never have givenafter his youthful irtation with Asquith . . .his complete
allegiance to any party.
The closest Buttereld himself came to clarifying the issue were a few cate-
gorical declarations now and then. For instance, near the end of his life he said
point blank, I have never been a Tory. And to Richard Acland, a Christian
Socialist Member of Parliament in the mid-1950s, he said, I would not feel
able to call myself a socialist. As we shall see, he complicated the issue of his
politics many times over. Nonetheless, it is plausible to follow the lead of
Charles Smyth, who, in 1931, read The Whig Interpretation of History and
perceived therein Butterelds attachment to the Whig tradition, but also his
impulse to renovate the tradition. In that light, we may think of him as a
twentieth-century New Whig. The term suggests a politics that is liberal,
transformative, and progressive, but that atly refuses to t neatly into any of
the going categories.
It is the aim of this book to explore the work of Buttereld as historian. I
cast the project as an intellectual biography, and as such it is a study in the
history of historiography. The book is not a full-blown biography covering all
aspects of his life, nor a memoir, nor a life of the man and his times. The casual
reader will not a nd a treasury of anecdotes that entertain. The voyeur will
not be able to gaze on Butterelds domestic and emotional life with the sort of
material that lled perhaps a third of Jonathan Haslams biography of E. H.
Carr, Butterelds contemporary and critic in Cambridge.
The book is, rather, a close-up analysis of the life of the historian and the
historians intellectual career. I observe an intellectual at work at very close
range, commencing before he is born and concluding after he dies. My quest is
to understand how he became a historian and the sort of thinker he was, and
how he worked out his vocation as historian. I deliberately keep my focus on
his experience, activity, and discourse as historian, while ranging comprehen-
sively throughout the whole of his nearly eight decades.
In the process we encounter, of course, his domestic world and emotional
life. But the personal factors are there primarily as ingredients in the explana-
tion of why and how he did what he did as an intellectual. We likewise meet
the politics, the personal animosities, and the administrative machinations
operating within Peterhouse and Cambridge University. But we delve into
these only for the purpose of sorting out the impact they have on his historical
work. We become involved as well with the historians and religious thinkers
who came into his horizon, but these, too, appear in the analysis in so far as he
interacted with them in the formation of his own thinking. We also engage,
 Introduction xvii

freely and often, the big events of the twentieth century, a century full of
awesome and terrible things. But I glance at this wider world merely in order
to serve our understanding of the history of his own intellectual life. All in all,
his was the narrowly academic life.
My approach is what I might call radically historical. If I classify the book as
an intellectual biography of a historian, I have in mind a study of an intellec-
tual worker, someone whose vocation is to conduct historical analysis, reect
on religion, write and talk about religion and history, and promote historical
and religious understanding. If as scholar, Buttereld generates historical and
religious discourse, we need to examine his labour as well as the fruits of his
labour. I want to explore the creative process by which he went about reading,
thinking, lecturing, conversing, and writing as he did. I want to see what it was
like for him to work as a historical and religious thinker, what he did from day
to day and year to year, and how he came up with the things he had to say. We
look at his work as it emerges and transforms, as it reaches or fails to reach
publication, as it inuences others or meets with opposition or falls into the
abyss. The nished writings, especially his books, are crucial to this study, but
I do not simply privilege them. I give virtually equal weight, sometimes even
greater weight, to his unpublished work and occasional shorter writings, as I
seek to understand the complex processes by which he practiced his work as
historian and thinker. We look where necessary in order to discover the inter-
weaving of his thinking with the thinking of others and the events of the wider
world. With Buttereld, everything interconnects.
When we approach his work historically in this way, the questions multiply.
What went on before a lecture was given and before a book was published?
What was he trying to learn? What problems did he want to solve? What
factors entered his thinking, consciously or not? With whom did he engage?
What were the results, intended and unintended, in the lecture and the book?
What were his arguments and the content of his thought? What were the
things he took for granted or overlooked? When did he say something new,
when did he repeat himself, and when did he display continuity in his thought?
What did he accomplish? What responses did he evoke? What effects did
he have?
This is a critical study of Butterelds activity and achievement. I engage him
in a kind of conversation about what he is doing. I perform a close exegesis of
his texts, published and unpublished. I probe in order to feel that I am under-
standing what he is saying and what underlies what he is saying. I feel free to
question him about what he writes and to comment on his work. I make no
judgments about his personal life, a task outside the aim of the text. I do offer
countless judgments about his intellectual projects and discourse, as I consider
xviii Introduction

his method, ideas, arguments, writing, rhetoric, theses, published products,

and so on. I read him in the light of his own work, to see how well he measures
up to his own expectations and his own theory. I also consider how well he
illuminates human history and helps us understand the study of history. My
criticism appears within my historical examination of his work.
The bibliography displays what people have written about Buttereld, ex-
cept for book reviews, since Martin Wight began the process in 1950. Among
the most notable treatments are the essay by Denis Brogan in the festschrift
prepared by J. H. Elliott and H. G. Koenigsberger, the various writings by
Owen Chadwick, Maurice Cowling, and Kenneth Thompson, and the studies
on special themes by Alberto Coll, Malcolm Thorp, Keith Sewell, and Michael
Bentley. This study joins the list as the rst general book on Buttereld as
historian.
What makes this kind of study possible are the resources Buttereld left us.
The quantity and character of the materials available, both unpublished and
published, permit an exacting look at the scholar and thinker at work. Butter-
elds published output was considerable and diverse, both in genres and
themes: monographic histories, religious explorations, published lectures,
scholarly articles, philosophical reections, historiography, theoretical essays,
criticism, and reviews. The unpublished writings and other materials which he
left behind are also vast and varied: typescripts and manuscripts of course
lectures, unnished book-length writings, beginnings of books, successive
drafts of a general history, journal-sheets, thought-essays, diary pages, auto-
biography, memoirs, notes, correspondence, photographs, artifacts, a library,
and a nearly complete run of fty years of his Cambridge Pocket Diary. The
list of works he projected doing or was invited to do is also vast.
Besides all this, Buttereld agreed to discuss his work with me at length and,
as it were, to create some made-to-order discourse. In 1975 and 1977 he
devoted altogether some sixty hours to interviews with me, with about twenty
of these hours recorded on tape. The rst tangible outcome of these talks was
my essay Herbert Buttereld on Christianity and History, which introduced
my edition of his writings on religion and history. The book appeared in New
York in January 1979. He readily agreed to further talks in support of my
expression of interest in expanding my essay into a more general historio-
graphical study. We scheduled these talks for late July and early August 1979,
but he went into hospital in early June and died in July, precisely during the
time we had decided to meet.
In December 1979, Lady Buttereld gave the vast majority of the Buttereld
papers as a benefaction to the University Library at Cambridge, where they
reside near the Lord Acton papers as Buttereld desired. At the same time she
 Introduction xix

sent a le box of papers to Peterhouse. In February 1980 Peterhouse pur-

chased about 700 volumes from his personal library for the college library.
Buttereld gave me unrestricted access to his papers. These he kept in his
study in his home in Sawston, near his baby grand piano and Harold Tem-
perleys bust of the young Napoleon. There, with him facilitating my access, I
freely read his diaries, letters, unpublished writings, and other materials. The
exception to this grant of open use of his materials was the manuscript, which
I read, which he described as the very big Diary which covered the two years
of my Vice-Chancellorship, and which, he said, may contain a lot of mate-
rial that isnt my owne.g., accounts of condential meetings, etc. . . . It
doesnt really touch the historiographical side. Some of the papers I read
remain with the family, and about 20 percent of the rest, those presented to
Cambridge University Library, are withheld from researchers until the year
2030 because of their condential character.
Lady Buttereld was unfailingly kind in talking with me about her husband.
She also granted me approval to read in his papers after his death and most
generously provided me further access to the materials which remained with
her. Eve Bogle, his long-time secretary, administrative aide, and research assis-
tant, talked freely with me about him and his work and wrote me some of her
reminiscences. Many colleagues in Peterhouse and the Faculty of History at
Cambridge spoke with me quite candidly about him, some of them on tape.
Many of his former research students very kindly shared their experiences of
him with me as well.
For their timely help and kindness, each in different ways, I am especially
grateful to Lady Buttereld, Peter Buttereld, Robin Buttereld, Eve Bogle,
Brian Wormald, Maurice Cowling, and Edward Norman. I also thank others
in and around Cambridge who generously gave their time to talk with me or
write me about Buttereld: Owen Chadwick, Derek Beales, Gordon Rupp,
C. R. Cheney, Joseph Needham, Geoffrey Elton, G. Kitson Clark, Denis Mack
Smith, R. W. K. Hinton, Roger Lovatt, Celia Root, J. B. Quash, P. Pattenden,
and three Masters of the college, Sir Graeme Clarke, Lord Dacre, and Pro-
fessor Henry Chadwik. I thank the Fellows of Peterhouse for their generous
hospitality on several occasions and for their assistance in many large and
small ways. I thank the porters of Peterhouse for facilitating my visits to the
college, supplying me with material on college history, and chatting engag-
ingly with me about the Fellows and college life. I am grateful to the many
people of Oxenhope, particularly Sidney Bancroft, who helped me become
acquainted with the village where Buttereld was born and grew up, and to
Ian Dewhirst of Keighley, who introduced me to the town where Buttereld
went to school.
xx Introduction

I thank the staff of Cambridge University Library for facilitating further

research after Butterelds death. I thank as well the staff of Peterhouse Li-
brary who helped me nd the Buttereld papers and other relevant materials
in their possession as well as the books from his library given to the college. I
express my thanks, too, to the librarian of Wesley House, Cambridge, as well
as to the staff of the library of the Faculty of History, Cambridge. I requested
permission to consult the ofcial records of Peterhouse during Butterelds
tenure as Master, but found that they were closed to researchers.
I acknowledge with much appreciation the support for my research pro-
vided by: the American Philosophical Society; the Social Sciences and Human-
ities Research Council of Canada; the Institute for Christian Studies, Toronto;
and the University of Toronto.
I wish also to thank the editors of Yale University Press, especially Larisa
Heimert and Nancy Moore, as well as Kay Scheuer and the readers of the
manuscript for their enthusiastic support of the book and for their insightful
suggestions.
I reserve my most special thanks for Rebekah Smick for all kinds of wonder-
ful things. I want Matthias and Olivia to know that I appreciate their ways of
showing interest in the book while in Rome and since.
My gratitude to Buttereld for his kindness to me personally is immense. I
rst met him at his Rede Lecture in the Senate House in Cambridge in Novem-
ber 1971. From that day forward, the generosity and candour with which he
discussed his work with me over the years and the openness with which he
made his personal papers available to me are a model of support for the
freedom of historical inquiry. If what follows sometimes seems too critical or
diverges too greatly from his self-understanding, I am condent that he would
be the rst to relish the differences.
Butterelds work contributed to an extraordinarily creative period within
historical study. In the pages that follow, we engage his unsettling thought and
encounter the historian as dissenter. He continues to stimulate thought, even
among those who disagree with him.
 Chronology

1898
9 Apr Marriage, Albert Buttereld, a textile mill worker in Parkers
Mill, and Ada Mary Buckland, a domestic servant and child caretaker
in John Parkers house, at Wesleyan Methodist Chapel, West Drive,
Oxenhope, West Yorkshire, England.

19001923
1900 7 Oct Herbert Buttereld born in a workers cottage, Upper Town,
Oxenhope, to Albert Buttereld and Ada Mary Buckland Buttereld.
9 Dec Baptism, Wesleyan Methodist Chapel, West Drive, Oxenhope.
1901 22 Jan Queen Victoria dies. King Edward VII.
Father becomes a clerk in Parkers Mill, and family moves to 17
Woodhouse Road, later renamed 17 Keighley Road.
1903 17 Apr Edith Joyce (Pamela) Crawshaw born.
1905 Enters Council School, Oxenhope.
1910 6 May Edward VII dies. King George V.
1911 Enters Trade and Grammar School, Keighley.
1918 Jun Passes Advanced Level examinations: History, English, French.
Jul Wesleyan Methodist Local Preacher (On Trial): rst listing.

xxi
xxii Chronology

1919 Oct Matriculates in Peterhouse, Cambridge, lives in college.

1920 Essay: Art Is History Made Organic, gets noticed in Peterhouse.
Jun Cambridge Intercollegiate Exams: Class 1, Div 2.
1921 Jun Cambridge University History Tripos, Part 1: Class 1, Div 2:
Economic History; Medieval History; English Constitutional History.
1922 Jun Cambridge University History Tripos, Part 2: Class 1, Div 1:
English History 17141914; European History 17891914; Special
Period: The Fall of Napoleon and the Reconstruction of Europe, No-
vember 1813November 1815.
B.A., University of Cambridge.
Elected: Hugo de Balsham Studentship, Peterhouse, for 19221923.
1923 Mar University Members English Essay: Charles Dickens.
May LeBas Prize: The Historical Novel.
July Elected: Charles Abercrombie Smith Research Studentship, Peter-
house, for 19231924.

19231944
1923 Oct Elected Foundation Fellow, Peterhouse, continues to live in
college.
1924 Feb Prince Consort Prize: The Problem of Peace in Europe, 18068;
Seeley Medal.
The Historical Novel (Cambridge University Press): rst book.
Sep Visiting Fellowship, Princeton University (until May 1925).
1925 Director of Studies in History, Peterhouse (until 1931).
Librarian, Peterhouse (until 1947).
Father begins work as clerk in Merralls Mill; father and mother move
to 60 Rosebank Terrace, later renamed 60 Station Road.
1926 M.A., University of Cambridge.
Elected Research Fellow, Peterhouse.
1927 A French Minister at Vienna, 18067: rst article.
Independent lecturer to undergraduates on fee-paying basis.
1928 Acting Lecturer in History, Peterhouse (until 1930).
1929 Elected full Fellow, Peterhouse.
Probationary Lecturer in History, Faculty of History.
Begins Lectures on Modern History since 1490s (under various titles
until 1959).
The Peace Tactics of Napoleon, 18068: rst academic history book.
29 Jul Marries Edith Joyce (Pamela) Crawshaw, and moves to a at on
Fitzwilliam Road.
 Chronology xxiii

1930 University Lecturer in History, Cambridge University (until 1944).

1931 The Whig Interpretation of History.
Ed., Select Documents of European History, vol. 3, 17151920.
Begins biography of Fox.
Moves to a at on Tennis Court Road.
Peter Buttereld born, rst child.
1933 History and the Marxian Method.
1934 Giles Buttereld born, second child.
1936 King George V dies. King Edward VIII.
10 Dec Edward VIII abdicates. King George VI.
1938 Editor, Cambridge Historical Journal (until 1952).
Dec Lectures in Hitlers Germany: Berlin, Cologne, Bonn, Munster.
1939 Purchases and moves into a house, 89 Tension Road.
Jul Temperley dies.
Robin Buttereld born, third child.
Napoleon.
Contract for Concise Cambridge Modern History.
1940 The Statecraft of Machiavelli.
1941 Napoleon and Hitler.
1942 Capitalism and the Rise of Protestantism: rst writing focused on
religion.
1943 Proposes to write Historical Geography of Europe.
1944 The Englishman and His History.

19441948
1944 April Professor of Modern History (until 1963).
The Study of Modern History: An Inaugural Lecture.
1945 Invited to edit (with G. N. Clark) New Cambridge Modern History:
declines.
Mrs. Eve Bogle becomes his personal secretary (until 1970).
1946 Two Acton articles. Proposes to edit Acton diaries.
1948 Lent term Lectures on the Origins of Modern Science.
Michaelmas term Lectures on Christianity and History.

19491954
1949 Oct three books in one months, and fame: George III, Lord North,
and the People, 177980; The Origins of Modern Science, 1300
1800; Christianity and History.
xxiv Chronology

Fall term Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton.

Tragic Element in Modern International Conict.
1950 Takes A. D. Peters as literary agent.
Begins extensive public lecturing: 65+ lectures for 1950 and 1951.
Council, Royal Historical Society (until 1953).
1951 Reissue of Whig Interpretation of History and wholly new readership.
History and Human Relations.
Apr The Reconstruction of an Historical Episode: Historiography.
Jun Scientic versus Moralistic Approach in International Affairs:
International Relations.
Aug God in History: Integration of his thought.
Christianity in European History.
1952 24 Jan Father dies.
6 Feb George VII dies. Queen Elizabeth II.
Liberty in the Modern World.
Hon. Doctorate, Aberdeen University: rst of 14 honourary doctorates.
1953 The Role of the Individual in History.
Christianity, Diplomacy and War.
1954 15 Apr Giles Butterelds suicide.
Misses Regius professorship, which goes to David Knowles.
Nov Vellacott dies.
Nov Belfast Lectures: Man and His Past.
Dec Agrees to become Master of Peterhouse.

19551968
1955 17 Jan Master of Peterhouse.
Moves into the Masters Lodge, Peterhouse. Retains his house at 89
Tension Road.
Man on His Past.
President, Historical Association (until 1958).
1956 Hon. Doctorates, Columbia and Harvard Universities.
1957 George III and the Historians.
Draft, England and the French Revolution, 1792.
1958 Chair, British Committee on the Theory of International Politics (until
1968).
1959 Vice-Chancellor, University of Cambridge (until 1961).
1960 International Conict in the Twentieth Century.
Administrative Board, International Assoc of Universities (until 1965).
1962 Hon. Doctorate, Shefeld University (rst from an English university).
The Universities and Education Today.
 Chronology xxv

1963 Oct Regius Professor of Modern History (until 1968).

1965 The Present State of Historical Scholarship: An Inaugural Lecture.
Fellow, British Academy.
1965 & 1966 Gifford Lectures, Glasgow University.
1966 Ed., Diplomatic Investigations.
1967 Honourary Member, Royal Irish Academy.
Foreign Honorary Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
1968 Honorary Member, American Historical Association.
Honourary Vice-President, Royal Historical Society.
9 Jul Knighthood.

19681979, and After

1968 Jul moves into a Tudor house at 26 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge-
shire, which he purchased.
Oct Ofcially retires as Professor and Master. Honourary Fellow,
Peterhouse
1974 Hon. Doctorate, Cambridge University.
1979 Jan Writings on Christianity and History, ed. C. T. McIntire.
20 Jul Dies at Sawston.
26 Jul Funeral in Peterhouse Chapel; ashes and memorial plaque in
Peterhouse Chapel.
1981 The Origins of History, ed. Adam Watson.
1985 Herbert Buttereld on History, ed. Robin W. Winks.
1998 Essays on the History of Science, ed. Karl W. Schweizer.
 1

Aspirations

Oxenhope and Keighley

Herbert Buttereld became a historian without intending it. It was un-
likely, in any case, that as a child he knew what a historian was, let alone
fantasized about being one. He would have known even less what it meant to
be a religious thinker. His experience of becoming a historian, and living out
his life as a historian, illustrated a doctrine he proclaimed throughout his
career: history is a process of unintended consequences, or as he would say in
the religious language he loved, history is a process of learning to cooperate
with Providence.
Buttereld made it easy to cull certain kinds of information on his personal,
academic, and intellectual life, at least from his point of view. At various times
he drafted memoirs of his life and the lives of certain people close to him. He
also talked about his life in interviews from time to time in the 1960s and
1970s. It was his style to scatter autobiographical references throughout his
writings, published and unpublished, as he blended at least some aspects of his
personal life with his intellectual life as a historian. At the same time, he
seemed studiously to avoid reference to most of his nonacademic life, regard-
ing it as irrelevant or inappropriate to mention.
Late in life he remembered vividly that from about age eight he aspired to be
a writer. At that pristine age, from about 1909, he recalled, he wanted to write

1
2 Aspirations

something good. He tells of how as a youth he would begin long stories and
novels about shipwrecks and coral islands in the furthest reaches of the British
Empire. He kept starting over before the old piece was nished. His literary
ambitions enlarged during his teenage years, during the Great War of 1914
1918. His taste in reading switched from Treasure Island and adventure in far-
off lands to books newly placed on the family shelvesnineteenth-century
novels by Charlotte and Emily Bront, Sir Walter Scott, Victor Hugo, and
Alexandre Dumas. His literary productions changed as well. From the safety
of his retirement he admitted being very secretive about his youthful writing,
not wanting anyone to catch him in the act.
About age twelve, he recounts, he felt a second aspiration, the desire to be a
Methodist preacher. His father, Albert Buttereld, used to take him for long
walks after dinner, night after night, whatever the weather, along the road in
front of their house. His father would talk about life, the moors, the stars,
religion, and his own aspirations to be a Methodist minister. Herbert would
ask questions and listen. He testied that he felt the call to preach arise within
him, transferred from father to son. The desire increased in his teenage years,
and at the age of sixteen or seventeen he began to preach in the Methodist
chapels around Oxenhope.
None of Herberts youthful writing or sermons remain. He claimed he
was too embarrassed to save them. Yet, he carried both desires, writer and
preacher, with him in 1919 when at nineteen years of age he went up to
Cambridge as a undergraduate at the end of the Great War.
Either vocation would have required the education that his father had
missed and the leisure from manual labour that his father once lacked. His
father, as the oldest son, had to leave school at about age ten to earn money for
the family. He was a wool sorter, a child labourer in an Oxenhope textile mill,
probably Parkers Mill, an industrial plant with about a hundred employees.
Oxenhope was an industrial village of about two thousand inhabitants,
with three woolen mills located on the River Weir running through the village
and another two or three on streams nearby. The village lay in a dale, sur-
rounded above by the bleak Yorkshire moors whose level summits rose to
1,400 feet. Haworth, where the Bront sisters once lived, was a short walk
across the moors through sheep and cattle pastures. Ancient links connected
Oxenhope with Bradford, nine miles to the south, but since the opening of the
Worth Valley railway in 1867, the village reoriented towards Keighley, ve
miles to the north. The livelihood of the village depended on the success of the
mill owners, who functioned as the local elite. They owed their social position
to their relative wealth and economic hegemony in this little realm at the end
of the railway.
 Aspirations 3

Alberts father, Aquila Buttereld, had been a worsted wool weaver, most
likely also in Parkers Mill. Aquila died when Albert was seventeen, and the
wages Albert earned in the mill became even more necessary to sustain the
family. Herbert never knew his grandfather or grandmother Buttereld. He
grew up surrounded by his fathers two younger brothers, Uncle Herbert and
Uncle Frank. Like his father and grandparents on the Buttereld side, his
uncles lived in Oxenhope until they died.
Herberts mother, Ada Mary Buckland Buttereld, had left her home in
Leominster, Herefordshire, at age fteen to work as a domestic servant for
John Parker, the mill master in Oxenhope. People usually called her Mary. She
lived in the staff quarters of the Parkers large house which occupied a promi-
nent site in the centre of the village. Her job included caring for Dawson, the
Parkers blind son. At twenty-three she married Albert, age twenty-ve, at the
Wesleyan Methodist Chapel on West Drive in Oxenhope on 9 April 1898, and
she became a wife at home. Her father, John Buckland, was a tailor, and she
had one brother, Arthur Richard, and no sisters. Herbert was taken only rarely
to Leominster to see his grandfather and grandmother Buckland and Uncle
Arthur.
Herbert was Albert and Marys rst child, born 7 October 1900 in Ox-
enhope. They brought him to baptism after two months, on 9 December 1900,
at the large Wesleyan Methodist Chapel on West Drive. They named him for
Uncle Herbert. His was the rst entry in a new register of baptisms. Within
the next three and a half years his parents had a daughter, Edith Mary, named
for Parkers daughter, and another son, Arthur, named for Uncle Arthur. Her-
berts birthplace was the workers cottage in Upper Town which his parents
rented when they married, one in a row of old low two-storey stone dwellings,
located up the hill within walking distance of the Methodist chapel in Lower
Town. It was an enduring sign of his working-class roots that Herbert pos-
sessed only one given name. During the whole of his youth he lived in the
shadow of his uncle, the older Herbert Buttereld. Not until he went up to
Cambridge did he nally get his name to himself. Even then he was known in
the academic world as H. Buttereld. His full name, Herbert Buttereld, did
not appear on the title pages of his books until the 1950s, after he had turned
fty years old. Little did the young Yorkshire Methodist boy know of the deep
history of his name, which honoured St. Herbert, the obscure Anglo-Saxon
Christian hermit from seventh-century England.
During the rst nineteen years of his life Herbert attached himself strongly
to his family and his little west Yorkshire world. His circumstances did not
incline him towards individualism. People would say about him years later
that he remained very proud of being an ordinary Yorkshireman. Yet, he
4 Aspirations

enjoyed looking beyond Oxenhope. He found three outlets to the wider

world; the rst was the mill owners, the second the school, and the third the
Methodist chapel.
The wealthy mill owners in their big houses became for him a symbol of
superior civilization. They acted as the closest thing the village had to a gentry.
They dominated the village society, economy, and culture. Because of their
relations with the wider market, they could acquire distant goods which in-
spired awe and marked their position of power over the lower ranks in the
village. They also evoked deference, a feeling Herberts father and the family
completely internalized and acted upon. For the Buttereld family, deference
to their mill owner brought tangible rewards.
Before his marriage, Albert had worked at different jobs on the mill oor in
Parkers Mill. He was a loyal and diligent worker. On the side, during the
1890s, he entered into a part-time business with Amos Dewhirst to run a
modest shopMessrs. Dewhirst and Buttereldselling stationery, books,
and sundries. The shop lasted from about 1893 to 1899. It occupied a little
wooden building on West Drive opposite the large Methodist chapel. John
Parker, who disliked criticism from workers over wages and rings, took
notice of Alberts loyalty and began to show him favour. He invited Albert into
his big house and introduced him to Mary, his domestic servant and child
caretaker. He then watched over the courtship that ensued. In due course,
Parker gave approval for Albert to marry her, released her from domestic
service, and allowed his daughter, Sarah Hanna, to act as witness for the
marriage. About the time of Herberts birth, Parker asked Albert to cross the
line between capitalist and labour to work as a clerk in the mill owners ofce.
Part of Alberts new job was to deal with the workers on the owners behalf, a
duty Albert accepted readily. Later he became a bookkeeper of the mills ac-
counts and stock. The new position brought more money but not enough,
which left an impression on his son. Buttereld carried with him throughout
life the impression that he came from poverty. He wrote late in life, I well
remember, since my father was poor and often ill, how catastrophic the illness
of the bread-winner was down to Lloyd Georges insurance act of 1911.
Albert and Mary managed to move the family to a bigger house, an appro-
priately lower bourgeois dwelling at 17 Woodhouse Terrace, later renamed
17 Keighley Road. This was the house in which Herbert grew up. The house
belonged to a row of stone dwellings at the edge of the village. It was built on a
slope, with two storeys in front and three behind, and a garden which ran
down towards a stream called Leeming Water. The open elds lay beyond. The
new setting allowed the boy to experience what he later called the sublimity of
the encompassing hills and the desolateness of the moorlands. He remembered
 Aspirations 5

the weather as cold and dull, requiring a re for warmth throughout the year.
Betting the minor rise in social status, Albert and Mary dressed the boy on
Sundays like a little gentleman and perhaps on special occasions and for pho-
tographs like a little prince.
The mill owner gave the Butterelds the books and music he no longer
wanted. This was the source of the adventure books and romantic novels that
young Herbert read. The mill owner also gave them money to purchase an old
upright piano. From about age ten Herbert took piano lessons and practiced
on this piano, developing an attachment to playing which lasted throughout
his life. At the mill owners suggestion, and to further himself, Albert sub-
scribed to The Harmsworth Self-Educator, and went through the fortnightly
readings that came to the house, readings in all elds, including science. He
purchased W. T. Steads Penny Poets, a series of cheap editions of Victorian
poetry. With his fathers encouragement, Herbert read all these things when
his father had nished. The mill owners relationship with his father gave
Herbert the model of social change that he came to embracethe diffusion of
socially higher culture downward to the working classes, those above lifting
up those below.
Herberts father evidenced proper gratitude towards the mill owner, but
perhaps he shared the ambivalence suggested by a folktale common to the
region. Buttereld later described the tale as the earliest reside story he re-
membered, and he claimed that it and others of its kind aroused his interest in
the past. The story recounted a near-calamity during the construction of
the railway in the Haworth-Oxenhope area during the 1860s. The builder of
the railway laid out the plans on the ground. Along came a cow, and when the
builder turned his back, the cow ate the plans. The episode produced great
laughter among the people, but soon evoked a different attitude when the
people began to look on the loss of the plans as a disaster. The tale became a
ballad, with the last verse singing:

And then the local Haworth folk

Began to think it was no joke,
And wished the bloomen cow might choke,
That swallowed the plan of the railway.

The social effect of the story would be multiple. It would reinforce the position
of the industrial entrepreneurs, the class associated with the planning and con-
tinuing importance of the local railway as the link with the larger markets. At
the same time, in the record of the cows act, it would leave a hint of the peoples
resistance to the hegemony of the owners. In the end, however, the wish against
the cow signalled the necessity of the peoples deference to the owners.
6 Aspirations

Herberts father was demoted from his privileged place in the owners ofce
in Parkers Mill in the 1920s, when the mill owner gave the position to a
relative. Then in 1925 he lost his job entirely when the owner closed the mill.
The owner of Merralls Mill, a bigger and still expanding woolen mill, ab-
sorbed many of Parkers workers, including Herberts father. The new owner
put him in charge of a larger staff and set him up in a bigger ofce. The
position meant more money and higher local status. To match the move, his
father took a bigger house, a ner looking, but still modest, Victorian brick
terraced dwelling at 60 Rosebank Terrace, later known as 60 Station Road.
Herberts second opening to the world beyond was provided by his schools
and academic scholarships. He attended the local school run by the village
council in Oxenhope from age ve. It was here that he began to dream of
writing, and when school was over for the day he would go home to compose
his stories and novels. He recalls that he would sometimes watch the black-
smith or wheelwright at work, or enact imaginary stories, play marbles, and
collect cigarette cards. He picked up the local dialect and retained a mildly
noticeable Yorkshire accent throughout his long years at Cambridge. He knew
how to drop his hs, as in Oxenope, and he enjoyed aunting sentences like
Samer em oop an ugger em.
When he approached age eleven he faced a change of schools. Rather than
send him to the nearest secondary school, his father encouraged him to try for
a scholarship to the school with the reputation as the best in the region, the
Trade and Grammar School in Keighley, a school for boys. He won a Scott
scholarship, and the money nanced his rst step out of Oxenhope. He often
confessed in later years that he helped himself during the scholarship examina-
tion by glancing at another pupils paper, and he would say, I never lost the
feeling that I had started out on my career with a piece of dishonesty.
To reach his new school in Keighley, Herbert traveled northward ve miles
early each morning on the steam railway through the Worth Valley. At mid-
day when the other boys went home for dinner, he went to the newsagents and
tobacconists shop which Amos Dewhirst now operated in Keighley not far
from the school, and in a room in the back of the shop ate his dinner with the
Dewhirst family. After the meal, when the other boys played sports, Herbert,
who disliked sports, usually read. He would take the train home again late in
the afternoon.
He attended Keighley from 1911 to 1918, during a particularly catastrophic
period in world history. As he remembered it, he had grown up believing his
childhood was uneventful, an ordinary kind of life in a ordinary world. He
recalled receiving the rst jolt to his complacency when he heard the news of
the death of Tolstoy in 1910. I realized that someone so great was alive in my
time, he said. The second jolt was the outbreak of war between Italy and the
 Aspirations 7

Ottoman Turks over Tripoli in 1911, a thing that seemed to him possible only
because the Muslim Turks were the sort of people who operated just outside
the frontiers of civilisation. Then came jolt three, the beginning of the Euro-
pean war in 1914. He felt the wider world shake his little world, and he joined
the countless others young and old who felt their old world collapse. He could
remember with utter clarity where he was on 4 August 1914, the day the
British declared war on Germany after the German invasion of Belgium. He
was in Worcestershire, and he hoarded the newspapers blaring the war news in
the headlines. There he listened to an old man recalling the Crimean War sixty
years before, and suddenly everything in Europe seemed momentous and close
at hand. He commented later in life that the Great War caused him much
greater shock than the Second World War, even though the fury and reach of
the second war were far greater. His shock had much to do with the ironic
perception that the future of English liberty would depend on the defeat of
Germany, the nation he had grown up believing was the cradle of English
liberty. According to the interpretation of English history which he learned
from his youth, the Anglo-Saxons, drawing on their Germanic origins, had
achieved their rights and liberty and enshrined them in the ancient constitu-
tion of England, well before the Magna Carta and long before the Normans
entered the land.

I was brought up on the view that English liberty went back to the Teutonic
forests, and that our parliamentary system was due to the Germanic elements
in our constitution. Germany was associated with federation and free cities,
as well as with Bismarck; associated also with the freedom of the Reforma-
tionit was the Latin countries that had the papacy, the inquisition, and the
Napoleonic despotisms. I heard the industrialists of the West Riding boast
about the way in which their educational developments followed German
models. I knew their sons, who so often, down to 1914, were sent to Germany
(instead of going to our universities) to complete their education. British
Protestantism was still under the leadership of Germany, and, as one German
theological professor succeeded another in the seat of authority, I heard non-
conformity taunted for having German professors as its virtual popes. I re-
member how often our toys were marked Made in Germany, and a certain
jealousy of German industrial success would appear spasmodically in the
populace.

He came to associate this germanophile reading of English liberty with the

view promoted by Whig historians that freedom had been perfect in Anglo-
Saxon times, and that from time to time liberty needed only to be restored.
The Keighley school had been founded by local merchants and manufac-
turers to educate their sons in science, mathematics, and commerce. The goal
was to prepare them to take over their fathers businesses and enlarge their
8 Aspirations

economic prot. It was the duty of the headmaster, T. P. Watson, to guide the
boys towards science and math. The environment was not congenial to Her-
berts lower social origins or his propensity for the arts. He did show early
academic promise, even winning an award for his studies in 191213. The
prize was a book, C. H. H. Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music, which he
kept for the rest of his life. But his marks in the ordinary level examinations
which he took as he neared age sixteen, after four years in the school, were
disappointingly low. He overheard one of his teachers comment, Buttereld
is played out. The words hardened in his head, and he confessed in later years
that he heard the identical formula repeated by others from time to time
throughout his career.
The mist between Herbert and the school became serious after his poor
examination results when the headmaster had to approve the three elds that
Herbert would study for his advanced level examinations two years later.
Looking back on the event, Buttereld repeated a tale of the way the headmas-
ter pressed him. Only long afterwards did he regarded the experience as hu-
morous. Watson wanted Herbert to study mathematics, in keeping with the
purpose of the school, but Herbert wanted classics, as a literary eld to help
him become a writer. He and one other boy swore an oath together to oppose
the headmaster until he permitted them to take classics. The other boy col-
lapsed in the rst interview with Watson and agreed to take natural sciences,
but when his own turn came Herbert held rm in his refusal. Confronted with
such unprecedented resistance, the headmaster proposed a compromise be-
tween classics and mathematics. Herbert would do history. Herbert never
forgot his alarm: Ive always hated history, and besides, I cant remember
dates. As he retold this story years later, long established as a historian, he
would conrm that he still could not remember dates or even names, but he
would highlight other experiences in his childhood which suggested an early
delight with things historical. He would note that as a schoolboy he loved the
rare occasion when he would walk alone within the walls of the old city of
York, imagining all the people, the life, the battles that had animated the city
over the centuries. He would emphasize that many of the novels he read in his
teenage years were historical novels. It was only in retrospect, after the out-
come was knownafter spending years as a historianthat he came to think
that what he hated was not actually history, but merely the history served up in
the textbooks for the purposes of passing school examinations. He believed
that he possessed from his youth a romantic love of things gone by, a love of
the past.
For the next two years Buttereld followed his lonely course and studied
history, English, and French. He did not pursue science and math along with
 Aspirations 9

the sons of the mercantile class, nor did he study Latin and Greek as did the
privileged youth in the elite schools of England. He followed neither the mod-
ern curriculum suitable for success in capitalist society, nor the classical
curriculum for gentlemen and the aristocracy. The best he could expect from
his nondescript historical curriculum might be a life consigned to teaching
school.
As Herbert well knew, the immediate object of his studies was not to learn
history but simply to pass the examinations that lay ahead. The shame of his
low marks on the ordinary level examinations became a prod. His father
pressed him hard, and Herbert quietly assumed the vicarious role of satisfying
his fathers unfulled aspirations. Education and scholarships would become
the means of his advancement. He had to come out on top in the advanced
level examinations, and he set to work with extraordinary single-mindedness.
It would appear that his only noncurricular activity at school consisted of
serving as student assistant prefect during his last year, a sign that his reputa-
tion with the headmaster must be rising.
Among his teachers at Keighley he remembered Edith Charnock, the for-
midable Nat Shearing, and especially F. C. Moore. Moore was the English
teacher for the whole school. His interests rested securely in English literature,
but he was the only one around who could handle the history. He had only two
boys to teach at the advanced level, apparently one in English and Herbert in
history. It had been Moore who uttered the remark that Buttereld is played
out, and Herbert felt certain that Moore disliked him. Herbert rebounded, in
part, by submitting to Moores inuence in important ways. It was probably
Moore who had urged him earlier to write poetry with emotional feeling, and
throughout his last years at school Moore was the one who convinced him to
write his papers with conscious attention to style and originality. Moore was
enamored with the Romantic movement and probably led Herbert to break an
attachment to impersonal and abstract ideas which Buttereld later remem-
bered had appealed to him in his youth. Moores inuence led apparently to
Butterelds rst publication, a Romantic-style poem, reportedly published
locally when he was seventeen.
Moore was no historian, however, and he was not in touch with the issues
that mattered to historians and history teachers. The chief history book used
at Keighley was A School History of England, a textbook by Owen M. Ed-
wards and others, supplemented by Edwardss Notes on English History, an
outline of political events and personages, written in incomplete sentences.
Herbert picked up the feeling from the school that he should never let anyone
know he used so juvenile a resource. The Edwards books told the story of
the great men of England and traced the rise of English liberty from ancient
10 Aspirations

stirrings in the Teutonic forests to the triumph of Protestant religion in En-

gland, the achievement of parliamentary government, and coming of material
progress and commercial greatness. Herbert probably read no genuine his-
tory books at Keighley, and he probably wrote no high-level historical paper.
He probably thought about no profound historical question. He had no dedi-
cated history teacher to teach him, no fellow students interested in historical
and intellectual debate, and no serious motivation of his own to study history.
His preparation in history at Keighley was by any standard poor.
Herbert learned how to write exams, however. He scored high in the ad-
vanced level school examinations in the spring of 1918, although he recalls
that he tended to spend too much time on one or two questions. His results
allowed him to try for university admission and to sit for the county scholar-
ship examinations that could bring him the funds to make university possible.
In the summer of 1918 he succeeded in the county exams, and the authorities
at Wakeeld awarded him a Yorkshire West Riding Major Scholarship. He
later told the story of an elderly woman on the examination committee who
asked him what history of England he had read. Instinctively he remembered
that he should not name the book they used at Keighley. He replied by mutter-
ing the name of J. R. Greens History of England, a book he had read from his
fathers shelves, probably a legacy from the mill master. She retorted, Pretty
old fashioned, isnt it? He was devastated.
With Herberts successes, the headmaster moved resolutely onto his side
and suggested that he try for admission to one of the colleges in Cambridge
University. It was probably Watson who recommended the entrance scholar-
ship examination at Peterhouse, a college with a reputation for history. In
January 1919 Herbert took the train to Cambridge to sit for the exams at
Peterhouse. The man who examined him on behalf of the college was C. W.
Previt-Orton, a medievalist of St. Johns College. Herbert was petried. He
could remember only one date during the exam, an incorrect date at that, and
he was certain he would fail the ordeal. He later heard via college gossip that a
reference he made to Wordsworths poetry turned the examiner in his favour.
He won admission to Peterhouse, together with an entrance scholarship, and
became the rst student from Keighley Trade and Grammar School to enter
Cambridge or Oxford.
Herberts third opening from Oxenhope to the world was the local Method-
ist chapel. Buttereld always believed that his religion and even his politics,
besides his social rank and lack of interest in the sciences, were silent factors
creating the antipathy he had felt from his principal teacher. Moore was a
pronounced sceptic, while Herbert was growing up to become a devout Meth-
odist, like his father. Herbert often heard Moore utter remarks he perceived as
 Aspirations 11

antagonistic to Christianity, and he reacted not by drawing close to his teacher,

but by refusing his teacher and becoming even more strongly attached to his
faith. Herbert never explicitly revealed his religion around school, so Moore
seemed not to know that Methodism was indispensable to his life outside.
Moore also professed socialist views, to which Herbert responded by becom-
ing a regular reader of the New Statesman, a politically liberal journal from
London, and by adopting more self-consciously the politics of his father, the
still traditional Methodist gravitation towards the Liberal party, particularly
at the time to the progressive version represented by Herbert Asquith. In spite
of these yawning differences with Moore, he supported his teacher vigorously
when the headmaster quizzed him during an investigation of Moores unor-
thodox views.
Herbert drew a clear line of demarcation between his world in Keighley and
his world in Oxenhope, where the life of the Butterelds revolved around
Methodist religion. They belonged to the Wesleyan Methodist Chapel which
occupied a large, attractive, and prominent building that had opened on West
Drive in 1891. With a membership of about two hundred, theirs was the
largest of Methodist chapels in the circuit at the time. The mill owners were
Methodists, and so were a large majority of the workers. The two Baptist
chapels were tiny, and there were no Roman Catholics. The Parish of Ox-
enhope of the established Church of England seemed poor and unimportant.
In a curious reversal of the religious structure of England, the Methodists
supplanted the Church of England in Oxenhope as the dominant religion.
Herbert grew up in what amounted to a Methodist village.
From childhood, Sundays for Herbert meant morning and evening services
of worship, and morning and afternoon Sunday school. The chapel was the
centre of his social life, where he found his friends and enjoyed social activities.
Here he saw his rst motion picture. Here, too, he encountered the music, the
ideas, the history, and the experience of the Christian tradition. In the chapel
he rst heard Handels Messiah, listened to discussions of free will and
predestination, Providence, sin, and salvation, became familiar with the Bible,
and engaged the wider tradition of Methodist and medieval spirituality. Once,
about age seven or eight, in response to an appeal by a visiting speaker from
the Band of Hope, he pledged himself to a life of abstinence from alcohol.
He claimed later that his primary motivation for keeping the teetotaler pledge
after he left Oxenhope was to please his father. Almost as a quirky sign of
dissent, however, he took up smoking after he nished university, and became
a chain-smoker of cigarettes.
At every turn during his rst nineteen years, at each opening to the wider
world, but especially in religion, Herbert found his father there with him.
12 Aspirations

Buttereld later testied that no one surpassed his father in the amount of
inuence he exercised over his life, no one in Oxenhope or Keighley or even
Cambridge later on. Herbert even grew up to look much like his father. Dad
was a slight man, about 58, with light red hair and pale complexion, often
looking ill, and appearing very shy. Herbert grew to about 5%712& in height,
with a slight build and light complexion, a youthful look, and a shyness that
easily rivalled his fathers.
His father achieved his hold over Herbert in a number of ways. The most
direct channel was the walk they often took together in the evening from the
time the boy was seven or eight to age thirteen or fourteen, when homework
from Keighley consumed Herberts evening hours. Herbert adored these walks.
Late in life he likened his fathers impact upon him to the inuence the Jesuits
used to exercise over the young. The second source of his fathers impact was
the Methodist class that his father led in place of his lost vocation as Method-
ist parson. A class was the Methodist version of a small religious cell. His
class consisted of fteen or so young men from the local chapel, probably
workers from the mills, who met weekly in the Buttereld home for prayer,
Bible study, and the cultivation of their inner life. His father encouraged them
to wear dress suits for the meetings, as on Sundays, and to practice the social
manners of the people who worked close to the mill master, manners which he
regarded as more civilized than those of the workers on the mill oor. The
young Herbert liked to sit on the edges of the class meeting during these
evenings, and he picked up from his father a lasting sense of the importance of a
life that was civilized as contrasted with barbaric. The mode of his fathers
greatest inuence, Buttereld believed, was his fathers overall behavior and
character which the young Herbert found utterly appealing. In his autobio-
graphical reections Buttereld later wrote: My father was remarkable in his
faith, his humility, and his extraordinary love and charity. His example (rather
than his conscious formulations of the case) made me prize what I should call
the theological values and gave me the rm conviction of the reality of spiritual
things. His fathers example shaped his basic ideals, character, and outlook on
life, and oriented his life towards meditation, Bible reading, and a daily life that
manifested Christian spirituality.
The inuence of his father became even more colossal as the young Her-
berts dislike of his mother stiffened. By the time he reached his seventies,
Buttereld had constructed sharp, counterpoised images of his parents. His
mother came from a family belonging to the religious group known as the
Plymouth Brethren. In the milieu of Oxenhope she had turned Methodist and
adopted what Buttereld remembered as a conventional and conservative atti-
tude towards religion. This he found less attractive than his fathers vivid
 Aspirations 13

religious impulses, and he began to dislike any attempts to tailor religion for
those Christians who simply followed social expectations in religious practice.
In contrast with the quietness of his father, young Herbert experienced his
mother as loud and overbearing, a big woman. She dominated the household
and would never stand for any nonsense. She had a temper which frightened
Herbert and which she frequently directed against his father. Herbert felt she
considered his father a weak gure, while he always experienced his father as a
powerful personality. Decades later Buttereld could still recount with notice-
able agitation the moment at about age eight when his father brought home
his hard-earned weekly pay of one gold sovereign, and his mother hurled it
back in his fathers face. Buttereld professed that he then vowed secretly
never to marry. Herbert witnessed the mildness of his fathers responses to his
mother and his nonjudgmental tolerance of his mothers aggressions, and
admired his father all the more. Years later his father let Buttereld know that
he bore her violence partly because he feared she would go out of her mind and
commit suicide, like her brother, Herberts Uncle Arthur. The episodes seemed
to draw young Herbert more tightly to his father, and his father may have
turned more intentionally towards the son to seek the recognition, consola-
tion, and understanding that he did not receive from his wife. We both dis-
covered we had a rapport, Buttereld would say in later years.
Herbert never became particularly close to his sister and brother, who expe-
rienced less of the fathers favour than he. Buttereld felt that his relationship
with his mother improved in later life as he chided himself for his attitude
towards her and managed to recognize her virtues, and he did marry after all,
but his sense of the juxtaposition of the two personalities within the dynamics
of the family affected him deeply. He came to extol certain virtueshumility,
charity, self-restraint, nonjudgment of otherswhich he counted as Christian
and which matched the shy and unassertive element in his emerging person-
ality. He acknowledged near the end of his life, [My father] was the person on
whom I always most sought to model myself, though I never achieved the
gentleness and humility in him . . . since nature seemed to saddle me with the
hotter temperament of my mother.
His father was chief among those in Oxenhope who urged young Herbert to
become a local preacher on the Haworth and Oakworth Methodist circuit, the
jurisdiction that incorporated Oxenhope. Rev. H. Allen Riggall, the minister
at Oxenhope from 1915 to 1918, guided him towards lay preaching. In later
life Buttereld remembered preaching for the rst time when he was about
sixteen. He may have had opportunities to preach before the spring of 1918,
when, at age seventeen, he formally passed the Methodist examinations which
admitted him to standing as a lay preacher on trial. He achieved full status
14 Aspirations

one year later, in the summer of 1919, just before he left Oxenhope for Peter-
house. The Methodist examinations tested his knowledge of the Wesleyan
second catechism, the fty-three Standard Sermons of John Wesley, and Wes-
leys Notes on the New Testament. Buttereld in his later years, looking back,
located the source of the impulses that drove him into preaching: My father
also infected me with his passionate desire to preach the Gospel.
Between the completion of secondary school in 1918 and his entrance into
residence at Peterhouse in October 1919 Herbert had a full year free from
formal study. He spent his time in Oxenhope with his father, reading, writing,
and preaching on the local circuit. Sometimes on Sundays that year he walked
to small chapels in the moorlands to take charge of morning or evening wor-
ship. He had time to watch the nal moments of the European war in the
summer of 1918 and the beginning of the peace conference in Paris in January
1919. He heard the rising voices blaming the Germans, and he felt the pull of
his youthful assumptions in favour of the Germans as the source of good
things in English society. In the summer of 1919, he followed the news of the
strike by police in nearby Liverpool and watched incredulous as Liverpool
experienced an outburst of violence and looting on a scale never before seen in
the city. He listened carefully to the debate about whether the violence and
theft could be attributed to the existence of a larger population of criminals in
the city than anyone knew about or to the ordinary population of respectable
people whose public morals collapsed when the normal restraints of civilized
society disappeared. He decided that the episode could not be blamed entirely
on criminals, and he concluded that the civilized world was extraordinarily
fragile. He meditated on Methodist spirituality and thought that perhaps the
only genuine source of human stability lay deep within the inner life of each
person. The First World War, the peace, and the Liverpool police strike all
xed themselves in his moral experience, and he referred to these three events
again and again for the next sixty years.

Peterhouse, Cambridge
Buttereld moved into residence in Peterhouse on his nineteenth birth-
day, 7 October 1919. He took with him the two aspirations of his youthto
be a writer and to be a Methodist preacher. He knew close to nothing about
Peterhouse and had gone to the college only because he succeeded in winning a
Peterhouse entrance scholarship in history. He professed that, because of the
strength of his desire to be a writer, he would have selected English as his
subject if there had been a scholarship available to him in that eld.
The Peterhouse Buttereld entered boasted of three distinctions among the
 Aspirations 15

eighteen Cambridge collegesit was old, small, and notable for the teaching
of history. The college could claim to be the oldest in Cambridge. The found-
ing year was 1284, when a number of male scholars attached to the bishop of
Ely took up residence in buildings provided by Hugh de Balsham adjacent to
St. Peters Church outside Trumpington gate at Cambridge. Cambridge Uni-
versity reckoned this event as its foundation as well. In 1284, the number of
scholars, known as Fellows, was something less than fourteen, the upper limit
known to be set by regulation in 1344. There were no students analogous to
the undergraduates of later centuries. When Buttereld arrived in 1919 the
college was highly conscious of its antiquity. The name of the principal student
organization, the debating and literary society known as the Sexcentenary
Club, reected this historical interest by recalling the six hundredth anniver-
sary of the college in 1884. The most prominent student publication in the
college was societys magazine, The Sex.
In line with the huge inux of students after the Great War, the college in
1919 was larger than it had ever been before in its history, but with eight
Fellows and a Master and 128 undergraduate students it remained among the
smallest in Cambridge. The numbers rose to ten Fellows and a Master and 170
students in the following year, and during the 1920s settled down at around
ten Fellows plus the Master and an average of about 150 students a year,
making it permanently one of the smallest and most intimate colleges in Cam-
bridge. Like Keighley, it was a male world, and Buttereld lived the next three
years of his life in Peterhouse without the company of women. There had been
women in Cambridge for decades, and women were admitted to degrees in the
1920s, but no women were admitted to Peterhouse until after Butterelds
death.
The Peterhouse reputation for history was recentthe college had been
renowned for the natural sciencesand was due entirely to the achievements
of two men. The rst was the aging Sir Adolphus Ward, then eighty-one,
Master of Peterhouse since 1900. He was famous for his connection with Lord
Acton, Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge until his death in
1902. Ward succeeded Acton as editor of The Cambridge Modern History and
brought the huge project to completion. He also superintended the Cambridge
historical series on English literature and foreign policy. He was known as a
major gure behind the initiation and development of the Cambridge history
curriculum and examination system, the Historical Tripos, dating from 1873,
even though not resident in Cambridge at the time. The second was Harold
Temperley, then forty, a product of the Cambridge Historical Tripos in 1900
and 1901, whom Ward brought in as a Fellow. He was already regarded as the
most remarkable younger historian in the university and the leader of the
16 Aspirations

junior historians group within it. He was promoted to Reader in Modern

History in the university in 1919, just as Buttereld entered the college.
Ward was known for his insistence that history should be studied for its own
sake, and not for the sake of the present. It was a simple polarity in which he
stood opposed to the position associated at Cambridge with J. R. Seeley, the
Regius Professor of Modern History preceding Acton. Seeley had regarded
history primarily as education for present politics, a view still reected in the
history curriculum when Buttereld came up to Cambridge. Within Peter-
house Ward placed unmitigated support behind Temperley, who professed the
same view. Temperley had taken over responsibility for history in Peterhouse
from Rev. T. A. Walker, an antiquarian and amateur chronicler of the history
of the college, who was still around as a Fellow. Temperleys achievement was
to establish history on a secure academic basis in the college and to attract
rst-class students. He exemplied, as John Fair noted, the transition towards
a more professional and public style of historian.
Buttereld was unprepared for Peterhouse. He felt he was a mist, alienated
from both Fellows and undergraduates. Surrounding him was the body of
gentlemen scholars, old and young, who prided themselves on their traditions
and their occasional associations with aristocracy and royalty. The bulk of the
students came from well-to-do families, and many came from private schools
for the social elite, like Harrow. By contrast, he was naive and unmannered,
from a back Yorkshire village, with an accent that made the other students
laugh. His family name, though common in Yorkshire, sounded strange in
Cambridge, and people continually mocked him for it. Undergraduates un-
mercifully dubbed him Buttercup or Butterworth. He came from a
school without tradition or academic reputation, and his education in history
was astonishingly inferior. He could disguise neither his working-class origins
nor the recent entry into the lower middle classes accomplished by his father.
Later he would joke that he had no ability to ape the manners or mimic the
style of those from the proper schools. He was a Methodist in an Anglican
college, a local preacher forced to hide his calling from the learned Anglican
clergy around him, and a pledged teetotaler amid wine-bibbers.
Years later Buttereld could laugh at how wildly he diverged from the
prevailing style of Peterhouse in 1919. To symbolize the differences he would
repeat a story about his rst visit to the college, the day he sat for the entrance
scholarship exams in January 1919. He came from a land where ordinary
people rode in wagons pulled by horses and only the rich rode in automobiles.
Upon arriving from Oxenhope at the Cambridge railway station, he surveyed
the means of transportation awaiting him. Here the world of conveyances was
turned upside down. Ordinary students took the automobile taxi, and the
 Aspirations 17

well-to-do took the horse-drawn hansom cab. He, of course, chose the horse
wagon to take him to Peterhouse. He appeared at the college gate, in full view
of the college porters, in the conveyance of the wealthy. Ive been an imposter
all the time, he could later comment with a smile.
Temperley was aghast when he rst met the new student Buttereld. Late
in life Buttereld recalled with good humor his rst interview with Temperley,
an episode which must have been excruciating for them both. As Buttereld
tells it, Temperley asked the unpolished young man what history of England
he had read at school. The unspoken warning from Keighley and the experi-
ence of the elderly examiner at Wakeeld rushed over him. He responded with
Cyril Ransomes A Short History of England, another book on his fathers
shelves from the mill owners philanthropy. Temperley sputtered, Ransome!
The very name breathes poison! and refused to take Buttereld for supervi-
sions. Temperley sent him away to George Perrett, a coach outside the college,
and Buttereld commenced his career at Peterhouse as an outcast.
The one who rescued Buttereld in his distress was Paul Vellacott, himself
new to the college as a young Fellow that very year. The addition of Vellacott
reected policy to emphasize history in the reconstruction of the college after
the war. The match between the new Fellow and the new pupil seemed hardly
promising. Vellacott was a sportsman in cricket and hockey, fastidious in his
dress, and was, as Cowling put it, a nonbelieving Anglican and a practical
conservative. He was also a military man with a forbidding countenance, just
returned from the war. The undergraduates called him Major. Yet he also felt a
genuine love for poetry and artistry, and he loved to practice good manners.
He had excelled as Temperleys best student at Peterhouse before the war.
Buttereld came to know him as a person of great charity.
Vellacott offered consolation and advice to the awkward outsider from
Oxenhope. He tutored the young man in the manners, dress, and speech
proper for the college and accelerated his restyling as a gentleman. He per-
suaded the novice to reveal his ambition to be a writer, and then encouraged
him to improve his writing. Vellacott had so far written almost nothing, which
the young student probably did not know. He never wrote much thereafter. He
soon became for Buttereld like a father in the college. Until his death thirty-
ve years later, Vellacott remained Butterelds most intimate condant. In his
autobiographical writings Buttereld acknowledged Vellacotts role as savior
in Peterhouse: I was so constructed that I was doomed not to be able to pass
from the age of seventeen to the age of twenty-ve without terrible turmoils
and torments which I created for myself out of the seeming cauldron of my
mind. I have often wondered how I should have passed through those years
without the understanding and imaginative sympathy of Paul Vellacott.
18 Aspirations

Sometime during the rst term in 1919 Buttereld wrote an essay on a topic
set by Perrett, his coach in exile, entitled Art Is History Made Organic. We
do not know what he said, but we do know that the coach liked the essay and
passed it on to a Peterhouse Fellow, possibly Temperley himself, if not Vella-
cott, and the essay apparently circulated among other Fellows. Buttereld
learned from leakage long after the event that the essay had revolutionized his
reputation in the college. Relieved that they had not awarded a college en-
trance scholarship to a fool, the gentleman Fellows swung to the opposite
pole. They began to mentioned his name in their gossip about additions to
their number. Temperley changed his mind as well. He summoned Buttereld
to his rooms and agreed to become his supervisor straightaway.
Temperley had reached the height of his powers as a historian and fully
enjoyed playing an imposing role with the undergraduates. He had made his
reputation with a biography of George Canning in 1905 and a diplomatic his-
tory in 1915 on the relations between Prussia and the Hapsburgs, and he was
known to be writing another diplomatic history on the foreign policy of Can-
ning. During the war he made his name in government service in the Balkans,
and he participated in the peace conference in Paris from the start. His practice
of scholarship and patriotic service appeared heroic to Peterhouse Fellows and
undergraduates alike. Buttereld learned quickly that Temperley had the repu-
tation among students as the best history supervisor in Cambridge.
Buttereld found Temperley literally overwhelming. Like other super-
visors, Temperley believed his duty was not merely to evaluate a students
formal written work, but to watch over the total intellectual development of
each student assigned to him. The normal vehicle of this tutelage was the
supervision, the weekly hour-long meeting of the pupil with the teacher in
the teachers rooms. For many supervisors, the focus of each meeting was the
paper prepared by the student on a topic set for the appointment, with the
student doing most of the talking. As Temperley practiced the role, however,
the supervision transformed into a Temperley monologue with the awestruck
undergraduate looking on. Buttereld retained a vivid memory of Temperley
and frequently narrated anecdotes symbolizing the experience. He bemoaned
Temperleys over exuberance which took drastic measures to curb. He told
of Temperley surveying his weekly essay by taking in each whole page in
a single glance, and dropping the successive sheets on the oor without a
word of comment. Temperley would then embark on a tirade against Lloyd
George, or brag about his work for the government. Buttereld depicted the
image of Temperley standing precariously on a small red chair, balancing a
poker in his hand, all the while reciting passages from Swinburne. Such
behaviour wrought terror in the speechless Buttereld. On top of this, Tem-
 Aspirations 19

perley ridiculed Butterelds quiet questions about the examinations and

mocked his faithful attendance at lectures. Buttereld wanted to learn about
the rules and get advice about how to prepare. He remembered that Temperley
instructed him abruptly just to become a historian and to let the exams take
care of themselves. He tried to submit completely to Temperleys will. Butter-
eld survived this psychological brutality during the Lent and Easter terms
that rst year at Peterhouse. He felt himself converting to Temperleys view.
Looking back, he would caricature his own behaviour: I came with all the
preoccupations of what we call a swot, determined to mug things up for an
examination, to nd out what my teachers wanted me to say, and dish out the
expected answers on all occasions. He would also claim in later years that
he found a device during his undergraduate studies to help him survive the
process. He would try to follow what he called the humanist ideal about
personalities and think of history as a thing about people, and not as a dead
subject to be learned for examinations. For the rest of his career he denounced
the practice of studying for the purpose of passing examinations and made the
matter pivotal for his thinking about universities and historical study.
The subjects he prepared during his rst year included English economic
history, English constitutional history since 1485, and medieval history. For
the rst time in his life he was able to hear historians discussing history, and
some of the historians were among the best in the world. J. H. Clapham
lectured on economic history that year, G. G. Coulton and Z. N. Brooke on
medieval history, and D. A. Winstanley on English constitutional history.
These were the lectures Temperley mocked him for attending.
In the rst year intercollegiate examinations, Buttereld placed Class I,
Division 2. The results brought Temperleys praise for having done really
well and an uncharacteristically gentle nudge to improve in constitutional
history. The college gave him the rst year college prize for history and raised
the amount of his scholarship. In the letter informing him of the increase
Temperley added these words, revealing the assessment he had begun to form
of the Yorkshire lad: I hope it will be encouraging to you and it greatly pleases
me that you are maintaining our traditions.
From this moment onwards Temperley thought of Buttereld as his protege.
Buttereld put himself completely under Temperleys power and deferred to
him utterly. It is hard to overstate the dominance that Temperley exercised
over him in the next nine years. Temperley virtually took over the direction of
Butterelds professional life, and ensured that he would emerge a historian.
Buttereld spent his entire second year without his protector, however. Tem-
perley went away to Belgrade as a member of the European commission pro-
ducing a Balkan settlement. Mentally, nonetheless, he remained utterly under
20 Aspirations

Temperleys domination. Vellacott took the supervisions that year, and Ward
invited him often to the Masters Lodge for lunch. In keeping with the Cam-
bridge tradition, he repeated his rst year subjects for the second year, giving
him two straight years of English economic history, general European history
in the medieval period, and English constitutional history from 1485. In the
examinationsthe Historical Tripos, Part Ihe ranked again Class I, Divi-
sion 2, in a year when no one achieved a higher mark. He again won the college
prize in history and again received a raise in the value of his scholarship.
When Temperley returned for Butterelds third year, he adopted a new
style with his young protege. As he sometimes did with others, he would come
to Butterelds room unannounced after dinner to talk history for hours at a
time. Buttereld at rst found the new behaviour bewildering, but, to his
surprise, he began to feel that Temperley might be talking to him as he would
to another historian. Now more condent, Buttereld soon found the new
intimacy congenial. Temperley still did most of the talking, but Buttereld was
nding a way to mitigate the pain produced by his own awkwardness. He
began to adopt a strategy for his role in social and academic conversations. He
deliberately kept the attention off himself by asking the other person ques-
tions. The tactic became indispensable whenever empty spaces opened in a
conversation. In later years, even after he had become undoubtedly the domi-
nant gure, he invariably kept the focus of the conversation on the other
person. He conveyed the feeling that he was genuinely interested in what the
other person had to say. This style certainly worked with Temperley. In the end
he overcame his fear of Temperley and professed a deep affection for his
master teacher. In personality they remained polar opposites. Buttereld epit-
omized what it meant to be shy, whereas Temperley expressed extraordinary
exuberance. In religion Buttereld was the Christian, whereas, John Fair
has suggested, Temperley exhibited a spirituality of nationalism and pagan
romanticism.
In his nal year, Butterelds subjects were new: English history 1714
1914, European history 17891914, and a special period with Temperley,
The Fall of Napoleon and the Reconstruction of Europe, November 1813
November 1815. He probably followed Winstanleys lectures on George III
and the Whig Party, 17601771, and commenced therewith his engagement
with English history in the eighteenth century and the early reign of George III.
In the wake of Temperleys cynicism about lectures, he missed the lectures in
modern European history and boasted ever after that he had done so. He
lacked the courage to apply Temperleys doctrine to Temperleys own lectures
on Napoleon, and Temperley, of course, excepted his own performances from
the rule. Buttereld said he felt condent when he wrote Part II of the Histori-
 Aspirations 21

cal Tripos at the end of the year. His old fault reappeared, he said, when he
devoted too much time to the rst questions and left no time for the remainder.
The examiners that year were Temperley, G. P. Gooch, Geoffrey Butler, and
R. R. Sedgwick. He learned much later that they fell out among themselves
about his failure to nish. It was only after Gooch spoke urgently in his favour
that the examiners agreed to award him the highest rank, Class I, Division 1.
Forty years later he acknowledged his debt to Gooch. One other student
achieved that rank in history that year, G. R. Potter of St. Johns College, who
remained a lifelong friend.
Butterelds repeated success in examinations visibly marked a monumental
change occurring within him. He was modifying his aspirations to be a Meth-
odist preacher and a writer. He believed, looking back, that the transition
probably began around the end of his rst year. It was apparently then that the
previously implausible idea of becoming a historian began to seem like an
option. In the tiny world of Peterhouse, the models were few, and, when a
student achieved academic success like his, the pictures of an academic future
easily came to mind. In later life he would say that at the time he heard of
gossip among Peterhouse Fellows about making him a future Fellow. When
Temperleys attitude changed towards him, and after he submitted himself to
Temperley, he could readily imagine becoming a historian. Vellacotts care and
praise enabled him to move towards the same end.
The community of aspiring gentlemen undergraduates in Peterhouse was at
least as decisive as the Fellows in transforming Butterelds social style and
moving him towards historical interests. During his rst year he threw himself
into the Peterhouse Historical Society, newly resurrected by Temperley after
the hiatus of the war. The organizations members soon boasted in The Sex that
they were probably the most virile society of its type in Cambridge. Terms
used by historical society members began to appear in his vocabulary. The
secretary of the society wrote that its purpose was to promote the growth of
what may be called Historical-mindedness, and Buttereld made historical-
mindedness one of his stock terms. The society discussed the topic of the
interpretation of history, and the concept began to appear in his own dis-
course. He was probably one of six students, in October 1920, during his
second year, who led a discussion in the society under the title The Interpreta-
tion of History.
Buttereld joined other college societies as well. He read a paper, his rst
paper on record, to the Peterhouse Theological Society in February 1921 on
Savonarola, the dissenting Dominican friar who got himself burned to death
in Florence in 1498 because of his challenge to both pope and government.
He became a prominent member of the Sexcentenary Club and participated
22 Aspirations

actively as a debater. In his second year he argued against the motion that a
supreme British Navy was essential for the future of England, and in favour of
the motion that the discoveries of science have acted against the best interests
of the people. In his third year he spoke in opposition to the motion that pure
genius is unconscious, and for the motion that the family unit is socially
indispensable. He served as editor of The Sex for the Lent issue in 1922. His
leading article, entitled simply Editorial, is the rst extant publication at-
tached to his name.
Buttereld adopted two heroes, both historians, during his undergraduate
years, and they remained his heroes for the rest of his life. The rst was Lord
Acton, a Roman Catholic, whose reputation for erudition was enormous. In
class-conscious Cambridge, Actons aristocratic title heightened the mystique,
as it did Butterelds admiration of him. Ward, as Master of Peterhouse, fos-
tered the mystique by promoting his own reputation as the consummator of
Actons great project. Temperley got Buttereld reading Acton, probably
about the time he took Buttereld on as a student. The historical society
contributed to the mystique. During Butterelds rst year the members dis-
cussed Actons famous inaugural address from 1895, which the secretary re-
ferred to as the Breviary of all historians. Buttereld read Actons Lectures
on Modern History, published in 1906 and reprinted just before he came up to
Peterhouse. The volume contained the inaugural address and the letter Acton
addressed to the contributors to The Cambridge Modern History. It is possible
that he read Actons inaugural during his rst term at Peterhouse, or at least
that he then became familiar with some of its language. The term organic,
which he used to his advantage in Art Is History Made Organic, he may
have lifted from Actons inaugural. What Buttereld meant by organic has
escaped us, but what Acton meant was the unity of history, the notion that life
is an integrated whole and that in general history everything interrelates. In the
context of Peterhouse, the term would have sounded as if it came from Acton.
He also borrowed from Actons letter to the contributors the image of a rope
of sand, which he used in just about everything he wrote for the rest of his life.
The metaphor signied treatments of universal history that failed to see the
continuous development of things over time. Acton became a xture in Butter-
elds discursive horizon.
The second hero was Leopold von Ranke, the nineteenth-century historian
from the University of Berlin, and a Lutheran. Rankes recent presence in
Cambridge came via Acton, who reinforced the earlier references to Ranke by
Seeley, and in Peterhouse via the united front of Ward and Temperley, both of
whom championed German historical scholarship. Temperley announced to
his students that behind his approach to history stood Ranke, and his students
 Aspirations 23

adopted Ranke as well. And so did Buttereld. The more fully Buttereld gave
himself to Temperley and Acton, the more he also gave himself to Ranke.
If Buttereld felt attractions towards becoming a historian, he testied that
his desire to be a writer did not simply wane. He continued to read poetry and
novels, particularly at night. During these undergraduate years he began to
experience difculty falling asleep and, while lying in bed, he would read
Thomas Hardy, Dickens, H. G. Wells, Tolstoy, and the like. His interest in
historical novels received support from G. P. Gooch, whom he was coming to
admire, who had recently called attention to the genre in an article in Contem-
porary Review. He also discovered to his delight that Temperley loved to read
historical novels, and he gladly complied when Temperley loaned him the
works of European novelists, especially historical novels by the Hungarian
writer Mor Jokai. Temperley had written extravagantly about Jokai, and later
published Foreign Historical Novels for the Historical Association. Butter-
eld recognized how much of his own teenage reading included historical
novels, especially Sir Walter Scott.
Buttereld also wrote, and wrote a lot. Virtually every week of three terms
for three years he wrote an essay for his supervisor, not to mention numerous
other pieces for other settings. He must have written at least a hundred essays
as an undergraduate. During the year he would show his best essays to
Vellacott, and Vellacott liked his writing. Vellacott provided the link between
writing and writing history. He was the one who suggested that Buttereld
treat his history papers as writing, indeed as literary pieces. Buttereld com-
posed poetry as well, mostly orid rhyming lines, but also a few experiments
with free verse. He showed his poetry to no one. In one essay he expressed
the conventional romantic notion that poetry expresses emotions and ap-
peals to the feelings, whereas prose addresses itself more to the reason. He
added, Poetry is passion bubbling over, and the ame is imagination. His
editorial in The Sex for Lent 1922 showed him straining to unite the two
genres, writing his prose in a poetic manner. Poetic prose became a permanent
mark of his style of historical writing. He liked to play with words. In the
editorial he took the name people used to mock himButtercupand played
a joke on himself. He played another joke on Vellacotts rule that proper
writers should never end a sentence with a preposition. The nal word of the
editorial was of. He played this joke in later writings as well. His contem-
poraries appreciated his writing style and considered him eloquent in debates,
and they said so repeatedly in The Sex. In following Vellacotts advice Butter-
eld found a way to blend his early desire to be a writer with his emerging
aspiration to be a historian.
Butterelds desire to preach remained strong as well, even as he felt the drift
24 Aspirations

towards history. Aside from his participation in the Cambridge Literary So-
ciety, which for a time he served as secretary, it was his attraction to religion
which gave him connections outside the little world of his college. With his
newly acquired licence as a Methodist lay preacher, the Cambridge Methodist
circuit permitted him to preach. Throughout his undergraduate years he
would occasionally conduct services in the small Methodist chapels in the fen-
land around Cambridge. His general motivation towards religion continued
undiminished. He attended Wesley Methodist Church in Christs Pieces, Cam-
bridge, faithfully every Sunday when he was not preaching elsewhere. He read
the Bible and prayed in his room. He attended meetings of the liberal Student
Christian Movement (SCM) in the university. He also frequented gatherings of
the Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union (CICCU), the Protestant
evangelical society. In Peterhouse, he participated in the college theological
society. He also joined an SCM study group in the college for a while and
served on its committee. He sometimes worshiped in the college chapel where
he experienced the Anglo-Catholic tradition within the Church of England.
On occasion he received Holy Communion according to the rite the Church of
England, an act that must have been difcult for this young Yorkshire Meth-
odist to let himself do.
He recalled later that his new experience of so many varieties of Christianity
affected him deeply. He could nd something good in every one of the options,
but he found reason to dissent from every one of them as well. He experienced
the power of religious liberalism emanating from Germany, which the SCM
encouraged. He appreciated the CICCUs emphasis on the evangelical devo-
tional life. He felt attracted to the liturgy of the Anglo-Catholics. He even-
tually quit the SCM in his third year because, he explained, he was disturbed
by a committee discussion about whether belief in God was necessary for
membership in the group. He stopped going to the CICCU when he began to
nd them too constricted in their understanding of who was a Christian. He
found the Anglican liturgy too formal, but he continued to frequent the college
chapel and allowed the experience to act on him subtle ways. Among his
teachers he encountered Actons Catholicism, Wards Anglican Liberalism,
Vellacotts nonbelieving Anglican establishmentarianism, and Temperleys
pagan romantic sentiments. He found the Methodist sermons too intellectual,
but he continued to attach himself to Methodist practice and attended Wesley
Church because, he said, he wanted a place to praise God on Sundays.
It was becoming clear to him by the end of his third year that what mattered
most to him in religion was the inner life, his inner spirituality. He found that
he was coming through all his new experiences with a Methodist spirituality
remarkably close to the style he found so appealing in his father. In his inner
 Aspirations 25

life he could unite his religious and literary aspirations and in doing so draw
upon his newly forming historical inclination. In the days shortly before he
took his nal third-year examinations in 1922, he wrote in his diary, it is in
religion that life has reached its highest points throughout historyin reli-
gion, and perhaps in poetry, where the experience is akin to the religious.
It was probably during his undergraduate years that Buttereld rst re-
sponded to the political options available as he did to the alternatives facing
him in religion. He saw good in each political position, but also saw reason to
dissent from each. He came up to Cambridge with the political afnity for the
Liberal party which, along with his Methodism, he had acquired from his
father. He also had behind him his rejection of the vigorous socialist politics of
his teacher at Keighley. Now in Cambridge he found left-wing politics very
available. The timing was the aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1917
and the triumph of the Communist party in the Soviet Union. It was also the
moment of the rise of the British Labour Party in tandem with the decline of
the Liberals. He also encountered eager supporters of the Conservative party
in a university where the great majority of undergraduates arrived conserva-
tive. He would feel the appeal of each of these political positions. At the same
time, he discovered, as he testied much later, that the Left Wing as well as
the Right Wing could lie and deceive. A memoir written late in life probably
reected something basic about his emerging politics of the early 1920s: I had
to make my own mind work more creatively, manufacturing my own picture
of things out of the limited materials that were available. Andin politics, for
example, I had to try to move to a stereoscopic vision, which might include
something of both Left and Right, but also brought out new shapes, great
masses that came in perspectivemuch of the resulting transformation hav-
ing nothing to do with the conict between Left and Right. He did not take
his thinking about politics very far as an undergraduate. With his growing
attachment to history and the heightening of his convictions about the inner
life, he seemed to have little impulse left to pursue something so contemporary
and so mundane as politics.
During his three undergraduate years, the pulls and counter-pulls on Butter-
eld were manifold. He gave himself to Temperley and to the appeal of history.
He afrmed the attractions of each of the religious and political options before
him, and he adopted enough of the gentlemans manners and ethos of the
college to allow him to t in. But he also learned to dissent, to withhold himself
from submitting to the demands and choices imposed on him by others. He
began to turn his lack of t into a doctrine and practice of dissent. Even as he
gave himself to the inuence of his master teacher in historical study, he kept
himself from Temperleys pagan nationalism and romanticism. He retained his
26 Aspirations

youthful desires to preach as well as to write. He held on to his social simplic-

ity, his Methodist religion, his teetotaling, and his loosely liberal politics. He
kept hold of the continuities with his youth and his father, while changing
himself, his perspective, his aspirations. By taking a stereoscopic view of the
new alternatives, he found a way to construct something entirely his own.
After winning the double rst, the exalted rank of Class I, Division 1, in
the historical examinations in his nal year, Buttereld was admitted to the
B.A. degree of Cambridge University in June 1922. Undergraduates in Peter-
house admired him, and a biographical article about him in The Sex praised
him as a conquering hero.
The Fellows praised him too. Temperley once again laid out Butterelds
next step by arranging for Peterhouse to elect him to the Hugo de Balsham
Studentship for 19221923. Buttereld testied often over the years that the
election gave him a shock because he knew that staying at Peterhouse was
good for nothing except becoming a historian. He was not sure that he wanted
the historians life. He had applied for jobs teaching school, and already held
in his hands the offer of a position at Lampeter in Cardigan County in Wales.
He still felt strongly about his desire to preach, or at least about his feeling of
obligation to his father to become a Methodist preacher, though he had started
to believe that he would not make a good Methodist parson. He sought the
advice of the Rev. H. M. Hughes, the principal of Wesley House, recently
founded as a theological school in Cambridge for the education of Methodist
ministers. He concluded that, although he might enjoy the preaching, he
lacked the social and pastoral skills to lead a congregation. At the same time,
he was sure that settling down to teach in Lampeter would be dismal and
uninspiring and would be no help at all to his writing.
Buttereld trusted the judgment of others about him and accepted the re-
search studentship at Peterhouse. He had an income at least for the coming
year. He turned down the job in Lampeter. It stretches the imagination to
contemplate the alternative life of Herbert Buttereld as the schoolteacher in
Wales. He took no steps towards becoming a Methodist parson. He could
easily have attended Wesley House. He said in later years that he feared he was
displeasing his father by abandoning his intention to be a preacher. He felt
the wrath of his mother, who considered him something of a failure because
he was still in school after completing his degree. The ssure between his
mother and him signalled the subtle rise in social class to which Cambridge
had treated the young man from Oxenhope. He was not certain, as he later
would admit, that he knew what his life would be like if he were to be a
historian, but he was sure that he was inadequate for what lay ahead.
 2

Art and Science

New Vocation
The academic year 19221923 was traumatic for Buttereld. Within the
intimacies of the college, Temperley took charge of him, like a master with an
apprentice, and began to turn him into a historian. In the Cambridge of those
years the importance of the college surpassed that of the university. In the
humanities the college was the primary employer, and the writing of prize
essays and election to a college fellowship were sufcient to set a person apart
for the academic life. It was still unthinkable, indeed ungentlemanly, for a rst-
rate student in the humanities to study for the Ph.D., even though Cambridge
had begun to offer such studies in history. In any case, the university organized
no lectures or seminars for postgraduate research students. Amidst the tension
within Cambridge created by the movement towards the professionalization
of the discipline of history, Buttereld inhabited an ambiguous space. Tem-
perley acted to make him into a professional historian while the college con-
tinued to make him into a gentleman.
Very quickly Temperley bound Buttereld to a regimen of research on
Napoleon in the years 1807 and 1808. Temperley was still giving specialized
lectures for undergraduates on Napoleon in 18131815, the years surround-
ing the emperors defeat, but he was also interested in the relations between
France and Russia in 1807 when the two powers signed the Treaty of Tilsit.

27
28 Art and Science

Temperley was preparing another book on George Canning, and Tilsit was
Cannings rst ordeal after assuming ofce as British foreign minister. He
seems to have gotten Buttereld interested in Tilsit quite soon after taking up
the research studentship in Peterhouse. Guided by the master, Buttereld de-
voted himself to a detailed study of the events surrounding the Treaty of Tilsit.
Temperley had him pursuing diplomatic history from published documents in
the style of Ranke.
At that moment Buttereld could feel as if he were entering the most thrill-
ing and the most important eld of historical study around. Diplomatic his-
tory was glowing with pride in England in the early 1920s, after the Great
War, and he was attached to perhaps the master of the trade. Temperley was
a major reason for the ascendency of the eld. After his Life of Canning
(1905) and his Frederic the Great and Kaiser Joseph (1915), English historians
awaited his new book on Cannings foreign policy, widely expected to display
mastery of the British documents in London. Simultaneously C. K. Webster,
originally from Cambridge and now professor at the University of London,
was writing a work on Lord Castlereagh, Cannings predecessor. People
classed the two historians together as heads of the Cambridge school of diplo-
matic history, even though the personal tensions between them were palpable.
According to the dominant historiography, these two had the task of produc-
ing the denitive and permanent account of British diplomacy during the
period of the Napoleonic wars, the Congress of Vienna, and the beginnings of
the Congress System. That period was regarded as precisely analogous to the
years surrounding the Great War of 19141919. More than this, Temperley
came out of the recent Great War as the preeminent expert on the diplomacy
of contemporary European history. He was the one whom the victorious
powers of Europe selected to direct the multivolume history of the Paris peace
conference, and he was the choice of the British Foreign Ofce to assemble the
denitive collection of British documents on the origins of the war. Govern-
ments across Europe and in North America were publishing their papers rele-
vant to the Great War and were simultaneously opening their archives still
wider to historians for work on nineteenth-century topics. The sheer mass of
documents newly available on issues felt to be extraordinarily crucial to mod-
ern life stimulated historians to go to work, especially aspiring historians. For
diplomatic historians it was a moment of supreme condence. Buttereld, the
new research student, was there in the right place at the right time, and he
caught the spirit of supreme excitement.
Temperley no doubt also pushed Buttereld to enter the prize competitions
mounted by the university, most of which he himself had won some twenty
years before. In any case, going after the prizes was a thing even the students
 Art and Science 29

expected of their peers who scored high in examinations. First came the Uni-
versity Members Prize for English Essay for 1922. The topic designated by
the prize committee was Charles Dickens, with the deadline set for mid-
November. Next, with a slightly later deadline, came the LeBas Prize for 1923,
with The Historical Novel as the assigned topic. Both subjects were re-
garded as essays in English literature, and, although Buttereld was in history,
both topics coincided happily with his literary inclinations and even with his
reading as a youth and at bedtime as an undergraduate. Temperley probably
had a role in selecting the topic for the LeBas Prize, and he may even have had
Buttereld in mind. The importance of the coincidence of the topic with But-
terelds interests is made clear when we note that the subjects set for the
following two years would not have suited him well at all: The Element of
Irony in English Literature and The Commerce between the Roman Empire
and India.
Buttereld worked fast, rst on Dickens and then on the historical novel.
The experience must have perpetuated the ambivalence of his interests in
history and literature. He won the rst competition in March 1923 with a
longish essay on the way Dickens straddled history and literature. He won
the second, more prestigious prize in May 1923 with an essay the length of a
short book in which he juxtaposed historical novels, historical study, and the
events of the past. The Peterhouse Historical Society had him give a reading
from his essay during Michaelmas term 1923.
Also about this time he wrote an essay, which remained unpublished, on
G. K. Chesterton, the English Catholic writer of note, in which he showed
himself entranced by Chestertons idea that something new could occur at any
moment in history, whether coming from Gods action or human action. The
effect of this possibility, Buttereld observed, was the contingency of history,
and no matter how certain and predictable things might appear, we do not
know what will happen tomorrow.
The LeBas Prize brought with it publication of the winning entry by Cam-
bridge University Press, and in due course, in 1924, Butterelds work ap-
peared as his rst book, bearing the title The Historical Novel: An Essay. The
result was a 113-page extended essay by a twenty-three-year-old which con-
tained elements of both literary criticism and theoretical writing on historical
knowledge and method. Given that he wrote to win a prize, we might expect
him to say things to please the prize adjudicators, who included, no doubt,
Temperley. If he did, no sycophantic tendencies are noticeable. We can take the
book seriously as his rst public statements about life and history. We can
picture him using the theme to gure out his thinking about both literature
and history, perhaps in the process reconciling two of the pulls upon his life.
30 Art and Science

We see him straining to write as if he were creating a piece of literature. At the

same time we glimpse the beginnings of his microscopic research on the diplo-
matic events associated with Tilsit, to which he refers in the text. He is far from
systematic in his treatment of the essays theme, relying on repetition and
metaphor instead of argument to carry his point. He illustrates the essay with
the names of what amounted to a list of preferred writers from his youth and
undergraduate daysWordsworth, Stevenson, Hugo, Dumas, Jokai, and
above all Dickens and Scott. Among the historians he names are Carlyle,
Gibbon, and Gregorovius, but the unspoken name of Ranke lies behind every-
thing he has to say about history.
Butterelds primary question in the book concerns the qualities of histor-
ical novels and the relationship of historical novels and history books to hu-
man history. His answer requires him to begin with, and make much of, the
assertion that there was such a thing as the past. The past, writes the young
Buttereld, echoing the young Ranke at twenty-nine, is life as it really hap-
pened, the thing that is the object of study and research. His metaphors, like
Rankes, suggest the interconnectedness of everything which composed the
pastthe past is a web woven of all that has gone on, a symphony with each
moment, each year, each age adding a new bar to the score, and carrying the
architecture of the whole a little further. The past is separate from us, dif-
ferent from us, standing in need of recovery. History was the past.
We gain access to the past, he continues, through our idea of the past. Our
idea of the past is a vague amalgam of images, an unsystematic understanding,
of what went on long ago which contains much that is more or less wrong
such as that medieval England was the land of Robin Hoodand much that is
more or less truesuch as that King John signed the Magna Carta. We all
carry our idea of the past around in our heads in the form of pictures and
stories, with only a very few details xed and veried. We get our idea of the
past via many intermediaries. There are the traditions of our localities, the
tales of our grandfather, ballads and operas, the speeches of politicians, ads in
magazines, the school system, and hundreds of other ways. Historical novels
and historical studies are two of the ways we use to recover the past and create
our idea of the past. At the same time, our idea of history precedes and modi-
es any approach we take to the past via historical novels and historical
studies. Butterelds notion places his analysis on a wide and democratic ter-
rain, appealing to our common experience of knowing something about our
personal or collective past, whether or not we are readers of novels and his-
tory books.
His characterization of historical study gives some priority to the work of
historians over novelists. He makes clear that he writes as a historian and not
 Art and Science 31

as a novelist, and that he approaches the delineation of the historical novel by

way of contrast with historical method. He has to deal with the commonplace
among at least historians that novels were somehow untrue while history
books were true, mirroring the difference between fact and ction. Yet, as an
essential part of his analysis, he explicitly acknowledges that historical study
has fundamental constraints upon it. In contrast with the reigning historicism
of his day, he advocates the doctrine of the limits of historical study, or as he
phrases it, the impossibility of history.
He denes historical study as the conscious investigation of the past, a
study which proceeds by means of research into the accumulated facts of the
past in order to build up a memory that recaptures a bygone age. Historical
study gathers authenticated data and gives attention to strict accuracy of
detail and delity to facts, and then engages in the manufacture of his-
tory. Other people use the facts of the pastthe economist, the politician,
the musician, the ecclesiastic, the philosopher, the architectin order to fur-
ther their present-day work in their special departments. The historian, by
contrast, is interested in the past per se: he loves the past for its own sake and
tries to live in it, tries to live over again the lost life of yesterday, turning it back
as one would turn back the pages of a book to re-read what has gone before;
and he seeks to see the past as a far-country and to think himself into a
different world. The historian nurtures the regret for the things that are lost
for ever.
This is where the notion of the limits of historical study comes into his
thinking. Historians cannot travel beyond the documents and other records
that remain behind, and they cannot tell us more than the facts of history. As
a result vast worlds are left out of our reconstruction of the past. Buttereld
mentions as notable among these the lives of the vast population of ordinary
people, the hearts of anyone, and the circumstances of most of what goes on
in any particular knot of human action at a given place and a given time.
Historical study is best suited to give us certain aspects of the public actions of
the elite. It offers much about politicians, military people, diplomats, eco-
nomic statistics, the famous, but for most things it gives us only a chart to the
past. Historical study fails at the crucial point: About the closest human
things, history only tells us enough to set us guessing and wondering.
Buttereld claims that the historical novel overcomes this feature of histor-
ical study, a feature which he regards as an inadequacy in history itself. The
historical novel lls the gaps in the evidence by means of the imagination,
recovers the things which to history are irrecoverable, and brings us near to
human hearts and human passions, closer to the heart of things. He writes:
In order to catch these things in the life of the past, and to make a bygone age
32 Art and Science

live again, history must not merely be eked out by ction, it must not merely be
extended by invented episodes; it must be turned into a novel; it must be put
to ction as a poem is put to music.
To a certain extent, he suggests, whenever any of us reads a history book we
ll out the information we read by means of our imagination, so that we
actually see Napoleon doing the action we are told he did. The historical
novelist does this work far more completely for all of us. The novelist turns
history into a picture, and then goes further to transform history even into a
story. By turning history into a story, says Buttereld, the novelist, more com-
pletely than the historian, properly handles the way in which the people of the
past actually lived their lives: It is not enough to recover the facts of the lives
that men lived long-ago and to trace out the thread of events; we must recover
the adventure of their lives: and the whole fun and adventure of their lives, as
of ours, hung on the fact that at any given moment they could not see ahead,
and did not know what was coming. To the men of 1807 the year 1808 was a
mystery and an unexplored tract; they saw a hundred possibilities in it where
the modern reader only sees the one that actually happened. In addition, by
means of story, the novelist is able to go beyond the historian in recapturing
what Buttereld calls the whole experience of life. By this he means that
every age of history, every generation, involves its own peculiar set of histor-
ical conditions, a different complex of problems and anomalies, and situa-
tions and combinations of circumstance, its own unique entanglement of
the individuals in these conditions.
Buttereld makes it clear that at this stage in his life he regards the historical
novel as superior to the history book. The reasons for this assessment take us
to his basic assumptions about history and human life. First, he has bound
himself to romanticism, a conviction he associates with the love of the past
for its own sake, attention to the whole experience of life, and the use of
imagination. His romanticism creates unrealistically high expectations about
the human ability to achieve the complete reconstruction of life in the past,
expectations which no historian and no history book could full.
Second, however, he posits an overly constricted notion of historical study, a
view we may call positivist, which ties it to the collection of facts and the
manufacture of history from the facts, strictly interpreted, tightly adhered to.
At the same time the romantic in him wants his historian to be the romantic
historian, to go beyond the mere facts, but his sense of the legitimate range of
historical study prevents his historian from acting fully as the romantic. He
does not delve into the notion of the scientic historian and history as
science. The term the scientic historian appears twice late in the essay,
 Art and Science 33

but without him giving it any attention. He does work with a view of delity
to facts which would be more compatible with contemporary ideas of history
as science than history as literature and romance.
Third, he announces his allegiance to an idea of personality which goes
beyond what his vision of historical study permits him to reach. For Butter-
eld, in this book, personality is a mystery, a unity of both observable exterior
data and unobservable intimate matters of the heart. For him, historical study
cannot penetrate into that mystery. Each personality is an individual and a
sufcient end within history, and every person, and not just the kings and the
generals, deserves to be recaptured. This task, in his view, historical study
cannot do. Only imagination can do what is needed, and because he believes
that imagination pertains to literature, he claims that literature, and not his-
tory, reaches into the depths of the human heart and out to the completeness of
the whole human experience.
Only occasionally in the book does Buttereld suggest that he might have
misstated or overdrawn the difference between historical study and the histor-
ical novel. Once, for instance, he allows that the historian might use imagina-
tion to go beyond a bare-bones reconstruction of the most visible people of the
past. But, on the whole, in this book, he lives on the side of literature as
supreme and regards history as relatively supercial. Is he catering to the
adjudicators of a prize in English? Or has he not yet comprehended how
historical study might validly engage whole personalities and whole situations
of the past, and do more than dwell on the surface of the most prominent
events and most visible elites of human history? He expresses no idea in the
book of what the positive value of historical study might be, the sort of things
he leads us to expect when he begins with the very intriguing proposal that
historical study is one of many proper ways of approaching the past.
If his theory convinces us of his afnity with literature, and not with history,
his writing style leaves no shadow of doubt. He wants so much to be the writer
himself and to act as the romantic pictured by his ideal. We catch the point best
just after he has quoted for us a lengthy passage from the opening chapter of
Scotts Ivanhoe. Scott is his model, both for style of writing and for the genre
of the historical novel. But we should not blame Scott for the sentences
throughout the book when Buttereld is most oridly romantic, saying the
same thing two or three times with a different illustration, rhyme, and meta-
phor each time, as in the following passage: But, most of all, the reason why
we prize the book in the margins of which Coleridge himself scribbled pencil-
notes of literary criticism, and keep a lock of Keatss hair, is that these things
are like the stray owers that cheat the scythe or like the last stars that out dare
34 Art and Science

the morning sun; they are the few things that are saved from a shipwreck. The
work of a historian is to reconstruct the past out of the debris that is cast up by
the sea from the wrecks of countless ages.
The book was not widely reviewed at the time, perhaps because, as the New
Statesman suggested, historical novels were then a little-favored genre. Butter-
elds literary sensibilities were xed on Scott, Dumas, and the other roman-
tics, and these sounded hopelessly obsolete next to James Joyces Ulysses and
T. S. Eliots Wasteland, both published in 1922, and the writings of Virginia
Woolf. The few reviews he did receive offered both polite praise and polite
complaints. They applauded him for what the reviewers thought perhaps a
generally sound analysis, but chided him for being too abstract and failing to
engage the writings of any historical novelists in his discussion. The literary
journals took no notice of the book, and it soon went out of print. Fifty years
later, in the 1970s, the work resurfaced in two reprint editions at a time when
questions of literary criticism, narrative, and historical explanation became
newly fashionable. Seventy-ve years later, in 1999, Michael Bentley gave the
book more attention than any other historical analyst in the twentieth century,
noting especially the role of literary thinking at this stage in Butterelds his-
torical reections. It was easy to nd the critic who snickered at the thought of
discussing the book at all, on the grounds that it was doubtful whether Butter-
eld himself was in deadly earnest in this piece. But such a cynical view is
unwarranted when we read the book in connection with Butterelds aspira-
tions as a writer, his long-time attraction to historical novels, his relations with
Temperley, and above all his theoretical awareness of multiple modes of
knowing the past.
Buttereld particularly relished two things he did in Historical Novel. He
repeated the joke in his editorial in The Sex in Lent 1922 and closed the whole
book with the word about. It was another playful act of independence from
Vellacott who had admonished him repeatedly to eliminate dangling preposi-
tions. And he wrote a small work, an act of dissent from the prevailing preju-
dice for big books by historians, and an assertion in favour of his emerging
taste for little books. Buttereld confessed in later years that when he had
nished the project he was unable to make himself read another historical
novel. Thereafter his late night reading switched to unexceptional detective
novels.
In July 1923, after his achievements in the prize competitions, Peterhouse
elected Buttereld to the Charles Abercrombie Smith Research Studentship
for 19231924, and he knew he would stay at Peterhouse with an income for
still another year. In the summer of 1923 he began to aim for another prize
competition, the biennial Prince Consort Prize, which listed no assigned sub-
 Art and Science 35

ject. Soon after, however, the college altered his plans dramatically. On 29 Oc-
tober 1923, Peterhouse gave him a shock for the second time by electing him a
Fellow of the college, to be exact, a Foundation Fellow in history. He claimed
long afterwards that, even at this late date, he would have preferred to be a
Fellow in English if it had been possible. He accepted the position and resigned
his research studentship. The move received hearty approval from under-
graduates of Peterhouse.
Butterelds uncertain journey had brought him to what appeared to be a
career as a college Fellow and historian, and the outcome surprised him. It
now seemed that he would remain indenitely in this society of gentlemen
unlike himself, a world without women, and a setting that evoked both his
loyalty and his dissent. The Peterhouse fellowship gave him all the legitima-
tion he needed to be regarded as a scholar. Buttereld was Peterhouses third
Fellow in history, which, with Adolphus Ward, made four historians in Peter-
house out of nine Fellows and the Master, a deepening of the colleges commit-
ment to feature history. He still wanted to be a writer, and religion remained
crucial for him. He could now envision history as a way to full the literary
desire, an avenue with an income. However, he felt tormented by uncertainties
about how to t religion into his new career as a historian. In social terms the
fellowship in a Cambridge college conrmed his status as a gentleman, a status
opened up to him in that era by his matriculation in Peterhouse and his ad-
mission to the Cambridge degree. Temperley and Vellacott gave a dinner in
honour of his election as a Fellow. That evening, as if to signal that the social
marks of a gentlemen held no great meaning for him, he kept his pledge as a
teetotaler. While the others drank champagne, he drank ginger beer.
During 19231924 his new duties as Fellow absorbed a large portion of his
time. He began teaching undergraduates in supervisions, about ten students a
year, all young men, of course, and every week during term met with them
individually. He became an examiner for the annual entrance examinations.
He continued to reside in the college and participated actively in college life,
including especially the historical society, the political science club, and the
Sex Club. The pages of The Sex report many papers on subjects of morality
being given in college societies around this time, suggesting that moral ques-
tions were much on peoples minds. He no doubt paid attention as Temperley
kept the interest in Acton going around Peterhouse, and probably heard Tem-
perleys paper to the college historical society in Lent 1924, Actons Philoso-
phy of History. His diary shows him wrestling with Acton in 1924 over the
issue of moral judgments, stimulated perhaps by Temperleys presentation. In
his diary he wrote that it was better for historians to have a sympathy with
human beings, and an understanding heart than to act as judge of others.
36 Art and Science

He also worked on his entry for the university Prince Consort Prize. He
choose a topic he had begun under Temperley during the previous year, the
diplomatic history connected with Napoleons drive towards Russia and the
events surrounding the Treaty of Tilsit between France and Russia in 1807.
Working at a furious speed Buttereld submitted a typescript of several hun-
dred pages with the title The Problem of Peace in Europe, 18068. He
again put all his desire to be a writer into his style and the wording of his
history. In February 1924 he won the prize, with the notation that his work
warranted publication, and he received the Seeley Medal as well. The ad-
judicators for the prize included the elite of Cambridge history at the time
Temperley, Reader in Modern History; J. B. Bury, Regius Professor of Modern
History; J. P. Whitney, Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical History; and J. S. Reid,
Professor of Ancient History. His reputation within Cambridge soared, as did
his own self-condence. With Temperleys encouragement he set to work to
convert his essay into a book.
It seemed easier to him to refocus his ambitions as a writer than his minis-
terial intentions. His religious motivation and afnities remained. Now that
his undergraduate days were nished he no longer frequented college or uni-
versity religious societies, but he still faithfully attended Wesley Church. He
also attended Anglican services in the college chapel and developed a friend-
ship with Canon Charles Gillett, the Dean of Peterhouse chapel since 1922.
He lunched often with the Rev. W. E. Barnes, Fellow of the college, former
college chaplain, and Huslean Professor of Divinity since 1901. Instead of
recruiting him for the ministry, Principal Hughes had persuaded him to teach
ecclesiastical history on the side to the young men who were preparing for
Methodist ministry at Wesley House. He began in 1922. He gave no lectures,
but instead met with the students one-on-one in the manner of the Cambridge
supervision. The subject was the rst four centuries of Christianity. In some
sense he must have found the teaching of ministerial candidates a suitable
substitute for becoming a minister himself. Above all during this period, he
cultivated his own spirituality, what he understood as the well-being of his
inner life.
It was probably during 19231924 that he asked to transfer his name to the
list of lay preachers in the Cambridge Methodist circuit. He continued to take
engagements one or two times a term as a local preacher in Methodist chapels
around Cambridge and additional engagements between terms in the Ox-
enhope area when he would return home to see his parents. In his diary for
1924 he recorded going to Cottenham and Romsey Town during Lent term
and Royston during Easter term. Between terms in Oxenhope, on three succes-
sive Sundays, he went to Streeton, Bridgehouse, and Lund Park. In the sum-
 Art and Science 37

mer, again in Oxenhope, he went to Hermit Hole and a chapel in Keighley. We

may suppose there were other occasions that went unrecorded. Sometimes he
preached, sometimes he led a Bible class or the Sunday school. He wrote out
all his sermons and Bible studies word for word, and, although none of his
sermons survive, he recalled that he would usually select a moral or devotional
theme rather than anything doctrinal or theological or exegetical.
It is possible that Vellacott, himself a sincere but unostentatious Anglican,
knew something about Butterelds activity in religion outside the college.
However, the person at Peterhouse who knew most about his religious life was
another young Fellow, Carey Francis, a mathematician and also a Methodist,
who soon received conrmation as an Anglican. The two Fellows became
intimate associates in religion until Francis left for Africa in 1928 to teach in
an Anglican school for boys. Buttereld remembered him as about the most
wonderful man I ever met, and acknowledged that he was utterly inspired
by him. He regarded Francis as a man like his father who exemplied a
spiritual Christianity.
The one person who certainly knew nothing about his religious proclivity
was Temperley, an agnostic toward Christianity at this time in his life, who
would have thought it very improper for Buttereld to allow his religion to
intrude upon his activities as a historian. Not knowing what else to do, Butter-
eld allowed a division to occur between his world as a scholar in Peterhouse
and his religious world external to the college and within himself. It was a
continuation of the divide he created between his Keighley life at school and
his Oxenhope life at home and church. Nonetheless, in the context of Peter-
house, his decision to perpetuate his religious life as a Methodist, and not, like
Carey Francis, to enter the Church of England, provided him with a mode of
dissent from the ethos and society around him. His spirituality also gave him a
region of dissent from the totalizing inuence of Temperley.
Temperley was at least aware that his protege perhaps gave too much of
himself to his college duties, and advised him to round off his education by
taking a year abroad before it was too late. Cambridge University had a
arrangement with Princeton University by which a member of Cambridge
would spend a year at Princeton on a Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellowship.
Buttereld applied, and won the award in May 1924, only one week before
the deadline for a similar fellowship at Harvard University which he had
intended to pursue. He decided for Princeton without applying to Harvard.
Before he left for America, Ward died in June 1924, reducing the number of
historians in Peterhouse to three. Buttereld participated in the election of the
new Master, Baron Robert Chalmers, a former high-level civil servant, gover-
nor of Ceylon, and a Pali scholar who was sympathetic to history. When a
38 Art and Science

book appeared two years later honoring Ward, Buttereld reviewed it appre-
ciatively for the local Cambridge Review.
The academic year in the United States lasted from September 1924 to June
1925. Princeton was a long way from Oxenhope and Peterhouse. The fellow-
ship included work as a teaching assistant for an undergraduate course on the
Reformation, marking the papers of about sixty students. He also joined a
graduate history seminar and participated in the world of the American doc-
toral student. He had time to work on Napoleon, and his diary shows him
at work in mid-winter on chapter 2 of the book. He also had time to experi-
ence the America of the 1920s. He became engrossed in American history and
sketched plans to write essays on the State Department and American rela-
tions with European governments during the revolutions of 18481849. He
went off to Washington, D.C., for research in the John Clayton Papers in the
Library of Congress and in the State Department papers for 18471853, the
years when Clayton served as secretary of state. After building up a stack
of notes, however, Buttereld stopped as quickly as he began, and the proj-
ects died.
Much about life in America repulsed him, as his diary shows, and as an act
of dissent he became perhaps even more attached to his Methodism. The war
within American Protestantism between the fundamentalists and the modern-
ists, then at its height, made him agitated. He particularly disliked what he
regarded as the intolerance of the fundamentalists, and he meditated on toler-
ation. He disliked even more the materialistic and acquisitive society which
bombarded him in America, especially when it appeared to him that the inter-
ests of money dominated art, sex, and even religion. Too much in America
reduced humanity to mere physicality. He wrote in his diary: Less and less is
sex being raised, organized, until it becomes love. All the spiritual and intellec-
tual associations around love are being disentangled completely. Now the
word love means purely the animal passion. The experience prompted him to
collect his thoughts about life. He did not want to reject the material world, or
simply to embrace spirituality. An important passage in his diary indicated the
understanding he was coming to adopt. He took hold of the traditional notion
that life was a duality of the material and the spiritual, and, rather than reject
the one in favour of the other, or even to retain the two in polarity, he em-
braced their transformation into a higher unity: And yet, tho economic
needs and animal instincts are the sub-structure of life, the whole point of life
is to raise an intellectual and spiritual synthesis on top of these, so that these
very things come out etherealised. Civilisation [is what] I would call this super-
structure. It is determined rst and foremost by material factsby the fact
that man is an animal who gets hungry and is moved by various instinctsbut
 Art and Science 39

it gives these a spiritual signicance and experience. He summarized his view

succinctly: The important thing is to turn the material fact, the economic
necessity, into a spiritual opportunity.
His American diary shows him contemplating the idea of personality. Per-
sonality represents the site within each person where the dualism of the mate-
rial and the spiritual transposes into a higher unity. He recorded that one
Sunday in March 1925 he took charge of the services in the Methodist Church
in Princeton. The topic of his evening sermon was On Personality. Butter-
eld and the minister had spent the week at the annual Methodist conference
for the region, held at Asbury Park, New Jersey, then still a Methodist center.
When the minister needed to stay at the conference over the Sunday, he invited
Buttereld to ll the pulpit in his place. Buttereld agreed and wrote in his
diary, I felt too nervous, but I suppose I ought to do it if he cant get anyone
to come from Asbury Park. When the episode was over he noted, People
seemed to be pleased with my services.
In spite of his misgivings about America, some of his experiences stimulated
his fantasies about being a writer. He told about going several weekends to
Greenwich Village in New York City where he met Hart Crane and Paul
Robeson and heard Allen Tate read Cranes newest poems. He read the journal
Hound and Horn and began to follow the American literary movement associ-
ated with it. He also confessed that the place where he heard the poetry was a
basement speak-easy named Squarcialupis, where he drank alcohol illegally
during Prohibition. He sometimes drank on the sly in Princeton as well. He
justied these breaches of his oath as a teetotaler with the observation that
when he followed the principles of dissent in America and acted against the
established order, it meant for him to violate the law on Prohibition. In Amer-
ica he associated his dissent with poetry, drink, and Bohemianism.

College and Napoleon

Butterelds return to Peterhouse in the Michaelmas term of 1925 coin-
cided with his fathers sudden loss of his job in Parkers Mill in Oxenhope,
after years of utterly faithful service to the mill owner. Buttereld watched
from a distance. He witnessed rst his fathers anguish and then his exaltation
as the owner of the now expanding Merralls Mill gave him employment at a
higher rank and higher pay than before. The new money enabled his father to
move up to the ner house at 60 Rosebank Terrace. Buttereld noted how
what appeared a disaster transmuted into a victory for his father, and he pro-
fessed to have learned something about the Providence of God. At the same
time, the episode and the effects of the new mill owners power conrmed his
40 Art and Science

youthful trust in the diffusion of higher civilization from those above to those
below. Pleased though he was, the move meant the loss of his childhood home.
Buttereld responded by giving himself more completely to Peterhouse.
Butterelds rooms in Peterhouse were at the top of the stairs in the Bur-
roughs Building, just opposite Temperleys. By this time Vellacott, Senior Tu-
tor of the college and Butterelds condant, had fully established himself as
the chief administrator of the college, and he gave less time to teaching his-
tory students. Temperley was looking for relief as well. Buttereld stepped into
the gap, and his schedule quickly lled up. He took Temperleys place as
director of studies in history and devoted many extra hours to advising stu-
dents about their studies. He also succeeded Temperley as librarian of the
college, and spent several morning hours a week in the library. Buttereld
resumed the supervision of undergraduates with a cohort of ten or so a year,
meeting them one-by-one in the customary weekly sessions during term. Col-
lege meetings, meals, and socializing among the Fellows and others in Cam-
bridge all took time.
The college elected him to more a secure position as a Research Fellow in
1926. in 1927, Ernest Barker became the rst incumbent of the professorship
in political science at Cambridge, and Peterhouse elected him to a professorial
fellowship. Barker construed political science generally as a study of the his-
tory of political thought and was listed with the Faculty of History in the
university. This restored the college complement of historians to four, but, as
professor, Barker had little to do with students, leaving Buttereld as the only
historian active with undergraduates.
He added still further to his workload during the year 19271928 when he
received his rst opportunity to be a lecturer, and hence to increase his income.
With the help of the college, he set himself up as an independent lecturer,
giving lectures in college space to university students who, in the tradition of
the most ancient university practices, paid him a fee to hear what he had to say.
In the following year, the college made him an acting lecturer on the college
staff and for the rst time paid him to lecture.
Buttereld continued his involvement in religious activities after his return
from America. He attended Wesley Church on Sundays, he participated occa-
sionally in Peterhouse chapel, and resumed his cycle of lay preaching during
term around Cambridge and between terms around Oxenhope. He resumed
as well his teaching of church history at Wesley House.
More important to him, he continued to cultivate his inner spiritual life. His
diary during February and March 1926 reveals a particularly intense moment
in his religious life and in the shaping of his career. He recorded a visionary
encounter with God: I saw God round the corner yesterday. It was where the
 Art and Science 41

avenue of trees cuts into Trumpington Road and there was a pretty piece of
shrubbery, a momentous play of sunshine, a pause in the wind. Then God
came without a sound. He was an elf. Quickly he disappearedand long as I
looked at the shrub I could not make it look like that again, I could not
recapture the rst elusive vision. I could not nd where God had gone. So I felt
utterly alone, and friendless, and away from home. Yet in my heart was a song,
for I had seen a fabulous thing.
He experienced ambivalence about the path on which his career as a histo-
rian seemed to take him. He confessed: I can quite understand the lure of the
cloister, the charm of a lonely sheltered life, the attraction of a retreat from the
world. . . . Yet to be in the whirl of it, maddeningly engaged in it, and lifted by
the oods, is the supreme exhilaration. His ambivalence embraced his love
of Peterhouse and the scholarly life, but also his rejection of the social and
academic worlds he had entered. It was the same ambivalence he expressed at
a more fundamental level about the dualism as well as the unity of the material
and the spiritual elements of life and the personality. His diary revealed that he
rmly dissented from the expectations imposed upon him by Peterhouse. He
would live as the romantic poet if only he could: I long to let myself loose. I
think there is some eagle in my soul that is hungering for the open sky, the free
hills. The whole cloak of respectable life is cumbersome to me, the repressions,
the conventions, the shams, the humdrum evasions of momentous issues. If it
were not for my people I would break away, and throw myself into the whirl-
pool of adventure, and write poetry in a garret. For wild horses are inside me,
leaping down the lanes of my heart. If he were going to be a historianif he
had to be a historianhe wanted to be no ordinary historian: I feel nowa-
days that life is a very good thingand yet I know I am doing very little. . . . I
would like to do a creative thing to throw out as a challenge to the skyto put
my footprint in the world and to justify my life before the high gods. His
diary shows him mingling his Methodist devotion with his concerns about the
course of his life. He was not sure that his research on Napoleon would satisfy
his aspirations, and he maintained the uneasy separation he had created be-
tween his religious world and his world as a historian. His old desire to be a
preacher had not slackened.
Buttereld continued working on Napoleon under Temperleys inuence.
The object was to produce a book which would establish his position as
a historian. Under different circumstancesfor instance, had he stayed at
Princetonthe work would have become his doctoral dissertation. He was
admitted to the Cambridge M.A. degree in 1926. At Cambridge the M.A.
required no further work and possessed no academic meaning, being a near
automatic conversion of the B.A. The M.A. did confer higher social status,
42 Art and Science

however, and in the milieu of Cambridge it ranked higher than the Ph.D.
Buttereld could now wear the masters gown whose simplicity he came to
enjoy in contrast with the proliferation of doctoral gowns worn by Americans.
Butterelds research consisted of reading the letters and despatches of dip-
lomats, foreign ministers, and heads of state. He spent most of his time in
Cambridge looking at volumes of published letters and despatches. He went to
London for additional published materials in the library of the British Mu-
seum, and he read in the unpublished papers of the British Foreign Ofce kept
in the Public Record Ofce. On the continent he visited only Paris, where he
worked in the archives of the French Foreign Ministry. He did not go to
Vienna, Berlin, Brussels, Turin, or Rome, where he could have found other
unpublished materials useful to his topic. He was prevented from research in
Russia where the archives were closed to outsiders. Temperley arranged for
him to receive hand copies of some material from the Austrian state archives,
but, for the most part, for Europe outside France, he depended on the in-
complete and selected published documents available at home. This lack of
thoroughness reected the standards in England during the 1920s for research
in diplomatic history. Temperley attracted attention at the time for his advice
that young historians should not rest content with the printed sources alone, a
standard Ranke had articulated generations before, but he did not press the
point with Buttereld. Unlike Ranke, Buttereld and Temperley were not
innovators in archival research. In spite of his conviction that archival re-
search was the foundation of historical scholarship, Buttereld excused his
own relatively meager digging in the archives under Temperleys direction. He
stressed instead the careful integration of sources, in this case chiey printed
materials. He later disparaged those historians who by spending their energies
running to a multitude of archives . . . had left themselves no time for the
detailed collation of over-lapping sources.
We can tell from Butterelds papers that he worked hard on his research. He
himself hand copied countless documents and made endless notes on 4& 6&
cards or larger lined sheets of paper. He covered the period from January 1806
to late in 1808. He adhered strictly to the method Temperley taught him, and
he fashioned a hard commitment to the eld of diplomatic history as an
excellent discipline for the beginner in research. He rigorously followed
each series of correspondence between the government and the diplomats, one
country at a time, letter by letter, day by day, from the beginning to the end of
the events in question. Then he integrated all his notes from each series chrono-
logically and by theme in order to discern interrelationships among the various
channels of communication. Before he had nished his research he began to
write, using the act of writing as his way of comprehending the larger story. He
 Art and Science 43

wrote and rewrote repeatedly, using his lengthy typescript for the Prince Con-
sort Prize as his base. Altogether he seems to have written at least three,
perhaps four, versions under at least three titles. One version reached eight
hundred typed pages. In the process he narrowed his topic, reduced his time
period, and cut the length of the text.
The initial public product of this intensity was a brief article which the local
Cambridge Historical Journal published for him in 1927, A French Minister
at Vienna, 18061807. It was his rst publication based on historical re-
search, and again Temperley helped him. Temperley had founded the journal
in 1923 and served as permanent editor. Buttereld eventually emerged with a
book-length study of Napoleons diplomacy surrounding Tilsit in 1807. He
nished the book by mid-December 1928, and it appeared in December 1929,
not long after his thirtieth birthday. It was still a large volume of four hundred
published pages, entitled The Peace Tactics of Napoleon, 18068. It was his
second book, the second published by Cambridge University Press, and his
rst history book. Temperley had a hand in getting it published, and Tem-
perley himself proudly claimed credit for the role he played in promoting
Butterelds career.
Butterelds hefty book was all about diplomats, prime ministers, military
ofcers, emperors, and kings, and their public and secret diplomacy, the things
he felt able to extract from the diplomatic despatches and private letters. He
set October 1806 and April 1908 as his boundaries, starting with new Prus-
sian peace overtures after the victory of Napoleon at Jena, and ending with the
isolation of England from the continent. He focused on the diplomatic nego-
tiations which the powers of Europe conducted among themselves at the same
time as the allies of the Fourth Coalition fought against Napoleon to prevent
his further march across central Europe towards St. Petersburg. In all of this,
his dealt with the surface life of the political and military elite, the kinds of
activities and people which he claimed in Historical Novel that historical
study was competent to treat.
The theses he offered about his topic let us know, however, that he was
struggling to move beyond his denition of historical study and to reach below
to surface of the easily documentable high people and high events. His theses
can be analyzed according to degrees of generality and specicity. The most
general thesis of the book proposes that the diplomacy of the great powers of
Europe constituted to the inner, the essential, and the rational aspect of their
relationships, while the wars they fought simultaneously among themselves
were merely the external, the supercial, and the irrational aspect of things.
He writes, And yet the rationale of all this, the logic of this muddle and
misery, lay in the diplomacy that gave meaning to the ghting and explained
44 Art and Science

what each power was ghting for and determined how long men should go on
with the ghting. . . . What each side sought to win, out of the clash of battle,
was, in the last resort, a diplomatic advantage, a pull in negotiations. And,
since in the year 1807 the outbreak of hostilities did not destroy the thread of
negotiation, but kept it moving in unbroken sequence, the diplomatic story is
the true index of the uctuation of fortunes, the real barometer of the war; in a
way it is the essential history of the European struggle against Napoleon. For
Buttereld, diplomacy is to war as the spiritual is to the material. He xes his
attention on what he regards as the inner elements of the events.
Applied to Napoleons behaviour, Buttereld translates this general point
into the more specic thesis that Napoleon used his armies and his diplomacy
as two sides of a common strategy to promote the overall aim of achieving
ascendency in Europe, with his diplomacy having the priority. Buttereld be-
lieves that in the events before and during Tilsit Napoleon was at the height of
his power and his genius was at its nest. His diplomacy at that moment was
not an extension of his war policy, not warfare conducted by different means,
as the classic denition of diplomacy would have it. Rather, his peace tactics
were his primary instruments for advancing his imperial design, and his resort
to war was secondary.
More specically still, Buttereld argues the thesis that the system created
by the Treaty of Tilsit was the crowning achievement of Napoleons peace
tactics. Napoleon found his ally in Russia and not in Prussia as was widely
feared, and he and the czar divided the map, without Prussia, so that Napo-
leon emerged supreme in Europe while Russia won the prospect of major gains
from any future dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. The irony was that
Prussia was the one who rst suggested to the czar that he seek alliance with
Napoleon, the intention being to undercut Napoleons aggressiveness, and to
surface in the end with a three-way agreement between France, Russia, and
Prussia for the control of Europe and the partition of the Ottoman Empire.
Butterelds most specic thesis concerns the way Napoleon accomplished
his master move. The feat involved producing subtle and even unconscious
transitions in the czars attitude towards Prussia and his intentions towards
France. In a series of conversations between the two emperors, including a visit
alone on a raft in the River Niemen, Napoleon faced the czar with his determi-
nation and brought the Russian under the spell of his personality. In the end,
Buttereld contends, Napoleon lured the czar with visions which he never for
a moment intended to convert into actualities, and the czar nally surren-
dered in a way that he had not intended, to the personality of Napoleon.
Behind these historical theses lie two ideas which inuenced the character of
Butterelds interpretations, one about processes and one about human per-
 Art and Science 45

sonality. Both ideas continue what he had put forward in previous writings,
but the way he thinks of them now is modied. The rst concerns how to
understand the processes of history. In his unpublished essay on G. K. Chester-
ton he wrote about the idea he attributed to Chesterton that at any given
moment people did not know what was coming next in the course of their
lives. Now he notes another aspect of what he is coming to regarded as the
complexity of history, and he combats the view that things proceeded from
one event to another in the fashion of a simple ascending ladder. He prefers
the counter-idea that history should be seen as conict and interaction: in
reality the issue is the result of a conict of forces, and a collision of wills.
There is an interplay of personalities who themselves are not always unities,
but, repeating the conict within their own spirits, are torn with irreconcilable
moods and purposes, divided against themselves. . . . It is easy to take a short
cut with history and see things move evenly towards some great event; in
reality life is more complex. He continues to afrm Rankes notion of the
interconnectedness of history, using the metaphor of a cloth or a tapestry in
which no threads are left hanging loose.
The second is the idea of personality which had gured so importantly in
Historical Novel. There he had stressed how historical study could not ade-
quately handle human personality, since historians were prevented by the
evidence from reaching the hearts of the people they studied. Personality
was the forte of historical novelists. Now he urges that it is utterly necessary
for historians, and not just novelists, to bring the story out of the plane of
mere incident and event and to value events in their relation to an inner
experience. He posits his belief that the human personality can be understood
as a unity of the outer and the inner, an amalgam of a persons outward acts
and happenings and concrete facts and forms, and the persons inner spir-
ituality and inner mind. The inner personality holds the priority in human life,
just as diplomacy held the priority over war, and the spiritual over the mate-
rial. The difcult task for the historian, working from the evidence available,
he now asserts, is to look upon events with an inward eye. The historian
needs to move from the outer shell of the individual to the mysterious inner
world and back out again in order to produce a valid history. He adds, the
narrative must break into an essay.
After we hear his points about process and personality, we are better able to
comprehend the character of the history book that he has made out of The
Peace Tactics of Napoleon. He tells us in the preface what he has tried to do:
The story has been told with special reference to the personalities engaged in
the work of diplomacy, so that it might become apparent how much in these
Napoleonic times the course of events could be deected by the characters and
46 Art and Science

the idiosyncracies of ambassadors and ministers who were far from home. It is
intended that the result should be at least a sample picture of the Napoleonic
era, and should illustrate the strange tangle, the hidden undercurrents and the
clash of personalities, that lay behind a Napoleonic war. At the moment in
the book when he is leading up to his thesis about Tilsit, he wants us not to
miss his central contention. He understands the history of diplomacy not as
the history of institutions and abstractions, but of personalities in action: At
Tilsit one can make no mistake. Here is the play of personalities, palpable and
direct. It is not Russia that takes a course of action, like a piece of mechanical
adjustment. It is not ministers of departments who balance an impersonal
policy. It is not the government that evolves an ofcial logic. Here Russia, the
government, is a Czar, a bundle of emotions and prejudices, an accident in
human nature, and if you prick him he will bleed. . . . The whole drama is
played out on the spot. A revolution is telescoped into a few days. Everything
is determined by personalities that act upon one another immediately. But-
tereld seems to be using the idea of personality rather exibly. He appears to
mean the individual human being, composed of the spiritual and the material,
of the inner and the outer, integrated by what he calls variously the soul, the
emotions, and the mind, and expressive of such matters as spirituality, a psy-
chology, character, reason, intentions, and purposes. He deliberately refrains
from providing anything like a denition of personality, and prefers simply to
portray the personality of each main character in the story and to use the idea
of personality as his ultimate explanation of why the events went as they did in
the course of the diplomacy, especially at Tilsit. He formally states his claim
about personalities as an interpretation that is specic to Napoleons era and
the events of Tilsit. Yet unmistakably we catch a larger message, that the whole
of human history is about personalities, about the inner life and individual
people, and not simply about abstractions, forces, institutions, and systems.
Buttereld employs two literary modes in order to give us the history of
diplomacy: narrative and portraiture. He is telling us a story or, as he some-
times says, presenting a drama. The primal structure of the work is narra-
tive. Then, from time to time, he says, the narrative must break into an
essay. He stops the story long enough to present a picture of a situation
and the portrait of a personality. He depicts the situation after Jena and
the situation before Tilsit, and paints verbal portraits of Napoleon, Czar
Alexander, Baron Hardenberg, and Canning. Story and picture, drama and
portraitthese are the instruments he once said belonged to the historical
novelist. To this he has added the occasional supplementary essay on historical
thinking, halting the story long enough to contemplate his historical method
and the psychological approach he is using. He has deliberately turned his
 Art and Science 47

treatment of Napoleons diplomacy into an apologia in favour of history as the

story of personalities.
We need only step back a few feet in order to see what has happened
between Historical Novel and The Peace Tactics of Napoleon. In the interven-
ing years he has claried his thoughts about personality, and we can glimpse
this happening in his diary and his sermons. He has not abandoned his convic-
tions about personalities and the need to know whole situations and circum-
stances, and he has not abolished his purposes of going below the surface of
human events in order to penetrate the inner mysteries of life. He has not
ceased to use the metaphors of story and picture in conveying to us how we
might gain access to the inner reaches of life. But he has achieved a major
change in his thinking. He has transposed all these matters from the historical
novel to the history book, from the novelist to the historian. He has reversed
himself and asserted the primacy of history over literature. In the process he
has ceased longing for the life of the poet and the writer, and transmuted his
literary desire into the vocation of the historian.
He has not relinquished the hope of composing his history as literature,
however. He has considerably tamed his romantic style in the new book and
quite noticeably eliminated the most orid features of his writing. But he is still
the writer, writing and rewriting his prose countless times in order to perfect
his style. Many of his passages, such as some of those already examined above,
strike us as compelling and a delight to read. But there are the other passages
where, straining to be literary, he says the same thing two or three or four
times, each with a different metaphor: But one thing we knowand this we
have good reason to be sure ofthat at some point during the interviews at
Tilsit, he [Alexander] lost his grip on externalities, some mist over his eyes
blurred his vision of the objective world, and before he knew it he was back in
the sky, carried on the wings of a dream, so that the imsiest promises seemed
to him for the moment like actualities and his faith xed itself on things
unsubstantial as a cloud.
The book received mixed reviews. As a piece of writing, W. F. Reddaway, a
colleague at Cambridge, called the book distinguished as literature. Walter
Phelps Hall of Princeton University, whom Buttereld would have known
from his year there in 19241925, commented in the American Historical
Review that the book was extraordinarily well written. However, not every-
one praised his writing. For instance, the notice in the English Historical
Review complained about the overuse of inaccurate or mixed metaphors and
other blemishes of style. As a work of history, the reviewer in History
coupled it with Websters new magisterial study of Castlereagh and suggested
that both books deserved a permanent place as histories of nineteenth-century
48 Art and Science

diplomacy. In the intervening years Websters volume has achieved that posi-
tion, but not Butterelds. The book did come back into print in 1972, and it
still appears in bibliographies. The English Historical Review considered the
work skillful, especially in the subtle handling of Napoleon and Alexander at
Tilsit. However, more than one reviewer observed that his portraits of person-
alities tended to obscure his presentation of the interactions and events. Hall,
in the American Historical Review, suggested that the young historian was
himself too much under the hypnotism of Napoleon.
Perhaps the most severe criticism came from Buttereld himself, who felt
put off by the book when he had nished. However, at the end of his life, when
surveying all his writings, he claimed that he regarded The Peace Tactics of
Napoleon to be his best book. He would smile proudly when he mentioned
that Savoie Lottinville used the book as a model of historical narrative in the
twentieth century. He especially liked her praise of the dramatic opening of the
story, which she found wonderfully effective.
In doing Peace Tactics he owed precise debts to two people among all those
around him in CambridgeTemperley, of course, but also George Macaulay
Trevelyan. He mentions Temperley by name in the preface, although the refer-
ence hardly does justice to the totality of Temperleys inuence over him
still. Specically, he received the topic and the genre from Temperley, and he
learned from Temperley the methods of historical research, or more exactly
stated, he learned the methods of one style of research in one area of history.
Temperley gave him a version of Ranke that prized precise detective work on
diplomatic documents, approached by means of critical questions designed to
ascertain the truth about what actually happened. Peace Tactics of Napoleon
disclosed just how completely he had adopted Ranke in his historical thinking.
It showed in the manner and method of the book as well as in his reliance on
Rankes history of the Prussian states in the Napoleonic period.
Temperley helped Buttereld solidify his attachment to Lord Acton as well.
Given his deference to those above him socially, Buttereld was in any case
inclined towards unbounded admiration for the aristocrat in Acton. In the
context of Peace Tactics Actons stress on documentary research was impor-
tant, as was his alignment with Ranke, whom Acton had called my own
master and the real originator of the heroic study of records. But perhaps
more important was Actons emphasis on personality in history, together with
his stress on the soul, morality, and religion, all of which appeared in Actons
famous inaugural address which Buttereld knew as an undergraduate. The
role of personality in Peace Tactics, where personality and history are fully
connected, hints at the subterranean presence of Acton within Butterelds
historical thought. Indeed, Buttereld moved straight from Peace Tactics into
 Art and Science 49

a period of fundamental reection on Actons thought. Hereafter Buttereld

referred to Ranke or Acton, or both, in every work of substance as well as
countless lesser works that he produced throughout the rest of his career.
Buttereld did not mention Trevelyan, although he should have. Trevelyan
was the living exemplar of the tradition of history as literature, who had just
taken the appointment as Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge
in 1927. He arrived in time to gave Buttereld extra encouragement to write
history in a literary manner. Trevelyans inaugural address emphasized the
importance of story and the desirability of good style in history writing as well
as the importance of personality in history and the need for historians to reach
the inner life of their subjects. Butterelds own literary desires were suf-
cient to motivate his attempts to write history as literature, but Trevelyans
presence provided a boost, and in later writings he acknowledged his attach-
ment to Trevelyan and the literary tradition with its stress on both writing style
and personality. Near the end of his life he admitted that he had tried in Peace
Tactics to produce the kind of literary narrative characteristic of the great
nineteenth-century historians, above all Carlyle, whom he had cited in Histor-
ical Novel, and Thomas Babington Macaulay, Trevelyans ancestor. Trevelyan
became Butterelds literary mentor and encouraged him to keep the lineage of
history-as-literature alive. Buttereld also noted that, of all the historians in
Cambridge, he was one people regarded as perhaps the nearest to being Tre-
velyans disciple.
The completion of The Peace Tactics of Napoleon marked Butterelds full
and proper arrival as a historian. Altogether the project had taken him about
seven years. The stress and overwork conrmed him as a chain-smoker of
cigarettes, a habit he retained until late in life. He remained a teetotaler in spite
of the overwhelming weight of Peterhouse to the contrary. Soon after nishing
the book in December 1928, he received his rst appointment in the university,
a probationary faculty lecturer in history for 19291930. Once again Tem-
perley promoted his advancement, this time as a member of the appointments
committee which selected him. The new status, fragile as it sounds, offered
greater stability and more income than he had known during the previous two
years when he worked rst as an independent lecturer and then as an acting
lecturer for the college.
His new position made possible a major change in his personal life. He had
met Edith Joyce Crawshaw when he was twenty-four, before he left for Amer-
ica. The channel was his religious activities, initially a Methodist youth con-
ference at Oxford, where he became acquainted with one of her brothers,
Charles, whom everyone called Felix. When their father, a Methodist minis-
ter, took the pastorate in Cottenham, a village north of Cambridge, Herbert
50 Art and Science

visited Felix. There he would see his sister, usually known as Pamela or Pam.
She was the fourth and last child, and only daughter, of James Edward
Crawshaw and Edith Alice Harbord, born on 17 April 1903. Because the
father was a minister and, as such, an intellectual and social leader in the
congregation, Pams family would have enjoyed much higher status than Her-
berts family, but Pams family would have looked approvingly upward to
Herberts personal status as a Fellow of a Cambridge college. Pam and Herbert
corresponded while he was in Princeton, and their relationship developed into
a romance when he returned to Cambridge. She called him Bean. Herbert
apparently had known other women before, but none in this way. In spite of
his youthful resolution never to marry, he came to feel that he wanted to marry
her. He felt, however, that his meagre income at Peterhouse remained a barrier
to marriage, which led him to delay. Peterhouse reelected him a Research
Fellow in 1929, which led in 1932 to election as Internal Fellow. Peterhouse
allowed him to continue as acting lecturer in the college, and then, on top of
these, came the appointment to the university probationary lectureship. Each
position brought an income, and the combination of the three enabled him to
proceed with his plans. He and Pam were married on 29 July 1929. He was
twenty-eight and she was twenty-six.
After ten years of residence in Peterhouse, Buttereld moved out of college
and the new couple moved into a at on Fitzwilliam Street. Pams great interest
was drawing, and she became an active member of the Cambridge Drawing
Society. She tended not to have any particular interest in Herberts history
work. Nonetheless, she helped him by sometimes correcting his book proofs
and, in the 1930s and again in the 1960s and 1970s, she often typed his
papers. In general, she tolerated his increasingly excessive working schedule
and enjoyed it when his reputation increased. Their marriage led him to de-
velop a new, slightly more detached, relationship with Peterhouse.
Altogether, by 1929, it is astonishing how completely absorbed he had
become into the world of Cambridge. He had fulled his youthful aim to
become a writer, but in a manner which surprised him. He had become a
historian, a writer of history, and he was able to live on his income as a
historian. Intellectually, he had decided what kind of historian he would be,
and he had found the idea which hereafter remained the center of his under-
standing of history, the all-surpassing value of human personality in history.
He had not yet satised his aspirations about religion. His play with the idea of
personality in history and his attraction to Acton suggested that he was seek-
ing a way to connect his own unmitigated religious motivation with his career
as a historian. At the moment, however, what appeared to move Buttereld
most tangibly was not his thinking or even his vocation, but the need to
prepare his lectures.
 3

Reconciler

Reconciling Opposites
With his big book on Napoleon nished in 1929 and no major research
project on his agenda, Buttereld devoted himself to his undergraduate super-
visions in Peterhouse and his lectures in the Faculty of History. His new posi-
tion in the university History Faculty set him up for his third year of lectures,
and his fourth year on the History Faculty list. A new statute for Cambridge
University in 1926 had augmented the academic position of the university vis-
-vis the colleges, creating the Faculty of History and the position of Univer-
sity Lecturer. His name was swept on to the rst list of the reorganized History
Faculty for 19261927, one of forty-one historians attached to the university
or one of the colleges. But he had no standing that year as a lecturer in the
university or the college, and offered no lectures. Ofcially the title Research
Fellow, which he received in 1926, was a result of the new college statute
which, like every other Cambridge college, Peterhouse obtained in conjunc-
tion with the new university statute.
Butterelds career as a lecturer started a year later, 19271928, when, still
without standing, he began his lectures to undergraduates on a fee-paying
basis. From the very beginning he adopted the practice, which he maintained
throughout his career, of handwriting his lectures word for word and reading
from the manuscript to his undergraduate audience. Even as a lecturer he was

51
52 Reconciler

a writer. During Lent term 1928 he mounted a course of lectures entitled

History of England in the 18th Century, and during Easter term another
called Foreign Policy of Napoleon. His topics show that his interests had
not moved one inch from his examination elds of 1922. During 19281929,
as acting lecturer in Peterhouse, he again offered the course on eighteenth-
century England, but not the Napoleon course.
In 19291930, with his university position, Buttereld had to meet the
requirements and needs of the History Faculty, which meant new work, and a
lot of it. It fell to him to offer the traditional core set of lectures, General
European History. He ran the course at Peterhouse throughout the three
terms of the academic year. He made a much wider sweep across history than
in any of his previous lectures. He began with the Italian Renaissance, which
Cambridge traditionally dated from the foreign invasions of Italy of 1494,
and concluded in the eighteenth century, traditionally in 1715 after the Treaty
of Utrecht.
The lectures altered his intellectual focus. He encountered for the rst time
the problems of constructing general history. After seven years of intensive
study of documents in diplomatic history covering a brief stretch of eighteen
months in the career of one man, he now had to offer generalizations at a very
high level of abstraction about the history of many nations over a period of
more than two centuries. The problems involved in producing such lectures
intrigued him. He turned his mind away from research and mused theoretically
about doing general history. He thought about the strategies that historians use
to grasp the complexity of history, the structure that they give to their narra-
tives, the metaphors they use to represent the conicts of history, and other
issues. He devoted himself utterly to the work and wrote out his lectures in full.
Even prior to this year he had toiled long hours every day in order to complete
all his tasks, but now he made it his habit to work late into the night and resume
early in the morning. He had to hope that Pam would learn to accommodate
his schedule, which she did. His efforts pleased his students and impressed his
colleagues, and he won appointment as a full University Lecturer in History for
19301931. Temperley once again played his protector and advocate as a
member of the appointments committee that nominated him.
In the middle of his initial reections on the problems of general history, he
turned his mind to some of the general historical questions raised by two
notable Cambridge historians. He contemplated the differences between the
approaches of George Macaulay Trevelyn, the current Regius Professor of
Modern History, and J. B. Bury, who had held the Regius chair from 1902 to
1927, between Lord Actons tenure and Trevelyans. Bury presided over Cam-
bridge historians during that period. Burys ideas intrigued Temperley, who
 Reconciler 53

put together a book of Burys essays which he published in 1930. Temperleys

promotion of Bury in this manner carried with it added poignancy, as a strike
against Trevelyan and the appointment system. The Crown had bypassed
Temperley in naming Trevelyan to succeed Bury in the Regius chair, astound-
ing Buttereld and all the others who had assumed that Temperley had earned
the appointment. In the English system where professorships were few, the
status attached to them was exorbitantly high, and the Regius chair was the
highest of the high. The university acted quickly to create a new chair in order
to compensate Temperley, and in 1930 he became the rst Professor of Mod-
ern History. The whole episode stirred Butterelds interest in Bury, who had
held the Regius chair during Butterelds rst eight years in Cambridge.
Burys essays appeared to assert a position just the opposite of Trevelyans
patronage of history as literature and the story of personalities. Burys inaugu-
ral in 1902 championed history as a science. While not denying the impor-
tance of personalities or the value of good narrative, Bury argued that history
was best understood as a species of science, not literature. By science he meant
something more than the Rankean tradition of precise research and careful
criticism of documents. Bury urged that the best way to achieve understanding
of human actions was to penetrate the surface of events and reach into the
underlying realm of laws in history, the king of which was the law of cause and
effect. The method of the historian would be to arrange the data of research in
series of events, with the events linked to each other in chains of cause and
effect. Each series constituted a process. He believed that by establishing
events in relation to the law of cause and effect the historian would achieve
scientic explanation within historical study. In later years Bury modied his
emphasis and, while not revising his view of laws, showed himself more in-
trigued by the problem of the intersection, or the conjunction, of the chains of
cause and effect. Taken separately, each series of events might appear to ex-
hibit sequences of cause and effect, but when two or more series intersected,
cause and effect seemed to vanish, and the consequences would appear hap-
hazard. The conjunction of such series of events Bury attributed to chance,
and he referred to the complexity that surrounded such conjunctions as con-
ditioning circumstances.
Buttereld felt the pull of something true in what Bury wrote, just as he did
with the ideas of Trevelyan, but he also disliked elements of the thought of
both historians. He wished to reconcile the two apparently opposing posi-
tions. He already had the experience of using what he called his stereoscopic
vision on the religious options that he encountered during his undergraduate
days when none of the available versions of Christianity satised him. He had
the same experience with the political options confronting him left and right.
54 Reconciler

He found it hard to say a straightforward yes or no to the views advocated by

others. By now it began to look as if he had elevated the intuitive use of
stereoscopic vision into a method. It was a dialectic method, a way of reconcil-
ing opposites and creating a higher unity. Rather than choosing simply for one
side against another, he would intuitively allow himself to be attracted to each
conicting view in turn, and then to dissent from what he felt were the errors
and exaggerations of each in turn. He would then reconcile the residue of
truths on all sides and, at the end, dissent from all sides, formulating his own
conclusions at a higher level of integration. His reconciling method had af-
nities with the via media of Anglican theology and practice, the deliberate
incorporation of the best in opposing positions while creating a higher and
more comprehensive way to walk.
At the same time, Buttereld found a method which allowed him to carry on
his own new thinking, a way of thinking by writing. He would try to clarify his
views of the ideas swirling around him by writing out his thoughts on sheets of
paper. He produced what we might call thought-essays, mostly incomplete,
in which he spontaneously wrote out what he was thinking about some matter.
These thoughts took the form of coherent prose, some only a few lines long,
others extending to several pages. He would often write down his thoughts in
this fashion while reading a book or essay, or after a conversation with another
scholar. His diary indicates he spent much time during 19281930 talking
with Alfred Nock, a classicist, and Michael Oakeshott, a philosopher, both
young Fellows at the time in Cambridge. He would pile up these little thought-
essays by the scores. He apparently retained none of those from the late 1920s
and 1930s, but hundreds of them remain from 1931 onward.
The engagement with Burys views about the process of history compelled
him to move intellectually. By 1930, using his newly emerging methods, But-
tereld came to some conclusions about history that took him beyond the
thought underlying his The Peace Tactics of Napoleon. He began with the
emphasis he shared with Trevelyan on personalities and narrative. Then he
adopted elements of Burys views, appropriately modied, about process, con-
ditioning circumstances, and the conjunction of events. Buttereld could feel
that Burys thought on these themes comported well with things he had been
saying since Historical Novel about historical conditions and combinations of
circumstance. He also felt that Burys ideas coincided with a trend present in
his own thought since around 1925, a trend which already involved him in a
criticism of Trevelyan. At about that time, before Trevelyan returned to Cam-
bridge, Buttereld presented a paper at Jesus College, Cambridge, on Charles
James Fox and 1792. It was the rst time he ventured to give a paper outside
Peterhouse. The paper touched on Trevelyan. He accused Trevelyan of distort-
 Reconciler 55

ing the political views of Fox and other gures he discussed in his book Lord
Grey of the Reformed Bill, published in 1920. He claimed that Trevelyan
failed sufciently to understand the views and politics of Lord Grey in Greys
own context because he interpreted Grey too much in the light of the present.
By 1930 Buttereld was no longer thinking about Trevelyan as such, but
about Lord Acton. He had begun to see Acton as the problem and not Tre-
velyan. Acton, he thought, went far beyond Trevelyan in taking what he ap-
proved in the present as the standard for the interpretation of all history. The
views which agitated Buttereld were those contained in Actons inaugural
address of 1895, a text Buttereld must by now have known by heart. Acton
claimed that the unity of modern history lay in the achievement of liberty. By
liberty Acton made clear that he meant the political, religious, and eco-
nomic forms in his own day admired by those who named their creed liberal-
ism. Acton believed that knowledge of the slow progress of liberty towards
this approved present was what he called a work-day key to history. With
this key he could discern the advance of civilisation and the improvement
of the world, all of which he attributed to the action of Christ and the
wisdom of divine rule. He spoke in particular of the progress of the world
towards self-government. He continued, And this constancy of progress, of
progress in the direction of organised and assured freedom, is the characteris-
tic fact of modern history, and its tribute to the theory of Providence.
Buttereld became perhaps even more exercised over Actons pronounce-
ments on history and morality. Acton enjoined historians to issue moral judg-
ments against the people and their actions in the past. Both in the inaugural
address and in a famous exchange of letters with Mandell Creighton in 1887,
when Creighton was Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical History at Cambridge
and editor of the English Historical Review, Acton made extravagant state-
ments in favour of the historian as moralist. In the inaugural he spoke memo-
rably and with fervour as he admonished historians to engage in moral judg-
ments against both people and causes: But the weight of opinion is against me
when I exhort you never to debase the moral currency or to lower the standard
of rectitude, but to try others by the nal maxim that governs your own lives,
and to suffer no man and no cause to escape the undying penalty which history
has the power to inict on wrong. In the Creighton letters he warned of the
consequences resulting from any compromise by historians of what he called
the inexible integrity of the moral code. He added, Then history ceases to
be a science, an arbiter of controversy, a guide of the wanderer, the upholder of
that moral standard which the powers of earth, and religion itself, tend con-
stantly to depress. It serves where it ought to reign; and it serves the worst
better than the purest. Buttereld had been struggling with Acton on moral
56 Reconciler

judgments since at least 1924, as his diary attests. In 1930 he found Actons
proclamations especially troublesome.

Whigs
Buttereld meditated often during 1930 and 1931 on questions raised
by his lectures on general history as well as by his encounters with Bury,
Trevelyan, and Acton. He put his immediate responses into his thought-
essays, some long, some short, and the number of thought-essays added up.
He collated some of his thought-essays into a longer essay and allowed Vella-
cott to read it and no one else. Vellacott vigorously urged him to published the
essay. He rewrote again, expanded it, and nally took what he had to G. Bell
and Sons in London, one of Temperleys publishers. Bell liked it. In the fall of
1931, shortly after Buttereld turned thirty-one, his essay appeared as a little
book of 132 pages, wearing the curious title The Whig Interpretation of His-
tory. He dedicated it to Vellacott.
In the essay, Buttereld takes care to characterize his intentions about the
genre of the book so that people might understand him rightly. He says it is
simply a study, a study of what he calls the psychology of historians. He
acknowledges that it contains theses, but he denies that the work has any
connection with philosophy of history. He offers no philosophical description
or analysis, and his theses, he said, with a gratuitous swat at philosophy,
would be unaffected by anything the philosopher could state to explain them
or to explain them away. We might go further to observe that the work
belongs to the tradition of the university prize essay, of which he had written a
few in his time, except that now he was too far along in his career to submit the
product to any competition. It was the rst completed essay which he wrote
entirely on his own initiative.
There is more to his statement about eschewing philosophical analysis than
the historians traditional distrust, or dislike, of philosophers. We may surmise
from his text that he is distancing himself from at least two schools of philoso-
phy broadly familiar to him: the English analytic school, which focused on
language and logic, and the tradition associated loosely with Hegel, which
looked for the movements of spirits in history, spoke in terms of universals,
and devised rational deductions from general principles. His protestations
against the Hegelian school are not entirely convincing, since he included in
the essay an ample share of spirits and ideals and universals and general
principles. He does well to draw away from the new analytic philosophy of
history, however. That school would trash the essay. When we read Whig
Interpretation we nd little argument and his writing is disconnected, ram-
 Reconciler 57

bling, vague, often confusing. He makes assertions, not arguments, and he

makes his assertions indirectly, by prefacing each one with apparently unasser-
tive language. Page after page carries expressions like these: there is at least a
chance that, it might be true to say that, it is not a mere coincidence that,
it is difcult to see that, it is not malicious to suggest that, we may
suspect that, and so on. It is a style that avoids saying things straightfor-
wardly, not because he has inadequate warrant for his assertions, but because
he does not want to overstate, or to offend, or to seem to judge. He expresses
his points in metaphors. As in his earlier writings, he uses metaphor to be
literary, and once again we nd him overdoing the effort. He says the same
thing two or three times, each with a different metaphor, and sometimes
working a metaphor too long and too hard, turning metaphors into agents and
explanations. Here is a sample:
It seems possible to say that if we are seeking to discover how the medieval
world was changed into the world that we know, we must go behind Protes-
tantism and the Reformation to a deeper tide in the affairs of men, to a
movement which we may indeed discern but can scarcely dogmatise about,
and to a prevailing current, which, though we must never discover it too soon,
is perhaps the last thing we can learn in our research upon the historical
process. It does seem for example that before the Reformation some wind had
set itself to play on the side of kings, and in many a country a hundred
weather-vanes, on steeple and on mansion, on college and on court, had
turned before the current to show that the day of monarchy had come. . . .
Further it is possible to say that when there is such a tide in the affairs of men,
it may use any channel to take it to its goalit may give any other movement
a turn in its own direction. For some reason Renaissance and Reformation
and rising Capitalism were made to work to the glory of kings.

There are close to no normal supports for what he saysno footnotes, almost
no quotations or examples, and very few references to historians who were
attached to the political alliances that in the late seventeenth, eighteenth, and
early nineteenth centuries went by the title Whig, in contrast with those called
Tories. Thirty years later E. H. Carr had great fun at Butterelds expense in
making this observation.
The cumulative effect of Whig Interpretation of History can be infuriating.
Annabel Patterson experienced it as a tirade. We cannot be sure we know
what he means to say and with whom he wants to disagree, and as a conse-
quence we often nd his thought difcult to criticize. Nonetheless, the book
also comes across as charming, and Buttereld wins his readers over to his
side. We can even nd the critic who believes that his analytical terms are
very clear, and for a historian, extraordinarily exact. The medium is strictly
58 Reconciler

Buttereldian. When we nish reading the essay we are sure that we have
experienced a distinctive and compelling personality.
Buttereld may not want to attach Whig Interpretation to philosophy of
history, but he treats topics that historians, if not analytic philosophers, would
associate with philosophy of history, particularly with what we call historiog-
raphystudies produced by historians about historical discourse and the
character of historical events and processes. The essay is written by a histo-
rian, addressed to historians, and designed to discuss things historians rou-
tinely deal with. The topics he raises are manythe interpretation of history,
the marks of historical study, the structure and conjunctions of history, the
relations of past and present, conditioning circumstances and events, person-
alities in history, the gap between research and the writing of general history,
and the problem of making moral judgments. As a genre of writing about
history, the essay belongs with Historical Novel and the little supplementary
essays on historical thinking inserted into Peace Tactics of Napoleon.
Whig Interpretation displays Buttereld as the critic of a tradition, a tradi-
tion dominant in English historiography and taken for granted. Indeed it was
the very historical tradition in which he had been raised from his youth. The
book is not a work of detached scholarship, but an attack upon a way of
understanding history that he considers untrue. Buttereld is the dissenter. In
his characteristically imprecise words, he names his target: the whig inter-
pretation of history in what I conceive to be the accepted meaning of the
phrase. He adds, At least it covers all that is ordinarily understood by the
words, though possibly it gives them also an extended sense. As far as we can
see, however, that name was not widely circulated currency at the time. When
we crack his language open, we realize that he is telling us candidly that by his
assemblage of the components of his target he had invented the Whig inter-
pretation of history. And when we amass everything that he designates by
that name, we understand that he has criticized not any one school of histor-
ical thought, but a whole way of constructing history. Here is the closest he
comes to a denition of what he wishes to attack: What is discussed is the
tendency of many historians to write on the side of Protestants and Whigs, to
praise revolutions provided they have been successful, to emphasize certain
principles of progress in the past and to produce a story which is the ratica-
tion if not the glorication of the present. A little further along he writes, It
is astonishing to what an extent the historian has been Protestant, progressive,
and whig, and the very model of the 19th century gentleman. The essay is
unrelenting in its assault on an alliance within historical writing of a particular
kind of religion, politics, and social hegemony. The conguration that he
labels the Whig interpretation rested on the rendering of the history of En-
 Reconciler 59

gland as the irresistible triumph of civil and religious liberty, a discourse bene-
cial to the upper classes. Michael Bentley observed that Butterelds charge
ngered a theme common to a huge mass of English historical writing, and
discounted as secondary any differences and variation to be found there.
There were readers who understood the work as simply anti-Whig, an at-
tack against Whigs by someone who is not a Whig, perhaps a Tory attack in
the tradition of David Hume. This is the reading Annabel Patterson gave the
book. Indeed there is a blatantly anti-Whig sound to the essay. Buttereld
much later would admit that he was in an anti-Whig phase at the time. It is
tempting to think that Buttereld has in mind Rankes own campaign against
Whiggism in English historical writing as instantiated by Thomas Babing-
ton Macaulays History of England from the Accession of James the Second in
six volumes (18481861). The politically conservative Ranke felt pushed by
what he regarded as Macaulays narrow Whiggism to write his own six-
volume version, A History of England Principally in the Seventeenth Century
(1875).
However, the more we read the more we realize that Buttereld is actually
attracted to the very people he attacks. He is ambivalent towards the histo-
rians of an earlier time who were political Whigs. His criticisms are there, to be
sure, but they are the criticisms of a line of thought with which he has very
close connections. He is, for instance, a Protestant, he is more progressive than
conservative, he is attached to a college modeled on the life of the nineteenth-
century gentleman. But is he Whig?
When the book appeared, Charles Smyth, a historian in Cambridge, an
Anglican cleric, and, according to Buttereld, a hard-headed Tory, told
Buttereld that it offered no consolation for conservative proponents of a Tory
interpretation of history. Smyth observed that the proper title for the book
would have been An Appeal from the Old Whigs to the New. The allusion is to
the title of a celebrated essay by Edmund Burke, An Appeal from the New to
the Old Whigs. Burke was rejecting the New Whigs of his day, notably Charles
James Fox, whom he regarded as too liberal, and appealing from their mis-
taken views to the original tradition. By reversing the gures in Burkes title,
Smyth signied the young historians Whig afnities, and suggested that But-
tereld had written as the New Whig who sought to improve the old tradition.
Buttereld accepted the point. He commented, I am complainingat least
I am complaining that the Whigs are not liberal enough, you see. They dont
extend to Tories in the past the same techniques of human comprehension that
they are willing to extend to the Whigs in the past. Here we have the clue to
Butterelds perspective in The Whig Interpretation of History. He wrote to
reconstruct the tradition, not to revert to an older stage of the tradition,
60 Reconciler

and not to defeat it. Fox, not Burke. Buttereld emerges as the twentieth-
century New Whig.
Butterelds afnities with the Whig tradition become even clearer to us
when we realize who he had most in mind to criticize when writing the essay.
At the time, and until the end of his life, Buttereld would say, when asked,
that the aim of his attack was a defect found in the works of a whole body of
writers of history, and not any particular person. In Whig Interpretation, he
referenced the magisterial books by great patriarchs of history-writing and
the school textbooks by lesser gures that shaped the interpretation of British
history conveyed to the young. Of the great patriarchs, Macaulay would
readily come to mind, as Michael Stanford suggested, and we can imagine the
histories Buttereld found on his fathers shelves at home, the cast-offs from
the wealthy mill owner in Oxenhope.
Having thus fueled the gossip, Buttereld would then go on to admit that his
special target was Lord Acton. Indeed, we can feel the personality of Acton in
passage after passage of the book. But, as if he nally sensed that we would
want to be told outright, Buttereld acknowledged the role of Acton near the
end of the book in his characteristically indirect fashion: It might be true to
say that in Lord Acton the whig historian reached his highest conscious-
ness. By now Buttereld was intellectually bound to Acton, but he felt he
still had to deal with the elements in Acton that troubled him, above all the
issues of religion and morality in history. For Buttereld personally, Whig
Interpretation was the public display of his inner struggle with Acton, driven
by his compulsion to purify and improve on Acton. The connection between
Acton and the discourse Buttereld styled as Whig strikes us as odd only
because Acton differed so radically from the historian-type Buttereld pro-
fessed to be discussing. Acton was a Roman Catholic through and through,
and Roman Catholics are not Protestants; he was a new nineteenth-century
Liberal, and not an antiquarian seventeenth- and eighteenth-century political
Whig; and he was an aristocrat, much more than a mere nineteenth-century
gentleman. Moreover, as Roland Hill noted, Acton himself, while not quib-
bling over whether he was a Whig or Liberal, rmly believed that he had a
universal view, and atly rejected any suggestion that he espoused narrow
Whiggism on English history. Acton exactly matched Butterelds deni-
tion on one point only: he was a believer in the progress of liberty.
Buttereld found the empirical basis for Whig Interpretation in his own
experience of detailed historical research and especially in the subject matter
of his lectures and teaching. For instance, Napoleon gets a long section near
the end of the book. His old favourites, Sir Walter Scott and Thomas Carlyle,
are there. From his eighteenth-century studies there are Charles James Fox,
 Reconciler 61

William Pitt the younger, and Edmund Burke, the Magna Carta dear to Whigs,
the historian Henry Hallam as the chief Tory interpreter of the British political
tradition, and the historian Edward Gibbon as the cynic against Christianity.
Nicol Machiavelli is there from the Italian Renaissance.
But these are not the big references. The running illustrations throughout
the work, the themes preoccupying him, are the religious conicts of the six-
teenth century in England and France, the work of Martin Luther and John
Calvin, and the question of religious liberty and toleration. His treatment of
these themes derives directly from his lectures on general European history
and the need to work out his interpretation of the Protestant Reformation. We
nd him making some reference to early Christianity, coming straight from the
teaching he was still doing on the side at Wesley House. He had been teaching
Methodist ministerial students in supervisions since 1922. The intensity and
persistence which mark his attention to religious and moral questions betray a
profound personal involvement. His struggle with Acton entails working out
his own interpretation of religion and the moral questions pertinent to histor-
ical study. He is wondering whether he can unify his powerful religious moti-
vations with his work as historian.
According to Buttereld, the Whig historians committed a fundamental
mistake in the way they understood the course of human history. They studied
the past for the sake of the present. What historians ought to do is to study
the past for the sake of the past. The point came straight from Ranke, which
Buttereld would have absorbed within Peterhouse from both Adolphus Ward
and Harold Temperley. All other difculties with the Whig view of history
derive from this basic defect. In a moment of overstatement which we might
excuse as poetic, he writes, The study of the past with one eye, so to speak,
upon the present is the source of all sins and sophistries in history. Butter-
eld seems unperturbed by the imprecision and ambiguities of the phrase for
the sake of the past. We cannot be certain that he did not mean, for example,
things such as that historians should work for the benet of the past, or for the
honour of the past, or on account of the past, or in fullment of the wishes of
the past, although such meanings would make little sense. At rst glance we
easily notice the continuities between what he says now and the view he
expressed in Historical Novel. There he asserted that the historian by profes-
sion should be wedded to romanticism and love the past for its own sake, in
the sense of trying to live in the past or relive the past. Certainly he remains the
romantic, and he easily drops a reference in his text to the romance of histor-
ical research. But he has taken his thinking to another level of analysis in
which his interest is not rst of all romanticism, but the task of constructing
historical study and understanding the workings of historical process. He has
62 Reconciler

left literature almost entirely behind, and he has even let go of research for the
moment. He has refocused on the problems of historical thinking and, more
exactly, how historians create their discourse. We can gather more of his
meaning when we think with him along such lines, keeping in mind that
systematic clarity was not his intent.
By charging the anonymous Whig historians with failing to study history for
the sake of the past, Buttereld sounds as if he wants to polarize past and
present and opt for the one against the other. It would be easy to accuse him of
creating a false dilemma between past and present, and in his actual state-
ments he probably does. On closer reading, however, we nd that his message
is more subtle and complex than that. He can notice several strata. He is partly
raising the question of emphasis in relating past and present. He does not
complain that Whig historians and their history are inuenced by present
considerations, and he does not insist that present matters do not or should
not impinge upon how historians understand the past. Indeed, he explicitly
allows for the legitimate, albeit limited, function of the present in our study of
the past. He has in mind especially being fully aware of the impact and im-
plications of our orientation to the present, and of the need to put our ac-
counts of the past into terms which we can understand today. His objection
is that Whig historians study the past with direct and perpetual reference to
the present. They overemphasize the present in their historical thinking and
they organize their scheme of history from the point of view of [their] own
day. Many years later, still thinking about how English historians read the
Magna Carta, he summarized his point: And nothing is more plausible to the
unthinking than a past that has been made to appear like the world that they
know in their own lifetime.
Using a term not in Butterelds vocabulary we might say, with David
Hackett Fischer, that Whiggish historians commit the presentistic fallacy.
Whiggish history commits the fallacy of presentism. Another term might be
anachronism, a term Buttereld does use, although there may be some sense
and some settings in which anachronism might be technically unavoidable, as
both P. B. M. Blaas and Marshall Poe suggested, in so far as historians must
utilize their own language to access the past. Still another term, suggested by
J. C. D. Clark and Kevin Sharpe, might be teleology. Whig history is teleologi-
cal history.
Buttereld means much more than this, however. In the rst place, accord-
ing to Buttereld, the Whig historians turn our present into an absolute to
which all other generations are merely relative. In this manner they construct
their history to support the causes and achievements which they approve in
English history, such as representative parliaments and what they counted as
 Reconciler 63

religious liberty. The effect is simply partisan history which classies the peo-
ple of the past into those who furthered the course of progress to the approved
state of affairs in the present and those who hindered it. In a balanced view of
past and present, studying the past for the sake of the past would mean, rather,
seeking simply to understand the past, without a primary agenda in the pres-
ent. If this is all there were to it, however, the point would sound innocuous
and lose the need for all the energy Buttereld puts into it.
There are indeed other strata to Butterelds complaint against the Whig
view of history. By studying the past for the sake of the present the Whig
historians stress the likenesses between the past and present, nding roots
and anticipations and origins of the present in the past. On rst reading
Buttereld appears merely to invert the Whigs and to choose for the un-
likenesses instead. But when we look more carefully, we nd him suggesting
that historians ought to be more astute than this.
Although he does not say so bluntly, his words amount to the message that
past and present are marked by both likenesses and unlikenesses. Without the
likenesses between human beings and situations of any era we could not enter
into worlds and lives different from our own. But without careful attention to
the unlikenesses we destroy the particularity and validity of the past. As a
matter of strategy, Buttereld posits that historians ought to look rst of all for
unlikenesses between now and then and to see the past as if it were a foreign
country. The chief function of historians, he asserts, is to mediate between
other generations and our own. The aim is to seek to understand the past, to
comprehend the actions and beliefs of the people in the past so well that they
begin to seem plausible. Instead of asking How did religious liberty arise?
and supplying an answer which retraces the path from then to an outcome we
now approve, historians should ask why men in those days were so given to
persecution.
By putting things this way, Buttereld unwittingly illustrates the difculty of
satisfying his own criterion. He does not seem to realize that to use the word
persecution to name certain things people did in the past is to interpret those
actions from the standpoint of what he today would call religious liberty.
The authorities of the past whom he calls persecutors did not in the least
regard their deeds as persecution, as harm done to others because of their
religion. Rather, they construed their deeds as salvic acts which preserved the
true religion and which might work to save the souls of others from eternal
perdition.
Butterelds problem with the role of the present in the Whig historians
goes further, to an understanding of how things change and the causes of the
changes, to a knowledge of the transitions of history. Buttereld charges that
64 Reconciler

Whig historians oversimplify the course of change and causation by drawing

straight lines from specic events and people in the past to something or other
in the present, like the supposed line which leads through Martin Luther and
a long succession of whigs to modern liberty. He can detect his struggle with
Lord Actons interpretation of the history of liberty as a work-day key to
history.
In reality, says Buttereld, the course of history is crooked and immeasur-
ably complex: It is not by a line but by a labyrinthine piece of network that
one would have to make the diagram of the course by which religious liberty
has come down to us, for this liberty comes by devious tracks and is born of
strange conjunctures, it represents purposes marred perhaps more than pur-
poses achieved, and it owes more than we can tell to many agencies that had
little to do with either religion or liberty.
Looking into the labyrinth just a little, he observes that the process of
history divides into levels and runs in currents. His observation is not precise,
and he speaks in metaphors. Events and the actions of personalities are visible
at the top, while underneath the surface, stirring at numerous gradations of
depths, are broader and slower movements in history, all of which operate in
ways interrelated with and inseparable from the whole. The process moves
by means of the clash of wills and the interplay of countless personalities, but
also by the intersection of numberless conditioning circumstances. The pro-
cess is loosely predictable only in the smallest and most proximate details, but
unpredictable in the larger scale of things. Results emerge that probably no
man ever willed and which turn human purposes to ends not realized.
Butterelds thinking shows him holding tight to the basic effectiveness of
individual personalities in history while also trying to found a place for the
apparently impersonal forces and tendencies of history. In a reference to the
traditional view that we should use history to teach lessons, a line of thought
which we would expect him generally to oppose, he pauses to comment that
perhaps the greatest lesson of history would be simply that history as a whole
is utterly complex and unpredictable. He might also have added the lesson he
seems continually to learn about the primary role of personality in history. We
can detect the continuity of his thinking about interaction in history with
the way he spoke in Peace Tactics of Napoleon, but now he wants to raise the
complexity of history to the nth degree and, next to personality, add the
element of impersonality in history.
Butterelds suggestions about past and present and the process of history
lead him to think about causation. We can see him picking up Bury, turning
Burys proposals in a different direction. If historians are to speak of causes
 Reconciler 65

and effects, he says, they cannot isolate chains of events extending over peri-
ods of time which intersect only here and there. Again and again he stresses the
complexity of history and repeatedly uses the metaphor of entanglement.
Any particular action of any single person is immediately involved with a vast
network of other actions by other people, all of which conditions all of what is
to happen next. Historians may be able to trace the sequence of events from
one generation to another, but they should not seek to draw the incalculably
complex diagram of causes and effects forever interlacing down to the third
and fourth generations. The reference is against Bury, and he takes over
nothing of Burys talk about laws in history.
Buttereld summarizes his alternative view of causation in a striking way:
It is nothing less than the whole of the past, with its complexity of movement,
its entanglement of issues, and its intricate interactions, which produced the
whole of the complex present; and this, which is itself an assumption and not a
conclusion of historical study, is the only safe piece of causation that a histo-
rian can put his hand upon, the only thing which he can positively assert about
the relationship between past and present.
In the broadest sense, it is hard to dispute Butterelds assertionthe whole
past produces the whole presentand the grandeur of the scale of his vision is
awesome. But if what he proposes is merely an assumption and not in some
crucial sense also a result of historical study, we wonder why anyone should
agree with him. He seems close to being overwhelmed by the massiveness and
the complexity of history. He is prepared to abandon causation as a worth-
while category for historians. In the face of such a history, all that historians
can do effectively is to unfold the whole story and reveal the complexity by
telling it in detail. If historians are to hang on to explanation in any sense at
all, this would be it. The last word of the historian would be to give a piece
of detailed research. He later won support for this point from a surprising
source, the analytic philosopher John Passmore. Buttereld would reject cau-
sation but hold fast to research and narration, which together would provide
all the explanation we need.
Buttereld did not consider the argument that retreating to research and
narration does not exempt historians from dealing with the factors and results
to which people refer when they speak of causes and effects. It merely
pushes the problem out of consciousness and forces historians to posit causa-
tion without thinking about it. Moreover, he did not take up the point that if
the problem is the sheer immensity and the complexity of things, then even the
most detailed history that historians could construct captures at best a min-
uscule fraction of the numberless details of what goes on in human existence.
66 Reconciler

Historians are no better equipped to recount the innity of details of the

transition from the whole past to the whole present than to delineate the
causes and effects involved.
Buttereld takes a step further still in his thinking about the Whig historians
who study the past for the sake of the present. He draws a distinction between
historical study as researched history and as general history. He observes that
the defect of the Whig historians seems most severe when they embark on
general history. When operating on the broad scale of general history they tend
to do history for the sake of the present. By contrast, the fallacy seems to
disappear, or nearly so, when historians go to their microscopes to conduct
detailed historical research, the very thing they are vocationally suited to do.
Historical study is properly a strictly limited undertaking which uses sources
and weighs evidence in order to give attention to the particular, the tangible,
the concrete. Historical study should keep clear of the generalizing domains of
religion, morality, politics, and philosophy, and stand impartial among their
various claims. Unlike these other domains, historical study should abstain
from proffering general truths and general propositions which profess to have
universal validity. Historical study, like travel writing, is a form of description
whose subject is the events of the external world with all the relevant accidents
and conjunctures included. These are the things he is now associating with a
loose notion of science in historical study. The marvel of it all, he asserts, is
that when historians conduct their detailed research and engage in their de-
scriptions they tend willy-nilly to study the past for the sake of the past.
Buttereld then adds a long passage on the creative use by historians of
imagination, what he calls variously historical imagination or imaginative
sympathy or insight and sympathy and imagination. This imagination
brings colour and passion to the study of history and enables historians to
achieve understanding of the past. It gives expression to historical study as a
venture of the personality, involving the feelings and giving aesthetic delight,
and it permits historians to recapture the richness of the moments and the
humanity of men. Buttereld afrms that imagination belongs to historical
study, and reafrms that he has transposed to historians and historical study
the basic features which he used to attribute to the novelist and literature.
These descriptive and imaginative functions seem, in Butterelds thought, to
correspond to what he was calling the outer and inner aspects of history and
human personality.
The problem does not go away in detailed research, however. Buttereld
observes that the Whiggish historians always carry their interpretation of the
course of the ages and their orientation towards the present around in their
heads. They hold their mental presumptions about history when they com-
 Reconciler 67

mence their detailed research. Then they momentarily let go of them as they
become absorbed in their detailed research. But as soon as they collect their
ndings they remember their initial presumptions and simply t their ndings
into the preexisting bigger story of the ages. Buttereld is still trying to hold
onto a space amid the details for Whig-free historiography. But he overreaches
himself. If the power of the historians presumptions of general history is as
great as he admits, we may expect to see them operate, however subtly, even
on the microscopic level.
Butterelds antidote to the afiction of the Whig fallacy is to operate on
two fronts simultaneously. On the one hand, historians should always aim to
move from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete.
On the other hand, they should construct better general histories and learn the
art of the abridgment of history. He does not go so far as to suggest that
general history is inherently defective in the Whiggish manner. Rather, he
posits that it is possible to achieve good abridgments. Whatever their length,
good abridgments would give faithful impressions of the complexity of
interrelations of all the detail and would eschew the selection of facts in
accordance with some abstract principle. Buttereld takes a lengthy excursus
to talk about how to abridge history and in the process adds a new element to
his thinking about historical study. Good abridgment would respond to the
results of detailed research and would yield a continuous revision of our gen-
eral interpretation of history.
So far the complaints we have seen Buttereld hurl against the Whig histo-
rians are the many parts of his claim that they distort history by studying the
past for the sake of the present and not for the sake of the past. When we read
Buttereld more closely, however, we notice that he makes another claim. The
Whig historical defect rests on a fundamental aw in religion and morality.
With this clue in mind, we begin to notice his discourse about religion and
morality everywhere in the book. The opening pages of the introduction and
the entire concluding chapter wrap the essay in a discussion of morality and re-
ligion. The heart of the concluding chapter features his personal struggle with
Lord Acton. And running through the essay from beginning to end are re-
peated references to religion and morality. On reection, we understand that
he does not offer the passages on religion and morality as mere appendages to
his thought about history. We may say that his historical thinking and his
religious and moral thought depend on each other, even though we detect a
strong and enduring tension between the two. We perceive him to be involved
in a new phase in his struggle to integrate his own religion and his vocation
as historian.
From the point of view of morality, the fundamental fault of the Whig
68 Reconciler

historians, Buttereld tells us, is that they attempt to act as judges of history
and thereby to give to historical study a nality it does not warrant. This, for
Buttereld, is the problem of moral judgments in history. On this issue Acton
stands in the centre of Butterelds horizon. But with this theme in mind it is
easy to look past Acton to the general tradition that enveloped European
historical writing as a whole, including Acton himself.
Ranke identied the tradition: historys task is to judge. In his rst book,
The Histories of the Latin and Germanic Nations, published in 1824, Ranke
wrote the most famous statement of his long career. Seeking to break with the
tradition, he claried his design: The book seeks to comprehend all these and
other related events in the history of the Latin and Germanic nations as a unity.
History has had assigned to it the ofce of judging the past and of instructing
the present for the benet of the future ages. To such high ofces the present
work does not presume: it seeks only to show what actually happened [wie es
eigentlich gewesen]. We can see Buttereld taking the side of Ranke against
Acton, even as Buttereld binds himself to both Acton and Ranke. For Ranke,
as for Buttereld after him, the rejection of history as judge is contained in the
afrmation of history as an act of self-limitation, which becomes, in Butter-
elds idiom, history as science.
It is not easy to understand precisely what Buttereld means by moral judg-
ments in history and what admonition he wants to offer on the subject, for,
unlike Ranke, he goes on at great length to complicate the matter. But the gist
of his message is unmistakable. The Whig historians distort history by the
dispensing of moral judgments upon people or upon actions in retrospect.
Midway through the essay he states his position succinctly: Behind all the
fallacies of the whig historian there lies the passionate desire to come to a
judgment of values, to make history answer questions and decide issues and to
give the historian the last word in a controversy. He imagines that he is in-
conclusive unless he can give a verdict; and studying Protestant and Catholic
in the 16th century he feels that loose threads are still left hanging unless he
can show which party was in the right. In the nal chapter, on the theme of
moral judgments in history, he adds, His [the whig historians] concern with
the sphere of morality forms, in fact, the extreme point in his desire to make
judgments of value, and to count them as the verdict of history. He then lays
out quotations from Actons inaugural address and the letters to Creighton.
The Whig historian, he observes, plays the avenger and the judge of history
and surveys the ages from his vantage point in the present. For him the voice
of posterity is the voice of God and the historian is the voice of posterity. It is
in the historians present that the conjunction occurs between the Whig histo-
rians moral position and his interpretation of history. The effect of this inter-
 Reconciler 69

action is to endow the present with a value greater than that of the past
indeed, Buttereld says, to count the present as nal and absolute. From this
moral position with respect to the present the Whig historians need take only a
small step to the distortion of history by their study of the past for the sake of
the present.
Buttereld urges that the most effective way to avoid the errors of the Whig
interpretation of history is to stop them at the source. Above all, he writes,
it is not the role of the historian to come to what might be called judgments of
value. Making moral judgments on the past is the most useless and unpro-
ductive of all forms of reection. He adds, The sin in historical composition
is the organization of the story in such a way that the [historians moral] bias
cannot be recognised. Moreover, historians should not seek to identify what
he calls the place where moral responsibility resides.
It would be important for historians to know what Buttereld wishes to
prohibit by using the terms judgments of value and moral judgments in
history. The actual words of his denitions seem clear enough. By means of
judgments of value historians assess who is right in any given controversy
and determine the validity of the various religions, philosophies, and ideals
that people hold to. They also assess people. In like manner, historians enunci-
ate general truths and teach lessons which they believe they derive from the
tangled events of history. Moral judgments are the most heightened form
of judgments of value. They are absolute judgments that historians pronounce
upon people or acts or the results of their acts. With these, historians separate
good from evil, avenge wrong-doers and the wrongs they perpetrated, and
reward the righteous and their righteous deeds. Like the judgments of God,
moral judgments settle the matter ultimately and for eternity. They possess the
nality of the voice of History itself.
Buttereld draws a stark picture. Ironically he seems to commit the very
fault he condemns: he deals in absolutes. First he construes moral judgments
as absolute, eternal, and nal, the kind that can only belong to God to be
delivered at the Last Judgment. Then by means of Whig Interpretation of
History he appears to issue one long absolute moral judgment against the
Whig historians. Surely, by denition, no human being should venture to make
the judgments which belong to God. Indeed, no human being can. Buttereld
seems not to recognize a distinction between, on one hand, rendering a judg-
ment that is moral and, on the other, inscripturating the judgments of God. He
overlooks a whole range of intermediate moral judgments. These are the ut-
terly human and rather ordinary proximate evaluations of people and their
actions past and present, assessments of what is good and what is right to do.
We disagree among ourselves, across cultures, and over the ages about what
70 Reconciler

these proximate judgments ought to be, but none of us has found a way of
living without making them, not even Buttereld.
The more we read, Butterelds apparent clarity in his initial delineations
becomes muddled. We notice that Buttereld allows what he calls our judg-
ments that are merely relative to time and circumstance, judgments that
show, for example, that one religion is more favourable in its sociological
consequences than another or that tell us that a thing is good or harmful
according to circumstances. On the face of it, such assessments would seem
to be judgments of value. We cannot be sure where Buttereld would draw the
line. His objective may be simply to drive historians away from making any-
thing like ultimate and eternal judgmentshistorians ought not to judge what
he calls the ultimate consequences through time or to weigh material
losses against spiritual and eternal gains.
We become more uncertain when, in a separate passage, Buttereld ex-
plicitly allows historians to make judgments of value and moral judgments in
the histories they produce, provided they make plain they are doing so, pro-
vided they offer them as supercial additional comments, and provided they
do not organize the structure of their history around them. Judgments of
value and moral judgments are the direct expressions of what he regards as the
historians personal bias, and as such they are not intrinsic to historical
study and do not belong in it. The preferred stance is for the historian not to
make them. The next best option is for the historian at least to write them in a
different colour so the readers may easily nd them and deduct them from the
rest of the text. Buttereld seems to have in mind the comments historians
make that seem the most blatantly editorial, and to underrate the degree to
which everything historians write is in some sense structured according to
their moral perception of history.
We become even less sure of what Buttereld wants us to avoid when we
notice that throughout the essay he himself makes what we would routinely
regard as moral judgments about people and their actions. These moral judg-
ments do not take the form of additional comments. They structure his his-
tory. For example, he repeatedly refers to the sins and errors of certain
people in the sixteenth century, and calls their behaviour religious fanati-
cism. These are terms of moral judgment dependent on Butterelds own
present valuations. He allows the historian to do the following: he can give
evidence that Napoleon lied, that Alexander VI poisoned people and that
Mary Tudor persecuted; and to say that one man was a coward, or another
man a fanatic, or a certain person was a habitual drunkard may be as valid as
any other historical generalisation. Buttereld calls such language descrip-
tion of a mans characteristics, the analysis of a mind and a personality, but it
 Reconciler 71

would be hard for us not to notice that it is very much the language of moral
judgment. Some of his judgments are against acts and some are against people.
All of the key words in the passagelied, poisoned, persecuted, coward,
fanatic, habitual drunkardare morally loaded and presume moral norms in
Butterelds present which Buttereld believes those people violated, whether
in their acts or their character. For example, in order to say that Napoleon lied,
Buttereld has had to see in Napoleons words a violation of norms about
telling the truth which he regards as applicable to Napoleon. To call a man a
fanatic would be to say that he has internalized in his character the violation of
norms against absolutizing some human purpose. What Buttereld calls de-
scription doubles as moral judgment.
Buttereld nally ruins our ability to discern what his injunctions against
moral judgments intend to exclude when we study a lengthy passage detailing
his version of the rise of modern liberty. We come to realize that he is just as
interested in the history of liberty as Acton and the Whigs. We also notice that
he contravenes his own most explicit admonitions about the structure of the
narrative. He organizes the whole structure of his account around a funda-
mental moral judgment in the present and then distils general truths from his
version of the story of modern liberty.
Here is how he works. As the dissenter, the nonconformist, he believes that
it is right to treat religion as a matter for voluntary, private, and individual
expression, and that the best provision for religious liberty in society is to
accommodate a plurality of such religious expressions. He also believes that it
is wrong for society to establish the religion of the ruler as the only acceptable
religion of the land. Accordingly, he believes that British society in his own day
comes closer to enabling such free expression of religion than sixteenth-
century European societies. Then, by taking his present-day view of religion
and religious liberty as the moral norm, he can, against his own stringent
advice, tell us how we got from then to now, and how, for example, the
Politiques in France helped the cause of liberty.
Moreover, he is able to derive from his version of the story two general
truths, something he alerted us not to do. These are the truths: rst, if one
generation plays havoc with religion, the next will devote themselves to secur-
ing religious peace; and second, provided the religious destruction in the for-
mer generation is not total, the new generation will nd ways to turn the old
disasters into good things, or as he enunciates the truth, there is no sin or
error or calamity can take place but succeeding generations will make the best
of it.
We soon realize that Buttereld has constructed his own version of the
history of liberty, and he has done so according to the structure of his own
72 Reconciler

dissenting Methodist moral judgment, which privileges voluntarism, personal

belief, and independence from the state and rejects whatever is contrary to
these. If there were heroes to be found, they were the Dissenters and Catholics
who continued to worship God their own way in the face of domination by the
Church of England. The Whig Interpretation of History emerges as a dissent-
ing Methodist book.
What does Buttereld think is wrong with making moral judgments in
history? We can nd his answer in the midst of the long section on Lord Acton
in the nal chapter. Two of his criteria come directly from, and are peculiar
to, his view of historical study which we already know about. In order to nd
these points compelling, we would have to agree with his version of historical
study. First, making moral judgments exceeds the limits of the competence of
historical study, a study which deals with the past by nding and weighing
evidence, describing particulars, and so forth. If others, like philosophers and
religious thinkers, wish to render moral judgments about history they should
do so after the historians nish their work, and the moral judgments such
people would make should remain external to the history. The historian, But-
tereld asserts, stands impartial between Christian and Mohammedan, and
any history that he writes ought to be as capable of varied philosophical
interpretation as life itself seems to be. Historical study should be kept sepa-
rate from political ideology, religion, and philosophy. In this context it is
curious to note that Buttereld is not saying that moral judgments as such are
inappropriate or wrong, merely that historians should not make them. Sec-
ond, making moral judgments undermines historical study by cutting off at
least half of the procedures of history, notably the use of historical imagination
which leads to historical understanding. When historians dispense moral judg-
ments, historians have failed to show us the people and their acts sufciently
well so that we are enabled to understand them and thus to see that what they
did was entirely plausible under the circumstances. This sort of understanding
actually disarms our moral judgment. Buttereld does not take into account
in this context whether, after we come to understand the people of the past in
this way, we might be able, or still want, to render a moral assessment of them
or their actions or the effects of their actions.
Butterelds remaining criteria do not relate directly to his view of history,
but derive from his view of human personality and God. And again, we would
have to accept his understanding of personality and his allocation of moral
judgments to God in order to agree with him on these points. First, making
moral judgments about others intrudes upon the secret recesses of the per-
sonality where a mans nal moral responsibility resides. Presumably, Butter-
eld would not object to any person rendering moral judgments about oneself.
 Reconciler 73

Second, moral judgments, dened in the absolute terms he has laid out, usurp
the role of God, who alone could make ultimate judgments upon the things
which are happening in time. These last two criteria would bar anyone, not
just historians, but even philosophers and religious thinkers, from making
moral judgments about other people and their actions. And if moral judg-
ments belong to God alone, no one would be right to make any such judg-
ments, not even about oneself. Underneath his actual statements against moral
judgmentsthat is, if we can understand Buttereldwe sense there lies one
of the primal injunctions of the New Testament. The Gospel of Matthew gives
these words as a saying of Jesus in his Sermon in the Mount: Judge not, that
you be not judged. For with the judgment you make you will be judged, and
the measure you give will be the measure you get. The Gospel continues:
You hypocrite, rst cast out the log from your own eye, and then you shall see
clearly to cast out the splinter from your brothers eye. Buttereld accepted
the message of Jesus as utterly binding and sought to implement it to the full.
In the midst of his discussions, Buttereld alludes a number of time to
Providence, and we begin to notice the prominence of the term in his dis-
course. Keith Sewell has argued that the notion of Providence becomes a
dening feature of Butterelds historical understanding. Buttereld quotes
the classic sentence in St. Pauls letter to the Romans which Christians tradi-
tionally have repeated as the denition of divine Providence: We know that
all things work together for good to them that love God. He applies the
sentence to human action and the historical process. He attaches Providence
to one of the truths he had discovered in history. A new generation, he says,
is for ever playing providence and making all things work together for
good when they take even the disasters of the old generation and turn them
into something creative. This they do even with calamities as horric as the
Black Death and the Fire of London. Buttereld believes that the very com-
plexity of the historical process may be understood as the instrument of some
providence that guides the destiny of men. The process of history shows us
that the ways of Providence are mysterious and how strange [are] its ca-
prices. If we want to be grateful to anything for religious liberty in the mod-
ern world then we might choose to be grateful to that providence which
turned so many conjunctions to our ultimate prot. In all the subtle media-
tions of history, such as, he says, the transition from the medieval world to the
modern world, Providence is at work. There is, says Buttereld, the history-
making that is going on over mens heads, at cross-purposes with them, . . .
that historical process which so cheats men of their purposesthat provi-
dence which deects their labours to such unpredictable results.
Butterelds allusions do not add up to a theology of Providence, but they do
74 Reconciler

signal that he has Providence on his mind and that he is prepared to adapt the
traditional Christian belief to his understanding of historical process: interac-
tive, complex, nonlinear, unpredictable, supra-individual. This is the rst time
he has written about Providence, although he did mention Providence as an
illustration in Historical Novel in 1924. Once again he sings in unison with
Acton whose inaugural address contained ample reference to Providence. We
remember that he had been thinking about Providence at least since the mid-
twenties when his father lost the job he had held for a couple decades, but,
surprisingly, soon received a new and better one with another textile mill. It
was for Buttereld a case of good emerging out of bad. We may be sure that he
heard about Providence from his youth in the Methodist chapel in Oxenhope
as well as from his father.
Running through what Buttereld tells us in Whig Interpretation we detect
a tension between two apparently contradictory beliefs about the world which
he holds simultaneously: the world is basically a duality of the material and the
spiritual, and the world is ultimately a unity. The world as duality informs his
distinction between the realm of morality and the realm of history, a distinc-
tion upon which his view of history depends. The one is the lofty moral
realm and the other is the realm of historical explanation. If we scan his
discourse with this duality in view, we can collect many pairs of terms which
suggest the range of the two realms. The realm of history treats things mate-
rial, relative, temporal, external, public, human. The realm of morality han-
dles things spiritual, absolute, eternal, inner, private, God-like. History be-
longs to the one realm while philosophy, political ideology, and religion belong
to the other. We recall that he has professed this duality for at least as long as
we have the sources enabling us to glimpse his thinking. His point against
moral judgments by historians amounts to saying that historians should stay
in their proper realm.
But at the same time Buttereld also tirelessly reafrms the contrary belief in
the ultimate unity of all things, unity beyond the duality. We sense his stress on
unity in what he tells us about the importance of seeing the whole of the past,
the role of general history, the centrality of personality, the workings of Provi-
dence, and so on. But all that vehemence against the Whiggish fallacy and all
that passion against moral judgments in particular make us sense that there
must be more to it than meets the eye so far.
When we look deeper, we detect the drive towards unity at precisely the
moment when he most emphasizes the duality. It works like this. To head off
moral judgments by historians he accentuates the difference between history
and morality, between historian and moralist or religious thinker or politician,
and he warns against interjecting morality into historical study. However, as
 Reconciler 75

soon as he does this, he begins to sound amoral, as if there is a realm in which

morality does not apply. He quickly recoils from the possibility, and stresses
the ultimate unity of all things. The world is moral through and through, and
so is historical study.
Buttereld promotes what can only be described as an explicitly moral
program within historical study. We feel his desire to preach animating his
delivery of the message about the moral task of the historian. The message
comes in two parts. First, Judge not, that you be not judged. This we have
already heard. He implores the historian not to act as the judge and avenger of
history, as did Acton. We do wonder whether his intensity on this point might
not betray that he is tempted more than he would admit to issue moral judg-
ments in the manner of Acton.
Then he moves on the second part: Be reconciled to each other. The
historian can be the reconciler. Far from excluding morality from history, the
historian may choose a better moral program. Buttereld proposes an im-
provement upon Acton. This is the message with which he opens and closes
Whig Interpretation: one can require that he [the historian] shall be still more
godlike, and regard himself rather as the reconciler than as the avenger; taking
it that his aim is to achieve the understanding of the men and parties and
causes of the past, and that in this understanding, if it can be complete, all
things will ultimately be reconciled. He continues: But if history is in this
way something like the memory of mankind and represents the spirit of man
brooding over mans past, we must imagine it as working not to accentuate
antagonisms or to ratify old party-cries but to nd the unities that underlie the
differences and to see all lives as part of the one web of life. And still further:
It must be remembered that, by merely enquiring and explaining, he is in-
creasing human understanding, extending it to all the ages, and binding the
world into one. And in this, rather than in the work of perfecting and arming
conscience, we must seek the achievement and the function and the defense of
history. Buttereld writes as plainly as he can so we will not mistake that he
understands historical study to be a moral undertaking. We hear his afrma-
tion of the unity of life and the interconnectedness of all things which he has
been expressing all along. He has found the intellectual means to unify his
desire to preach and his vocation as historian. The historian is a reconciler.
The means is the reconciliation of the opposites at a higher level than rst
perceived.
But, almost as if he is about to be found out as the Methodist preacher in the
fenland, he afxes a codicil to his energetic sponsorship of the historian as
reconciler. History is all things to all men, he writes, and if we are to person-
ify history at all, it is best to treat her as an old reprobate, whose tricks and
76 Reconciler

juggleries are things to be guarded against. With this he retreats to the safety
of his strict construction of historical study as merely an act of description
supplemented by imagination. We watch him vacillate.
We sense that he manufactures the problem by interposing a division in the
wrong place, between history and moral engagement, as if history were not
moral and moral engagement were not historical. He overlooks other ways to
make the distinction he is searching for: the difference in genre between the
moral essay and the history book, or the vocational difference between the
ethicist and the historian, or the difference in modes of discourse between
the moral and the historical. In a world that is at once both thoroughly moral
and thoroughly historical, the ethicist, the philosopher, and the theologian
might focus on moral considerations while drawing upon historical inquiry as
a resource, and the historian might focus on the study of history and in so
doing engage moral concerns.
In The Whig Interpretation of History Buttereld has assembled his own
view of history. We may style his discourse religiously as dissenting Methodist
and politically as New Whig. In spite of the narrowness of the title of the essay,
he has managed to settle his thinking about a wide range of thingsindividual
personality as well as impersonality in history, historical process and historical
study, research and general history, duality and unity in history, morality and
religious commitment, Providence in historyand he has fastened on reli-
gion, politics, personality, and liberty as historical themes. He has found a way
to reconcile his opposing vocations as historian and preacher by uniting them
at a higher level in a type of historical study with a new moral message. Not
least, the book gave him something to say to the world. For him the last two
years had been creative, even though he had accomplished no research.
As for the response of others, the volume was not widely reviewed at the
time. The reviews he did receive were usually brief and full of criticisms about
his writing style, the vagueness of his argument, the lack of examples, or the
blundering title. Buttereld later said that he claimed no infallibility for the
title of the essay, suggesting that the tendency to interpret history as a success
story in favour of one side or another in the present may well be due to a
general trick of time perspective which entrapped Whigs and Tories, Protes-
tants and Catholics alike. He had linked the tendency to the Whig historians
because he thought that others at the time usually associated Whigs with the
views in question.
If attention outside Cambridge was negligible, within Cambridge his little
book made him instant food for gossip at college high tables. It seemed ob-
vious in Cambridge that the young Peterhouse don had assailed the great
Trevelyan, Regius Professor of Modern History. Buttereld later recalled,
 Reconciler 77

however, that even at the time he had insisted that the person he had in mind
was Acton, especially in the last chapter on moral judgments. He certainly had
not singled out Trevelyan. I was so much a friend of Trevelyan, and Tre-
velyan was, he said, the only man amongst us who was a great man. In any
case it is curious to see how much of what Buttereld said in Whig Interpreta-
tion mirrored a passage written by Trevelyan in his essay Clio, a Muse in
1905, even down to the reference to the Whigs, although he went well beyond
Trevelyan in his denition of the problem. David Cannadine suggested that
Temperley put Buttereld up to writing the book against Trevelyan as revenge
for Temperley not getting the Regius chair. But Temperley was not a factor.
Vellacott was his condant, and Temperley was not in on the project. More
important, the suggestion misses the historiographical impetus driving Butter-
elds thinking at the time. And, as John Fair pointed out, the book could just
as easily be turned on Temperley who, along with the rest, converted English
history into the story of the inevitable rise of liberty.
Whig Interpretation, in 1931, made him a celebrity in his own house,
though not beyond. One by one, people within Cambridge confessed that
Buttereld was right about a distilled version of his message: interpreting
history too simply in light of the preferences of the present day produces
distortions in historical study. The event changed his life, but only in Cam-
bridge. We must be careful not to read the future tale of the book, twenty years
later, back into the 1930s. In Cambridge people now knew him as someone to
watch, a provocative writer about history, a don who might one day get a
professors chair. But historians ambitious to be professors needed to give
themselves to important research projects, not to essays. Both Buttereld and
the gossips wondered what his might be.
 4

General Horizons

Fox
Buttereld had not yet begun his search for a major project when in early
December 1931 he received a resolute offer from an unexpected source. As he
recalls the story, the venerable Trevelyan had just read The Whig Interpreta-
tion of History and found it disturbing. Trevelyan summoned Vellacott to his
rooms in Trinity College. I am the last Whig historian, he declared, pacing
the room, and asked if the book was directed against him. Vellacott persuaded
him it was not. Vellacott would have known that Acton was the target. But he
also would have known of Butterelds paper on Charles James Fox in which
he criticized Trevelyans handling of Fox in Lord Grey of the Reformed Bill.
That was the episode that had started him thinking about the problems he
eventually discussed in Whig Interpretation. Then, too, Trevelyans History of
England, published in 1926, was undoubtedly Whig in Butterelds sense.
Buttereld did indeed later explicitly classify Trevelyan as a Whig historian.
Nonetheless, Vellacotts assurances put Trevelyan into a better mood. In the
course of the conversation that followed, Vellacott mentioned in passing that
Buttereld as an undergraduate, ten years earlier, had referred to a youthful
fantasy of writing a biography of Fox. It happened that Trevelyan was intend-
ing to write the life of Fox, and, indeed, had in his possession a large body of
Fox letters. This cache of letters once belonged to Lord John Russell, who had

78
 General Horizons 79

used them to write his book on Fox published in 1866. The letters then passed
to George Otto Trevelyan, Trevelyans father, who published a book on the
early Fox in 1880. Buttereld had known of Trevelyans plans for some time
and had long ago dismissed his fantasy of writing on Fox.
Very soon after Trevelyan and Vellacott talked, two large crates of Fox
papers arrived unannounced in Butterelds rooms in Peterhouse. Trevelyan
had sent them, together with the insistence that Buttereld should write the
biography. Buttereld was overwhelmed. He confessed years later, I ac-
cepted the new proposal as though it were the voice of God. From this
moment onward Trevelyan became his utterly loyal friend and ardent pro-
moter. Buttereld now began to say that he was writing a biography of Fox.
That was 1931.
The Fox biography became the second major research project assigned to
Buttereld by someone elseNapoleon and Tilsit from Temperley, and now
Fox the English Whig from Trevelyan. The Fox project would require Butter-
eld to continue giving primacy in his historical research to the study of one
man, to personality, and to the politics of the few at the top of the affairs
of state.
Buttereld claimed that the appeal of Fox was not necessarily his Whig
politics. As a youth he had learned to associate Fox with the advent of English
freedom, but now, having just nished Whig Interpretation, he was ambiva-
lent towards the Whigs and even Foxs Whiggism. It was Fox as a personality
whom he found exciting and endearing. He recalled years later, I had found
him such a rich and attractive and lively human problem. Buttereld rst did
research on Fox as part of his extra work for Peace Tactics of Napoleon. In a
passage written around 1928 in still orid prose, one of many sections he had
expunged from his oversize typescript, he portrayed Foxs personality and
behaviour: A strange patchwork of clashing colours makes up the life and
character of Fox. The fashionable youth with the feather in his hat, the spoilt
child of aristocracy, the leader of the Marconis parading London streets with
red-heeled shoes and blue hair-powder, spent himself in wild endeavors to
hurry and anticipate democracy, came to lead a revolt against the eighteenth
century pride of dress, waged war on the wig and the cocked hat, and earned a
reputation for slovenliness. . . . One might call him the fortunate proigate
with a rich erratic genius in him, burning at times through his clay, but coming
out in broken and partial lights. . . . He is a standing paradox, and aunts
himself at history, and catches a romantic eye. Buttereld felt the attraction
of what he called, around 1935, Foxs independent spirit. As early as 1922
he intimated in his diary that he felt some attraction to Napoleon as an inde-
pendent spirit, which must have animated him throughout the long years of
80 General Horizons

research on Napoleon. In Peace Tactics, he portrayed Napoleon in large, he-

roic, and romantic terms, a man of genius who broke free of the connements
built by society around him. Fox was an even better subject than Napoleon
because he was more subtle and had no cast of tyranny about him. It may be
that Buttereld became attached to rakes and rogues, as Maurice Cowling
suggested, and perhaps he came under the spell of Foxs charm, as Ved Mehta
heard him say. He certainly liked people who refused conformity with the
expected social and political stereotypes.
We are reminded of the Buttereld of 1926the romantic, the dissenter
who, after returning from America more independent than he had been a year
before, uttered his complaint against the social and academic conventions
around him in Peterhouse and Cambridge: The whole cloak of respectable
life is cumbersome to me, the repressions, the conventions, the shams, the
humdrum evasion of momentous issues. In the 1930s, even with his intensify-
ing loyalties to Peterhouse, he still found Cambridge socially and academically
stultifying.
This, together no doubt with a certain measure of rising ambition, made
him quite prepared to leave Peterhouse. He was thirty-ve when he went for
an interview in January 1936 for appointment to the Woodrow Wilson Chair
of International Politics at University College of Wales in Aberystwyth. He
was one of four candidates interviewed out of forty considered. The professor-
ship went to E. H. Carr, then forty-three, and Buttereld settled in further at
Cambridge.
Buttereld knew from the start that Fox would take him a very long time.
He realized by now that he was a very slow worker who laboured over the
research as well as the writing and rewriting. But he also complicated things
for himself and made things take longer than perhaps they needed to. First, he
chose to make the biography a complete life, covering a span of time and a
range of subjects innitely greater than the few months and limited themes of
Napoleons diplomacy that had occupied him for seven years. Second, he
intended to produce a work of archival research, in place of one based on
other peoples books and the published letters. Third, he decided to make his
research comprehensive and exhaustive, greatly increasing the sheer bulk of
material he intended to seek. He proposed to consult the archives and papers
of all the important families and government ofcials touched by Foxs life.
Fourth, he persisted with the microscopic method he learned from Temperley
for use on published diplomatic correspondence. This required him to move
minutely through the sources and correlate his ndings by theme and date.
Buttereld was capable of driving himself to all this extravagance by ex-
tending his own theory and practice. But the recent example of Lewis Namiers
 General Horizons 81

two new books on British politics in a period during Foxs lifetime must have
added enormously to his research expectations. Namier set a far higher stan-
dard of thoroughness for research in the papers of members of the English
Parliament than anyone before, and it would not be hard for Buttereld to feel
that he could scarcely do less.
Buttereld probably started his research on Fox in 1932. He began rst in
Cambridge University Library, which held all the published papers he needed.
Certainly by September 1933 he was working in archival material in the
Manuscript Room of the British Museum in London. It was not easy for him
to work in London for long stretches of time. He could manage a day-trip to
London only now and then during term. Between terms and during the long
vacation in the summer he could occasionally put together three days at a
time, rarely a week. He researched steadfastly during the 1930s, becoming
most intense between 1936 and 1939. His library shows that he acquired a
large number of rare books published in the eighteenth century.
Butterelds papers contain abundant evidence of his research style in the
1930s. He applied to Fox the method he had learned from Temperley for
research in diplomatic documents. He had come to think that method was
normative for any historical research. During his research forays he would add
up note upon note and copy out letter after letter. In the days before pho-
tocopies and microlms, this took much time. He gave up the 4& 6& cards he
had used for Napoleon and worked instead with great quantities of 312&
512& slips of paper, which he manufactured by folding and tearing larger
sheets. On each slip he put a different bit of information. He proceeded collec-
tion by collectionthe Liverpool Papers, the Egerton Manuscripts, and so
onand gathered notes around periods and episodes. In 1933 he was looking
for information about Fox in the 1770s and early 1780s. He focused on the
years 1779 and 1780 fairly quickly, probably as soon as 1933. He would go
over the letters and newspapers in their day-by-day sequences, make excerpts
and notations on the slips, collect his slips from various sources, and bundle
them by dates and themes. From the many sources, he was collating all the
overlapping evidence inch by inch. Before he had nished collecting informa-
tion on something, he would compose brief narratives, trying to create a story
about whatever episode caught his attention. The narratives would give him a
structure within which to place further information. As soon as he gathered
more material about an episode he would often write a new narrative. He was
thinking by writing and constructing the history piecemeal as he went along.
At the same time he felt compelled to work out the interrelations of the Fox
story with the larger political and intellectual story of England. If his use of the
slips of paper tended to atomize the information, his narratives forced him
82 General Horizons

continuously to shape and reshape the information into a story, and his con-
nection of the Fox strand with the other strands forced him ever outward to
the still larger story of English politics. He was working through the intercon-
nections of incidents to an episode, of small episodes to larger episodes, and of
large episodes to whole stories. He tended to think narratively and integra-
tively, even as he gathered countless bits of material. The more microscopic his
research, the more interconnections he pursued with the wider affairs of En-
glish public life. In Whig Interpretation he had praised the quest of the innu-
merable details of history, but he had also proclaimed the doctrine of the
entanglement of all things in history. Now in the course of his historical re-
search he seemed to drive himself to extremities in both directionsdetails
and complexities without end.
Buttereld produced no book on Fox by the end of the decade comparable
with Peace Tactics at the end of the 1920s. The gossip network and Butter-
elds reputation were such that he had two publishers already asking for his
Fox book. His historical method yielded one very small publishable result
after ve years, Lord North and Mr Robinson, 1779, once again for the
local Cambridge Historical Journal, which appeared in 1937. The article dealt
with a minuscule subject from the very brief period he had selected for his
initial investigations, and it was not about Fox. It signalled that he was not
getting very far in his research or in his construction of a narrative, and that he
could easily be distracted from his primary subject.
One thing led to another as he followed out the entanglements of Fox. He
had already produced another very brief article, published in the local Cam-
bridge Review in 1933, entitled Bolingbroke and the Patriot King. It too
was not about Fox but was related to the wider political ideas of Foxs day,
starting from 1760. The article was a study of the immediate history of a
political idea. The idea, promoted in pamphlets at the beginning of the reign of
George III, urged that the king, acting as a patriot on behalf of the realm as a
whole, was the best agent to defend the nations liberty against challenges
from any one party within the nation. Buttereld traced the idea to an early
eighteenth-century political treatise, The Patriot King, by the Tory politician
Viscount Henry St. John Bolingbroke, and argued that Bolingbrokes thesis lay
behind George IIIs image of himself. The article shows us that Buttereld, at
least as early as 1933, was contemplating the question of the intentions of
George III at the commencement of his reign in 1760, and that he was already
concluding that the new ruler intended to play the patriot king.
Buttereld chased the question about George III further. During 1935
1937, he mounted a special course of lectures to undergraduates, George III
and the Constitution, 176982, the period of the ministry of Lord North. He
 General Horizons 83

took as the centre of his analysis the issue of the political system and the
intentions of George III. In keeping with his style he wrote out the lectures in
detail and read them to his undergraduate listeners. He included Fox in the
lectures, but only as one actor among many. He broached large questions:
human personality in history, the structure of government, the emergence of
party politics and an opposition, and repairing the damage done by the Whig
interpretation of history.
Butterelds pursuit of Bolingbroke led him on a tangent even farther away
from Fox, and brought him, of all places, to Nicol Machiavelli, the early
sixteenth-century Florentine. Machiavelli had been on his mind at least since
the time of Whig Interpretation, where Machiavelli makes a couple of ap-
pearances. Or perhaps it was Napoleon who led him to think about Ma-
chiavelli in the later 1920s. He worked references to Machiavellis inuence on
Napoleon into a little biography of the French conqueror, entitled Napoleon,
which he published in 1939 as his fourth book. Or then again it may have
been Acton who drew his eye to Machiavelli. Acton had published a succinct
and provocative introduction to Machiavelli for the Oxford edition of Ma-
chiavellis Il Principe in 1891.
It was George III who drove his interest now. Buttereld presented a paper
on Machiavelli in Cambridge in January 1938. He developed the thesis that
behind Bolingbrokes Patriot King lay the inuence of Machiavellis Prince.
The suggestion disturbed him. There was a large discrepancy between the
malevolent behaviour apparently recommended by Machiavelli for Italian
princes and Bolingbrokes espousal of the intervention of a patriotic English
king on behalf of the common good of the English nation. Buttereld turned
his pursuit of the problem into his fth book, The Statecraft of Machiavelli, a
167-page study issued in 1940 by Bell, the publisher of Whig Interpretation.
Most of the book discussed Machiavelli as a thinker, but Buttereld eventually
wound his way back to Bolingbroke in the nal chapter. He concluded that the
English thinker had managed to purge the sinister elements from Machiavellis
model for princes and had created in its place the image of a king who imposes
limits on himself, chooses against corruption, and acts in favour of the good of
the nation.
As if to remind himself of why he had spent all this time on a gure so far
removed from Fox, Buttereld closed the book on Machiavelli with what
amounted to an appendix on George IIIs intentions as king at the start of his
reign in 1760. He suggested that George III did loosely adopt the idea of the
patriot king as his model at the start of his regime. As part of the evidence,
he took a document brought to light by Lewis Namier, a letter from the king to
the Earl of Bute, and gave it an interpretation opposed to Namiers. In this
84 General Horizons

letter, said Buttereld, the king lamented that, although he wanted to restore
well-being to the country, he was trapped in a political system controlled by
government ministers who achieved their ends by ghting corruption with
more corruption. It was a picture of a leading personality who willed to act for
the good, but who was constrained from doing so by an entangling system.
The image represented a modication of the model of freely interacting per-
sonalities in history that he had constructed in his version of Emperor Napo-
leon and Czar Alexander alone on a raft in the river at Tilsit.
His excursus during the 1930s into Foxs entanglements had taken him far
enough away from Fox for us to notice that his work on George III had
become a pursuit in its own right. In the process he had reached a conclusion
from his immersion in empirical details which stressed the power of political
and social systems to impede the free operation of personalities in history.

General History
Butterelds lack of progress on Fox during the thirties troubled him,
since, on his own view, to be a historian and a writer required him to produce
history books based on minute research. If his method guaranteed that his
work would be slow and if his historical interest was easily diverted, his
decisions to involve himself heavily in other things also gave him less time for
his research on Fox. He spent much time on his activities in Peterhouse, on his
domestic life, and, above all, on his lectures in the History Faculty. In the
process his thinking about general history continued to enlarge.
In Peterhouse Butterelds success with Peace Tactics of Napoleon and
Whig Interpretation added to the colleges still growing reputation for history.
With the addition of Professor Barker and the promotion of Temperley to the
new professorship in modern history, Peterhouse now boasted two profes-
sorial Fellows listed in the History Faculty. When Vellacott left Peterhouse to
go to Harrow School as headmaster in 1935, Buttereld surfaced as the senior
history Fellow, still teaching undergraduates in supervision and still examining
in the entrance examinations. He still served actively as librarian, and his voice
counted for more in the affairs of the college. To maintain the history comple-
ment after Vellacotts departure, the college elected M. M. Postan a Fellow in
history in 1935.
The new Master of Peterhouse, Field-Marshall William Riddell Birdwood,
elected in 1931, was a military man, the only master in Butterelds time who
was not a scholar. He did, however, support the college reputation in history
and, because of his frequent absence, allowed the Fellows to run the place. His
 General Horizons 85

military service embraced nearly fty years in India, and like Lord Chalmers
before him, he brought stories of the British Empire and non-Western cul-
ture into the senior common room. He enjoyed connections with the royal
household and eventually received the title of baron in 1937, a year before
his death.
Throughout the 1930s Butterelds reputation as an undergraduate super-
visor soared. College teaching kept him in touch with all the areas of the
Cambridge history syllabus. He continued to supervise about ten undergradu-
ates in history per week throughout the academic year. His pupils were all
young men. Brian Wormald, his student from 1931 to 1934, described his
methods. Buttereld tried to soften the hard style of Temperley, but he offered
a different shock of his own. For each weekly supervision the student would
write the mandatory essay, which Buttereld would read and discuss, never
offering much in the way of praise or blame. He tried to practice his belief that
the supervisor should exercise a concern for the whole intellectual develop-
ment of the person, and not merely mark the students paper for the week. His
approach followed a pattern. After reading the essay, Buttereld would make
a plausible point that was exactly the opposite of whatever the student had
written. This created a set of opposing positions. He would then move the
discussion towards a revision of the students initial thinking and the recon-
ciliation of the opposites at a higher level of thinking. Wormald testied that
he turned everything upside down, everything was different from what you
thought, everything became more complicated. The effect was that the stu-
dent could not be sure he knew what position Buttereld himself was taking
on any question, and the whole approach could seem perverse.
The method adapted one of Actons strategies. As Buttereld put it, Acton
sought to lay out and argue for the views of his opponents better than they did
for themselves, much in the way an actor will try to assume the mentality of
Hamlet on one night, and Macbeth on another night. The student might go
away thinking that he did not know when to trust that Buttereld meant what
he was saying. Wormald recalled that he had come to regard Buttereld as the
arch-liberal and arch-sceptic. Over the longer haul, in the cases where the
method worked well, as with Wormald himself, the student would begin to
feel Butterelds impact as gentle steering. Some students must have felt
continually undermined. The aim was bring the young men to make decisions
for themselves and to cultivate the drive that took them beyond wherever they
were when Buttereld met them.
Wormald also spoke of Butterelds effectiveness as lecturer. Although he
would read his lectures word for word, he sounded as if he were talking
86 General Horizons

personally to each one in his audience. Although his voice was soft and his
manner mild, he radiated an energy, an intellectual interest, and a moral inten-
sity that could feel powerful and utterly captivating.
Buttereld had no research students in the 1930s, but he sometimes dis-
cussed history with other peoples students, whose number was increasing.
William O. Aydelotte was Temperleys student, but felt severely bruised by
Temperleys behaviour towards him and apparent lack of intellectual support.
He went to Buttereld for help and found Buttereld kind and easy to talk
with. J. H. Plumb was Trevelyans doctoral student at the time, but felt severely
neglected. He recounted how he gravitated towards Buttereld, eleven years
his senior, whom he found willing to talk frequently and for long hours, some-
times into the night. Plumb recalled, He was brilliant, exasperating, devas-
tating, mischievous, mixing in equal quantities malice and generosity. He
dragged his principles before my enraged and bloodshot eyes with the skill of
the matador. He forced me to reconsider every idea I had; I got better at defend-
ing myself, and through Buttereld I gradually knew that I would never truly
belong to the profession of history. I loved yet distrusted Butterelds impish
qualities, his almost electric versatility at times daunted me but his major
principlesthe deep belief in the role of Providence (Christian of course) in
human historyleft me, in the end, bored as well as disbelieving. Plumb felt
that as a matter of method Buttereld sought deliberately to heighten whatever
point he was making in order to provoke the inevitable outburst, for deep
down he loved to shock, to be contrary. Plumb received the Cambridge Ph.D.
in history, a member of the early set to do so. In effect the Ph.D. replaced the
practice, which Temperley himself had followed in 1925, of submitting pub-
lished work for the honorary Litt.D. awarded by Cambridge.
At home, Butterelds life changed completely with the birth of three chil-
dren, all boys, during the 1930sPeter in 1931, Giles in 1934, and Robin in
1939. For twelve years he lived with at least one child under the age of ve at
home. The capitalist economic depression in the thirties scarcely affected him.
His income from Peterhouse and the university was secure and rising. In due
course Pamela and he decided to send each of their boys to private schools in
Cambridge. Peter and Giles attended the Leys School, founded by Methodists
in 1875, and Robin went to St. Faiths School, founded for the sons of Cam-
bridge Fellows in 1884. Both were located off Trumpington Road not far from
Peterhouse. They afliated with each other within a joint foundation in 1938.
The social style of the two schools was many notches down from that of the
grand English public schools, such as Eton and Harrow. Methodists with
money were not Anglican elite, and Cambridge dons were not wealthy, but the
schools still served to set the boys socially apart from the rest of the school
 General Horizons 87

population. The Butterelds followed the example of many around them,

including Temperley, who had sent his son to St. Faiths. The decision to send
their sons to private schools was costly in nancial terms, but it had the merit
of giving them the presumed social and educational privileges which Butter-
eld felt he had missed in his own education in Keighley at the nondescript
Trade and Grammar School for the sons of capitalists.
Before Peters birth, the Butterelds moved into a at owned by the college
on Tennis Court Terrace. They moved to Belvoir Terrace in the mid-thirties. By
the end of the decade they managed to purchase a comfortable high-Victorian
attached house, named Chistlehurst, at 89 Tension Road. They acquired the
domestic services of Ethel Wolfe, a former neighbour from a college at on
Tennis Court Terrace, who worked for them as cook and daytime house-
keeper. The emblems of Butterelds modest gentlemans statusor in the
changing terms of the 1930s, his upper-middle-class positionwere all suit-
ably afxed. All the same, he refused to assume an elevated social manner, but
retained a simple life-style that left him accessible to his father and the ordi-
nary folk of Oxenhope. He continued his regular attendance at Wesley Church
and gave more time to his piano playing.
Butterelds General European History lectures in the History Faculty
stimulated his interest in thinking about the most general horizons of history.
The work on the lectures animated his creativity far more than his research on
Fox. Even with Whig Interpretation behind him, he continued to think about
the problems of general history. He handwrote his lectures at home, working
into the night, sometimes through the night, for delivery in the morning. Each
lecture took an hour, in some years at 11 on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday,
in other years at 9 on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. He went on like this
for eight weeks per term during all three terms of the Cambridge year. That
amounted to seventy-two separate manuscripts on general European history
in the course of the year.
When he received his full appointment to the History Faculty for 1930
1931, he was one of twenty-four University Lecturers in history, together with
seven Professors, among a total of forty-ve names on the History Faculty list.
Temperley was lecturing on antecedents of the First World War, and Vellacott
on the history of political thought. Trevelyan treated English constitutional
history from 1688 to 1832, while George Kitson Clark, who had joined the
faculty in 1929, lectured on English constitutional history since 1485. Previt-
Orton and G. G. Coulton handled the medieval segments of general European
history, and E. A. Benians and W. F. Reddaway each lectured on the modern
segment of European history, parallel with Buttereld.
The tradition at Cambridge that Buttereld inherited in the lectures on
88 General Horizons

modern history reected the curriculum common to universities in Europe, the

British Empire, and North America. The dominant model for the study of
history meant concentrating on wars, governments, and diplomacy, with the
occasional reference to the church in relation to the state. The attention went
to the eye-catching man at the top, the extraordinary war, and the exceptional
treaty or negotiation. These were the things that the tradition ranked as most
important in history.
The list of lecture topics contained standard itemsthe Renaissance, Mar-
tin Luther, the Thirty Years War, the War of Spanish Succession, Frederick the
Great, and so forth. The method of study depended chiey on published docu-
ments produced by the foreign ministers, the diplomats, and the heads of the
states in question. The tradition understood modern history as the history of
Europe, and construed Europe primarily as the network of interactions among
the larger states of the continent. Europe did not include England, or Great
Britain, except in so far as Britain participated in the interactions among the
continental states. General English history belonged to a separate track of
lectures and focused on the constitutional history of the British state. The
modern period began in 1492 or 1494, with the French invasion of Italy, and
ran to a date near the presentthe nish line was continually moving and had
now reached the end of the Great War. Cambridge broke the lectures into two
courses by dividing the modern era around 1715, before and after the Treaty
of Utrecht. Preceding modern history thus dened was medieval history,
which ran from the coronation of Charlemagne in 800. Such other histories
related to Europe as were taught in Cambridge were dispersed elsewhere. For
instance, ecclesiastical history as a distinct subject was lodged in the Divinity
Faculty, literary history appeared in the literature faculties, and intellectual
history primarily surfaced in philosophy or political thought. Economic his-
tory became rmly recognized as a subject only with the establishment of a
professorship in the eld in 1928. Social history was not taught as a eld, and
neither was the history of science.
At rst Buttereld more or less accepted this constricted tradition and even
helped to perpetuate it. He agreed to join a publishers project promoted by
Methuen to produce a three-volume set of documents representing the Cam-
bridge version of European history to students in the sixth form, the last year
of secondary school before university. He edited the third volume in the series,
Select Documents of European History, 17151920, published in 1931. The
other two, also by Cambridge lecturers, were R. G. D. Laffans on 8001492
and W. F. Reddaways on 14921715. Butterelds selection consisted al-
most entirely of diplomatic and other government documents, and included
nothing or next to nothing on industrialization, new social class formations,
 General Horizons 89

religion, science, technology, and intellectual trends. The volume seems not to
have been reviewed, and we do not know how widely it was used. We do know
that Buttereld began to abandon the interpretation of European history that
he promulgated in it almost as soon as the volume appeared.
Butterelds reections on general history led him gradually to reject, at
least in theory, the dominant historiography which featured the great leaders
and the great events in diplomacy, war, and national politics. In doing so he
blended with a general tendency among historians in Europe and North Amer-
ica during the 1930s. In France the work of Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre,
and the Annales dhistoire conomique et sociale, the journal they founded in
1929, promoted a widening of the subject matter and methods of history. In
Great Britain the work of Arnold Toynbee and the rst volumes of his Study of
History, from 1934 onwards, stimulated more comprehensive thinking about
history. In North America the movement was associated with the series of
volumes under the title The Rise of Modern Europe, edited by William Langer,
which, beginning in 1934, discussed all aspects of the history of European
society since the Italian Renaissance.
Butterelds movement towards a wider view of the subject matter of his-
tory began after the publication of Whig Interpretation, in his early thirties,
for there is no hint of such breadth in that essay. He did not launch a program
that was well conceived from the start, but he thought about things as they
came up when he worked on his lectures. Buttereld eventually formulated an
attack during the 1930s on the inheritance of diplomatic and political history.
In the 1950s he looked back on this moment with pride, exaggerating how
early in his life he had taken action against the dominant model. From my
youth, he wrote, I made continual protest against the kind of European
history which chiey occupies itself with the external relations of the various
states. He attributed the dominance of foreign affairs and war to an educa-
tional routine, and belittled the notion that people truly believed that such
things were the most important matters of European history.
His emerging historiography disclosed by his lectures featured four ele-
ments, all aiming to reconstruct the general history of modern Europe on a
more comprehensive basis. The rst three elements were closely related, and
they derived from inuences very close at hand. He was still receiving his
primary inspiration from within the small world of Cambridge.
First, he endeavoured to remove the nation as the basic unit of the general
history of Europe and to replace it with a vision of Europe as a whole, an
interactive unity which transcended the mere interrelationship of the several
individual states. His inspiration came specically from doctrines propounded
by Acton. One was the idea from Actons inaugural address that modern
90 General Horizons

history should be represented as an organic unity. The other came from Ac-
tons preface to the Cambridge Modern History, where he dened general
history as the study of the affairs and characteristics held in common through-
out Europe.
Second, Buttereld extended the geographical range of Europe beyond the
customary emphasis on the western European nations. He aimed to embrace
all of Germany, Scandinavia, Poland, the Slavic states, Greece, the Ukraine,
and Russia. Here he had for his teacher Temperley, whose rst love was central
Europe and the Balkans, but he also had his own two years of undergraduate
study of medieval history, which, under the inuence of Bury, embraced every-
thing eastward to Russia and Byzantium. He had come to believe that if a
historian of modern Europe approached the modern period by way of medi-
eval Europe, rather than from his own position in the present, the meaning of
Europe would naturally widen geographically and the concept of the unity of
Europe would look more plausible.
Third, he proposed to revise the periodization of modern European history
by relativizing the importance of 1715. He wrote a paper for the History
Faculty, probably in 1935, which argued that the division of the modern era at
1715 was detrimental to an understanding of the whole period. He urged
dropping the two-course sequence and installing one course to cover the cen-
turies from 1492 to the Great War in a unied fashion.
Butterelds fourth point was more radical. He began to construe Europe as
a civilization, or a society, shifting the focus away from the importance of
nations and states. He was not precise about his terms. The strategy was to be
inclusive. His notion of a civilization, or a society, now stressed the integration
and interaction of the many elements of lifepolitics, diplomacy, thought,
art, religions, economics, society, geography, and science. This broad con-
strual seemed to coexist with the view of civilization he had expressed in the
mid-1920s. At that time he had represented civilization as the intellectual and
spiritual superstructure which had the power to raise the economic needs and
animal instincts of the substructure of life to a higher synthesis.
The sources of his thinking on this point were still centered in Cambridge.
To some extent he was probably following Acton. He had also heard Tem-
perley argue for the inclusion in history of aspects of life besides international
diplomacy, and he was sympathetic with the drift of Trevelyans ideas about
social history. He acknowledged the inuence of G. N. Clarks study of
seventeenth-century England which constructed English society as a unity and
described all together the various facets of the society in that age. His interest
in the history of science as part of the totality of civilization may have been
stimulated by the successes in science at Cambridge University. He once sug-
 General Horizons 91

gested that it was during the 1930s that he began to notice the colossal scale of
the impact of science on society.
He did begin to look a little beyond his parochial environment, to new
resources outside Cambridge. We may attribute his absorption of a wider
meaning of the term civilization, in the sense of the totality of human experi-
ence and culture, to his reading of Toynbee, A Study of History, volumes 13,
which he discussed in 1934. He praised Toynbees volumes as the most re-
markable work of the year.
We may suppose that at some moment in the 1930s he heard about the
efforts by the French historians associated with the Annales. Butterelds re-
conception of the general history of Europe looked similar to what Bloch and
Febvre propounded in one important respect, notably their aim to construe
society, indeed human history, in terms of totality that went well beyond the
traditional limits of political history. However, we have no reason to think he
was reading the new French histories at that time. He was not at all thinking
about the social sciences which the French historians were reconsidering un-
der the aegis of historical study. He commented much later that his own views
were entirely in agreement with those of Marc Blochs Apologie pour lhis-
toire, ou Mtier dhistorien, and he enthusiastically welcomed the publication
of the English translation of the book under the title The Historians Craft. His
views in the 1930s on the reconstrual of European history were well ahead of
the journal Past and Present, founded in 1952 to work in Great Britain within
the tradition of Bloch. We can detect the barest hints during the early 1930s
that he began to doubt the validity of thinking of the state as a real social unit,
drifting instead towards the view that individual personalities are the only real
existents. The more he conceived of the state as actually unreal the less he
would think of concentrating as such on states as historical units. Because of
his studies in the Italian Renaissance, he knew Jacob Burckhardts Civilization
of the Renaissance in Italy and the interpretation of the Renaissance which
integrated politics, philosophy, literature, society, gender, economics, religion,
and many other aspects of life.
The role of Marxism in his reections became crucial in the 1930s. He
acknowledged in general the impact of Marxist discourse on his shift towards
a more comprehensive understanding of modern European history. He was
already primed by his own sense of the complexity and interconnections of
history to accept some tutelage from Marxists about the workings of society.
His experience of aggressive capitalism and money-conscious materialism in
America in 19241925 had left him convinced of the reality of the material
conditions of life. Then some of his students at Peterhouse in the early 1930s
induced him to think earnestly about Marxism. They were turning towards
92 General Horizons

Communism as a plausible alternative to both capitalism and Nazism. The

defects in capitalism became evident to him during the world economic de-
pression in the 1930s, and the authoritarianism of Nazism became visible with
the accession of Adolf Hitler to power in Germany in 1933.
During the academic year 19321933 Buttereld received a request from
F. R. Leavis, editor of a Cambridge-based literary journal, Scrutiny, to com-
ment on the value of Marxism for historical study. He took the invitation as
the prod to read Marxist historical writing. Most notably he read the Russian
historian and theorist Georgi Plekhanov and the young British economist-
historian Maurice Dobb. Plekhanov was known in English at the time for
Fundamental Problems of Marxism, published in London in 1927. Dobb was
Butterelds exact contemporary in Cambridge, a lecturer in political econ-
omy since 1924 and author of Capitalist Enterprise and Social Progress, pub-
lished in 1925. Both writers advanced a materialist view of history while at the
same time giving credit to ideas and individuals. We may suppose that Butter-
eld read some writings by Marx himself, although if he did, he gives no
hint of it. The writings of the Marxists impressed him, which seems to have
surprised him. He applied to the Marxists his by now habitual reconciling
method. He discovered the things he liked about Marxist discourse and noted
the things he refused, and he turned whatever he absorbed from the encounter
into his own thinking.
In March 1933 Leaviss journal published Butterelds History and the
Marxian Method. The receptiveness to Marxism which the article dis-
played further enhanced his position as dissenter within the Cambridge en-
vironment. Buttereld posits a division between Marxism as a method for the
study of history and Marxism as an interpretation of history. He concludes
that the Marxists are more successful with their method than with their inter-
pretation of the course of history. It is remarkable how much of what he
praises about the Marxist method he takes to be consistent with the views he
expressed in Whig Interpretation. By use of their method, he writes, the Marx-
ists are able to show how the work of individuals is forever complicated by
historical processes which transcend them. They rightly see how history pro-
ceeds by interaction and dialectic, even conict, and not by straight-lined
logical development. They teach us how to take society as the unit of historical
study and how to perform a deeper structural analysis, a closer study of the
inter-relations between the various departments of life. They show us that
civilization rests on an economic and material base, and that this base, and not
the government or ideas, requires recognition as primal within historical inter-
pretation. As a consequence, they remind us of the power of conditions in
history, the elemental limits operating upon intentional human action.
 General Horizons 93

The defects of Marxist historiography appear, he asserted, when Marxists

convert their method into an interpretation of the course of history. The result
is exaggeration and oversimplication. They deny the reality of anything other
than the material, interpret everything as due to economics, devalue individ-
uals, ignore the power of ideas, reduce history to a story of class struggle. They
make their admirable method subservient to a materialist philosophy of life.
He signalled that he knew the Marxists themselves would not accept the
dualism he created out of their approach to history, since he knew that what he
saw as two was for them a unity. Cowling took the essay to be the outcome of
an unconscious compact which Buttereld had made with those of his pupils
who were sympathetic to Marxism to keep them within the bounds of the
sort of historical study he himself promoted.
The transformation of Butterelds discourse about general history and the
reconstruction of his lectures did not come swiftly. It took him the decade of
the 1930s to work out his new ideas. It is likely that from the very start of his
lectures on general European history, in 1929, he began to implement the
conception of Europe as embracing both the British Isles and greater Russia.
He may have begun to work with the notion of Europe as organic at the
same time, stressing the features of Europe that he regarded as common to all
of its parts. He may have brought the history of science into his lectures as
early as 1931 or 1932. His notes show that he was reading the history of
science in the mid-1930s, and it looks as if he composed whole lectures on the
subject at that time. He may have added something on economic and social
history around 1933 and 1934, after he read the Marxist historians. In 1934
we nd him for the rst time criticizing another historian for neglecting the
economic conditions of society. The subject of his criticism was Benedetto
Croces idealist work The History of Europe in the Nineteenth Century.
In 1935 he was elected to the board of the Faculty of History, taking the
seat vacated by Vellacott. He immediately began to work towards a formal
change in the periodization of the general European history course. By 1938
he succeeded in getting the History Faculty to adopt a new regulation along his
lines which redened the conception of the course and the corresponding
undergraduate examinations. He wrote the 1938 formula, which emphasized
the treatment of modern European as a civilization having within it count-
less interactions among religious, political, intellectual, social, and economic
movements.
Buttereld produced his lectures under various titles which mirrored the
migration of his treatment of the subject. From 1929 until 1935 the faculty
retained the traditional rubric General European History. From 1935 to
1937 it was Modern European History, 14921715. Next, for 19371938,
94 General Horizons

it became Modern European History, 14921648, with the Peace of West-

phalia as the terminus. Then under the 1938 regulation the title changed to
Development of European Civilization, 14921789. Buttereld supplied
the new title and created a revised course of lectures over three terms betting
his theory. He achieved only some of what he wanted. The new terminal date
cut off the entire nineteenth century as well as the Great War. Nonetheless, the
designation served him adequately, and he used it until 1944, when he discon-
tinued his lectures after his election as Professor of Modern History. In later
years Buttereld made the claim that he was chiey responsible for transform-
ing the conception of modern European history in the Cambridge curriculum.
He was aware that his work was part of a general trend in historical study in
the 1930s.
When we look at the topics of his lectures in the 1930s, even after he had
implemented all his changes, we are struck by how little he actually changed.
The old topics persisted, indicating the remarkable power that the traditional
construction of European history had over him: the Renaissance, the cult of
Antiquity, the Reformation, Martin Luther, the Thirty Years War, the War of
Spanish Succession, Frederick the Great. Even when he consciously sought to
transform the subject, and in spite of his own advice in Whig Interpretation,
he retained the old interpretative structure and merely inserted a few new
topics next to the old ones. Notable among the new topics were several lec-
tures a year on the history of science, and a few on historical geography. The
lists of his titles as well as the lectures which survive in his papers show no
obvious coverage of economic and social history and only the barest reference
to economic and social factors, although the record of his lectures is not
complete.

Scientic History
The importance that Buttereld began to give to the history of science in
his lectures accompanied a new willingness to think about historical study as a
science. He had behind him the tradition of Acton and Ranke, who spoke of
historical science in the German sense of wissenschaften, by which they meant
chiey the methodical gathering and criticism of source documents. He knew
well Burys view that historians could render their histories scientic by em-
ploying the concept of the law of cause and effect in their explanations, al-
though he rejected the idea. In Whig Interpretation he showed no interest in
the notion of history as a science as such. He referred only in passing to the
legacy of Ranke with the comment that historians have placed upon a scien-
tic basis only one aspect of their studythe use of sources and the weighing
of evidence.
 General Horizons 95

It was his encounter with Marxism that pushed his thinking further about
history as a science. He begins to talk in earnest about scientic history. It is
noteworthy that nowhere in the Scrutiny essay on Marxism does he mention
the Marxist claim that their method is scientic, and he avoids reference to the
claim made by some Marxists that what makes their method scientic is their
discovery and application of the laws of history. Nonetheless, he broaches the
issue of scientic history in the opening lines of the essay and then returns to it
in his conclusion. After he has nished absorbing what he can from Marxist
historiography, he surprises us by mounting a defense of scientic history. If,
as he thinks, he can disconnect the method of studying history from the inter-
pretation of history, the Marxist objection notwithstanding, he goes a step
further to disconnect these two together from the notion of scientic history.
To do this he employs the metaphor of a journey in suggesting how scientic
history relates to interpretations of history. At the start of the journey are the
many interpretations of history populating the world. As samples he mentions
Marxist, Roman Catholic, Whig, and Bourgeois interpretations. He agrees
with the Marxists in regarding the Bourgeois view as the interpretation gov-
erning modern capitalist society. These interpretations differ from one another
from the start, in that each privileges a different particular element in life as the
key to the whole of history. In the case of the four views, they feature, respec-
tively, the class struggle, the church, English liberty, and property-owning
individuals operating in the market. These interpretations each tell a different
overall story and make the connections among the details in different ways.
Next on the journey come their different historical methods, which provide
guidelines about what to do and see in their research. But then, when they
engage in the actual historical research, they cease to differ, and they all use
precisely the same techniques of research, which are universal for all: docu-
ment search, criticism, and so on. The work of research becomes a process of
multiplying details, overlaying the original thesis with a thousand complica-
tions, and submitting the initial formulae to drastic re-visualization. Fi-
nally, at the end of the journey comes the history produced. He continues:
And at their highest, Marxist and Whig will end by laying out very much the
same piece of detailed history on a given subjectthough they will speak in
different terminology and move in a different order of ideas. It would be
wrong to imagine that it is only the bourgeois system that can rene itself into
what we call scientic history. For in the end both Marxist and Bourgeois must
learn that the interpretation which they regarded as the verdict of history was
itself neither more or less than the assumption which they brought to their
study of history; they must learn that in our interpretation of history we begin
under the tyranny of our own present. We hear the echo of his words in Whig
Interpretation about how historians explain things by simply adding more
96 General Horizons

and more detail, and about the dangers of reading the past from the perspec-
tive of something valued in the present. But he is saying more here. Scientic
history enables historians to surpass their differences in interpretation and to
achieve a single outcome. No matter what their initial interpretations of his-
tory, the procedures of research and the details produced will be, in the end,
the same for all historians.
Once he has said this, the doubts set in. As a matter of observation, it would
appear that the actual histories written by Marxists, Roman Catholics, Whigs,
and Bourgeois are not at all the same in the end. Adding more detail seems
simply to reinforce, rather than transform or eliminate or surpass, the inter-
pretative structures inhabited by Marxist, Roman Catholic, Whig, or Bour-
geois historians. Butterelds notion that his account of scientic history de-
nes the universal method which produces universal results for all historians is
simply his notion, one interpretation next to all the others. And his interpreta-
tion represents just another value from the present thrust upon the past. But-
tereld knows this. He immediately encloses his statements about scientic
history in modifying language. Maybe the Marxist is right that we never
really abandon our interpretations, maybe most historians never really be-
come scientic historians, maybe those who become scientic historians really
do so only within the detail of some restricted eld, maybe we never really
escape operating out of allegiances in the present. Under the circumstances, he
is saying, perhaps the best we can do is to accept the reality of difference
among historians, drop the ideal of a common history, and simply welcome
the Marxists to the scene. At least the Marxist interpretation might rejuvenate
history by starting from a more recent present and comporting better with our
modern society than the more antique Catholic, Whig, and Bourgeois inter-
pretations. When we nish reading the nal paragraphs of Butterelds essay,
we realize that his list of maybes has undermined the force of his assertions
about the universality of scientic history.
Buttereld goes on nonetheless to extend the divide he puts in position
between the interpretation of history and scientic history. Scientic history
should be set off not only from the interpretations of history provided by
Marxists, Bourgeois, Roman Catholics, and Whigs, but also from their re-
ligious convictions, philosophies of life, and politics. As he sees it, Marxist
materialism is a philosophy of life which, like religion, provides devoted
Marxists with a fundamental orientation to all of life and guides the course of
their lives. It is a presupposition about the universe and not an outcome of
historical inquiry. As such it ought to be kept rigorously separate from scien-
tic history, which consists of careful research. Scientic history is, in effect,
neutral to religion, philosophy of life, and political ideology.
 General Horizons 97

Butterelds proposal relies on the assumption that it is a simple matter to

set philosophical, religious, and political presuppositions to one side when
engaging in historical study. Applying the assumption to Marxism, he shows
how to do it. The Marxist insistence on being materialist, he says, can be
released from any philosophical statements about the character of the world,
and reread to mean nothing more than the urge to be matter-of-fact in
accessing things material in historical study. As he wrote in Whig Interpreta-
tion, in contrast with religion, the historical method as such is equipped by
denition to treat things material, external, and concrete, and to do so by
accumulating more and more details. The term materialist may be under-
stood, says Buttereld, to signify nothing more than the modern scientic
method in historical study. Buttereld has performed a word trick. His read-
ing of Marxist materialism misses the point of the Marxist claim to scientic
history, which does not mean at all what he means. It obliterates all that is
special to the interpretation, and tries to reduce it to his view of things material
and the character of scientic history. He removes the sting of a Marxist
interpretation of history.
In Scrutiny he co-opts the Marxist notion and calls what he is saying mate-
rialist: And if God is at the back of everything, still the historian cannot say
so; and if transcendental ideas are behind the rumblings of nature or the tides
of human life, still they do not come within the reach of historical evidence;
and though the materialist explanation of the universe may not be a full
explanation, or really an explanation at all, still it is the only kind of historical
explanation that our apparatus enables us to give. Concerning man himself it
may be said that the historian can never reach the essence of him; for the
historian can only study him in his external relations, his overt acts, his inter-
play with the environment. Buttereld is overstating his position when he
claims that the historians apparatus can give us merely a materialist explana-
tion. He declines to mention his deep convictions that a person is a whole
personality and that everything is interconnected, and he omits the role of
imaginative sympathy, which he said in Whig Interpretation enabled histo-
rians to go beyond the merely material and gain entry into the interiors of
other people. In other words, he keeps quiet about the unity of life. At the
moment, while engaging Marxism, he needs to stress the duality of life, the
polarity of the material and the spiritual, in order to establish the separateness
of scientic history from religion, philosophies of life, and politics. His drive is
to take from a Marxist interpretation what he can, even as he rejects the rest.
We realized that we are witnessing his reconciling method at work. We also see
the dissenter in operation as he tweaks the British establishment by his display
of sympathy for Marxism.
98 General Horizons

During the 1930s, after this encounter with Marxism and while he created
his lectures on the history of science within modern European history, Butter-
eld continued to meditate on scientic history. It was during his study of
Machiavelli, quite apart from Bury and even the Marxists, that he faced the
question of laws in history, or at least the phenomenon of historical maxims.
The bulk of The Statecraft of Machiavelli consisted of an analysis of Ma-
chiavellis method and contribution to what Buttereld regarded as the scien-
tic study of politics. His analysis rested on a careful collation of Machiavellis
various writingsThe Prince, The Discourses, The History of Florence, the
lettersand not merely on the much disputed Prince. He took the position
that saw continuity in thought running across all the writings and counted The
Prince to be more akin to the other writings than not. He argued that the same
maxims and the same scientic statecraft recurred throughout the corpus.
Approaching Machiavelli as the historian, Buttereld detects the presence
of unintended and even unrecognized consequences. Machiavellis intentions,
he argues, were to bind himself rmly to Greek and Roman antiquity and
work entirely in the manner of the ancients, without the slightest inkling of
performing something new. Machiavelli wished simply to discuss the lessons
of history and by deduction to identify the maxims which might prove useful
to a prince desiring to achieve or retain power in the state. However, says
Buttereld, in the process of doing this, Machiavelli stumbled upon some-
thing quite new, what came to be designated as the modern method of induc-
tive thinking and the modern use of history for the scientic study of politi-
cal action.
When Buttereld speaks of Machiavellis science, he has two notions in
mind. The rst would have been recognizable to the man himself. Using the
terms of Pasquale Villari, Machiavellis early biographer, Buttereld contends
that, to Machiavelli, science would have meant the demonstration of pre-
cepts relating to political action. The purpose of this sort of study was to
identify specic preceptsor maximspertinent to public life, and then to
collect them for the benet of the state. The appropriate use of these maxims
would grant to rulers the power to control certain kinds of events previously
believed to be products of mere chance.
How were the maxims demonstrated? At this point Buttereld shifts his
focus and introduces a second notion, which Machiavelli would not have un-
derstood. He contends that Machiavelli goes beyond merely nding maxims
in the writings of the ancient authors, and that quite without intending it he
engages in a different kind of process, thinking by induction. Machiavelli
happens on a method that later became a mark of modern science. Science in
this modern sense referred to the methods of inductive analysis and the knowl-
 General Horizons 99

edge derived thereby. Buttereld depicts Machiavelli as a gatherer in the eld

of history, picking up instances of certain kinds of political happenings and
then submitting his ndings to comparative analysis. For example, Machia-
velli found many cases of conspiracies against rulers, compared them all, and
perceived in them causes, sequences, and consequences that happened when-
ever a conspiracy occurred. Buttereld calls this mode of reasoning induction.
The statement produced by Machiavelli at the end of this process of thinking is
the maxim. The maxim is a generalization, put in the form of an implied or
explicit conditional clause using if . . . then. The maxim could serve to
guide the ruler when he wished to avoid the conditions which made for a
conspiracy.
Buttereld nds examples of the appropriate maxims in The Discourses.
Machiavelli offered maxims such as the following, found in a famous chapter
on conspiracies: it will be found generally that they [conspiracies] are made
either against the country or against the prince. . . . In the rst instance we will
treat of those that are aimed against the sovereign and examine the causes that
provoke them; these are many, though one is more important than all the rest,
namely, his being hated by the mass of the people. . . . A prince, then, should
avoid incurring such universal hatred; and, as I have spoken elsewhere of the
way to do this, I will say no more about it here. The reference to elsewhere,
says Buttereld, is to The Prince. The generalization is about types of conspir-
acies and recurrent causes. The form of the statement is an implied condi-
tional, that is, if a prince wishes to prevent a conspiracy, then he should avoid
incurring such universal hatred. That is the maxim. The maxim bears the
marks of one variety of what in Butterelds time was often called a law.
Ostensibly, Buttereld is merely providing a historical description of Ma-
chiavellis thinking. But he is also bringing himself to afrm the validity of the
comparative analysis of recurrent events as a method of constructing useful
historical knowledge. In modern hands, Buttereld concedes, the method
may lead to the discovery of quasi-technical political maxims, which are
valid, humanly speaking, and are of practical use. He recalls his engagement
with Marxist historical thought in the early 1930s, and, under the impulse of
Machiavelli, now half-acknowledges a major subject which previously he had
avoided, namely the Marxist claim that their history is scientic by virtue of
their dealing with the laws of history. He writes, And the Marxists have made
an interesting extension of Machiavelli when they have gone to history to
learn the science of insurrection, the mechanics of subversive activity, and the
wider doctrines of revolutionary strategy. Buttereld is cautiously exploring
the themes of lessons and laws in history, but he strains not to mouth the word
lesson or even principles, and he is certainly not ready to speak of laws
100 General Horizons

in history. So far he is willing to admit nothing more than that the concept of
science embraces what both Machiavelli and the Marxists do when they think
about history. Does scientic history include working with the idea of histor-
ical laws? At this moment he does not say.
The Statecraft of Machiavelli is a history book of sorts, but it is also an
exercise in thinking about historical discourse. In particular, it is the rst time
at length in print that Buttereld has discussed the notion of the scientic
study of history. Equally important, he has added a new particle to his under-
standing of history as a science: the notion of maxims. He has also made
Machiavelli a xture on his scholarly horizon. By the end of the 1930s, as a
product of his engagement with Marxism, Machiavelli, and the history of
science, he has securely placed the notion of scientic history in his portfolio of
historical language. And he means by the notion more than Ranke and the
careful search for and criticism of documents.

Projects
Butterelds work during the 1930s added substantially to his local rep-
utation. Throughout the decade he lled ve or six invitations a year to pre-
sent papers to the historical societies of various Cambridge colleges. He be-
came a founding member of the universitys inter-faculty committee on the
history of science in the mid-thirties and helped persuade the university to
authorize weekly lectures on the history of science in 1937. He continued a
member of the History Faculty board from 1935 onwards and was elected to
the degree committee. He became acting editor of the Cambridge Historical
Journal in 1936, and then in 1938 he succeeded Temperley as the second
permanent editor of the journal, greatly increasing his stature. Except for
occasional visits to Oxford as an examiner during the mid-thirties, Cambridge
continued to absorb his life and interests.
In 1939 Cambridge University Press, aware of his successes, approached
Buttereld about writing a book in connection with his lectures on modern
European history. At rst the Press had in mind a sixth-form textbook. Butter-
eld showed little interest. After some thought, the Press returned with a
different invitation. They asked him to write The Concise Cambridge Modern
History. The reference to Actons great idea was inescapable. This time they
excited his imagination. He signed a contract on 8 December 1939 to produce
450,000 words, amounting to two huge volumes, due at the Press by 31 De-
cember 1942. Butterelds modern history would parallel a medieval history
by Previt-Orton, now the Professor of Medieval History. The work would
 General Horizons 101

allow him to go beyond Acton. He could make his own contribution to the
reconstruction of general history.
The 1942 deadline was not as unrealistic as it might seem on the face of it.
When he agreed to the contract he knew he had other writing projects already
on his table, but he had reason to believe that he could resume, indeed was
resuming, the productive practices he once followed during the 1920s. Writing
at top speed, he had just completed Napoleon, his little biography of the
French emperor published in 1939. He had in his hands a nearly nished
manuscript for The Statecraft of Machiavelli, targeted for publication in 1940.
Moreover, he already possessed a tall stack of manuscripts for his lectures on
general European history, virtually a rst draft of the Concise History. For the
sake of his commitment to general history he convinced himself to put aside
his research on Fox in order to write up his lectures as a book.
Butterelds life swiftly became more complicated than he foresaw. When he
signed the contract for the Concise History in early December 1939, what we
came to call the Second World War had already begun. The Germans had
already annexed Austria and annihilated the Czech state in 1938. Now, in
1939, they rolled their armies into Poland on 1 September. The French and
British responded by declaring war on Germany on 3 September. The Russians
invaded Poland on 17 September, then imposed their domination on Estonia,
Latvia, and Lithuania, and on 30 November invaded Finland. We can be
amazed that Buttereld agreed to the 1942 deadline at such a moment. Nei-
ther he nor the Press understood the magnitude and intensity of what was
happening. He did complete Statecraft of Machiavelli by January 1940. But
then in February 1940 the war moved westward, and the Germans soon con-
quered Norway and Denmark. By May they conquered the Netherlands, Bel-
gium, and Luxemburg, and invaded France. British forces retreated from Dun-
kirk on the coast of France at the end of May and early June. Italy entered the
war against Britain and France. By mid-June the Germans took control of
France. In July they conquered the British Channel Islands of Jersey and
Guernsey. In August they bombed mainland Britain. Butterelds little world
collapsed. There was no longer time to pick up his manuscripts for the Concise
Cambridge History, and the war raged on.
 5

Patriotic History

Quietism
The movements leading to the Second World War in the 1930s as well as
the war itself directly affected Butterelds work as historian. Throughout the
thirties, while he continued his research on Fox and produced his lectures on
general history, he felt the expansion of his world horizon. He began to shift
his attention away from his narrow xation on the notable Cambridge histo-
rians who had inspired him. He reected on world affairs and read a wider
range of historians.
He felt most disturbed by the cacophony of voices in England and on the
continent of Europe proclaiming their conicting truths for the world. The
voices he heard were many. There were his students advocating Marxism from
the early 1930s, and upholding the Soviet Union as their example. There were
the Nazis staging their rallies in Cambridge to trumpet Adolf Hitlers rise to
power in Germany. Buttereld attended a Nazi rally on Parkers Piece in Cam-
bridge in May 1933 to witness their appeal for himself. There were the advo-
cates of the Spanish Republicans and the advocates of the Spanish Phalangists.
There were the capitalists who, in spite of the economic depression after 1929,
put their trust in the revival of their markets and businesses and banks, and
heralded the good life. There were others devoted to family, and still others
committed to fun and drink and sex. There were the political parties in En-

102
 Patriotic History 103

glandConservative, Liberal, Labour, Communist, and the restoffering

their solutions for the desperate ills of the country and society.
Buttereld responded to this chorus of certainties by trying to articulate
what he regarded as basic in life. We nd him expressing his convictions in
religious terms in two brief statements in his diary from 1932 and 1933. One
of these amounted to a profession of faith in which he made afrmations of
God, personality, and a spiritual universe, beliefs he had held for a long time:
For if we have a passion it is better that this should be for God than for
country or business or family. If we have an obsession it is better that this
should be for spiritual things than for sex or liberty or war. If we have an aim it
is better that we should desire to rescue personality and open to mens minds a
spiritual universe than to promote a political cause or a party programme. If
we have a certainty, a pole-star for our minds, much better x ourselves on
God than on anything in this world of endless mutation.
The other statement added afrmations of the necessity of inward piety and
outward charity towards others: To live a life of piety is inwardly to trust God
and often to have communion with him and also to place ones treasure in
heaven. The fruits of this are contentment and reconciliation within the self,
and the acquisition of inner lifethe building up of a fund of spiritual re-
sources, and the deepening of personality. The blossom is in charity that over-
ows to all men, and in a life that is lived humbly in the world. In all this there
is something very difcult for sophisticated men. And it is utter foolishness to
those who are worldly wise. With these statements Buttereld signalled his
ever more resolute attachment to a philosophy of personalism, an ethic cen-
tred on personal spirituality and interpersonal morality. His words mirrored
his ever more conscious practical abandonment of matters connected with
politics, the economy, and society. He found in his personalism the resources
for dissent from any political party and program whatsoever. His ethic took
the form of a quietism that left the world free for the reign of the status quo
and the counter-certainties of others.
He voiced these things in his diary. It was a message consistent, we may
suppose, with his preaching on the Methodist circuit since his teenage years.
Now, however, he began to doubt whether he should try to preach his piety at
all. In his diary for 1933 he admitted to an inhibition against preaching arising
deep within him: A lover who misjudges can be borne; a lover who lapses into
indelity may be forgiven; but one who speaks of his mistress with vulgarity
can never be allowed, for his sin is a spiritual one. I think perhaps a Christian
should talk little of his religion lest he fall into this sin. It is the part of a
spiritual man to be austere with his thoughts and to know what is tting. . . . I
think that the best evidence of Christianity in the heart is quiet assurance, and
104 Patriotic History

a ame that burns in silence, and a charity forever expressing itself, forever
unexpressed; and with these a serene orderliness and a calm reliance on provi-
dence. His reections passed from sexuality to spirituality and back again. A
high doctrine of personality was his central tenet. But now doubts arose in him
that he could not suppress. He began to wonder whether the defects in human
personality might not outweigh the glory of human beings. The implication
was clear. The defects might challenge the doctrine of divine creation itself. In
his diary he was frank: I should like to know whether the universe was
created as a magnicent stage on which human beings were to play out their
lives, or whether men are but the bye-product, the accident of cosmic pro-
cesses, perhaps representing or containing in themselves some disease, or im-
plying a derangement in the cosmic processes; perhaps they only signify dif-
ferent ways of looking at the same thing.
His reections induced less certainty about his warrant to preach. He took
fewer engagements for lay preaching on the Methodist circuit in the early
thirties. By 1936 he allowed his lay preaching to lapse altogether. His appear-
ance as a Friday evening preacher at Wesley House in June 1936 could well
have been his nal sermon. He allowed his name to remain on the list of lay
preachers on the Cambridge circuit, however, and there it stayed until he died
forty-three years later. We should be clear about what happened. Ceasing to
preach in public meant no slackening of his religious motivation or his com-
mitment to worship or his quiet loyalty to the Methodist Church. He con-
tinued his teaching of ecclesiastical history at Wesley House, continued his
support of the Wesley Society for undergraduates in the university, which he
had began doing in 1933, and attended Wesley Church as usual. He went
home to Oxenhope at least once a year and stayed close to his father and his
Methodist roots.
Buttereld meditated on the questions of morality and history which had
occupied him in the last chapter of Whig Interpretation in 1931. He lled
his diary with his thoughts and wrote little thought-essays to himself. He
read a paper, History and Ethics, to the Cambridge History Club in Febru-
ary 1936. Acton was still the prod, but now he contemplated public events
around him. He particularly disliked the outcry in 1936 against King Ed-
ward VIII because of his relationship with Mary Wallis Simpson, a divorced
American woman with no aristocratic standing. Buttereld interpreted the
episode as a prime case of self-righteousness. He occupied his mind with the
problems of making moral judgments against people, with the harm resulting
from what he began to name as self-righteousness, and with the inescapable
presence of sin in everyone. He began with himself. He contemplated his own
behaviour and thoughts, and had new feelings of his own ability to sin. The
 Patriotic History 105

issue was not abstract for him, and his feelings affected his historical thinking
about moral judgments. His reections mingled thoughts of sin, sexuality,
and understanding. He was frank about himself: I can see in myself all possi-
bilities of sin excepthomosexualism. One may condemn heartlessness; but,
if one understands, one will scarcely condemn a man for the mere contraven-
tion of the customary code in matters of sex. In another entry, he wrote of
sin and charity: The supreme sin in a Christian is to refuse understanding to
sinners. When my own sins come home to me, how can I feel other men so
sinful as I know myself to be? And in any case must I not have an eagles eye to
my own sins, and charity towards the sins of others? His awareness of his own
proclivities, and his sweeping condemnation of himself gave impetus to his
admonition to understand others and not to play the judge. Butterelds
comments on the universality of sin, starting with oneself, and his emphasis on
the sin of self-righteousness appear to date from this period in the mid-1930s.
The belief in human sinfulness occupied a secure position in the creeds of the
Christian religion, and Buttereld would have known this from his youth, but
now he began to place such an emphasis on the doctrine that it became here-
after a characteristic feature of his historical thought.
Without a pause he expanded these reections on moral judgments and
personal behaviour to politics, notably to the Fascists: I do not defend the
Fascists for being violent; but I wish that the enemies of the Fascists could be
more gentle. Though we may regard a certain doctrine as working to corrupt
and degrade the world, it is our duty to understand that doctrine, and to give
sympathy and imagination to those people who have been seduced by it.
His views of spirituality and morality shaped his political behaviour in the
1930s. His self-imposed injunction against promoting a political cause or a
party programme gave him little motivation for political activity. His desire
to give sympathy and imagination to those people whose practices and
doctrines he might dislike impeded his taking sides for or against a political
party. He acknowledged late in life that throughout his entire career he almost
never voted in parliamentary or local elections. He recalled voting only once
or twice at each level. He supplied the explanation that to vote for one party
over others implied that he judged one party to be morally and politically
superior. And given his general attitude of dissent, he disliked voting for a
winner, lest the winner consider the result a license to act superior to the others
and proceed to abuse power. In any case, his new quietism discouraged his
vote. He relished the memory of one occasion when he voted in a general
parliamentary election in the 1930s, most likely the election of 1935. Under
the existing laws he had the right to cast three votes. He cast one for a Conser-
vative, one for a Liberal, and one for a Socialist, thinking he had balanced
106 Patriotic History

things nicely. To his surprise all three candidates won. He declared that he
found the outcome so disconcerting that he hardly ever entered a polling
booth since that date.

Opposing Moralities
A test of his injunctions against the intrusion of moral judgments into
historical study came in 1938 in relation to Hitler and the Nazis. Quite against
his stated views, the episode drew him unmistakably into politics. A lecturer in
the English Seminar at the University of Bonn, who knew of Butterelds Whig
Interpretation of History, arranged for the university to invite him to come to
Bonn in December 1938 to present a paper on the history of the Whig inter-
pretation. The invitation soon expanded to give the paper at the universities of
Cologne, Munster, and Berlin. Buttereld found the topic instantly appealing,
replying that, although he had never thought of looking into the question, he
would welcome the inquiry intellectually. Because of his appreciation for
Ranke and Acton, he had an afnity with German traditions in historical
scholarship and recognized immediately that the history of historical thinking
and writing had long attracted German intellectuals.
The timing and settings of his appearances in Germany were politically
awkward, however, and Buttereld knew this. In March 1938 the Germans
had invaded and annexed Austria. Neville Chamberlain, the British prime
minister, went to Germany to negotiate with Hitler in mid-September, and
again on 29 September at Munich. There he talked with Hitler, as well as
Benito Mussolini, and Edouard Daladier of France. The negotiations yielded
British approval of Hitlers annexation of the Sudetenland, the German-
speaking areas of Czechoslovakia. The next couple of months were partic-
ularly tense.
In the face of these events, Buttereld took advice, as he called it, in
Cambridge, from whom we do not know, but surely Vellacott, before deciding
whether to go to Germany. Butterelds record of behaviour towards the Nazis
up to this moment was ambiguous. Since at least the mid-thirties he had made
clear to his students that he disliked Hitlers unlimited dictatorship. As the
dissenter against state hegemony and establishment, he could scarcely do oth-
erwise. Nonetheless, he did not follow Trevelyan and Gooch, two people
close to him, whose practice he could easily have made his own. Since 1933
both Trevelyan and Gooch had publicly opposed Hitler and given direct assis-
tance to anti-Nazi scholars eeing Germany. Instead, Buttereld adopted a
policy consistent with his views of the universality and neutrality of scientic
history. His policy called for him to engage in historical discussions and pro-
 Patriotic History 107

mote cordial relations with any historians who sought his company, without
regard to their political views. He knowingly applied his policy to German
historians amenable to the Nazis. His attitude was the analogue to the British
prime ministers policy of appeasement towards Hitler. He favoured Cham-
berlains strategy of negotiation with Hitler as a plausible way to avoid war.
At the same time, like Chamberlain, he abhorred the German takeover of
German-speaking Czechoslovakia and personally favoured Czech indepen-
dence. At a more profound level, however, the views he had written in Whig
Interpretation committed him to separate historical study from politics and to
treat historians differently from political gures. His academic connections
with German scholars, whether Nazi or not, were, to him, appropriate to
scholarly activity, and not a question of politics at all.
After reection, Buttereld concluded that he would go to Germany. In
December 1938 he lectured in Bonn, Munster, Cologne, and Berlin, Hitlers
capital. He knew that his hosts supported Hitler and the Nazi government,
and that the people in his audiences probably did too.
His policy had led him during the 1930s to get close to Hans K. Galinsky,
whom he knew to be a Nazi and whose Nazi views he knew well. Galinsky
was a specialist in seventeenth-century English history, and he made frequent
trips to England both before and after Hitler came to power in 1933. While in
England he sought to recruit English scholars for the Nazi cause, or at least to
soften their resistance to the Nazis. He often came to Peterhouse to see Butter-
eld. Galinsky arranged the invitation for Buttereld to lecture at Berlin in
1938 and served as his host for the occasion. To Galinsky, Butterelds pres-
ence at that precise time in four German universities, especially in Berlin,
boosted the Nazi cause. Butterelds act helped legitimize Nazi rule, even if
Buttereld uttered not one explicit word of politics during the visit. Soon
afterwards, in March 1939, following the German annexation of Prague and
the elimination of the Czech state, Buttereld welcomed Galinsky once more
at Peterhouse and took him strolling along the River Cam. This he did even
though, he said later, the German assault on Prague angered him intensely,
more than any other event in international politics up to that time. Nonethe-
less, Buttereld was determined against all the pressures as well as against his
own feelings to draw a distinction between the acts of the German govern-
ment, which he might dislike, and the acts of a German scholar, even when his
support of the German scholar abetted the acts of the German government.
When the Germans invaded France in 1940, the German government
quickly installed Galinsky as professor of English at the University of Stras-
bourg which, along with everything else, came under German control. After
the defeat of the Nazis and the end of the war, the restored French authorities
108 Patriotic History

removed Galinsky from the chair in Strasbourg. Buttereld wrote references

on his behalf in 1946 and 1948 to help him secure an academic appointment in
post-Nazi Germany. About his Nazism Buttereld stated, Though I disap-
proved of some of his views in the 1930s, I did not feel it difcult to under-
stand how he had arrived at them, and I always thought that his case was one
that could be humanly explained. He added, I did not think him unreason-
able in his love of his own country. And further, if I thought that he had,
perhaps, an excessive love of his country, I dont think he had more of it than
many men of other countries, including our own.
The Galinsky story indicated how Butterelds political quietism, his pro-
hibition against moral judgments, and his doctrine of the separateness of
historical study from religion, life-philosophies, and politics had the ironic
effect of inducing him to abet Nazi interests. His acts possessed distinctly
political meaning at the time. Butterelds views during the 1930s, and par-
ticularly his trip to Germany, stimulated talk around Cambridge that he had
fascist tendencies. The talk stung him, and, as he would recall years later, he
felt he had been seriously misunderstood. Noel Annan was among those who
circulated the story ever after that Buttereld was soft on Nazis.
Buttereld received another invitation in 1938 which carried exactly the
opposite political meaning and led him to express precisely the opposite poli-
tics. In May 1938, after the German annexation of Austria, he signed a con-
tract with Duckworth, an English publishing house, to write a short life of
Napoleon for their series Great Lives in history. It was a publishers project,
timed to take advantage of the analogy then commonly drawn between Napo-
leon and Hitler. With events in Europe moving rapidly, the contract demanded
that he write in a rush. The manuscript was due 31 December 1938, imme-
diately after his trip to Germany. He probably saw the book as an opportunity
to round off his Napoleon interest, although he could not overlook the politi-
cal connotations of a work on Napoleon at that very moment.
The writing took longer than planned, and the new timing fullled the
publishers wildest fantasies. His little book of 143 pages, entitled Napoleon,
appeared in the fall of 1939, moments after the German Blitzkrieg against
Poland. Hitlers armies, like Napoleons before him, were rolling across Eu-
rope. Buttereld supplied English readers with all the parallels between Napo-
leon and Hitler that they needed to understand their current despair.
Butterelds language in the book is clear. Napoleon was a tyrant. Napoleon
was intentionally a tyrant. Buttereld lled the book with judgments which
looked like the kind he had forbidden in The Whig Interpretation of History,
judgments against Napoleon, against the man as well as against his actions.
He structured the historical narrative around an implicit moral judgment: that
 Patriotic History 109

dictatorship is wrong, that dictators themselves are wrong, and that individual
liberty is right. His primary thesis delineates Napoleons transition from what
Buttereld called an initial liberalism to a higher distillation of tyranny,
from a war for freedom and self-determination to a fabulous career of
conquest. He raises Napoleon up on a stick in order to display two lessons of
history: the corrupting effects of unbridled power, and the inevitability
of the downfall of a dictatorship. The echos of Lord Acton reverberate
through the book.
Trevelyans review of the book in January 1940 caught the point. The chief
interest of this little book, wrote Trevelyan, is the light it throws on the
origins of the present disastrous condition of Europe. Buttereld wrote the
book with the image of Hitler on his mind, and he contradicted all the admoni-
tions against the presentistic fallacy which he had issued in Whig Interpreta-
tion. And by means of the analogy between Napoleon and Hitler, he used his
historical thought for explicitly political purposes: to support the emerging
British position against Nazi tyranny.

History for the Sake of England

Buttereld spent the entire Second World War in Cambridge. Unlike
many other historians, he was not asked to do government war service, and he
did not volunteer. The contrast with Temperleys and Vellacotts history of war
service was stark. He stayed at Peterhouse and helped keep the college and the
Faculty of History going. He was one of only four Fellows of the college who
remained in Cambridge throughout the war, and no vacant fellowships were
lled. The undergraduate enrolment dropped from the average of around 150
during the 1920s and 1930s to about 100 in 19401941, and then declined to
about 50 in 19441945. Butterelds supervisions actually increased to fteen
per week. He busied himself with general college duties and took instruction in
how to extinguish German re bombs if any landed on Peterhouse. The
college hosted for a time the faculty and students of Chichester Theological
College. Peterhouse also played host to the London School of Economics
during most of the war after its evacuation from London in 1939. R. H.
Tawney and Harold Laski became regulars at high table, and a Socialist Club
convened in the college. Buttereld rejoined the board of the History Faculty
for most of the war, and held the central administrative position of secretary.
Peterhouse had fallen into a crisis of its own at the opening of the war. In
1938 things had looked extremely good for the college. Temperley was elected
Master upon the death of Lord Birdwood, returning the college to the head-
ship of a scholar and a historian. Temperley, then fty-nine, was the Senior
110 Patriotic History

Fellow as well as Professor of Modern History. He lived at the peak of his

fame. In the same year Postan married Eileen Power and became Professor of
Economic History on the retirement of J. H. Clapham, giving Peterhouse three
professorshipsBarker, Temperley, Postanout of the now eight in the His-
tory Faculty. One of Butterelds own students became a Fellow with the
election of Brian Wormald, who had come up to Peterhouse in 1931. He lled
Temperleys spot as a Fellow after Temperleys assumed the Mastership, per-
mitting Peterhouse to boast ve historians out of ten Fellows and a Master.
The Peterhouse reputation for historical studies was immense.
Then the crisis unrolled. To the shock of all, Temperley died in less than a
year, in July 1939, only sixty years of age. Acting quickly, the college recalled
Vellacott from Harrow as the new Master, keeping an academic and a histo-
rian at the head of things. On top of this, Barker retired, costing Peterhouse a
professorship among the Fellows. Again acting quickly, when Denis Brogan
succeeded Barker as Professor of Political Science, retaining the historical
emphasis of that chair, the college elected Brogan a Fellow of Peterhouse. With
the start of the war, the college lost even Vellacott as Master when he was
called up for war duty. The college had to make do with an acting Master,
R. Lubbock, an engineering Fellow.
The death of Temperley threw open the professorship of modern history.
His obituary in the Cambridge Historical Journal, written by Buttereld,
praised him as the epitome of Cambridge History. The tribute by G. P.
Gooch for the British Academy gave him highest praise as well. It would
require a historian of stature to succeed Temperley. All the signs made it
plausible to think of Buttereld himself as the successor. He was Temperleys
intellectual heir, and he had followed Temperley as editor of the Cambridge
Historical Journal. He was already an inuential historian, the voice on gen-
eral modern history to whom others listened. Cambridge University Press
thought of him as the match for Previt-Orton, already the Professor of Medi-
eval History, to write the Concise Cambridge Modern History. He had already
published four books with a fth on the way. Trevelyan, still the Regius Pro-
fessor, told him after reading Napoleon, Now, for the rst time, I am sure you
will be a remarkable historian and do big things, if you will get along and write
some larger book. It would be hard not to imagine even Buttereld thinking
of himself as the successor in the chair. The rising ambition was palpable.
The war halted the speculations, however, as well as all new appointments,
and the chair in modern history went vacant. Three more history professor-
ships soon fell vacantthe Dixie chair in ecclesiastical history, the Regius
chair in modern history, and the chair in medieval history.
 Patriotic History 111

The war and the events in England surrounding it pulled Buttereld irresist-
ibly into the war effort. His own experience illustrated precisely the model
of human action which his recent work on George III had brought him to:
social systems could override the free actions of individual personalities in
history, and the entanglements of history can overwhelm the will of the single
personality.
Buttereld had signed the contract to write The Concise Cambridge Mod-
ern History in December 1939, during the earliest moments of the war. He
may well have perceived his production of so large a work as just the right kind
of a service for a historian to render to his nation in time of trouble. Such a
purpose might explain why he agreed to do it at that point. He could give the
English the general history of Europe they needed to orient their understand-
ing of their current terror and help them look beyond the present by means of a
wider knowledge of the past. With such a purpose in view, Buttereld might
have felt an urgency to write for the 1942 deadline to which the contract
bound him.
Buttereld the historian inserted a war-related point into The Statecraft of
Machiavelli, which Bell published early in 1940: The only true portrait of
Machiavellianism is a Napoleon Bonaparte. And he is the clearest commen-
tary upon the system. It took merely a breath for the reader to utter the name
of Hitler as well. Butterelds historical studies could continue to help the
English understand their present circumstances. Ironically, German bombs
blunted the point. The bombs fell on the publishers warehouse in London and
destroyed all but a few hundred copies of Statecraft of Machiavelli. The book
received very little circulation at the time. It was not until 1955, when Bell
issued the second printing, that it drew much attention. The publisher then
made much of the destruction of the rst printing during the war.
The year 1940 which brought the war to England brought it close to Butter-
eld. On 24 September, German bombs shattered the glass in his home on
Tension Road. Just two weeks later, on 8 October, the day after his fortieth
birthday, he was in Broadcast House, London, at the invitation of the BBC, to
discuss the analogy of Napoleon and Hitler on national radio. Buttereld had
abandoned his remaining inhibitions against speaking directly to the need of
the hour. He delivered what the BBC wanted. He told his listeners that Hitler
was more terrible than Napoleon, the incarnation of a more sinister thing.
Nevertheless, he gave the assurance that bolsters sagging spirits. Provided
Hitler did not invade England, he proclaimed, we . . . may nd our comfort in
the Napoleonic analogy, and expect the defeat of this latest dictator in the
end. In the style of historical analysis which he had learned from Machiavelli
112 Patriotic History

and Marx, Buttereld compared the rise and fall of two dictators. He pre-
sumed it to be a maxim of history that dictators eventually collapse under their
own tyranny.
Throughout 1940, while the Germans bombed London, Coventry, and
Cambridge, Buttereld listened attentively as Winston Churchill, the new aris-
tocratic prime minister, urged the English to rely on the legacy of their history
for strength in their darkest hour. This was a message Buttereld the historian
could feel directed at him. We do not know exactly when he abandoned his
support for negotiation with Hitler. Even after the war began, he disliked the
resort to war and still preferred a negotiated settlement with the Nazis. Cam-
bridge gossip long afterwards claimed that Buttereld favoured a separate
peace settlement with Germany as late as 1943, when the Allies were pressing
for unconditional surrender. The gossip also had Buttereld going to parties in
the German consulate in DublinIreland remained ofcially neutralin
1943. We may conclude from his diary in 1940 and his broadcast Napoleon
and Hitler for the BBC in October 1940 that at least by then, if he ever had
such thoughts about a separate peace, he no longer had them. Cambridge
Review published his BBC talk in June 1941. In 1944 he acknowledged that
Churchills war appeal in 1940 was instrumental in the change he made in his
own views.
Buttereld joined the ght against Hitler. But this he did on his own terms,
as the dissenter and in a way that comported well with his dictates on moral
judgments. In his diary for 1940 he wrote rmly yet characteristically: Fight
the Germansyes, certainly, if we have to. Fight to save human beings from
oppression or even to save the homeland from being invaded by foreigners,
however virtuous. But do not think of them or treat them as sub-human. . . .
Let us say rather: What did we do wrong? What could we have done to
prevent the Germans from feeling that they must turn to Hitler?
Buttereld found other tangible ways to join the war effort against Ger-
many, and to do so as a historian. Both of these came before 1943. First, he
agreed to participate in a project directed by J. M. Wordie for the Naval
Intelligence Division of the Admiralty. The project was based at a sub-centre
established at Cambridge for the purpose. The task was to write a history of
France as a large section of a four-volume handbook on France. The hand-
book, one of many in a series on countries of the world touched by the war,
was intended for use by commanding ofcers and other personnel to help
them in their conduct of the ghting. It was designed especially for naval use,
but also with the army, air force, and other government departments in mind.
The handbook also included sections on French geography, the economy, and
government, as well as a nal section on French ports and communication
 Patriotic History 113

systems. The fourth volume contained photos with multiple views of French
ports, maps showing access to harbors, diagrams, tables, and lengthy descrip-
tionsthe sorts of things helpful as background for invasion, which Naval
Intelligence nicely caught by the term visits to a new country. All four vol-
umes were stamped restricted, not to be shown or made available to the
press or other members of the public. The new volumes replaced the originals
rst produced for used during the Great War.
The chief writers of the section on French history, entitled Historical Out-
line: 17891940, were the historical geographer H. C. Darby, who served as
general editor, Denis Brogan, and Buttereld, with help from Ernest Barker
and I. L. Foster. It was a heavily Peterhouse undertaking. Naval Intelligence
issued the volumes between June and October 1942, with volume 2, Butter-
elds volume, dated September. Cambridge University Press printed the vol-
umes, and the title page identied the Naval Intelligence Division as the pub-
lisher. It was most certainly government-sponsored history.
Buttereld produced his share in a white heat. The war effort needed help.
The handbook from the rst war was badly out of date, yet still being used. He
wrote most of the section covering the period from the French Revolution and
Napoleon I to Napoleon III. Nearly half of his text represented a condensed
version of his book Napoleon. He dwelt on Napoleon, whom he depicted as
the military dictator and heir of the revolution, and then skipped rapidly from
1814 to 1870. The analogy with Hitler was obvious in the context, as in his
BBC broadcast in 1940 and his article in 1941. His rendering of the history
offered the traditional concentration on politics, diplomacy, and war, to the
neglect of social, economic, religious, and intellectual themes. As war work it
was useful. Naval Intelligence liked it. As history it was not something Butter-
eld was particularly proud of, and after the war he forgot, or liked to think
that he forgot, that he had done it. Nonetheless, well after the war Cambridge
University Press turned the history section into a book, A Short History of
France. Only the title and headings were changed, with new chapters added on
the postwar period. It circulated widely.
Another project involved him an extraordinary multinational adventure
against the Germans. In 1941, unprompted, he made contacts with various
European governments-in-exile in London, including the Czechs, the Free
French, and the Poles, and successfully located some exiled historians. He
joined with Ernest Barker to organize two conferences of refugee historians
at Peterhouse, one in March 1942 and the second a year later. Czechs, Poles,
and Hungarians dominated the conferences. He cancelled a third conference
scheduled for 1944 because, he said, things had become too busy. It looked,
rather, as if Buttereld had lost his spirit for the project.
114 Patriotic History

The conferences had activated conicting sympathies within him. On one

side, he desired to support the war effort in favour of the nations overrun by
Hitler. On the other, he wanted to promote what he now began calling the
academic view among historians of all nations as well as a general and non-
nationalistic approach to European history. He came to feel that the historians
at his conferences were more interested in simply combatting the Germans.
Their weapons were nationalistic and explicitly politicized versions of the
history of their own homelands. Buttereld felt caught between his own patri-
otic politics and his historical theory. He tied himself in knots worrying about
fostering what appeared to him to be history as political propaganda.
His initial solution to the problem in the extremities of the moment was, as
he wrote to colleagues in Cambridge, in the present situation [to] depart from
the rigidly academic view. He decided to facilitate the moderate propa-
ganda of the refugee historians, allied as they were with England, but to reject
the push for passionate propaganda, rising to very heated rhetoric. He was
unsure how to draw a straight line between the two. During the second con-
ference, he participated in a discussion of German perversions of historiogra-
phy. Buttereld perhaps eased the inner tensions he thus created for himself
by simultaneously serving on a national British committee which recom-
mended writing text-books on the history of European civilization of an
objective character.
Buttereld continued to lecture to undergraduates at Cambridge during the
war, and he sought to use his history teaching to help the war effort. In 1943,
during a particularly awful moment of the war, he conceived a course of
lectures which he called The Historical Background for General Knowl-
edge. He got as far as constructing an outline. The function of the lectures
would have been to take the students behind the headlines and provide them
with a deeper understanding of why things in Europe had led to war. He
believed that history, and especially historical geography, could be particu-
larly useful as an agent of understanding. He never got to give the course,
however.
At that same moment in the war, he actually wrote a 330-page draft of a
book on historical geography in Europe, which related tangentially to the idea
for the course of lectures. His purpose was to explain in historical terms the
reasons for the geographical distribution of the peoples and governments of
modern Europe. The manuscript covered all the nations caught up in the war,
going back into late Roman and medieval times and extending into modern
times, but it dealt especially with Germany and eastern Europe. Buttereld
was acquainted with a large two-volume work by E. A. Freeman, which J. B.
Bury had republished in 1903, entitled The Historical Geography of Europe,
 Patriotic History 115

suggesting yet another inuence of Bury on his thinking. He sent the manu-
script for criticism to Z. N. Brooke, a Cambridge medievalist, who responded
enthusiastically and suggested only minor revisions. Buttereld did nothing
further, however, and allowed his big manuscript to go to waste. For the
moment, nothing came of this attempt to help the war effort.
None of Butterelds projects and designs must have seemed good enough
to him as supports for the English war effort. He recalled the charge of Chur-
chill to rely on Englands history for strength in time of war. Buttereld had
already enunciated in his own words a historical thesis that would full ex-
actly Churchills wish. In Napoleon, in 1939, he wrote that the crime of
Napoleon was due in part to the sequence of things emerging from the French
Revolution, to the dialectic of events themselves in France. By contrast, he
claimed, overlooking Oliver Cromwell, the English have never produced a
dictator comparable to Napoleon. Hitler came to mind too. England, not
France, was the source of modern liberty. He had his doubts about Germany.
Then he wrote, Liberty comes to the world from English traditions, not from
French theories. There was nothing novel in the thesis, long associated with
Edmund Burkes Reections on the French Revolution of 1791, but for Butter-
eld it supplied the message he needed to respond personally to Churchills
war appeal.
With the war at full intensity, he thought about the sources of English liberty
and the differences between English and French and German history. Already
pertinent was his lecture in Germany in 1938 on the history of the Whig
interpretation of history, as well as his reections on the analogy between
Napoleon and Hitler. Here was a history project for the war, a self-appointed
war work, more timely for the nation than The Concise Cambridge Modern
History, more immediate than the lectures on historical geography. He had
allowed the 1942 deadline for the Concise History to pass unnoticed, and he
abandoned his lectures and manuscript on historical geography.
The outcome of his reections on English liberty was an extraordinary little
book of 139 pages, The Englishman and His History, written and rewritten as
the war proceeded, and nished in February 1944. The book was published by
Cambridge University Press in June 1944, during the high moment of the
reconquest of Normandy and northern France by the British, Americans, and
Canadians.
We may understand the work as a war essay which amounted to a piece of
historical scholarship in service of English patriotism. It is likely that Butter-
eld at the time understood his patriotism as his participation in the common
response of the English people to a terrible situation. But he hinted that he
somehow knew that what he wrote was more than that. He could feel his work
116 Patriotic History

to be remarkably similar to the moderate political propaganda of the refu-

gee historians that had caused him such unease.
On the rst page of Englishman and His History he acknowledges what
must have felt like a betrayal of his own norms for historical study. Some-
times we think that our history is the impartial narrative, he wrote, but
perhaps even our best work is only the supreme expression of what is really
the English version of the story. In the opening line of the introduction he
also acknowledges the political inspiration that evoked the book. He alludes
to Churchill and others, during what he calls the crisis of 1940, who con-
tinually reminded us of those resources in the past which can be drawn upon
to fortify a nation at war. Buttereld aims to identify some of those resources
by studying the relations of Englishmen with their history. Much of the
work has the character of a history of historical writing and thinking, and
some of it includes a rendition of general European history. However, stream-
ing through even the ostensibly historical sections and then surfacing to full
view as the essay reaches the middle and rushes to the conclusion are state-
ments of Butterelds political ideology, moral convictions, and religious con-
fession of faith. This time he wrote history for the sake of England, for the sake
of the present in England, not for the sake of the past. In Cowlings phrase the
past was made to conrm or justify the present.
Buttereld says very little in the book about his views of historical study, but
ample clues in the text suggest that he still holds to the distinction he expressed
in Whig Interpretation between the realm of history and the realm of morality.
He may even have become more stringent in his theory of the limits of histor-
ical study. Notably, he distinguishes the technical views of the functions of
historical study from the moralizings of the historians. He introduces the
term technique to refer to the method which properly belongs to historical
study, and he depicts his own historical work as dealing with the mere me-
chanics of the rise and operation of his subject. In one section he describes
what he calls the defects in historical technique before the twentieth century,
and we sense that he has in mind a set of proper techniques reached by histor-
ical study in his own day, against which he may judge the performance of
historians for all time. We get a sense of what he meant by his statement in
connection with the refugee historians that he wished to take the academic
view of his subject.
His still active promotion of the limited function of historical study makes
Englishman and His History all the more remarkable. He wrote a book which
appears diametrically opposed to the foremost teaching of Whig Interpreta-
tion, his warning against the study of the past for the sake of the present. After
he reread the book in 1970, long after the urgencies of war had slipped into the
 Patriotic History 117

mist, he acknowledged candidly that the excessiveness of his patriotism struck

him as comic. However, in 1964, when Churchill died, he showed that he
was not entirely repentant for the surge of patriotism he felt under Churchills
leadership during the war. Cambridge selected Buttereld to pronounce the
eulogy of Churchill at a memorial service. To his audience gathered at the
University Church of Great St. Marys he explained that Churchill had estab-
lished a special relationship with the nation as a whole: When we remember
the year 1940 all differences about politics and policies seem to become irrele-
vant. For Buttereld, Churchill surpassed politics and embodied the ideals
dened in Englishman and His History.
To carry out his analysis, Buttereld devised two distinctions in Englishman
and His History. The rst is a distinction between the Whig interpretation of
history as created by Whig historians, which was wrong history, and the use
made of the Whig interpretation of history by Whig politicians, which facili-
tated the creation of a liberating mode of political change. He puts the point
early in the book: But in England [as contrasted with France] we made peace
with our middle ages by misconstruing them; and, therefore, we may say that
wrong history was one of our assets. The whig interpretation of history came
at exactly the crucial moment and, whatever it may have done to our history, it
had a wonderful effect on English politics. For this reason England did not
need a revolution of 1789 to save her from the despotism of the past. And
further: Studying these things, we can hardly help commemorating those
whigs of the past who were always so much greater than the whig historians.
We shall see how they evolved an attitude to the historical process, a way of
co-operating with the forces of history, an alliance with Providence, which the
whig historians were much slower to achievewhich they were even perhaps
too partisan to discern.
He uses blunt terms, wanting to be sure that people would not miss the
difference between historians and politicians. The Whig historians, who were
well meaning, produced wrong history, while the Whig politicians, usually not
well meaning, generated good politics. The politicians converted Whig history
into an asset that helped create a wonderful effect on English politics. He
draws the analogy with Churchills use of English history in 1940: wrong
history with benecial political results. Buttereld even builds the distinction
into the two-part structure of the volume, part one, The History, and part
two, The Political Tradition. So different are the parts from each other in
their message, style, and construction that they seem to be almost two separate
works.
The second is a distinction between the story told by the Whig interpre-
tation and the methods used to construct that story. He asserts, It is not
118 Patriotic History

necessary or useful to deny that the theme of English political history is the
story of our liberty. Alluding to himself, he refers to those who, perhaps in
the misguided austerity of youth wish to drive out that whig interpretation.
Now, he says, people should direct their attacks not against the story itself, but
merely against the surviving defects in historical method that once appeared
intrinsic to the Whig interpretation of history.
Reviewers and commentators for years thereafter missed his all-important
distinctions. They poked fun at him for surrendering his ery criticism of the
Whig interpretation of history, and they played the early Buttereld off against
the mature Buttereld. E. H. Carr, in his hugely inuential book What Is
History?, mocked him and cited Butterelds supposed reversal as a prime
illustration of the subjectivity of historical study. A generation later David
Cannadine, in his biographical defense of Trevelyan, chuckled dismissively at
how Buttereld had recanted his youthful polemic. In 2002, Annabel Patter-
son, as part of her reclamation of a Whig interpretation of history, spoke of
Butterelds repentance of the message he uttered in his previous short-
sighted work. The claim that Buttereld had abandoned his eye-catching
criticism of the Whig interpretation of history became commonplace.
His critics might be excused for missing his points, however, since Butter-
eld covers the distinctions with a host of qualifying phrases and details. The
rst part of the book expands the topic of his controversial lecture in Germany
in 1938. It is a ponderous reading of the history of the Whig interpretation in
which he itemizes what he believes are the false accretions to the tradition of
historical thought. He is still unrelentingly frank about the defects of the Whig
historical method. But there are a few differences in his treatment of the
interpretation which are important to notice. We are struck, for instance, by a
shift in his wording which, in effect, relativizes what had been his main point
about method. Instead of talking about the study of the past for the sake of
the past, the norm of proper history which he claimed the Whig historians
had violated, he now speaks innocuously about the attempt to see the past
with the eyes of the past, a thing which he regards merely as at least one of
the historians aims. He now explains the emergence of the defects in histor-
ical method quite apart from the problems of politicsas the innocent conse-
quence of applying the lawyers mode of reasoning to historical interpretation.
Picking up a suggestion by F. W. Maitland, a Cambridge legal historian con-
temporary with Acton, he urged that the Whig interpretation of history can be
seen as the legacy of the way lawyers interpreted English common law. Unlike
historians, who properly ought to seek the meaning of a law for the people
who originally enacted it, English lawyers were interested the present use of
the law and searched the past for precedents. Decades later G. R. Elton saw
 Patriotic History 119

this very observation in Maitland and put the notion forward about Butter-
elds criticism of the Whig historians as if Elton were the rst to think of it.
Most signicantly, in the rst section of the book, Buttereld elevates the
Whig interpretation of history to a higher place. He renames it nothing less
than the English interpretation of history. It had become the English view
and not merely the view of anonymous Whig historians and textbook writers.
In the terms used by Joseph M. Hernon, Jr., it can even be construed as the
consensus of the nation at the time, the accepted popular consciousness of
British history. There are no longer other options, certainly not a Tory view of
history which elevated the monarchy or maybe the empire. At best a Tory view
offers little more than kindly treatment of George III. The Whig view is an
intellectual inheritance which cherishes the history of England as the story of
liberty and which has become the Englishmans view.
The second and shorter part of the book, lighter and more essay-like in
style, more committed to conveying a message, takes the form of an exposition
of the English political tradition. Here in part two, together with portions of
part one, Buttereld demonstrates how he would read English political history
as the story of liberty. As we might expect, he highlights in general the interac-
tion of Whigs, Tories, and Radicals, Catholics and Protestants, and gives pri-
ority to no one party in the mix, showing them together creating and respond-
ing to the sequence of political events. However, when he gets to the salient
events of the revolution of 1688, when the Roman Catholic king, James II,
was expelled and the new Protestant rulers, William and Mary, were installed
in his place, he abandons his customary interpretation. Instead, he moves the
Whigs to centre stage and credits them with acting virtually above the conict.
He describes the way the Whigs listened to the lessons of history, partic-
ularly the lessons of civil war in the seventeenth century. He records their
maxims of political behaviour drawn from their historical experience of recur-
rent events. He portrays the ideology of whiggism and the whig method in
politics which he believes emerged between 1660 and 1715. Without wincing,
he praises the events of 1688, which he puts to the credit of the Whigs, as the
most masterly episode in English history. We puzzle over his political inter-
pretation of English history which elevates one party and one event above the
entanglement of things.
It takes us only a moment to realize why he exalts the Whigs. He is signalling
his approval of what he called whiggism and even of a properly chastened
Whig interpretation of history. He still feels remarkable afnity with these
Whigs, and he accepts 1688 as the high revelatory event of Whiggism. What
he tells us about Whiggism and the Whig contribution to the art of politics
actually corresponds with his own views of politics and religion and, notably,
120 Patriotic History

of the best way to perceive and work with the historical process. His views are
completely continuous with the views expressed in Whig Interpretation. The
whole exercise shows Buttereld still to be the New Whig, trying to handle
the subtleties of saying both yes and no to the Whig historical tradition while
also trying to reinterpret the interaction of past and present in English political
history with an improved historical method.
It took Buttereld until 1961 to respond publically to the near universal
judgment that in Englishman and His History he had given up his criticism of
the Whig interpretation of history. E. H. Carr provoked the reply by repeating
the view. Carr was devastatingly clever. He wrote: To draw attention to these
reversals of outlook is not an unfriendly criticism. It is not my purpose to
refute the proto-Buttereld with the deutero-Buttereld, or to confront Pro-
fessor Buttereld drunk with Professor Buttereld sober. . . . My purpose is
merely to show how closely the historian mirrors the society in which he
works. It is not merely the events that are in ux. The historian himself is in
ux. The reference to biblical criticism was suggestive, but the allusion to
drink shows how wildly off target Carr was in understanding Buttereld.
The reply came in Butterelds review of What Is History? in the Cambridge
Review. He vigorously afrmed the continuities between his two works. He
had not changed with the times as Carr had supposed. This is the moment
when he told the story of Charles Smyths observation about The Whig Inter-
pretation of History. The Cambridge Tory historian, whom he called the
most acute of the critics, realized that Buttereld had actually written in
alliance with the Whig historians with the aim of improving upon their prac-
tice. Like Smyth, Carr should have seen, quipped Buttereld, that, far from
giving up his criticism, he retained his criticism of the Whiggish fallacy pre-
cisely because of his abiding deep sympathy with the Protestant Whigs, both
historians and politicians. He was, he confessed, merely anxious to have the
Whig historians more liberal-minded, even as he wanted Protestants to
transcend private opinions and topical prejudices when they come to technical
history. Buttereld thus admitted the play of his own religion and politics in
both books. Oddly enough the admission came couched in an overall reasser-
tion of the independence of historical science from politics and religion. Con-
trary to his aim of quashing the tendency he saw in Carrs argument to
undermine the status of history as an autonomous science, he inadvertently
supported Carrs main point, that historians are themselves the products of
their society and history.
The correspondence between the two colleagues that followed was cordial
but did not advance their understanding of each others positions. The two
talked past each other. Neither realized that Carr had simply mislocated his
 Patriotic History 121

criticism. He had concentrated too much on history as ux and hence upon

historians who change with the times. When Buttereld told Carr that chapter
1 of Englishman and His History reproduced virtually intact his lecture in
Germany from 1938, Carr wrote back to quibble over whether Buttereld had
changed with the times by 1938 or 1944. He did not realize that Butterelds
attachment to Protestant and New Whig allegiances had roots in convictions
derived from his youth in Oxenhope, which Buttereld had iterated in the
review. Butterelds views as historian were surely socially and historically
situated, but in a sense different from what Carr imagined. Buttereld re-
ected history as continuity, in this case his continuity with his youth when he
had formed his convictions from within his situation of that day.
The intrusion into their discussion by Ved Mehta, who wrote an article on
the pair for the New Yorker, was no help. Mehtas journalistic embellishments
of his conversation with Buttereld compounded the confusion. Jonathan
Haslam, writing his biography of Carr, somehow missed hearing Butterelds
report to Carr that chapter 1 of Englishman and His History was virtually the
text of the 1938 lecture, and implied that Buttereld was insincere. He also did
not catch Butterelds chief point in reply to Carrthe distinction between
Whig history and Whig politicsand chose to perpetuate the claim about
Butterelds presumed change of mind. Meanwhile, Carrs What Is History?
spread the laugh through a quarter of a million copies sold as of 1999.
In Englishman and His History Buttereld likes to think of Whiggism as a
non-doctrinaire view of politics, and the Whigs method as their way of co-
operating with history, or, as he also styles it, the whig mode of co-operating
with Providence. This Whiggism endorsed a distinctive strategy of change:
There emerges into the clear light of day the type of whiggism which became
so familiar to historiansthe whiggism that chooses only a moderate pace of
reform, a cautious progress to whatever end may be desired; the whiggism
which, abhorring revolutionary methods, seems now mildly left-wing, now
almost indistinguishable from conservatism itself.
Under the guise of detailing the English tradition in politics, he spells out his
credo. Buttereld, Whig, and the English political tradition become inter-
changeable terms. The English tradition, he asserts, encompasses many things:
a tempered faith in the course of history, due humility concerning the limits of
political improvement, a feeling for certain imponderable things accruing
from the continuities of history, a respect for the other mans personality, the
pursuit of the highest practicable good, an inclination to moderation and
compromise. Buttereld still alludes to the complexity of history. Now, how-
ever, instead of accentuating conict as before, but without denying its impor-
tance, he praises the merits, in English history, of a steady, ordered progress
122 Patriotic History

which takes the place of desperate conict leading to revolutionary up-

heaval. This is the Englishmans mode of political change.
Buttereld now arrives back at his starting point. He rediscovers the clue he
had already found in his own proclamation from 1939, Liberty comes to the
world from English traditions, not from French theories. Appropriate to this
New Whigs reconciling view, the point sounds remarkably similar to Burkes
critique of Fox. The Englishmans mode of change differed radically from
French practice since 1789, with revolution alternating with counterrevolu-
tion. More than this, it differed as well from the equally destructive experi-
ences of the Germans under Hitler, the Irish of the Irish Republican Army, the
Italians under Mussolini, and, by implication, Soviet Russia under Stalin.
Twice in the second part of the book he surveys general European history since
1789 in order to proclaim the superiority of the English tradition. How much
richer the French would be, he comments, and so too all the others, if they
had mimicked the English method of joining and rejoining past and present.
We marvel as we watch even Buttereld swell with patriotism and throw aside
the usual entanglements of qualifying phrases he attaches to his comments on
traditions different from his own.
To depict the character of the political change over the centuries, he again
pulls out the term organic, which had served him from time to time since his
undergraduate essay Art Is History Made Organic. If his meaning had been
unclear to us before, we can make no mistake now. With this term, he moves
onto another level of analysis. English political history converts into the his-
tory of the English nation, which is something more inclusive than the history
of politics and government. He likens the English nation to the life of organic
creatures, treats it as a living thing, and contrasts it with the paper-
constructions and deliberate manufacture of France and some other na-
tions. The contrast is not in the least novelbiotic development is natural,
human construction is articialbut it is new to his discourse. He offers a bio-
organic interpretation of English national history. The Whig politicians used
their method to care for the living thing of English history, much like the
gardener tending the plants or the nanny nurturing the child. They maintained
a national history that is better than that of France, Italy, Germany, Russia,
and so many others. The English have not had the uprooting of things that
have been organic to the development of the country. English history has
followed a natural course of development and has not experienced the jerks
and starts common to the rest of the world. The transition to democracy in
England was happier than in other countries who were not ripened by their
internal and moral development to be ready for it. England has enjoyed the
growth of liberty, the growth of liberal-mindedness, and so on. Buttereld
 Patriotic History 123

depicts a placid scene of steady growth in English history since 1688 where
another historian might nd instead the struggles of industrializing classes, the
triumph of the middle classes, the impoverishment of the underclasses, the
suppression of the Irish, and the imperialism of expansion overseas. Looking
back in English history, he treats the conicts of the Reformation of the six-
teenth century and the struggles of the Revolution of the mid-seventeenth
century as something like alterations in the growth rings of an ancient tree,
suitably contained within the long-term growth of the English nation. Even if
we allow that Buttereld intended the organic reference merely as a metaphor,
we notice that this metaphor displaces all others in the crucial passages, and he
gets himself into difculties because of it. He still wants to use the idea he
attributed to Ranke, and with which he once smashed the Whig historians,
that each successive epoch in the past has its own special quality independent
of what comes afterwards. Yet his reliance on the imagery of organic develop-
ment counteracts his intentions on at least two counts. In organic develop-
ment, if all goes well, things advance on a generally predetermined course, and
earlier stages nd fullment in later ones. In the case of human beings, for
example, the infant becomes the child, the youth, the adult, and the old per-
son. Thus infancy of the nation is unfulled without childhood, youth, and
maturity. Moreover, organic development also ends in decay and death. Hence
the metaphor of organic growth serves poorly to praise a nation, since it also
says that sooner or later the nation will decay and die. Buttereld is on better
terms with his own theory when he applies his method of reconciling op-
posites, and speaks as he does at the very end of the book, of people reconcil-
ing continuity and change, mediating past and present, afrming both tradi-
tion and progress, and at the same time refusing to rule out the validity of
revolution when the ruling powers become entrenched.
The bio-organic interpretation of the history of the English nation does not
come unmixed in Butterelds treatment, however. He blends into it an inter-
pretation of social class in order to explain the social changes that enabled the
Whig political method to work. The inuence of Marx is evident, but the
version he presents is not Marxist. He replaces the Marxist notion of class
struggle with the idea of class harmony, and he is noticeably generous to
capitalism. He detects in the capitalists no more greed than in the workers,
relieves them of any special responsibility for oppression, and pronounces the
capitalistic system to be the work of Providence. The effect of his generosity
is to legitimize the capitalist status quo. Buttereld had already made the
same points about capitalism in his 1942 review of Archbishop William Tem-
ples Christianity and the Social Order, where he insisted on withholding a
moral judgment against capitalism only to end up by justifying capitalism as a
124 Patriotic History

mighty product of history and Providence. Nonetheless, in Englishman and

His History, his sympathies are not with the capitalists, but with those both
higher and lower on the ladder of social class. If Marx sided with the workers,
and capitalists with the bourgeoisie, Buttereld identies simultaneously with
the aristocracy at the top and the nameless masses at the bottom. His apprecia-
tion of the Whigs as aristocrats is everywhere, and he designates the lower
classes as the solid body of Englishmen, the quiet mass of the population
who admire and follow the people at the top in any time period.
The class interpretation commences with 16601715, the period he believes
to be the crucial stage in what proved to be the most signicant transition in a
thousand years of history. This stage included a whole series of interrelated
movementsintellectual and religious changes, technological progress, dis-
continuities in social class, nancial developments, commercial enterprise,
and the scientic revolution. Under the restored monarchy, the ruling class
was then the aristocracy, whether Whig or Tory. Their politics was a struggle
between members of a governing class, members of the same class, who
behaved with relative urbanity towards each other and who took care not to
threaten their own position. In the French case, there emerged a protracted
struggle between nobility, church, and tradition on one side, and bourgeoisie,
rationalism, and revolution on the other. The history of England, by contrast,
proceeded through harmonious adaptation, due partly to the traditions of an
aristocracy which have expanded into the heritage of the people. The aristo-
crats at the top reached down to the bourgeois below them before bourgeois
complaints became too loud. They agreed to enough bourgeois demands to
secure bourgeois silence, and shared with the bourgeois a portion of the priv-
ileges of the aristocracy. In time the process moved further down the social
scale to incorporate elements of the working classes into the benets initially
reserved to the aristocracy. The process functioned awlessly except in rela-
tion to the people Buttereld called those classes that are without political
traditionswithout that brake which the actual responsibility for govern-
ment imposes. Such people, he said, tend naturally to be impatient, over-
estimating the amount which can in any case be achieved by political action.
Nonetheless, the process successfully enveloped all three great modern politi-
cal partiesLiberal, Conservative, Labouras well as the labour union
movement since the nineteenth century, turning them all into inheritors of the
Whig aristocratic traditions. He continued,

Some have laughed at the English for aping the gentry, and some prefer that
extremism of the Right or the Left which seeks to proletarianize everybody,
reducing politics to naked hatreds. Our latter-day whigs (who at least had the
 Patriotic History 125

merit of striving for the growth of liberal-mindedness) were more amiable in

that they held at the back of their minds the notion that all should be turned
into gentlemen. They were wool-gathering when they threw out the idea of
an Eton for everybody into the bargain, but their dreamthe nationaliza-
tion of the best in an aristocratic traditionhas not, in English politics at
least, proved quite the joke that it might have appeared to be at rst sight. It is
thoroughly whig in its conception of a progress that makes capital out of the
very continuity of history.

On the rst page of the book, long before we have read far enough to make
the observation ourselves, Buttereld acknowledges that the transportation of
aristocratic traditions down the social ladder benets the ruling class above
all. He admits with candor, We can scarcely help it if this kind of history is at
the same time the one most adapted to the preservation of the existing re-
gime. He depicts the process as a transfer of ideas, attitudes, habits, and
values, and he offers no discussion of the social and economic factors, the class
conicts, and the political power and oppressions involved in promoting the
hegemony and the survival of the ruling class. This is not the kind of inter-
pretation of English history we would expect a dissenter to endorse.
There is more to his class interpretation. Undergirding England and persist-
ing throughout all the changes are the solid body of Englishmen. These are
the humble people who live without class consciousness and political aware-
ness and who recognize the virtues of the traditions descending from on high.
In the conclusion of the book, where Buttereld issues his nal praise of
English history and the Whigs, he reserves the place of highest honour for
these nameless Englishmen. In the closing line of the book he commends their
patience in their relations with their superiors and lionizes their way of wait-
ing to steal for the whole nation what they could appropriate in the traditions
of monarchy, aristocracy, bourgeoisie and church. Their merit consists in
aping their superiors and absorbing the traditions sent down from above. He
seems unaware of any independent contributions these ordinary Englishmen
might have made to English history and equally ignorant of any opposition
they have mounted against the upper classes. And he remains oblivious to the
presence of the very poor.
Meditating on Butterelds nal words, we recognize the model of social
change he assimilated from his father in his youth. There is his father standing
respectfully before the mill owner of Oxenhope, passing from mill oor to mill
owners ofce, taking the mill owners domestic for his wife, receiving the mill
owners surplus books and music, buying the piano the mill owner discarded,
and leading the younger mill workers to adopt the mill owners dress and
social manners and Methodism. Then we notice that Buttereld dedicated The
126 Patriotic History

Englishman and His History to his father. Suddenly we realize that the En-
glishman is his father.
We recall two days in his fathers lifethe day the mill owner deprived his
father of the position he had occupied so faithfully for so many years and gave
it to the mill owners relative, and the day not long after when the mill owner
discharged his father altogether. We perceive the patience, the quietism, and
the humiliation demanded of the Englishmen in order to maintain and oper-
ate a system calculated to entrench the ruling class.
There is yet another major element to Butterelds interpretation of the
history of the English nation. He began with a rendering of English political
ideas and political method since especially 1688, transformed it into a bio-
organic vision of the English nation, then added a class analysis of the English
people which extols the absorption of aristocratic values by the lower orders.
To these at last he adds a religious interpretation of English history which
features the role of Christianity in the working of the English system. In so
doing he gives no evidence of having interacted with any particular thinkers,
whether theologians or historians. He is offering an appreciation of England
as a Christian nation voiced by countless others at the timebishops, politi-
cians, clergy, authors, scholars. They all appealed to the Christian traditions of
the nation for strength during the war against the Nazis and Fascists. His
contribution to this joint appeal was his practice as a historian who reects
directly and at length on the interpretation of English history. What he says
about religion are the sorts of things he used to write in his diary and preach in
his sermons, naive thoughts arising from his meditations on his own religious
convictions and experience.
His interpretation goes like this. The Whig aristocrats in his story were all
Christians, and the traditions they embodied were those of the Church of
England. Whiggism and the Whig method were permeated with and expres-
sions of Christian morality. The Nonconformists and Dissenters who revolted
against the Whig aristocrats and their established church directed their objec-
tions against certain details about establishment, worship, and doctrine, and
not against the Christian religion. They remained within the Christian tradi-
tion, and they too were motivated by Christian morality. In social terms these
Nonconformists eschewed revolution and actually allied themselves with the
upper ranks of society and the established church to nurture steady politi-
cal and social growth at every level of English life. By thus participating in
the long and unbroken continuity of Christianity in England they facilitated
the transmission of Whiggism and the Whig method from the ruling class to the
nation as a whole. In a sense, too, they helped transmute the Anglican method
of the via media to the nation as a whole. That method absorbed the best from
 Patriotic History 127

opposing sides, discarded the negative elements found on any side, and created
a new, more comprehensive, and more variegated way through life.
At this religious level, in Butterelds hands, the English case contrasted
radically with the French. In France as well as some other places on the conti-
nent of Europe secular liberalism in politics and the philosophic movement
of the Enlightenment created a breach with tradition. The result was a
fundamental movement away from Christianity which he called a great secu-
larization of life and thought. He observes that, ironically, secularization on
the continent produced not greater freedom as the secularists promised, but
totalitarianism and the pagan state. He had in mind Napoleon and Hitler.
Butterelds treatment discloses several perduring Christian beliefs which
he thinks animate English political life to the benet of the nation. He enumer-
ates four beliefs from which he draws implications for understanding history
generally. We quickly sense that he is actually representing his own confession
of faith and allowing us to see the contours of his own religious beliefs as of
this moment. The items he identies were, arguably, common to the several
forms of Christianity in England, but he also gives his selection a distinctly
Nonconformist cast. For example, he includes no mention of doctrines which
were specically important to the Church of England, such as the centrality of
the church and the sacraments in the life of the nation, and he states at least
one of his items in a way that would be most congenial to a Nonconformist
like himself.
First, Buttereld continues to stress that God is the One above all, the only
judge of the ultimate merit of human action in history. In the context of the
politics and war of the time, he translates this belief into the admonition that
people ought to refrain from making gods out of things of the world. Thus,
he rejects what he calls naked individualism, by which he means an idol-
atrous emphasis on individual persons, probably referring to uncontrolled
capitalism. At the same time, he opposes all political movements which deify
the state, all attempts to make gods . . . out of their abstract nouns. He has
in mind Nazism, Fascism, and Soviet Communism. He throws one caveat
towards the English. The Christian impact on the nation is so immense, he
says, that the English have become used to thinking of themselves as Gods
Chosen People, saddling us with too great a burden of self-righteousness.
His statement about abstract nouns gives us the rst unambiguous indica-
tion that his social views have hardened into social nominalism and that he
considers what we call the state to be simply a phenomenon of our vocabu-
laries, not a real social existent.
Second, he is very free with the expression of his faith in Providence in
history, more so than in his previous works, where he merely dropped the term
128 Patriotic History

into the text from time to time. He still does little to help us know precisely
what he means by Providence, however. The belief appears most often in the
phrase co-operation with Providence, a locution he seems to interchange
with co-operation with History. He nowhere refers to Providence as the
Providence of God, although he does want to associate what he says with
the long Christian tradition of belief in divine Providence. He appears to use
the term Providence to refer entirely to human action, either directly or indi-
rectly. He may well be attempting to examine the human processes and vehi-
cles he believes have been used by divine Providence in the course of human
history. For example, in the manner of his earlier writings, he speaks of mans
reconciling mind repeatedly playing Providence on past mistakes and dis-
asters and bringing good things out of bad. He writes of an overruling Provi-
dence which he attributes to the work of History herself. It is difcult to
know how to understand him when he personies history and speaks of His-
tory herself or itself as something that stands up and acts: Not mans
sovereign action alone governs the pattern which things are taking; but man
working on material which itself rebels against him, and working in co-
operation with factors that are just not calculable. However well we may
strive to play our part in the orchestra, we must not imagine that we are quite
the composers of the piece. History herself puts limits to our actions and
volitions, or at least deects their consequences; if only by compounding our
wills with those of others, or overriding them by forces that are beyond our
control; if only by revenging itself on our wilfulness and releasing the fury of
the ungovernable storm. We might suppose that mans sovereign action
refers to the acts of an individual person, rather than to collective human
sovereignty as contrasted with divine sovereignty. History herself would
then refer to the totality of the interactions of all individual human actions, an
utterly vast complexity that surpasses our capacity to trace connections back
to our own individual acts. On this reading, we recognize in Butterelds fresh
formulations the legacy of notions he has been expressing for a long time
about the process of history, especially about the limits placed on individual
personalities by the entanglement of things in history, and the unintended con-
sequences of our actions. The difference is that now he calls this Providence.
Third, he reiterates his long-running belief in the all-importance of human
personality in history. In the past he had written in his diary and preached in
his sermons that the idea of human personality was essential to Christianity,
but he had not yet stated this belief in his public writings. Now, in this work of
historical study, he tells us explicitly that his view of personality has a religious
base. He claims in particular that it was the Nonconformists in England who
 Patriotic History 129

especially emphasized the value of human personality. He expresses the belief

in a way that comports better with Methodist sensibilities at the time than
with the Church of England. He refers to the belief in personality as a doctrine
of the church: Human beings, though fallen from the state of innocence,
move as gods and bear the image of God; they are not part of the litter of the
earth, to be left uncounted like the sands of the sea. Each is a precious jewel,
each a separate well of life, each we may say a separate poem: so that, without
taking them in the mass, every single one of them has a value incommensurate
with anything else in the created universe. In the light of this doctrine, the
riches of human personality, the possibilities that lie in human nature and the
fullness of humanity itself, were fostered and treasured by the teaching of
the church. We notice two things in particular about this statement. He
asserts that human beings possess the highest value of anything in the universe,
and that they are to be taken above all as individuals. He offers a theological
reason for the rst pointthey bear the image of Godbut he offers none for
the second. With this statement he is conrming his belief in the primacy of
individual human beings in history, even though he acknowledges that their
primacy is constrained by innumerable limits. He is prepared to use the term
individualism to identify his views on the matter. The individualism of En-
glishmenButterelds individualismis a special kind, one that is rooted
in tradition and sentiment. He distinguishes this individualism from both the
secular individualism of the French tradition, which has cut loose from
Christianity, and the naked individualism found in some forms of capital-
ism, which glories the pursuit of self-interest.
Fourth, he confesses his belief that human beings are sinners, and that all
human action in history is marked by sin. Here too he elaborates on a point he
has mentioned often before. He refers to the traditional Christian doctrine of
the Fall, and speaks of human cupidity as synonymous with sinfulness. His
use of the word cupidity soon becomes one of his trademarks, and it strikes
the ear as quaint. He commented years later that he especially liked the way
the word cupidity came off the tongue when you say it emphatically. His
point is to note the universality and the equality of sin among human beings.
All people are characterized by original sin. He draws from this belief the
implications that no one person is morally better than anyone else, that no
political program will eradicate evil in history, and that any political program
designed to eliminate the ultimate evil from history is either useless or harmful.
He thinks that the Whig method of working with history respects the reality
of human sin by aiming for moderation and compromise. By contrast, the
methods which derive from the French revolutionary tradition, he says, place
130 Patriotic History

unbearable weight on the effectiveness of politics and rely on the power of the
state to single out and exterminate some enemy who is held responsible for
causing all the trouble.
Englishman and His History received adequate recognition in reviews in
England at the time, even apart from the misunderstandings of Butterelds
treatment of Whig history and Whig politics. His thesis afrming the role of an
interpretation of history in politics was widely accepted in general by histo-
rians after the war. Surprisingly, however, in spite of his wishes, the book
made virtually no contribution to the public perception of English history
during the war. Perhaps the book was too unclear and maybe the connections
between the two parts were too difcult to follow. Maybe the long rst part
was too specialized. Perhaps the book added nothing substantial to what had
already been said often enough by others during the war. In any case, the book
probably came too late to help fortify the English national will, as Churchill
had wanted. It might have served the national need three or four years earlier
when catastrophe fell upon England, but now, in 1944, with the Allied recon-
quests of France and Italy underway, that need had vanished. In 1944 people
in England were thinking of what might happen after the war was over, not
about the crisis of 1940. If Buttereld wanted his reections on English history
to be heard in 1944, his book needed to do more than consecrate the Chur-
chillian consensus, as Cowling put it. Cast in different terms, the book might
have had more effect if he had looked to the future and contributed his version
of English history to the reconstruction of the nation after the war.
Yet while Englishman and His History may have had little impact at large,
its role in Butterelds own development as a historian was vital. Whether we
agree with his analysis of English history is not important. What matters for
historical thinking is that he has succeeded in dening, albeit incompletely, a
type of approach to history which does two things at once. First, his historical
approach honours the multiplicity of factors operative in any given historical
process. He has proposed a multiple-level interpretation of history of the En-
glish nation that gives preeminence to no single factor, but combines organic,
political, intellectual, social, and religious interpretations into a general histor-
ical interpretation. Second, his historical approach rejects a self-contained
treatment of English history and entails instead a comparative interpretation
which correlates English history with the history of several nations of the
continent. Buttereld proposes implicitly that multifactoral and comparative
history are two very useful and remarkable features of an approach to histor-
ical interpretation that would respect the complexity of historical processes
and enlighten the study of any historical topic. On top of this he has identied
the interpretation of relations between past and present as a t subject for
 Patriotic History 131

historical study. The book is a worthy offspring of the rethinking of general

history and historical thought which he conducted during the 1930s.
The book also signalled Butterelds arrival at his own unambiguous politi-
cal position and his willingness to make his political views known in public.
Under the pressure of the war crisis, and in spite of his apparent desire in
theory to segregate politics and history, he explicitly revealed that his politics
informed his historical approach. The Whig Interpretation of History had
already shown his New Whig sympathies, as Smyth observed at the time.
However, until Buttereld devised the distinction between Whig history and
Whig politics, he had lived with ambivalence towards the Whig tradition. His
ambivalence may even have diluted his enthusiasm for writing the life of Fox.
Now, after Englishman, he could call himself a New Whig with no reserva-
tions. The bafing label sounded curiously antiquarian. But it makes sense: he
was the loyal critic working for the reform of a tradition to which he still
belonged. It was a political position that required him to make no choices in
contemporary political affairs and left him standing completely outside of
twentieth-century politics. It had the merit of allowing him to dissent from all
then current political optionsfascist, conservative, liberal, Christian demo-
crat, labour, socialist, communistand to fasten his attention upon the pro-
foundest principles that underlay the conduct of public life. Late in life he
described his politics from the war years onward: My Whiggism is different
from liberalism in the continental or the American sense in that it is not
utopian. Apart from hoping that human beings will be virtuous it does not
operate by assuming they are virtuous. My politics would operate by assuming
that there is a great deal of egotism and cupidity in human beings, especially in
those you say havent got any cupidity.
Englishman marked as well another stage in his handling of religion and
historical study in his life. What strikes us as important is not the statement of
his beliefshe has indicated his belief in these things often enough before
but the explicit subsumption of his ideas about history under the language of
religious discourse, and the disclosure of his religion to the public. The exigen-
cies of war evoked his rst major statement in a professional medium indicat-
ing explicitly that he approached history as a Christian. The book represented
a Christian interpretation of history. He had moved his Christian testimony
from the semi-public pulpit of the lay preacher before the Methodist congrega-
tion to the fully public stage of the history book. As with his politics, he had
once again gone against his previously stated theory, in this case, to keep
history separate from religion. Instead, he had candidly acknowledged in pub-
lic the unication of his vocations as historian and preacher. In both his poli-
tics and his religion he revealed himself publicly in terms that resembled the
132 Patriotic History

views of his father. It seemed all the more appropriate that he should dedicate
the book to the person whom he believed best instantiated the archetypical
Englishman.
The years just before and during the long war were an extremely important
time for Buttereld as historian. His responses to the political and social move-
ments of the day and especially to the war upset the apparent simplicities of his
historical thinking. His theory seemed to call for the demarcation of history
from life, but his practice displaced any attempts to keep academic history so
unspotted from the world.
Overall during the war years he was extremely productive in his work. He
did nothing on Fox, and he did not meet the 1942 deadline for the Concise
History, and he did not give all the lectures he planned, but he served Peter-
house and the Cambridge History Faculty well, he published three more little
books, Napoleon, Machiavelli, and Englishman, raising the number of his
books to six, and he greatly increased his reputation for historical thinking.
In 1944, all England, Cambridge, and Buttereld, too, began to think of
reconstruction after the war. There would be vacant professorships to ll,
most notably the professorship of modern history. Buttereld did not allow
himself to dwell on speculations about his future in Cambridge. Instead, after
twenty-ve years at Peterhouse, he turned his ambitious mind once again to
thoughts of leaving Cambridge to take a professorship elsewhere.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Herbert Buttereld (c1903), age 3, with his sister Edith, in Oxenhope, West Yorkshire,
England. Courtesy of Lady Buttereld.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Buttereld (c1910), age 10, with his sister Edith and younger brother Arthur, in Oxenhope.
Courtesy of Lady Buttereld.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Buttereld (c1922), age 22, about the time of his admission to the B.A. degree, Peterhouse,
Cambridge University. Courtesy of Lady Buttereld.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Buttereld (c1949), age 49, around the time of the publication of George III, Lord North,
and the People, Origins of Modern Science, and Christianity and History. Courtesy of Lady
Buttereld.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Buttereld (c1955), age 55, around the time of his election as Master of Peterhouse. Photo by
Edward Leigh, courtesy of Lady Buttereld.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Buttereld (c1963), age 63, around the time of his election as Regius Professor of Modern
History, Cambridge University. Photo by Edward Leigh, courtesy of Lady Buttereld.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Buttereld (1977), age 77, in retirement at his Tudor house, Sawston, Cambridgeshire. Photo
by C. T. McIntire.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Butterelds birthplace (in 1900), Workers Cottages, Upper Town, Oxenhope, West
Yorkshire. Photo by C. T. McIntire.
 [To view this image, refer to
the print version of this title.]

Butterelds home (during 19551968) as Master of Peterhouse, the Masters Lodge,

Peterhouse, Cambridge. Photo by C. T. McIntire.
 6

Professor

Whirlwind
By the spring of 1944 the British and their allies could believe that the
war in Europe had turned in their favour. The Italian Fascist government had
collapsed in July 1943, and about the same time the Soviet army took the
initiative against the Germans on the eastern front. The Allied armies of Brit-
ain, the United States, and Canada had been working their way through Sicily
since July 1943 and up the Italian peninsula since September 1943. By June
1944 the Germans were routed from Rome and Allied forces landed at Nor-
mandy to begin the reconquest of France.
In March 1944, far from the Allied assault on the Germans at the ancient
monastery of Monte Cassino, the electors for the chair in modern history
convened in Cambridge and selected Buttereld to succeed Temperley as Pro-
fessor of Modern History, effective 1 April 1944. The act was an afrmation of
patriotic hope, since the end of the war was not in sight, and return to nor-
malcy was not at all possible. Buttereld, now forty-four, had waited patiently
for nearly ve years during the war, since the death of Temperley, for this
recognition. The appointment was his, even though he had not presented an
application as was customary. The Cambridge members of the committee of
electors for the chair included the history elite in the university: Trevelyan, the
former Regius Professor; G. N. Clark, the new Regius Professor; Clapham, the

133
134 Professor

recent Professor of Economic History; E. A. Walker, the Professor of Imperial

and Naval History; and J. R. M. Butler, later appointed Regius Professor to
succeed Clark. Among those they passed over was E. H. Carr, nine years
Butterelds senior, reversing the outcome at Aberystwyth in 1936 when Carr
got the professorship. Buttereld once again abandoned his thoughts of leav-
ing Cambridge for another university, and accepted the appointment.
The choice was widely applauded in the university. Trevelyan, now Master
of Trinity College, expressed to Buttereld the hopes that he had for the new
professor: If after the war you can use the relative leisure for writing that the
Professorship ought to mean (as you rightly think) to put the same high intel-
lectual qualities into some big book, you will take the place that you ought
to earn among English historians. But there were also detractors, and his
elevation to professor elicited feelings of resentment or jealousy among a
few, feelings which could issue in denigrating comments about him person-
ally from the occasional historian. Such comments about Buttereld became
a strand of oral tradition and even years later a few people were still voic-
ing them.
Dorothy Temperley, Temperleys widow, expressed her hope that Buttereld
might prepare a memoir of her husbands life as historian. She had started her
own memoir after he died and written three chapters. Buttereld responded in
July 1946 with a pledge to write a small book-length memoir of Temperley. In
1948 she gave Buttereld the bronze bust of the young Napoleon that had
been her husbands prize trophy, and acknowledged him to be Temperleys
successor. In 1949 he was actively thinking about the project. He placed a
notice in the Times Literary Supplement asking for Temperley letters. Dorothy
Temperley arranged to deliver to him a sizeable chunk of the Temperley papers
to facilitate the task. During the early 1950s he devoted considerable time to
the project.
The new position changed Butterelds life. Trevelyan had offered him ad-
vice: cultivate the power of saying No. Buttereld ignored the warning and
threw himself into a whirlwind of activity which absorbed absolutely all his
time. As professor he no longer held supervisions of undergraduates at Peter-
house, but in place of this he added an astonishing number of new commit-
ments, many of them recorded in his Cambridge Pocket Diary. He said yes to
one invitation after another to join a committee or give a lecture or write an
article. He was astonishingly diligent in his committee work and continued to
compose every lecture word for word. He laboured long hours day and night,
and became busier than ever before. By the beginning of 1945, he was telling
people that he felt overwhelmed by all the duties he had taken on.
It was important to him that the professorship meant a rise in salary and
 Professor 135

that from this moment onward in his career he no longer experienced serious
nancial stress. The professorship also awarded him still higher social status,
lifting him into the ranks of the upper bourgeoisie. The Butterelds remained
in their ample nineteenth-century attached house on Tenison Road, and Ethel
Wolfe continued to come to the house each day as housekeeper and cook. He
persisted in his simple lifestyle and still refused to behave in a more elevated
social manner. When Ethel gave him a pre-tied bow tie, a thing any proper
gentlemen would disdain, he wore it out of respect for her, even though the
Fellows poked fun at this un-Cambridge behaviour.
The professorship in Cambridge also crowned him with national status. He
began to receive invitations from across Great Britain and Ireland, most of
which he accepted. This led to special lectures at other universities, in local
chapters of the national Historical Association, for the Royal Historical So-
ciety, and on national radio with the BBC. Over the next few years the number
of these lectures outside Cambridge increased by two or three each year, going
from none to perhaps fteen in 19481949. For topics he drew on a cycle of
ve or six titles which reected his current interests: History and Ethics,
The Dangers of History, Fox and the French Revolution, The Marxian
Interpretation of History, The Seven Years War. Even when he repeated a
topic, however, he would rework what he had delivered before. During the
same years he began to accept requests from elsewhere to examine doctoral
theses and to recommend people to history professorships and lectureships. By
1948 he joined the editorial board of History, the national journal of the
Historical Association.
In Cambridge, Butterelds election maintained the Peterhouse reputation
for history, with three Professorial Fellows in history: Postan, Brogan, and now
Buttereld. Vellacotts return from war service restored a historian to the head
of the college. At the same time, in 1944, the college replaced Temperley, or in a
sense replaced Buttereld as an ordinary Fellow, by giving a fellowship to
David Knowles, a medievalist, a Roman Catholic priest, and a monk. The
appointment raised the number of historians to six out of the nine Fellows and
Master. Buttereld was the prime mover in bringing Knowles to Peterhouse,
and that success gave him the greatest pleasure. The two became close friends.
Buttereld always sought the advice of Knowles, who was four years his senior,
and came to regard him as someone who, like his father and Carey Francis,
embodied a saintly Christianity. The college added a seventh historian in 1947
when Denis Mack Smith, Butterelds student during 19441946, received a
fellowship, and soon became Tutor of the college. Buttereld thought of him-
self as the one who had urged Mack Smith to go into historical scholarship.
Simultaneously, however, the college enlarged the number of Fellows to fteen
136 Professor

and diversied its elds, thereby reducing the proportion of historians. In the
same year, 1947, Knowles became Professor of Medieval History, and Butter-
eld persuaded the college to retain him as a Professorial Fellow, in spite of the
animosity displayed against Knowles by the Master, Vellacott. The total of
Professorial Fellows in history at Peterhouse now numbered a record four out
of the nine professors listed with the History Faculty. On top of all this, in
1946, the college gave an honourary fellowship to R. H. Tawney, noted histo-
rian from the London School of Economics who had resettled at Peterhouse
during the war when the LSE ed London, and, in 1948, made Henry Steele
Commager, professor of history from Columbia University, a Fellow Com-
moner after he completed a year in Cambridge as the Professor of American
History and Institutions. Peterhouse may have been a little community by
comparison with other Cambridge colleges, but it was unsurpassed in the
world per capita for historians. The Peterhouse reputation for history rose still
higher. Buttereld thrived amid such colleagues.
Meanwhile, after the war ended the undergraduate population of Peter-
house rose slowly, returning by 19481949 to the prewar average of about
150. In place of supervising undergraduates, Buttereld began to supervise
Ph.D. dissertations, adding a new dimension to his workload, his inuence,
and his college. He took on an average of two new research students a year,
including among his rst, from 1945 to 1949, Duncan Forbes, Peter Hardy,
W. E. Mosse, H. G. Koenigsberger, and T. G. A. Pocock. He met his students
often and read their work thoroughly. In 1947 he ceased being college li-
brarian, an ofce he had held for twenty-two years, but he added a lengthy
number of other involvements. He became secretary of the Peterhouse Society,
the association of the alumni of the college, served on the High Table commit-
tee, joined the committee of the college history club, participated in the meet-
ings on the admission of scholars, and attended countless other college meet-
ings. When the relationship between the university and the colleges became a
controversial issue after the war, he stepped forward as an articulate promoter
of the teaching role of the colleges. He candidly admitted that college member-
ship could steal time from research and writing by mounting up the distrac-
tions. On one occasion he listed them all: the meetings of the governing body,
the committees, the negotiations, the exacting nature of the supervisors work,
the hours spent informally with undergraduates, the unspecied demands on
time, the threat of unwanted administrative work, the chilly bedrooms and
whistling chimneys, and the incessant knockings on the door.
In the History Faculty, his professorship meant a modicum of specialization.
He no longer tutored undergraduates on a broad range of historical topics,
and he gave no further lectures on general European history. He thus lost
 Professor 137

contact with the medium which facilitated his work on the Concise Cam-
bridge Modern History. In place of this, however, he offered three courses of
lectures lasting one term each: History of England, 16881792, European
History, 14931559, and Factors in German History. He automatically
held a seat on the History Faculty board and he met often with Clark, the
Regius Professor, to discuss the needs of the faculty in modern history. He
worked on a general reform of the History Tripos, and joined the degree
committee and the lm committee. Around Cambridge he remained active on
the history of science committee, soon became a member of the universitys
new Board of Research Studies, continued as chief editor of the Cambridge
Historical Journal, and participated in the Cambridge History Club, the Cam-
bridge Historical Society, the History of Science Society, and the Cambridge
Historical Association. He discontinued teaching at Wesley House, and he no
longer served as lay preacheralthough his name remained on the circuit list
of lay preachersbut he joined the Wesley House Oversight Committee and
entertained the Wesley Society at Peterhouse. All this activity added up to a
phenomenal amount of administrative work, and it did not help him concen-
trate on research and writing.
The professorship required him to deliver an inaugural lecture, which he did
on 14 November 1944. It soon appeared as a booklet, The Study of Modern
History. The war was not at all over, but, in the wake of the Allied recon-
quest of Normandy in June, Buttereld as well as the rest of England began
acting as if the Allies would eventually triumph over the Germans. The Allied
military victory which made the nal defeat of the Nazis look possiblethe
Battle of the Bulge in northern France, in December 1944 and January 1945
did not come until after Butterelds lecture.
In the middle of just this timing, Buttereld speaks freely against Nazi and
Fascist totalitarianism, but warns against perpetuating anti-German attitudes.
He draws out his old doctrine of imaginative sympathy which he asks his
audience to apply to the Germans, their historians, their government, and
those who for some reason have fallen in love with a foreign power. As in
the case of Galinsky, his Nazi academic friend from Germany, he likens Nazi
loyalty to Germany to English patriotism, a sentiment which he himself had
experienced during the war. At the same time, he speaks a word for the
independence of all historians from subservience to any government, from
anything that might count as government-favoured history.
In the tradition of inaugural lectures, Buttereld meditates on the needs of
his eld of study. He declares his attachment to the outlook and technique that
Temperley taught him and afrms his dedication in particular to the method of
diplomatic history, praising its value for the training of new historians in any
138 Professor

subject. On this occasion, after a decade and a half of lectures on the modern
history of Europe, he wishes to state his views on what he called the other
history, one reaching well beyond the history he had learned from Temperley.
He projects two kinds of history. One is dependent on original research and
takes the form of narrative. The other is based on history books and exhibits a
character that is hard to specify. He gives no names to these histories, although
he seems to think of the one as narrative history and the other as having to do
with general history.
He is most at ease when he characterizes narrative history, the form he knew
as diplomatic history and had championed for many years. He had written
about it in The Whig Interpretation of History, and he adds nothing new to
what he had already said. In his view, narrative history employs a technique of
research, concentrates on resurrecting details about events from day to day,
deals with the individual personality as a fountain of activity, and results in
the historian telling a story. This is the history that is close to his religious
convictions about the primacy of individual personality.
He nds it more difcult to speak of the other history and its association
with general history. We sense that he is still searching for the language to
describe it, still unsure about what he means by it, still trying to convince even
himself of its validity. He specically abandons the things he said in Whig
Interpretation about general history being a kind of abridgment of history.
Now he believes that a special kind of exercise of the mind is required in order
to think that certain sequences of events over long periods of time may be
perceived as, for instance, the development of Europe or the fall of Rome or
the transition from the medieval to the modern world. Such locutions are the
typical stuff of general history and they are misunderstood, he now says, if
we think of them as the abridgment of narrative.
When he tries to characterize this other history and to identify the mental
operations historians go through to produce it, he becomes very imprecise. He
offers six or seven suggestions about what he means by the other history, and
they come to us scattered throughout the second and third sections of the
lecture. First, the other history may be the search for meaning and patterns in
history. Second, it may be analysis, whether the analysis of structures lying
deep below the surface, such as the social systems and thought structures of a
period, or the analysis of slow-moving processes that take centuries, such as
social movements and trends of thought. Third, it may be exposition, taking
account of differences as, for example, between the centuries or stages of
development. Fourth, it may be explanation, by which he here means putting
things in context. Fifth, it may be the disclosure of connections and wider
interactions among economic, social, political, religious, and intellectual af-
 Professor 139

fairs. Sixth, it may be the identication of the system of necessity and the
conditioning circumstances which operate beyond the control of individuals
to shape particular events. Seventh, it may be depiction, portraiture, of the
social fabric of an age.
We know not to expect a systematic statement from Buttereld, but here he
outdoes himself in the apparent randomness of his thought and vocabulary.
The characteristics he suggests do not all amount to the same thing. For in-
stance, the search for meaning is not the same as the analysis of deep struc-
tures, and putting things in context is not the same as either of these, nor is it
the same as disclosing the connections among things, and so on. Moreover,
most of these characteristics are not absent from good narrative history. For
instance, narrative rests on analysis, always puts things in context, and dis-
closes connections among things. Conversely, general histories have taken the
form of narrative and featured individual personalities. In other words, most,
perhaps even all, of the characteristics he mentions refer to features involved in
almost any form of historical thinkingsearch for meaning, analysis, exposi-
tion, explanation, and so on. He mislocates the difference between the two
histories when he distinguishes narrative from analysis, exposition, explana-
tion, and the like. Buttereld seems to notice the problem when he acknowl-
edges that a very good narrative history of the Reformation, for example,
would be steadily improved and the story line transformed by the impact of
more and more analysis.
Yet, we get the drift of Butterelds suggestions. There is a difference be-
tween individuals and wider movements, between surface and depth, between
some particular topic and all the interactions of that topic on a great scale,
between short-term happenings and longer-term trends, between small prob-
lems and grand problems. He wants to urge historians to move beyond narra-
tion, beyond individual happenings, beyond the actions of individual person-
alities, beyond the obvious. He is calling for the conscious incorporation
within historical thinking of wider and deeper and larger and longer-lasting
matters of human existence. In sum, he wants historical study to acknowledge
and account for the sheer complexity of human activity over the ages.
He performs his customary obeisance to Acton in the lecture, but he ven-
tures a major criticism of his exemplar which convinces us that we are indeed
catching his drift. Actons version of general history, we are told, was too
simple. Acton privileged role of ideas in history, especially one idea, the idea of
liberty. Now, Buttereld suggests, we are obliged to reach much farther than
this, to the realm where economic, social, political, and intellectual or re-
ligious movements intertwine. We hear on the near horizon the many voices
that helped him enlarge his discourse about general history during the 1930s,
140 Professor

and we watch him project an approach analogous to those of contemporary

Marxists, Toynbee, and the French historians of the Annales variety in the
lineage of Bloch and Febvre. He is not abandoning his favourite history, and he
makes sure in a footnote that we know he still believes that narrative history
about individual personalities is the essential starting point for historical
study. However, he is saying that shifting ones attention to general history is
not a matter of telling the story in shorter form. On any scale, mere narra-
tive is insufcient. Historians must move onward to the other history.
We may infer from what he says that doing so entails bringing to conscious-
ness all the mental operations involved in any historical investigation and
working with them in relation to greater and greater complexity over greater
and greater ranges of time. He imagines such historical thinking extending
to the whole of modern European history. He did not yetbut he could
project the problem onto the scale of global history from the beginning to the
end of time. And he did not raise the question of law in history, although his
thinking during the 1930s and early 1940s did broach the subject.
Near the end of the inaugural lecture Buttereld uttered what we may take to
be his primary message. Whatever historians may do with their histories, they
must above all evince elasticity of mind. There is no wisdom to be gained
from history that may not be reduced to devastation by a heavy and rigid
mind, he declared. And farther on, But for us the great crime is to be decient
in elasticity. Still later, There is a half-way house, a home of half-baked
history, where everything is dogmatic and all the lines of the picture are hard.
He means that he wants historians to be open to seeing history in ever new
ways. He lets us know that he is willing to change his own thinking, even while
maintaining a deeper continuity. More than this, he hopes to use historical
thinking to upset the reigning doctrines of his day and to undermine our
tendency to hear only what we already want to believe. His primary instrument
for encouraging the mental elasticity he deemed appropriate would be to teach
and write that other history. This is the dissenter speaking to us again.

Fox Diverted Again

With the inaugural lecture out of the way, Buttereld turned again to his
research and writing, the work expected of him as professor. He received
especially strong support to this end from an unexpected sourceEve Bogle
a talented secretary and administrator whom he had met in 1942. He was
forty-two and she was a few years older. She had taken a house with her
children in Cambridge, near the Butterelds, while her husband remained in
London in government service during the war. Her son James attended the
 Professor 141

same school as Butterelds son Giles, and the two boys soon became close
friends. Buttereld and she became good friends as well. For her war service
she contributed secretarial work through the Womens Volunteer Service, and,
she recalls, in that capacity she eventually typed her rst letter for Buttereld
in 1945.
After the war Bogle decided to work for Buttereld. She became devoted to
him, typing his letters and writings, and generally serving as his personal
secretary and research assistant. From this moment on, thanks to her, Butter-
elds papers are voluminous. She generated and preserved the hard copy and
created his archives. She agreed to work for a nominal stipend, well below the
standard rate. Buttereld paid her out of his personal income. She explains
that she accepted the pay inequity because she wanted to help him and she
knew he could afford nothing higher. She had to work hard to keep up with
the constant race of writing that he ran in the postwar period. Her working
days with him were long. In his intensity he would smoke forty cigarettes a
day, always passing the pack along to her. She often helped him with his
research, going, for instance, to Cambridge University Library to copy things
for him from the Acton papers. She went on research trips with him, and
together they hand-copied documents in the Royal Archives in Windsor Cas-
tle, the British Museum manuscript room, and many other archives. Like
Pamela, she called him Bean. Unlike Pamela, she loved to hear about and
involve herself in his historical scholarship, which gave Herbert and her a
special bond. She worked with him for twenty-ve years, until she had to stop
in 1970 because of her ill health. He was the most exciting man to work
with, she remembered, he would always surprise you. She added, He
introduced me to the historical Jesus.
Buttereld had to struggle very hard to make time to write. He wrote after
hours and into the night, on weekends and between terms, and during the
summer vacation. He committed himself to following several parallel, yet
connected, lines of writing at once. Above all, he resumed his work on the life
of Charles James Fox, professing to those around him that he counted the
book on Fox as his primary duty after the war. He set to work in earnest on his
Fox biography, but gradually his research and writing on Fox were trans-
formed into something else. For the second time in his life he found himself
pursuing a tangential question of general history arising out of the Fox mate-
rials, leading him far away from Fox. The previous occasion came during the
1930s when he had asked a question about George III, moved on to Boling-
broke, and ended up writing a book on Machiavelli. The pull of writing
biography was not as strong as other questions.
In October 1945, he wrote the British Museum to say that he was ready to
142 Professor

continue his research on Fox after a lapse of six years. He got himself restarted
before the end of 1945. In November 1945 Eve Bogle began typing manu-
scripts he had drafted before the war on the years 1779 and 1780. By October
1946 she had typed at least twelve or thirteen papers short-titled Fox, or
George III, or North. In December 1945 he told the librarian of the York
City Library that he was preparing a life of Fox and that incidental to this he
had decided to produce a paper on the Yorkshire Association during 1779 and
1780, and wished to arrange research time in York later in the month. In
January 1946 he corresponded with several county and private archives, men-
tioning his life of Fox and asking for access to materials for a short by-
product on county meetings and associations in 1780. In March 1946 he
presented a paper to the Royal Historical Society, The Yorkshire Association
and the Crisis of 17791780, which he revised and published in 1947, his
second article on these years. During 1946 and 1947 he carried on research
in the British Museum and other archives. The effects of the methodology
that Buttereld had adopted for his Fox research were evident in the materials
he used to construct this new study. The effects were overwhelming. In the
1930s he had imposed on himself the mandate to make his research micro-
scopic, comprehensive, and exhaustive, and he reafrmed that mandate now.
Namiers example of thoroughness must have impacted him daily. Butter-
eld added enormously to the pile of notes he had been accumulating since at
least 1933 on the years 1779 and 1780. By 1947, he had amassed hundreds
upon hundreds of little slips of paper, each slip containing one bit of informa-
tion or one extract from a letter, a speech, a memoir, a newspaper. He ar-
ranged the slips rst by topic and then by date within each topic, day by day,
and tied them in little bundles. He began to admit that he had lost his focus on
the purely biographical matters about Fox and was really working on gen-
eral problems related to the reign of George III. He realized slowly that his
work on an incidental theme had ballooned far beyond one paper or even
several papers. He later justied this obsessive diversion of his energies with
the claim that he simply could not resist being attracted by the teasing nature
of some of the problems involved in the events of 1779 and 1780. He began
to reconceive the miscellaneous topics scattered in front of him as intersecting
lines of subject matter which might be handled together as a book. By the fall
of 1947, he had reworked his materials into what he was now calling chapters.
Altogether he produced several handwritten drafts and Bogle produced sev-
eral typescripts.
Then, early in January 1948, he collected merely a portion of all he had
written, created a table of contents, added a title, and sent a very large type-
script to the publisher. He selected Bell of London, publishers of Whig Inter-
 Professor 143

pretation, Machiavelli, and his inaugural lecture, rather than Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, publishers of Historical Novel, Peace Tactics of Napoleon, and
Englishman. He seemed to blame Cambridge University Press for the lack of
notice which Englishman attracted. He thought that Bell, as a commercial
house, would give his new book wide circulation and generate public discus-
sion. In July 1948 Buttereld explained to Trevelyan the complicated and
unpremeditated process that led to this book, and asked for approval to dedi-
cate it to him, and Trevelyan agreed. He also acknowledged for the rst time
how dependent he had become on Eve Bogle to accomplish his work.
While in the white heat of productivity Buttereld also nished an article,
Charles James Fox and the Whig Opposition in 1792, which he placed in
the Cambridge Historical Journal, the journal he himself edited. This piece, on
a topic falling outside 17791780, included themes he had raised in the rst
paper he had given outside Peterhouse in the mid-1920s. It reminds us how
long he had thought about Fox.
The typescript of the book sat at the publisher for a year and a half before
nally appearing early in October 1949 under the title George III, Lord
North, and the People, 17791780. The article on Fox and 1792 came out at
the same time. The book was Butterelds seventh, his second based on serious
research. It satised Trevelyans xation on size. It was a big book of 419
pages, surpassing the 400 pages of Peace Tactics of Napoleon, and Trevelyan
was delighted. In keeping with Butterelds theory, the writing is chiey
narrative, telling stories about the activities of individual personalities. The
book on every page shows the results of his minute research methodology, and
as a research achievement it far surpasses Peace Tactics. At the same time, like
Peace Tactics, the text gives evidence of virtually no interaction with the perti-
nent scholarship on his subjects. This is a curious omission for someone by
now normally so taken up with the history of the treatment of historical
themes. We can tell from his notes that, nonetheless, he may well have read the
relevant historical studies.
The book is by and large a narrative history of various topics during a
period of about eight months, from the fall of 1779 to April 1780, a stretch of
time even shorter than the little period he encompassed in Peace Tactics. As he
moves through the text he seems to have in mind the plot of some general story
about well-known events involving the king, Parliament, and the government
which he wants to refashion. He is rejecting the inherited Whig interpretation
which, he charges, sees in the events a case of Whigs against the Crown, and
the righteous against the wicked. He believes that he is offering a reconception
of the whole story, although it is not easy to follow anything like a general
story throughout the book.
144 Professor

When we analyze the contents, the book appears to be a miscellany without

an integrative structure, indicative of the makeshift process of afterthought by
which he compiled the book. Three topics predominate: the ministry of Lord
North, the prime minister of the day; the activities of the Yorkshire Associa-
tion and its leader the Rev. Christopher Wyvill; and the parliamentary opera-
tions of Edmund Burke and Fox. Three other topics surface from the text,
however: the efforts by a few politicians to promote greater Irish parliamen-
tary independence, the conduct of the war against the American colonies, and
the Gordon Riots in London as expressions of Protestant anti-Catholic feel-
ing. Still other topics, more general in character, emerge from time to time: the
intentions of George III, his political system, and the question of political
parties during his reign. We notice that his research is most intense when
he touches George III, Fox, and the Yorkshire Association, and most sketchy
on the North ministry and Ireland. He gives his greatest attention to a few
London-Windsor based individuals at the top of the political structures: the
king, the prime minister, and some members of Parliament. But he also at-
tempts to look seriously at extra-parliamentary political activity outside Lon-
don, notably in Yorkshire. This accounts for the allusion to the people in his
title. He occasionally mentions the agricultural and industrial economy, social
ranks, population gures, and religion, and his mention of these things exceed
anything he has put in his historical writing before. None of this is enough to
turn the work into a social history, however, and it remains chiey a narrative
about some individuals in national politics.
Butterelds handling of the other history, that general history which he
contrasted with narrative history and applauded in his inaugural lecture, is
difcult to detect. What he does say makes us suppose that he regards the entire
book as a blending of both modes of historical writing. The clearest statement
about the two histories comes early in the introduction. During the reign of
George III, he suggests, there are two levels of drama occurring simultane-
ously, and they are properly the subject of two levels of history. The surface-
dramathe narrative historyis a battle between the king and the aristoc-
racy in which neither side defeats the other. The deeper dramathe general
historyis a movement long, slow, and deep, representing a tide which
brings wider classes of Englishmen to intellectual awareness and a realization
of the part they might play in politics. In the long run, these wider classes of
Englishmen triumph over both the Crown and the aristocracy, bringing effects
that he believes benet English liberty. Buttereld interprets the actions of
George III and the Lord North ministry as belonging to the surface-drama.
He sees evidence of the deeper drama of the emergence of the people in the
activities of several movements and their leaders: Christopher Wyvills York-
 Professor 145

shire Association, John Wesleys Methodism, and John Wilkess radical politi-
cal activity in the London-Middlesex region in 17691770.
We nd a number of passages in unpredictable places where he makes the
other history explicit. They allow us to observe his method of correlating the
two histories. In the middle of a long section on the Yorkshire Association, for
instance, Buttereld offers this statement of the general connections he ob-
serves between the work of Wyvill and aspects of wider, later history: He and
his collaborators launched upon the country, and set fairly and squarely on its
course, the most important of the movements that have made the modern
world. The Yorkshire Association bridges the gulf between Middlesex radical-
ismWilkesite, undiscriminating, and half-disreputableand the national
movement of parliamentary reform. It assists the transition from eighteenth-
century parties based on connection to the modern kind of party which is a
matter of issues and principles. Butterelds method, judging from this case,
demands that the historian look at the plethora of detail generated by the rst
historythe narrative historyand perceive within the mass a historical form
of longer duration and wider connection. It is an act of intuition, not of
analysis, and it requires no actual further research. Buttereld sees some-
thing more than what the evidence directly reveals. He places his specic events
of 17791780 on a trajectory running into a future history which could not
have been known by Wyvill and would have meant nothing to him, but which
is known to Buttereld and important to him. Wyvill himself was not designing
a future national movement of parliamentary reform or a future political party
system based on ideology, but Buttereld interprets his program as contribut-
ing to the creation of such things. The selection of both the Wyvill movement
and the later outcomes, and intuition of a connection between them, depends
on Butterelds own political ideology. In keeping with what we learned about
Butterelds preferences in Englishman and His History, he likes the respect-
ability and the nonrevolutionary character of the Yorkshire Association. He
also delights in the moderate reforms of Parliament which occurred subse-
quently during the nineteenth century and which he ranks extravagantly high
as a factor making the modern world. In other words, Buttereld reads a later
present, which he approves, back into the past, and relates the events under
study to a version of general history which he imports from that later present. It
is an act which violates his injunctions in Whig Interpretation of History not to
study the past for the sake of the present, but it comports well with his ap-
proach in Englishman and His History, where he freely mixed and mingled
past and present in his portrayal of the English as the bearers of a moderate
Christian heritage in politics which produced modern liberty.
When we look closely at the way Buttereld conveys to us that other
146 Professor

history, it seems that he does not heed very well his own admonition to
integrate the detailed story and the other history or to blend general analysis
into the narrative. Aside from his remarks in the introduction on the two
histories, what he does is to break into his story every once in a while to refer
to a long-term trend or state a maxim or launch himself on an excursus about
historical study. The strategy is the same as Peace Tactics, and he really has
gained very little ground on how to do what he is advocating in his statements
about two histories. The result is not the mingling of two histories, but merely
the peppering of the dominating narrative medium with miscellaneous inser-
tions and ad hoc comments. Perhaps the most signicant consequence at the
level of his discourse is simply that he remains intent on dealing with his-
torical study as a matter of two histories, whatever this means, and not merely
with history as narratives about individuals engaged in politics, diplomacy,
and war.
The comments about historical study that he inserts now and then into the
text reveal nothing new in his thinking. For instance, early in the book we nd
an excursus in which he restates his customary convictions about the process
of history. Here he stresses how the intentions of a single individual, such as
George III, constantly intermingle with countless other wills to produce
results unlike what any one of them expected. He refers to the predicament
or the situation or the entanglements which restrict a leaders action and
force him to decide for things he really does not want. In the preface he repeats
his oft-told complaint about historians and moral judgments. Consistent with
Whig Interpretation of History he objects to a construction of the narrative
which casts one side of a conict as pushing in a direction we approve, here
once again the favoured Whigs, and the others as their obstacles, especially
the king and the Tories: It is not a clear case of the righteous ghting the
wickedand even the Rockinghamites (though we may love their cause) have
their egoisms, their vested interests, their pettinesses and their wilful ways. At
the same time even George III will be seen to have had his impressive quali-
ties. As a matter of method, he wants to look at the principal gures and their
interactions with each other from the perspective of each in turn, and to look
at the stated ideals as well as the actual behaviour of each. He wishes to
achieve thereby what he describes as something like the stereoscopic pic-
ture. His words recall the reconciling method he advocated in Whig Inter-
pretation. Although he does not say so, we may assume that he has Lewis
Namier on his mind, and is offering an alternative to what he would take to be
Namiers overemphasis on the vested interests of politicians to the neglect of
the recognition of their higher purposes.
His maxims number in the scores and are scattered throughout the book,
 Professor 147

making him sound more and more like the Machiavelli whose methods he
discussed several years before. The maxims represent matters that he believes
hold true in a general way over long periods of time. He gives the maxims an
explanatory role in his text. He still does not call them laws, but he states
them in a general form, using the enduring present tense which makes them
sound as if they are laws in history. For example, he alludes to a coincidence
between actual advancement in the condition of Ireland and the emergence of
Irish disquiet, and then writes, The same features would appear to conrm
the accepted view that a revolutionary spirit arises when things are beginning
generally to improve; the view also that the discontented nd their oppor-
tunity at the moment when a government is trying to be kind. A moment later
he adduces another maxim: Men in any case are prone to see grievances
and to make much of themand it requires an effort to induce them to be still
for a moment and to count their blessings. By making general statements
such as these about human behaviour and applying them to certain events in
Ireland he provides an explanation of why things happened as they did there.
As maxims, they are the nal link in the explanatory chain, so to speak, and
require no argument or justication. His maxims sound as if they should be
the results of his analysis of a number of cases of the same kind of activity
political discontent, for instancebut we nd no evidence that he has con-
ducted such analysis. Machiavelli was more explicitly empirical than he is.
Butterelds maxims are intuitions linked to his own political and moral pref-
erences. He would like governments and the discontented to meet in the mod-
erate middle, and he would like people to count their blessings rather than
complain.
Buttereld sought to bind the book into a unity by presenting a large and
daring thesis, stated in the opening two pages. Between the fall of 1779 and the
spring of 1780, there was, he proposes, an extraordinary heightening of
political conict which created a quasi-revolutionary threat to the govern-
ment of Lord North. The crisis was created by three movements which were
sufciently simultaneous and so curiously inter-connected that they need to
be seen together. The three were activities in Ireland promoting Irish parlia-
mentary independence, the extra-parliamentary campaigns of the Yorkshire
Association, and the passage of Dunnings resolution in the House of Com-
mons calling for a decrease in the inuence of the Crown in government.
Buttereld claims that because Lord North overcame these movements, all of
which challenged the very structure of British government as well as the ruling
position of North and his ministry, the world has forgotten the seriousness of
the crisis. According to Buttereld these events during the months in question
possess a historical importance of the highest rank: It would even be perhaps
148 Professor

not too far-fetched if we were to say that the real revolutionary moment in
this whole period of English history is the moment at which catastrophe
loomed threatening, but was circumventedwas escaped by a fairly narrow
margin. Our French Revolution is in fact that of 1780the revolution that
we escaped. He spends little time in the book supporting so grandiose and
comprehensive a thesis. He looks instead at the details of each of the elements
that he says created the crisis. His approach is not systematic, and while he
devotes enough time to the Yorkshire Association to convince us of the se-
riousness of its activity, he tells us relatively little about the movement in
Ireland, and even his treatment of the passage of Dunnings resolution is mea-
gre. As evidence of actual protorevolutionary eruption, he points briey to the
anti-Catholic Gordon Riots in London in what amounts to an appendix at the
end of the book. The Gordon Riots did produce something like fear of politi-
cal disorder among members of the government and the ruling classes at the
time. However, the convoluted lead into his thesis about the revolution man-
qu in England (It would even be perhaps not too far-fetched it we were to say
that . . .) as well as the summary of his conclusions in the nal pages of the
book both hint that even he knows he is overstating the case. What mighty
contortions the historian would need to perform to elevate the fear produced
by the Gordon Riots into the possibility of a national crisis on the scale of the
French Revolution.
The themes that particularly hold Butterelds interest in the book are not
really those belonging to his grand thesis about the English near-revolution.
He is captivated instead by the constitutional issues raised by his notions that
George III had a system and that party and opposition are emerging in
English politics. He interprets one documenta brief, unnished reection in
George IIIs hand from about 1772as the key to the kings behaviour from
the moment of his ascent to the throne in 1760. He argues that the king began
his reign with the purpose of uniting the nation around the House of Hanover
and the royal settlement of 16881689, ridding society of the contentiousness
created by unnecessary party division, regaining for the Crown the superin-
tending role enjoyed by his predecessors before the Whig aristocrats had
usurped royal authority, and bringing to an end corruption in government. He
would be the Patriot King, the benevolent father of his country portrayed by
Bolingbroke. What the king got instead, Buttereld argues, is a system which
manifested the corruption he sought to eradicate, a network of royal inuence
and patronage which went beyond the proper moral bounds of the day and
traded loyalty to the Crown for social favour, government ofce, and nancial
benet. It perpetuated the existence of party connections based on vested
interests and personal prot, not on principles and political ideals. The king
 Professor 149

bound even Lord North to him by such methods. Buttereld lays against the
kings system the moral judgment that it represented a whole vast edice of
inuence or corruption. The structure of his story about 1779 and 1780
depends on his claim that there is a ruling system such as he describes, and that
it is corrupt. He counts the Yorkshire Association and the extra-parliamentary
pressures in Ireland and London as movements against corruption. They are
promoters of political principle, agents of reform, and their actions produce
consequences whose effects ranged far into the future, far beyond their known
horizon. What matters most to Buttereld in his narrative is his insistence that
George III did have intentions, political intentions of high moral worth, as did
many of the gures on all sides of the conict, and that government corruption
and crass material self-interest were not the only factors in human affairs,
although they were certainly operative as powerful forces.
In other words, Butterelds historical account turns on his moral assess-
ment of human behavior as ambiguously both righteous and wicked. It rests
on his moral judgment of what constituted corruption, as well as on his appre-
ciation of the moral mission of the historian as the reconciler. He constructs
his narrative to favour his own New Whig politics of moderation and ac-
commodation, and at the same time to demonstrate the futility of disruptive
radicalism. George III, the Whig aristocrats, and the respectable Yorkshire
Association all win his praise, while the Gordon rioters, the unruly Irish, and
the disruptive Wilkesites do not. Buttereld wants to convince us that modera-
tion triumphed in 17791780 and that the English successfully avoided the
disorder he associates with the French Revolution. George III, Lord North,
and the People is a very long footnote to The Englishman and His History.
The book did not get good reviews. Almost no one at the time accepted his
thesis about the English French Revolution that did not happen. Nearly
every review referred to that thesis as extreme or overstated. His lesser thesis
about the people found no support either, and no one picked up his thesis
about the intentions of George III as compared with the corrupt system that
emerged in reality. R. R. Sedgwick, one of his examiners from his undergradu-
ate years, recognized Butterelds allusions to Lewis Namiers work on the
early years of George III, but charged him with failing to grasp Namiers point.
One review after another deplored the number of details and quotations from
letters, calling them excessive. Reviewers noted the absence of reference to
secondary literature. In spite of his attempts to suggest relationships between
all the details and general history, more than one reviewer wanted to know
what the signicance of it all was. One man estimated that his topic was worth
no more that an article. All in all, he received very little praise. The reviewer in
the Listener called his treatment of the Yorkshire Association valuable, the
150 Professor

Times Literary Supplement writer thought his view of the king was bal-
anced, Irish reviewers liked the attention he gave to Ireland in a book mainly
about England, but that was about it. Even his writing style was criticized
too many metaphors, too much repetition, too abrupt an ending. The one
piece of unlimited approval came from G. Scott Bremner in the Yorkshire Post,
who, in a burst of regional enthusiasm, thought the book written by this man
from Yorkshire was clearly destined to become required reading for the stu-
dent of English constitutional history and would arouse the lively interest of
every Yorkshireman. The picture evoked the question of whether Buttereld
might have allowed his Yorkshire sympathies to run away with the material.
In later years the book fared better among historians. His younger colleague
at Cambridge, J. H. Plumb, adopted his main thesis completely, and said so in a
volume that became the much reprinted standard introduction to eighteenth-
century England. Plumb praised the book for showing how constitutional,
political, and social history can be combined to achieve the reconstruction of a
great crisis in our history. Harold Parker noted how Butterelds historical
writing exactly matched the recommendations he offered in his historiographi-
cal writing, and how any defects in the book were due to his not following his
own recommendations fully enough. Some years later John Derry suggested
that the book can now be seen as possessing something of a pioneering
character in its move to connect high politics with broader currents in the
country. Geoffrey Elton agreed, and ranked the book very high as technical
history. He too saw it as pioneering in the way it demonstrated the signicance
of looking beyond London when analyzing the growth of radical politics.
Butterelds moves became commonplace in English historical writing. J. C. D.
Clark regarded Butterelds thesis about the revolution that did not happen as
important for the analysis of the problem of revolutions and rebellions gener-
ally, whether in English history or elsewhere.
At the time, however, Buttereld admitted that the reviews discouraged
him. By his own standards George III, Lord North, and the People was not an
important book. It was merely a diversion from his real task of producing the
biography of Charles James Fox. The Fox book could hardly seem farther
away than it did to him now.

Modern History
Next to the intense activity which produced George III, Lord North,
and the People, Buttereld resumed a second line of writing after becoming
Professor and after the war ended. He returned with diligence to his work on
the Concise Cambridge Modern History, neglected during the war. The lec-
 Professor 151

tures he had composed during the 1930s and early 1940s were his base. He
criticized his own work severely and forced himself to rewrite everything he
had done. By 1949 he had redone, and Eve Bogle had retyped, perhaps fty
lectures. Of these about one-third were on politics and war, a quarter on reli-
gion, one-fth on intellectual themes including science, the same number on
historical geography, and one or two lectures on economic or social themes.
Cambridge University Press spoke with him about the book in January 1949,
and he convinced them that the work was going well. He now envisioned a
large one-volume book in place of a two-volume set. He would make no
promise of a deadline for the nished product.
Butterelds inaugural address in November 1944 was his rst major state-
ment on how to approach the subject of general modern history. He made a
second statement in April 1945 when he presented a paper, Tendencies in
Historical Study in England, to the Conference of Irish Historians in Dublin.
It was the rst of what became a long list of visits and connections with Ireland
throughout the rest of his life. He speaks in the paper as if there were a revival
of interest in Actons thought, and uses Acton as both guide and opponent.
Ostensibly it is a review of current trends, but it amounts to a concise sum-
mary of what he felt he himself was achieving at Cambridge in the study of
general history and in dening the moral content of historical study. It is a
surprisingly immoderate identication of his own views as the wave of the
future in historical study. One has the feeling that Buttereld has begun to
delight in issuing the pronouncements on history which his role as Professor
entitles him to issue. Gone for now is the painful shyness that marked his
career in the twenties and thirties.
The dominant trend in historical study in England, he suggests, is to treat
modern history as the growth of western civilization and to reduce the con-
centration on diplomatic history and ideas in history. This change is in sympa-
thy with Actons idea of history as organic process, but away from his con-
centration on ideas and politics. The new tendency means demoting the state
and international relations from their positions of centrality and replacing
them with society and civilization. It then entails analyzing what Butter-
eld called the inter-relation between various factors: the interactions of
economic, social, political, religious, and intellectual movements. It mini-
mizes the notion of a break between medieval and modern, and features in-
stead the idea of a gradual transition over many centuries. The scientic revo-
lution of the seventeenth century becomes more important and the Italian
Renaissance becomes less so. Eastern Europe and Russia get included and
western Europe is relativized.
All this we recognize as a summary of Butterelds own stated program. We
152 Professor

recall, however, that his practicein his lectures or in his drafts for the Con-
cise Cambridge Modern Historyfailed to match his professed intention.
Moreover, while he might speak in favour of widening the geographical scope
of general modern history to embrace eastern Europe, he explicitly rejects the
attempt to include any of the rest of the world. He bluntly opposes the teach-
ing of more Asian, African, and Latin American history in the university. As he
puts it, we are in danger of running as fast as we can after superciality, and
he fears that even English history will be taught inadequately. He sounds
rmly Anglocentric in his approach to modern history.
After the war, Buttereld continued to nd, or receive, opportunities to
promote his vision of general history as the organic growth of civilization. One
of these was a new course of lectures entitled History of England, 1688
1792 in which he applied the approach to the study of his own nation. He
explained his intentions to his students on the rst day: we shall not be merely
economic or social or political or constitutional or ecclesiastical historians
because these are only articial divisions which we make to help us in certain
kinds of analysis. We must take a glimpse of England as a whole, and envisage
English history as a single web of growth. The texts of his lectures indicate
that he still devotes most of his attention to politics, but he makes an ardent
attempt to incorporate material on nonpolitical themes.
Another opportunity came from Cambridge University Press in February
and March 1945. The Press invited G. N. Clark and Buttereld, the holders of
the two Cambridge chairs in modern history, to give advice concerning the
revision of the Cambridge Modern History, the monumental collaborative
venture which Acton had spawned. The Press had in mind simply bringing the
volumes up to date with recent scholarship. Both historians did their home-
work before responding with a report. Buttereld read the notes and corre-
spondence in which Acton set down his original plan. Here was a chance for
Buttereld to practice his ideas of general history on a grand scale. Their
conclusion, given to the Press in April 1945, determined the course of what
happened next: After considering how far the History fulls the requirements
of the present time, we have come to the conclusion that no mere revision
would be satisfactory, and that a new work is needed. Since Actons day, they
wrote, the accepted idea of general history has changed. Clark and Butter-
eld agreed on the proposals that followed, which mirrored Butterelds ideas
on general history.
Within a month the Press adopted their concept of an entirely new modern
history and asked Clark and Buttereld to serve as the general editors. Butter-
eld exhibited particular enthusiasm for the role. He immediately projected a
plan for a giantesque New Cambridge Modern History, expanded from the
 Professor 153

original dozen volumes to twenty-four. Volume 1 would begin with 1494, the
nal volume would close with 1918, and 1715 and 1815 would mark the prin-
cipal divisions within the period. He designated the rst three volumes for the
Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Counter-Reformation, and named all
the remaining volumes, except one, for some political or military event or
gure. The exception was a volume he called The Heritage of the Scientic
Revolution, 16791714. Butterelds plan was extremely conservative. Here
was the extraordinary opportunity to reconstruct the history of modern Eu-
rope as the development of European civilization and society, and in his hands
he had the concepts enabling him to do so. In practice he kept the traditional
Cambridge chronology and retained the traditional emphasis on European
history as politics, diplomacy, and war, with a smattering of other things.
Buttereld was ready to accept the editorship with Clark, and he had Vella-
cott encouraging him to do it. To Butterelds surprise, Clark declined the
invitation, giving as his reason that he wanted to spend his time as a historian
and not as an editor. In the face of Clarks refusal, Buttereld withdrew as
well, adding that he would not want to accept sole editorship or even a joint
editorship with someone other than Clark. He, too, now professed that he did
not want to be an editor, estimating that the enterprise would take fteen years
to complete, not ten as the Press predicted. He did volunteer his services as a
contributor. It must have been wrenching for him to refuse the chance to
succeed Acton at the head of the new Cambridge modern history.
As things turned out, the Press put pressure on both Clark and Buttereld to
relent. This time Buttereld gave the refusal, while Clark consented to devise a
plan for the project and draft instructions for contributors. There would be an
advisory committee with Clark as a member, but no general editor. Eventually
Buttereld received invitations to contribute to the volumes on the Renais-
sance and the eighteenth century, but he refused again and again, and the
project went forward without any support from him. He told himself and
others that he had come to believe that a large cooperative history was un-
satisfactory in itself. But he was no doubt upset with how things had gone and
with Clark for carrying on without him, and he became simply stubborn.
When the thirteen volumes of the New Cambridge Modern History were
completed twenty-four years later, it was shorter and took longer than even
Buttereld had expected, and it contained nothing by the person who had
thought more about the problems of modern history than any one else in
Cambridge.
Soon after backing out of the New Cambridge Modern History Buttereld
received three more invitations to join collaborative projects, two on general
history, and one on Edmund Burke. At the time he was not drawn thematically
154 Professor

to either project on general history, and, after his experience with the New
Cambridge Modern History, he found all three easier to decline. The rst was
an invitation from the Society Pro Helvetia, via the Swiss legation in London,
to edit a one-volume history of Switzerland. He suggested the names of histo-
rians who might each contribute a part of the history and eventually recom-
mended that G. R. Potter write the entire work. Potter agreed to write the book
with two others, and by 1952 produced the Short History of Switzerland.
The second invitation came from Norman Sykes, the Dixie Professor of
Ecclesiastical History at Cambridge, and Bishop Stephen Neill, then a Fellow
of Trinity College, Cambridge, to collaborate with them in planning a pro-
posed Cambridge History of the Christian Church. Buttereld consulted Vel-
lacott, who urged him to stay out of the project. He then declined, and the
project failed. Eventually Oxford University Press picked up the idea and
began to publish the Oxford History of the Christian Church, with Henry
Chadwick and Owen Chadwick as general editors.
The third was an invitation from Alfred Cobban in 1947 to edit a volume
belonging to a new series on the correspondence of Burke. Butterelds volume
would be the letters on English politics, Ireland, and America. He had a long-
standing attraction to Burke, much as he did to Fox, but in his present mood
he refused even this.

Modern Science
The curious volume on the scientic revolution which Buttereld pro-
jected for the New Cambridge Modern History revealed a clue to his thinking
on a theme that had appealed to him for years, the importance of science in
modern history. His interest derived from his treatment of general history. He
had attached a lecture or two on science to his general European history
course back in 1929 or 1930. It is not clear what initially induced him to do so,
but his experience as a youth in Keighley School, which promoted science and
mathematics above all else, must have been a factor. Perhaps his awareness of
the former renown of Peterhouse in the sciences was a factor. Perhaps the
important thing was merely his reading of European history. He once observed
that even when the tradition stressed diplomatic, military, and constitutional
history, it was hard not to refer to art in the Renaissance, religion in the
Reformation, and science in the period from Copernicus to Newton. Once he
got the idea that general history should be constructed with more than the
history of war, politics, and ideas, it was easy to move science onto the stage.
He had joined the Inter-Faculty Committee on the History of Science at Cam-
 Professor 155

bridge from its beginning, and by the end of the 1930s he was giving ve or six
lectures a year on science in his course.
Sometime near the end of the war his ideas about the role of science in the
history of Europe showed evidence of changing. He used to say, simply, that
science should be treated as part of the development of civilization. In 1946 he
was still publishing in this fashion. He highlighted science in his outline for
the New Cambridge Modern History and even referred to what he called the
scientic revolution of the seventeenth century, without suggesting anything
beyond the point that science was important in modern European history.
Prime indication of major change in his views appeared in his lecture Ten-
dencies in Historical Study in England in 1945. There he advocated using the
term scientic revolution to name the scientic thought of the seventeenth
century and proposed that historians give science a more central place in our
general history. He meant not merely to urge the importance of science, but
also to demote the Italian Renaissance of the fteenth century from its posi-
tion as the great dividing-line between medieval and modern times and
to place greater emphasis on the scientic revolution instead. In an article
shortly thereafter, his rst on the history of science, he described the scientic
revolution as pivotal in Western civilization, and charged that our whole
picture of human intellectual development is warped unless we conceded
the point.
Buttereld became a public advocate for the history of science in the fall of
1945 when he proposed to the BBC a series of sixteen talks on the subject to be
presented by a team of scientists and historians that he would assemble. His
explicit aim was to persuade schools to introduce the history of science into
their curriculum. The project went nowhere at the time, except that the BBC
asked him to gave one broadcast himself. Even though he included scientists
in his plan, he bluntly accused scientists generally of being not quite satisfac-
tory as historians because they tended to think ahistorically. He both ap-
plauded and lamented the drift of some scientists towards Marxist interpreta-
tions of history which allotted room for science in the history of civilization.
He had on his mind especially Joseph Needham, Cambridge biochemist and
historian of science in China who had sympathies with both Christian and
Marxist approaches to history. This experience, along with the events of inter-
national affairs after the Second World War, drove Buttereld to meditate
further on Marxism. He gave a paper in several Cambridge colleges on the
issues that Marxism raised in relation to historical interpretation.
With the university returning to full operation after the war, the Committee
on the History of Science, now chaired by Buttereld, won approval to run a
156 Professor

special course of lectures, although still detached from the Tripos examina-
tions. Buttereld recalls being pressed by several people, including at least one
university administrator, to stay active in the history of science in order to
diminish the inuence of Marxists in the eld. Joseph Needham, as an Anglo-
Catholic, a communist, and a biochemist, was a key gure in the 1930s and
again when he returned to Cambridge in 1948. Buttereld and he generally
found themselves in agreement. The committee decided to heed Butterelds
advice to secure a historian, not a scientist, for the lectures. Anna-K. Mayer
showed that the matter at issue was part of a bigger agenda within Cambridge
to move the study of the history of science into the humanities away from the
control of the scientists themselves. The committee surprised Buttereld by
looking to him as the candidate. He testied later that, in an attempt to avoid
the invitation, he stayed away from the meeting on the day the committee
planned to come to a decision. The committee invited him anyway. Buttereld
declined, but the committee persisted. After negotiations, he agreed to present
a course of lectures on the history of science during 19471948, provided that
he offered no other courses during the year, and that he not be asked to do it
again. As it turned out, Butterelds lectures contributed signicantly to the
establishment of the history of science as a study in its own right.
In preparation for the lectures, Buttereld started with the typescripts of the
several lectures on science contained in his course on modern European civili-
zation. To these he added new reading on the history of science, squeezed into
his incredibly busy life during 1947. His notebook shows him studying George
Sartons Introduction to the History of Science and available reference works
on the lives and work of scientists. He seems to have read one or two articles or
books on each scientist he discussed. A high portion of this reading apparently
occurred during the early 1930s when he rst worked up lectures on science.
He must have read or reread the primary writings of Copernicus, Bacon,
Descartes, Boyle, Newton, Fontenelle, and other scientists of the period, and
he interpreted their writings for himself, without the benet of careful reading
of the scholarly literature.
Buttereld presented twelve lectures on Saturdays at noon during the Lent
and Easter terms in 1948, starting in January. The series title was Origins of
Modern Science, 14001800. He had no time to prepare the lectures until
after he had sent George III, Lord North, and the People to the publisher early
that same January. He appears to have written each lecture in full just before
giving it, working late into the night. He rewrote his lectures during the sum-
mer vacation and put them into the hands of Bell in August. It was a stunning
accomplishment. He was hoping for quick publication and was disturbed
when Bell took until October 1949 to issue the volume. The title was slightly
 Professor 157

revised, The Origins of Modern Science, 13001800. The term origins in

the title for the lectures might have been provided either by the original spon-
sor, the Committee on the History of Science, or by Buttereld. In any case, we
have to assume that he was satised with the term, since he surely had ample
opportunity to insist on a different title for the book if he had wished one.
The book retains the character of lectures, with all the repetitions, the
sweeping generalizations, and the imprecision one expects in such a medium.
He adds an introduction which prepares the reader well for what follows, but
he nds no way to conclude. He simply stops when he reaches the end of
lecture 12. He calls the work a narrative, a story, but it is not a continuous
story surveying the history of science during the years indicated, and he dis-
parages thinking of it as an abridgment. Rather he traces what he believes are
the lines of strategic change and emphasizes those moments that seem
pivotal. He does not tell us the rationale behind the selection of these twelve
topics rather than others, and leaves us with the same impression we have
received before from his published work: the book is a miscellany. The title
suggests wide coverage, chronologically and thematically, but the book de-
livers much less. Buttereld concentrated on the years from around 1550 to
the 1680s, and he xed on the physical sciences to the neglect of the biological
sciences and mathematics.
It helps us understand Butterelds achievement if we treat the book as a
series of reections about a problem in the history of science and general
history. The problem is the character of the changes in science from Coper-
nicus to Newton and the relationship of the changes to the general history of
Western civilization. He proposes the thesis which in 1948 and 1949 was still
novel, that the scientic attainments of those years amounted to a scientic
revolution producing a thing he called modern science. He was aware that
others before him, especially Alexandre Koyr in France, had written about
the work of scientists in the seventeenth century as amounting to a veritable
revolution in thinking. But by employing the term scientic revolution and
tying it to the creation of modern science he creates a meaning which went
well beyond anything said before. He interprets modern science as a new
phenomenon achieved in the 1680s by Isaac Newton. It succeeded the Chris-
tian religion as the presiding force in the ongoing construction of Western
civilization. The magnitude of his claims for the scientic revolution and mod-
ern science would be difcult to surpass:

Since that revolution overturned the authority in science not only of the middle
ages but of the ancient worldsince it ended not only in the eclipse of schol-
astic philosophy but in the destruction of Aristotelian physicsit outshines
158 Professor

everything since the rise of Christianity and reduces the Renaissance and the
Reformation to the rank of mere episodes, mere internal displacements, within
the system of medieval Christendom. Since it changed the character of mens
habitual mental operations even in the conduct of the non-material sciences,
while transforming the whole diagram of the physical universe and the very
texture of human life itself, it looms so large as the real origin both of the
modern world and of the modern mentality that our customary periodisation
of European history has become an anachronism and an encumbrance.

His words ring out as hyperbole and echo his rhetoric in George III, Lord
North, and the People when he suggested that the unremembered, local events
of 17791780 were really Englands French Revolution narrowly escaped.
Later on, in the mid-1950s, he became even more insistent on the point. For
my own part, he wrote, I should like to cry from the housetops that the
publication of Newtons Principia in 1687 is a turning-point in history for
peoples to whom the Renaissance and Reformation can hardly mean anything
at all. He would prefer to periodize European history around the ascendency
of Christianity, rather than the fall of Rome, and the scientic revolution,
rather than the Renaissance and Reformation. The extravagance of his state-
ment caught the eye and thereafter historians referred to it routinely.
Buttereld considers his subject on two distinct levels. On one level, the rst
eight lectures plus 11 and much of lecture 12 depict the scientic revolution as
a narrowly intellectual event, and approach the science of which he spoke as a
topic in the history of ideas. Most of the text is a diagnosis of ideasideas of
impetus, motion, matter, gravitation, phlogiston, and so onand the scien-
tists appear before us as minds. He maintains an introverted focus. He passes
lightly over or neglects their technology, their experiments, their discovery of
evidence, their social communities, their economics, their politics, their tech-
niques, their moods and emotions, and mentions little about the impact on
their work of their life circumstances, war, the universities, industry, public
power, and social class. He explains the scientic revolution as the product of
interior mental operations occurring in the minds of a relatively few men who
were spending their time contemplating specically intellectual questions. The
ideas, mentalities, and religious beliefs of the scientist are foremost in the
sequence of things. A dozen times or more he has the scientists picking up
the other end of the stick and thinking about the very same things from
another perspective. It is astonishing, for instance, how much of the new
science is due to Christian belief and the tangible search for the ways of God
and the order of creation. The essential changes in science come not from new
data, new instrumentation, new social or economic demands, new relations of
power, or new material conditions, but from new thinking, a different kind of
 Professor 159

thinking-cap put on by the scientist himself. In one sense the ideas march in a
continuous and accumulating series, the next scientist building on and work-
ing from the ideas of his predecessor. In another sense, however, the ideas
emerge as discontinuous innovations, the results of a scientist surmounting
some giant intellectual hurdle, some obstruction, and reaching an entirely new
mental ground. In the end, the discontinuities count for more. The really big
changes upon which all else depends, he declares, are not the results of ac-
cumulated knowledge, but of distinctly new ideas of motion, matter, and the
movement of the earth. Everything culminates in Isaac Newtons new synthe-
sis published in 1687, which integrates all the new individual ideas into one
big intellectual system.
On the second level, Buttereld throws the subject onto a very broad plain
in lectures 9 and 10 and some of lecture 12. Here he discusses the scientic
revolution as a phenomenon within the general history of modern Western
civilization. Most of the time he speaks of civilization in the all-inclusive sense
which he has propounded for so many years, as the expression of the totality
of the human experience, from economics to religion, from geography to poli-
tics. He sometimes still uses the notion of civilization to mean the renement
of humanity and the opposite of barbarian. Other times he thinks of the
term in the plural and speaks of Western civilization as one of many such con-
geries of renements that coexist or succeed one another in world history.
A fundamental ambiguity appears in his presentation. He is sure that the
modern world, and not merely modern science, emerges by the end of the sev-
enteenth century. He displays uncertainty, however, about the role of the sci-
entic revolution, conceived as a mental transformation, in producing the
modern world. In one mood he sees the new science as the great factor which
initiates the modern period and propels modernizing changes in all aspects of
life. In another mood he says science is only one big factor among many in a
remarkable convergence of big factors which move the Western world into the
modern era: the formation of the bourgeoisie, the ascendency of the nation-
state, overseas discoveries, new economic activity, the eclipse of Christianity
among intellectuals, a new secular worldview, and so on. The ambiguity mir-
rors his interpretation of the scientic revolution as a narrowly intellectual
matter which nonetheless generates utterly universal implications.
It was this ambiguity in Butterelds argument that Arnold Toynbee probed
in A Study of History. Toynbee insisted that the question of the emergence of
modern science and the modern world could not be understood without anal-
ysis of the wider factors, especially religion. Buttereld, he thought, had mis-
stated the novelty in the career of science in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. The genuinely new thing was the reversal of roles of science and
160 Professor

religion. Science was elevated from the position subordinate to religion in

previous centuries to the dominant position, from which religion was then
ejected.
It is noteworthy how Butterelds interpretation of the science in this period
displays his own mental operations. He is the model of his own historical
interpretation. His lectures looked at no new evidence, employed no new
techniques, announced no new discoveries. His preparatory reading was slight
and even perhaps a little out of date, and his concept of science was narrowly
intellectual. What dominates the book is Butterelds historical thinking. The
book reveals Buttereld as above all the historiographer. Origins of Modern
Science can be understood as a book about historical thinking, one which
takes its place next to his more obviously historiographical writings, especially
Whig Interpretation of History. In Origins of Modern Science Buttereld ap-
plies his historical thought to a specic topic within general history, in this
case, well-known ideas and gures in the history of science. He shows his
audience an extended example of how one might approach an ordinary topic
by picking up the other end of the stick or putting on a different kind of
thinking-cap. If the invitation had come from a different sponsor about a
different subject, he could just as easily have applied his historical thinking to
any other important theme in general history, such as the history of religion, or
historical geography, or perhaps even material life.
In the introduction to the lectures he itemizes the principles of historiogra-
phy which he follows. He reiterates them in different guises throughout the
book. They amount to a summation of his message for historians at this
moment in his career. Look closely at the moments when the dominant men-
tality changes, he advises, rather than strive for encyclopaedic coverage. Study
the lesser and forgotten gures in interaction with the famous names, rather
than mount up the biographies of the greats. Look at the mistakes and the
dead ends, in addition to the successes. Concentrate on the process of inves-
tigation, rather than on the results alone. Put the scientists in their own times
to disclose what they sought to attack or overcome or solve, rather than
compare them to modern times. Move from the earlier to the later, with the
future indeterminate, rather than taking the later as the goal to which the
earlier tends. Buttereld articulates an approach to the history of scientic
change that differs dramatically from the accumulationist and presentistic
style of a Whig interpretation of the subject.
He follows his own advice rigorously, except for one thing: his handling of
the relationship of his scientists and their ideas to things modern. This issue
is central to his argument. His intention is to speak only of transitions in
science, and not to act as if modern science were the destination to which
 Professor 161

earlier science tended. According to his stated view, there is just the unbroken
web of history, the unceasing march of generations which themselves overlap
with one another and interpenetrate, so that the history of science is part of a
continuous story of mankind going back far beyond the ancient Greeks them-
selves. Nevertheless, we nd him repeatedly going against his own counsel.
We are struck by his language about earlier science that betrays the priority of
the modern in his analysis. He writes of foreshadowings, anticipations,
stunted development, hints of a more modern kind of mechanics, a
remarkable approach to the modern view of gravitation, the intellectual
obstruction which . . . is checking the progress of thought. We wonder at
statements like this one where he is discussing medieval scholastic philosophy:
Perhaps the lack of mathematics, or the failure to think of mathematical ways
of formulating things, was partly responsible for what appeared to be verbal
subtleties and an excessive straining of language in these men who were almost
yearning to nd the way to the modern science of mechanics. On Butterelds
own terms, it would be impossible for medieval thinkers to yearn for some-
thing that did not appear until centuries later and that issued from entirely
unknowable processes lasting hundreds of years. It would impossible for them
to meet the standard of Newtons science three or four hundred years in the
future, and it would not make sense to accuse them of a lack or a failure
or excessive straining as judged by that standard. Indeed, even the title of the
book characterizes a relationship between earlier and later science that, on
Butterelds terms, is impossible, because it treats something which appears
later (modern science) as a xture and purports to nd features of it (ori-
gins) before it existed. We then realize that he has structured his history so
that modern science, from the 1680s onwards, serves as both the destina-
tion of, and the universal standard for, all the science that precedes it. For
Buttereld, modern science is the real science, and all other science is inferior,
marred by incompleteness, mistakes, half-truths, and falsehoods. And in this
he joined the best of the scholars of the history of science in his day. For
instance, his Cambridge colleague Joseph Needham, in his studies of China,
found anticipations of modern science here and there over the ages amidst all
the other traditional gropings after nature. In this respect, paradoxically, But-
tereld had produced a classic volume of the very thing he had sought to
demolish, a Whig interpretation of history.
The immediate responses to Butterelds Origins of Modern Science were
overwhelmingly favourable. He had every reason to feel elated. The reviewer
in the Times Educational Supplement welcomed it as a brilliant piece of
historical writing. The reviewer in the Times Literary Supplement described
the book as full of genuine and profound historical thinking which has
162 Professor

given scale and proportion, hitherto lacking, to one of most important periods
in the history of science. Just about everyone accepted his major thesis that
there was a scientic revolution as he depicted. Most also accepted his expla-
nation of the revolution as chiey the product of new mental operations,
rather than new discoveries. And almost everyone praised his placement of
science within the general matrix of modern civilization. Even the scientists
who reviewed the book liked it, despite his barely hidden complaint about
scientists who write ahistorical history of science.
There were a few hesitations. Henry Dale felt that he downgraded Newton
by lling in too much detail. His colleague A. C. Crombie, in the Cambridge
Review, downplayed his originality by calling the idea of a scientic revolution
already conventional, deriving from Koyr. Crombie argued that it would be
more innovative to nd the start of the revolution in the thirteenth century. He
also commented on the neglect of biology, as did A. R. Hall in the Cambridge
Journal. J. Bronowski complained that the book was studded with too many
historical truths. But even these voices praised the book.
All in all, Buttereld had written an important book which won immediate
and near unanimous admiration among both historians and scientists. Very
quickly it became the standard work in the history of science for undergradu-
ates, both in Great Britain and North America. When Buttereld published a
revised edition in 1957, William Stahlman noted, perhaps no single volume
has been so widely used in introductory courses dealing with one or another
aspect of the scientic revolution. Examples taken from the book resurfaced
in general discussions of historical knowledge and historical thinking, as in
Carl Gustavsons Preface to History in 1955. Reviewing the book after an-
other printing a decade later, Stephen and June Toulmin gave this assessment
of the enduring value of his achievement: As a starter, it is still hard to
improve on Butterelds Origins of Modern Science. They called it a tri-
umph, locating within a context of general history the sensitive points of
intellectual debate from Copernicus up to Darwin. Thomas Kuhns Structure
of Scientic Revolutions, published in 1962, promoted a thesis about the
character of deep change in science that seemed to echo Buttereld. Gerd
Buchdahl noted the similarity in a review and connected Kuhns notion of
paradigm shifts with Butterelds metaphor of the scientist putting on a dif-
ferent kind of thinking-cap. Kuhn later acknowledged the impact of Butter-
eld on his thinking, and with Buttereld, of Koyr. Provided readers looked
past the issue of the anticipations of the modern, Butterelds mode of expla-
nation of the scientic revolution, now reenforced by Kuhn, continued to offer
an alternative to Whig-style interpretation of the history of science.
More than this, people soon began to realize that a new eld of study was
 Professor 163

emerging in university curricula, the history of science. Scholars included But-

terelds name in the short list of the founders of the academic discipline. The
very term scientic revolution people linked to Buttereld. People knew that
he was not the rst to use it, but they suggested that he was probably the one
who converted the term into the common currency of the academic lexicon.
Whenever possible in the coming years Buttereld continued to give pub-
licity to his notions of the centrality of the history of science in historical study,
the pivotal character of the scientic revolution, and the seventeenth century
as the dividing moment between the old and the new Europe. He summarized
his views of general European history for two multivolume encyclopaedias in
the next few years. He also promoted the history of science as a bridge
between the arts and sciences, a thing suggested in the opening sentence of
Origins of Modern Science. He had tried since 1945 to talk the BBC into
arranging a series on the history of science. They nally gave him one oppor-
tunity in 1948 to broadcast his ideas on national radio. Soon afterwards, they
gave up their resistance to his proposal for a series and, following a plan
arranged by Buttereld with the Cambridge Committee on the History of
Science, presented a number of talks by scientists and historians throughout
the academic year 19491950. The talks, including two by Buttereld, ap-
peared as a book in 1951 with the title The History of Science: Origins and
Results of the Scientic Revolution. Buttereld, behaving like the missionary,
was doing what he could to persuade people to work the history of science into
the school curriculum as well as the university lecture list. Many years later
Karl Schweizer, one of his former doctoral students, collected some of his
subsequent writings on the history of science into a book.
Buttereld was in full stride by 1948 and 1949 as Professor of Modern
History. What had started out as Fox and general history transmuted into
unexpected things. He had a big book to his credit and another little book, and
he had gained himself a reputation that matched even the most exalted expec-
tations of his professorship.
 7

Religion

Morality, History, and the State

Fox and general modern history were only two of the parallel, yet con-
nected themes that Buttereld pursued after the Second World War, both with
unintended results. Simultaneously he pursued another set of themes on his-
tory, religion, and morality which had also occupied his mind for many years.
The outcomes were extraordinarily surprising.
Embedded within his important lecture in Dublin in April 1945, Tenden-
cies in Historical Study in England, were a few brief passages about moral
judgments in history which summarized where his thought on the subject had
come. His message echoes Whig Interpretation of History of fteen years
earlier, but there are new elements in what he says. Once again he is brash to
identify changes in his own discourse as the dominant trend in English histo-
riography. He represents the trend in the form of counter-theses to Actons
famous dicta on moral judgments. He cannot keep himself from continuing
the combat with Acton which he began long ago.
In place of what he takes to be Actons vision of history as a moral conict
between good and evil, with the historian declaring who is on which side, he
recommends construing history according to a more ambiguous morality. We
can now see, says Buttereld, that history may be characterized more appro-
priately as a theatre of both cooperation and tragic conict. The development

164
 Religion 165

of modern science, for instance, is a cooperative achievement of many people,

and is not easily explained as a conict between good and evil. For this pur-
pose, the better metaphor is the leaven that leavens the whole lump, a new
metaphor to which he returns often hereafter. The tragic character of things is
created by the reality that sin is distributed on all sides of any human event and
that all people are sinners and act more harmfully than they ought. All are
embroiled in predicaments that constrain or foster their behaviour for good or
ill, and no side is merely righteous and the other simply unrighteous. The
troubles of the world are due not to the struggles of the righteous on one side
and the wicked on the other, but to a general perversity in human affairs not
yet subject to human control. More true to history, he says, are two notions
that become symbols of his thinking for the rest of his life: that very little sins
sometimes have disastrously disproportionate consequences, and that per-
petual struggles occur between one half-right that is too wilful and another
half-right that is too proud.
We can hear his words as self-chastisement for what, on his own terms, was
a lapse into moral judgment and patriotism during the war, and for his own
surprising behaviour which found him one moment cooperating with interests
helpful to the Nazis and the next joining with efforts to defeat them. As the
war carried on, he had increasingly used his role as a historian for political
purposes, above all for the victory of the Allies over Germany.
Butterelds lecture reveals a preoccupation with what he regards as the
perversion of historical study under the impact of war and contemporary
international affairs. His case in point is the question of the origins of the First
World War, a topic that had occupied his mentor Temperley. In particular he is
alarmed by reinterpretations of the wars origins. He argues that since the rise
of Hitler in 1933 and the catastrophe of the Second World War itself English
historians have tended to give the subject a mistakenly anti-German ring,
making the Germans more responsible for the origins of the First World War
than they were previously said to be.
The great antidote which Buttereld prescribes against the poison of such
politicized and moralizing history is scientic history. Not surprisingly, his
model scientic historian is a German, Friedrich Meinecke. Buttereld noted
that German historians, like so many others, had routinely forsaken the rig-
ours of scientic history in order to write history for political purposes: in
support of German nation-building in the nineteenth century, for the German
war effort during both world wars, on behalf of the Weimar Republic in the
twenties, for or against Naziism. Against this overwhelming ood in the very
land that Buttereld believed produced the ideal of scientic history stood
Meinecke. Buttereld admires an essay Meinecke wrote in 1916, in the midst
166 Religion

of the Great War. He represents, and approves, Meinecke in such circum-

stances as vindicating the role of that academic history which refuses to be
shaken from its lofty seatrefuses to step into the arena to take part in the
game which is being played. The view amounts to an exaggeration of any-
thing Leopold von Ranke, the putative father of scientic history, might have
said, since the history Ranke himself had written emitted strong Germano-
political sounds. Buttereld imagines a scientic history which transcends all
conict, thrives beyond the reach of politics and war, isolates itself from con-
temporary affairs, and operates unimpacted by the present. The notion is an
extension of things he has been saying since Whig Interpretation, but now
with a special emphasis on the transcendence of scientic history.
Buttereld continued to strike hard against the histories which blamed the
First World War on Germany. He went to the BBC with a proposal for a
broadcast on this whole German question, but the BBC declined it. In other
writings he elaborated his point. Anti-Hitler scholars reinterpreted the pre-
Hitler period to show Hitler-like tendencies in German history long before the
dictator appeared on the scene. This anti-German reading of history, said
Buttereld, actually reversed long-standing English admiration of things Ger-
man before the First World War. We recall the shock to his teenage sensibili-
ties caused by that war at the time and especially the English attacks on his
heroic Germany. Butterelds efforts won him the reputation of being pro-
German. He was aware of this, and did not mind. He acted as if his own pro-
German view were not politically motivated. He was adamant that the anti-
German view of the origins of the First World War depended on politics, and
not on the sober ndings of scientic history.
The irony of Butterelds heightened emphasis on the transcendence of sci-
entic history is that he did not adhere to his own prescriptions about morally
and politically clean history. His own moral sense was acute, and his estima-
tion of the crisis of the times called for large-scale moral thinking. He actually
continued his wartime tendency to implicate his historical study in the very
matters whose impact he warned against. The Second World War, the First
World War, contemporary international politicsthese were the experiences
which drove his thinking on history from 1945 onwards, not his mental reec-
tions on historical research or his reading of other historians or his contempla-
tion of specically intellectual questions. Unlike the scientists whom he pre-
sented in Origins of Modern Science as so many minds processing ideas, he
himself generated his thinking by feeling and responding to the impact of war,
politics, and international crisis. Indeed this he had done for a long time, and
now he continued to do so. Buttereld was evidencing a disjunction between
his actual practice and what he earnestly advocated about scientic history.
 Religion 167

The ending of the Second World War itself reinforced Butterelds reex to
link international politics, morality, and his historical views. He was certain,
he wrote in June 1945, that we are living in one of the great ages of history,
and he could only hope that it was not equivalent to the age of the barbarian
invasions. When the Americans dropped their nuclear bombs on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki in August 1945, Buttereld exclaimed in his diary, The atomic
bombthe ultimate prostitution of human endeavorthe judgment of God
on our civilisation.
As the Allied and Soviet armies were sweeping towards Berlin from opposite
directions and crushing German military power, Buttereld chose to give a
course of lectures to undergraduates in Cambridge during the Lent term 1945
entitled Factors in German History. Consonant with British foreign policy
and the Allies generally, he was already thinking about the reconstruction of
Europe after the war. He offered the course two further years, 1946 and 1947,
rmly into the postwar period of reconstruction. The lectures resounded with
moral and political notes on contemporary international affairs. The most
important matter of the day, in his judgment, was the handling of Germany,
and the course was his contribution as a historian to the proper treatment of
Germany. The course grew out of his attempts in 1943 to do something for the
war effort with his history teaching and writing. Although he never mounted a
course at that time, and his book-length manuscript on the historical geogra-
phy of Europe died on his table, his labours served him now. He worried that
England would support punitive measures against Germany. The best opposi-
tion he could raise against such a prospect was the clamour for historical un-
derstanding, the sort of thing that he insisted historical study should provide.
His lectures deployed historical geography and swept across large political,
social, and religious themes. He assembled a host of big issues to consider,
such as how the divisions of Germany came about, and what the effects of the
Protestant Reformation have been in German history. His intention was to
render Germanys resort to war more understandable. He wanted to make
German action and even Nazi behaviour seem less a matter of sheer evil and
more the product of the historical predicament of Germany. He hoped to blunt
English impulses to blame the Germans. It is possible that he believed, or
believed the self-deception, that his words in favour of understanding were
apolitical and detached from the impact of international events. He could
picture himself as the dissenter against the dominant trend. In the highly
charged postwar era, however, they functioned as starkly political statements
in favour of leniency for Germany.
Very quickly he made tangible his postwar politics of understanding to-
wards Germany. He sought to work independently of governments and to
168 Religion

promote unofcial exchanges with German historians. But he was soon ac-
cepting entangling alliances with the British government. His rst connections
were with the British Council, an agency fully funded by the state. In 1945, in
keeping with British postwar foreign policy, the Council offered him a way to
establish cultural contact with German historians. He agreed immediately to
work with the Council in spite of its semi-governmental status. At the Coun-
cils request, he gave them advice, suggested names of German scholars who
might visit Britain, and discussed going to Germany himself. He continued to
work with the British Council off and on until his retirement in 1968.
The British Foreign Ofce intervened to ask him to go to Germany under
their auspices. He hesitated initially, not wanting to be perceived as an agent of
the government or a supporter of British policy to re-educate the Germans
in the ways of democracy. But then he agreed to compromise himself and make
the trip in 1948 under Foreign Ofce sponsorship when the University of
Gttingen came forward with an invitation addressed to him directly, rather
than via the Foreign Ofce. It turned out that he never went. The trip was at
rst postponed by the organizers and then cancelled.
He eventually travelled to Germany for the rst time after the war in July
1950, sponsored by the British Council. In Cologne he read a new version of
one of his standard papers, The Dangers of History, which was then pub-
lished in a German academic journal. The paper attributed great power to
historians who are able to determine the historical framework used by count-
less people in their interpretation of their relationship to the past. But these
frameworks soon become rigid, and block the way to human understanding.
Historians must then help people unlearn their old history, and learn new
history that corrects the distortions of the old. And so on, again and again. The
process demands considerable elasticity of mind. Spoken in postwar Ger-
many, Butterelds message comforted his German audience, who were eager
for the occupying foreign powers to unlearn the history which uncovered
the deep roots of Nazi totalitarianism and German militarism in the Ger-
man past.
He faced the problem of history and the state from another angle. During
the war he had actually written history intended entirely for use by the state
his collaboration on the history of France published by British Naval Intel-
ligence for the benet of naval intelligence ofcers. With such government
service on his record, he was quite naturally approached by Grahame Clark,
using the letterhead of the British Air Ministry, about giving his support to the
ofcial history of the role of aircraft in the war. The specic question was
whether the Cambridge History Faculty would permit research undertaken by
young scholars within government departments to be presented for graduate
 Religion 169

degrees or fellowship competitions. Buttereld held a number of conversa-

tions about the question with colleagues in Cambridge, and came out rmly
opposed to the proposal. He gave as his reason that historical work for ofcial
government purposes invariably involved restraint on the independence of
historical scholarship, no matter how clear the safeguards or how well inten-
tioned the people involved.
The episode triggered Butterelds worries about various government-
sponsored history projects that went forward during the next few years. He
took special interest in the sequels to the volumes on British foreign policy and
the origins of the rst war edited in the 1920s by Temperley and Gooch. The
original volumes had appeared under Foreign Ofce patronage. Volume 1 of
the new series, Documents on British Foreign Policy, 191939, edited by E. L.
Woodward and R. Butler, came out in 1947. Simultaneously W. N. Medlicott
and Woodward were working on the history of British foreign policy from
1939 to 1945, and Medlicott was handling the history of British economic
warfare during the same period. These and other projects had turned the Brit-
ish government into a monumental patron of historical scholarship, employ-
ing some of Englands best historians and most promising young researchers.
The issue touched Buttereld directly in 1948. One of his own students at
Peterhouse, Desmond Williams, who came from Ireland, whom he would
liked to have made a young Fellow of Peterhouse, took employment on the
government payroll. Williams became a researcher in the archives at Whad-
don Hall in Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, repository of the German documents
captured by British forces. The aim was to publish large amounts of these
documents along side of whatever the Americans released from their vast
holdings of captured German papers. Williams wrote letters to Buttereld and
visited him at Peterhouse to report on the project from the inside.
Buttereld disliked what he heard, and his scepticism about government-
paid historians turned aggressive. He hurriedly wrote a paper warning against
what he labelled ofcial history. He arranged with his Irish historian friends
to read the piece in Dublin in December 1948, and exacted their promise of
immediate publication in an Irish journal. The principle he defended was the
free expression of thought, which he believed ofcial history put in jeop-
ardy. The corollary of intellectual freedom is, he wrote, an independent sci-
ence of history which presents the cause of historical truth, and operates
over against the state. He built a very high wall around what he now some-
times called academic history and sometimes technical history to segre-
gate such history from the work produced under government sponsorship. He
appealed once again to Meineckes statement uttered amid the exigencies of
the First World War in favour of the entire detachment of academic history
170 Religion

from life. Privately to A. J. P. Taylor he pronounced himself the consummate

dissenter, the ideologue of a politics of anarchism and distrust of the state: I
am as an historian against all governments, or rather I believe that something
oblique is going on behind all governments, giving them a seamy side.
Desmond Williams aggravated Butterelds alarm with the report that the
Foreign Ofce might withhold certain documents from researchers. Butter-
eld rebounded with an instruction to Williams that it was his duty to resign
and in a signal manner. His article denouncing ofcial history appeared in
June 1949, and immediately he mailed copies to a list of highly placed histo-
rians around Britain. His campaigned utterly failed. Nothing changed. Medli-
cott and Woodward, the chief ofcial historians in question, did not resign.
They proclaimed their complete agreement with everything he said on the
subject, and then carried on producing ofcial history. Even Williams did not
resign. Government patronage ourished. Buttereld abruptly dropped his
one-man crusade. As an important by-product of the episode he developed a
lasting relationship with Williams. Williams took a history position at Univer-
sity College, Dublin, in 1949, and thereafter occasionally brought Buttereld
to Dublin and saw him at Peterhouse. Williams became Butterelds partner in
high-class gossip. Even Bogle thought that Buttereld enjoyed Williamss com-
pany more than that of any of his other friends.
The episode about ofcial history hardened Butterelds dissenter atti-
tudes towards the state. He now adopted ever more severe demands for the
cleansing of academic history from political and ideological contact. In one
case, not long after these events, he received an invitation to participate in
a project on world history sponsored by UNESCO. He refused without a sec-
ond thought, saying that the involvement of a United Nations agency in the
venture transformed it into quasi-ofcial history, and academic historians
ought to stay clear of it.
The gure behind Butterelds agony over the relations of history, politics,
and morality was once again Acton. Indeed, Butterelds political and moral
attachment to Germany in particular was due very much to his allegiance to
the German tradition of historical method that had nourished Acton, notably
the work of Ranke.
Buttereld re-encountered Acton on a number of occasions from 1944 on-
wards, leading him to think intensely about Acton once again. His prepara-
tions for his inaugural address as Professor of Modern History in 1944 readily
took him back to Acton. The invitation from Cambridge University Press in
1945 to collaborate on what became the New Cambridge Modern History
induced him to study Actons letters about the rst Cambridge Modern His-
tory. He had Trevelyan comparing him to Acton in 1946 after Trevelyan read
 Religion 171

Butterelds Tendencies in Historical Study and offered the opinion that his
philosophy of history was closer to reality than Actons. He meditated on
Actons life in 1946 when the English Historical Review invited him to review
David Mathews book on Acton, a book he decided was too hagiographic.
Working on the review persuaded him, during June 1946, to look for the rst
time into the Acton papers stored in Cambridge University Library. He had
David Knowles and G. P. Gooch encouraging him in 1947 to write on Acton.
During 1946 and 1947 he went to the library frequently to read in the Acton
papers, especially looking in the drawers of Actons notes, the endless and
undated enigmatic jottings of quotations, sayings, lists, and records of his
readings. He began to feel he had crossed to the other side of the public facade
of the man, and the experience captivated him. This is the moment when he
rst asked Eve Bogle to go to the archives to transcribe papers for him. He was
ecstatic when he discovered the journal that Acton kept during his rst visit to
Rome in 1857, when he was twenty-three. Here, to his astonishment, he
encountered Acton warning historians against issuing moral judgments. He
could hardly believe it was Acton admonishing historians to limit themselves
to questions of causes and effects in a persons life, and to leave any moral
judgments to God. Buttereld seized upon this young Acton as his ally against
the older Acton who marched about with moral judgments in his hand. Butter-
eld uncovered a series of such diaries and journals, and proposed to edit a
small book of Actons diaries from 1852 to 1859. He managed to publish an
article on the Roman journal of 1857, but the book never appeared.
He did produce a small booklet on Acton for the Historical Association,
written quickly in 1947 for their pamphlet series. His primary theme in Lord
Acton, published in 1948, was the big split he believed he discovered between
a exible and liberal-minded early Acton and rigid later Acton. As Buttereld
drew the portrait, early Acton professed with Ranke that every epoch of hu-
man existence is valid in its own right, whereas later Acton treated the past as a
odious epoch of tyranny to be overcome by the march of liberty. Early Acton
handled persecution and tolerance with balance and asked historians not to
play the moral judge, while the later Acton called persecution a crime and
urged historians to issue moral judgments. Early Acton was more Christian
than Whig, while later Acton was more liberal than Catholic. Buttereld now
said it was the later Acton who personied the Whig interpretation of history,
and who was obsessed with interpreting history as the story of liberty.
Buttereld was not prepared to apply the understanding to Acton that he
wanted everyone else to apply to the Germans. He did not consider, for in-
stance, that Acton may have changed his mind for worthy intellectual or
religious reasons. Instead, he denounced Acton with a moral judgment. And
172 Religion

quite out of keeping with his preference for intellectual explanations, he at-
tributed the perceived change in Acton to psychological factors. He speculated
there might be a defect in Actons personal relationships which caused some
small spring of emotion to become frozen up inside him. He thought of
editing a volume of Actons essays and lectures which would demonstrate the
change, and proposed the book to Bell publishers. Like the edition of Actons
diaries, this volume never appeared.
Buttereld threw other criticisms at Acton in his booklet, making it seem as
if he were taking distance from his perennial hero. Actons approach to general
European history was too narrow, he charged. Acton restricted himself too
much to intellectual and political history and neglected economics, geography,
science, and the rest of civilization. He created too sharp a break between
modern history and what preceded it, and neglected the medieval and ancient
worlds. He dwelt too much on western Europe and neglected eastern Europe
and Russia.
Nonetheless, in the same booklet, and perhaps without realizing it, Butter-
eld revealed deep continuities running between the two Actons. In so doing,
he disclosed once again his own fundamental identity with Acton. At this
deeper stratum, Buttereld shared with the Acton the allegiance to German
historical scholarship, particularly to Ranke. Like Acton, he too wanted his-
tory to be organic, and he too sought to trace the interconnectedness of all
things through the sweep of general history. He believed with Acton in the
centrality of individual personalities in history, and he feared the all-powerful
state. With Acton he gave priority to Christian commitment in his life and to
the action of Providence in history. Like the Acton who withstood the authori-
ties of the Roman Catholic Church, he dissented from any church authoritari-
anism and church establishment. And like Acton he understood the historians
task to be a moral vocation. Compared with his afnities with this deeper
Acton, Butterelds criticisms, even on moral judgments, appear as minor
adjustments by a faithful disciple. Buttereld felt so strongly about Actons
doctrine of moral judgments in history because he himself held equally intense
moral convictions. We can imagine Buttereld, in spite of his stated theory,
struggling daily to restrain himself from making the moral judgments that
would rise up willy nilly within him. It is not difcult to think of Buttereld as
becoming obsessed with Acton.
Butterelds dealings with Acton materials took a sharp turn in July 1948.
Aelred Watkin, a Roman Catholic Benedictine monk from Downside Abbey,
wrote him with the revelation that Abbott Gasquet, also of Downside Abbey,
and later made a cardinal, had tampered with Actons language before pub-
lishing in 1906 an edition of Actons letters, entitled Lord Acton and His
 Religion 173

Circle. Buttereld was electried. Watkin documented for Buttereld the dis-
crepancies between Gasquets version of Actons correspondence and the ac-
tual letters in the Downside archives. Gasquet had omitted or changed words
and phrases he regarded as unsuitable for public knowledge about Acton.
Buttereld was hungry for more information and more Acton letters, and took
the ndings out of Watkins hands. He persuaded Watkin to get him access to
the abbey archives. He then threw out the draft of an article Watkin had
prepared and wrote a new article under his own name. Father Watkin deferred
to Butterelds eminence, but the monk requested that his name appear on the
article too. He wanted the world to know that Downside itself had cooperated
in revealing and rectifying Cardinal Gasquets transgressions. The new version
appeared under their joint authorship in 1950, but without any indication that
it was the monk and not the professor who made the discovery. Buttereld got
the credit. His Cambridge colleague Kitson Clark held the article up high in his
book The Critical Historian as a model of critical scholarship.
Buttereld took every opportunity to speak out on the public issues circulat-
ing during the postwar years. The problem of the handling of Germany was
the most immediate and most poignant to his sensibilities, but he moved
outwards to a host of other issues. He felt acutely the problems of the devasta-
tion of human life and culture caused by the war, the expansion of the Soviet
Union and the heightening of American power, and the uncertainties created
by the atomic bomb. Like so many other thinkers at the time, he worried
deeply about the future of Western civilization.
To Butterelds perception, problems of such magnitude were best under-
stood as matters of morality and religion in history. The moral opinions he had
briey articulated in Tendencies in Historical Study in the spring of 1945
became a message for him to proclaim in various media during the postwar
period. He expounded his views in his papers on the lecture circuit: History
and Ethics, Marxian Interpretation of History, The Dangers of History.
He contributed an opinion article against dogmatic history to Time and
Tide for January 1946. He went on the BBC in the spring of 1947 to talk on
the Limits of Historical Understanding. He published Reections on the
Predicament of Our Time, a major statement on religion, history, and civili-
zation, in the inaugural issue of the Cambridge Journal in the fall of 1947.
The common feature of all these statements was the interconnection he
perceived among history, morality, religion, and the monumental problems of
the day. His message was continuous with Whig Interpretation of History, but
much expanded, with new emphases and new concerns. He stressed the power
of predicament to circumscribe human good and human evil, the reality of
what he often called the cupidity of every person, the urgency of treating the
174 Religion

problems of the world as primordially matters of human personality and

human relations, the need to discern the ways of Providence and to learn
from the judgment of God upon the civilization, the importance of elas-
ticity of mind. Indeed, the very terms he repeatedpredicament, cupidity,
human personality, human relations, Providence, elasticitybecame marks of
the Buttereld approach, and he gained a reputation as a moral thinker and
religious historian. He was searching to identify what he called the things to
which we can still hold fast when the civilization appears to revert to the
Dark Ages.

Christianity and History

Butterelds public excursions between 1945 and 1947 into the themes
of religion and morality in history attracted the attention of the Faculty of
Divinity in the university. The Cambridge Divinity Faculty was sponsoring a
series of extra lectures for undergraduates on Saturday mornings, and had
already decided that the lectures for Michaelmas term in 1948 would be on
Christianity and history. The topic was proposed by undergraduates who had
attended the series during the previous year on Christianity and philosophy.
Professor H. A. Hodges had lectured effectively on The Logic of Christian
Belief. The series was designed for the large number of postwar students who,
like many in the older generation, felt moved towards Christianity by the crisis
of the times. Many of them were veterans of war service who had experienced
the trauma of death and devastation. They were particularly responsive to
broad representations of their chosen elds of study.
The Divinity sponsors approached Buttereld with the request that he nd
them a historian to handle the subject of Christianity and history. To en-
hance the appeal of the lectures to students outside Divinity, they wanted a
historian who was not a cleric and not a specialist in ecclesiastical history.
When Buttereld could suggest no names that satised them, they came to the
point they had had in mind all the time and invited him to give the lectures.
Buttereld resisted vigorously, citing the extra load of lectures on the history of
science that he was carrying in the rst half of 1948. He trembled, he later
recalled, at the thought of proclaiming before a university audience what he
considered to be the intimacies of religion, things he had only uttered pre-
viously in the seclusion of Methodist chapels. He was terribly conscious of the
strongly antireligious element within the Cambridge historical world. Yet he
gave way in the end, and accepted the invitation, he said, as if it were a call
from God to preach the Gospel. He once again became the Methodist lay
preacher, but this time with the university lecture hall as his chapel and the
 Religion 175

community of historians and students as his congregation. And not a few of

these historians would be derisive of his linkage of history and religion. He
went ahead nonetheless and united his religious and professional worlds,
which he had worked so assiduously to keep apart.
The subject was not at all new to Buttereld, because, as a Christian and a
historian, he had thought about the associated questions for a long time. In
Whig Interpretation of History he had already dealt energetically with at least
one of the issues, moral judgments. Until Englishman and His History, how-
ever, he had kept his explicit confession of Christianity separate from his
professional work as a historian. Since then, the combination of new oppor-
tunities and his moral impulses had been pushing him to make ever more overt
statements of his Christian orientation. The lectures he now contemplated
required him to put his thoughts in order on a wide range of matters pertaining
to Christianity and history. The assignment asked him to frame his reections
with the non-Christian student chiey in mind.
There was very little time at hand to prepare the lectures, only the spring
and summer of 1948, when he also had to revise the lectures on modern
science for publication. He realized immediately that he was completely out of
touch with critical scholarship in theology, biblical studies, and religious his-
tory, and that he would have no possibility of reading in these elds. He
decided to do what he knew best. He read the Bible with the eyes of the
historian as well as the eyes of the lay preacher, took notes, and meditated on
what he read. He lled notebooks with quotations and extracts from the Old
Testament, mostly from the prophets, the Psalms, Ecclesiastes, and the Wis-
dom of Solomon. His notebooks contain nothing from the rst four books of
the Pentateuch and nothing from the New Testament.
At the same time, he carefully reread St. Augustines City of God, and
looked up information on the history of Israel and the geography of Palestine.
A little before this time, he read William Blake and T. S. Eliot. The list of books
in contemporary theology that he appears to have read was very short. It
included Reinhold Niebuhrs Nature and Destiny of Man, Anders Nygrens
Agape and Eros, R. H. Charless Eschatology, and C. C. J. Webbs The Histor-
ical Element in Religion. He would tell anyone who asked about his lectures
that he had no intention of setting himself up as a theologian or biblical
scholar. He had no feeling of being part of a wider movement for the renewal
of Christian views of history. He remarked candidly some time later, No, I
just thought of myself as picked on to do this job.
Buttereld presented seven consecutive lectures on Saturdays at noon dur-
ing October and November 1948, the very same time-slot as his lectures on the
history of modern science during the rst half of 1948. He turned forty-nine as
176 Religion

the series began. Simultaneously he kept a regular course going on Mondays

and Wednesdays on the Renaissance and Reformation. As with his series on
science, he wrote the lectures on Christianity and history week by week in time
for the Saturday deadline, but with even less time for preparation. They must
have come easily out of his pen. Several hundred students and dons crowded
the university lecture hall on Mill Lane to listen to this slight professor speak in
his soft, but emphatic voice. Christopher Wright recounted how the lectures
had the feel of an intellectual Event. Many decades later Kingsley Joblin
talked excitedly about the lectures as if he had heard them yesterday. They
were exhilarating, he said, and stimulated animated discussion among the
students.
Buttereld talked on weighty topics: Christianity as a historical religion, the
limits of historical scholarship, the primacy of human personality, the tragedy
of history, the harmfulness of moral judgments, the reality of Providence, the
historicity of Jesus. He seemed to be meditating aloud on the Bible, with little
awareness of recent critical scholarship. To most of his audience his words and
message were thrillingly novel and timely. The lectures were Buttereld popu-
larizing Buttereld, and his listeners found them enormously stimulating. The
series produced in many people an experience of intellectual and spiritual
awakening that they would remember vividly years later.
The specics of his message startled his audience by seeming to reverse the
commonplaces of the day. Buttereld surfaced as the perpetual dissenter in
what he said and how he said it. He refused to grant that Hitler was worse
than Napoleon. I can imagine myself a Stalin, he said, driven to do certain
things because of the predicaments he was in. He assigned responsibility for
the catastrophes of the age to every ordinary person, claiming that their little
cupidities, when multiplied by millions of people, produced greater havoc
than the biggest wars waged by the Hitlers of the world. He chided the En-
glish for making things worse by blaming Germany for both world wars. He
praised the Marxist interpretation of history at a time when people lived in
dread of the Soviet Union. He trumpeted the merits of academic history, which
he regarded as most useful to society when least in touch with society and
current problems. He derided the ecclesiastical interpretation of history in
lectures intended to draw the non-Christian to the faith. Paradox reigned.
It was a stunning performance. The lectures were a wild success. The BBC
immediately asked Buttereld to repeat them on national radio. He short-
ened the rst two lectures into one, touched up the others, and for six consecu-
tive Saturday evenings around Easter 1949 he broadcast his lectures to the
whole of Great Britain. Peter Laslett, in the Radio Times, estimated that the
series must be the longest sustained effort of broadcasting ever attempted by
 Religion 177

an individual speaker. Martin Wight gured that they were the only univer-
sity course of lectures ever repeated over the wireless. Buttereld spoke from
a lighted reading stand in the Council Chamber of Broadcast House, London,
to an audience of 120 in the darkened room. The listeners at home were
calculated to number 100,000, probably a record at the time for the broadcast
of an intellectual event. He felt exceedingly self-conscious about the traces of
his Yorkshireman accent when he heard his voice played back over the radio.
The daily and the religious press reported his lectures as they happened, while
the Listener, published by the BBC, printed the complete text week by week a
few days after each broadcast.
The broadcasts turned Buttereld into a national celebrity. He was certain
that he was ruining himself for life among his professional colleagues by
speaking so publicly about religion, and achieving such popularity outside
historical writing. And these were not feelings of simple paranoia on his part,
since there were around Cambridge, as elsewhere in Britain, many historians
who exhibited general animosity to religion and to any connections made
between religion and historical study, especially in public.
Buttereld signed a contract with Bell to publish the lectures as a book,
although he very nearly accepted an offer from Collins instead. He restored
the lectures to the original seven, added an introduction, and made minor
revisions here and there, retaining the wording and tone of texts intended to be
read aloud. He claims that for the book version he came very close to adding a
lecture from another occasion entitled Christianity and Human Relation-
ships, perhaps also slipping it into the German edition, but he left it out in
both instances. That lecture emphasized the theme of Christian love, or as he
called it, Christian charity, and derived from his thinking on the Gospels and
the writings of Paul. He had in mind to complement what he felt was the very
Old Testament tone of the Cambridge lectures with their stress on the reality
of sin and the tragic character of human history. Bell published Christianity
and History, a volume of 150 pages, in October 1949.
The book was Butterelds most substantial statement yet about history and
historical thinking. The nished product can in no way be regarded as a
systematic account of his ideas about religion or even as a venture in the
philosophy of history. Maybe it has enough of an academic character to war-
rant taking it as a theology of history. It is perhaps best understood as ser-
monic, as the presentation of a historians faith with the aim of eliciting faith in
others. He uses all of his signature words: personality, predicament, Provi-
dence, cupidity, elasticity, human relations. He cites his customary range of
male leaders and events from political, military, and church history, and none
from social and economic history. He acknowledges his usual brief list of
178 Religion

historiansActon, Ranke, Temperley, Trevelyan, Bury, adding Toynbee. He

attempts neither to persuade nor mount up evidence. Instead he exhorts. Both
Malcolm Thorp and Keith Sewell make a study of Christianity and History
central to their analysis of his thought about religion.
It is surprising that in a book devoted to a discussion of Christianity and
history Buttereld does not devote the rst chapter to religion, or even religion
and history. Instead, he begins with a characterization of the nature of histor-
ical study. It is not a statement which tingles with excitement. Such a start must
have disappointed or at best confused eager listeners who came to the series
expecting something declaratory about the deeper meaning of life. The begin-
ning ts Buttereld perfectly, however. He wants to disturb his listeners and
deate their expectations. He wants people to know for certain that he does
not pose before them as a theologian or philosopher, a poet or a prophet. He
refuses to serve them an interpretation of life and the whole human drama. He
comes to them as a historian, and he wants them to know that historians deal
not with grand questions of meaning, but with mundane historical study.
Moreover, he wants them to realize that they look in the wrong place if they
ask historical study, or any academic study, or any academic gure, to provide
them with the big answers they desire in life or the overall look at the course of
the ages which they seek. For these they must look to religion, and not histor-
ical study, for only religion fulls such grand expectations.
Paradoxically, Buttereld does give them a big answer by starting in this
way. The dominant message of the whole book, repeated again and again in
various guises, urges people to look to God for the key to the meaning of life,
not to anything in nature or made by human hands. Nothing in this world may
substitute for Godnot our human systems, not the democratic state, not the
capitalist economy, not human reason, not human prowess, not even human
beings themselves, and certainly not academic study and scientic learning.
His message stresses the importance of each persons ultimate trust in God
whom Christians know supremely in Christ, accompanied by acceptance of
the real but delimited value of anything human and natural. He symbolizes the
balance he preaches in the extraordinarily compelling nal sentence of the
book: We can do worse than remember a principle which both gives us a rm
Rock and leaves us the maximum elasticity for our minds: the principle: Hold
to Christ, and for the rest be totally uncommitted. In a moment when civiliza-
tion might appear to be collapsing all around, he has satised his own quest
for the things to which we can still hold fast. It is a statement of certainty
about what matters to him, and a declaration of dissent from whatever others
might press upon him as certainties.
The road Buttereld takes to this austere conclusion starts with discourse
 Religion 179

that seems to pull in the opposite direction. He pronounces in favour of the

separation of historical study and religion. He acknowledges that historical
study possesses genuine merit so long as it remains within its proper sphere,
but warns that it becomes a danger when historians attempt to seize wider
power. He means by the limits of historical study not its inadequacy, as he did
in Historical Novel, but its range of legitimate competence, as he did in Whig
Interpretation of History. The sort of history he commends goes by several
names which we take as interchangeable: academic history, technical history,
historical scholarship, scientic history, historical science. As in Historical
Novel, he distinguishes historical scholarship from other valid ways of gaining
access to the past, such as songs, stories, piety, nostalgia, traditions, literature,
and religion.
The continuity of his thinking on the subject is unmistakable, but now he
elaborates. Of Butterelds several attempts to summarize his view in the rst
chapter, perhaps his best statement is this one: Historians, limited by the kind
of apparatus they use and the concrete evidence on which they must rely,
restrict their realm to what we might almost call the mechanism of historical
processes: the tangible factors involved in an episode, the displacements pro-
duced in human affairs by an observed event or specic inuence, even the
kind of movements that can be recorded in statistics. All this tends to give
historical narrative and historical scholarship a mundane and matter-of-fact
appearance. His adjectives are familiar, ones we have heard since Whig
Interpretation. They suggest the domain he has in mindconcrete, tangible,
observed, specic, mundane, matter-of-fact. Scientic history is bound to ex-
ternals, outer things. In the surrounding passage he contrasts and pairs these
words with other adjectives common to his rhetorical vocabularytheoret-
ical, intangible, intuited, general, ethereal, philosophical. Scientic history
does not give historians sure access to internals, inner things. Historians do not
deal with the whole of anything, not with whole institutions or whole events,
not even with whole people. They engage in abstractions from wholes and, so
to speak, decide that for purposes of analysis they will only take notice of
things that can be weighed and measured. Their critical apparatus involves
the manipulation of documents which remain from the past, mere bits and
pieces of past events and people. Historians handle the shell of human activity
and not the whole of human affairs. They deal with mechanisms, and not
spirits. Buttereld speaks of this penchant for concrete particulars as the rst
step in historical study during which a historian establishes specic facts
about which we can be reasonably certain. He offers a few examples of such
facts: the date of his grandfathers birth, what exactly the Venetian ambas-
sadors wrote, and the mechanical operation of a constitutional device. The
180 Religion

minimalism of these facts contrasts starkly with the expansiveness of the

claim that accompanies them.
Securing the specic facts in the manner described is only the rst step in
scientic history. The second step is the search for the possible relations among
the many specic facts. In pursuit of the wider interconnections of the facts,
the historians may strive to reclaim the wholes from which he abstracted the
particulars in the rst step. By means of careful and clever detective work, the
historian eventually moves on to reconstruct a complicated episode, and then
other episodes, until nally he creates a larger story containing the many
episodes he has gathered in. Buttereld says little more here about this phase
of the historians labors.
Buttereld shows here that these two elementsestablishing the facts, and
reconstructing their interconnectionsconstitute what he calls the peculiar
structure of history as a science. The structure seems clear enough to him, but
he feels he must add a few comments about the way the historian works
with this structure, about the attitude of the historian when applying these
techniques. On one side, historians should beware of too much scepticism,
lest they close off too much or come to ludicrous conclusions in the face of
the evidence, and thereby block themselves from reaching good and proper
achievements. On the other side, historians need to add a healthy dose of
insight, sympathy, and imagination in dealing with persons and their situa-
tions, lest they fail to see even a little bit beyond the mere externals that the
method is tted to work with. Imaginative sympathy should be involved in
both the establishment of the specic facts and the reconstruction of episodes.
It permits the historian to approximate something of what lies inside people,
to estimate their motivations, their feelings, their true thoughts, their deepest
commitments and values, their actual character. In Whig Interpretation But-
tereld thought imaginative sympathy was useful merely to add colour and
humanity to the picture drawn from the documents. Now he depends on it to
gain any entry at all to the world behind the externals which the apparatus
displays. But, even as he calls for imaginative sympathy, he expects few genu-
ine results from it, because, he believes, human interiors lie fundamentally
closed to historical science. The historian cannot reach the seat of the person-
ality. Buttereld has granted imaginative sympathy very little actual power.
As if to nalize his vision of scientic history in our heads, he returns to one
of his facts: if I demonstrate that my grandfather was born, shall we say, on
January 1st, 1850, then that thesis must be equally valid whether I present it to
Christian or atheist, whig or tory, Swede or Dane. In respect of points which
are established by the evidence, or accepted by the judgment of common sense,
history has a certain validity of its own, a certain minimum signicance that is
 Religion 181

independent of philosophy, race or creed. Buttereld did not insert the

passage into the BBC version of his lectures. The facts stand on their own, no
matter what the religion or politics or nationality or race or philosophy of the
historian or the reader. Paradoxically, the thesis came straight from Actons
inaugural lecture, that locus classicus of Actons exhortations on moral judg-
ments which Buttereld so thoroughly dismissed. Technical history stands
apart, it seems, from the rest of life. Technical history has limited competence.
It can tell us that certain specic things happened and happened in a certain
order. Then people of all beliefsthe liberal and the Jesuit, the Marxist and
the Fascist, the Protestant and the Catholic, the rebel and the patriotmay
add their varied commentaries upon these facts and sequences, and sur-
round them with an interpretation of the whole human drama. Religion and
ideology cannot unseat the facts gathered by technical history, but people of
all kinds and causes can use the facts differently to ll out their commentaries
on life as a whole. When the religions and ideologies do battle against each
other, academic history comes forward with its talent for achieving reasonable
assurance about particulars and their interconnections, and offers a place of
calm outside the battles of life. This is the scientic method: one method, the
same for all historians, valid for all kinds of history.
Butterelds emphasis is so strong on the independence of the facts and
the sameness of the methods and results of technical history for all histo-
rians, quite apart from their basic philosophies, politics, and religious beliefs,
that a brief comment he makes to the contrary almost escapes us. The com-
ment is about the importance of our ordinary doctrine concerning man, and
the context is his afrmation of the universality of sin in human nature. He
claims that his view on the subject is supported by Christian as well as non-
Christian thought, and that everyone, Christian or not, holds some doctrine
of man, whether they admit it or not. He writes, It means that we ought to
consider very carefully our doctrine on the subject of human beings as such in
the rst place; and it is a mistake for writers of history and other teachers to
imagine that if they are not Christian they are refraining from committing
themselves, or working without any doctrine at all, discussing history without
any presuppositions. Amongst historians, as in other elds, the blindest of all
the blind are those who are unable to examine their own presuppositions, and
blithely imagine therefore that they do not possess any.
Buttereld lets this comment about presuppositions stand without appar-
ently realizing the implications for his account of the methods and products of
technical history. For instance, it would not be surprising if historians with
different presuppositions about human nature would see humans and their
actions in history differently from each other. It would be plausible for the
182 Religion

difference to touch each point in the study and writing of history where the
historians had to make decisions about what they are seeing concerning their
human subjects. The difference might extend from the search for the evidence
to the examination of what they nd as well as to the production of the
historical account. And there might be presuppositions about other funda-
mental issues, such as the nature of power, the impact of social relations, the
role of material factors, the perceptions of gender, and what counts as true or
what serves as a satisfying explanation. Indeed, Butterelds statement about
presuppositions could simply wash away his discourse on scientic history.
But Buttereld has an answer to his own observation about presuppositions.
The doctrine of human beings that he espoused, although derived from the
Christian tradition, had become the scientic view and ceased to be a presup-
position. It was simply the common property of scientic history as such. If
historians hold a different doctrine, they need to become aware of it and get rid
of it, or at least keep it to the side as their private view and away from
historical study. Presuppositions are things that historians need to overcome in
the presence of scientic history, which then continues to operate indepen-
dently of historians religions, politics, gender, and philosophies.
Arnold Toynbee spotted the passage on presuppositions and transmuted the
point into a searing analysis of the unconscious credulity of professed agnos-
tics. The historians who believe themselves most liberated, said Toynbee,
carry around an even greater portfolio of assumptions about a greater range of
matters than those who acknowledge their presuppositions and work with
them creatively. Toynbees list of presuppositions ran well beyond Butterelds
example of the doctrine of man. He included notions of Europe held by
Western historians, pictures of an Unchanging East in the minds of Orien-
talists, and archaeologists images of primitive peoples that have no history.
Presuppositions such as these are not readily cast aside, but belong to the
network of deep convictions that historians rely upon, for good or for ill, to
construct their histories at all.
Buttereld says very little about historical explanation in his discourse on
scientic history. He merely lets us know in passing that explanation, for him,
is not an extra step, but an ingredient within the makeup of the scientic
method as he has already constructed it for us. His words amount to a varia-
tion on his earlier view that historians explain by laying out more researched
detail. Historians explain by telling how things happened as they did, not
why they happened. He counts the question why as the more fundamen-
tal, and places it outside the competence of the historian to answer with the
methods of technical history.
We quickly realize that Buttereld has not weakened his aboriginal commit-
 Religion 183

ment to historical study as a study of individual personalities. He writes,

History deals with the drama of human life as the affair of individual person-
alities, possessing self-consciousness, intellect and freedom. He continues
two paragraphs later, History, as we have seen, envisages a world of human
relations standing over against nature, and this means that it puts the story in a
different universea universe in which every human being is a separate well
of life, a separate source of action, and every human being, so far as mundane
things are concerned, has his aspect as an end in himself. He is making two
pointshuman beings are individuals and human beings are personalities.
For Buttereld, human beings exist as individuals. Individual human beings
are the only thing real in the world. Individuals are the basic units of history.
Individuals are the movers of history, the creative origins of events, and the
composers of social structures and collectivities. Individuals are souls of eter-
nal value as well as sinners prone to self-righteousness and cupidity. Individ-
uals are, under God, the purpose of history. Christians, he maintains, are
particularly committed to this view of people as individuals.
The things we call society or the state or the species are not real existents,
but simply what he now bluntly labels collective nouns covering intercon-
nections among innumerable individual people. It is possible to write history
as if these collective nouns act and create and do things, and we can schematize
their structures and diagram their development, but we falsify history when
we do, and we make collective nouns into persons, which they are not. Butter-
eld agrees with the Christian tradition which regards governments as valid in
appropriate circumstances, but he places a specic meaning on the tradition.
He grants that governments may be useful organizers of collective action and
restraints on the practice of sin, but he concedes them no life apart from the
individuals which make them up. Butterelds social theory is unashamedly
individualist and nominalist.
Buttereld understands each human being to be a person. Each human
being comes in two parts, an inside and an outside. These correspond with
soul and body, the spiritual and the material. It is the inside that makes a
human being a person, that constitutes personality. From the inside arises
everything fundamental in human lifethinking, feeling, loving, believing,
valuing, sinning, doing good, and so on. Indeed all action and creativity come
from the inside, and his triad of basic human attributesself-consciousness,
intellect, and freedomdwells in the human interior. Starkly put, it would
seem that nothing derives from the outside of individual human beings. The
outside is inert, unviable, static, mechanical, mere surface. The inside is what
primarily matters and is interesting. The outside is like a dwelling for the
inside, and the outside matters only derivatively because of its relationship
184 Religion

with the inside. The inside is what matters, for there is the person. His theory
of human nature is, as William Speck has noted, personalist.
We link onto a long-extending element of Butterelds view of history in
general, one previously made most explicit in Whig Interpretation. Now he
has elaborated his idea considerably. Buttereld commonly uses the word
history to refer to historical study and the writings that historians produce,
but beyond that he understands history to mean two very distinct things. In
the rst and most comprehensive sense, history is the world divided from
nature, indeed history stands over against nature. History is the drama,
while nature is the stage. History in this sense refers to the realm of human
beings with their individuality and personality, while nature is the realm of the
nonhuman, characterized by impersonal processes, the absence of moral deci-
sion, and the development of the species instead of the individual. He writes,
[The historian] picks up the other end of the stick and envisages a world of
human relations, so to speak, over against naturehe studies that new kind of
life which man has superimposed on the jungle, the forest and the waste. Since
this world of human relations is the historians universe, we may say that
history is a human drama, a drama of personalities, taking place as it were, on
the stage of nature, and amid its imposing scenery. It is a stark separation he
demands between history and nature, and an unattering perception of na-
ture. Only after distancing history so severely from nature does he allow that
we can go on to discover how deeply man himself is rooted in earthiness.
Hitlers great error was to start the other way around and to think of human
beings as belonging to nature, not history. The idea seems to be that the things
of nature might be manipulated for human purpose, but that humans must not
be manipulated. Buttereld complements the dualism of history and nature
with God, giving him ultimately a three-tiered vision of all things: God, his-
tory, nature. At the end, he comes to the afrmation that God is God of nature
as well as history.
There is a second meaning of history for Buttereld. Within the realm of
history, hence human beings, understood as divided from nature, there is a
further divide, the dualism created by the division of human beings into an
outside and an inside. In this sense, history is the world as it is on the outsides
of human beings, while religion and morality refer to the world as it is on the
insides of human beings. This dualism structures his mental horizon as he
discusses historical study and religion. He embeds the dualism in the title of
the book, Christianity and History. Historians study merely the external
world of human beings, while religion penetrates to the deep recesses of the
personality on the inside of each human being.
 Religion 185

We now better understand the awkward tension he creates for himself by his
denition of historical study. His two meanings of history are in conict. On
one hand, he insists that the historian must bring the insides of human beings
into the discussion, since history is a matter of personalities. This is history in
the rst sense, as over against nature. On the other hand, he warns that the
apparatus and evidence with which historical study works permit the histo-
rian to reach only the externals of human behaviour. This is history in sense
two, as over against religion and morality. He repeatedly urges in one voice
that historical study deals with personalities which he warns in another voice,
even with imaginative sympathy, is virtually impossible to do.
As in Whig Interpretation, Buttereld supplements his view of history as a
matter of individual personalities with an understanding of history as process,
what he calls the historical process. This is a further dualism, personality
and process. He adds little to what he said eighteen years earlier, and occasion-
ally since then. The language he associates with historical processcondition-
ing circumstances, predicament, conditionsis familiar. However, he allows
us to glimpse an aspect of his understanding of process which we have not
previously met. His chief concern now is not about the historical process as a
relationship between past and present, as before, but about the historical
process as a consequence of the actions of many individual personalities. He
talks about the historical process as a work of history-making: by our actions
and by all the interplay that goes on between us we are engaged in a work of
history-makingengaged in weaving that fabric of events upon which the
historians of the future will have to write and speculate. It is necessary, how-
ever, to remember that the pattern of the history-making which we will carry
out will not be the product of my will or of yours or indeed of anybody elses,
but will represent in one sense rather what might almost seem to be a com-
pounding of these wills or at least of their effectssomething that no single
person will either have intended or anticipated. Millions of individuals go
about doing their own business and pursuing their own cupidities. The results
are the systems and large-scale events of the world, the things we call society,
the nation-state, the economy, international diplomacy, the industrial revolu-
tion, capitalism, civilization. It is a feature of process that the tiny sins of
millions of individuals get transformed over the long term into catastrophes.
These systems and long-term consequences become the framework of organi-
zation within which the millions of individual personalities continue to live
their lives. These are the conditioning circumstances of life. The systems and
conditions are externals and belong to the outsides of individual human
beings. The conditions regulate what individuals may do and the range of
186 Religion

action available to them at any given moment. If internal personality repre-

sents freedom, the external conditions of life represent constraint, necessity,
and determinism.
None of the conditioning circumstances was intended or predictable or
controllable. They are merely derivatives of numberless individual actions. At
the end of the day, however, we may look back on these results and see pat-
ternsdialectics, renaissances, cycles, spirals, and lines. Even the image of
history as cooperation and tragic conict, which Buttereld prefers and dis-
cusses at length, is something we see only in retrospect. He is willing to talk
about progress in history, but only in a loose way with a backward glance, and
only with regard to the externals of life and not in connection with human
beings as personality. We are permitted to talk about patterns in history so
long as we remember that the patterns lie in our own eyes, and do not really
exist in history. Buttereld holds tightly to his conviction that only individual
personalities really exist. All the rest, even the systems and processes, in a
fundamental sense lack reality. Such are Butterelds individualism, personal-
ism, and nominalism.
Butterelds view of process adds another layer of awkward tension to his
understanding of history and historical study. On one hand, Buttereld asserts
that individual personalities are the important thing in history. He believes
that processes and systems are merely the interactions of individual wills, and
he demands that historical study treat history as a matter of individual person-
alities. On the other, he is prepared to attribute less and less to individuals in
history and more and more to processes and conditioning circumstances, and
to describe historical study as competent only with respect to these external
conditions. He speaks of himself as still in the middle of changing his mind
about the relationship between individuals and the processes of conditioning
circumstances. Now he is inclined to think that he and many other thinkers in
practice ascribe too little rather than too much to conditioning circumstances
in our estimates of human beings. His drift is towards a higher estimate of the
importance of processes and structures, but only as constraints upon or con-
ations of individual action. He does not give himself rm support for the
study of social history or even institutional history. He is inclined towards
scepticism about the validity of such studies, yet he concedes that such histo-
ries need to be undertaken.
Butterelds understanding of the question of moral judgments in history
turns entirely on his views of the character of historical study, human person-
ality, and conditioning circumstances. He remains as adamant as ever in his
insistence that historians should not make moral judgments upon the people
 Religion 187

who are their subjects, but he also opposes moral judgments upon the course
of events such that human actions turn into a war between good and evil, right
versus wrong. On one level, his meaning appears much clearer now than it did
in Whig Interpretation. Technical history does not enable historians to see
inside people or to know what allowance has to be made for conditions.
People and history are too complex, and too much is beyond or hidden from
the reach of the historical method. Our historical apparatus does not enable us
to assemble enough details and factors to complete the analysis of external
conditions, and our imaginative sympathy is inadequate to disclose much
within the human interior. Historians are not qualied to issue what he calls a
nal moral judgment on the personalities of particular human beings, or to
decide who is worse or better in the eyes of eternity, and they should leave it
till the Judgment Day. Moreover, they cannot, as historians, sort out right
and wrong within the admixture of good and evil on all sides and in all persons
in the human drama. The ban on moral judgments holds whether the historian
speaks of Hitler, whose deeds we may think are awful, or St. Francis of Assisi,
whose works we admire. The historian as historian, and by means of historical
study, cannot determine in either case how much was due to wilful evil or
pristine holiness on the inside, and how much was due to the particular com-
binations of external conditions enveloping each gure. Even with someone as
apparently easy to judge as Hitler, Buttereld remains unrelenting in his op-
position to making a moral judgment against him. We cannot say that any of
us under similar external conditions would not use the opportunity to do great
harm. And we cannot boast that we are fundamentally different from Hitler
and that inside each of us there is no perversity mingled with our higher
motives. Buttereld comes once again to his long-standing confession that
everyone is a sinner.
For Buttereld, the dualism between external conditions and internal per-
sonality in history is so nearly absolute, and the limitations of historical study
are so extremely great, that he leaves the historian entirely without compe-
tence to make a moral statement about anyone or the course of events. Al-
though he never explicitly takes the next step, there seems to be nothing in his
logic prohibiting the historian from making moral judgments that would not
also bar all other human beings from doing so. Indeed, the objections he raises
are sufciently general to apply to everyone without exception. He at least has
every reason to keep himself from ever making moral judgments about any-
one, past or present. Buttereld operates with a very short list of optionsno
moral judgments about others or about events, self-judgments, and divine
judgments at the end of history. He appears still to leave no room in his
188 Religion

prescription for what we might call ordinary and proximate, rather than ulti-
mate, moral assessments of people and their deeds or the accumulation of
human interactions in what we call events and situations.
The ostensible clarity of Butterelds view at this level of analysis is lost
when we examine another level on which he speaks of moral judgments in
history. He afrms his belief that there are moral judgments that lie in the
very nature of history. He calls this type of moral judgment by various names:
the operation of the moral factor in history, judgment . . . embedded in the
very constitution of the universe, the moral element in the structure of
history, moral retribution which seems to be worked out in the very pro-
cesses of time, or simply nemesis. His prime example is the case of Ger-
many: I do not think that we are interpolating anything fanciful into the
structure of history, however, if we say that, whether in 1918 or in 1933 or in
1945, or in all these together, a judgment has been passed on the militarism of
Prussiaa judgment which we have no reason to believe that she would have
had reason to suffer if she had avoided an actual excess. And it was a judgment
both on the Hohenzollerns as a dynasty and on the Germans as a peopleit
was not a judgment that fell on Frederick the Great and Bismarck personally,
for these men were permitted more than the ordinarily-expected span of
power. As if to soften the aggression of this comment about Germany and
even the German people, he adds remarks about some such moral judgment
falling on the Allied powers as well. Moral judgment of this type occurs within
the ordinary course of history, and links together events from widely different
times, usually over a very long time. Like everything in the historical process,
the later events which execute the judgment are entirely the unintended results
of the combination of millions of individual actions. The original moral de-
fects which eventually come under judgment did not generally appear to be
defects to the people alive at the time.
He is consistent with his previous statements when he insists that a moral
judgment of this type is not made against individual personalities, for he has
always objected to a moral judgment in history against persons. It is surprising
that he speaks of this as a moral judgment against social systems, nations, and
collectivities. Such social things do not belong to the inner world of persons,
the realm where moral judgment is relevant, but to the external world, the
world of conditions, frameworks, and technique, which is the realm of history.
It is also surprising that he regards this type of moral judgment as an act of the
Divine. Heretofore he has spoken of divine judgment in absolute and nal
terms, the sort of thing that happens beyond history, at the Judgment Day. The
moral judgments he is now calling divine are relative and proximate, and
appear during the course of history.
 Religion 189

It is most surprising that he allows for the category at all, given his abhor-
rence of historians making moral judgments. He does not seem to noticeas
we cannot fail to dothat it is Buttereld who applies the name militarism
to Prussian military activity and counts it as a moral fault, and who regards the
catastrophic effects on Germany of the two world wars and the rise of Hitler to
be divinely executed moral judgments against the German people. He does talk
as if the type of moral judgment he identies occurs in history independently of
whatever the historian might believe or think about the events. Nonetheless, by
seeing the events as he does, it is Buttereld who renders the moral judgment,
and he does so as a historian. The moral judgment he makes is not against one
individual person, but against Germany and the German people, which, in his
terms, means against millions of individual persons widely spread over time.
He calls the judgment an interim one, which would seem to moderate its
meaning and impact. But by locating the judgment within so utterly complex a
network of events extending over centuries, by associating the judgment with
colossal human carnage and hate, and by regarding the judgment as in reality
divine, he actually renders a moral judgment that exceeds our human ability to
comprehend. Buttereld has rendered a moral judgment against the German
people that seems innitely more heinous than decidingalong with just
about every English woman and manthat Hitler was worse than Napoleon.
Simultaneously he interprets the long course of German history in a manner
apparently antithetical to his warnings about the dangers of history. His judg-
ment would feed the most obvious anti-German accusation then available.
When we read further in Christianity and History, we realize that Butter-
elds idea of moral judgments in the very nature of history is really an aspect
of his idea of Providence. And like his understanding of moral judgments in
history, his idea of Providence is dependent on his views of individual person-
alities and historical process. He dened historical process as the ongoing
interplay among millions of individuals all going about their own business and
producing unintended results from the combination of countless wills. It is, he
says, that kind of history-making which goes on so to speak over our heads,
now deecting the results of our actions, now taking our purposes out of our
hands, and now turning our endeavors to ends not realised. When we look
more closely, we notice that he calls this process of history-making the provi-
dential order. In one sense, historical process and providential order are
synonyms.
However, Buttereld seems to add considerable embroidery to his meaning
when he represents the process of history as the providential order. The initial
meaning refers simply to the interplay of millions of individuals yielding unin-
tended results over time. The supplemental meaning includes an assessment of
190 Religion

whether the interplay and the results are good or harmful. When he focuses on
the harmful effects of human action in history, he leads to the discussion of the
type of moral judgments he nds embedded in the very course of history.
When he considers chiey the benecial effects of human events he begins to
refer to a providence, in fact, which moves over history with the function of
creating good out of evil. He designates this as another kind of Providence
which it may be permissible to call human, and it is the fruit of something
like the collective wisdom of the human race. As an example, he mentions the
Fire of London in 1666 which wrecked the city and caused immense human
suffering, but which, after a suitable time of mourning, the survivors rein-
terpreted as the cleansing of an unkempt fabric. Londoners and the Crown
responded to the devastation by rebuilding the city on a superior plan.
Almost by a sleight of hand he shifts his language from providential order
to Providence with a capital P. He begins to insert statements about the
reecting activity of an ordaining and reconciling mind and the direction of a
superintending intellect. He introduces these phrases tentatively with pref-
aces like it is as though . . . and we picture the course of things as if. . . . He
now has before us a being, or at least a mind, who acts and produces conse-
quences. This being is Providence who in the form of History herself, he
says, has risen up and determined to have a hand in the game. This being is
an it with clear and substantial limits. Buttereld writes, And so Providence
produces a world in which men can live and gradually improve their external
conditions, in spite of sinin other words it does the best that human beings
have left possible for it at any time. The industrial revolution and the rise of the
capitalist system are the best that Providence can do with human cupidity at
certain stages of the story. Providence has great power, but it is a power
merely to react to the acts of human beings. Providence superintends the course
of events, but it does so by using no other materials than what human beings
provide for it. Providence cannot simply do anything it wants, but only the best
it can under the circumstances set up for it by human action.
Buttereld depicts the relationship between Providence and human action
by means of a metaphor to which he returns several times. History is like a
performance in which we humans, as members of an orchestra, are playing a
piece of music that the composer is composing only one note ahead of us as we
play. Depending on how we play each note, the composer makes up his mind
about the next bar of the composition. Buttereld writes, Indeed the com-
poser of the piece leaves himself room for great elasticity, until we ourselves
have shown what we are going to do next. The metaphor adds some depth-
of-eld to the previous picture we have of numberless human beings carrying
on their own affairs and Providence turning them into unintended results.
 Religion 191

We can now understand that Buttereld envisions history as an interaction

between Providence and the multitude of human beings, with each side ex-
ercising a decisive role in the creation of the outcome. Human beings and
Providence are both the creators of history. Neither one is sovereign. Each one
needs the other in order to create. The big difference between Providence and
us is that we make mistakes and do harm, while Providence does only good,
sometimes renders moral judgments in the course of history, and often brings
good out of evil.
Once we know about the work of Providence, Buttereld recommends a
course of action. Human beings do best when, he says, we conceive ourselves
not as sovereign makers of history but as born to co-operate with Providence.
He brings us full circle to Englishman and His History. We recognize his
familiar message about political change. He used to call this the whig mode
of co-operating with Providence, and he had argued that the Whig method
became the English political tradition. Now he has universalized the message.
Cooperating with Providence is the best thing anyone anywhere can do in life.
Whig insight and English practice are simply wisdom.
The sin he abhors is presumption. We commit the sin of presumption when
we act on the conviction that we can calculate all the variables and all the
contingencies at a given moment, and make everything occur on schedule. We
thereby act as if we can control the course of history and force Providence to
turn in our favour. Buttereld is uncharacteristically free with his moral judg-
ments against people for their presumption. The peace-makers of 1919 were
guilty of presumption when they entirely redrew the map of Europe, and their
failure was terrible. The Germans committed the fault of presumption in both
world wars, and they enlarged the disaster for themselves. Political activists
who use government legislation to force their will on the nation are pre-
sumptuous and merely compound the troubles. By contrast, the English coop-
erate with Providence when they muddle through and are sufciently ex-
ible to adapt themselves to each change in the weather. The diplomats in the
eighteenth-century system of Europe cooperated with Providence by never
taking too much power away from a defeated state. We all cooperate with
Providence when we forsake the intervention of the government and follow
the policy that each of us should rather do the good that is straight under our
noses. The people in life who cooperate with Providence are the ones who,
like himself, stay away from politics and government, and instead, he says,
seek to achieve good in their own small corner of the world and then leave the
leaven to leaven the whole lump. He adds the comment that the time to work
for good is now. No person and no generation should postpone doing the good
thing now at hand for the sake of the promise of a better arrangement in the
192 Religion

future. When Buttereld makes these points, he hands us the key to his own
political quietism.
So far in his presentation Buttereld has refrained from making any claims
for God in history. Now, at the end of his discussion about historical process
and Providence, he reveals his belief that everything he has been telling us has
to do with God. Providence is not an it after all. Providence is God in
history: To a religious mind all these providential dispositions which I have
attempted to describe must appear as Divine, as the orderings of God Himself;
and in the workings of history there must be felt the movement of a living
God. Christians may trust in Providence, regard Providence as living and
active, both in themselves and in general history, even take Providence as a
special Providence for the religious mind and within the history of Chris-
tianity. Christians may know history as purposeful and model their under-
standing of Providence upon the Old Testament. Analysis of the historical
process lets us know the ways of Providence, and our study of history gives us
the details of how God deals with the course of history.
We nally realize that his discourse about historical process has amounted
to a long, complicated, and intrinsic argument for God in history. In a cir-
cuitous way Buttereld was actually seeking to do what the philosopher
Sidney Hook later chided him for not doing, provide a proof of Gods exis-
tence before asking us to leave moral judgments to God. His mode of argu-
ment is not systematic, but metaphorical, and he lets his metaphors oat
around together. When we sort everything out, we notice that his presentation
has advanced in ve stages. The rst stage is his description of the historical
process, what he called the very nature of history. At the second stage he
gives to the historical process the name the providential order, a term unmis-
takably hinting at the religious meaning he does not yet reveal. He believes
that what he has told us in these two stages derives from his competence as a
technical historian and from the domain of technical history, hence upon mere
observation of externals. He warns that we are liable to serious technical
errors if we do not regard the process of history as constituted in the way he
describes, hence as a providential order in which events always pass beyond
our intentions. He explicitly adds that looking upon the historical process in
this manner does not depend upon anything like a religious belief.
The third stage is to introduce the image of a superintending intellect who
directs the course of history, reacts to human decisions in the manner of the
composer with the players of the music, and brings good out of evil. The
fourth stage is to name the intellect Providence with a capital P, a traditional
religious designation for the activity of God in history. We cannot keep our-
 Religion 193

selves from thinking of God. Yet, Buttereld insists that even seeing history in
relationship to a superintending intellect known as Providence does not de-
pend upon religious belief. It derives from, he says, merely a secular analysis
of the way in which history happens, that is, from mere external observation
by a person who puts on the thinking-cap of the ordinary historical student.
The European diplomats of the eighteenth century were successful because,
even though they were losing the religious idea of Providence, they clung very
tightly to that purely secular conception of a providential order which I have
already mentioned. At the fth stage he explicitly acknowledges Providence
as the living God in history, as did the ancient Hebrew scriptures. To see God
in this way takes more than the historical mind or method. It takes a religious
mind to whom these things must appear as Divine.
When we get to the climax of his presentation, it strikes us that Buttereld
has had his destination in view all the time. When he describes the historical
process as a providential order, asserts the presence of a superintending
intellect, and calls this intellect Providence, he is applying the version of the
Christian idea of Providence which he believes to be true. Technical historical
analysis has not led him to see history in this way. He has been guided by his
prior knowledge of God in history. Concomitantly, secular intellectual anal-
ysis since the eighteenth century has led others to project not Providence, but a
host of images of history that bear no resemblance to what the Christian
tradition proposes: images of impersonal process, the survival of the ttest,
inevitable growth, or randomness, for example.
We have now come face to face with the theme which Buttereld sets into
the title of the book, Christianity and history. We notice immediately his
tendency to treat the subject as a question of two mattersreligion and his-
tory. This pair reects the essential dualism which we have always detected in
his perception of the universe. The dualism consists of his distinguishing and
pairing the spiritual and the material, the religious and the secular. The spir-
itual and the material relate to each other as higher relates to lower. He oper-
ates with this dualism in his thought, inducing him to present his ideas via the
medium of pairs of contrasting items. Each pair forms a two-member hier-
archy of opposites. When we review the many things he advocates, we recog-
nize this dualism in different guises. In the list that follows the rst member of
each pair manifests the religious and the second the material: religion and
technical history, imaginative sympathy and documentary criticism, whole
and abstract, ethereal and mundane, insight and observation, reconstruction
of episodes and specic facts, history and nature, freedom and necessity, active
and mechanical, individual and collectivities, soul and body, mind and matter,
194 Religion

inner and outer, internals and externals, personality and process, intentions
and conditioning circumstances, morality and history, Providence and histor-
ical process. The pairs go on and on in Butterelds discourse.
Butterelds method of treating Christianity and history is to begin by
stressing the opposing character of the two. We see this insistence at each point
in his discourse as he multiplies the contrasting pairs. He denes technical
history as starkly separate from and independent of religion. He emphasizes
the solidity of the ndings of technical history, apart from the inuence of
religion and anything the devotees of the religions want to debate among
themselves. Technical history establishes specic facts, while religion adds
commentary upon the facts. Historical study enjoys ready access to the out-
sides of people, but not their insides, for which we need religion and poetry
and, he might have added, psychology. Historians can deal easily with the
mechanisms of historical process and the externals of human organization,
but only religion can reach the interior seat of the personality. Historians can
tell us details and certain things about the connections between the details, but
for the wholeness of knowledge of the human drama of the ages we need
prophets and poets and theologians. Historians must not make moral judg-
ments about people, since only God can see us as we really are. Historical
study can show us the complications of the process of history, but only re-
ligious people can see history as the domain of Divine Providence. The separa-
tion between Christianity and history seems complete. We can easily still read
Buttereld as the strict positivist who believes in the neutrality of the facts
and seeks to isolate historical study from the contaminating impact of religion
and morality, indeed from life.
Butterelds method goes further, however. While starting with the opposi-
tion between Christianity and history, he strains to keep both members of the
pair together. This he does with every manifestation of the dualism he per-
ceives in the universe. He stands, as it were, on one side of the dualism and
reaches out to include the other side as well. His dominant metaphor is com-
bination, starting with one side of the dualism and then combining it with the
other. And so Buttereld tells us that technical history establishes the specic
external facts, but historians must also employ imaginative sympathy in order
to see as far as possible into the interior of other people. Historical study
abstracts, but we need the commentary religion provides in order to see things
whole again. History is not nature, but history plays on the stage provided by
nature. Human beings are individuals, but we need the constraints supplied by
society. Individuals are souls, but they are rooted in earthiness too. Historians
should not make moral judgments, but moral judgments are made anyway by
the course of history itself. History is a process, but it is also a providential
 Religion 195

order. And so on. The polarities each include two elements, and both are
required to complete the picture.
When we look more closely at his discussion, we notice that Butterelds
method goes even further still. We sense that he is striving to transcend the
dualisms he perceives in the universe, transcend even the metaphor of com-
bination, and discern a unity that is somehow more basic than the opposition.
As we examine his sayings about religion, particularly about Christianity, we
detect his drive for transcendent unity. The understanding we gather is that he
desires the reconciliation of the opposites he perceives in the dualisms of the
universe. He wants to achieve this reconciliation by means of religion, and in
particular by means of Christianity. It is the same drive towards reconciliation
in his thought that we witnessed in Whig Interpretation of History.
We take notice of certain passages where his drive towards unity is vivid.
After summarizing his view of technical history, Buttereld writes: But for the
fullness of our commentary on the drama of human life in time, we have to
break through this techniquehave to stand back and see the landscape as a
wholeand for the sum of our ideas and beliefs about the march of the ages
we need the poet and the prophet, the philosopher and the theologian. Indeed
we decide our total attitude to the whole of human history when we make our
decision about our religionand it is the combination of the history with a
religion, or with something equivalent to a religion, which generates power
and lls the story with signicances. He continues later on: Our nal inter-
pretation of history is the most sovereign decision we can take, and it is clear
that every one of us, as standing alone in the universe, has to take it for himself.
It is our decision about religion, about our total attitude to things, and about
the way we will appropriate life. And it is inseparable from our decision about
the role we are going to play ourselves in that very drama of history. And
much later: One of the most fundamental of the differences between people
must be the question whether they believe in God or not; for on that depends
their whole interpretation of the universe and of history. The drift of such
passages is towards the ultimate unity of religion and history. Religion encom-
passes all, including even the entire history of the ages. Religion gives us our
interpretation of history, indeed our interpretation of life as a whole, and
informs us of how we t in.
His inclination towards the ultimate unity of religion and history becomes
especially evident when we review his thought about Christianity in connec-
tion with particular points concerning history. At each point we discern a
religious understanding behind his characterization of the material and
secular member of any pair. For instance, underlying his insistence on the
limited competence of historical study is a religious message not to absolutize
196 Religion

scientic method and scientic knowledge, not to make a god out of science.
He warns against treating abstract nouns, like the State and Society, as
real since he wants to protect the individual as the bearer of the soul. He allows
room for social structures in keeping with the tradition of Christian thought
that governments and society exercise an appropriate role in ordering human
behaviour. Human personality derives from the inner soul, but envelops our
material life as well. God turns out to be the God of history as well as the God
of nature, the God of our soul as well as of our earthiness. Historians should
not make moral judgments against persons since persons are sacred and are
known profoundly only by God. The melding of countless individual wills
into unintended consequences indicates Providence working in the historical
process. The complexity of the process of history discloses the way that God
deals with the universe. And so on.
The culminating expression of his belief in the transcending unity of religion
and history appears in his characterization of Christianity. He depicts Chris-
tianity as a historical religion in a sense that goes beyond the observation that
Christianity, like every religion, has a history. Christianity, Buttereld tells us,
is bound to the life of Jesus, the people of ancient Israel, and the communities
of the early Christians. The Christian teachings of the incarnation, the cru-
cixion, and the resurrection all interpret events in the life of Jesus. The Bible,
in both the Old and New Testaments, he notes, unfolds the religion to such a
considerable degree by telling its history, and conveys a message to men by
the narration and exposition of historical events in general. In an allusion
counteracting the thought of Rudolf Bultmann, the German New Testament
scholar, Buttereld concludes, And it would be a dangerous error to imagine
that the characteristics of an historical religion would be maintained if the
Christ of the theologians were divorced from the Jesus of history. In Butter-
elds thought the unity between history and Christianity as a religion could
not be more secure.
Buttereld completes his emphasis on the unity of history and Christianity
with the denition of a recognizably religious vocation for the technical histo-
rian. The very thing he most vociferously distanced from religion turns out to
be religious. His message reafrms the mission he assigned historians in Whig
Interpretation. When devotees of all the competing religions and ideologies
are, he writes, howling at one another across the interstellar spaces, all claim-
ing that theirs is the absolute version, academic history serves humbly in their
presence as a bridge for peace and communication among them. The histo-
rian has a task that parallels, and in a profound way expresses, the reconciling
power of religion: once battles are over the human race becomes in a certain
sense one again; and just as Christianity tries to bind it together in love, so the
 Religion 197

role of the technical historian is that of a reconciling mind that seeks to com-
prehend. Taking things retrospectively and recollecting in tranquillity, the his-
torian works over the past to cover the conicts with understanding, and
explains the unlikenesses between men and makes us sensible of their terrible
predicaments: until at the nishwhen all is remote as the tale of Troywe
are able at last perhaps to be a little sorry for everyone. In Butterelds vision,
the technical historian is the reconciling mind at work amid the opposites of
the universe. In this way the historian mirrors and cooperates with Provi-
dence, that supreme ordaining and reconciling mind who brings good out
of evil.
All in all, the tendency towards afrming the unity of history and religion is
strong in Butterelds discourse at this moment. It is possible that he is not
entirely aware how strongly he pushes in this direction, and he provides us
with no single statement of the point. On the contrary, his most obvious
statements, the statements which most impress us, accentuate the opposition
between Christianity and history and the incompatibility of academic history
and religion. He insists time and again that historians must not overlay their
history with their religious beliefs, must not make moral judgments, must not
use their religion to inuence their history. Yet, Buttereld himself provides the
religious justications that we have noted for his understanding of technical
history, the study of human personality, moral judgments, and process, and it
is he who formulates the religious vocation of the technical historian as the
reconciling mind. The contradiction between the two sides of Butterelds
thought on this matter seems palpable.
Buttereld backs away from claiming that his view of history and historical
study is a Christian view. Yet, when we search we have no difculty detecting
just how fundamental the religious basis of his thought really is. The assump-
tions are there. He is assuming, without saying so, that not only his view of the
religious and the spiritual, but even his view of the material, the mundane, and
the technical is a Christian view. And more than that, he is assuming that his
view of the universe as a dualism of the spiritual and the material represents a
Christian view. In this manner, he reconciles the dualism of opposites in the
universe within the transcending unity of religion.
Our examination of Butterelds views as expressed in Christianity and
History allows us to notice one other general feature of his historical thought.
It occurs to us that he builds his universe of history and historical study out of
individuals in several senses. Most important is his belief that human beings
exist as individuals. The basic unit of history is the individual person. He
regards every social structurestate, church, family, nation, university, and so
onas merely a collection of individual persons covered by a name applied by
198 Religion

conventional usage. The social structures are not themselves units. We also see
that he understands a process to be a collection of individual actions in time
sequence, or more accurately, a collection of individual actions by individual
people in time sequence. A historian gathers individual actions into a collec-
tion which is named as an individual event, and then collects many individual
events to form and name an individual episode. Many episodes become an
individual process. However, the real unit remains the individual action by the
individual person. The process, the episode, or the event does not become a
unit. Those are merely names for collections of individual actions, which over
time add up to millions of actions by millions of individuals. Going further, we
note that he assigns to historical study the task of dening the individual fact.
Eventually the individual facts number in the millions times multiple millions.
The reconstruction of an episode is a historians way of putting the individual
facts together. Historical evidence comes in the form of individual documents
containing combinations of individual words, and the meaning of a document
commonly hinges on an individual word in the document. His historical
method emphasizes the gathering and collation of countless individual items.
The unit is the fact, the document, the word. Further still, we understand that,
for him, religion is a matter of individual souls, and Christianity is merely a
collective name for the beliefs and actions of countless individual persons. The
unit is not the religion, but the individual Christian. And nally, how does
Buttereld know that things go on inside other people, that the wills of many
people are molded into a process of unintended consequences, that all people
are sinners, that everybodys motives are mixed, that Providence acts in his-
tory? He knows by analogy with his own individual experience, and he cau-
tiously projects his individual experience onto the course of history.
Thus, Butterelds individualism is radical and blends easily with his per-
sonalism and nominalism. It extends across his understanding of social struc-
ture, historical process, historical method, religion, morality, and politics. For
him the problematic questions concern the supra-individual coherences of life.
It is a problem for him to grasp a state or a capitalist corporation or a church
as a community that transcends the powers and activity of its members, or to
comprehend events or actions or episodes as manifesting an integrity of their
own that surpasses the details, or to perceive information in the documenta-
tion that incorporates more than what the words say. The remarkable thing is
that Butterelds programmatic statements on these issues as found in Chris-
tianity and History comport well with the sort of history he actually wrote in
George III, Lord North, and the People and Origins of Modern Science.
Buttereld may have tied himself in knots by admonishing historians to keep
history separate from politics, moral judgment, and religion, and then not
 Religion 199

doing so himself. But in connection with his individualism, personalism, and

nominalism he was entirely consistent with himself.
Christianity and History received more reviews than any other book he had
written to date, and, as it turned out, by far the greatest number of reviews of
any book in his whole career. And, in contrast with the discouraging reviews
of George III, Lord North, and the People, the reception was overwhelmingly
positive. The reviews appeared in the daily press immediately, then in the
weeklies, the religious press, and academic and religious journals, in Great
Britain and throughout the English-speaking world, including India. The re-
viewer often paired him with Reinhold Niebuhr, Emil Brunner, Arnold Toyn-
bee, Marc Bloch, or, in India, Swami Akhilananda, each of whom published a
book on historical thinking about the same time. Many newspapers published
his photograph, as if he were a celebrity. The photo in the Montreal Gazette
and the Church Times offered the image of the unconventional intellectual and
the poet with a cigarette hanging from lips. In religious circles both the BBC
lectures and the book received virtually unanimous acclamation. The reviews
came from across the spectrum of Christian traditions, at national levels and
in local newsletters: Methodist, Anglican, Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Con-
gregational, Baptist, Presbyterian, evangelical, liberal, and so on. These re-
views appreciated his linkage of Christianity and history, had no problem
understanding him, admired his literary style, and remarked on how impor-
tant it was that he spoke and wrote as a professional historian and not as a
theologian. There were those who hesitated over this or that point but then
rallied to resounding support for what he had to say. The Anglican Bishop of
Licheld exclaimed in the Church of England Newspaper that it was the most
outstanding religious book of the year. Roger Lloyd in the Church Times
observed that the book became a standard work for clergy study circles. The
public press reviews around the world were overwhelmingly appreciative as
well. The New York Times, comparing him with Toynbee, said Buttereld
exhibited a more authentic feeling for history and a deeper understanding of
religion.
The academic reviews were also chiey positive, and he stimulated debate.
His views on technical history in relation to religion set off a discussion that
went on for years. Keith Sewells exegesis of his text was the most notable.
Martin Wight published, in 1950, the rst academic article on Butterelds
thought, on technical history and moral judgments, in contrast with Reinhold
Niebuhr. But many academic reviews were not positive. In general, but not
always, it seemed that the factor evoking negative comment, whatever the
genre, was a feeling of discomfort with Butterelds self-exposure as a Chris-
tian in the historical profession. Buttereld had known that he was taking a
200 Religion

risk in doing the lectures. Sydney W. Jackman, in ISIS, applauded his bravery
in the face of religious sceptics and devotees of science. As the reviews un-
rolled, those sympathetic to his views seemed to nd his language clear, his
style scintillating, his religious discourse inspiring, and his imagery poetic.
And indeed, by contrast, the uncomfortable reviewers tended to nd the book
muddled. For instance, the review in Mind slapped him until it hurt because of
the way he stated his big notions about religion and history. Patrick Gardiner,
then a young Fellow of Magdalene College, Oxford, said the worst things an
Oxford analytic philosopher could say about another scholar: his notions
were odd, were marked by vagueness, were riddled with obscurities, left the
reader at a loss, had doubtful logical status, were not open to falsication, and
abounded in unresolved problems. A few in Cambridge at the time raised
similar complaints, and among a certain sort of critic the charge of muddled-
ness passed from mouth to mouth over the decades until Noel Annan codied
it in Our Age in 1990. Butterelds writings on Christianity and history, said
Annan, at times reached a point of such Delphic ambiguity that attentive
readers were bafed.
Enough readers understood his message, however. As a book, Christianity
and History contributed to the creation of a body of work which instantiated
the rhetorical separation of religious discourse from historical writing. Until at
least the end of the nineteenth century, and in many cases right up to the mid-
twentieth century, the writings of historians in Christian traditions, as well as
Islamic, Jewish, Hindu, and Buddhist traditions, freely mingled language
about divine presence and spiritual realities with the language of human ac-
tions and natural things. For instance, the histories published by so signicant
a symbol of scientic writing as Ranke contained explicit religious language
within the histories themselves. Indeed, in the very passage where Ranke artic-
ulated the standard ever after associated with strictly scientic history [wie es
eigentlich gewesen/how it really was] he speaks of how we deal with
humanity as it is . . . and, at times, with the hand of God above them. The
passage introduced his Histories of the Latin and Germanic Nations, 1494
1535 of 1824. The new discourse ltered out such religious language and
placed it into a new genre of literature written by historians for the purpose of
producing explicit statements about religion and history, especially statements
about their own religious commitments. This new genre ran parallel to the
new genre of religion-silent history-writing thereby created. But that they
wrote religion-silent histories did not mean that authors, when writing their
histories, stopped holding onto the commitments they uttered in their religion-
and-history writings, that, for instance, they stopped believing that God acted
within human history. It became possible to use the genre of religion-and-
 Religion 201

history as a medium of access into the historical writings themselves. The ex-
plicit writings revealed some of the things the historians presumed or rendered
implicit in their writing of history. The number of writings in the new genre of
religion and history was increasing. Butterelds Christianity and History par-
ticipated in, indeed helped stimulate, what became a wider movement of the
renewal of Christian views of history in the mid-twentieth century.

October 1949
By looking so closely at Butterelds discourse, we might easily overlook
what he had just accomplished. He had just published three books in one
month. Bell in London issued all three in October 1949: George III, Lord
North, and the People, Origins of Modern Science, and Christianity and His-
tory. He now had published ten books altogether. As a result of amazing
conjunctions over a period of at least two decades, the simultaneous appear-
ance of three books in three seemingly unrelated elds made an enormous
impact. J. R. M. Butler, the Regius Professor of History, wrote him, I cant tell
you how much I admire and envy your productivity and the original ideas you
produce. It is a great gift. Buttereld gave all three books to Trevelyan, and
Trevelyan honoured him: It gives me the warmest pleasure to see how pro-
ductive of important works you have made your professorship. Your range is
extraordinary and so now is your performance. The Times Educational Sup-
plement observed that he had now become a real force in the world beyond
the circles in which academic scholarship, for which he has the highest reputa-
tion, provides the major topics of interest. People began to speak often of
Buttereld and Lord Acton in the same breath. The Times Literary Supple-
ment, in a leading article, gave Buttereld the highest compliment he could
wish for. His lectures on Christianity and history were the most outstanding
pronouncement on the meaning of history made by a professional historian in
England since Actons Inaugural.
The overall effect of so much research and publication, given so much
attention in academic and religious circles as well as among the general public,
and met by so much praise, even when mixed with criticism, was to transform
Buttereld into the star historian of Great Britain. He was in the midst of
what Cowling called one of the most remarkable public performances in
twentieth-century England. Buttereld, barely turned fty, now lived at the
top of his career.
 8

Public Figure

Creative Distractions
Buttereld did not wait around for his achievement of October 1949. He
left Cambridge for the United States, and when his three books appeared, he
was far across the Atlantic visiting the Institute for Advanced Study at Prince-
ton, next to the university that had treated him well in 19241925. He went
by himself for the fall term, without Pamela, or the three children, who by now
ranged in age from seventeen to ten. While he was crossing the ocean aboard
ship, his thoughts wandered to his encounter with Bohemianism and Prohibi-
tion in Greenwich Village twenty-ve years earlier, and the encouragement the
experience gave to his dissenting attitudes. He told everyone that his purpose
at Princeton was to resume work on the life of Fox. He also had the Concise
Cambridge Modern History on his mind. He did some work on Fox while in
America, chiey reading recent scholarship on the eighteenth century and
working on drafts from his notes. The time was too brief, however, and the
pace of his method too slow to allow much progress on the book that was
gradually becoming his life work, his magnum opus. He did nothing on the
Concise History, a project that was also beginning to feel like a life work. He
made some arrangements which helped establish the chair for a visiting pro-
fessorship in American history at Cambridge.
His time in America coincided with a period of extreme hostility between

202
 Public Figure 203

the United States and the Soviet Union. The American politics of anticommu-
nism repelled him, and, consistent with his dissenting ethos, he responded at
rst by seeing the good in communism. Then he began to apply his under-
standing of historical process to an analysis of the structure of the relations
between the two great powers. He had already suggested a little of this applied
thinking in the nal lecture of his series on Christianity and history, which he
rst presented in December 1948.
In January 1949 he had addressed a conference at the London School of
Economics on the merits of including international relations as a subject in the
university history curriculum. His interest in international relations was a
direct offshoot of his primal appreciation of diplomatic history. The events of
world history continued to stimulate and focus his meditations on morality,
historical thinking, and the problems of teaching. Everything was coinciding
to push him ever so gently into offering comments on contemporary world
politics. All he needed was the invitation.
The opportunity came in the United States. He produced a lecture, The
Tragic Element in Modern International Conict which he presented at Har-
vard University, Bryn Mawr College, and the University of Notre Dame. His
theme was the predicaments faced by people in history, by now one of his long-
standing motifs. He applied the idea directly to the heightening conict be-
tween the Soviet Union and the United States. He pictured the existence of two
great powers facing each other across the world. Each faced a predicament, he
said. Each felt self-righteous in the face of the enemy, and because neither
one knew the others intentions and calculations, both were unsure and fear-
ful. This situation posed the riddle of the Hobbesian fear. The situation pre-
sented a highly volatile predicament which could induce either or both powers
to go to war, unconnected with the ideologies of either. Any diplomacy on
either side that treated the crisis as primarily ideological seriously mistook the
situation and merely exacerbated the problems involved. His view made the
Soviet Union appear less simply evil, and represented anticommunism as de-
structive. It was a risky argument to make at that moment in America, and it
sparked interest from the left in American politics.
Buttereld returned to Cambridge at Christmas to resume the hectic rhythm
of his life as Professor of Modern History and Fellow of Peterhouse. He con-
tinued to be inundated by his involvements in the university and the college
during the next few years, and he added to his overwork by taking on new
outside activities. He became more active in the Carlyle Club, an elite circle of
British intellectuals who elected him to membership in 1947, and he accepted
election to the Council of the Royal Historical Society and regularly attended
its monthly meetings in London until his term expired in 1953. He served on
204 Public Figure

the manse committee of his local Methodist church and became faithful in his
participation in a Methodist Class Meeting, like his father.
Until 1953 he continued his university lecture course, Renaissance and
Reformation. During one year, 19501951, he gave a new course, Diplo-
macy and the Diplomatic Revolution of the Eighteenth Century. Then, con-
trary to his pledge, he agreed to help establish the history of science as a
regular examination subject. In 19511952 and 19521953 he offered a new
course of lectures called History of Science which he created with Rupert
Hall, a young Cambridge historian whom Buttereld considered in some sense
his student. Hall had been lecturing on the history of science since Butterelds
lectures in 1948, and he continued to do so after 1953 when Buttereld dis-
continued his participation. For each new lecture, each new course, Butter-
eld wrote out his text in full, as he had always done. He continued to accept
new research students, including, between 1950 and 1954, J. Roselli, Hedra
Ben-Israel, Peter Hennock, and J. H. Elliott. He maintained his reputation as
readily available to his students and a surprising, yet supportive critic. In
October 1950 his oldest son, Peter, now graduated from Leys School, entered
Peterhouse as an undergraduate in history.
The big new thing in Butterelds life from 1949 onward was his status as a
public celebrity. He turned into a very public historian. He received an ava-
lanche of invitations to review books, publish articles, write essays, give lec-
tures, preach sermons, and present talks throughout Great Britain and Ireland
as well as Germany and North America. Some of these invitations brought
him extra income, some did not. The quantity of his correspondence multi-
plied, and historians from outside Cambridge, especially Germans and Ameri-
cans, made the journey to Peterhouse to see him. He often took his visitors to
lunch in Peterhouse.
To help him cope with the deluge Eve Bogle worked longer hours, still for a
modest fee paid from his own pocket, offset by his fees for lectures and news-
paper reviews. She kept his engagements organized, produced his typescripts,
and managed his mountainous correspondence, which by now he had learned
to compose by dictation. He secured a literary agent, A. D. Peters of Buck-
ingham Street, London, to help him with his publications. He took subscrip-
tions to not one, but two international press clipping services, Durrants and
U.P.C.A., both of London, in order to collect the public discussion about
himself and his work. He eventually lled eight scrapbooks with clippings
from newspapers. Pamela and he hired the rst of a series of au pair girls
from the continent to help them at home, something people of his social
status in Cambridge were beginning to do to replace the old-style domestic
service worker.
 Public Figure 205

Butterelds publisher took advantage of the moment, in October 1950, to

reissue The Whig Interpretation of History, the book that secured his local
reputation in Cambridge almost twenty years earlier. Publishers in North
America joined in. Scribner in New York released the American edition of
Christianity and History 1950, followed by the American edition of Whig
Interpretation in 1951. Simultaneously Macmillan in New York produced the
American edition of Origins of Modern Science. Translations of Christianity
and History appeared in German, French, Italian, Spanish, Norwegian, Swed-
ish, and Finnish as well as Chinese in the 1950s, followed by Origins of
Modern Science in Italian, Spanish, Danish, and Polish in the late 1950s and
early 1960s. Collins issued Christianity and History as a popular and cheap
Fontana Paperback in 1957, and the sales of the book rose into the thousands
annually until at least 1962.
Butterelds fame mushroomed, as did his income from books. It was all
quite heady. Whig Interpretation received reviews extolling its brilliance and
appropriateness, usually without the negative references made at the time of
the books initial appearance. The extraordinary impact and international
reach of Whig Interpretation dates from the early 1950s, not from the early
1930s. It circulated to whole new audiences, including universities, schools
and the general public, in Great Britain as well as throughout the whole
English-speaking world. Whig Interpretation gained new life, especially in the
United States. Buttereld commented that the histories written by Americans
about the United States were probably more profoundly shaped by the Whig
interpretation than histories of England. Donald Creighton admitted that Ca-
nadian historical writing was Whiggish through and through. Then J. W.
Burrow turned Butterelds lens on mid-Victorian England in his study of the
uses made of the English past by a quartet of Whiggish historians: Thomas
Babington Macaulay, William Stubbs, Edward Augustus Freeman, and James
Anthony Froude, not all of whom were politically Whig.
People began to locate and deal with Whiggish history in eld after eld.
David Watkin showed just how Whiggish the history of architecture had been,
and applied Butterelds ideas toward a reconstruction of the eld. Donald
Kelley noted the Whiggish tendency of the history of political thought. The
history of science was riddled with Whiggish history. Peter Slee came close to
suggesting that the history of the study of history in higher education is in-
herently Whiggish. J. C. D. Clark objected that Buttereld had failed to no-
tice that Marxist history was at least as culpable of Whiggishness as Whig
history. He suggested that the new Marxist historians, such as Eric Hobsbawm
and E. P. Thompson, were the real heirs of Whiggism in history. He then
observed that the treatment of economic history in general, especially what
206 Public Figure

historians called the Industrial Revolution, was routinely and heavily Whig-
gish. Bonnie G. Smith eventually suggested that the Whig interpretation of
history was a male interpretation of history, in addition to its presentism and
progressivistic streaks, making it appear that dominance by men was the natu-
ral course of history. She thought that the new womens history might pry
historians free from Whiggish history. Handbooks on how to study history
adopted Butterelds criticism and used Whiggish history as a prime example
of the pitfalls to avoid. J. H. Plumb agreed that Whig Interpretation marked
the beginning of the defeat of self-serving presentism in English historical
interpretation, but then suggested that no matter how valid Butterelds rhe-
torical attack on the persistence of Whiggish history might be, the view was
collapsing anyway. The political oligarchy that had found the Whig inter-
pretation useful for the perpetuation of its power was in radical decline in any
case, and the worldwide British Empire with its conceit of the superiority of
English liberty and civilization was then beginning to dissolve. Buttereld had
toppled a historical edice whose social and imperial foundations were al-
ready undermined. With a ourish, Geoffrey Elton skewered Buttereld with
his own stick by labelling his Origins of Modern Science supremely Whiggish
history. From the 1950s onwards Butterelds point was so taken for granted
by historians and history students that it was enough simply to call a piece of
historical writing Whiggish history in order to defeat it.
In the face of so formidable an assault on Whiggish history it took an act
of heroic self-assertion for Christopher Hill, in support of his progressive
reading of history, to afrm in 1967 that the Whig interpretation was the only
possible historical attitude. It was with a mixture of trepidation and bravado
that Annabel Patterson, in 2002, sought to reinstate a Whig view, what she
called her New Whig interpretation of history.
F. L. Woodcock, of Richmond Surrey, could not resist asking Buttereld to
name some important historians who did not succumb to the Whig error.
Buttereld responded with a surprising list: Harold Temperley in his more
important works of research; in general . . . [Samuel] Gardiner, [F. W.]
Maitland, [C. H.] Firth, [Maurice] Powicke, [Arnold] Toynbee and [Lewis]
Namier were as little subject to the Whig fallacy as I should expect historians
to be as a rule; and even Lord Acton in much of his history is less Whig than
most people. Four of these were nineteenth-century historians, and four
twentieth-century. Michael Bentley guessed that among English nineteenth-
century historians Buttereld would have found only Thomas Carlyle to be
free of the Whig fallacy. Frank Eyck was keen to argue that G. P. Gooch
belonged on the list of those who were not Whiggish at all.
Reviewing books became a major part of Butterelds life. In 1950 he pub-
 Public Figure 207

lished reviews of eight books, including works by Reinhold Niebuhr, Alan

Richardson, Ernst Cassirer, and George Kitson Clark, as well as books on
eighteenth-century England. He became a regular reviewer for the Times Lit-
erary Supplement from 1950 onwards. Beginning in the mid-1950s, he pub-
lished an average of ve book reviews a year for the rest of his career. In
belated response to a plea from Kathleen Bliss after his lectures on Christianity
and history, he wrote a series of four essays for the nal issues of the Christian
News-Letter, a British ecumenical publication of some inuence. He extended
his discourse on Christianity and history by considering the merits and effects
of contrasting interpretations of historyacademic, Old Testament, Marx-
ian, and ecclesiastical. He gave Time and Tide two essays on the prob-
lem of predicaments in current history. And there were other essays in
other media.
His schedule of special public lectures between February 1950 and the end
of summer 1951 was gruelling. During the rst six months he presented per-
haps twenty special lectures, including his trip to Cologne, Germany, in July.
During the next twelve months he gave another forty-ve lectures, including
another trip to Germany in May and a lecture trip to the United States in July.
Among these last forty-ve lectures, three distinct audiences emerged. About
40 percent of his appearances were for academic audiences, about 20 percent
for local units of the Historical Association which combined scholars, school-
teachers, and the general public interested in history, and the remaining 40
percent for a new audience, churches and church-related organizations cover-
ing the full range of denominations in the United Kingdom, Roman Catholic,
Anglican, and Protestant. Besides these lectures there were a couple of talks on
the BBC. His pace could have been worse: he declined at least twenty other
lectures during the same eighteen-month period. Buttereld wrote out each
lecture, and even when he repated a paper under the same title he could not
keep himself from revising the text every time.
Most of his topics were extensions of the theme of Christianity and history.
He behaved like the historian as itinerant lay preacher. His thinking fanned
out in numerous directions at once: The Role of Christianity in European
History, How Christianity Affects the Teaching of History, History, Reli-
gion, and Ethics, The Scientic versus the Moralistic Approaches in Inter-
national Affairs, Providence, God in History, The Christian Idea of
God. A few of his lectures continued his propaganda for the history of sci-
ence, reiterating things he had said many times before: Leonardo da Vinci,
The History of Science. He repeated some lectures he had constructed be-
fore 1949: The Dangers of History, Fox and the French Revolution, The
Marxian Interpretation of History, and The History of the Enquiry into the
208 Public Figure

Seven Years War. There were miscellaneous other lectures about topics per-
petually on his mind: History as a Branch of Literature, The Teaching of
History, The Renaissance. It was an extensive list of topics on which he
pronounced his views.
A new stage in Butterelds career as a publishing scholar was taking shape.
He began to publish books derived from special lectures. The trend began with
his triumph of October 1949 when he published Origins of Modern Science
and Christianity and History. The BBC series which he created on the history
of science, with lectures by him and others, turned into The History of Science:
Origins and Results of the Scientic Revolution, a book published in 1951 in
Great Britain and North America, with him as de facto editor. Certain of the
new invitations included publication as a part of the arrangement, notably
the Riddell Lectures at the University of Durham, and the Murray Lecture at
the University of Glasgow. Christianity in European History, a little book of
sixty pages, published by Oxford University Press in 1951, came from the
Durham lectures and drew upon his extra teaching over the years at Wesley
House on the history of Christianity. The Reconstruction of an Historical
Episode, a booklet of forty-three pages about the Seven Years War, also pub-
lished in 1951, was the result of the Glasgow lectures. This little work had
distant roots in his course on modern European history and related to his
comments in Christianity and History about how historians connect individ-
ual facts into episodes. It was another study in a eld that was attracting his
attention more and more, the history of historical scholarship.
It occurred to Buttereld that he had found a direct and fertile route to
publication. The occasion of a lecture fastened down a deadline, and the genre
of the published lecture, even with the marks of the spoken text left in, enjoyed
respectability and could attract wide public notice. His habits of thinking by
writing and writing out every lecture for his courses had trained him to write
in lecture-length units. He became extremely productive of published lectures,
and he ceased to predict when he would complete the life of Fox.
Buttereld had read the suggestion in a review of his work by Martin Wight
that he collect his special lectures and essays on theoretical themes. Others,
now or later, expressed the same interest, including Trevelyan. He began to
scribble possible tables of contents of a book in his diary and notes. He had
certainly heard the criticisms of his proposals on moral judgments in history
and the relations between religion and history, complaints which initially
arose after his lectures on Christianity and history, and which the republica-
tion of Whig Interpretation stimulated. Some critics had disliked his views
about moral judgments and commented that he sounded as if he wished to
 Public Figure 209

divorce his moral sense from his work as a historian, and create a phalanx of
mere technicians. A few pointed to the irony that the Buttereld who had
spoken so loudly about Christianity and history seemed to segregate his Chris-
tianity from his history. Buttereld was stung by what he regarded as grave
misunderstanding of his positions, and he revised his lectures as essays with
the criticisms on his mind.
He began to think about a publisher. By now he had several rms asking to
become his publisher, including Cambridge University Press, headed by a new
and more aggressive Secretary, R. J. L. Kingsford. Buttereld reafrmed his
commitment to write the Concise History, but he turned Cambridge down at
for anything new, telling Kingsford that he felt CUP was rather sticky with
authors in history and did not push books hard, and that he disliked their
assumption of the role of arbiter of what counted as Cambridge History. He
intimated that he still carried resentment against CUP for not publishing his
inaugural lecture in 1944 or his Statecraft of Machiavelli as far back as 1940.
His literary agent convinced him that Collins of London would generate
wider sales than Cambridge, and made the arrangements for Collins to pro-
duce his new work in 1951. The book bore the title History and Human
Relations, 250 pages containing eight of Butterelds essays. This brought
the total to three books published in 1951, his eleventh, twelfth, and thir-
teenth. Three of the essays had been published before. At least six, probably
seven, and possibly all eight, originated as lectures between 1945 and 1950,
while the print versions had appeared in journals between 1948 and 1951.
The volume stimulated even more vociferous criticism of some of his pro-
posals, especially on the question of moral judgments. The opponents of his
views were a formidable lot, and the list was growing: Arnold J. Toynbee,
Martin Wight, Pieter Geyl, A. J. P. Taylor, Geoffrey Barraclough, Isaiah Berlin,
and many, many others. Some of the critics liked the book anyway. For
instance, Taylor went on to describe the book as his most effective, and he
applauded Butterelds success in creating links between the professional his-
torian and the general public. Barraclough liked his criticism of the ordinary
arguments of causality because of their inability to explain sufciently the
next turn of events. Others reviewers were simply effusive in their praise.
Arthur Bryant opened his review in the Sunday Times, This is a very wise
book: I think the wisest Professor Buttereld has yet written, and one of the
wisest of our time. The Times Literary Supplement devoted a leading editorial
article to the book and noted the reemergence of the historian as moralist,
linking Buttereld with Toynbee and Niebuhr. The editorial remarked that
Buttereld was a thinker of exceptionally candid and open mind, anxious to
210 Public Figure

the extreme limit of conscience not to load the dice in favour of his own side.
Trevelyan praised him, I think it is your strongest book of essays so far. . . . I
am glad you have got the inuence you have, for your thought is most sound,
both on history and on other subjects.
Buttereld now had seven of his books in current circulation, six new and
one republished, all released during the years 19491951 and all being re-
viewed at the same time. His reputation rose still higher. Five of the six new
books came from special lectures which he presented in their latest form be-
tween 1948 and 1950. His writing in these volumes retained the attributes of
the lecture meant to be spoken. If his publications from 1949 onwards may be
called essays, they were essays derived from lectures, and not pieces created
as literary works. In a manner imperceptible even to himself, he had trans-
formed from a writer who used history as his medium into a speaker, a lec-
turer, who published what he had written for purposes of oral presentation.
Of his two youthful ambitions, the preacher had absorbed the writer in style
and medium.
The preacher prevailed in his message as well, the preacher with the training
and mentality of the historian. Buttereld carried his thinking forward during
these years within the context of his meditations on religion and history. Start-
ing from the base he created in his lectures on Christianity and history, he had
expanded his discourse considerably, while the ingredients of his thought re-
mained remarkably constant. He thought as a historian, not as a theologian, a
philosopher, or a political scientist, and he used the methods and the knowl-
edge of the historian who was driven to pursue themes in religion.
Buttereld attached a theological explanation to his decision to accept all
the invitations he was receiving. He was aware that he was following a route
for his life sketched out by others, taking him far away from his major work on
Fox and The Concise Cambridge Modern History. He confessed, I often
allowed myself to be side-tracked on a theory that if I do what I seemed called
to do Providence will make everything come out right in the end. He had
applied the very same interpretation to his receipt of the Fox papers from
Trevelyan in 1931, and he liked the results. Since Englishman and His History
he had been publicly urging the view that the genius of English political his-
tory was the willingness to refrain from overmuch resistance to the course of
events, aiming instead to cooperate with Providence in the out-working of
history. It made sense to him to cooperate with Providence in his own life and
not try to impress his will on events too hard. The continuing good results
from Origins of Modern Science and Christianity and History were perpetu-
ally a surprise to him and to others, and he was willing to think that he was
doing the right thing for his life.
 Public Figure 211

Love and Technical History

Butterelds essays collected in History and Human Relations show new

thinking about a number of themes, all connected with his discourse on reli-
gion. The most notable are human personality, the methods of technical his-
tory, Marxism, his injunction against moral judgments, and the relations be-
tween his convictions as a Christian and his work as a historian.
After all the emphasis on sin, cupidity, judgment, and conict in Christianity
and History, his new comments on what he calls human personality come as
something of a shock, and a relief. The essay entitled Christianity and Hu-
man Relationships is about love and spirituality, and people as capable of
loving others. This piece, although not part of either the Cambridge or the
BBC series, is the one he later said that he had wanted to include in the
published version as a counterbalance to the dark talk that dominates the
book. He later claimed that he felt misunderstood on this point. He was really
more interested, he said, in the essentials of Christianity, such as love and
spirituality, though these are not the things that I write about. He left these
essentials out of Christianity and History by design. He said, As a matter of
fact it was understood from the rst that when I wrote or talked about Chris-
tianity I should not deal with its essentials but only with certain mundane
aspects that are of interest to the general historian. He put this explanation
into the preface of the German edition of the book.
The explanation leaves one wondering, however, since Buttereld surely
believed that human personality and human cupidity are essentials of Chris-
tianity. These apparently non-mundane matters pervade Christianity and
History from start to nish and are basic to his discussion of academic his-
tory in that work. It is instructive about his outlook that he did not readily
situate the theme of love foremost in his vision of human personality and
historical study, and that even in this essay about love he quickly lapses into a
discussion of sin and judgment.
Nevertheless, it would be hard for him give more importance to love than he
now does: For those who follow the New Testament the ultimate principle in
question is that law of Christian love which comprises amongst other things
all that we know of charity or of charitable-mindedness. For the Christian this
is not only the rst of laws but it is a unique oneit stands through time as the
source of all others that might be prescribed. And it is absolute. This one
ultimate law, the law of love, or, as he sometimes says, the law of charity,
regulates the conduct of life and applies to all circumstances and stands as the
nal measure of all action. It is denite and clear, but at the same time, it is in
a certain sense almost a denition of elasticity itself. Given the centrality of
212 Public Figure

the term elasticity in Butterelds discourse, we know we must surely be in

the presence of something of the highest possible signicance.
His text elaborates on two lines in the New Testament: Love God and love
your neighbour as yourself, and God is love. He plays with various em-
blems which exemplify the role he envisages for Christian love in life: love
your enemy, ght evil with love, love all people even though they are sinners,
love nothing in this world too much, love is the spiritual realm installed right
here and now, love is ever inventing and discovering, love creates true liberty.
He voices the classic Christian denigration of Judaism when he pronounces
New Testament love as the fullment of the law of Moses, and as a develop-
ment in righteousness beyond mere obedience to sets of commandments
and beyond a gravely confused righteousness governed by the demands of
what we should regard as ritual and ceremonial. We can see how the law of
love connects with his insistence on the exclusive reality of personality and
individual human beings. Love is something individual people do, and the
appropriate recipients of love are other individual people. Love your neigh-
bour does not mean to love the state or mankind or society or any other
such abstract noun, but actual individual people. Our neighbour is any
person as soon as that person actually comes into our orbit or within the
range of our thinking in any way. Such love then becomes a source of human
history as the very dynamic behind right conduct and the actual main-
spring of virtuous action. We experience the effects most completely in the
lives of the saints, whose lives embody love and whose deep inuence on
history far surpasses our imagination.
These indeed are major things for a historian to notice about love in human
life, but Buttereld virtually leaves the theme alone except for this one state-
ment. Only rarely does a reference to Christian charity appear in his writ-
ings before and after this moment. When it does, we can tell that he ranks the
notion at the highest level in his appreciation of history. For instance, it serves
his occasionally as a tool enabling him to explain in extremely general terms
the presence of the features of European civilization which he nds most
desirable. A case of this appears briey later in History and Human Rela-
tions. In contrast with the effects of modern barbarism which he believes so
marked the rst half of the twentieth century on all sides, he points to intan-
gibles such as modern liberty, respect for human personality, and certain
movements of social reform. These were due to the inuence of Christian
charity in the lives of ordinary people over many centuries, people without
political ends who were simply living their lives within the spiritual environ-
ment created by the message to love God and their neighbours. We can as a
result, he says, perceive and cherish the leavening effect of Christian love in
 Public Figure 213

the very make-up of our civilization. In Christianity in European History he

briey elaborates the same reading of history, and with the same meaphor.
There are similar brief references in later writings when he is generalizing
about European history over the long term. But nowhere does he give the
theme of love the attention he lavishes on other themes, especially those he is
most developing in the wake of Christianity and History.
The theme of technical history takes rst place in importance, a subject
very close to his heart. The actual space he assigns to this theme is meagre, but
the function of his new discourse on the subject is colossal. He begins essay
after essay with a disquisition on technical history. His purpose in discussing
technical history is actually not to clarify his understanding of historical study,
although he does this to his satisfaction. He discusses technical history chiey
as a preface to advocating particular causes about which he feels very passion-
ate. His understanding of technical history serves as the medium for the con-
struction of his discourse on Marxism, moral judgments, religion, God in
history, and, later on, the history of historical study and international affairs.
The use of the term technical history is crucial. He had used the term
before, but now it virtually replaces academic history and even scientic
history, the terms he favored in Christianity and History. His aim is to delimit
very precisely the range of competence of historical study, but in so doing to
elevate its possible achievements to a high level of reasonable certainty. He
tries to accommodate the opposing poles of the dualisms in his thinking and
the tensions within his discourse become palpable.
He pushes in one direction to identify the precise boundaries of technical
history. He uses familiar vocabulary: concrete, tangible, observable, matter-
of-fact, details, facts, mundane, outside, material, the historical realm. This is
history as mere technique, an apparatus, reduced to describing mere external
things. This technical history operates quite separately from religion, politics,
and ordinary ethical judgments. Indeed, says Buttereld, the technical histo-
rian, whatever his religion, is willing to jettison for the time being his private
views and personal valuations in order to accomplish the work of technical
history. Buttereld uses the metaphor self-emptying, an image taken from
St. Paul in the New Testament with reference to Jesus, to accentuate just how
thoroughly he expects technical historians to divest themselves of their deepest
religious convictions when engaged in technical history.
But then he realizes that he has pushed too far in one direction and bound
historical study to what he professes are not the most important matters. So,
he recalls his emphasis on imaginative sympathy and pushes strongly in the
other direction: outlook, feelings, insight, insides, personality, spiritual, the
spiritual realm. This is history as an art, he says. The term is new for him in
214 Public Figure

this context. It is not enough to report as the outside observer about those
things the scientist can measure, he says. The historian must feel and think as
though he were that man, and see the personalities from the inside. He
continues, Without this art not only is it impossible to tell the story correctly
but it is impossible to interpret the very documents on which the reconstruc-
tion depends. But what does this do to technical history? Does the necessity
of this art vitiate the value of technical history? He responds by stretching
his category: We may even say that this is part of the science of history. The
art belongs to technical history.
The reason he gives for expanding his category is new to his argument on
the subject. He wants to say more than he did in Christianity and History,
where he noted how much history as a science depends on imaginative sympa-
thy. Now he claims that the art of imaginative sympathy can be assessed in the
same way as can the facts and the documents. The art of seeing past
personalities from the inside produces communicable results, and even the
insight of one historian may be ratied by scholars in general. In other
words, the art yields virtually universal results. With this, he has added a layer
to his earlier insistence that historians all share the same techniques, the same
evidence, the same facts. They even produce the same insight into the per-
sonalities of the past. The claim surprises, for it is hard to see what is techni-
cal about getting and having insights. Insights would appear to be, in his
language, nonconcrete, intangible, nonfactual looks inside other personalities
which historians take not by means of their detailed research, but via their very
personal and private imaginative sympathy. Hence, insights would exemplify
features directly opposite to those he admires in technical history. In adding
historians insights to the list, however, he does not in the least relax his
stringent requirement of virtual universality for technical history. Just to be
sure we understand, he repeats what he has told us before, that technical
history proves its ndings for all men, it attests its results to all men
(whatever their philosophy), and its argument is valid for Catholic or athe-
ist, for Marxist or Mohammedan. The word all covers a lot of historians.
Indeed, he seeks to strengthen the claim by going still further: the tangible
evidence actually forces the historian, no matter what his religion or philos-
ophy, to believe particular things whether we like them or not. In But-
terelds hands, technical history is a wonderful and powerful producer of
reasonable certainty within its proper domain. Now he tells us that even
historians insights belong to the same limited realm. And he even de-
clares the point with seeming certainty.
But Buttereld has his doubts. We nd them displayed in his new essays on
Marxism where his characterization of technical history orients his assessment
 Public Figure 215

of Marxist history. Given the role of Britain as ally of the United States during
the early years of Soviet-American polarization, the sympathy he presents for
Marxism and Marxist historians at this moment is remarkable. Again he plays
the dissenter, but perhaps in doing so he neutralizes the punch of the Marxists.
Sidney Hook was convinced that Buttereld and other non-Marxists like him
sympathetic to Marxism denatured Marxs views to a point where anything
distinctively Marxist about these views disappears. In both The Christian
and the Marxian Interpretation of History for the Christian News-Letter in
1949 and Marxist History in History and Human Relations, Buttereld
itemizes the defects of Marxism as a philosophy of life, but praises the benets
of Marxism as history. The difference between the two seems clear enough
until he speaks of the impact of the Marxist philosophy of life on the Marxist
history. We look for examples of Marxist historians, but he provides no names
except for Plekhanov, one of the few names he mentioned in his essay on
Marxism in the 1930s, and we wonder whether he has been reading anybody
new. Buttereld objects categorically to what he regards as the intrusion of
Marxist philosophy, or ideology, into the domain of technical history. As in the
1930s, he tries to draw a dividing line where the Marxists refuse to draw one.
Even in the hands of exible Marxists, such as Plekhanov, Marxism impacts
the historical study too much, he says. He generalizes his complaint: I wonder
if I am merely being foolish when I say it is better for the ordinary technical
student not to philosophise but to do history, just historically to enquire. But I
suppose it is true that mere evidence is useless to a person who is reading
history altogether in the wrong way of approaching history; there is a right
feeling to have for historical events; there is a sensitiveness that one may have, a
proper awareness of the character of the historical process. The rebuff of
philosophy echoes the gratuitous insult in the preface of Whig Interpretation
of History, where he said that his theses would be unaffected by anything the
philosopher could state to explain them or to explain them away, and suggests
how little he has changed his attitude. He wants to stand rm in his condence
that just doing history is its own corrective against the imposition of philoso-
phy and religion on historical study. Technical history is self-cleaning. And
with the evidence itself able to force things on the historian no matter
what the historians outlook or resistance, the facts are self-revelatory and
self-empowering.
But here he is not so sure. There is a wrong way and a right way to
approach history, he says. The wrong approach nullies the evidence. With-
out the right approach the evidence is impotent. Technical history may not
be virtually universal after all. The historians philosophy, or approach, makes
a crucial difference, and in some quite basic way takes precedence even over the
216 Public Figure

evidence. The historian must use the right approach and thereby enable the
power of the evidence to function correctly. The right approach is, of course,
Butterelds. We may presume in this context that he believes his approach to
be philosophy-free, ideology-free. In other words, his approach is the univer-
sal, the same for all historians no matter what their religion or philosophy.
Approaches which differ from his are sullied by philosophy or religion, and
wrong. The challenge from Marxist history messes up the picture he has drawn
of technical history, and has unsettled his certainty, even if just for a moment.
His image of technical history is shaken by the brief vision of its impotence, and
thus the inadequacy of his rendition of technical history. He later admits that
technical history may never exist in its absolute purity. Maybe it is merely an
ideal, he says.
For now, however, Buttereld catches hold of himself and issues a resound-
ing call to anyone who will listen: Let us study history and see where the facts
take us and nd even delight in facts as such. And, when quarrels occur, let us
go back again to our historygo back again and study it in still further
detail. This episode reminds us of his brief comment in Christianity and
History about historians presuppositions concerning human beings, a point
that threatened to undo his construction of the universality of technical his-
tory. In that context he simply let the comment sit without making connec-
tions with the other parts of his discourse, and moved on.
If his latest encounter with Marxism failed in the end to change his mind or
weaken his stated belief in the universality of technical history, it did induce
him to modify his view of technical history in another way, one that touched
something more fundamental: his commitment to individuals and personality.
In Christianity and History, in a passage that sounded as if he were thinking out
loud, he signalled that he was in the middle of changing his mind about the re-
lationship between individual personalities and processes. Until now he has
declared repeatedly that only individual personalities really exist, and has re-
mained unswerving in his loyalty to the treatment of history chiey as narrative
about individual personalities. He continues completely unchanged about the
rst commitment, the exclusive reality of individuals, and, contrasting himself
with Marxist history, he rejects unequivocally the view that things such as
economic factors, nancial situations, wars, and political crises cause any-
thing or that they even exist, he says, except as abstract terms and conve-
nient pieces of shorthand. His credo remains, It is men who make history
who really do things. By this he means individual personalities regarded as
so many separate wells of life. This he reiterates clearly at the outset of his
essay Marxist History.
But vis--vis the second commitment, the absolute priority of individuals
 Public Figure 217

over processes, he presents himself as a changed historian. By means of curi-

ously impersonal discoursehe uses we throughouthe volunteers the
admission that he imputes too much to individuals, and that he is no longer
satised to observe the surface-drama of events, or content with mere
literary narrative of personalities in conict. For this new attitude he gives
credit to the Marxists: The chief contribution of the Marxists has been that
they, more than anybody else, have taught us to make our history a structural
piece of analysissomething which is capable of becoming more profound
than a piece of ordinary political narrative. Instead of stopping with a drama
of personalities, Charles I ghting Cromwell for example, we move further to
a kind of geological survey, we try to see what was happening below the
surface, we envisage the stresses and strains that take place in the structure of
the whole country. Even ordinary political narrative is bound to be altered as a
result of this kind of structural analysis; and a further range of territory is
brought under tribute for the purpose of assisting us in the elucidation of the
story. Butterelds words amount to a serious criticism of his own work,
above all Peace Tactics of Napoleon, but also George III, Lord North, and the
People. And the implications of his criticism for his own biography of Fox
would be considerable, perhaps serious enough to discourage him from fur-
ther work on the enormous project.
The structural analysis he has in mind discloses a domain he has long recog-
nized and counted as important, the realm of process, conditions, and condi-
tioning circumstances. But now he means something different by this realm.
He no longer speaks of it simply in relation to individual action, as the unin-
tended consequences of the interactions of millions of individuals over cen-
turies. His discourse does not say how the processes and conditions got there,
but takes them as given, as there, with the implication that more is involved
than simply conating individual actions. The examples he offers of structural
analysisputting a person in his age, viewing a person in context, and exam-
ining a persons environmentshow that he remains a world away from the
Marxists or the French historians of the Annales variety or even Namier. He
treats structural analysis as a matter of studying the conditions affecting hu-
man actions. Some conditions are of a special kind, what he calls hard and
inescapable conditions, such as that people must eat in order to live, and that
social structures must have reached a certain level of complication for people
to engage in experimental science. All this adds up to a system of necessity
which envelops and conditions individual persons, but without completely
determining their actions. With structural analysis, the historian no longer
regards people as sovereign shapes of their own lives, but perceives them as
shaped by the system of necessity.
218 Public Figure

Buttereld has found a new way to explain history, and a new position for
explanation in his picture. He used to say, in Whig Interpretation of History in
1931, that the only explanation historians needed to offer was to give more
detail, to unfold the whole story and reveal the complexity by telling it in
detail. In Christianity and History he passed lightly over the problem of
explanation by calling it the answer not to the question why, but to the
question how things happened, with the answer appearing in the way the
historian lays out the facts and their interconnections in episodes. Now he
provides a new denition of what it means to explain something historically.
He places explanation in a privileged position, paired with description, as one
of the two tasks of the technical historian. To explain historically is to situate
people within the system of necessity and to display the conditioning circum-
stances which enveloped and shaped them, delimiting and in some sense even
necessitating their actions, without completely absorbing their freedom as
individuals. The technical historian may no longer rest on the surface of
history, content with describing people and their actions and narrating the
appropriate story about them. The technical historian descends below the
surface to analyze the structures operative within the system of necessity sur-
rounding people and their actions, and then supplies the appropriate expla-
nation. Buttereld has written about conditions continuously since the
1920s, and he has alluded to the system of necessity now and then, as in his
inaugural lecture as professor in 1944 and Christianity and History, but with-
out attaching any explanatory signicance to the term. Now he has gathered
in his own legacy of discourse, refocused it, and found the key to historical
explanation, which he consigns to the technical historian.
Buttereld has thus stretched technical history still further, but without
abandoning the hard and austere requirements he has placed on the discipline.
He speaks about explanation in exactly the same language as he once re-
served for the simple gathering of facts, such as the date of his grandfathers
birth. He writes, the technical study of the past is in any case concerned with
a limited and concrete explanation of the human drama, since it looks for the
earthly or mundane things, it looks for the things which can be discovered by
its peculiar kind of apparatus and attested to all men (whatever their philoso-
phy) by the tangible evidence. He has left us to assume that the explana-
tions arrived at by the historian when engaged in technical history are also
marked by universality, that they too are the same for all historians regardless
of their religion, philosophy, politics, race, or nationality. We can only marvel
at the way technical history has ballooned to enormous dimensions without
Buttereld reconsidering whether the characteristics of technical history
 Public Figure 219

which he initially designated as belonging to the task of simply collecting the

facts might still apply.

Moral Judgments and Christianity

Butterelds disquisitions on technical history are the springboard for his
arguments about moral judgments in history. His essay entitled Moral Judg-
ments in History in History and Human Relations gives a longer and more
concentrated look at the theme than Christianity and History, where his treat-
ment was brief and sparsely scattered throughout the book. With this essay
Buttereld marks the ftieth anniversary of the death of Lord Acton in 1901,
and, as so often before, takes Acton as his partner in dialogue throughout. His
understanding of moral judgments connects directly with Whig Interpretation,
where he featured the theme twenty years before. Gordon Wright suggested
that History and Human Relations initiated a new phase of debate on the theme
of moral judgments. In any case, we can say that the attachment of Butterelds
name to the assertion that historians should not make moral judgments dates
from the discussion of History and Human Relations in the 1950s and not
Christianity and History, not even Whig Interpretation of History. The ubiq-
uity of the attachment of Butterelds name to the no-moral-judgments posi-
tion dates from 1959 and the publication of the large-circulation paperback
The Philosophy of History in Our Time, edited by Hans Meyerhoff, which
reprinted and discussed Butterelds essay Moral Judgments in History from
History and Human Relations. Hereafter Butterelds views routinely ap-
peared in writings by historians, such as Gordon Leff and Howard Zinn, as well
as philosophers, such as Behan McCullagh, on the question of moral judgments
in history.
Much has transpired in the world since 1931 that might be expected to
affect Butterelds handling of the question of moral judgments. The surprise
comes, however, when we discover that Buttereld says little about moral
judgments beyond what he has already said. He words it better and more
clearly that he did in Whig Interpretation, and, perhaps because of his new
celebrity, he presents himself with fewer qualifying phrases and inverted sen-
tences and with greater sheer assurance that what he says is right. His repeats
his long-standing objections to historians making moral judgments. They in-
clude variations on the argument that the medium of technical history does
not equip or authorize the historian, as historian, to render moral judgments.
He updates his argument with the additions of imaginative sympathy and
explanation to the strictly technical domain of technical history, all of which
220 Public Figure

he separates from the world of moral judgments. His objections also represent
his conviction that the inner life of individual personalities, where piety and
moral responsibility reside, is not nally open to the technical historian, not
even through the exercise of the art of imaginative sympathy.
This is the moment when we realize that the point of his new discourse on
moral judgments, indeed of the whole of History and Human Relations, is not
to provide disquisitions on technical history or moral judgments or anything
else for that matter. He wishes to clarify himself to his critics, perhaps even
to defend himself against their criticisms. Among his chief worries were the
critics who understood him to be promoting historical study as an amoral or
extra-moral endeavour, or, conversely, those who felt that he himself was
issuing morally indefensible statements, especially his comments about Hitler
and Stalin in Christianity and History.
Privately he began to claim that he had always opposed Nazism and com-
munism. He explained this to Max Beloff: I dont at all believe that ideology
is unimportant, and I used to say that Nazi-ism and Communism were the
Anti-Christ, though now, as you would nd in the last of the three Riddell
lectures, I would state that case rather differently. Later he wrote another
correspondent in stronger terms: I am probably more enthusiastic than you
about the matter as I think that communism incorporates the anti-Christ of
our time, and I also think that communism is the prior evil that provoked
Nazism and Fascism.
But he said none of this publicly, and the researcher is hard put to nd where
he had previously called Nazism and communism the Anti-Christ. His public
self-defense in History and Human Relations is pure Buttereld. He says just
the things that fuel the criticisms. He writes this intentionally provocative
sentence near the top of his presentation: And in view of the situation that has
been described, it may be possible to reduce the shock sometimes produced by
the thesis which denies any ethical character (in the usual sense of the words)
to the technical historians universe. And another: The principles imply
that the biography of the worst of murderers could conceivably be written in
such a way that he would be what in a technical sense we call the hero of the
story, so that our pity and sympathy would be around him as we followed him
up from childhood. By the same argument what we should desire even in the
case of a man like Hitler is not a mere angry denunciation. What would prove
of incomparable value, if it were possible, would be an intimate account of
him by a person who did not hate him too muchan account which would
enable us to see how a lump of human nature (how a boy playing in a eld)
could ever have come to be like that. His dissenters method drives him to
 Public Figure 221

say just the opposite of what he knows his critics want to hear, and he seems to
delight in doing so.
Having voiced the rst statement, he follows with assertions about moral
judgments and technical history belonging to different realms and about how
mixing the two hinders historical inquiry. After the statement about Hitler, he
goes on to emphasize the enormous power of conditioning circumstances in
the shaping of personality and the technical historians inability to fathom the
depths of another persons interior motivations and personal responsibility.
This sounds like amoral history. Then, from the bottom of the pit, he leads his
critics out along his own pathway. In the rst case, he declares that he does not
deny morality in life and points in the distance to an understanding of
historical study that is fully moral in a higher sense altogether. In the second,
he reafrms his primal conviction that individual persons always possess ulti-
mate responsibility for themselves and remain the sources of morality in the
world, no matter what the conditioning circumstances. Then he reaches his
self-liberating destination, the higher morality: the law of charity and the
primary duty of historians to extend charity to all. We may presume that, with
this vision, he does not deny the moral role of the historian as reconciler, as he
used to say. Reconciling and extending charity appear to be, for him, two ways
of saying the same thing. Instead of historians acting as moral judges, let them
act in charity towards the people of history. In the end, in other words, and in
spite of his provocative rhetoric, he registers technical history not as amoral,
but as differently moral. His treatment of Hitler affords an opportunity to
assess the application of what he believes is a higher morality. We wonder
whether his nonjudgmental extension of charity to Hitler would not have the
effect of exonerating Hitler, or, at the least, leave historians without the re-
sources to expose the inhumanity of Hitlers ways, and thus render historians
and their histories actually harmful and not merely irrelevant.
If historians are going to listen to Buttereld when he pronounces against
moral judgments, they need to know what he asks them to eschew. The ques-
tion is not so much why historians should not make moral judgments, which
he has made clear enough, but what exactly is it that he so vociferously pro-
hibits historians from doing. In the past, especially in Whig Interpretation of
History, where he launched his attack on moral judgments, he spoke against
making moral judgments upon individual people, their actions, whole groups,
causes, and the results of actions. He especially objected to moral judgments
built into the organization of the narrative. In Christianity and History he
specically opposed moral judgments by historians upon the people who are
their subjects, and the moral judgments involved in constructing the actions
222 Public Figure

and events of human history as a war between good and evil, right versus
wrong. All in all, Buttereld appears to leave very little room for historians to
come to moral judgments of any kind.
In Moral Judgments in History he offers clarication. He repeats nu-
merous times that he opposes moral judgments of a quite specic kind, namely
moral judgments against persons, and that he does not object to those made
against acts or behaviour or events. After his provocative statement denying
any ethical character to technical history, he sought to qualify his meaning:
The thesis may be asserted in so far as it means that moral judgments on
human beings are by their nature irrelevant to the enquiry and alien to the
intellectual realm of scientic history. A little later: In fact it is question-
able whether any retrospective ethical judgmentI mean the kind of judg-
ment which is directed against a personalityis worth anything, except in the
form of the judgment that all men are, and men always have been, sinners.
And again: It follows from this that moral judgments of actual people can-
not defensibly or usefully exist in concrete cases except in the form of self-
judgments. To be sure his readers get the point, he explicitly declares that he
permits moral judgments against what people do, against their acts: For my
own part I am willing to say that religious persecution is always wrong. It is
wrong even when it is committed by people who are unaware that it is wrong.
And again: From the same standpoint it is easy to say that an action is wrong
thereforethe action is itself wrong even if the man who performs it is un-
aware that it is wrong. Indeed he becomes very free with the language of
moral judgment about peoples actions. He talks about a persons follies,
crimes, and wilfulnesses, and he speaks of atrocities . . . committed
against the weak or the poor, the barbarity of killing and torturing of
human beings, the criminality of religious persecution or wholesale mas-
sacre or the modern concentration camp or the repression of dissident opin-
ions, and the historians exposure of the wickedness of the action itself.
We have already seen him use some of this sort of language in Whig Interpreta-
tion, Napoleon, Englishman and His History, and Christianity and History,
but in those settings he did not acknowledge that he was using the language of
moral judgment nor did he grant that moral judgments upon peoples actions
were acceptable for historians to make. Now he has given himself permission,
in his role as historian, to denounce certain human actions as morally wrong
and to utter terms of moral judgment against them. This is new, different from
the way he handled the same problem in Whig Interpretation of History, in
that he now admits that historiansthat hemay morally judge human ac-
tions. To be sure, he trips over doing so. We nd him still naming what he is
doing as description, that is, he writes, merely describing, say, the massacre
 Public Figure 223

or the persecution, laying it out in concrete detail, and giving the specication
of what it means in actuality. Such terms are familiar parts of his character-
ization of the apparatus of technical history. It would appear that he has now
added the moral judgment of peoples actions to the list of competencies of the
technical historian. The move represents a new exibility on the question of
moral judgments, even as he seeks to contain the implications of what he has
allowed by placing moral judgments of actions under the rubric purely de-
scriptive. He has, yet again, expanded the category technical history, and,
once again, done so without modifying his universalist expectations. Presum-
ably his moral judgments of actions, posing as descriptions, may be expected
to be the same for all historians. But he halts his exibility here, and he will
move no further. His clarication is complete. What he now asks historians to
abjure is moral judgments specically directed against persons.
Yet in spite of Butterelds proffered clarication on moral judgments in
history, certain contradictions appear to remain within his treatment of the
subject. He has now accepted the view that historians may display their moral
judgments upon actions by means of the language they employ to describe
what the people of the past were doing. At the same time, however, he re-
afrms his abiding objection to building moral judgments into the organiza-
tion of the narrative, especially by mounting the story as a war of right versus
wrong, not merely as right people against wrong people. If we extrapolate
from what he has told us, we can see how this yes and no works. Buttereld
says that the modern concentration camp was wrong, and he permits the
historian to describe the camps and the use of the camps in so detailed and
vivid a manner that the reader will see that they are wrong. For instance, if we
apply his point to a specic case, we may suppose that the historian is permit-
ted to provide a description of the camps for Jews in Nazi-controlled Poland
which enables the reader to see that they are wrong. But, at the same time, the
historian is barred from constructing the history with respect to the camps and
the Jews as a matter of right versus wrong. The apparent contradiction arises
between what Buttereld has allowed and what he has disallowed. To de-
scribe in the manner he accepts is to organize the narrative in a way he
opposes. If we go a step further, we may presume that he regards the conquest
of the concentration camps as right, and that the historian may describe the
campaign against the camps in such a way that the reader will see that it is
right, while the camps are wrong. Thus, to present the history as, in part,
the campaign against the concentration camps is to construct the narrative
with respect to this point as a matter of right versus wrong, which Butter-
eld opposes.
The contradictions seem to increase when we go further. The concentration
224 Public Figure

camps did not just happen and neither did their destruction. People were
responsible for the camps and people were responsible for their destruction.
Historians engage in historical analysis, which includes guring out which
people were responsible for what, and their histories tell who they are. Thus,
with respect to the concentration camps, even if the interior lives of people on
all sides of this point were morally mixed, and even if the circumstances were
drastically different on all sides, and even though all people are sinners, and
even though the judgment cannot serve as the Final Judgment for all eternity,
some people, even on Butterelds terms, were, on this point, morally wrong
and other people were morally right. The indication of morally wrong action
entails ipso facto the indication of people who were morally wrong to engage
in that action. Or to switch to another of Butterelds prime examples, if the
historian calls the action religious persecution, which he believes is wrong,
then the people whom the historian nds were responsible for the action
become the persecutors, and they were morally wrong to persecute. In other
words, by making moral judgments against certain actions Buttereld also
engages in moral judgments against certain people with respect to certain
actions. Moreover, for Buttereld to choose the term persecution or mas-
sacre or atrocity to describe certain actions in history is choose terms
that contain a moral judgment against wrong action, and hence to take sides
for the right against wrong. For instance, we know that the people on the
other side did not call their own actions persecution and set themselves up
as persecutors. They claimed that they were right, that they were engaged in
preserving the peace and unity of the realm and taking decisive action against
the would-be destroyers of the realm. It was even crucial to act decisively
against such people for the sake of God and eternity. And the German authori-
ties responsible for the concentration camps for Jews did not call their actions
atrocities, or name themselves as murderers. They said that they were
right to take effective measures to secure the purity of the German people and
to defend the integrity of the German Reich, and the operators and attendants
of the camps claimed that they were following orders and doing their patriotic
duty. For Buttereld to describe the one case as persecution and the other
as atrocities is for him to take sides and to construe the history in each case
as a conict of right against wrong. As if to compound the contradictions, he
bolts right past all his arguments and calls one person an irreligious scoun-
drel and another person the worst of murderers, and all through the book
he repeatedly calls still other persons saints. He may regard these words as
terms of description, but they contain within them moral judgment for and
against people. The contradictions in Butterelds discourse on moral judg-
ments seem to multiply.
 Public Figure 225

If we return to Butterelds desires about how to write the history of Hitler,

his most provocative example of the workings of technical history, we hear
echoes of the same apparent contradictions. Buttereld called for a history
even in the case of Hitler that forsakes the moral judgment against him and
provides an intimate account that would enable us to see how a lump of
human nature (how a boy playing in a eld) could ever have come to be like
that. In the light of Butterelds ethics-free depiction of technical history, it is
easy to hear his words as prescribing amoral history, or perhaps immoral
history that cleanses Hitler from the awfulness of his politics. But on second
hearing, we notice that Buttereld actually structured into his statement the
moral judgment against Hitler as a person: even Hitler, the person who
could ever have come to be like that. A soft moral judgment, to be sure, but
there it is nonetheless, the very same kind of moral judgment, against a person,
that he wished above all to eliminate with the help of his clarication. Un-
clarity triumphs over clarity in the theme of moral judgments in history, and
historians are left still to wonder what Buttereld wants them to do.
Butterelds delineation of the limits of technical history served also as the
preface to his discourse on the relation of religion to historical study. Time and
again his rhetoric has headed ostentatiously in one direction. In Christianity
and History he posited the separation of the historians religion, politics, na-
tionality, race, ethical evaluations, philosophya persons deepest convic-
tions and identitiesfrom technical history. He trumpeted the power of tech-
nical historians to produce results that are valid for Christian or atheist, whig
or tory, Swede or Dane. He relished how the liberal and the Jesuit, the
Marxist and the Fascist, the Protestant and the Catholic might all abhor
academic history as a bloodless pedestrian thing. He reiterated the point in
his essay The Christian and Academic History in Christian News Letter in
1949. In Moral Judgments in History he absolutely approved the techni-
cal historian who is willing to jettison for the time being his private views and
personal valuations in order to accomplish the work of technical history. His
most arresting and memorable statements have accentuated the incompati-
bility of historical study and the historians religion, along with the alienation
of ethical valuations from historical study.
But now, from the very same preface about technical history, Buttereld
propels himself in the opposite direction. In his essay The Christian and
Historical Study, included in History and Human Relations, he tells us that
his approach to historical study is actually founded on religion, on his own
Christian convictions, to be precise. We perceive that here too he rises to his
self-defense against his critics, those who bemoaned his apparent divorce of
historians deepest commitments from their work. As soon as we hear about
226 Public Figure

the religious basis of his proposals, we recall that he had also placed the
message of the ultimate unity of religion and historical study in Christianity
and History. Indeed he uttered boundless afrmation of such unity as the
transcendence of opposites in the universe. It was possible, in that book, to
detect the religious, even Christian, basis of his discourse, as for instance when
he presented the vocation of the historian as reconciler. However, he most
certainly refrained from claiming that his views of historical study were actu-
ally Christian, and we wondered whether he realized the implications of what
he was proposing. We get a sharp impression of contradiction between the two
directions of his discourse, towards the separateness and towards the unity of
religion and historical study.
Buttereld now wishes to recognize, even confess, that behind the major
points of his characterization of historical study are impulses that are conge-
nial to Christians or even specically Christian. Given that he has stressed the
opposite for so long and so loudly, we are not surprised that, to tell us this, he
reverts to his older style of seeming to wrap his assertions in qualifying words
and to hand them out while walking backwards.
To start with, the scientic method itself, as he depicted it, is connected with
Christianity. His approach gives scientic history a very precise, humble, and
benecial role which makes no claims to explain the whole of life or to replace
God, and instead provides the vehicle for historians to operate with maximum
elasticity and to examine at close range the ways of Providence and the
structure of the providential order. The method does this by enabling histo-
rians to search out ever more details, to disclose secondary causes rather
than ultimate causes, and to nd rationality in the universe manifested
through the processes and necessities of history and expressed perhaps in the
form of historical laws. The method was originally devised by natural scien-
tists and historians who, as Christians, were not denying God but simply
putting away their religious squabbles. Together they found a better means
for studying the ways of Providence. How, then, is the scientic method
related to Christianity? He answers with a variety of phrases which take some
care to decipher. He writes, there are reasons for suggesting that this ap-
proach to any science is a specically Christian one. And, this, too, is not to
be regarded as uncongenial to the Christian outlook. Later, if it is not a
specically Christian thing, it did at any rate develop in the heart of a Christian
civilisation. And then, it is in itself a neutral instrument which can work to
the advantage of worldly-minded men, but so too it gives great leverage to
the spirituality of spiritual men.
Along with the scientic method per se, the central roles given to personality
and imaginative sympathy in historical study, as he describes it, are also con-
 Public Figure 227

nected with Christianity. Accentuating personality makes room for individ-

uals, freedom, moral responsibility, art, spirituality, and the unpredictable in
history, while the emphasis on imaginative sympathy permits at least a little
more correct treatment of history from the insides of personalities. How do
these connect with Christianity? He writes, this attitude to the study of the
past, if it is not to some degree the effect of our traditionsour Christian
civilisation, with its high view of personalityis particularly congenial to
those traditions and particularly appropriate for the Christian. Further, the
application of imaginative sympathy to others ought to commend itself to the
Christian. He adds, In this sense the whole range of history is a boundless
eld for the constant exercise of Christian charity.
Beyond the scientic method and personality is the question of the inter-
pretation of the whole human drama from a Christian point of view. Accord-
ing to Buttereld, Christianity itself contains an outlook on history which
touches the activity of Providence, the meaning and purpose of life, the story
of sin and salvation, and so on. This interpretation gives the Christian some-
thing extra with respect to history: If in life a man has accepted the Christian
view of things, he will run these values throughout the whole of the past, and,
taking the very basis of the narrative which historical scholarship has pro-
vided, he may see every event with an added dimension. He will have used
historical science in order to become a closer and better student of the ways of
Providence. He will see the vividness and appropriateness of the Biblical inter-
pretation for the study of any country in any age of its history. The connec-
tion with Christianity is directthe interpretation is part of Christianitybut
there are things the Christian may not do with the interpretation with respect
to historical study. For instance, it is illicit to give a Christian organization to
the history, or employ history to vindicate and justify the church, or turn the
study into a Protestant or Catholic version of history, or use history as polemi-
cal argument for or against Christianity. Rather, the Christian interpretation
of history remains an outlook which the Christian brings to history in the rst
place and which as a Christian he puts upon human events.
When we sort through the rhetoric, we hear Buttereld admitting in his
distinctive fashion that his approach to historical study is driven by his Chris-
tian convictions. The perennial tensions between his tendencies both to unify
and to separate his religion and his history are once again visible, however.
The theme of separation appears when he speaks of the neutrality of the
scientic attitude, and of the Christian adding the Christian view to the his-
tory provided independently by the universal voice of historical scholarship.
But then he asserts the theme of unity when, albeit by means of inverted
wordings, he identies cardinal points of his historical approach as Christian
228 Public Figure

or Christian products: the features and limits of technical history, the high
view of personality, insistence on human freedom and responsibility, imagina-
tive sympathy and the exercise of charity, perceptions of rationality in the
universe and the mitigating effects of processes, elasticity of mind. Hence,
scientic history is not neutral, but specically Christian, and Christianity is
not an addition, but present in the very stuff of his approach to historical
study. Buttereld is struggling to transcend the opposites at a higher level of
unity provided by his Christian religion.
We also note that the view he presents is not held by all Christians, let alone
by Muslims and atheists, but is itself one particular version of a Christian
understanding of historical study. His view, ironically, is merely one particular
Protestant view that privileges individuals, personalism, voluntary choice, in-
terior spirituality, and dissent. His view also specically, and strongly, objects
to the emphases on the church, liturgy, society, and corporate spirituality
which are central to understandings of history held by so many among Roman
Catholics, Anglicans, Orthodox, Lutherans, and Reformed, who make up the
vast majority of Christians in the world.
Furthermore, against his own urging that Christians not build their religion
into the organization of the narrative, he proceeds to recommend an outline of
a narrative which structures his religion into the history of Western civiliza-
tion. He justies doing this, he says, in order to illustrate the importance of
Christianity in that mundane history which is under discussion. He builds his
narrative around Christian charity, the autonomy of spirituality, and the spir-
itual character of individual personality, and he privileges the theme of mod-
ern liberty, fostered, he says, by his own Nonconformists in opposition to the
alliance of the dominant Church of England with the English state.
Butterelds parallel book, Christianity in European History, went on to
elaborate. With sweeping generalizations, he made clear enough his sheer
opposition to the establishment of the Christian Church as the state religion
after Constantine. He likened medieval Christianity to Soviet communism. As
he explained to Charles Van Doren, the church, analogous to communism,
achieved dominance by monarchial command or by military conquest or
wholesale conversion, and then in order to maintain dominance set up an
authoritarian system, controlled education, insisted on obedience to Rome,
emphasized orthodoxy, and so forth. His dissenting ethos left little room for
subtle analysis of the institutional church in either the Roman Empire or
medieval Europe. By contrast, in his most characteristic thesis, he argued that
the most impressive of all the mundane results of Christianity was the real
christianization of Europe, due not to the work of the institutions of church
and state, or to the effects of the economy, social status, and conquest, but to
 Public Figure 229

the preaching of the Gospel among the common people, the spreading of
New Testament Love, and the pious inuence of the saints. He drew a sharp
line between these spiritual means and consequences, on one side, and the
work of the institutional church and Christian rulerships, on the other. Ken-
neth Scott Latourette, the notable Baptist historian, was effusive in the Ameri-
can Historical Review: The importance of this little book is out of all propor-
tion to its modest size.
Not long after, in another set of special lectures, this time at Queens Univer-
sity in Canada, in January 1952, he carried the theme of liberty still further.
The result was a small volume of fty-nine pages, Liberty in the Modern
World, his fourteenth book, on the theme which had preoccupied Acton and
which also preoccupied Buttereld. The volume was not published in Great
Britain and was not known there. William McGill rightly singled out the book
as the best place to look for a statement of Butterelds understanding of
liberty. The terms of the lectureship at Queens t his personal convictions
exactly. The lectureship assigned the duty to promote understanding of the
individual person in society. His lectures represented a strong statement
about the individual person as the only real existent in human history, and
represented all social relationships and institutions, particularly the state, as
nothing other than names for collections of individuals. Out of all societies of
the world, he situated England at the centre of the movement of history to-
wards modern liberty, and, out of all the things one might say about En-
gland, he claimed that the basic theme of English history was the story of
liberty. He could hardly render history more in Actons terms than this. Given
all his research in Actons notes and given his continuing suggestions that he
get involved in publishing Acton material, it would be easy to think of him
editing Actons notes for the history of liberty. But this project he left for
someone else, and George Watson eventually did just that.
These two little books, taken together, surpassed even Whig Interpretation
and Englishman and His History as constructions of history that built Butter-
elds religious and political convictions into the very organization of the
narrative, contrary to his own warnings. Thus, with History and Human
Relations, supported by Christianity in European History and Liberty in the
Modern World, Buttereld mounted his self-defense against the charges that
his version of history was amoral and a-religious. His history was, after all,
undoubtedly both moral and religiously driven. Referring to his own Chris-
tian religious commitment, he described himself to Max Beloff as the holder
of what is in a sense an ideology myself. It would be hard to nd a tag more
completely opposite to the sound of his claims for technical history than this
label self-imposed, Buttereld the ideologue.
230 Public Figure

A System After All

Buttereld had put forward many sweeping ideas in his special lectures
between 1948 and 1951, and, while they appeared to manifest a unity derived
from his beliefs about religion and history, they represented a scattering of
thoughts expressed to suit each occasion. He was not a systematic thinker, and
he habitually resisted any pressures to reduce his discourse to logical order
or to transmute it into theory. However, he appeared to feel the need to
achieve some integration, and this impulse, too, came in response to a specic
occasion.
He had long played with the dualist polarities of freedom and necessity,
personality and processes, spiritual and material. During the 1930s and early
1940s he had shown fascination with the theme of historical laws as a way to
render the experience of necessity in history, but without allowing the lan-
guage of laws to settle into his discourse. Now, in the context of his reengage-
ment with Marxism and his still continuing interest in the history of science,
he was entertaining talk of historical laws as analogous to the laws dealt with
by natural scientists. However, the notion of laws seemed, on the face of it, to
conict with his earnest assertions of the freedom of individuals in history. He
apparently wanted to give room to both emphases, but he had no comfortable
way to do so. Depending on the occasion and the subject, his discourse swung
from one of the poles to the other.
For instance, as part of his reections on his own Christian commitments
and historical study, in his essay on that theme published in 1951, he suggested
that discourse on historical laws is not to be regarded as uncongenial to the
Christian outlook. He was sceptical, to say the least, about whether the
universe operated according to laws. In keeping with his traditionally nomi-
nalist outlook, he was willing to treat laws simply as the verbal products of the
scientists and historians who described them. The question of laws was back
on his table, and he reacted once again by asserting the priority of human
personality and freedom. At the same time, June 1951, in a lecture in Lon-
don to the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Arnold Toynbees abode, he
juxtaposed what he called a scientic approach to international affairs and a
moralistic approach. In this context he swung to the necessity pole. He
urged placing the analysis of international politics, especially in relation to
Soviet-American conict, on a scientic basis. This would mean emphasiz-
ing the overriding effects of predicaments and structures in history instead of
focusing on the role of free, moral decisions taken by individual persons. He
referred merely in passing to the relation between the two poles of human
freedom and necessity in history as a problem.
 Public Figure 231

Two months later, at Bangor, Wales, in August, Buttereld addressed an

ecumenical assembly of youth from various church traditions, and at the re-
quest of the ecclesiastical sponsors spoke about belief in God in the modern
age. In his audience were perhaps a thousand students from Great Britain and
overseas. It must have been a thrilling moment for the diminuative professor
of modern history. The echoes of his days as Methodist lay preacher must have
been strong. The Church of England Youth Council published his address in
its newsletter and later as a pamphlet under the title God in History.
True to himself, Buttereld remained the historian, and cast so explicitly a
theological topic as a problem of history, rather than as a piece of straight
theology. He discussed the role of God in history and sought to counteract
notions of an absentee, irrelevant, or nonexistent God. With such an aim he
was bound not to polarize God and history, and he did not speak of adding
God to the common history devised independently of religion by technical
history. Instead he directly connected the theme about God with the poles of
freedom and necessity and the concomitant issues which he had raised count-
less times, namely personality and processes. The result raised his general
historical thinking to a higher degree of integration and represented the closest
he had ever come to a systematic exposition of his discourse about history. We
get the impression that he is becoming more amenable to questions of theory
in relation to historical study.
Buttereld told the students that there were three ways of looking at the
events of history and nature, and, accordingly, that there were three different
kinds of analysis to be carried out at three different levels. The three were
neither opposed to each other nor contradictory. Rather, all three were true at
the same time about the same events. The rst is the biographical way, in
which we see human beings making history. We study individual persons as
free to decide and act, as morally responsibility for their actions, and as liable
for blame. The second is the historical or scientic way, in which we see
history as a realm of law necessitating what goes on, and we see processes and
not people making history. We examine the deep forces and long-term tenden-
cies of history, and uncover the conditioning circumstances which surround
and restrict human action and render people less blamable than we rst
thought. The third, which he leaves unnamed, is the theological way, in
which we see God at work in history, operative in both the lives of individual
personalities and the processes. We confront the choice between Providence or
Chance as the source of history, and if, we are Christian, we learn to recognize
the presence of God as the One, in the words of St. Paul, in Whom we live and
move and have our being.
The formula of the three ways suggests the makings of a historical theory,
232 Public Figure

but the rough spots and inconsistencies in his presentation are considerable,
for he is not engaging in genuinely systematic thinking. For instance, he polar-
izes human beings and processes, whereas even the processes are really people
acting and interacting over time. He refers to the history which men them-
selves do not make, and speaks instead of the processes and even the laws as
making history, whereas the notion of making in human history requires, by
denition, humans to do the making. He treats the realm of laws as the only
historical way, whereas his point is to show that all ways are historical, all
three are ways of looking at history. By understanding the rst way as bio-
graphical he swings excessively towards biography as the privileged mode
of history and appears to construe the study of human history as the compila-
tion of so many individual biographies, such as his own intended biographies
of Fox or Temperley or the young Acton. He lumps together under the second
way the notions of processes, laws, conditions, and necessity, which
are not the same things or even intrinsically related. The slippage of the desig-
nation scientic to the second way is confusing, since he used to apply the
notion to the whole of his technical history, both the detailed search of the
documentary evidence about individual persons and their interactions as well
as the pursuit of explanations via recovery of conditioning circumstances. He
appears ambivalent in his understanding of laws in history. In one sentence he
characterizes laws as convenient ways we rationally explain history after, and
not before, the events have happened. In others he speaks of laws and reg-
ularities as belonging to the makeup of the world, entertains the use of the
laws for prediction in human affairs, and posits the need for people to live in
harmony with the laws in order to enjoy a wholesome life. In one line he denies
that God created the world according to law, but in another he refers to a
God who ordered things in that particular way. After spending his career
opposing moral judgments by historians, and especially after only recently
attempting to focus his objection simply against moral judgments of people,
we are completely unprepared for his suggestion that historians may blame
people in the biographical way, even if the historical way makes them less
blamable. And so on.
These are rough spots, to be sure, and there are moments when it sounds as
if Buttereld is making up his theory as he goes along. Nevertheless, in spite of
the inconsistencies and the incompletes, the general relaxation of the tensions
in his discourse feels very tangible. The overriding message we hear is recon-
ciliation. He strives to achieve intellectual reconciliation via the image of the
noncontradictory coexistence of three kinds of perceptions of the same his-
tory. He used to deal in what we might call a double dualism: he transmuted
his basic polarity of freedom versus necessity into the historical pole of a
 Public Figure 233

second and more inclusive polarity, the historical realm versus religion. And
then further along in the discourse he sought to transcend the double dualism
via the higher unity of religion alone. At least in God in History he has
eliminated the dualistic polarities, and refrained from constructing his histor-
ical understanding out of opposites. He has instead articulated his vision in
terms of both . . . and . . . , and even both . . . and . . . as well as . . . , rather
than the usual either . . . or . . . and this versus that. It is a comprehensive
vision which enables him to hold together the ideas he has been propounding
without the loss of anything that matters to him. The stimulus, appropriately,
was the religious need of the historian-preacher to afrm before a thousand
students the presence of God in history, not as an addition, not as something
inserted from the outside, not as an extra, but as intrinsic to the very same stuff
of history that historians study.

Death in the Family

Buttereld was ready to go to America for part of 1952 as a visiting
professor at the University of Chicago, but he withdrew because of the poor
health of his father, Albert Buttereld. He kept one appointment to travel
briey to Canada, to Montreal and Kingston, for lectures at Queens Univer-
sity in January 1952. He wrote the three lectures, later published as Liberty in
the Modern World, under the strain of his fathers illness.
Buttereld returned from Canada just days before his father died on 24 Jan-
uary 1952. His father was almost eighty, and he had lived long enough to
witness his sons triumph. More important for both the father and the son, he
lived to see Herbert convert his career as a historian into a means of preaching
the Gospel, beginning with the lectures on Christianity and history. Herbert
had remained close to Dad over the years, returning to Oxenhope at least
once every year, sometimes as the featured attraction at a local event in his
home village or in Keighley. Herbert felt that his father in later years admired
him almost too much and discounted his own achievements as inadequate.
Herbert, in return, idolized his father as a gentle man and spiritual gure, and
ranked his father as the greatest inuence on his life. He recalled, There never
was a moment when I did not put him at the top of the list.
Herbert, the oldest child, planned the funeral, functioned as executor of the
will, and worried about his mothers well-being. Long ago he had mellowed
towards his mother and noticed that she and his father enjoyed happiness in
the later years of their life together. He wrote the date of his parents wedding
in his daily book. They were married nearly fty-four years. With his father
gone, he meditated on the new relationship with his mother, and his mind
234 Public Figure

wandered to Acton and his mother. He wrote the date of Actons mothers
death in his daily book. He was contemplating his own mothers death. He
was not close to his sister, Edith, known as Edie, who never married and was a
public health nurse in London, or to his brother, Arthur, who had been dying
of cancer in a hospital in Bradford, but he felt dutiful towards them and
towards Arthurs wife, Hannah, when she moved to Belfast after Arthur died
not long after their father.
 9

On War and Historiography

Acton and Modern History

When things settled down after his fathers death in January 1952, But-
tereld felt uncertain about his major projects. A few months earlier, and now
again, he surveyed his recent life, and each time he conded in Paul Vellacott,
the Master of Peterhouse. He admitted that he had spent too much time in
outside lectures and in forms of propaganda, and acknowledged that he had
done so by deliberate decision. He was pleased that publications resulted, but
confessed that he regarded them as incidental. He catalogued what he counted
as his real work, the historical writing which seemed to proceed only slowly, if
at all: Fox, the Concise Cambridge Modern History, the Temperley biography,
the Acton diaries. He continued to afrm that the Fox biography was his main
task, and admitted to severe anxiety over the difculites attached to complet-
ing the minute research that both his theory and his temperament imposed
upon him.
He tried to clear out some of the bramble from his activities, especially his
outside lecturing. For 19511952 he reduced his special commitments to
about ten occasions, and to perhaps seven or eight occasions for each of the
next three years. In a surprising move to gain time, he resigned as editor of the
Cambridge Historical Journal, a post he had held for fourteen years. He re-
mained on the editorial board and continued to express strong opinions about

235
236 On War and Historiography

the direction of the journal. He had attempted to resume his research in the
fall of 1951, and again arranged to take Eve Bogle as a copyist with him to the
royal archives, but he managed to work only sporadically. His research style
was upset in 1951 when he had to give up the Fox papers which he had on loan
from Trevelyan. He had kept them in his house for twenty years. He had not
read much in the papers all those years, but had merely dipped into them from
time to time when he wished to see how these Fox materials t with informa-
tion he was nding elsewhere. In October 1949, after George III, Lord North,
and the People appeared, Trevelyan had rst raised the matter of his intention
to give the papers to the British Museum. Buttereld asked to keep them
longer, and Trevelyan consented. Now, however, Trevelyan was insistent. The
time had come to deposit the papers permanently where they could be cared
for and made accessible for research. Buttereld acquiesced, and in May 1951
personally escorted two crates of Fox papers to London. Fox suddenly seemed
even further away.
A new project unexpectedly pressed in on him, threatening to keep him
away from Fox for a long time. It was a case of the clash of deep loyalties
within him. The project concerned Acton, by now his alter ego and almost the
only thinker he considered when taking new steps. Douglas Woodruff, a de-
vout Roman Catholic, and husband of a granddaughter of Lord Acton who
was the custodian of the Acton papers, approached Buttereld in 1951 for
help in publishing an ample collection of Acton writings. Woodruff had read
Aelred Watkins article written with Buttereld in 1950 exposing Cardinal
Gasquets tampering with Actons wording in his edition of Acton letters.
Woodruff imagined an edition of perhaps twelve volumes of Acton essays and
letters. He invited Buttereld to co-edit some volumes of letters selected from
the immense Acton correspondence. Buttereld recoiled. Selected letters
violated the norms for scientic history, which required complete runs of
extant letters instead of pieces and fragments. He had to save Acton from
mistreatment. He declined the invitation, saying he was too busy and, as
before, that he did not want to be an editor, especially not a co-editor. But then
he urged Woodruff to stop the project if it meant publishing merely a selection
of letters. Woodruff replied that he would carry on with the plan anyway, and
hoped that Buttereld would nonetheless be willing to provide occasional
help. He put the Acton correspondence with Ignatz Dllinger, his teacher, at
the top of the list for publication.
Butterelds alarm increased. He had to protect Lord Acton and defend
scientic history. He acknowledged privately that he intended to block Wood-
ruff from publishing a sloppy or incomplete series of Acton correspondence.
During January 1952 he devised a fourteen-page plan for the publication of
 On War and Historiography 237

the complete Acton correspondence. With support from both Vellacott and
David Knowles, he sent it to Cambridge University Press, overlooking for the
moment his fairly recent negative comments about CUP. He talked lavishly
about current interest in Acton as if there were a major revival of Acton
scholarship. So great was his anxiety that he offered to serve as editor himself
if need be, in spite of his repeated refusals to become an editor.
The project was huge, and he realized that it would wipe out his work on
Fox for the foreseeable future. He would give up another project as well, a
small book on Edmund Burke, the gure whom Acton described as the most
intelligent of our instructors. In the fall of 1951 he had discussed with Collins
a volume on Burke for their brief lives series. The proposal strongly ap-
pealed to him since, after Fox, Burke ranked extremely high in his approval list
as both a politician and a historian. He even suggested eliminating some other
work so he could complete the book during 1952. Some drafts of the begin-
ning of a life of Burke remain in Butterelds papers, suggesting that he made a
start on the book.
Cambridge University Press accepted the proposal for the Acton correspon-
dence in May 1952, with the proviso that Buttereld would be editor. For the
scheme to work, Buttereld needed Woodruffs cooperation, since Woodruffs
wife controlled the rights to Actons letters. Amazingly Woodruff was con-
ciliatory in the face of Butterelds rm insistence, even though it would
mean trashing his own plan. Woodruff had gone ahead as he promised, and at
that very moment was bringing out his rst volume, Actons essays on church
and state.
Buttereld received a tip from Maurice Cowling, then a young Cambridge
scholar contemplating writing a life of Acton, that the rst Woodruff volume
altered portions of Actons text. Buttereld was certain he could smell a new
case of tampering with documents because of religious ideology. The possibil-
ity red his motivation to defend Acton and scientic history. He wrote letters
to the editors of two historical journals, History and English Historical Re-
view, urging that they ask Cowling to review the Woodruff volume, but he had
to rest content with communicating his complaints to Duncan Forbes, who
had already been assigned the review for the EHR. He confronted Woodruff
directly with the charge that the volume contained textual changes, hinting
that he suspected some of the changes were due to ideological manipulation.
He declared that the project would set back Acton scholarship by fty years
and asked Woodruff to abandon the entire undertaking. Vellacott felt that
his approach to Woodruff was severe, and remarked, I would have gone out
and hanged myself. Buttereld had actually drafted a much stronger letter
directly uttering the charge that Woodruffs volume contained ideological
238 On War and Historiography

tampering, but on Velacotts urging he sent what, by comparison, was a softer

letter. Woodruff was hurt. He explained that omissions were deliberate since
the volume was intended to be no more than extracts, and attributed any other
changes to mistakes by the copyist. To establish his innocence of ideological
wrong-doing, his wife granted full approval to Buttereld and Cambridge
University Press to publish complete sets of the Acton correspondence under
her control. Woodruff agreed to abandon his own project and offered to let
Buttereld start the Cambridge Press project with the much prized Acton-
Dllinger letters.
Buttereld had succeeded, but now he was stuck with the enormous Acton
project, something he really did not want to be doing himself. He consulted
with David Knowles and suggested to CUP that the rst series for publication
should be the correspondence with Dllinger, Richard Simpson (Actons col-
laborator in the journal The Rambler), and Cardinal John Henry Newman.
He also thought of the correspondence with Mary Drew, daughter of William
Gladstone, the Liberal prime minister. Buttereld settled into the Acton papers
in the Cambridge University Library during 1952. Since 1946, when he found
the young Actons diaries, he had squeezed in time now and then, both in
Cambridge and London, to read Acton notes and letters. He and Eve Bogle
hand-copied Acton material onto hundreds of pages. They arranged many of
these sheets by topics, and quotations and references to persons are listed in an
alphabetical catalogue. Buttereld was fascinated by Acton as letter-writer. He
regarded the letters as more than merely personal communications. They were
almost like essays in which Acton presented historical reections in addition
to revealing traits of personality. In keeping with Butterelds minutely de-
tailed method of research, he had already begun constructing a day-by-day
chronology of Actons early working life. The aim had been to prepare a
Portrait of Acton as a Young Man to accompany his projected edition of the
young Actons diaries. This was the research that lay behind his willingness to
edit the Acton correspondence.
Butterelds interest in Acton caught the eye of the BBC, probably through
the person of T. S. Gregory, a friend of Woodruff, and he received an invitation
give a broadcast on Acton in June 1952 to mark the ftieth anniversary of
Actons death. He published the text in the Cambridge Journal as Lord Ac-
ton, in 1953. Butterelds approach was biographical. He emphasized the
difference between the young Acton and the old, and cast the older Acton as
obsessive and rigid on the question of moral judgments. He extolled Acton,
nonetheless, as a historical thinker, a daring and paradoxical thinker, who
could enter the higher reaches of reection upon history, religion, and politi-
cal life.
 On War and Historiography 239

Making his interest tangible, he had given notice in the BBC broadcast that
he wished to dissect Actons historical treatment of the massacre of French
Protestants which began on St. Bartholomews Day in 1572. He followed
through with an article Acton and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, pub-
lished in the other local journal, Cambridge Historical Journal, in 1953. It was
a further study in a eld he was making more his own, the history of historical
study. He claimed in Lord Acton that Acton was by far the greatest
historical thinker that England has ever had, more important for his historical
thought than for his writings, which were relatively few, or even for his learn-
ing, which was vast. Butterelds assessment matched the self-description, and
perhaps self-justication, that Acton offered in his inaugural address in 1895.
By what he praised in Acton, Buttereld gave a clue to his understanding of
himself and his own emerging aspirations. To promote historical thought,
Buttereld would be willing to postpone even his own research on Fox and
cancel Burke.
To his dismay, Buttereld learned in January 1953 that Woodruff had
reversed himself and, in spite of Buttereld, had decided to proceed with
the publication of the Acton material, including the correspondence. Butter-
elds efforts to thwart the project collapsed, and he abruptly withdrew from
his counterproject for the Acton correspondence with Cambridge University
Press. He expressed relief about not having to spend years as an editor, but
proclaimed loudly that he was not through with Acton. He might want to
write a very detailed biography and analytical study of Acton, or at least to
complete the Acton diaries. He confessed that he might still be tempted by a
smaller plan to edit the Acton letters for the early years, say 18581870,
or maybe the Acton-Dllinger correspondence. For now, however, he did
nothing more.
It was three years later, in January 1956, that Buttereld learned to his
astonishment that Woodruff was again giving up the Acton publishing project.
It did not occur to Buttereld in the new circumstances of that moment to
reconsider doing the Acton correspondence himself. A few months later, Vic-
tor Conzemius, a Roman Catholic scholar from Luxembourg, appeared at his
door wanting to read the Acton papers for a biography of Dllinger, and
Buttereld recounted the story of the Acton letters. By December 1956 Con-
zemius had the agreement of the Acadmie Bavaroise to publish the complete
Acton-Dllenger correspondence at their expense. Buttereld gave his bless-
ing. The letters began appearing in the 1960s.
In due course, Butterelds wishes were fullled for the rest of the main units
of the Acton correspondence. Buttereld learned in the 1960s that the edition
of the letters and diaries of John Henry Newman being published by Oxford
240 On War and Historiography

University Press would include Newmans correspondence with Acton. In

1965, two American historians, Damian McElrath and Joseph Altholz, came
to him about an edition of the Acton letters with Richard Simpson. McElrath
soon discovered ve trunks of Acton letters at Aldenham, the Acton family
estate. Buttereld and David Knowles persuaded Cambridge University Press
to publish the Acton-Simpson material, and three volumes were eventually
published in the 1970s.
Butterelds home life, meanwhile, was entering a new stage. His second
son, Giles, nished the Leys School in the summer of 1952 and entered Peter-
house in October to study engineering. With Peter in third year, he now had
two sons in Peterhouse at once. Giles was still a close friend of Eve Bogles son
James, and by all reports was a very likable person. He occasionally had
shown symptoms of emotional disturbance, and hopes were high that the
change would be good for him. Butterelds third son, Robin, remained at
home for one more year at St. Faiths preparatory school before going away, at
age thirteen, to Clifton College, a private boarding school near Bristol. From
the fall of 1953 onwards, Buttereld had no children at home, and his sched-
ule became more exible.
With the Acton plan behind him and the new arrangements at home, Butter-
eld felt free to return to his long-standing projects. Fox, the biggest project,
was the easiest to neglect, and he managed only once in a while to pick away at
the research. For instance, in September 1953, he made arrangements to go to
Aylesbury with Eve Bogle to read the papers of the second Earl of Buck-
inghamshire on Ireland, 17761780. Against this, Vellacott had been urging
him since at least October 1952 to give up everything in favour of the Concise
History. Cambridge University Press was just then publishing Previt-Ortons
Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, a two-volume companion to Butter-
elds modern history, making him feel very far behind in his work. The Press
had not lost interest in his modern history, or in him, but there were hints that
their priorities might be changing. When Buttereld was trying to attract the
Press to his Acton scheme, Kingsford in response explored whether Buttereld
could be persuaded to write a new History of Europe in the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Centuries to replace a volume by Grant and Temperley from the
1920s. He gave Kingsford no encouragement, but the inquiry reminded him
that he was not tending to the Concise History. Now he debated whether to
aim for a single volume covering the four hundred years since 1494, or a two-
volume set with the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries put into a rst volume
which could appear when ready. He told Vellacott that such a rst volume
would not take me very long and would have the advantage of reinforcing
 On War and Historiography 241

his view that the scientic revolution at the end of the seventeenth century
marked the end of a period which he would call early modern.
Before the end of 1952 Buttereld arranged with the History Faculty once
again to take over the general modern history course, now called simply
European History from 1494. When he became Professor of Modern His-
tory in 1944, he had relinquished the course which then carried the title he had
worked so hard to attain, Development of European Civilization. Starting
in Michaelmas term of 1953, he returned to the arduous and self-imposed task
of three lectures per week for three terms a year, with each lecture written out
in full. He kept up that pace until 1957. The peculiar appeal of the lectures to
him at this moment was the routine and the timetable they afforded within
which he could revise his chapters for the Concise History.
He pulled out all his earlier typescripts for his lectures as well as the book.
His work so far fell into at least two layers, one from the 1930s, one from the
early 1940s. During this revision he managed to produce at least forty typed
lectures, with seven or eight numbered as chaptersthe Renaissance, the
maritime discoveries, invasions of Italy, church and reformation, Luther and
the problem of Germany, Charles V, Swiss reformation, and so on. Over half
of the pieces focused on politics, diplomacy, or war, nearly half on general
themes, religion, and ideas, including science, a couple on historical geogra-
phy, and none on economic, material, or social themes. The typescripts cov-
ered topics from 1494 through the 1870s and the period of Bismarck. His
actual topics show that he continued to feature the traditional version of
modern European history, even though his theoretical statements continued to
construe Europe as a civilization manifesting a multiplicity of interacting fac-
tors. Buttereld proceeded very far in his revisions for the Concise History, but
new commitments intervened which stole his attention from this and Fox
before he had nished even the pre-1700 period which he said would require
little time.

Diplomacy and War

Butterelds new preoccupation was a major outside lectureship for July
1953, and he soon accepted a second such invitation for November 1954. The
rst occasion was a national Methodist Church lectureship on the connections
between Christian principles and social themes. He took the opportunity to
run headlong into questions of international relations and war. The second
was the inaugural lectures for a new foundation, the Wiles Trust, to take
place at the Queens University, Belfast, Northern Ireland. He used them to go
242 On War and Historiography

farther than he ever had into the history of historiography. Both engagements
took him into elds that were emerging as new interests, and kept him away
from his primary projects of historical research. Both led to books, adding to
his string of works connected to special lectures. The rst lectureship yielded
his fteenth book, a small volume of 125 pages published in December 1953
by the Epworth Press, the Methodist publishing house, under the title Chris-
tianity, Diplomacy and War. The second produced Man on His Past: The
Study of the History of Historical Scholarship, a book of 238 pages, his six-
teenth, published by Cambridge University Press in 1955.
The burden of Butterelds new discourse on international relations was to
convince people of the horror of what he was calling wars for righteousness.
His campaign was in every way a moral one, impelled by his Christian re-
ligious convictions. The subject evoked his commentary on the contemporary
global situation created by the Soviet-American crisis and the nuclear bomb,
and sent him on a survey of the twentieth century since 1914 and, in particu-
lar, eighteenth-century Europe. He had raised the problem of wars of righ-
teousness at the close of his lectures on Christianity and history in 1948 as a
sample of how to apply his religious understanding of history to contempo-
rary events. As the world crisis became ever worse, we can see him churning
over his thinking on the subject in some of his special lectures thereafter.
Notable among these were The Tragic Element in Modern International
Conict at the University of Notre Dame in 1949, Scientic Diplomacy
over the BBC in 1951, The Scientic versus the Moralistic Approach in Inter-
national Affairs at the Royal Institute of International Affairs in 1951, and
Reections on Diplomatic History to the Cambridge History Club in Octo-
ber 1952.
The lectures in 1953 which became Christianity, Diplomacy and War con-
centrate on the defeat of the outlook that promoted wars for righteousness,
what Buttereld regards as the modern form of war. Once again, as in the case
of his Canadian lectures on liberty and the individual, the demands of his
forum shape his thought, or better, he shows that his thought is elastic enough
to stretch precisely as far as the polar opposite of his emphasis on the individ-
ual, namely, the needs of the state and international relations. Buttereld uses
the book to put forward provocative comments on a wide range of issues in
international politics and diplomacy, in both current affairs and past history.
A bulky section of Christianity, Diplomacy and War denounces the practice
of war since 1914. He condemns especially the warfare of the anti-German
powers in both the First and Second World Wars. Instead of ghting for the
limited goal of defeating presumed aggression and the disruption of the bal-
ance of power, the Western governments, he charges, had gone over to a
 On War and Historiography 243

modern heresy which justied unlimited warfare provided the aim was to
root out a great evil. By their actions during and after the war of 19141918,
they reintroduced an extreme mode of war, and brought down upon their own
heads, in due course, the emergence of Soviet Communism, two generations of
German resentments, the reign of Fascism and Nazism, the Second World
War, the continental predominance of Russia, and the permanent threat of
total war under the canopy of the nuclear bomb.
In Butterelds view, wars for righteousness are really wars of religion,
even when the combatants are not calling them that. They are total wars, wars
without limits, the purpose of which is to eliminate the evil that exists on the
other side of the conict. They are driven by ideology in which both sides
construct the conict as a clash of beliefs and morality, a battle of right versus
wrong. The heresy driving them is the denial of universal sin. They trust in
the promise that human evil can be eradicated by means of that one nal war.
The combatants are focused on blaming the other for the origin of the war,
and they permit no compromise of the correct outcome, the total defeat of the
enemy. The ultimate medium of righteous war, the instrument of total destruc-
tiveness of the enemy, is, he warns, the nuclear weapon.
Buttereld believes that the Soviet-American struggle ranked as the nearly
perfect example of the war for righteousness. The Western powers present
themselves as the agents of world freedom and democracy against the tyranny
of Communism, while the Soviet Union comes forward as the liberator of the
world from the oppressive yoke of capitalism and Western imperialism. The
war between the Nazi-Fascist powers on one side and the Western-Soviet
alliance on the other possessed the same structurea war for righteous-
nesseven though the issues and the combatants were different. The First
World War projected the new democratic order against the traditional order
under the banners make the world safe for democracy and the war to end
all wars. The structure of all of these conicts mimics the wars between the
Catholic and Protestant powers in the sixteenth and early seventeenth cen-
turies as well as the war for and against the French Revolution and Napoleon,
and the American Civil War.
The antidote to the mentality which generates wars for righteousness,
proposes Buttereld, is a scientic rather than a moralistic approach to
international affairs. The strategy employs the techniques of both scientic
history and what he calls variously scientic diplomacy or technical diplo-
macy. The continuity between Butterelds analysis of the past and his anal-
ysis of the present is evident both in his language and his mode of thinking. His
study of diplomatic history has blended into his study of contemporary diplo-
matic relations, and technical history, whose structure he derived from his
244 On War and Historiography

style of diplomatic history, transmutes into scientic diplomacy as against

ideological diplomacy. He manages to leave his message of no moral judg-
ments in his argument as a component of his attack on ideological diplo-
macy. For Buttereld, at this point, the keystone of the scientic approach,
whether in past history or contemporary history, is the analysis of the predic-
ament created by the structure of human situations. The scientic treatment
of international power and war analyzes predicaments rather than persons
and ideologies, structure rather than the moral responsibility of the principal
leaders or the meaning of the ideologies articulated by either side. Predica-
ments, he thinks, function almost according to a mathematical formula.
In the example of Soviet-Western relations, he lays out the predicament as
follows. The Soviet Union and the Western powers, as allies in the Second
World War, successfully combined to achieve the total defeat of Germany,
leaving a huge power-hole in the centre of Europe. The Western powers and
the Soviet Union quite naturally ow into the hole from either direction, and
suddenly nd themselves face to face. New sides form. Neither side can allow
Germany, or east central Europe, to fall into the orbit of the other, each side is
sure it is in the right, and neither side can be sure of the intentions of the other.
Each side is gripped by an absolutely opposite fear of the other, and neither
can perceive that the other has that fear too. Each side feels compelled to arm
against the other just in case, and up looms the possibility of new war. There,
says Buttereld, is the predicament and the potential for enormous conict,
produced by the relations of power entirely apart from differences in ideol-
ogy or morality. It functions like geometry, and the consequences are tragic.
Threatening to wage a war for righteousness against the Communist Soviet
Union misses the point.
Butterelds reading of history since 1914 once again amounts to a defense
of Germany, and even shifts the fundamental blame for both world wars, and
considerable blame for the achievements of Hitler, to the Western powers
themselves. At the same time, his line of thought leads him to take positions
vis--vis the Communists that seemed highly provocative in the context of the
international crisis of the late 1940s and early 1950s. Once again he fully
enjoys playing the dissenter. For instance, he asserts that the predicament
involved in the contemporary crisis would be the same whether the govern-
ment of Russia were in the hands of the Christian czars or the atheistic Com-
munists. He levels the differences between the two giant powers: but the
greatest menace to our civilization today is the conict between giant orga-
nized systems of self-righteousnesseach system only too delighted to nd
that the other is wickedeach only too glad that the sins give it the pretext
for still deeper hatred and animosity. Because of the predicament the West-
 On War and Historiography 245

ern powers acquiesced in the Soviet domination of east central Europe after
the victory over Germany, even though the magnitude of the territorial con-
sequences was far greater than the Nazi invasions of Czechoslovakia and
Poland, which led to war. The horrors and dictatorship which the West asso-
ciates with Soviet Communism are better understood as organic to the phe-
nomenon of revolution as such or as connected with situations where society
has broken down due to war and economic collapse. As he put it to Max
Beloff two years earlier, I cant help thinking that the fact of a state revolu-
tionary is more signicant for diplomatic purposes than the character of the
revolutionary creed. In any case, Christians themselves perpetrated similar
horrors and tyrannies throughout the history of the church, a record that
brings no end of complaint against Christianity, and it could easily happen
again. The charges of materialism and atheism which the West throws at Com-
munist societies can be thrown with at least equal force at Western societies.
Given their public policies of health, education, and welfare, Western Euro-
pean societies are moving closer to Communist ideals than the Western pow-
ers wish to admit. The appeal of Communism to many peoples of Africa and
Asia, together with the play of the West against the Soviet bloc, has encour-
aged some subject peoples to throw off Western colonial power sooner rather
than later. And so on. Buttereld adds one statement after another to his list of
surprising comments, all connected with his analysis of predicament.
When we review these and other such statements they appear remarkably
unlike ndings of science, and rather noticeably like moral and political
positions, indeed religious positions, with respect to contemporary interna-
tional politics. He is representing his own moral views as scientic and
neglecting to notice that the alternative to moralism which he advocates is
not science but a different morality in international affairs. This is a case of
one political morality versus another. His views about American-Soviet rela-
tions places him as the dissenter in the context of those times, in the liberal-left
range of the political and religious spectrum. He opposes not merely the strin-
gent anti-Communism of the era, but also the ofcial policies of all the West-
ern powers with respect to the form of their opposition to the Soviet Union. He
could even sound at times like an apologist for the Soviets. For instance, he
seeks to explain the horrors in the Soviet Union as derivative of a special
situation, namely revolution itself and the dictatorship which occurs where
the social order has already broken down. With this he overlooks the persecu-
tions, massacres, and politics of starvation which extended, and recurred, well
beyond the early period of the regime. By emphasizing so greatly the structure
of the predicament, and understating the moral choices available to the
leaders at the time, he appears to offer excuses for Stalin akin to those he
246 On War and Historiography

seemed to provide earlier for Hitler. In place of the embrace of both . . .

and . . . as well as which he achieved in God in History in 1951, he resumes
his dualistic swings between opposites: from freedom to necessity, from per-
sonality to structures, from morality to science.
But Buttereld also evidences a strongly conservative tendency in his politi-
cal morality for international affairs. He builds his argument against wars of
righteousness upon a decidedly archaic appreciation of eighteenth-century
European diplomacy and aristocracy. Central to his purpose in Christianity,
Diplomacy and War is to illuminate the structure of international affairs by
learning from the experience of the past, and using historical study to access
that experience. His work joins the lengthy tradition of those who seek to
benet from the lessons of history. The past he has in mind, in general, is the
Christian experience of human nature over the ages and the teachings of the
Christian tradition about just war. More particularly, he wishes to learn
from the experience of international relations gained by the diplomats and
rulers of Europe in the eighteenth century. Buttereld was convinced that the
states-system they constructed, beginning with the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713,
and reafrmed by the Treaties of Vienna in 1815, represents a uniquely suc-
cessful achievement in international order and the control of power. In spite of
important challenges, the system lasted until the prosecutors of the war of
19141918 and the authors of the Treaties of Versailles destroyed it. At that
moment, the new diplomacy with its wars for righteousness replaced the
traditional diplomacy of controlled power and limited war.
It is remarkable that Buttereld, with his lifelong hold on individual person-
ality as the moral absolute and the sole human reality, should care so earnestly
about the European states-system. Contrary to his usual practice, he seems
to treat the system and the states that comprise its membership as supra-
individual social realities, and not simply as abstract nouns. The states-system
was, he says, an international club. All those diplomats and rulers were Chris-
tian and, however messy might be their personal piety or morality, they moved
within a system coloured by the traditional teachings of Christianity about
just war as well as by the legacy of Christian humanism of the Renaissance.
They were also aristocrats and royalty who shared a common life, culture, and
social style, and often enough they were even related by family. The states-
system, he says, embodied a hundred imponderables and the subtler vir-
tues which modulated the behaviour of its members: tolerance, moderation,
the practice of reasonableness, self-discipline, urbaneness, civilities, the feel-
ing for quality, the attributes of a civilized world. The members operated
according to the principle of the balance of power, and directed all their
activity towards the limitation of war and the preservation and extension of
the international order itself. Following Ranke, Buttereld summarizes their
 On War and Historiography 247

project: They had achieved a superiority in civilization and a supremacy in

technique which secured them against any overwhelming attack from the rest
of the continents of the earth and were moving towards the unication of the
entire globe. Given time, and proper realization of the required conditions, it
was not inconceivable that the international order itself should be extended
until it came to cover all the branches of the human race.
The statements which appear within his rendition of the eighteenth-century
world of diplomacy are as politically provocative as his statements about the
Soviets, but this time on the conservative side. He pronounces a view of the
stages of civilization which privileges aristocracy, elevates Western civilization
over the cultures of the rest of the world, and justies world domination by the
empires of the great powers of Europe. He establishes an implicit ranking of
the peoples of the world on a scale running from barbarian to civilized,
and the civilized peoples on a scale running from lower to advanced. In
particular, he berates eastern Europe and Russia for their backward state,
and singles out the Balkans for their barbarism. He especially bemoans the
barbarism of those unnamed countries who have assimilated the science
and technology and copied democratic institutions of civilization without
absorbing the imponderables that supported them in the civilization of Eu-
rope. The subtext points to the countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
A different set of hints points repeatedly to England and the British Empire,
in spite of their sins, as exemplars of civilized peoples living according to
the imponderables, and as societies manifesting the growth of reasonable-
ness as well as the transposition of aristocratic values to the lower social
ranks. If for Hegel and Ranke world history moved towards the model of
Prussia, for Buttereld it is England. His idealization of England echoes En-
glishman and His History and the praise he there lavished on the tradition of
passing aristocratic virtues down to the ordinary Englishman, as modelled by
his father.
The instrument Buttereld employs to access the experience of the past is the
maxim. We feel immediately that we are back with Machiavelli and Butter-
elds Statecraft of Machiavelli in 1940. There he depicted the Renaissance
thinker as the producer of maxims derived from reection on history, and as
such as the progenitor of political science. Now, throughout Christianity,
Diplomacy and War, he himself generates maxims, dozens of maxims. It is sur-
prising to nd that his claims on behalf of science, with Machiavelli and
here, do not pivot on a view of law, and although he deals in general state-
ments, he does not represent his views as theory. He professes merely to be in-
terested in fundamental principles. The term law appears only occasionally
in the book. He could well have used the notion of law as a way of indicating
what science is about. Only recently, in God in History, he had stressed the
248 On War and Historiography

importance of law as one of the three ways of understanding history, and again
in The Scientic versus the Moralistic Approach in International Affairs he
had bound a scientic approach to the consideration of laws in history. As a
sample law he cited Actons postulation power tends to corrupt and abso-
lute power corrupts absolutely, or, in his own paraphrase, the possession of
unchecked power has a corrupting effect on a man.
In Butterelds vocabulary the maxim would appear to be more common-
place, less rigorous, less precise, than the law. He represents the maxim as a
piece of accumulated wisdom about human conduct that would embody
the results of mans long-term experience on the earth. The Christian tra-
dition generates maxims, expressions of worldly wisdom which condense
the experience of centuries. Especially important to him are those which he
deems relevant to the affairs of the nation and the European order as well as to
the whole civilized world.
Two kinds of maxims appear in Butterelds discourse at this moment. The
rst are those he articulates within his own account of what he is for and
against, most notably as part of his endorsement of limited wars of self-
defense, his opposition to aggression, his condemnation of wars for righteous-
ness, and his interest in the control of armed power. These maxims serve as
units of historical explanation: they come as generalized assertions which
purport to sum up undeniable, universal experiences, appeal to which closes
the need for further explanation. We may look at one example. In a long
section on the creation of an international order after the Second World War
via the agency of the United Nations, he cites the reference made by certain
powers to the model of the British Commonwealth of Nations. He argues from
history against the relevance of using that model, and to clinch his case he
states, or implies, several maxims in rapid succession. By inserting numbers
into his text we can identify the maxims as follows:

We all know that we should demonstrate to these powers [1] how such a thing
is not made, but must grow[2] how a paper organization and the mere
copying of our institutions represent the least important aspect of the matter;
since [3] it is only much profounder historical processes which can release the
imponderable factors that it is part of our purpose to study[4] imponder-
able factors which we know are an essential part of the working of our
Commonwealth. [5] A purely formal international systema mere skeleton
of institutionsshares the weaknesses of a revolutionary regime, precisely
because it lacks the assistance of these imponderables. In other words, [6] an
international system is precarious [6.a] if its only sanction is force, and [6.b] if
it depends on the combined power of a temporary or permanent majority
[7] it is weak, for example, if it can operate only by threatening the offender
with the nuclear weapon.
 On War and Historiography 249

In the context of this passage Buttereld provides no supporting examples or

historical narrative. Rather he offers these assertions as his own best distilla-
tion of things he has learned from the study of the relevant history. They
represent, presumably, his own wisdom on the matter.
The second kind of maxims are those Buttereld represents as the wisdom
of the eighteenth-century aristocrats and royalty who created and preserved
the European states-system that he admires. Although he cites no eighteenth-
century sources of the maxims, he suggests that we might nd them in writings
on international law, works by publicists, diplomatic memoranda, and parlia-
mentary debates. He quotes no maxims taken readymade from the texts of the
day, but rather seems to derive them himself by inference and implication from
the practice of eighteenth-century diplomats and rulers.
The maxims that excite him most pertain to the international order, espe-
cially to the limitation of war and the security of small member states. He
introduces each maxim with a generalizing attribution, such as it was long
ago realized that, or our predecessors . . . were familiar with the maxim
that, or it was realized even in the eighteenth century that. The keystone
maxim is this:
if there is to be an international order, all the members of it must have a real
interest in its preservation.

The second is this:

no power ought ever to be allowed to become so desperate . . . that . . . it
would pay any price for revenge, even if this meant pulling the whole house
down and destroying itself along with the rest.

And the third:

an international order can never be allowed to remain static . . . , but is subject
to violent upheaval if its machinery merely serves to freeze the status quo.

The fourth:
a victor should not provoke undue resentment in the vanquished party.

And the fth:

reformers should move prudently, so as not to be responsible for goading the
vested interests to desperate action.

Buttereld goes on in this manner, maxim after maxim, creating a system

which he nowhere nds in the eighteenth century, but which he attributes to
eighteenth-century diplomats and politically minded people. He calls their
reliance on maxims the science of the preservation of a civilized order, and
what was really a scientic kind of diplomacy.
250 On War and Historiography

The system of maxims that Buttereld lays out, disconnected from the his-
torical analysis of eighteenth-century texts and practice, seems tangibly un-
historical when placed next to historical studies of the period. As science, the
scheme of maxims, which he wishes the powers-that-be to apply in his own
day, sounds remarkably idiosyncratic when compared with twentieth-century
social scientic renditions of international politics. We come to realize that we
are witnessing the elaboration of Butterelds own international politics. He
situates himself in an idealized bygone era, and once again takes as his model
the England of the Whig politicians whom he lauded in Englishman and His
History. In doing so he underestimates, overlooks, or removes from this con-
text the events which are contrary to his model. Most notably, he makes an
exception out of the Seven Years War of 17561763 in which certain powers
sought to eliminate Prussia, he blames the twenty-ve years of near continuous
war surrounding the French Revolution and Napoleon on the work of revolu-
tion itself, and he does not mention the dismemberment of the small state of
Poland and the distribution of the parts among the neighbouring great powers.
Consistent with one side of his political morality, Buttereld emerges notice-
ably conservative in his general approach to international affairs. In this vein
he directs all his social criticism against what he calls international revolu-
tion. He dislikes any movement whatsoever in the modern period which
upsets stable society, foregoes moderation, and prevents the slow ripening of
the imponderable attributes of civilized life. At the same time, however,
the way he applies his model bespeaks the politics of the liberal-left of his day.
His prescription for ending the conict between the Western powers and the
Soviet bloc is to abolish ideological diplomacy, abandon the diplomacy of
moral judgments, abjure the goal of the destruction of Communism as such,
and construct instead an international order analogous to the European
states-system after 1713 and 1815. He takes for granted that the Communist
states are here to stay, and urges that so long as they exist they should be
members of the new international order. They and all the other states of
Europe as well as the states elsewhere derived from European sources, such as
the United States, Canada, and Australia, would operate together within a
mechanically self-adjusting and self-rectifying system. One wonders where
he places, for instance, Argentina, Mexico, and Brazil, since they too are
Europeanized states. The system would depend upon the shared commitment
to preserve the international order and refrain from acts which provoked
wars for righteousness. Membership in the international order would move
the Communist states past their revolutionary stage. They too would contrib-
ute to the slow growth of reasonableness. He could imagine the order be-
coming worldwide as other states eventually absorbed European inuence.
 On War and Historiography 251

Butterelds ideas about international affairs alarmed some critics and sent
thrills of new discovery down the spines of others. He drew attention from
scholars, politicians, and news magazines. On one side, Stuart Hampshire,
H. G. Wood, and Maurice Reckitt, among others, asserted contra Buttereld
the notion of a scale of relative evil, on which the sins of Hitler or Stalin and
other militaristic dictators would rank worse than the mistakes of Cham-
berlain, the idealistic British prime minister, or the foolishness of the Amer-
icans. Martin Wight accused him of creating a false image of eighteenth-
century diplomacy, given, for instance, what the system did to Poland. Appar-
ently Buttereld roused little support for his version of diplomacy as sheer
mechanics and technique. Before the book was published, C. A. Coulson,
Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of London, urged him to
drop the idea of scientic diplomacy as being an inappropriate use of the
term science. In the United States, Life magazine featured the book as a
prescription for amoral diplomacy that committed the disqualifying error of
assuming that Soviet Russia was already a potential member of the renewed
international order. Time magazine had photographed him a year earlier for
an article on the same theme that in the end never appeared.
On the other side, Buttereld received ample applause. The Times Literary
Supplement published a featured article that praised his warning against
wars of righteousness. Charles Webster took comfort that the British gov-
ernment under Churchill was following the precepts Buttereld preached.
A. R. Burns congratulated him for puncturing the complacency of his public.
However, none of his critics, for or against, followed his apparent separa-
tion of moral judgments from considerations of international affairs. He
chafed at the repeated comment that his views represented moral relativism
or ethical indifference, and said so in a vigorous thought-essay. Reckitt
suggested that his outlook on morality in international affairs was becoming
more and more idiosyncratic and even perverse. Reckitts comments stung
Buttereld, provoking him to break his rule that he would never respond to
negative comments by a reviewer of one of his books. In a letter to Reckitt he
protested that he was simply enunciating the main tradition in European di-
plomacy, not a view peculiar to him, and that he had no special sympathies for
the eighteenth century, save their recognition of the maxims of international
order and limited warfare. Buttereld felt gravely misunderstood.
Isaiah Berlin, then a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, was willing to de-
bate Buttereld in Oxford on the question of moral judgments, but Buttereld
resisted. Berlin sent Buttereld the text of a lecture he gave at the London
School of Economics in which he expressed his dislike of Butterelds views.
This evoked a cordial but pointed correspondence between them, illustrating,
252 On War and Historiography

if nothing else, the difculty people had in deciphering exactly what Butter-
elds views were. In response, Buttereld sent him Christianity, Diplomacy
and War, with the warning that, because of the religious content of the argu-
ment, parts of it must be nauseating to you and you will need to transpose as
you read. Buttereld suggested that their disagreement might derive from
some deeper and more structural difference over a wider area of our think-
ing. Trying to name the difference he posed polarities: perhaps it was his own
extremely moralizing Old Testament basis, or, on the opposite side, maybe
it was his willingness to set aside my Old Testament views, my Protestant
principles, my moral judgments when engaged in technical history, or, in
opposition to all that, maybe it was his New Testament view that individ-
uals are more highly conditioned, and hence less morally culpable, than the
making of moral judgments would allow for. Berlin phrased it this way: But
regarding the main issues I think that you are rightthat we do start from
positions which are not in the end reconcilable at all. You do believe that it is
arrogant and ignorant and dangerous to condemn, denounce and ght cam-
paigns on moral issues. I, on the whole, do not. He put himself squarely on
the side of individual moral responsibility and human free will against what he
saw as the suggestion of determinism and the absence of moral judgment in
Butterelds view. Buttereld chafed again, and in a seven-page, single-spaced
reply expressed feelings of hurt about some of what Berlin attributed to him.
He asked Berlin to change some wordings in his lecture, and sought to show by
an elaborate argument how they really did agree on the basics after all. Berlin
agreed to change the text, and afrmed his highest admiration for Buttereld,
but said that he sensed that they were farther apart than Buttereld might now
see them to be.
Buttereld had presented himself in his writings as the detached technical
historian, but it is not difcult to see him as politically engag in favour of a
particular line in foreign policy and even in domestic affairs. Sir Richard Ac-
land, a Christian socialist member of Parliament, invited him to join the cam-
paign called Lets Start Waging Peace, a proposal to reduce the threat of war
by rendering society more just and humane, especially towards the poor. But-
tereld declined, describing himself as apolitical, a mere historian con-
cerned chiey with the past, and interested in the present only at the level of
being clear about certain principles. He took no thought that anything he
might say would have any effect at all on contemporary life. He continued, I
sympathize with all you have to say even on social questions, but I would not
feel able to call myself a socialist, though I should feel still less able to call
myself a conservative. In foreign policy, he acknowledged that he feared both
Russian and American imperialism and that he would like England to pursue a
 On War and Historiography 253

policy similar to Indias: between, and sometimes in opposition to, both the
great powers. Acland went away disappointed.
Buttereld received another letter more to his liking a few months later. His
little book attracted Reinhold Niebuhr of Union Theological Seminary and
Hans Morgenthau of Columbia University, who interpreted his approach to
international affairs as compatible with their own. They were then calling
their approach realist in the sense that they regarded sheer power as basic to
relations among states and the analysis of power as the starting point for
worthwhile thinking on international affairs. The Rockefeller Foundation had
begun to fund meetings of a small group in New York animated by Niebuhr
and Morgenthau, whose purpose was to discuss theoretical approaches to
international politics.
The letter to Buttereld came from Kenneth Thompson, an administrator of
the Rockefeller Foundation. It was an invitation to become something like an
overseas associate of the group. Buttereld showed interest. If he did not call
his work theory, these others did, and it made him think that his discourse
about maxims might be compatible with their work on the theory of interna-
tional politics. In agreeing to participate, he acknowledged his conviction that
the frontiers of thought itself can be enlarged by this genuinely fundamental
approach. He began to receive the papers of the New York group and soon
met Thompson in Cambridge, but he saw no immediate prospect of visiting
America, and nothing substantial came from the contact at the time. The
episode indicated nonetheless that he was quite prepared to move deeper into
international affairs and that his series of references to power, diplomacy,
and war, capped by his book, revealed a genuine trend in his intellectual
development.

History of History
The second set of lectures distracting him from Fox and the Concise
Modern History was the series on the history of historiography for the Wiles
Trust in Belfast. The invitation to do the lectures came in May 1953, but his
involvement with the Wiles Trust ran back at least to October 1952. He had
largely drafted their statement of purpose: to promote the study of the history
of civilisation and to encourage the extension of historical thinking into the
realm of general ideas. The lectures were to be both research-based and
connected with more general historical reection. Faced with the invitation,
he objected at rst that he had nothing more to say betting the lectures
purpose as he had helped dene it, but he later agreed when he thought of
giving his interim conclusions on the history of historiography.
254 On War and Historiography

A lengthy synopsis of his topic, which he drafted in January 1954, read like
a manifesto. Vellacott was cheering him on. He proposed to play the mission-
ary whose aim was to convert people to the study of the history of historiogra-
phy as a subject. Coincidentally, the BBC was asking him to prepare a series on
themes similar to his Acton and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. He
jumped at the idea of adapting the lectures for broadcast after the event, to be
followed by publication as a book. He would speak with Kingsford, with
whom he now said he felt on very intimate terms, and try to persuade
Cambridge University Press to take on the book. The whole sequence deliber-
ately replicated the process he fell into with his lectures on Christianity and
history.
Butterelds scheme unrolled as he hoped. He presented four lectures in
Belfast over a four-day period in November 1954, under the nondescript aca-
demic title The Study of the History of Historical Scholarship. Buttereld
had proposed those words as the subtitle. During four subsequent weeks in
late November and December, he broadcast a condensed version over the
BBC, with the bland title Man and His Past.
The Wiles Trust quickly made him a trustee, and he served the fund for
twenty years. The university at Belfast awarded him an honourary doctorate
in 1955, his third. Kingsford did get the Press to publish the four Belfast
lectures as a book, released in October 1955. At the request of the Presss
marketing interests, the title again changed, this time to something more ag-
gressive, Man on His Past, with the academic title from Belfast attached as the
subtitle. The subtitle referred to historical scholarship instead of the less
recognizable historiography, the term Buttereld used consistently in the
lectures. Buttereld convinced CUP to add two previously published pieces as
chapters ve and six. These were his studies of the origins of the Seven Years
War and the massacre of St. Bartholomew. The book was studded with foot-
notes, making it his rst book published from lectures to carry the visible signs
of research. He managed also to append six sets of extraneous excerpts from
Actons notes in the Cambridge library. Much of this scholarship was due to
all that work in the archives with Eve Bogle. The additions expanded the
material from 140 pages to about 240 and gave the book the appearance of a
miscellany.
Looking for unity in retrospect, Buttereld suggested that all but one of the
chapters related to Acton. In reality the Acton thread is longer than he admits,
since Acton appears in every chapter, as does Ranke. We are not surprised. He
actually bolstered the Ranke presence at the last minute when he substituted
Ranke and the Conception of General History for a lecture he intended to
give on the underlying ideas of modern historiography. In Butterelds vi-
 On War and Historiography 255

sion, both Ranke and Acton, along with the historians of the University of
Gttingen, whom he also studies, belong to what he calls the German histor-
ical school. His emphasis on this tradition gives unity to the book, even as it
also creates the impression that German historians, to the neglect of many
other historical traditions and sources, are the real progenitors of historical
study in its modern form.
The preliminary sketch of his topics, as well as the preface to the book, gave
the appearance that he would plunge deep into the waters of the philosophy of
history. His primary purpose was, he said, to describe and illustrate the rise,
the scope, the methods and the objectives of the history of historiography.
From the very rst, however, he made it clear that he remained the historian,
even when he considered general questions about the nature of the eld of
study whose merit he applauded. In the actual lectures, at each stage in his
text, he would raise a general point he wished to make by saying how some
historian, and frequently several, had talked about it before him. He would let
his audience know what he favoured or promoted by the way he put his points
and by the commentary he added on the margins of the history as he went
along. He was offering the history of historiography as a subject of study as
well as a method of discourse. His approach was bound to irritate philoso-
phers, but it could speak well to historians.
Buttereld had already worked for a long time on the history of historiogra-
phy, both as subject and as method. He himself dated his interest to the invita-
tion to tour German universities in 1938 with a lecture on the history of the
Whig interpretation of history. Englishman and His History of 1944 con-
tained a greatly expanded version of that lecture. His foraging in Actons notes
since 1946 ensured his continuing interest when he saw how completely Acton
relied on the history of historiography. But we can trace his interest back
much farther, at least to his undergraduate days at Peterhouse, between 1919
and 1922, when he learned to talk about historical-mindedness and inter-
pretations of history. His rst book, The Historical Novel of 1924, and Whig
Interpretation of History of 1931 were both historiographical and included
elements of what he was now calling the history of historiography.
The origins of the Seven Years War and the massacre of St. Bartholomew
displayed his new attention to the history of historiography as a method. The
theme of the Bartholomew massacre connected with his new research on his
master, Acton, and his unagging obsession with Acton on moral judgments.
The theme of the Seven Years War, the war George III inherited when he
ascended the throne, belonged to his eighteenth-century studies and his classic
dependence on diplomatic history, and we are not surprised when we remem-
ber that his other master, Ranke, made the Seven Years War the subject of a
256 On War and Historiography

book in 1871. By November 1945, for a lecture in Dublin, he had probably

converted his approach from straightforward diplomatic history to the anal-
ysis of the history of the historiography of the subject. The theme assumed a
new look. In his hands, the Seven Years War appeared particularly analogous
to the war of 19141918 and blended into his resistance against blaming
the Germans for the origins of the two world wars in his lifetime. He returned
to the topic several times thereafter, culminating in his Durham lecture in 1951
and chapter 5 Man on His Past in 1955.
The Seven Years War served as something like a laboratory for developing
his own approach to the history of historiography. He quickly went on record
with a strong pronouncement against mere histories of historians or histories
of history books, and in favour of progression to a higher stage of historical
analysis of historical science as the only truly acceptable version of the history
of historiography. By Man on His Past he was casting his studies of the Seven
Years War and the Bartholomew massacre as models of the right approach.
He had long advocated narrative history as normative, and he had urged
historians, as practitioners of historical science, to engage in detailed docu-
mentary research, coupled with analysis, collating the ndings from overlap-
ping series of documents. In Christianity and History, from 1948 and 1949, he
had added a distinct layer to the duties of historical science, namely the
work of historical reconstruction whereby historians connected the detailed
facts together into episodes in order to create the continuous narrative.
Over time, he said, new facts usually forced the rebuilding of the episodes.
He presumed that, however long it took, however tortuous the route, and
given enough time, hard detective work, and debate, the process would issue
in renditions of particular episodes which received near-universal agreement
by good historians, no matter what their religion or politics.
The two new studies demonstrated how he saw the history of historiogra-
phy working. He retraced the process by which historians had built and rebuilt
each episode. He covered centuries of historical study of each topic by succes-
sive historians as he analyzed the shapes and counter-shapes which historians
gave to particular historical episodes. He showed how they connected and
reconnected multitudes of individual details, uncovered new details, and relin-
quished old details found wanting. In each case he held to his presumption
that the historians would eventually get it right, exactly reconstructing the
events as they had happened. He would, as he put it, show how the enquiry
developed, how the facts were established and how the story came to be
assembled. The concept of the reconstruction of episodes became the
centrepiece of a proposed distinctive method for the history of historiography.
Buttereld sets up his history of the treatment of the Seven Years War by
 On War and Historiography 257

historians as an answer to a single question. He means to test the validity of an

accusation made by one party to the events, Frederick the Great, king of
Prussia: did a serious conspiracy against Prussia exist in 1756, as Frederick
claimed, and hence was Prussia provoked to invade Saxony that August by a
genuine threat to his monarchy? Posing a question like this permits Buttereld
to test the traditional version of the origins of the war which blamed the
onslaught on the Prussians. Buttereld ends by shifting the attention to Russia
and Austria, and claiming that there was actually a conspiracy by these two
powers against Prussia, that, of the two, Russia was the real culprit, not
Austria, and that Prussia faced a genuine threat. He relieves Prussia of war
guilt, and mirrors his handling of Germany and the First World War. It is easy
to recognize his own politics at work in support of better political attitudes
towards Germany and German scholarship.
The analysis turns on repeated references to the established facts, what
we now know, what is now clear, and the truth, contrary to what
earlier historians thought was the case. He constructs his history of the subject
on the analogy of the three-stage model of his history of science: the pre-
Copernican stage, the Copernican stage of transition, and the scientic era as
the worlds adult stage. He prepared his readers in the preface and on the
very rst two pages of Man on His Past for the scientic analogy, where he
acknowledged that he regarded the history of historiography as really a sub-
section of the history of science. He apparently considered his Wiles lectures
as the complement of his lectures on the origins of modern science. And like
his Origins of Modern Science, where he set up modern science as the
destination of all previous attempts at science, here he places historical
study in its modern form at the end, with the nal reconstruction of the
episodewhat we now knowas the undoubted terminus of historical
inquiry into the origins of the Seven Years War.
The differences between the model and his statements of the method are
striking, however. As important as his single question may be, it touches only a
few salient details out of thousands upon thousands of important details that
comprise the episode, and even if he is sure about these few items of diplomatic
relations and war, there remain all the other diplomatic and military details,
and all of their interrelationships, not to mention all the nondiplomatic and
nonmilitary factors involved. His version of the tale emerges one-sidedly Prus-
sian, and relies excessively on the work of German historians to the neglect
of wider and more diverse scholarship. In his eagerness to relieve Prussia of
guilt he settles too quickly on one culprit, neglecting even Austria as the co-
conspirator with Russia, and omitting his usual emphasis on the complicated-
ness of things and the general sharing of responsibility for common events.
258 On War and Historiography

The three-stage vision of progress towards nality appears inadequate when

we learn that there are repeated relapses and regressions and that the
most recent period, the twentieth century, displays one long regression, and
when at the end he withholds clear support for the reconstruction he has
argued is the destination of by then two hundred years of historical study.
Against his own teachings, he reads history backwards and turns earlier histo-
rians into precursors of later ones and thanks certain earlier modes of histor-
ical study for bringing us to the very brink of modern world. We may doubt
the scientic character of the whole process when he awards highest praise
to Rankes version of the events which he says Ranke achieved by his genius,
hunches, and sheer insight, not by careful research, examination, and
reconsideration of all the documentation.
Butterelds study of the Bartholomew massacre sets Actons as well as
Rankes analysis of the mass killing of French Protestants in August 1572
within the history of the treatment of the topic. Buttereld uses this highly
controverted episode to demonstrate the value of the history of historiography
as a method. His choice of the massacre as his case demonstrates once again
how much his moral and religious sensibilities connect with those of Acton
and Ranke. Perhaps more important for him personally, the massacre becomes
a test case for assessing the interplay of Actons science and Actons ethic of
moral judgment. Buttereld recapitulates Actons own method. He examines
how historians had answered the question of whether the Catholic queen of
France, Catherine de Medici, had premeditated the massacre or decided upon
it suddenly, and whether the Catholic Church and even the papacy were impli-
cated. Buttereld is determined to practice the microscopic research technique
he was applying to Fox, and to retrace Actons research and thinking on the
subject inch by inch. He mimicked Acton himself and recorded all of Ac-
tons relevant notes and writings, arranged them by historians and themes in
chronological order, constructed lists of Actons arguments and the coun-
terarguments, and read the principal historians and documents Acton had
seen, in French, German, Italian, and English.
In his study Buttereld lays out no less than ve conicting versions of the
episode during the rst two hundred years: Protestant, Catholic, Politique,
Enlightenment, and French Revolutionary. Then came the struggle in the nine-
teenth century for the scientic version which would transcend the politics
and religion he saw steering the previous reconstructions. He notes the ap-
pearance of still more versions, driven, he says, by ideology and religion.
Eventually he signals the achievement of the nal story, which gives the true
reconstruction of the episode. The nal story that emerges is simple: there
was no premeditation and there was no Catholic or papal conspiracy. Butter-
 On War and Historiography 259

eld then mounts the accusation that Acton allowed his religious and political
opposition to authoritarian Catholics and his penchant for moral judgments
to skew his scientic scholarship. Acton managed, overlooked, and underesti-
mated evidence and steered towards the false conclusion that the massacre
was premeditated. And in this Acton fell below the standard of Ranke, who
had taken a more nuanced view of the material. He casts Acton, the early
champion of scientic history in England, in the role of the polemicist under-
mining the scientic message. Even with his xation on Acton, Buttereld is
able to be the critic as well as the admirer. Roland Hill, in his biography of
Lord Acton, remarked how Butterelds handling of Acton took some of the
edge off Actons reputation as a historian. Happily for Buttereld, however,
Acton eventually fell into step with the modern scientic movement, and late
in life even converted to the scientic view of the Bartholomew events and
accepted the nal story.
As with his study of the Seven Years War, Buttereld leaves behind a trail of
doubts about his picture of the triumph of the scientic version. Once again,
in spite of his rhetoric about progress through the stages to the nal story,
his account actually draws no straight line rising into the scientic era, but
rather presents what we might call a motion picture of alternative views over
time. Butterelds preferred scientic view turns out to be merely one view
amid the plethora of views, religiously and politically coloured in his own
particular way. His view favours inclusivity and charity, opposes intolerance
and extremism, admits the treacheries and atrocities committed on all sides,
and scatters the blame around a situation that looks like one of his predica-
ments. His view is closest to that of the Politiques in the sixteenth century
who wished to transcend the polarization between Catholics and Protestants,
end the religious wars, and secure the peace of the realm. The nality of the
scientic view withers away when he acknowledges that there is no positive
evidence that shows there was no premeditation, and that competent histo-
rians are able to give the same evidence alternative readings. He ends the study
with the admission that there are loose ends in the tapestry, pieces left
over even after the jigsaw puzzle is completed. He tries to minimize the
discrepancies, but he realizes they can render his version of the story invalid. In
any case, as with the Seven Years War, the question he investigates is only one
out of countless interrelated problems that affect the histories historians write
about the events of St. Bartholomews Day in 1572, and the historical enter-
prise goes on.
Yet in spite of the difculties with Butterelds accounts, his two studies
showed what the history of historiography might accomplish. The examina-
tion of how historians over the ages handle and rehandle the same particular
260 On War and Historiography

events can illuminate things people took for granted and open vistas never
before seen. He does not limit the history of historiography to the reconstruc-
tion of episodes, however, even though the prominence he gives to his studies
as models might appear to do so. We may observe, for example, that he did not
categorically reject the value of histories of historians or histories of books,
although he surely belittled them as disconnected chronologies, mere ropes
of sand, belonging to a primitive stage. After all, his protestations not-
withstanding, his own pieces on the reconstruction of episodes were actually
simultaneously histories of historians and books, or in the case of his handling
of Acton, who published no history books, a history of scribbled notes and
articles. Over many years, he spent an inordinate amount of time thinking and
writing about the history of one historian, Acton, and even Man on His Past
was largely the history of two historians, Acton and Ranke, who dominate the
book. Even his own accounts of the rise of the eld of the history of histo-
riography as a whole and the rise in particular of the German historical school
at the University of Gttingen followed the structure of tracing the books of
one historian after another. Buttereld, perhaps unwittingly, demonstrated
the enduring attraction of the history of historians and their writings, even as
he opened new avenues for study.
He promotes many other tasks for the history of historiography as he delin-
eates the scope and utility of the eld. He catalogues a lengthy list in the
opening lecture of the series. One could, for instance, examine the history of
historical method, or the history of the concepts historians use, or the history
of a particular theme, or the history of the inuence of historical study on
human history, or the history of the previous treatment of a subject one wishes
to study. The strikingly new element on Butterelds horizon at this moment is
his notice that it is possible to study something as vague as the history of
historical-mindedness. He deliberately picks up the term from the student
discussions in Peterhouse Historical Society thirty years earlier. Now he re-
peatedly stresses that the transformation in historical consciousness from
the end of the eighteenth century to the end of the nineteenth centuryto
Actonconstituted a historical revolution in humane studies that paralleled
the scientic revolution in the natural sciences in the seventeenth century, or,
as he put it, the Scientic Revolution in historical study.
In his most missionary mode, Buttereld argues strongly that the history of
historiography can help historians in multiple ways. For instance, he endorses
the mandate he found in Actons notes: Teach to look behind historians,
especially famous historians. He prescribes it as the antidote to the effects of a
historians unrecognized assumptions. He especially urges the benets of in-
vestigating the history of any theme the student undertakes for study. It could
 On War and Historiography 261

unpack the content and display the problems of even seemingly routine areas
of history. Perhaps his most startling historical contribution, one rooted
in research, pursues this very lead. He applies a procedure he advocated in
Origins of Modern Science, examining the antecedents and milieux of the big
names in a eld. He argues that the little-known historians of the University of
Gttingen between the 1760s and the 1820s were the real founders of the
German school of historical scholarship, a full generation and more before
Ranke and Barthold Niebuhr, the famous names commonly deemed the orig-
inators. The range of Butterelds suggestions about the history of histo-
riography pointed to far wider applicability than even he named. As with
everything human, one can examine historically any aspect whatsoever of
historical study and historical discourse, and the effects can extend to every-
thing the historian does as historian.
Man on His Past surely does feature the history of historiography, but there
is another agenda on Butterelds table which he seems to take for granted and
does not specically acknowledge as central to the purposes of the book. He
continues to campaign on behalf of his characterization of historical study as a
science. He uses the term scientic history often enough, but the term he
puts into service in passage after passage is technical history. He touts a
precise piece of straight diplomatic history as the preferred training for
research students instead of vague and indenite subjects found in the
marshy elds of intellectual and social history. We detect his will to play the
dissenter, evenor perhaps especiallyin the face of his explicit awareness
that he enjoys almost no support among historians for his emphasis on histor-
ical study as a matter of technique and precision-work.
He both opens and closes the published version of the four Wiles lectures
with assertions about history as a science in the special sense of technical
history. In between, the language of technical history dominates his dis-
course about historical study. At the very start of his exposition of the history
of historiography Buttereld sets technical history at the centre. He as-
serts, Indeed it would appear that in this eld the primary object of study
has always been the development of a more technical form of scholarship, the
rise of a more scientic history, and the progress in the critical treatment of
sources. This he says even though his argument about the scope and utility of
the eld indicated the presence of very many objects and purposes, none ob-
viously more primary than all the others.
The very rst page of the book twists Acton in his direction, and has Acton
sounding like Buttereld on history as technique. He quotes Acton from an
undated note in the Acton papers: Each science has to be learned by a method
of its own. But also by one and the same method, applicable to all, which is the
262 On War and Historiography

historical method. In Butterelds paraphrase this becomes: In this connec-

tion he [Acton] pointed out more than once that there were now two ways in
which every branch of science was to be studied: rst by its own forms of
technical procedure, and secondly by an examination of its history. Even-
tually, he chides Acton for not really accepting technical history in the sense
that Buttereld means it.
Then the fourth lecture, a substitute lecture inserted at the last minute,
closes with a rousing afrmation of technical history. Keith Sewell has ana-
lyzed the concept at length. In remarkably blunt statements, contained in one
paragraph, Buttereld makes it unmistakably clear, in virtually the same lan-
guage he has used for years, that, on one side of his being, he remains the
positivist who has deviated not one millimetre from his convictions about
historical study as technical history: The truth is that technical history is a
limited and mundane realm of description and explanation in which local and
concrete things are achieved by a disciplined use of tangible evidence. I should
not regard a thing as historically established unless the proof were valid for
the Catholic as well as the Protestant, for the Liberal as well as the Marxist.
And it is not only the individual facts collected by historians, but also the
interconnections among the facts within the events they construct that are
covered by the same strict division: When the events have been laid out by the
technical historian, they can be taken over by the Catholic or Protestant or
atheistthey are equally available for Whig or Tory. Each of these can add his
judgments and make his evaluations; and they can at least begin by having
some common ground for the great debate that still lies open to them. The
technical historian thus has eliminated in advance the deepest issues of
religion and politics, indeed of life, without implying that they are thereby in
fact eliminated from life. Buttereld gives the impression that this was
Rankes view, but on closer reading we notice that the association with Ranke
comes via Acton who, while not holding to the view himself, imputes the
view to Ranke. We may be sure the view is Butterelds, who would like very
much for it to be Rankes as well. But as Buttereld also notes, Rankes histo-
ries did not blank out his politics, religion, and moral sensibilities.
Instead, we recognize in Butterelds statements a view distinctively his
own, marked by the same dualistic polarization of technical history over
against religion as well as politicsindeed the historians lifewhich his dis-
course continuously exhibits. He still overlooks the way his own religion and
politics have shaped his own historical writing. The paragraph in which these
statements appear seems almost gratuitous, a rude intrusion into a passage on
Providence. We would wonder why he felt compelled to put the statements in
at all if we were not grateful that he nally made explicit the assumptions
 On War and Historiography 263

about historical study that colour everything he has told us throughout the
book. Because of the wide distribution of the book, new readers encountered
Buttereld on technical history for the rst time, and, for many, these state-
ments became the authoritative exposition of his views about the nature of
historical study. Pieter Geyl for one was shocked at Butterelds neutered
version of technical history which eliminated in advance the issues over
which Catholics and Protestants, Whigs and Tories, Liberals and Marxists
might disagree. On the contrary, Geyl argued, the historian does not come to
the research only as a technical historian, but as a human being who eliminates
nothing in advance. The shock Buttereld gave him conrmed, he said, my
own belief that history cuts down to the deepest issues of life.
As if to mitigate the starkness of his apparent elimination of the historians
deepest being from the historians study of history, Buttereld quickly adds a
second paragraph to his representation of historical study. It is a succinct
statement of his notion that people can think about the same historical events
on three levels. The passage gave wide circulation to the suggestion he had
published in God in History in 1952 in an obscure newsletter of the Church
of England Youth Council. Michael Hobart realized the importance of the
suggestion and constructed his analysis of Buttereld on history and religion
around the notion of three levels. Geyl felt the power of Butterelds perennial
dualist drive, and missed a level of his discourse, reducing the scheme to
thinking at two levels. The idea is that people can view an event on one level
as an act of human responsibility and free will, in which people make their
own history. They can also regard the same event on another level as subject to
historical laws, conditions, and necessity, in which people nd their actions
remarkably circumscribed and predictable. They can then see the same event
on a third level as a work of Providence, in which they themselves serve as
participants in a divine drama. For Buttereld, all three levels are true at the
same time about the very same events. The notion is highly unitive and non-
polarizing, reconciliatory and inclusive, giving impressions precisely opposite
to that of his language about technical history. As apparently different as the
two paragraphs are, they both come from the same person at the very same
moment, and they both recall tendencies present in his discourse for decades.
The passage trails off into a rhapsody about the poet, the prophet, the
novelist, and the playwright, who, he insists, command sublimer realms than
those of technical history because they reconstitute life in its wholeness. And
we feel his dualism at work again. He recurs to the outlook about the superi-
ority of the literary and the religious over the historical which we rst saw in
his Historical Novel forty years before, and which he reiterated in Christianity
and History. He also elevates the project of general history which he lionizes
264 On War and Historiography

throughout the book, polarized over against technical history. Juxtaposing the
two, his language about technical history turns pejorative: we will lock our-
selves in some local topic, or burrow in a special eld, or isolate a single aspect
of history. General history arises as the liberator from this myopia: general
history must preside over the works of multiple specialists, and carry his-
torical thinking to a higher power. He urges the necessity of general history
in order to honour the utter interconnectedness of events, a notion which long
ago he picked up from Ranke, and which again he credits to Rankes genius. In
the case of Ranke, as with Buttereld, the thinking that leads to general history
continues onwards to religion, notably the Christian religion, and we can
detect the Christian impulses driving the work of both historians. Buttereld
chides the exemplars of the tradition of history teaching at Cambridge and the
Cambridge Modern History inspired by Acton for the narrowness of their
vision of general history, which limited the focus to Europe, above all western
Europe. He notes with approval that the aim of both the Gttingen historians
and Ranke was universal history, which in some sense meant world history,
but at this moment he holds back from adopting the desire for world history as
his own.
Now we come full circle. Butterelds project of the history of historiogra-
phy is at the same time a project of general history. In his eyes, the history of
historiography is a mode of general history. In his account of the eld, in Man
on His Past, the historians who most called for the history of historiography
the Gttingen historians, Ranke, Actonacted out of their desire for general
history and gave themselves to historical thinking. Buttereld joked about the
end of historians whose work was out of date: The death which the out-
moded historian has to suffer is more complete and pitiful than ordinary
death. But we can be sure he had on his mind what it takes for a historian to
last. In revealing moment he wrote, The historian who survives seems to be
the one who in some way or other has managed to break through into the
realm of enduring ideas or gives hint of a deeper tide in the affairs of men.
Historians do not last because of the merits of their technical history. They
last because of their historical ideas and their contribution to general history.
Although he might hesitate to admit it, his account of the history of histo-
riography as general history seems to undermine his own claims for what
technical history delivers. There would seem to be no lasting nal story,
and no lasting technical historians, but only further historical study and the
generation of different historical ideas.
Buttereld won the respect of most, but not all, reviewers for the value of
the history of historiography, and his rediscovery of the Gttingen school of
historians evoked loud praise, especially for the way he demonstrated the
 On War and Historiography 265

usefulness of Actons dictum to look behind the famous historians. But there
were voices, including Eric John, Duncan Forbes, and Arnold Toynbee, raised
against his apparent award of rst place in historical scholarship to the Ger-
mans, to the neglect of the French and English and Italians and the rest of the
world, and against his infatuation with the German historical schools obses-
sion with minutiae in the manner of German state bureaucrats. There were
objections, from the Economist, the Tablet, and others, to the exaggerated
place he was giving to Acton. Some commentators, including the Times Edu-
cational Supplement and G. M. Young, complained that his style of writing
was tortuous, and Ernest Nagel spoke as a philosopher against the unclarity of
his statements of his own views, making it difcult to be sure of exactly what
he meant to say. It seemed that just about everyone, however, bowed to Butter-
elds learning and to the vitality of his historical thinking. Some took inspira-
tion from his call to view wider vistas and sought to approach their elds with
broader perspectives. Eric Sharpe, for instance, evoked Butterelds appeal for
breadth as a counterpoise to severe specialization and as support for a more
ambitious rendering of comparative religion.
Given his argument in Man on His Past, we can picture where Buttereld
might wish to head in his own future work. In a curious way he had under-
mined the importance of technical history, at least the sort executed as he
dened it. His comprehensive and highly detailed technical history of the
life of Fox could seem distinctly unappealing and unpromising. Perhaps The
Concise Cambridge Modern History held the promise of general history that
endures. Perhaps more writing about historical thinking would be worthwhile
and lasting. His general historical thinking had already produced signicant
results, including The Whig Interpretation of History and Christianity and
History. Origins of Modern Science had helped dene the history of science
as a eld of study, and Man on His Past seemed well on the road to dening
the history of historical study as an academic eld. Why not further thought
about history?

Time of Trial
Very few people at the time realized the unthinkable magnitude of the
personal trauma that Buttereld passed through in 1954 as he prepared for his
lectures on the history of historiography. The sequence of events during that
year rolled one shattering experience on top of another. Butterelds style of
handling wrenching emotional events seemed to be to wall off the personal
turmoil from his work as historian. The style could make his actions and
words about the crises seem crass. He seemed actually to live out in his daily
266 On War and Historiography

existence the dualism of his own thought about the clean detachment of tech-
nical history from life.
The rst crisis Buttereld seemed to nd unspeakably awful. His son, Giles,
committed suicide on 15 April 1954. By the spring of 1954 Giles had spent
nearly two years at Peterhouse. He had begun with the intention of doing
engineering, and may well have felt considerable need to nd his own direction
in an environment in which his famous father and older brother were both in
history. His studies at Peterhouse did not succeed. The college Tutor, Denis
Mack Smith, became aware from talking with Giles that the young man was
distraught, and took the liberty of letting Buttereld know about it. There was
a history behind his emotional condition. While at Leys School he was known
to run away sometimes and be brought back by the police, and the headmaster
recommended consultations with a psychiatrist in order to deal with other
recurring symptoms of instability. By March 1954 he had dropped out of
Peterhouse, expressing the desire to work as a technician behind the scenes in
the theatre. He went away to Perth Repertory Theatre in Scotland, but was
expecting a call-up from the Royal Air Force. On April 3 he received the
notice of his call-up, the next day he wrote a note describing his gifts, he
returned home on the 10th, and on the 15th he died. Giles used the gas stove in
the kitchen of the Buttereld home on Tenison Road to kill himself. The
funeral at Wesley Church was the 20th. The family went away to the sea to
begin recuperation.
On 26 April Buttereld was back at work answering his correspondence
and trying to feel as if things were normal after having, as he calmly worded it,
suffered the loss of our second son in rather tragic circumstances. On the
28th Buttereld found Giless note about his gifts, and then began the recon-
struction of the episode of his sons death. It seemed as though he were dealing
with another problem of technical history. Two months later he was talking
about still dealing with a period of considerable anxiety and perhaps get-
ting the whole family nicely on its feet now. Such descriptions masked any
signs of disturbance. Butterelds language at the time was the very image of
cramped emotions. He showed the same unwillingness in his historical writ-
ings to say a hard message straight. He let no one publicly see his pain. Unlike
Toynbee after his own sons suicide, he left no clue to his agony in his writings.
Eve Bogle was the one who conveyed the news of Giless death to Vellacott, the
Master, and Mack Smith, the Tutor, because, she said, he couldnt face the
college. Bogle said that she was not surprised that Giles committed suicide.
Buttereld found it possible to conde in Brian Wormald, and Wormald felt
that Buttereld was perhaps more humane after the tragedy. Butterelds sis-
ter, Edie, came from London for the funeral, and the two became closer there-
 On War and Historiography 267

after. Vellacott and the Fellows apparently were helpful, and certainly not
judgmental, taking it as one of those tragedies that happens in the best of
families. Buttereld, looking back on the event twenty-ve years later, ac-
knowledged that Giless death was the most difcult moment of his life. This
he uttered in a voice hardly audible. Trying to keep life and technical history
apart had been costly.
The second trying episode touched his professional life directly. David
Knowles, not Buttereld, received the Crown appointment to the prestigious
Regius professorship of modern history. The Regius chair fell vacant with the
retirement of J. R. M. Butler. It was widely believed in Cambridge that Butter-
eld would be the choice. He was the senior modern historian, already the
holder of the professorship in modern history, and probably possessed the
widest and most substantial reputation of any historian in Cambridge. He had
just recently been elected president of the Historical Association, the largest
historical society in Great Britain, with his term of ofce to commence in
1955. He was already receiving honourary doctorates, the rst from Aberdeen
University in 1952 and the second was coming very shortly from University
College, Dublin. But to everyones shock, including his own, the Regius pro-
fessorship went to his friend and colleague at Peterhouse. Knowles was not at
all a historian of modern history, but a medievalist and current occupant of the
chair in medieval history. The Crown passed over Buttereld. His friends
commiserated with him and commented about the indiscretion of the Man-
chester Guardian in noting Butterelds defeat. Buttereld, probably truth-
fully in some naive way, said he was very happy that Knowles received the
honour and that he did not understand the reference in the Guardian. None-
theless, Buttereld now had to wait a second time for the promotion that
appeared to be his due. For years to come people commonly addressed him by
the title of Regius Professor, so sure they were that the chair belonged to him.
It was a sign of the character of the two men that no estrangement occurred
between them. Others noted that Buttereld seemed to exhibit no signs of
resentment or jealousy. For nine years, from 1954 to 1963, the two members
of Peterhouse and spiritual confreres presided together over modern history in
Cambridge, the one as Regius Professor and a Roman Catholic, the other as
Professor of Modern History and a Methodist Dissenter. The combination
would have dumbfounded Action.
The third difcult experience involved his oldest son, Peter. Peter was pursu-
ing a course of action that Buttereld could genuinely approve, but that could
not fail to add to the stress of the year. Peter had completed Peterhouse in 1953
and was fulling his national military service in 1954. He had undertaken
preparations with the intention of conversion from the Methodist Church of
268 On War and Historiography

his upbringing to the Roman Catholic Church. Part of the context was Brian
Wormalds simultaneous move towards the Roman Catholic Church. Wor-
mald, a Tractarian Anglican and former chaplain of the college, was Butter-
elds protge and intimate friend. Peters conversion was expected before the
end of the year.
Of course, Buttereld could not have foreseen that his third son, Robin, still
a teenager, would in due course emerge from his undergraduate years at Ox-
ford University as a convinced non-Christian. All three sons chose paths un-
like his own.
There is profound sense in which, after the suicide of his second son, the loss
of the Regius chair, and the expectation of his rst sons pending conversion,
Buttereld made a new start during the summer by throwing himself into the
writing of his Wiles lectures for Belfast on the history of historiography, the
series that became Man on His Past. It was a new lectureship, and a new eld,
primed for new thought on history. He gave the lectures on 49 November,
the product of trauma and tragedy, and readers of Man on His Past do well to
remember that. He returned to Cambridge on the 10th.
Then a further traumatic event intervened. Paul Vellacott died prematurely.
For thirty-ve years, from the time Buttereld came up to Peterhouse at age
nineteen to encounter the awesome Temperley, Vellacott had been his con-
dant, his protector, his father away from home. Now Vellacott too was gone.
Buttereld wrote the obituary for the Times, which appeared on the 16th. The
funeral was the 25th.
On the 17th Knowles presented his inaugural lecture as Regius Professor,
which Buttereld attended without the slightest hint of chagrin or stress. Ex-
actly one month later, on 17 December, Peter was received into the Roman
Catholic Church by baptism. David Knowles wrote Buttereld a moving
note about the conversion: I hope and pray this is a wise decisionthat is,
that it comes from a real desire to know and serve our Lord, for in that case he
will be happy, and I cannot but feel happy for his sake. But it must be some-
thing of a suffering for you and his mother, in a year which has not been
without times of testing for you. So much loss in so short a time.
On top of all this, Buttereld received the shock of his life from the Fellows
of Peterhouse. After a meeting of the Governing Body on 6 December, the
Fellows approached him informally with the proposal that they elect him
Master in succession to Vellacott. The plan was for him to serve as an aca-
demic Master, and leave the running of the college to the Fellows, devoting less
time than Vellacott to the duties of the ofce. The idea was for him to use the
time to write. Everything in Butterelds system braced him against any plan to
make him Master. Not long before this offer the Governors of Birkbeck Col-
 On War and Historiography 269

lege, University of London, had approached him about allowing his name to
stand as Master. He replied with one of the least obscure letters he ever wrote.
All his aptitude, he said, was conned to teaching, writing, and research, and
that was how he had concentrated his time. He concluded, I am not suitable
for the post. The Peterhouse Fellows prevailed, however. Perhaps he saw it as
an alternative to the Regius chair, for had he not failed to received that honour,
they would not have thought of him as head of a Cambridge college. By a
notable turn of events, David Knowles, who got the Regius chair, was instru-
mental in shaping the process which brought him to the top of his college. The
result was swift. Before December was out, he accepted the plan of the Fellows
to make him Master of Peterhouse.
 10

Master and Aggression

Management, not Scholarship

In January 1955, Buttereld became the forty-fourth Master of Peter-
house, the latest in a line that ran back 670 years. He remained simultaneously
Professor of Modern History. He was the fourth historian among the six
Masters in the twentieth century, the tting successor to Temperley his teacher,
Vellacott his protector, and Ward his personal link with Acton. He was the
rst Methodist head of the college and possibly the rst Peterhouse Master
with working-class origins. He accomplished his striking rise into the upper
reaches of the gentlemanly class entirely by means of academic merit, schol-
arship money, and success as historian. He was a prime example of the
scholarship-boy, what Maurice Cowling, speaking of Raymond Williams,
called one of the most important cultural categories in England in the twen-
tieth century. The local newspaper in Keighley took proud note of the feat.
On 19 March Pamela and he moved from their home on Tenison Road
where they had lived since the late 1930s into the architecturally splendid
early eighteenth-century house on Trumpington Street that served as Masters
Lodge. His status and income increased appropriately. He had ascended far
above the workers stone cottage of his birth. The long front room upstairs
became his ofce and study. The walls were oak panels. The replace was

270
 Master and Aggression 271

large. The furniture was solid. The windows looked onto the attractive college
scene across the street: the gates, the porters lodge, the chapel, the courtyards,
the Fellows and students coming and going. The college provided the house-
keeping and arranged the cooking at a level of quality suitable for the Masters
entertaining. Ethel Wolfe left the Butterelds service and ran a bed and break-
fast in her at near the college to which Buttereld would send visiting schol-
ars. Eve Bogle continued as his private secretary and research assistant, still
paid out of his own purse, and worked with him in the Masters Lodge. Pamela
and he retained ownership of their house on Tenison Road, which they rented
out for income.
Buttereld loved Peterhouse and took delight in his new position. Sitting
in his new study he remarked to Eve Bogle, If I die tonight, I shall have
been Master of my college. Buttereld was fty-four, but his youthful face,
his slight frame, and his approachable manner made him seem, disconcert-
ingly, forty.
The contrast between the social status of the position and the personality of
the man was notable. He was quiet and unassuming, simple in his tastes, and a
leveller in his social manners who treated Fellows and college servants as
equals. People around him remarked that he did not become the least bit snob-
bish and never presented himself as anything other than what he was. They did
notice, however, that he tidied up his dress and put away his bright red shirts
upon becoming Master. He was seen wearing a bow tie in place of the more
ordinarily bourgeois long necktie. In his approach towards food he was vir-
tually ascetic, and towards drink still a teetotaler and reluctant social con-
sumer of ginger beer, which some people in ignorance mistook for ginger ale.
The only obvious deviation from the abstemious life, and the one thing people
commented on repeatedly, was the cigarette that still hung perpetually from
the lips of this relentless chain-smoker. Ved Mehta, a journalist for the New
Yorker, who was blind, depicted Buttereld with the cigarette so vividly that
Buttereld asked him with astonishment how he did that. Mehta recounted
the episode, I didnt say that he talked as if he had a cigarette therethat
would be cumbersome. I converted a sound impression into a visual image.
Buttereld continued to have no inclination towards sports, which put him at
some disadvantage when relating to those undergraduates for whom inter-
collegiate sports were nourishment. He worked even longer hours. Bogle re-
calls that he deliberately trained himself to do with little sleep. He admitted to
her that before going to bed he would relax in a very hot bath, reading a
detective thriller. The librarian in the local public library would put new detec-
tive novels aside for him. By now he had acquired a baby grand piano, which
272 Master and Aggression

he played frequently for relaxation, often after lunch or after mid-morning

coffee. Bogle, one of the few people who heard him play often, observed that
he was a very ne amateur pianist and sight-read extremely well.
By statute he ceased to be a college Fellow. As Master he held considerable
power over the college, but he proposed to act as the dissenter in the heart of
the establishment. He strove immediately to make his exercise of power infor-
mal, and to bridge the chasm that opened between the Masters Lodge and the
rest of the college. Nonetheless, Pamela and he very quickly experienced living
in the Lodge, for all its loveliness, as isolating, a house without neighbours
whose imposing character seemed to oblige those who entered to behave ac-
cording to the rules of proper manners. His sense of the loneliness of the
position mounted when he began to notice that people tended not to speak
freely with him. He complained of losing touch with the real situation. Iron-
ically, however, as Master he again became involved with the life of under-
graduates, perhaps more so than when he held supervisions in the years before
his professorship.
The college over which Buttereld presided still favoured history among the
senior members. There were eighteen Fellows plus the Master. Seven of this
number were professors, a greater proportion of professors than any other
Cambridge college at the time. Four of these professors were historians
Postan, Brogan, Knowles, Buttereldand they numbered four out of the ten
professors then listed with the Faculty of History. With Wormald, Mack
Smith, and R. W. K. Hinton also on hand, the total number of historians in
Peterhouse added up to seven. Hinton had become a Fellow in 1952 and, like
Wormald and Mack Smith, was in some sense a former pupil of Buttereld.
Barker, Tawney, and Commager remained as Honourary Fellows. Such an
array induced Trevelyan, looking on from Trinity College, to pay tribute to
the remarkable group of historians at Peterhouse. The number rose to eight
historians in 1958 when E. A. Wrigley was elected a Fellow to handle geogra-
phy and history.
It was at least open to question whether such a formidable academic pres-
ence, especially concentrated in one area, worked entirely to the advantage
of the students. Tim Voelcker, a Peterhouse undergraduate, charged publicly
that the preeminence accorded the Fellows in the affairs of the college estab-
lished an oligarchy of dons. Their interests came rst, their rooms occupied
too much of the college space, and their world was too segregated from the
undergraduates.
Butterelds college remained among the smallest of the nineteen attached
to the university, with 150 three-year undergraduates, 25 fourth-year under-
graduates, and 20 research students, for a total of less than 200 students.
 Master and Aggression 273

Buttereld, as professor, still held no supervisions with undergraduates, but

even as Master he accepted additional research students, both from Peter-
house and from other colleges, including between 1955 and 1959 H. A. Mac-
Dougall and John Derry. The new undergraduates for the year 19541955
amounted to 2.4 percent of the new matriculants in the whole university.
Among the three-year undergraduates, history had the largest enrolment of
any eld in the college, comprising about 20 percent, but the students in
math, natural sciences, mechanical sciences, and medicine formed a majority
of about 55 percent.
A statistical survey of the three-year undergraduates taken not long before
Buttereld became Master lled in other aspects of the college prole. In
religious terms, about 35 percent of the students identied themselves as prac-
ticing members of the Church of England, about 12 percent were distributed
among various Nonconformist churches, about 8 percent were Roman Catho-
lics, one was Jewish, with most of the rest at least nominally linked with one of
these groups. About half of the students said they attended the college chapel
regularly or occasionally. In politics, 41 percent called themselves Conserva-
tives, 14 percent Labour, 6 percent Liberal, and 30 percent not identied with
any party, although probably tending Conservative, in addition to three stu-
dents who claimed to be Communists and one a Fascist, with the remainder
not responding. Economically, about 30 percent had their university expenses
paid fully by their parents, and most of the rest had their expenses paid nearly
in full by their parents with the remainder paid by a small grant. In social
terms, most dressed in corduroy trousers with college jacket and tie, most
belonged to college societies, most played some sport, and most drank beer.
The picture presented an all-male student population skewed towards the nat-
ural sciences, the Conservative party, the Church of England, the well-enough-
to-do, drink, and sport. Buttereld matched precisely none of these dominant
tendencies in the student population over which he presided. Nonetheless,
such had been the changes in himself and Peterhouse over the years that it was
easier for him to be Master in 1955 than it had been to be a new student in the
Peterhouse of thirty-ve years earlier.
The new Master entered into his duties with greater enthusiasm than he
was at rst willing to admit. Perhaps the position touched some deep afnity
within him for authority and political manoeuvre, contrary to his dissenter
and would-be apolitical self-image. It quickly became evident that the plan for
him to act as an uninvolved scholar-master would fail. His research on Fox
stopped entirely, and he ceased to work on his general history, the Concise
Cambridge Modern History. He discovered that he could not hold himself
back from the daily administration of the college, and that he actually liked
274 Master and Aggression

committees. He constantly consulted with the people involved, took advice on

what seemed to be every decision, wrote letters late into the night to clarify a
point with someone or correct a fault he committed during the day. He found
himself a member of more committees than ever, and chairing more of them
than before, both in Peterhouse and in the wider university. He chaired the
Governing Body of the college, met regularly with the heads of the other
colleges, joined the Council of the Senate of the university, and represented the
university on the Board of Governors of Wesley House, a position he held
from 1955 to 1961. He quickly earned a reputation as a forceful chair, a
ghter at one moment for what he thought right, and a mediator or umpire at
the next, hoping to draw out of people what they thought.
His social life became intense, as an endless stream of scholars, distin-
guished visitors, research students, and undergraduates paraded through the
Lodge, whether for lunch or tea or dinner or dessert. He accepted countless
invitations to visit other colleges. In 19551956, for instance, he attended
the annual sumptuous feasts in St. Johns, Sidney Sussex, Trinity Hall, Jesus,
and Trinity, and the annual dinner at Wesley House, in addition to the Cosin
and Perne feasts in Peterhouse. On each occasion he ate virtually nothing and
drank nothing but ginger beer and water. He participated in numberless cere-
monies, and when the queen came to Cambridge he attended the lunch for her
at Trinity College. In order to overcome the estrangement between senior
members and students in the college he frequented innumerable events in
student societies, from the Boat Club breakfast to the meeting of the Wine
Society, though he cared about neither rowing nor drinking.
He regularly participated in college chapel worship, which, while no longer
the proper centre of the corporate life, involved more students than any other
single activity in the college. His participation included receiving Holy Com-
munion according to the Church of England liturgy. Even so he also attended
the same Methodist Church and, as was his long-standing custom, sat quietly
in a pew near the back.
He displayed evident sympathy for the students, and his attentions were
well received. In spite of his stated desire, however, he seldom appeared for
lunch in the Combination Room, traditionally the preserve of the Fellows in
any case, and not the Masters domain. Besides lacking time for scholarship,
he only barely kept up with his professorial lectures on European history from
1494, three times weekly in all three terms. For the rst time in his career, he
repeated his lectures from old manuscripts.
Already ardent for the college system, he became ever more passionate, and
profusely attributed his own achievements as a historian to the vitality of the
collegiate tradition. He began to write about Peterhouse. Soon after becoming
 Master and Aggression 275

Master, he started a memoir of the college and produced a lengthy manuscript,

Peterhouse in Temperleys Time. He never nished the memoir. He did
complete a brief history of Peterhouse for the Victoria county history of En-
gland, for which he conducted an extraordinary amount of detailed research
in the college records. It was a critical history, not hagiography, referring to
many facets of the collegeeconomic, administrative, religious, geographical,
academicmuch as he once recommended for the history of Europe. Before
his election as Master, he had served for ten years as secretary of the Peter-
house Society, the organization of graduates of the college. He wrote four
consecutive booklets reporting to the alumni on the current history of the
college. These publications reected the same well-roundedness he advocated
for historical writingstatistics about students and Fellows, portraits of what
he called college personalities, and a record of college activities large and
small. The series ended when he stopped being secretary, but as Master he
addressed the members of the society annually on the progress of the college.
Later, when he was about to step down as Master, he wrote another booklet
summarizing the affairs of the college during his period as head. And, from
what he reported, his readers could tell that he felt they had been good years.
If being Master of the college as well as Professor of Modern History were
not enough, he soon began his three-year term as president of the Historical
Association, 19551958, which he entered into with almost as much zeal as
the mastership. He was an authentic believer in the activities of the associa-
tion. He strongly endorsed the practice of bringing together university lec-
turers and professors with schoolteachers and general readers in order to
improve the quality of history teaching, the history curriculum, and general
historical knowledge. He had long participated loyally in the Cambridge
Historical Association, and since his election as professor in 1944, and espe-
cially between 1950 and 1952, he had lled invitations to lecture in local
association meetings all over Great Britain. Now as president he felt duty-
bound to accept more invitations. During 19551956 he fulled some forty
engagements, and during the next two academic years a further twenty-ve
each year, in places such as Norwich, Wolverhampton, Coventry, Bourne-
mouth, Welwyn Garden City, Ealing, Southampton, and Croyden. In addition
he lectured in universities around Great Britain and in the three foreign coun-
tries he most frequented, Ireland, Germany, and the United States.
His new round of special lectures seemed to evoke no new historical thought.
He pulled out old papers on the history of science, another on Leonardo da
Vinci, and recycled bits of one paper he had already published. He collected
his old thoughts on method for a new lecture, The Historian and His Evi-
dence, which he repeated in several local branches of the association. The
276 Master and Aggression

paper offered a neat survey of the rules he would like to follow when handling
evidence as a historian. All of his advice pertained to diplomatic and political
history and to the documents generated by government gures and diplomats.
He urged the use of critical judgment in handling the differences between, for
example, memoirs and the direct acts of government. He entirely omitted any
references to social, economic, intellectual, demographic, or geographical ma-
terials. He exhibited none of the awareness of other aspects of life that he
practiced in his histories of Peterhouse past and present. It was as if he had
reverted to the problems he confronted thirty years before when working
on Napoleons Peace Tactics under Temperley, or as if the documents about
George IIIs intentions which he dealt with during the 1940s, leading to George
III, Lord North, and the People, represented the whole range of sources in-
volved in historical research. His presidential address to the Historical Asso-
ciation in 1955, The Role of the Individual in History, reiterated points he
had made many times over about the validity of approaches to history which
stressed the inuence of individual people as well as approaches that noted laws
and conditions in history. He even projected his points onto the works of his
two masters. He concluded, In the richest kind of historical writing, like that
of Ranke and Acton, both of the two types of history which have been described
will be found to be combined, so that there is interaction between them. It was
his old polarization of individual free will and impersonal necessity, and, al-
though he spoke of their combination, he gave priority to individuals and the
modes of history, particularly diplomatic history, which he believed were able
to focus on individual people.
Immediately upon taking ofce as president he faced preparations for the
ftieth anniversary of the Historical Association, founded in 1906. The asso-
ciation had asked Grace Stretton, a research assistant for history projects in
the British Foreign Ofce, to write a pamphlet about the history of the organi-
zation. Her draft was revised by her supervisor, W. N. Medlicott, the same
Medlicott with whom Buttereld had tangled over ofcial history a few
years earlier. When Buttereld saw the draft he thought it inadequate and
intervened. He rewrote the text along lines compatible with his own historical
thinking. The kinds of changes he introduced provided almost a checklist for
the approach to general historical writing, as distinct from diplomatic history,
that he had been advocating for some time. He transformed it into a critical
history of the association as a whole, instead of a hagiographic chronicle of
ofcial acts, names, and local branches. He included portraits of the important
people, added more quotations to show what people were thinking, integrated
happenings inside the association with trends in the general history of histor-
ical thinking and history teaching, and constructed a chronological narrative
 Master and Aggression 277

of events, putting special emphasis on the beginning of the association. He

had, he explained, a prejudice for no end of detail about the minute origins
of things. Stretton politely agreed to the changes. The work appeared anony-
mously as The Historical Association, 19061956, with a foreword by Butter-
eld as president.
Simultaneously, and at his instigation, the Times Literary Supplement in-
vited him to act as adviser for a special issue timed to coincide with the jubilee
of the Historical Association. He was the de facto editor of an oversized
special insert in the TLS for 6 January 1956, entitled Historical Writing. Sev-
enteen historians discussed the historiography of their elds during the last
fty years in England. Buttereld supplied the integrative opening essay, and
wrote Clio in Council as the leading article for that issue. At the jubilee
event itself in January 1956, Buttereld, as president, addressed the meeting at
the University of London.
Looking over the previous fty years of historiography in England, he iden-
ties two signicant trends. On one hand there are new types of special history
and new historical problems. He has in mind especially the buildup of studies
in economic history and the history of science, and the debates about the
origins of modern capitalism and the deeper structures of a period or society
or institution. These he welcomes in themselves. On the other hand he ac-
knowledges the tendency to diminish the role of political and diplomatic his-
tory in the construction of general history. Here he responds with a yes and no
to the trend. Yes, the relations between states are not adequately captured by
the materials located in Foreign Ofce archives, and yes, the conventional kind
of political narrative seems less tted to serve as a condensation of general
history than ever before. But no, we cannot allow the economic historian to
take charge of general history in its entirety, presiding over the whole and
turning his particular subject into the Queen of the Sciences, and no, the
accounts of underlying structures cannot be made to do more than set the
stage for an epoch. He continues: When French Revolutions and Napoleons
rear themselves up, the personal and political narrative must indeed provide
ribs for any reconstruction that we make. The two kinds of history must be
married. There is a chronological story, but it turns out to have deeper layers
than we previously realized, and it has to be thickened with a heavier load of
expository material.
The discrepancy was great between, on one hand, the range and diversity of
his TLS material, his jubilee presidential address, and his treatment of the
associations history, and, on the other, the restricted range of topics, documen-
tation, and examples discussed in his lecture The Historian and His Evidence
and his presidential address The Role of the Individual in History. It was
278 Master and Aggression

apparent in his utterances from the end of 1954 to early 1956 that, talk as he
might about viewing history as a multifaceted study of societies and civiliza-
tion, his actual orientation remained fastened on the narrative and research
styles of diplomatic history and the centrality of individuals even in general
history. He felt, he said, that he must be the last person in the world to go on
believing such things. At the very moment when he stood as president of
Great Britains Historical Association he was terribly conscious of the isolation
of his attachment to the eld into which he was socialized as a historian under
Temperley. Butterelds historical thought seemed to be stalled along with Fox
and the Concise Cambridge Modern History.

Aggressive Historiography
Butterelds work on Fox was dormant, and he only barely seemed
aware that a shift was occurring in his scholarship on the eighteenth century.
From his commitment to the full-scale biography of Fox, he had moved into
the general questions about the reign of George III, and from there he was
moving onwards to the historiography of George III. The trend led from
detailed historical research to general thinking about history. After his Wiles
lectures and Man on His Past, he was taking practical action to win acceptance
for the history of historiography. He was calling for scholars to produce histo-
ries of the historiography of their special subjects, as a prod to new thinking
and an instrument for disentangling historical investigation from partisan-
ship. He succeeded in persuading the Cambridge Faculty of History to erect
an exam subject on the history of historical science, construed as a branch of
the history of science, and secured Brian Wormalds agreement to do the neces-
sary lectures. He also guided some of his research students into doctoral
dissertations on historiography, practicing what he preached in Man on His
Past about using that eld, along with diplomatic history, as a suitable teacher
of precision-work in historical technique. All of his efforts surrounding
the jubilee celebrations of the Historical Association featured the importance
of the history of historical writing. Nothing was more signicant to his cause
than the special insert Historical Writing in the Times Literary Supplement
which he had stimulated and arranged, discussing the last fty years of histo-
riography in England.
Butterelds work initiated what became a chorus of historians over the
coming years who wrote the history of historiography in Butterelds key.
Three exemplars among these stand out. Felix Raab acknowledged Butter-
elds inspiration as well as his place in the history of the interpretation of
Machiavelli in England in The English Face of Machiavelli: A Changing Inter-
 Master and Aggression 279

pretation, 15001700. Donald Kelley thanked Buttereld for stimulating the

thinking that led to his book Foundations of Modern Historical Scholarship:
Language, Law, and History in the French Renaissance. Joseph Levine cred-
ited Buttereld with identifying the topic of his work Humanism and History:
Origins of Modern English Historiography.
Buttereld had already taken his own advice and begun as early as 1946
to apply his historiographical method to the material about George III. He
sought to learn how historians had worked over the evidence, the events, and
the personalities having to do especially with the early years of the reign. The
issue as Buttereld dened it concerned the apparent increase of royal power
soon after George III become king in 1760. The question was whether the new
king had intentionally pursued policies that enlarged the power of the throne
against the aristocracy on one hand and the House of Commons on the other,
and thereby pushed the British constitution off balance and subverted British
liberties. Just about everybody accepted such a formulation of the problem.
Buttereld accumulated over the years hundreds of pages of notes on large-
size paper on the history of the historiography of George III. He wrote several
long drafts on his ndings, most of the work being done by 1952. This study
paralleled his review of the historiography of the Seven Years War as well as
his inquiry into Actons historiography in the Acton papers. He had come to
realize that he differed greatly from the general approach to history taken by
Lewis Namier, Professor of Modern History at Manchester University and the
paramount gure in the eld. Namier had established his reputation in 1929
with his landmark book, The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George
III, and was since 1951 the director of a monumental cooperative project on
the history of Parliament in the eighteenth century, housed at the Institute for
Historical Research in London. Buttereld considered using his Wiles lectures
to examine the theme of royal power and Parliament during the rst years
after the accession of George III, but hesitated because, he admitted, he was
not ready to take on what he came to call the whole Namier school. G. R.
Elton later observed that after 1945 Namiers views became generally ac-
cepted, indeed, he quipped, became embalmed in a general adulation from
which few dissented.
It is plausible to think that Namiers apparent domination of the interpreta-
tion of the English eighteenth century may have felt to Buttereld like the
effects of a Namier school. Indeed, J. H. Plumb, who talked with Namier
from time to time, thought the notion was not silly. Said Plumb, Namier
hated Buttereld, a hatred that deepened year after year and became a kind of
obsessional rage. He spoke of him with sneering bitterness, arranged for his
books to be savaged by anonymous reviewers and wrecked his reputation
280 Master and Aggression

whenever opportunity offered. Even so, Buttereld might have responded

once again simply as the dissenter, and rested content to challenge Namiers
historical interpretation. But his treatment of Namiers ideas took a surprising
turn. At least since receiving so many bad reviews for George III, Lord North,
and the People, reviews which he blamed on people friendly to Namier, he
carried around uncommonly ill will toward the man. By 1955 he was privately
imputing bad motives to Namier and accusing him of being unfair whenever
possible, ready to pounce on the slightest slip. He claimed that, by means
of the massive project he directed on the history of the British Parliament in the
eighteenth century, Namier was attempting the trick of merely trying to
establish a monopoly . . . where he could even conne the use of papers to
his own disciples. In Butterelds eyes, Namier was committing an offense
against a cardinal norm of scholarship, open access to the archives. In a cre-
scendo of hyperbole that ran back to the 1930s, he declared, I have assumed
for twenty years that I would never get any concessions from Namier.
Namier was, he said, an old enemy of mine in the academic eld. The
vehemence of the accusations and the sheer bad tone of his words directed
against Namier sound in sharp contrast with his repeated injunctions against
moral judgments against persons and his general admonition to show charity
to all people. What he came to say of someone else might be said of his own ap-
proach to Namier: It is almost as though [Namier] were a personal enemy.
It is perhaps from this period in the mid-fties onwards that we encounter
from Buttereld more than just the occasional expression of animosity to-
wards others, more than we have heard him say in the 1930s and 1940s. We
begin to notice about this time similar bad tone and strong words about
certain people in letters of evaluation he was asked to write in connection
with their applications for professorships, lectureships, and fellowships. A few
years later, in a lengthy unpublished essay on the achievements of historians
close to him, he worded his criticisms in gratuitously unkind ways. About
Trevelyan, who was in some sense a mentor to him: some of his books seem
to me to be rather weak. About Tawney, with whom he had become associ-
ated in Peterhouse during the war: Tawney could not help turning his studies
into propaganda for the Labour cause. About George Clark, who also had
helped him much: I do not regard him as a powerful mind. Perhaps these
were no more than the sort of cutting remarks lightly thrown at each other by
academics in Cambridge. Perhaps they reected a changing style of criticism, a
new kind of candour, a stark reection of his admission that I, too, seem to
relish the game. Such remarks became common in Butterelds rhetoric, and
other people noticed the change and began to wonder.
By March 1956 he had another long draft ready on the historiography of
 Master and Aggression 281

George III, possibly intended initially as an article for the Cambridge Histori-
cal Journal, and then by July a new short draft for delivery to the Anglo-
American Historians Conference in London. Soon afterwards, however,
Butterelds plans took a sharp turn. The Cambridge Review invited him to
review a new book on Lord Chathams administration of 17661768 by John
Brooke, a young historian who worked closely with Namier on the history of
Parliament project. The book annoyed him. He attributed the praise it was
receiving to the presence of a prefacehe labelled it an imprimaturby
Namier. While noting positively the massive research that supported the book,
he charged that by concentrating on the underlying structures of political
behaviour and on the baser motives of the politicians, Brookes method at-
omized the material, missed the very things that governments and parlia-
ments exist to do, and excluded the ideas and nobler purposes of the people
involved. Buttereld issued his by now familiar call for the creative combina-
tion of structural analysis and chronological narrative about individual per-
sons. Ironically, he himself had long downgraded even the existence of states
and governments, which he considered little more than abstract nouns cover-
ing the work of countless individuals in and out of ofce. The Cambridge
Review soon asked him to follow with a review of The Rise of the Pelhams by
John B. Owen, another historian particularly sympathetic to Namier. This
book he praised lavishly for achieving the integration of structural analysis in
the style of Namier with political narrative, but then he criticized Owen for
neglecting the writings of previous historians and presuming originality in his
ndings where earlier historians, working from hunches and insight, had al-
ready anticipated him. Again ironically, Butterelds own George III, Lord
North, and the People had received sustained criticism that the book lacked
references to other history books and other historians.
It is not clear what precisely drove Buttereld to take the next step. The
conjunction of the superabundance of his research notes, the gargantuan scale
of his written drafts, his vigour to promote the merits of the history of histo-
riography, the undertone of his hostility to Namier, the praise heaped upon the
Brooke volume which he considered substandard, the feeling that he needed to
rise to the defense of historical scholarship, his need during a dry spell in his
productivity to publish another bookall these factors would have inclined
him to write something long. Perhaps at the end, the pressure from Collins, his
publisher, to give them a new book pushed him onwards. Collins had been
pressing since January 1952 for Buttereld to give them some manuscript as a
by-product of the great Fox opus.
Early in 1957 he sent an aggressive article to Encounter entitled George III
and the Namier School, published in April, as a sort of kite to see whether it
282 Master and Aggression

will draw any re, all of which is a preliminary to a full dress attack, which
possibly he [Namier] may even be aware of by now. Then on 1 April he sent
Collins his typescript of the book. By the end of summer he sent a synopsis of
the book to History, the journal of the Historical Association, whose editor
had requested an article from him on some theme of his choosing. In the
middle of this sequence Cambridge University awarded Namier an honourary
doctorate, and Buttereld declined to have him at Peterhouse.
The text he sent to Collins was not a continuous and integrated work, but,
like George III, Lord North, and the People, a patchwork of writings, and he
was still writing the nal section intended for the volume. The rst part was
the lecture The Historian and His Evidence, which he had taken to so many
branches of the Historical Association during the last two years. The second
part was a long and detailed review of the treatment of George III by historians
until the 1920s, focusing entirely on the question of the intentions and conse-
quent actions of the new king upon ascending the throne in 1760. Buttereld
probably had put this piece together by 1952. The third part was a miscellany
about historical method and Namier, shorter than the other parts, rambling,
repetitive, evidently hurriedly written, even dishevelled, containing passages
expanded from his book reviews of Brooke and Owen, and other comments
on R. R. Sedgwick. These, together with Namier, were the only names Butter-
eld listed as members of the Namier school, the phalanx he feared march-
ing through the historical profession. The fourth section was to be a long study
of one of his old topics, England and the French Revolution, 1792, which he
thought he would complete by the end of April. This piece seemed to have no
organic connection with the others, and was left over from his George III
studies from the 1930s and 1940s. The publisher took Butterelds suggestion
to go ahead with the rst three parts, and showed interest in using the re-
mainder for another book. The text of the book as published simply stopped
after the last sentence of part three, leaving no ending, no conclusion.
Collins raced the material through production. George III and the Histo-
rians, a 300-page volume, was ready by late October 1957, in time for the new
book season. It was his seventeenth book. There was, said Collins in triumph,
a paucity of serious historical writing this year, and George III and the
Historians should have the eld almost to itself.
When Buttereld saw the book, he was mortied. The advertising cast him
as an authority on George III, the very thing he disclaimed in the preface,
where he warned against the increasing tendency to defer to authorities
instead of cultivating independent, critical judgment. He protested to Collins
that he preferred to appear as a poor David before this colossal Goliath
who has such a squadron behind him.
 Master and Aggression 283

Worse, he seriously misquoted Namier, and he committed, or failed to

catch, scores of other mistakes in the text. He tried to explain to his publisher
that the errors were due to his rush to nish the writing and get the book into
print. He later admitted privately that he had not carefully looked over the
last third of the book, the controversial section on Namier. His great error
was to drop a section out of a quotation from Namier, making it appear as if
Namier were trying to inict a strict discipline on a school, when what
Namier actually wrote said the exact opposite. The quotation was taken from
a sentence in Namiers foreword to Brookes Chatham Administration, part of
the series edited by Namier for Macmillan Publishers under the general title
England in the Age of the American Revolution. Namier wrote:
And while the History of Parliament is a cooperative undertaking in which
the individuality of the collaborators merges into that of the team, every
volume of England in the Age of the American Revolution will be individual
work, the authors garden plot on which he labours.

When Buttereld took hold of the sentence, he reversed Namiers meaning:

One of the more recent works of the Namier school is the volume by Mr. John
Brooke on The Chatham Administration, 176668. It is part of the series
which is being produced under the title England in the Age of the American
Revolution, and which, according to Sir Lewis Namier, is, in one respect at
least, a co-operative undertaking so that the individuality of the collabora-
tors merges into that of the team.

Butterelds misquotation created a proof-text for the Namier school, the

derogatory label he tried to sew on Namier, Brooke, Owen, and Sedgwick.
Buttereld wanted George III and the Historians to demonstrate at length
the merits of working out the history of historiography of a major theme. His
analysis of the historiography of George III, especially the early years, is thor-
ough, researched based, and intriguing, and he demonstrates the profusion
and succession of interpretations, beginning contemporaneously with the
events. As in his other historiographical forays, he presumes that the emerging
medium was technical history and the goal was the emergence of what he
would call the nal story. More pointedly, he wishes for the book to initiate
a public debate among historians focused entirely on the higher regions of
the questions of historical approach and method that he believes separated
Namiers history from his own. To accomplish this aim, he inserts passages
on historical method here and there into the midst of longer passages of ex-
position of Namiers work. He insists that he in no way wishes to deny that
Namiers work was original, in both its methods and its ndings. He expresses
a certain admiration for Namiers Structure of Politics at the Accession of
284 Master and Aggression

George III. He also claims to appreciate aspects of Namiers project on the

history of Parliament. It was a gigantic undertaking involving a team of re-
searchers who were engaged in the orderly collection of information on every
single member of the eighteenth-century body, drawn from every conceivable
source, with the goal of compiling systematic and compact biographies on
each one. Consistent with his long-standing modus vivendi, Buttereld wants
to see the truth in Namiers work and incorporate the best of Namier into his
own thinking. His chief complaint against Namier is the appearance of one-
sidedness in the interpretation of political history. Buttereld charges that
Namier concentrated too narrowly on the underlying structures and hidden
forces involved in the political events and not sufciently on the individual
personalities as agents. Namier overrated the operation of baser motives in
politics, such as the pursuit of social status, personal gain, family connection,
and career advancement, and tended to overlook or obscure the functioning of
higher motives, such as commitment to political principle, defense of liberty,
and devotion to public responsibility. The slant in Namiers results, he thinks,
was due partly to the sheer detail of the investigation, which could obscure the
larger picture, and partly to his preference for a certain type of information
calculated to disclosed the workings of the baser factors, to the neglect of the
evidence which might indicate the higher intentions. Buttereld concludes that
Namier constructed a version of the eighteenth-century world that stressed the
irrationality of political processes, or, at best, the sheer self-interest of political
leadership. On Butterelds pivotal question about the intentions of George III
in the early years of his reign, the effect of Namiers method, he says, was to
accentuate the kings opposition to encroachments upon the constitution by
Whig oligarchs, and hence to paint the king in more or less Tory colours.
Butterelds antidote to Namier is the approach he had already advocated
many times. He urges the combination of both narrative and structure, free-
dom and necessity, analysis of the deep processes and conditions as well as the
story of individual actions, ideas, and purposes. The effect would be to pro-
duce a picture wholly different from Namiers of George III and the political
world of the mid-eighteenth century. If the parliamentary debates and the
letters of George III were taken seriously, he says, we would discover that the
king and the politicans had, besides their selshness, both rational purposes
and noble ideals. The king in particular would emerge less partisan, less self-
ish, and more devoted to the ideal of the patriot king who stood above the
play of parties and acted according to what he took to be the well-being of the
nation as a whole. Buttereld echoes a point he had been making since at least
1933 when he published a brief article Bolingbroke and the Patriot King in
 Master and Aggression 285

the Cambridge Review. He then appends the complaints he had made against
Brooke and Owen in his reviews of their recent books.
The book certainly aroused discussion and generated controversy, but not
about the higher regions of the questions of historical approach. The discus-
sion focused instead on Butterelds inadequacies. John Cannon called it one
of the most curious books of our time. By uncanny coincidence, Macmillan
issued Namiers magisterial Structure of Politics in a second edition at the very
same moment that Butterelds volume appeared. Collins had failed to take
notice of the pending event and seriously miscalculated the publishing season.
There, under new books, sat Buttereld and Namier, juxtaposed. Reviewers
compared Namier with the critique. One reviewer after another expressed
shock at Butterelds misquotation of Namier. They cited his many inaccu-
racies, accused him of overdramatization, lamented the disconnectedness of
the book, and complained about the unclarity of his writing, which made them
unsure about exactly what the offenses were that he opposed.
Just about everyone noted the inappropriateness of the label the Namier
school. Upon seeing the book, Professor Alfred Cobban objected to Butter-
elds use of the term Namier school in a parallel article, George III and the
Constitution, scheduled to be published in History, the journal of the Histor-
ical Association which Cobban edited. Buttereld defended the term as an
attempt not to appear as if he were attacking individuals. In the Times Literary
Supplement he tied the notion of a school to those who followed the lead of a
giant and who identied with a system. But he quietly agreed to delete the
offending label from the article. When the article appeared in February 1958,
Namier school occurred only once, in contrast with its repeated usage in the
book, and he substituted other, more respectful wordings, such as Sir Lewis
Namier and his followers, Sir Lewis Namier and those who accept his inter-
pretation, and Sir Lewis Namier and Mr. Rodney Sedgwick, none of which
are in the book. But the label stuck. Even thirty years later Ian Christie, who
had sided with Namier at the time, felt obliged to defend the independence of
the writers Buttereld may have had in mind.
There were reviewers who expressed agreement with Butterelds point that
Namier was one-sided, or at least agreed that Namier could be understood as
one-sided if taken to extremes, but none of these adopted Butterelds case
straight. Derek Beales, then a research student in Cambridge, gave Buttereld
the most solid support he received in print at the time. Beales believed that
Buttereld was right in the end on two of his primary points, that Namier
undercut ideas in history and produced in effect a Tory interpretation of
George III.
286 Master and Aggression

Both Sedgwick and Owen reviewed the book. Sedgwick, who, ironically,
had been Butterelds examiner for the nal undergraduate Tripos at Cam-
bridge in 1922, itemized Butterelds errors, and in a second review presented
a plausible restatement of Namiers and his own intentions. In so doing, he
demonstrated in practice that he and Namier did actually believe there were
such things as intentions. Their chief aim was not to discuss intentions, how-
ever, but to submit some of the commonplaces about the eighteenth century to
the scrutiny of exhaustive research and new methods. Hence, their work was
not designed to present the whole picture. He challenged Buttereld to give
his own version of the early years of George III, in distinction from the two
views he had attacked, the Whig interpretation and now Namiers Tory
interpretation.
Owen also listed the errors, and then, after allowing that he may not have
understood Buttereld correctly because of Butterelds verbally indirect ap-
proach, stated his feeling that only one criticism in the book might apply to
him, namely the neglect of previous historians and, hence, his unawareness of
when another historian had already made his points. He did not see the prob-
lem, however, since his interest lay with the evidence and what could be con-
structed from the evidence, and not with the second-hand thoughts and un-
documented hints of historians. By way of counterattack, he expressed his
belief that Butterelds method of the history of historiography took histo-
rians on an unnecessary detour away from an understanding of the eighteenth
century.
Namier decided to reply. He sent a letter to the Times Literary Supplement.
Under the circumstances, Namier could play the role of the senior scholar, and
chide Buttereld for the misquotation of his words. He called on Buttereld to
admit the error. Buttereld did so, but only after Namiers prodding. Namier
than magnanimously invited Buttereld to visit the History of Parliament
project at the Institute of Historical Research in London. Buttereld accepted
the offer at rst, then wrote to postpone, and eventually set a new date a year
later, but in the end never actually went to see Namier. Namier died in August
1960 at age seventy-two.
George III and the Historians enabled Buttereld once again to show the
scholarly benets of the history of historiography. But, instead of demonstrat-
ing, as he thought, the twists and turns leading to the triumph of the nal
story, he documented something else he did not notice, that the history of
historiography recounts the ongoing career of diversity in historical inter-
pretation without coming to an outcome that is good once and for all. Butter-
elds version of the intentions of George III became just another account, and
joined the two-hundred-year-long queue. His version remained consistent
 Master and Aggression 287

with the story he initiated in Whig Interpretation of History, Bolingbroke

and the Patriot King, and Englishman and His History. As Sedgwick let him
know, he had discussed the Whig interpretation and now Namiers Tory inter-
pretation, and the path was clear for him to lay out his alternative. He may not
have gone as far as Sedgwick wished, but he had made enough of a start for us
to tell where he was going. Within the history of the subject, Butterelds
interpretation could not long pose as the neutral offering of scientic his-
tory. The effects of his politics and moral sensibility on his history were
strong enough to mark his rudimentary version of the early years of George III
as New Whig.
The mistakes as well as the animus against Namier guaranteed that Butter-
eld stimulated no authentic discussion of historical approaches to the eigh-
teenth century. He realized that he had undermined his own case for critical
scholarship. In what may have been the understatement of the year, he admit-
ted privately that he had made more howlers than I knew about. He had
acknowledged publicly in the Times Literary Supplement that he misquoted
Namier. After Owens review, he decided to write a letter to the Cambridge
Review against some of Owens criticisms, and then let the world know in a
rousing fashion that he had not given away on the main point.
Buttereld impeded historiographical discussion in another way as well.
Besides the misquotation, he misstated the differences between Namier and
himself. His persistent dualism and individualism misled him. It was not a
question of individuals versus structures, ideals versus necessity, higher versus
baser, with Namier dealing in structures, necessity, and baser things, and But-
tereld championing the intentions, beliefs, and higher motives of individuals.
Namiers method actually depended on dealing with individuals, and he oper-
ated by gathering certain kinds of detailed information on individuals who
were members of Parliament. Butterelds counter-complaint centered on in-
dividuals as well, and accentuated the need for other kinds of information
about the very same individuals whom Namier placed on his list. Both knew
about intentions and both also knew about nonintentional factors. In any
case, both historians dealt with self-interest as well as with actions for the
good of the realm. And neither historian noticed that the pursuit of family
interests or advancement of career or increase of wealth may or may not be
morally base, depending on how these things related to the totality of human
relations and political action at the time. Moreover, neither historian pos-
sessed a strong concept of the state or Parliament. If Namier omitted the
workings of political institutions and public ofce in his search for the impact
of other factors, Butterelds reduction of the state to an abstract noun in-
duced him to treat the workings of the state merely by-the-way as he analyzed
288 Master and Aggression

the lives of political individuals, most notably George III and, we might add,
Charles James Fox.
Their difference might better be construed as a clash of historical methods
and the aims of their projects, in addition to differences in their politics, not to
mention personal factors and baser motives. Buttereld aimed to understand
the ideas and intentions of certain political gures, while Namier specically
sought to understand the operation of factors other than those consciously
known and intended. In the history of Parliament and in his Structure of
Politics, Namier employed social and collective biography to understand cer-
tain political gures, while Buttereld favoured the study of their political
activities and written statements. Namier favoured information related to
each gures wealth, status, family, career tractk, patronage, and so on, any-
thing that allowed him to draw connecting lines from gure to gure on such
social things. This in turn enabled Namier to disclose broader trends and
unexpected connections among social factors and political consequences,
relationships not perhaps consciously known to the people involved at the
time. He and his co-workers looked everywhere to nd the information they
wanted, including the literary evidence. By contrast Buttereld privileged cer-
tain kinds of literary materials, especially parliamentary debates, royal corre-
spondence, personal letters, political pamphlets, and, lately, historical writ-
ings. In these materials he looked for what the very same people said they
intended, believed, and regarded as right.
Such differences in historiography were crucial, but they would not explain
why Buttereld turned their differences into something sounding so personal.
Their differences in politics may have been a factor. Buttereld named Na-
miers historical outlook as Tory, which according to Butterelds concept of
scientic history would be a damning intrusion. It would also clash with
Butterelds own, usually unadmitted, New Whig political outlook. Of possi-
ble baser motives, no hint of anti-Semitism rose to the surface, and in any case
Namier had long ago converted to Christianity. Perhaps Buttereld felt Na-
mier to be his competitor for control of the interpretation of the history of
eighteenth-century England. Perhaps he felt jealousy of Namiers successes.
Maybe he had merely locked into the trait Elton had suggested Namier ex-
hibited, that he was rather good at making enemies. Buttereld did not
appear to follow his own advice, to look inside himself and ask why he threw
such darts at another historian.
The episode achieved the status of a historical controversy of great impor-
tance. In retrospect three decades later, however, Christie challenged the as-
sumption on which the controversy turned. The problem was a mistaken
construal of the power of two kings. There was no increase of royal power in
 Master and Aggression 289

the early years of George III since it now appeared to be the case that royal
power had not declined during the reign of George II. George III merely con-
tinued to operate on the same level of power as his grandfather. The questions
about George IIIs intentions or his hypocrisy, his long-term political policy or
his arbitrariness, thus become quite secondary. It was all a tempest in a teapot.
J. H. Plumb had already pointed out in 1969 that Namier had arrived at the
same conclusion from a different starting point and using a different method.
In The Structure of Politics Namier had shown that there was no royal re-
sumption of prerogatives by George III, no Tory attempt to seize power from
Whigs, and no Whig counterattack in defense of English liberties. Paradox-
ically, Buttereld and Namier jointly, by different historical methods, with
different assumptions about human behaviour, and at about the same mo-
ment, had demolished the Whig interpretation of English history, and Butter-
eld had not noticed.
In spite of the missteps towards Namier, Buttereld surfaced intact from the
turmoil. Linda Colley, in her biography of Namier, conceded that Buttereld
was one of his shrewdest critics. George III and the Historians took on
service as the most extensive analysis of the historiography of the subject. In
the long term he won general acceptance for his main criticism of Namier. One
historian after another agreed with his observation that Namiers approach
belittled the stated beliefs and purposes of the politicians in eighteenth-century
England, or, as Ian Christie put it, that Namier was over-inclined to attribute
statements of political attitudes to hypocrisy. G. R. Elton entered the point
into his general disquisition on how to do political history properly.
Buttereld generated the public perception that he was the chief commenta-
tor on Namier. Twice after Namiers death, in 1961 and 1964, the BBC turned
to him for broadcasts on Namier from their national platform. Ved Mehta of
the New Yorker called Butterelds rst broadcast on Namier his funeral
oration. Buttereld again praised Namier, as in the book, but then relaxed his
accusation not even a little that Namier was constricted by his own technique,
so that he left high politics and statesmanship out of history. He still allowed
just a little of his hostility to Namier and Namiers method to show when he
suggested that Namiers career after 1930 was misspent, and expressed the
wished that, instead of directing team research on the history of Parliament,
Namier had written rather on great statesmen or produced a narrative of
higher politics in the reign of George III. Buttereld reviewed the biographies
of the members of Parliament from 1754 to 1790, edited by Namier, when
they were published posthumously in 1964 with the assistance of Brooke.
With one hand he distributed praise for the work as a magnicent piece of
reference, but with the other hand he offered the damning judgment that the
290 Master and Aggression

biographies were not history. While the teamwork that lay behind them was
admirable, he said, the volumes lacked genuine insight. Insight issues from the
individual historian working alone, not from a team of semi-ofcial personnel.
Then he quipped that, with these volumes now available, historians no longer
need to fear that a whipper-snapper on the Namier team might catch them
making mistakes about some member of Parliament. Brooke wrote the BBC to
object to Butterelds name-calling against the historians and research assis-
tants on the team at the Institute of Historical Research, but Buttereld did not
reply, and did not withdraw the comment.
Buttereld summarized his attitude in 1962 in response to a request from
the executive secretary of the American Historical Association to identify the
most exciting historical study (or studies) now going on in Britain. He placed
foremost the work of Namier and those associated with him: You will realize
that though I recognise the new insight that comes from this kind of thing, I
think it liable to be dangerous on the one hand and infertile on the other
hand, unless conducted by people capable of the same kind of intuitions as
were necessary for distinguished historical writing in the days when, shall
we say, the school of Ranke prevailed. Curiously it sounded as if Buttereld
was conceding Namier the victory, and signalling his awareness that his own
kind of history in the spirit of Ranke was not going to be taken for granted in
the future.
Also curiously, as their controversy faded into the past, people began to
view the two as if they were on the same side. Both came to be seen as critics of
the Whig interpretation of history. Butterelds criticism had long been ob-
vious. Namiers, on the other hand, was less obvious. It could be argued that
his focus on the seemingly aimless shifts in alliances due to the operation of
self-interest, patronage, and place, and his denigration of purpose, intention,
ideology, and policy in the politics of the eighteenth century rendered the Whig
interpretation meaningless. For example, both J. C. D. Clark and Annabel
Patterson, for different reasons and with different effects, classed the two
together as responsible for the presumed defeat of the Whig interpretation of
history.
By 1957 Buttereld held in his hand a typescript for what might have been
part four of George III and the Historians. Perhaps in the heat of the action of
April 1957 he began to expand his text, and, by the time the rst book ap-
peared in the fall, he had in hand 250 pages towards another book, this one on
England and the French Revolution, 1792. He was telling Collins to expect the
completed volume within eighteen months. Five years later he was still saying
that he intended to nish a book on 1792 which would give equal weight to
 Master and Aggression 291

Fox, Burke, and William Pitt the younger. The typescript continued to sit in
the pile of projects that he had on his desk.
The Namier episode was a disaster. Besides the turmoil, it evoked no new
thoughts about history. Butterelds analysis of the treatment of George III by
a long succession of historians represented older work, rooted in his interests
during the 1930s. His chief point against Namier amounted to a repetition of
his old message to mingle structure and narrative in order to produce balanced
history.
Several ways to take his scholarship were opening before him in 1958. He
could work more carefully on themes of historical thought and historiogra-
phy, a road he had by now walked a long time. There was still his interest in
Christianity and history. Perhaps he might take up Sedgwicks challenge to
construct his own version of eighteenth-century events, his alternative to the
Whig historians and the Tory Namier. This was also a road he had walked a
long time, and it would lead him back to the biography of Fox, or perhaps to
work in earnest on the early reign of George III. And there was also his recent
involvement in topics in international relations, the sort of things he broached
in Christianity, Diplomacy and War. Meanwhile, he remained the Master of
Peterhouse.
 11

World Ideas, World Politics

Ideas of History
In the wake of the Namier debacle, Buttereld followed his by now nor-
mal course and accepted what other people put before him. He confounded
those near to him who observed how adept he was at engaging several themes
all at once.
Paramount among these themes was further study of historical thought and
historiography, which he followed at the invitation of other people. Quite
apart from the excitement surrounding Namier that occupied what little time
he had for scholarly work during his mastership, his discourse on historiogra-
phy took a startling new turn in the work he threw together on the side. The
initial medium of his new thought was a pair of lectures at the Hebrew Univer-
sity in Jerusalem in December 1957. Following these he presented an abbrevi-
ated version of the Jerusalem lectures at the London School of Oriental and
African Studies in January 1958. This was the very moment when the Namier
turmoil was exploding all around him.
Prior to this moment, his chief interests in historiography pertained to ques-
tions about historical scholarship, particularly history as technique, the criti-
cism of documents, the reconstruction of episodes, and the handling of themes
by successive historians. His new discourse pursued the broad road of ideas of
history and world history. These were the sorts of things suggested by the

292
 World Ideas, World Politics 293

notion of historical-mindedness which he mentioned in Man on His Past, or

by the passages in Christianity and History about the whole human drama.
There were indications that he was becoming more aware of the importance of
cultures and peoples outside Europe. The connections were strong between his
thinking about religion and the new thoughts he entertained about world
history. Perhaps without being precisely conscious of it, he began to explore
the vague and misty area of questions about what would lead historians to
differ profoundly. One historian, such as Namier, decides to stress chiey the
details of vested interests and ulterior motives, while another, such as himself,
insists on adding a persons ideas to the picture and drawing in all the lines of
connection with general history.
The rst hints of new thinking about ideas of history surfaced in an inciden-
tal lecture in December 1955 to the London School of Economics, History as
the Emancipation from the Past, a lecture Buttereld scarcely had time to
write. He discusses there what it means to possess an idea of the past which
enables people to free themselves from domination by the past. He brings into
the open an assumption he had carried with him at least since the 1920s, the
idea that there are stages in general history as people made progress in
the course of the ages from the barbarian and primitive stage of society to
the civilized and adult stage we call civilization. In the lecture he articu-
lates the notion that people in the primitive state lived within tightly knit
societies characterized by herd spirit, deference to authority, and subser-
vience to the past. They could easily believe that the customs and rituals they
honoured were an inheritance from a Golden Age in the remote past when
their all-powerful ancestors lived in harmonious communication with the sa-
cred and invented the practices they perpetuated. People would advance
towards civilization when they generated the spirit of individuality, adopted
the critical outlook, and developed a sense of history, particularly when they
gained the knowledge that they themselves could change the common inheri-
tance and create novel culture. In the lecture Buttereld focuses on the issue of
the appearance within a culture of an idea of history which enabled people to
reconstruct the past and aim to transform the future. His notions are rudimen-
tary and amount to little more than side comments about a stupendous vista,
rather than serious reections on the history of world civilization. They repre-
sent highly conventional expressions of self-satisfaction with modern Euro-
pean culture and prejudice against cultures in other times and places. But
they signal a desire to enter a wider realm of world history and historical
sensibilities.
Soon afterwards, during January and February 1956, in a series of lectures
on his basic religious beliefs, he included a couple of sentences suggesting that
294 World Ideas, World Politics

a new awareness of the world outside Christendom was dawning on him. The
rst ties his thought to past history: One of the reasons why I think that
history is valuable is that it helps us to grasp something of the totally different
experiences of life which other men and other ages have had, and which
complement our own. The second indicates a sense of the multiplicity of
cultures and religious experiences in contemporary history and the future:
We do not know how much the traditions of Christianity may not still be
enriched by the many things that we have to learn from the mysticism of Asia
and from the other religious of the world. . . . It will be interesting to see what
our religion will mean when worked out in the terms of a culture far removed
from the Graeco-Roman. Buttereld had not talked like this before, and his
comments reveal how uninformed he was about, among other things, the an-
cient history of Christianity in regions such as India or Ethiopia or Armenia.
In Jerusalem his theme was the inuence of the Hebrew scriptures on the
idea of history active in what he was calling Western civilization. In the
lecture he is careful in Israel not to pose as an expert on Hebraica. He refers to
a kind of inuence that would be detected almost by intuition, rather than
through precise documentation. It concerns what he identies as mans gen-
eral attitude to the whole panorama of world history, the whole drama of
human life throughout historical epochs, the general course of events in time.
The reference to the whole drama of human life came directly from Chris-
tianity and History, where he sharply distinguished history in such a com-
prehensive sense, which belonged to the function of religion to disclose, from
the history which academic history was competent to reconstruct. It was, he
says, the region almost of what I might call unconscious assumptions, the
ideas people scarcely know they hold. He knows he is talking far removed
from the technical history he lauded as the scientic model. This is not the
terrain of his admonitions about the difference between memoirs and govern-
ment documents which he issued in The Historian and His Evidence. He
moves his thinking onto the most expansive horizon he knew, far more com-
prehensive than the treatment of general history he had hitherto contemplated
in his exposition of the modern history of Europe.
Before his Israeli listeners he plays with the notion he had raised in Chris-
tianity and History that the ancient Jewish scriptures left to the Christians the
legacy of knowing God as the God of history and not merely as the God of
nature. He embraces the suggestion commonly made by others that the Jewish
scriptures, via Christianity, may have provided the wherewithal to break with
a perception of history as endless cycles, and given to Western civilization
the idea that history moves towards a goal. He makes no comment on the
cyclic themes central to Christian religion, themes such as renewal, revival,
 World Ideas, World Politics 295

and resurrection. He suggests that the beliefs that history is meaningful and
that every moment and every person count may have come from the Jews. He
also credits the ancient Jews with originating the concept of universal history,
the history of the world seen as a whole. He gives no hint that he is acquainted
with Hindu or Buddhist or Chinese renderings of universal history. He sug-
gests that the ancient Jews may have contributed to the modern idea of prog-
ress, but only via a secular transmutation that denuded a Jewish idea of history
of its spiritual character and excluded the elements that perceived history as
cataclysmic and tragic. He agrees with the commonly held notion that the
modern idea of progress was a recent and secular invention. He places the
conception date after the scientic revolution of the seventeenth century, the
events which he has long insisted mark the dawn of the modern period. As his
discussion proceeds he considers four ideas of history in something like histor-
ical sequence: ancient Jewish, Greek, Christian, and the modern Western secu-
lar idea of progress. He specically notes the rise of a Christian interpretation
of history via the Gospels, Augustine, and Eusebius.
These were new thoughts for Buttereld, but he was far from a pioneer
among thinkers. All of the ideas he put forward were conventional, and he
adopted them uncritically. What is interesting is that he began to reect on the
character of an idea of history as such, and that he brought to the enterprise
the mentality and priorities of the historian and not the theologian. Buttereld
was being tempted to join the trend towards comparative world history stimu-
lated politically by the successful pressures for decolonization in India and
Africa.
Butterelds intellectual interests and his concerns about international poli-
tics coincided. At the time of the Egyptian nationalization of the Suez Canal in
1956, Buttereld went on record, in a letter to the Times of London, with what
was for him a rare political statement. He favoured a new internationalism
which featured the voluntary abandonment of imperialism by the British and
French and welcomed the rise of the peoples of the Middle East, Asia, and
Africa to read equality and independence. In intellectual terms, he readily
acknowledged the role of the London School of Oriental and African Studies
in expanding the horizons of British scholars, including his own. He men-
tioned Christopher Dawson as an antecedent, and he might have added Rein-
hold Niebuhr, whose Faith and History, with its theological sweep of com-
parative history, he had reviewed with favour some years earlier. He had
recently acted as a referee for Philip Bagbys Culture and History, whose global
perspective he found stimulating, and it was his report that persuaded the
publisher to bring out the book.
Above all, he deferred to the work of Arnold Toynbee whose nal volumes
296 World Ideas, World Politics

of A Study of History were published in 1954, amid wide public acclaim.

Toynbee published An Historians Approach to Religion in 1956, derived
from his well-known Gifford Lectures in Edinburgh in 1952 and 1953, which
incorporated the religions of the world in a wide-ranging analysis of the histo-
rians mode of study. Butterelds attraction to Toynbee dated from at least
1934, when he applauded the rst three volumes of A Study of History. He
had made a point to keep in touch with Toynbee since at least 1950 by sending
Toynbee copies of some of his publications. Toynbee used some Buttereld
references approvingly in the nal volumes of his magnum opus. He also
reviewed Man on His Past favourably, albeit chiding Buttereld for his univer-
salization of so called scientic history. Toynbee reminded him that the histor-
ical thought he was talking about was merely one type of history among all the
varieties of history available throughout the ages. Butterelds scientic his-
tory was really the style of history created within the culture of late modern
German universities. Toynbee invited Buttereld to the dinner of distinguished
scholars feted by Oxford University Press when the nal volumes were pub-
lished. When Toynbees extraordinary volume Reconsiderations appeared in
1961, Buttereld in turn reviewed it and announced his fundamental sympa-
thy for what he considered to be Toynbees colossal achievement. Toynbee
was, said Buttereld, the one man in a generation who instead of burrowing
into some microscopic period, brings an analytic mind to the whole panorama
of the historical civilisations.
In his lecture at the London School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS),
in January 1958, Buttereld admitted his ignorance of the historiography pro-
duced in cultures outside Europe. The inner force of the comparative method
would compel him to enlarge his reading. He was already listening to an
Islamic research student at Oxford who was urging him to begin a study of
Islamic historiography, and in the London lecture he offered his rst, albeit
brief, comparative reference to Hinduism and Buddhism. It would appear
from his notes that he began reading, or at least collecting bibliography about,
some non-European historiography during 1958 or 1959, immediately after
his lecture at SOAS. It was a case of the venue inuencing the speaker more
than the speaker inuencing the venue. He apparently showed interest from
the start in Chinese, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian historical writing, and, in
comparative religion, the works by Mircea Eliade. He postponed his reading
about Islamic themes.
In 1958 he accepted an assignment to review the study of the history of his-
torical writing for the International Congress of Historical Sciences in Stock-
holm, scheduled for August 1960, and, in a departure from his traditional
 World Ideas, World Politics 297

practice, decided not to limit the scope of his survey to European or merely
English history. His attention did remain centred on Europe, but he turned his
own preparatory reading to non-European work, notably China, and sought
the assistance of scholars in non-European elds. He had Eve Bogle taking
notes for him on British historiography.
In the aftermath of his visit to Israel, he received an invitation to write the
article on the history of historiography for the Encyclopedia Hebraica. He
agreed, and produced a summary, running to 150 pages of typescript, of his-
torical writing linked to Western civilization, but also, and pointedly, in-
cluded references to non-European-centred traditions of historical writing.
Buttereld had found a new line of inquiry for himself and he was eager to
follow it.
His enthusiasm had limits, however. When Geoffrey Barraclough, then Ste-
venson Professor of International History at the University of London and
Chatham House, Toynbees former chair, proposed that Cambridge create a
chair or lectureship in world history, Buttereld resisted. Global history, he
objected, was too vast ever to become a proper teaching subject, and he hard-
ened in defense of the preeminence of European history. Nonetheless, he ad-
mitted that the history of science and the history of historiography are defec-
tive unless they are treated in a manner that situates them within a world
milieu.

Insurgent Christianity
Buttereld kept getting invitations to talk about religion and history,
and he would respond unfailingly that he had nothing more left in the bag.
Then he would accept the invitation anyway and proceed to repeat things he
had said before. The Jerusalem and London lectures served as a spur to
break with this pattern and to renew his engagement with religious themes and
particularly with the way he treated the Bible. The more he considered the
problems of historiography in general, and the more he contemplated ideas of
history within the global horizon, the more he felt the inadequacies of his
knowledge of biblical criticism.
His commentary on the Bible in the 1948 lectures on Christianity and his-
tory had come straight out of his own meditation on biblical texts over the
years. His approach to the Bible was spiritual and experiential, and amounted
virtually to a pre-critical reading of scripture. He had realized for some time
that he possessed debilitating weaknesses in the area of biblical studies. His
studies in the history of historiography had stressed the impact of critical
298 World Ideas, World Politics

studies of the scriptures on the rise of modern historical studies. But he was too
busy, and too interested in other subjects of study, to take the time to enter into
critical biblical studies himself.
The Times Literary Supplement provided what may have been the initial
occasion for him to engage biblical criticism as an element in theological
scholarship. The TLS persuaded him to review Rudolf Bultmanns Gifford
Lectures, History and Eschatology, published in 1957, in which the German
theologian and New Testament scholar commented favourably on Butter-
elds Christianity and History. He took the decision to immerse himself in
critical biblical scholarship and biblical theology.
He set to work, and began by reading ve or six of Bultmanns other books,
plus Friedrich Gogarten, and worked out his response in thought-essays. He
liked Bultmann, especially the notions that the present moment is always open
for decision and that Jesus Christ is repeatedly present for the Christian. He
also accepted Bultmanns interpretation of the New Testament as the expres-
sion of the faith of the rst Christian communities, a point he counted as
essential to good historical criticism. But he objected to what he considered
Bultmanns one-sidedness. The existential accent is valid when not erected into
exclusive existentialism, and the claim that the Gospels were the believers
confession about Christ which believers today can experience now for them-
selves is true if the historical Jesus is not reasoned away and Christianity
does not lose its roots in actual history.
Buttereld determined to retain biblical scholarship in his schedule of read-
ings, and he seems to have kept up his readings during and after 1958. He
made it clear that, although he would not pretend to have expertise in biblical
criticism or theology or just about any area of comparative scholarship, he
would proceed with a mind of his own. His special mark would be to bring the
historians outlook to the study. He was entering the stage of critical thinking
about scriptures, religion, and ideas of history, and he showed that he could do
his homework.
Nonetheless, he also retained the belief that religious commitment and the
religious life are not the products of scholarship. When people invited him
speak on Christianity he continued to give his confession of faith, and even felt
duty-bound to do so. The most recent occasion, and the most notable since
1948, was a memorable series of lectures in Bristol in January and February
1956. These were published in 1979, shortly before his death. The title as-
signed by the sponsor was open-ended, Christianity in the Twentieth Cen-
tury. He decided simply to make confession of what he believed, and to
testify to the faith. It appears that he restudied the Old Testament and the
New Testament for the occasion, approaching the scriptures in ways that
 World Ideas, World Politics 299

evidenced his rising consciousness of biblical criticism, and then wrote out
what was in his mind. The result amounted to an extended personal witness to
his religion.
The Bristol lectures offer an enchanting revelation of his deepest convic-
tions, together with his advice for the future of Christianity, ltered through
the perspective of the historian. They tell us the beliefs and assumptions he
carried with him into his new studies. They also reveal the astounding con-
tinuity in his religious convictions with those expressed in the earliest of his
writings extant. The will to preach still burns in his heart. He remains the
dedicated Methodist and the consummate dissenter, and continues to empha-
size the absolute centrality of individuals and human personality in history.
Buttereld made similar statements in another lecture in 1956, this time on the
theme of the historical development of the principle of toleration in British life,
sponsored by the British Council of Christians and Jews.
The summary of his religion in the Bristol lectures is concise. Christianity, he
insists, is a religion that addresses itself to what is most sovereign in human
personality and that assumed and demanded the voluntary act of the indi-
vidual. He considers it deadly to Christianity to cater to the interests of
merely conventional Christians or to submit simply to the authority of the
church or the Bible or to grant the church as an institution too much place in
the Christian life. What matters is the relationship between the individual
person and God, a connection that comes revealed to us most fully in the
personal and solitary act of contemplation. There needs to be a convergence
between the Bible and the inner self: the authority which the Bible has for us
in so many of his parts is not a matter of superstition or authoritarianism but a
sort of self-ratication that it carriesa feeling that this teaching speaks to
me, cutting into my deepest experience of myself and expressing my highest
aspirations.
He depicts Jesus Christ as the encapsulation of three notable transitions he
sees recorded in the Hebrew scriptures, three transformations in religion to
which, he says, the Jewish people testied out of their experience of exile in
Babylon. First, their religion changed from a national religion to a religion of
contact between God and the inner life of each separate individual. Second,
tendencies towards righteousness centred on themselves fell to the side, while
themes of forgiveness and mercy moved to the centre as all individuals might
come to recognize their own sin. Third, God appeared less the judge and more
the God of love. Buttereld embraces each of these outcomes as his own.
The implications of these beliefs lead him to project as the model form of
Christianity those small aggregates of early Christians who were surrounded
and besieged by an antagonistic world that followed other gods. He excoriates
300 World Ideas, World Politics

the abandonment of this pristine Christianity and the establishment of the

Christian religion as the religion of the Constantinian state. With the accom-
plishment of what he regards as the secularization of the society of his own
day, Christians might once again enjoy their freedom from entanglement with
the state and society. The important task for Christians now, he urges, would
be to guide people towards contact with the living Christ, rather that to build
up the organization of the church, or promote social and political programs,
or even foster moral improvement. In no case should Christians seek a new
alliance with the powers of the world. They should live as the emblem of
dissent and the critical presence within the world. If there were to be social
change, it would have to start with the transformation of the individual from
the inside, not with social movements. All the individuals, thus remade, and
living in spiritual contact with God, would act as leaven in the world, and
produce unintended side effects of their spirituality.
He attaches his views to the Nonconformist lineage of dissent from estab-
lished religion within British history and, while gently admonishing the Non-
conformists for their recent conformity with society, he calls for a renewed
Nonconformity. He expects the Nonconformist impulse to emerge every-
where, including in contemporary Methodist but also in Roman Catholicism
and the Church of England. He urges his hearers to distinguish themselves
from all that surrounds them, and to renew their spirit by fresh experience of
the Gospels. He calls for people to stop playing the role of the conventional
Christian. Nowhere in his entire life of believing in and practicing dissent
does he put as succinctly as in these Bristol lectures what he intends: The
twentieth-century situation seems to me to require what I have called the
insurgent type of Christianitynot the kind which binds up its fortunes with
the defence of the status quo. By insurgent Christianity . . . I mean the kind of
Christianity which . . . is constantly ready to return to rst principles, to make
a fresh dip into the Gospels and the New Testament revelation.

Religion and International Relations

Themes of international relations also moved onto Butterelds table
during 1958. He pursued topics he had raised in Christianity, Diplomacy and
War, published in 1953. Once again the initiative for his involvement in the
eld came from others. This time it was the Rockefeller Foundation, renewing
a proposal rst made to him in 1954. Buttereld agreed to convene a small
group at the Masters Lodge at Peterhouse in September 1958 to begin discus-
sion of the theory of international relations. Given that he had usually denied
 World Ideas, World Politics 301

that he was doing anything that could be called theory, his involvement is
surprising.
Butterelds participation issued from a series of events which unrolled in
the aftermath of Christianity, Diplomacy and War. Kenneth Thompson, then
assistant director for the social sciences on the staff of the Rockefeller Founda-
tion, himself a theorist of international relations, liked the book, and so did
Reinhold Niebuhr and Hans Morgenthau, both of whom had written on the
subject. The Rockefeller Foundation was already funding the American Com-
mittee on the Theory of International Relations, based in New York and
chaired by Niebuhr and Morgenthau. The pair invited Buttereld to meet with
them if ever he came to New York.
The opportunity eventually came in June 1956 when Columbia University
and Harvard University brought Buttereld to the United States to award him
honourary doctorates. Niebuhr asked him to state his views on morality and
international politics. He produced a paper for the purpose under the title
Morality and Historical Process in International Affairs. His audience was a
group of seven men gathered at Columbia University. The paper expanded
some things he said in Christianity Diplomacy and War, and added a brief
opening section drawn from a talk he made to the Peterhouse Chapel Fellow-
ship in April.
The New York paper provided vital clues to the direction Buttereld was
taking his discourse on international relations. In the Bristol lectures, Butter-
elds message was all about individuals and personality and the inner life. He
made no more than eeting references to law, process, and conditioning cir-
cumstances in history, and he virtually discounted the state in the face of his
vehemently dissenter attitudes against afnities between religious bodies and
institutions of public power. In New York he sound like a man speaking out of
the other side of his mouth. Now he emphasized law in history and dealt
exclusively with the international behaviour of states. The separation between
the two poles of his persistent dualism seemed stark. For someone who did not
know the tentative synthesis he had articulated in God in Historyhis
notion of three ways to understand the same eventsit would be easy to
think that Buttereld was simply contradicting himself. He aroused animated
discussion.
In his paper, Buttereld states abruptly at the start, and in very few words,
that his views rest on the assumption that only individuals exist, and that he
understands the term state to be a shorthand way of referring to a large
number of individuals. He aligns himself with what he calls the doctrine
of individualism, but he appears defensive in doing so. He acknowledges,
302 World Ideas, World Politics

perhaps for the rst time, the objections of those Christians who seem to
despise the doctrine, among whom he suspects would be the very people in
his audience. Even in so sympathetic a group he would be the dissenter.
He quickly moves on. For the rest of the paper he speaks readily about what
he variously calls the state, the social order, and political society. He
even assigns an object to political society and the state: The object of
political society is to establish an area of peace and order in which men can
develop the life of reason and the world can grow in reasonableness. And I
think that the state, without removing human sinfulness, in the means of
establishing a tolerable mode of life, establishing a eld for the play of reason,
in spite of sin. These are purposes which go well beyond the mere interplay of
large numbers of individuals, and presume the reality of social institutions and
relationships that enjoy a basic existence of some kind. Contra Niebuhrs
famous thesis about the difference between the moral man and immoral
society. Buttereld wants to insist that there is no separate realm for politics,
no variation in moral responsibility between the person in politics and the
same person out of politics. Only individual people exist, some of whom are
statesmen and politicians, while others are professors or poets or something
else. Whatever the activity, each person would encounter problems of human
relations, and constantly be confronted by the alternative between an act
which is more moral and another which is less moral. He does not expect the
person who, for instance, is a Christian and also a statesman to suspend in
politics the Christian virtues of humility, charity, self-judgment, and coopera-
tion with Providence.
The bulk of his message comes in two parts. The rst half reiterates his usual
objections to moral judgments, but he puts the point in perhaps the clearest
phrase he ever wrote on the subject: withholding of the absolute condemna-
tion of human beings themselves even where the actions as such call for con-
demnation. The phrase showed precisely how he is moving his position in
response to the endless criticisms that his no moral judgments rhetoric kept
receiving. He explicitly sanctions moral judgments against acts that warrant
condemnation, and, by inserting the word absolute, opens the door for a
range of limited moral judgments against people. He continues with the
familiar point that those making moral assessments of human conduct must
mitigate their judgments in recognition of the conditioning circumstances sur-
rounding acts and events. He tries to explain more than he had in previous
writings what he means by law in history. His writing is frustratingly inex-
act, precisely the thing that theory cannot be. Numerous terms or phrases
seem to function interchangeably: maxim, reection on history as process,
generalization, historical law, the formula that provides what might be called a
 World Ideas, World Politics 303

norm, the connection of acts to circumstances. It is difcult to nd the element

common within the lot of terms, but we might suppose that he is referring to
recurrence. Whatever the term, he seems to be talking about the products of a
human thinking when people are trying to make sense of actions that seem to
recur. His language is not entirely translucent when he explains that the state-
ment of laws by a thinker would need to exhibit great exibility: The laws
that are produced are perhaps true in a conditional sense onlytrue some-
times only other things being equal, or valid only as representing a tendency
or bias in events that we must take account of. Or they stand as formulas that
provide what might be called a norm; and it does not necessarily matter if in
every actual historical case there may some different kind of departure from
the norm. As an example of a possible law, he cites the thesis that revolutions
tend to move ever further to the left, or to greater extremes. He argues that
once people know this law they can respond to revolutionary situations in
ways that overcome the tendency.
The rest of his message applies his view of law and revolution to interna-
tional politics. He restates the prescription for the conict between Commu-
nism and liberal democracy that he had proposed in Christianity, Diplomacy
and War. In so doing, he discusses the international order in terms analogous
to his treatment of political society and the state, and designates the purpose of
the international order: the real object of foreign policy is the establishment
of a modus vivendi. And, In the international world it is peace that is the
primary object; and this means the development of an international order in
which the issue can be decided by reason and the world can grow in reason-
ableness. Thus, foreign policy should aim not to destroy Communism, but to
create a modus vivendi within a new international order embracing both the
Soviet Union and the West, and directed towards peace. His recommenda-
tions rest on his assessment that Communism contains benecial elements
attributable to Christian antecedents, and that the defects in the practice of
Communism by the Soviet Union, and even the faults of Stalin, are due to the
revolutionary situation itself. He expects the awful deeds attributed to the
Soviet Union to fall away as the work of civilising and humanising pro-
gresses. For his scheme to work, he says, the world would have to rely on the
healing effects of time. He derives his model from the example of the transfor-
mation of the relations between Protestants and Roman Catholics since the
Reformation of the sixteenth century. He suggests that the strategy which
produced the change was the gradual separation of the doctrinal conict
from the operation of diplomacy as such.
The report of the discussion of his paper within the New York group shows
that the exchange was friendly, but that the disagreements expressed were
304 World Ideas, World Politics

substantial, particularly those by Reinhold Niebuhr. Niebuhr considered it

wrong to say that only individuals exist and to suggest that states are un-
real. He doubted the validity of the thesis about revolutions, and objected to
the method of generalizing about historical events widely separated in time
and culture. He disputed the disconnection of the ideology of Communism
from the political situation of Communism, and rejected the analogy between
Catholic-Protestant relations and the relations of the democratic states with
Communist states. Niebuhr countered that Soviet Communism is worse than
Buttereld admits, and represents an alien political religion. Nevertheless, it is
also apparent from the report of the discussion that Niebuhr and the group as
a whole welcomed Butterelds excursion into theory. They appreciated his
historical arguments for a move towards detente and away from simple antag-
onism between the two great powers. Buttereld much later charmingly de-
scribed the experience as a time when he was heckled by them over one of my
papers.
The meeting between Buttereld and Niebuhrs committee issued in two
very tangible results, and both signalled an important turn in Butterelds
intentions towards international politics and towards theory. The rst was an
invitation from Niebuhr and John C. Bennett to become a contributing editor
of Christianity and Crisis, the bi-weekly journal of liberal-left Christian opin-
ion which they edited. Buttereld gladly accepted, but attached the caveat that
he was not a proper student of current affairs, and that his interest extended
only to the questions of principle involved. He received several requests
from the journal to write on foreign policy, an area which he acknowledged
represents one of my primary interests and I nd myself constantly wanting
to read and write about this subject.
About the same time, the new conservative journal in New York, National
Review, edited by William F. Buckley, asked him to write for them. The Buck-
ley group would have found his doctrine of the individual and his aversion to
the state congenial to both the individualist and the libertarian strands of the
emerging American conservative movement, but not to the Catholic tradi-
tionalist strand present within the same movement. His friend Adam Watson,
then a member of the staff of the British Embassy in Washington, urged him
not to get caught writing for what he called that right-wing magazine.
Buttereld politely refused the invitation, claiming the tightness of his sched-
ule. That his views appealed to journals from opposite ends of the political
spectrum exemplied the difculty of neatly classifying Butterelds politics.
The association with Christianity and Crisis lasted until 1965, but yielded
only two articles, one in 1957 on new internationalism and another in 1958
on the end of colonialism. In both pieces he reissued the call for a new interna-
 World Ideas, World Politics 305

tional order which he had sent to the Times on the occasion of the Suez crisis.
He advocated an international order which included the peoples of Africa and
Asia on equal terms with Europeans and North Americans, and urged the
British and French in particular to relinquish their empires peacefully. He
accentuated the need for nonviolent methods of changing the status quo in the
world. His historical argument contrasted the merits of his own proposal with
the futility of the system of Count Metternich after the Napoleonic wars.
Metternichs system failed, he said, because it sought to reestablish and then
preserve an international order which entrenched the aristocratic past and
blocked the rise of the democratic tendencies of the day. The new interna-
tionalism, said Buttereld, would require continuous exibility in interna-
tional relations. The great powers, especially Britain and France, but also the
United States, would need to perform repeated acts of self-restraint while at
the same time they accepted the worthy demands of the newly emerging peo-
ples.
He recommended his favourite case of social change, the model provided by
the English over the centuries who adhered to a method which prevented
crises from reaching the desperation point, ensured the gradual development
of liberty, and provided a model of the kind of change which is just in time to
anticipate the resort to violence. Above all others, England provided light for
the road through large-scale change. Although he did not give his model a
name, it was the same Whig practice of politics which he had praised so
lavishly in Englishman and His History during the Second World War. Butter-
elds New Whig patriotism was still alive, and though it seemed in some ways
quaintly antiquarian, it proved attractive to the liberal-left policy of Chris-
tianity and Crisis.
In the new situation, before decolonization, his views on the harmfulness of
even the allegedly most benign empires appeared radically subversive. The
French and British empires had to give up their self-serving policy of world
stabilization. They had to withdraw from Africa and Asia, and soon, with the
goal of equality among the peoples of the globe. Butterelds 1957 article
Internationalism and the Defense of the Existing Status Quo was later se-
lected as one of the most signicant writings published in the journal between
its founding in 1941 and 1966, and the editor asked him to write the preface
for the book in which they were collected.
The second outcome of Butterelds meeting with Niebuhrs Rockefeller
group was his agreement to form the twin Rockefeller committee in Britain,
leading to the meeting at Peterhouse in 1958. He had stressed in his opening
remarks to the Americans that he did not pretend to think as a philosopher or
theorist, and he even confessed that he had long harboured aversion to theory,
306 World Ideas, World Politics

indeed to any approach to humane scholarship except historical thinking. He

admitted, however, that he was beginning to look more approvingly at theory.
The motives behind his change of mind, he suggested, were his ethical con-
cerns and his interest in the generalizations which historians make in their
writings. The Americans noted during the conversation with Buttereld that
he was more of a theoretician than his opening remarks would lead one to
believe. The observation was apt.
The interest in what other people might recognize as theory was not new,
however. Buttereld had long shown a penchant for thinking about the prob-
lem of generalizations about historical events and processes. He usually said
he was interested in the question of maxims derived from historical reec-
tion. His encounter during the 1930s with Marxism, Machiavelli, and the
history of science contributed to his play with questions of law in the human
affairs. His repeated insistence upon a scientic approach to understanding
history, war, and international relations drove him in the direction of theory.
In tacit criticism of his former self, he confessed that he now doubted the value
of overly rigorous attachment to minute historical research and excessive alle-
giance to mere narrative history, both of which led to the neglect of wider
dimensions of history and broader questions about historical processes.
The force that moved him across the conventional line by which he sepa-
rated history and theory was the offer of Rockefeller money and the example
of Niebuhrs New York group. The Rockefeller Foundation, in the person of
Kenneth Thompson, had been suggesting to Buttereld for some time that
money could be made available for a British committee. Thompson had si-
multaneously pursued E. H. Carr of Trinity College, Cambridge, with the
proposal, but Carr had turned the offer down. After Butterelds adventure in
New York, he eventually signalled to Thompson that he was ready to move
forward with the project, and Thompson granted him the guarantees he
needed. The theory Buttereld had in mind was not historical theory as such,
but the theory of international relations. But even this theory, in Butterelds
hands, became a species of general historical thinking about human affairs.
Buttereld remained the historian.
The meeting Buttereld convened at Peterhouse in September 1958 in-
cluded only four people: Desmond Williams, his former student and friend at
University College, Dublin; Martin Wight, his friend and critic at the London
School of Economics; Donald MacKinnon, professor of philosophy at Aber-
deen University, suggested by Wight; and himself as chair. The four agreed to
the Rockefeller design, and called the group the British Committee for the
Theory of International Politics. It was the start of a program of semi-regular
 World Ideas, World Politics 307

meetings invariably chaired by Buttereld. The project kept his attention until
the mid-1960s, when he left the committee. The group would meet for a long
weekend two or three times a year at Peterhouse to discuss their papers circu-
lated in advance. Rockefeller supplied the funding and Peterhouse provided
the accommodations and board.
Their task, in Butterelds words, would be the study of the principles, etc.,
underlying the conduct of international affairs and the methods by which that
eld can be more scientically studied. The approach would be austerely
historical, construed as analytical reection on the recurrent historical pro-
cesses of relations among states. He insisted that the group meet in Cam-
bridge, independent of the university, rather than in London, to keep it from
drifting under the inuence of the department of international relations at the
London School of Economics. The group would have the structure of an
intellectual club, requiring a unanimous vote for the election of a new member.
Whatever others might want, he made it clear that he would exclude social
scientists, purely diplomatic historians, and those having only contemporary
politics as their focus.
The early additions to the membership included Michael Howard, a mili-
tary historian at London, G. F. Hudson from Oxford, William Armstrong
from the Treasury Department, Adam Watson from the British Foreign Ofce,
and Hedley Bull from LSE. Buttereld managed to block an invitation to E. H.
Carr with whom, he said, he had differences in approach to international af-
fairs. Carr, meanwhile, harboured resentment against Buttereld even though
he himself had previously declined the Rockefeller invitation. Buttereld, as
chair, remained very much in charge and even kept the record of the discus-
sions. He believed that the work of the committee was urgent in the present
state of the world, and he devoted much time to it.
The rst formal meeting of the new British committee eventually took place
in January 1959 at Peterhouse. Buttereld, Martin Wight, and Donald Mac-
Kinnon prepared papers. Butterelds contribution had afnities with his New
York paper over two years before, but now he stressed the opposite point. He
still attributed most of the abhorrent conduct of the Communists in the world
to revolutionary situations, and not to their ideology, and he continued to
refer to the law that revolutions tend to move to greater extremes. However,
he now talked about a real conict of ideology between the two big power
blocs that dominated world politics. His focus had shifted to the uncommitted
peoples of Africa and Asia, a change attributable especially to his reaction to
the Suez crisis. It is just possible that Niebuhrs disagreement with him about
the effect of ideological difference on East-West relations pushed him to
308 World Ideas, World Politics

contemplate anew the conict of ideologies in the world. More likely, as was
his habit, he was holding in tension two apparently contrary viewpoints, one
of which he expressed in one situation, the other in a different situation.
In his paper his sympathies run towards the peoples under colonial rule, and
he endorses their aspirations for radical social reform and self-determination.
He articulates a maxim to this effect: when dominant powers do not anticipate
or heed the just demands of those under their control, acts of rebellion will
occur; when the dominant powers still do nothing, more ruthless and unscru-
pulous leaders will replace moderate ones and the violence will increase. Once
again he has in mind, he says, the Whig historians who charged that tyranny
would respond not to reasonable entreaties, but only to desperate resorts to
violence. He reiterates his recommendation that the European powers abdi-
cate their domination.
Then he proposes the surprising analysis that seems to reverse his former
denial of the signcance of ideological difference in the current world crisis.
With respect to the uncommitted nations, he suggests, the conict between the
two blocs is not essentially structural, but assuredly ideological: The stage is
now act set for a conict of ideals in the world at largea more clear-cut issue
of ideals, perhaps, than existed in either the First or the Second World Wars.
We may be untting ourselves for what is really the main issue in the middle of
twentieth century history, if we are too preoccupied even with questions of
power, and with the requirements of a hypothetical major war between the
Eastern and Western blocs. If the history of his Germanophile attitudes were
not known, it would be difcult to comprehend his characterization of the war
against Nazi Germany as ideologically less clear-cut than the world situation
at the end of the 1950s. His message now addresses entirely the question of the
approach to the African and Asian peoples. He recommends that the Euro-
pean powers, the United States, Canada, and their partners unroll a massive
ideological campaign to propagate liberal, democratic, and humane ideals
around the world. They should seek to convince the uncommitted nations
that, in addition to offering tangible and material benets similar or superior
to those the Soviets promised, they also offered the liberating effects of their
ideals. The proof of those ideals, he says, would be for the colonial powers to
withdraw voluntarily from their positions of control and facilitate the inde-
pendence of the subjugated peoples, and to accomplish the step before the
rebellions forced them out. The paper elicited little response in the commit-
tee, and the discussion moved on to other themes not directly related to Butter-
elds presentation. By the second meeting, in April 1959, Buttereld himself
was dealing with a different issue, the notion of the balance of power in
international affairs.
 World Ideas, World Politics 309

But there was more to come on the new international order, Communism,
and the peoples of African and Asia. In October 1958, Buttereld had lectured
in Washington, D.C. at American University and Wesley Theological Semi-
nary, both Methodist institutions, on themes closely related to his New York
paper for the American Rockefeller committee. He also had a request from
Ruth Nanda Anshen to send her something for one of her new book series
with Harper and Brothers in the United States. In response he sent her a book-
length typescript which intertwined things he had said on different occasions.
He took material from his lectures in Washington, his paper in New York, and
his rst paper for the British Rockefeller group at Peterhouse, as well as from
his Bristol lectures and his lecture to the British Council of Christians and Jews
in London on toleration.
Harper issued a volume of 120 pages in 1960, under the title International
Conict in the Twentieth Century: A Christian View, his eighteenth book.
Butterelds was the second in the series Religious Perspectives, following
Christopher Dawsons Historic Reality of Christian Culture. He expressed his
disappointment to Anshen that his volume appeared in Religious Perspec-
tives instead of her parallel series World Perspectives, which he said he had
expected and preferred.
This book, like his other books from lectures, was a miscellany. Most of it
recapitulated themes he had repeated often enough over the years, and one
marvels that he could keep doing so: the priority of individual personality,
recognition of the effects of conditioning circumstances, the operation of pre-
dicaments, the use of the scientic method in international affairs and poli-
tics, the sin of self-righteousness, and so on. He resumed his explanatory style
which employed maxims to make the point he expected would clinch his
argument.
He seems not to have modied his positions on individualism and the
state or towards historical laws in the face of the criticisms he received from
Reinhold Niebuhr and the American Rockefeller committee. If anything, he
reenforces his statements on these subjects and pronounces them even louder,
while simultaneously increasing the confusion about what exactly he means.
For instance, he expands the provocative opening passages from the New York
paper, where he claimed adherence to the doctrine of individualism and the
unreality of the state, and converts them into the Introduction to the book.
Whereas in front of Niebuhr and company the rst line of his paper had read
It is possibly a mistake to discuss politics in a separate intellectual realm, for
the rst line of the book he changed the sentence to read It is dangerous to
discuss politics in a separate intellectual realm. At the same time, he appears
to assert just the opposite point by erecting a separate realm of politics where
310 World Ideas, World Politics

scientic method applies. He discusses it in chapter 2 of the book under the title
The Scientic Method in the Realm of Politics. We may assume that, in
keeping with his usual dualism he also retains the realm of morality which he
has spoken of over and over. Moreover he strengthens his statements about
individuals as the sole reality. For instance, he adds the sweeping line The
word morality is applicable only to individual people, and instead of saying
merely that he did not understand the notion of political morality, he now
dismisses the notion as belonging to a world of trick mirrors and optical
illusions. In a concession to Niebuhr, however, he inserts a line recognizing
that the modern doctrine of individualism does not seem to please all Chris-
tians. He also enhances his assertions against the existence of the state and
society by inserting here and there throughout the text phrases calling them
merely great aggregates of men or great agglomerations of humanity.
Nonetheless, and contrary to his stated belief, he continues to speak of the
state as an organization or structure, or as an agent that did things.
Likewise he extends his passages about laws and a scientic approach.
He follows his custom of placing notion on top of notion as if each new term
were in some sense synonymous with what preceded, and would help us know
what he means. For instance, in the space of the brief chapter The Scientic
Method in the Realm of Politics, he included references to the following:
analogy, recurrence, methodical thinking, systematic thinking, correlations,
long-term tendencies, processes, relationship between events, conditioning
circumstances, predicaments, constants, predictability, maxims, generaliza-
tions, structural analysis, laws, and background. The implication seems to be
that they all have to do with the same thing. Speaking loosely at his dualistic
best, he located them all in the realm of necessity instead of the realm of
freedom, which were in turn, he said, two aspects of the historical realm, as
contrasted with the spiritual realm. It is not clear where the separate realm of
politics ts in the picture.
Butterelds style is to take a long running start through the familiar mate-
rial, and then leap to the new points he was going to discuss in public for the
rst time, which in this case are his comments on how to deal with Commu-
nism and the threat of the atomic bomb. His words are cast in generalities and
peppered with universal maxims, but his focus on Communism and the bomb
is sharp. These were the items he elaborated upon in 1958 in Washington,
D.C., the capital of the United States. He added force to his words by publish-
ing his message with a major American publishing house. That was early in
1960. Then he raised the matter to a higher power still by going to the Soviet
Union in September 1960 at a time when the United States government looked
upon such visits as politically explosive. Consistent with Nikita Khrushchevs
 World Ideas, World Politics 311

new policy of peaceful coexistence, the Institute of History of the Soviet Acad-
emy of Sciences invited a team of British scholars to Moscow and Leningrad.
Buttereld made the journey with E. H. Carr, Charles Webster, Hugh Seton-
Watson, and George Bolshover. Both the Americans and the Soviets looked
upon such visits as political acts.
In the charged atmosphere of the Cold War, when American fear of the
Soviet Union and global fear of nuclear war were intense, Butterelds com-
ments on Communism and the bomb in International Conict could hardly
sound more provocative or self-contradictory. The United States and Europe
need to stop thinking of Soviet Communism as an alien ideology, he says. The
events connected with Soviet Communism since 1917 should be treated as a
function of the operation of the historical law of revolution, not as the
natural expressions of an evil ideology and evil people.
At the same time, however, the United States and Europe should indeed see
Communism as an ideology within the conict of ideologies in the world at
large, and one worthy of engagement by ideological means. Moreover, if there
have been crimes associated with Soviet Communism, these belong rst of all
to the effects of revolutionary process as such, and not to Communist ideol-
ogy. At the same time, from the standpoint of ideology, it would be crucial to
appreciate the egalitarian ideals of Communism and to admit the good ser-
vices that Communism has provided in various parts of the world. It would be
better to envision Communism perhaps as a benevolent thing gone wrong
and not as mere unredeemed and diabolical evil. In response to Niebuhrs
scepticism about Butterelds law that revolutions tend to move further to
the extreme on the left, he added a passage about the exceptions to the gen-
eral trend, namely, the revolutions of 1688 in England, which Buttereld
approved, and 1830 in France, which was hardly extreme. The exceptions
only reinforce the law, he says, since by knowing what revolutions tend to
do if left unchecked, people can take the steps that divert events to a different
plane, and achieve different outcomes. Thus, scientic knowledge of a law
of revolution can offer controls over events otherwise felt to be beyond con-
trol. He also adds the caveat that all his comments on the defects of revolution
itself perhaps apply only to the societies of Europe and North America. By
contrast, revolution may well be the best option for the peoples oppressed by
European empires in Asia and Africa, even if the outcomes predicted by the
law still happen. In these ways, against Niebuhrs objections, he reasserts
the validity of making comparisons of events widely separated by times and
cultures.
Dtente is the immediate goal to seek in the conict with Communism,
Buttereld insists. As an extended example of the way scientic analysis
312 World Ideas, World Politics

works to illuminate contemporary international affairs, he reasserts the anal-

ogy between the current conict with Soviet Communism and Protestant-
Catholic conicts in the sixteenth century. This he does in spite of Niebuhrs
earlier objections, perhaps drawing the lines of similarity more sharply than
before. To this he adds the analogy of the conicts between democratic move-
ments and the aristocratic order throughout the nineteenth century. He draws
arresting parallels. In each of the previous cases, he says, the new people on the
scenethe Protestants, the democrats and republicanscommitted atroci-
ties, behaved as tyrants, supported dictatorship, promulgated absolutist ide-
ologies, as did the old order in each case. And each side reckoned the other
as false and evil. Yet, over time, all sides moderated their beliefs and their
behaviour, achieved dtente, learned toleration, and practiced cohabitation
within the same overall system. While the aristocratic order eventually all but
disappeared, Protestants and Catholics both carried on, appropriately chas-
tened and renewed, and very often even embraced each other as partners. This
same dtente, he suggests, can happen between the European-generated de-
mocracies and the Communist societies, provided both seek the necessary
modus vivendi in the short term within the new international system.
The remarkably new message in the book is a startling revelation of his
politics towards the bomb. The utter destructiveness of the bomb, he says,
outweighs any possible reason for its use, except by a Hitler-like dictator in the
nal moments before a desperate defeat. His proposal indicates that, unlike
members of the New York Rockefeller committee, he does not consider him-
self to be a straight realist who calculates the weights and measures of power
politics and regards the appeal to moral idealism in international politics as
illicit. In a rare counter-dualist mood, he rejects the notion that idealism and
realism were antithetical. He called his position a Christian-Grotian synthe-
sis that, he said, combined the merits of both. He places his position in the
context of his idea of the predicament of mutual fear, the same Hobbesian fear
he had delineated in History and Human Relations. The predicament of mu-
tual fear could impede either side from taking the rst step towards dtente.
The fear increases astronomically in the face of the atomic bomb held by both
sides, creating a world under what he called the dominion of fear.
Buttereld dressed his statements about the bomb in multiple negatives and
indirect assertions, and compelled his readers, and previously his lecture au-
dience, to give very close attention in order to get his message:

There is so great a risk in having the hydrogen bomb that there can hardly be
greater risk if we unplug the whole system, and if our governments refuse to
have anything to do with the weapon. Even if there were, the radical differ-
 World Ideas, World Politics 313

ence in the quality of these risks would cancel it; for with modern weapons we
could easily put civilization back a thousand years, while the course of a single
century can produce a colossal transition from despotic regimes to a system of
liberty. I am giving a personal view; but I am not sure that the greatest gift that
the West could bring to the world would not be the resolution neither to use
the hydrogen bomb nor to manufacture it any further. Certainly the East
would hardly believe us (at least for some time) if we said we were not going
to resort to this weapon for any conceivable end. We should have to take the
line, therefore, that our determination was not dependent on anything that
other people believed. Even if the East refused to join us in the assertion, we
can declare that the hydrogen bomb is an unspeakable atrocity, not to be used
in any war, and not even to be the basis of any form of threat.

He concludes: In any case, we cannot say that we will not receive the bomb
we can only say that we will not be responsible for the sin and the crime of
delivering it. Supposing we do have to receive it, the one thing we can do is to
choose the cause on behalf of which we will consent to be sacriced.
Through the opaque wording the message emerged. Buttereld is suggesting
that the United States undertake unilateral nuclear disarmament. He is utter-
ing out loud the same cry he made more simply in his diary in 1945 upon
learning that the Americans had dropped the nuclear weapon on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki: The atomic bombthe ultimate prostitution of human en-
deavorthe judgment of God on our civilisation.
The proposal is far from realist, and certainly not scientic, and, in his
own language, it may even be moralistic. This is a radical proposal by a
dissenter, a proposal which perhaps would tip the balance slightly in favour
of humanity and faith at such a point as this. The act of the denial of nuclear
weapons would be a voluntary human choice, taken, paradoxically, not by
individuals but by the state, the American state, in order to break through the
structure of the current situation. This, he urges, would dash the predicament
of mutual distrust that freezes the Soviet Union and the United States in a
relationship of mutual fear and generates the situation of extreme instability in
international affairs. The proposal does not assume the good will of the oppo-
nent or the eradication of sin. He believes the act is so important as an expres-
sion of basic humanity that he recommends it even if it does not work, even
if the consequence would be death from the bomb launched by the other party.
The act would express the doctrine of love at a time when the world is in
extremities. With this proposal, Buttereld shoots right past anything like a
scientic approach, and preaches the message of love which he derives from
his Christian resources. We can now understand the subtitle of this book
about international conict: A Christian View.
314 World Ideas, World Politics

It would appear that he took the decision for absolute opposition to nuclear
weapons by 1958 at the latest, before his Washington lectures and well in
advance of the public campaigns for nuclear disarmament of the 1960s. In
1958, quite against his usual practice, he agreed to join the World Council of
Churches Commission on Christians and the Prevention of War in an Atomic
Age. In 1959 he spoke against the bomb to the Christian Action Group, an
activist group in Cambridge against nuclear weapons. It was almost unique
for him to join a church commission at all, given his general dislike of the
institutions of established religion, and he was almost equally averse to activ-
ism. As a member of the WCCs commission he dissented spontaneously from
the dominant view that weapons, especially nuclear weapons, served as deter-
rents against war. The atomic bomb seemed to him to be a weapon in a class
by itself, too completely a terror to be covered by the historical arguments for
just war. He wrote a minority statement describing the atomic bomb as an
atrocity and asking Christians to work for the uni-lateral abandonment of
the weapon. Christians, he said, should mount the campaign against the bomb
not by creating pressure groups directed at the state, but by testifying to the
power of the Spirit and the basic value of human personality, enabling Chris-
tians thereby to become a leavening inuence in society against the bomb.
True to his own political style, he did not care in the least that the commission
moved ahead without him.
The nal chapter of International Conict entitled Christianity and Global
Revolution, contains his most explicit statement so far of the global perspec-
tive he had come to adopt. In just a few pages he sweeps across thousands of
years and vast regions of the world from western, central, and eastern Europe
to the Middle East, India, and China, from Africa to North and South Amer-
ica, encompassing politics, world religions, agrarian revolution, decoloniali-
zation, and the economy. He makes one stunning connection after another as
he sketches out what amounted to a view of universal history and the future of
Christianity. He utterly relativizes the Soviet-American conict, the subject
occupying most of the book, with remarks that show just how temporary and
how localized that conict is in the context of the staggeringly long histories of
cultural preeminence, power, and conict in China, India, Africa, and the
Mediterranean region. He throws his support to the colonized peoples of the
world and their movements for independence, as he lambasts the European
empires for holding on to their illicit gains too long. The Europeans them-
selves, by their illicit imposition of themselves on the rest of the world, engen-
dered the expansion of world Communism as the liberating answer for so
many subjected peoples.
He also unequivocally endorses any action that stripped Christian churches
 World Ideas, World Politics 315

of their garments of political power, worn ostentatiously since Constantine.

He speaks heavy words against any churches allied with the state, chastising
equally Anglicans, Lutherans, and Roman Catholics. He admonishes his own
Methodists. He writes, It is perhaps even the case that a subtle secret sympa-
thy with the status quo now almost robs nonconformity of its historic role in
England, making it no longer a body predisposed to opposition (and in this
sense perhaps inclined to uncharitableness)no longer so intent upon mea-
suring the existing order of things by a standard outside that order itself. The
words may be difcult to track, but they are the words of the dissenter at his
best. They lead straight into his repetition of the call from his Bristol lectures
for Christians to take the pristine religion of the New Testament as the motor
for a Christianity of the insurgent type. He would expect such Christianity
to appeal massively to the newly liberated peoples of Africa and Asia, and, as
people got used to the disconnection of religion from established power, per-
haps even to the people of Europe.

General History
Amidst all his engagements, writings, and provocations, Buttereld con-
tinued as Master of Peterhouse. He also continued his service as the univer-
sitys representative on the governing body of Wesley House. Most important
to him, he kept his lectures on modern history going. He sought likewise to
full at least some of the administrative responsibilities of his professorship.
All was not smooth for him. For one thing, because of his busy life, and to his
great dismay, he continued to repeat his old lectures in his course. And worse,
he did not, as he hoped, use the lectures as a prod to rewrite his materials for
the Concise Cambridge Modern History. Barely a year after becoming Master
he notied David Knowles, the Regius Professor, that he wanted to cut out
my big course of Modern History Lectures, which is a pretty heavy affair. He
liked the course and the students, he assured Knowles, but he wanted to free
some time for the Concise History. He thought he would revert to his smaller
and shorter one-term course on the Renaissance and Reformation which he
had discontinued after the academic year 19521953. He did not take the
step, however, and carried on with the modern course as before.
At the same time, disagreements within the History Faculty over policy and
curriculum became troublesome, even painfully awful. Differences between
Buttereld and George Kitson Clark, historian of modern English history,
turned into open warfare between 1955 and 1958, and led to a collapse in
their personal relations. Noel Annan felt it was a remarkable case of the war of
dons as administrators. J. H. Plumb, as a member of the board of the History
316 World Ideas, World Politics

Faculty at the time, was witness to the play of their personal antipathy, which
dated from the 1930s. Buttereld confessed privately to David Knowles that,
had he been able, he would have denied Kitson Clark the new readership in
constitutional history created for him in 1955. As Plumb saw it, they differed
in their visions for the history curriculum. Kitson Clark campaigned for wider
options, more subjects focused on themes, and more subjects connected with
the specializations of the lecturers. Buttereld, by contrast, wished to maintain
the focus on English and European history, with only a limited range of special
subjects, continuing the emphasis on the general education of nonspecialists.
In due course Buttereld lost out to Kitson Clark, and the Historical Tripos
entered a period of near continuous revision. But before too long even Kitson
Clark became disillusioned by the trend, which he felt by the 1960s resulted in
fragmentation and lack of purpose as well as a loss of students. Kitson Clarks
centenary lecture in 1973 on history at Cambridge evidenced a mellowed
attitude towards Buttereld personally, and he sounded for all the world the
same as Buttereld in his statement of the general educational mission of the
Historical Tripos.
They also differed over the handling of research students. During the same
month in which Buttereld became Master, Kitson Clark proposed to orga-
nize a society of research students on the American model, enabling the stu-
dents to see each other regularly and read papers on their research. Buttereld
objected that the plan would undermine the Cambridge Historical Society,
whose design united senior historians and research students on an equal foot-
ing for public discussion of their current work. In any case, he argued, a
society for research students would ll no need, since research students were
by occupation bound to spend endless hours in isolation, and disinclined to
congregate together. Kitson Clark then thought of mounting his own seminar
for research students in English history, in which the students would talk
about their own thesis topics. This, too, Buttereld considered wrong-headed,
since the students would not know the documents behind someone elses pa-
per. Butterelds model for a research seminar was a very small number of
students in the same specialized eld analyzing documents together with a
professor. Kitson Clark next suggested a course for research students in En-
glish history lead by four instructors, Geoffrey Elton, J. H. Plumb, Buttereld,
and himself, on the sources of English history and historiography since 1500.
Buttereld opposed it as too diffuse and dominated by the professors, and he
had the support of Knowles against it. Kitson Clark dropped the issue.
Kitson Clark eventually convened a very popular general colloquium in which
senior historians, visiting scholars, and research students alike read papers on
English history. Later, in the 1960s, Buttereld actually agreed to participate
 World Ideas, World Politics 317

in two courses much like Kitson Clark had suggested, with several professors
talking on the documents and methods in their special elds, but Buttereld
made sure that the courses were not mandatory for research students.
Buttereld had to face a palace rebellion against his own course in modern
European history. He had not dropped the course as he hoped, chiey because
he felt strongly that a general history of the whole modern period since 1494
should form the framework for all study of modern history. His approach, as
before the war, still featured an analysis of long-range trends encompassing
the whole of Europe, structured around the close examination of pivotal his-
torical moments. He also still understood Europe not as a relationship of
states, but as a civilization having many aspects. He attracted about 100
students out of the 230 doing the History Tripos, and met them three times a
week for the whole year.
The opposition to his course had been simmering for a while among the
teaching staff in the History Faculty. It nally boiled over in February 1957
when eight lecturers in modern European history, out of the thirty university
lectures in history, met with him in the Masters Lodge at Peterhouse. The
meeting spilled over into a correspondence which included a circular letter
from Buttereld to the lecturers and some exchanges of letters. It fell to Betty
Behrens to voice the criticisms apparently shared by others in the group. They
objected to his course on several grounds, she explained. It covered too many
centuries, provided nothing intellectual beyond what a good history book sur-
veying the period could give, allowed students to run away with general-
izations which were too detached from real historical study, led to exces-
sive memorization for the examinations, and took too much time for too
many students, undercutting the attendance in the other courses. The lecturers
wanted his course either discontinued or drastically shortened, and they fa-
voured a wider selection of specialized courses instead. Paradoxically, most of
the points were ones Buttereld himself might have made, but he perceived the
objections as an attack on him and was plainly upset. He at once offered to
give up his course, but then withdrew the offer and proceeded to defend the
course vigorously. Ironically, less than a year after telling Knowles he wanted
out of the course, he now found himself strongly asserting his intention to
remain in, come what might. He repulsed all of the objections, except for the
point about the students time, as not germane to what went on in his course.
He then expounded his idea of the nature of a general course in history. His
course, he said, was in no sense an outline survey of information. It was an
intellectual analysis of the structures of European society conceived as a gen-
eral unit over several centuries. That kind of analysis could not simply be
shortened. He offered as an example the need to know the relations between
318 World Ideas, World Politics

French and Germanic societies over a long period in order to comprehend the
problem of Alsace-Lorraine at the moment of German unication in 1870
1871. His argument depended on his concept of the importance of historical
thinking as such and on his habitual distinction between underlying structures
and the day-to-day events amenable to narrative. In the wider faculty, David
Knowles and J. H. Plumb urged him to go ahead as he thought best, while
Kitson Clark took the side of the lecturers. Buttereld chose to carry on with
his course, thinking that it was right for the professor in the eld to try to
inuence the teaching in the subject by his example. For the next two years,
19571959, he took J. H. Elliott into the course as joint lecturer. His intention
was to groom Elliott, one of his former research students and a new addition
to the History Faculty, to succeed him in the course.
A streak of lightning intervened at just that moment from entirely outside
the History Faculty to bring Butterelds course problems to an end. He was
approached about accepting the position of vice-chancellor, the highest ad-
ministrative ofce of the University of Cambridge in a structure where the
chancellorship was merely symbolic. The ofce traditionally was lled by one
of the college heads. The term was two years, starting in the fall of 1959,
preceded by a transitional year as deputy vice-chancellor, to begin in October
1958. If he accepted, he would have to delegate most of his ordinary duties as
Master to others in Peterhouse, and he would offer no courses. His problems
with the modern history course would wither away.
Buttereld needed little time to decide. The opportunity to be the dissenter
at the head of the whole university appealed to his feeling for politics, in spite
of his ideology against institutions. It also appealed to his missionary impulses
on behalf of the educational ideals he had promoted for so many years. He
accepted the position, knowing very well that his work as historian would
suffer. Once again he altered his career as historian by agreeing to what other
people wanted him to do.
Just before Buttereld commenced his term as vice-chancellor, Peterhouse
arranged for his ofcial portrait as Master to be painted by Ruskin Spear, the
same artist who had done a view of Vellacott, the previous Master, that cre-
ated so much stir that it was still not hung. Indeed, in an effort to place a
suitable image of Vellacott in the Masters Lodge, Simba Vellacott, his widow,
offered to donate a copy of the portrait done for Harrow School to replace
Spears work. Spears portrait of Buttereld rendered him almost clown-like,
and although Buttereld did not think it resembled him particularly well, he
had it mounted in the Lodge anyway. He was, he said, not one to interfere with
an artist.
 12

The Top and After the Top

High Administration
Buttereld became vice-chancellor of Cambridge University on 1 Octo-
ber 1959, a few days before turning fty-nine. The year as deputy vice-
chancellor had brought no particular difculties, and had the merit of warning
him of the mound of duties that would be heaped upon him for two years.
When he was elected Master, his aim was to carry on with research and
writing. He became instead virtually a full-time head of the college. Now he
became the chief executive ofcer of the whole university as well.
In outlook, sympathies, and approach, Buttereld very much remained the
historian, the historian at the top. We can regard his activity as vice-chancellor
as Buttereld putting his historical thought to work. He behaved like the
devotee who was granted just a few moments to promote his cause, and threw
himself fully into his new duties. The cause was his vision of the individual, the
university, academic research, and education, and he seemed to enjoy thor-
oughly the politics that provided the medium. Cambridge University, a fairly
large institution, became an arena something like a state in which he could
actually exercise power in keeping with his own maxims for politics and
international affairs. He tried to full the role of the wise leader concerned
with broad policy, not the administrator of detail or the wielder of power. He
would aim to consult widely, seek advice from everyone in question, and

319
320 The Top and After the Top

consider the history of the issue, just as he often did as Master. He could
appear maddeningly indecisive and unsure of himself. I am, he complained,
working hard throughout the day and well into the morning hours, both
harder and more unremitting than ever before in my life and cannot keep pace
with the administrative problems of College and University. He wryly ob-
served, I seem to be receding from history altogether. He was quite con-
scious of the importance of the ofce and the brevity of his time at the top. He
kept a journal that eventually became the very big Diary which covered the
two years of my Vice-Chancellorship.
He was an ardent believer in the practice of having an amateur vice-
chancellor at the head of the university, a scholar only temporarily in ofce
whose primary commitment remained with scholarship. The strategy tended
to disperse power at the top, reminding the university of the academic purpose
of the enterprise. Since the vice-chancellor was also the head of a college, it
allowed the colleges to keep an exalted position within the university ensem-
ble. Though small in number, the permanent members of staff in the central
ofces of the university exercised considerable de facto power because of their
sheer continuity. Policy making remained in the hands of an array of commit-
tees composed of academic members, with the Council of the Senate as su-
preme. The hovering omnipresence of the British government, the supplier of
university nances, could be felt at numerous pressure points. The colleges
were, to a large degree, nancially independent.
The meetings were endlessthe Council of the Senate, the General Board,
the Financial Board, the Registry, the committees for particular purposes, the
building committees, special meetings to discuss reports, meetings with pro-
fessors, meetings with heads of colleges, meetings with the government of-
cials, meetings with the vice-chancellors of other universities as well as the
many ceremonies. He entertained distinguished visitors. In his time, Queen
Elizabeth, Princess Alexandra, President John F. Kennedy, the archbishop of
Canterbury, the king and queen of Siam, and a string of lesser lights shone in
the Cambridge sky, with Buttereld at the centre. He gave speech after speech,
all written out word for word, at the lunches or dinners of university societies
and local groups, from the Cambridgeshire Air Squadron to the Cambridge
Branch of the Trustee Savings Bank. He dined at more than half of the colleges,
and hosted numberless guests at the Masters Lodge of Peterhouse. The usual
format for guests at Peterhouse was the formal dinner for fourteen on Satur-
day nights in the Lodge. He worried about the quality of the wine and the food
to be served, not because he had turned gourmand, but to build a coun-
terimage of himself, lest his guests expect the austere meals and ginger beer
 The Top and After the Top 321

they heard were his diet in the Lodge. Buttereld, the teetotaler, ordered better
wine for the college wine cellar.
His moment as vice-chancellor occurred precisely at the dawn of a period of
extraordinary change in the university. Undergraduate enrolment had begun
to rise. From 1949 to 1959 the number of new students entering had uctu-
ated around 2,800 per year. From 1959 to 1969 it rose steadily, from 2,800 to
over 3,500 per year, an increase of 25 percent. The old colleges were just
starting to expand their memberships, and new colleges were being built or
planned. During Butterelds term of ofce Churchill College received recog-
nition as the rst new undergraduate college since Selwyn College in 1883,
and Fitzwilliam House made plans to become a college. Sociology nally
became a regular teaching subject, and new accommodations for the social
sciences were nearly nished on Sidgwick Avenue. The science and engineering
faculties were expanding, and new buildings were under construction around
town to house them. Buttereld presided over a long debate and enquiry about
salaries in the medical school, which were rising considerably higher than
those in other elds. He argued strongly for the nancial equality of the arts
faculties with medicine and the sciences. Before the matter was settled, he put
the government on the defensive by reminding them that the autonomy of the
university from external domination of any kind was necessary for the well-
being of the kingdom. The needs of research students pressed for attention. As
the numbers of research students began to rise, it became more unreal to treat
them as mere appendages to the undergraduate population, the traditional
focus of the colleges and the university. Buttereld discarded the view he had
argued against Kitson Clark that research students were by occupation meant
to be isolated, and came out in favour of new facilities to serve their common
needs. Most important to him, when the government created a commission,
chaired by Lord Bridges, to enquire whether to maintain the traditional dou-
ble teaching system in Cambridge and Oxford as represented by university
lectures and college supervisions, he defended the academic validity of the
colleges, even though the system could look redundant, costly, and inefcient.
Undergraduate teaching was, he said, the most momentous of all the prob-
lems of the academic world. The colleges had the particular duty, he argued,
to keep watch over the development of individual students and elicit the
originality that may be latent in them, and in any case not simply stoke them
up for examinations. His rhythm had two beatsthe centrality of teaching
in the colleges and the autonomy of the university and advanced research.
Like the lay preacher on the circuit, Buttereld tended to repeat his message
at every forum available to him, inside the university as well as outside it, from
322 The Top and After the Top

the conference of the chief education ofcers of Great Britain to the meeting of
the chief executives of Shell Oil International. What he said in his speeches
perfectly coalesced with what he published in his books. He had no doubt that
his belief in the all-importance of individuals in history, which he had preached
all his adult life, applied to the world of the growing university. The New Whig
model of social change which he praised in his historical and political writings
would serve Cambridge University in its period of great and rapid change.
He reiterated this model in his nal address upon stepping down as vice-
chancellor. He liked the Cambridge he had known since the 1920s, but, he
said, it was urgent for the university not simply to defend the existing order.
The university must discover exibility within itself and respond in good time
to the notices of genuine needs before the boiler burst into revolution and
destroyed the whole lot. Turning his sense of the recent past towards the future,
he predicted that the decade of the 1960s could be the most momentous in the
history of universities. Momentous was his word as vice-chancellor.
Years later when assessing Butterelds achievement, Owen Chadwick sum-
marized a widely shared opinion about his tenure in ofce: Controversial or
not, he has been declared by a qualied judge, who disagreed with him over
the medical question, to be an outstanding vice-chancellor of that epoch.
Butterelds defence of the university, against the most formidable onslaught
yet directed against its entire system of teaching, has become celebrated. He
embodied his own doctrine of individualism, as well as his ethos of dissent,
this time, dissent at the top. At such a moment as this, if a person with opposite
views had occupied the ofce of vice-chancellor, the outcome might well have
been different, and the system of colleges as centres of academic vitality might
have dissolved.
Shortly before becoming vice-chancellor, Buttereld travelled to the United
States at the invitation of Wabash College in Hanover, Indiana. He came away
with many good things to say about the small self-standing liberal arts college
in the United States, even claiming to see redeeming qualities in college frater-
nities. He suggested, however, that the very friendliness of the place may be
a disadvantage if it helps to produce low pressure or prevents the elastic from
being kept at a stretch. His experience in middle America warmed him up for
his defense of the Cambridge system. Cambridge, he said, combined the edu-
cational relationship between one teacher and one student in the small college
with the scholarly resources and energy of a multitude of scholars keeping
one another on their toes in the large university.
Soon after his term at the head of Cambridge ended, the Lindsay Lectures at
the University College of North Staffordshire, later named the University of
Keele, gave him the opportunity to summarize his views on education in the
 The Top and After the Top 323

light of his recent experience. The small book of 110 pages that resulted, The
Universities and Education Today, his nineteenth, revealed how little he had
strayed from his convictions of the 1920s and 1930s. In the book he centres his
thought on the relationship between the individual teacher and the individual
student, which he calls the most important aspect of all education: Now
the rst point I want to put to you about universities is that they ought pri-
marily to be regarded as the arena in which there is to occur the electric contact
between teacher and pupil. The generation of the electricity that would turn
cold wires into live wires . . . is the central requirement of any teaching system,
the supreme object of all our educational arrangements. His second point is
the obligation of universities to promote originality in the development of
science, scholarship and thought, a task they accomplish by enabling autono-
mous individual scholars to devote themselves to research. His vision features
collections of individuals driven by the creative impulse to know, to under-
stand, and to go beyond their teachers: We have to avoid and to counteract
the illusion which the examination system so often tends to fosterthe notion
that knowledge just exists in a xed statewhen, in reality, the whole point of
the exercise is to capture it while it is uid. . . . In the realm of ideas the best
kind of organization is the one that is most conducive to elasticity of mind.
Butterelds words give evidence that he possessed no idea of the university as
a whole, no sense of the university as a community that transcends the mere
sum of the individuals attached to it. Yet, at the same time, he upholds the
example of Cambridge University as a whole, including the Peterhouse he had
always known, as the norm for the universities in general.
Buttereld became an activist for his vision of the individual, teaching, and
research. In 1960 he was elected to the Executive Committee of the Asso-
ciation of Universities of the British Commonwealth, to the Commission of
Higher Education of Ireland, and to the Administrative Board of the Interna-
tional Association of Universities. In 1961 he joined the Court of Governors of
the London School of Economics, and, after the death of Namier, the Commit-
tee of the Institute of Historical Research in London, and in 1962 the Advisory
Council on Public Records. He faithfully attended the meetings of all these
boards. The University of Hong Kong gave him his sixth honourary doctorate
when he visited there in 1961 for the Commonwealth group. In the Interna-
tional Association of Universities, from his rst meeting in Mexico City in
September 1960 through ve more annual meetings, in Paris, New Delhi,
Peterhouse, Moscow, and Tokyo, he advanced his version of the Cambridge
model and promoted the autonomy of universities from governments, indus-
try, and the church. When Manchester University proposed to award him
an honourary doctorate in 1966, the vice-chancellor asked him to make the
324 The Top and After the Top

autonomy of the university the theme of his acceptance address, and he gladly
obliged by delivering a vigorous statement against government intrusion.
Buttereld seemed to be more insistent than usual in preaching the message
of the individual. In one sense, his accent on individuals came merely as the
next turn in the cycle of his perennial thinking which would stress at one
moment the individual personality and at the next the processes and structures
of history. He was also likely at any moment to play the dissenter and raise the
opposite point from the one currently voiced. This time he spoke out of his
experiences as the head of a large and still growing institution, the University
of Cambridge, and his live encounters with the British state and Shell Oil
executives. In such contexts he could feel that it was particularly important to
repeat as often as possible that individuals are the real units of human society.
However, he would signal that his stress on the individual was not simply
topical. He seemed to want people to know that he was a Methodist. He made
a number of statements around the time of his vice-chancellorship to say that
his belief in the individual was an extension of his religion. On such occasions
he would omit the qualifying words that usually hedged his assertions and
became much more direct in his language. He told the head of the Methodist
publishing house in Britain: I am essentially an individualist, and I believe
that religion is a matter between the soul and God. I dont believe in the state
as a corporate person at all, and I dont like the idea of the state as being solid
and corporate in a single religion. I know it is a very nice thing if all individuals
believe the same thing, especially if they believe the right thing, but I dont
think that the state has a soul.
He presented a public lecture in Cambridge in 1959, just before rising to the
vice-chancellorship, titled Why I Am a Non-Conformist, explaining to the
crowded assembly of students the intellectual factors that kept him securely
within the faith of his youth. His reasons were many, but chief among them
was his historical judgment that modern individualism develops out of non-
conformity: It springs in the last resort from the Christian view that it is the
single human beingnot the state or the corporate societywhich has the
soul, has the connection with eternity. In fact the challenge of Christ is ad-
dressed to the individual soul. His custom had been that whenever he said it is
the individual who has the soul, he would attach the authority of Actons name
to the statement, but now he dropped the reference to Acton and took respon-
sibility for the assertion himself. He made it clear that, in reality, he had
long ago made Actons formulation his own. It had always been ironic for But-
tereld to cite Action, the Roman Catholic, in support of the doctrine he
attributed to Protestant Nonconformity, especially since Acton held such a
strong doctrine of the Catholic Church. Lest he be misunderstood about what
 The Top and After the Top 325

he meant by individualism, Buttereld would tell people that his individual-

ism was not the thing associated with self-interest or the self-centredness of
much of contemporary society, but the Christian version which insisted on the
supreme value of each human personality. He reiterated this message in
various formats, including his address on religion and individualism at the rst
conference, convened at Peterhouse, of the International Society for the His-
tory of Ideas, and at a Methodist conference also held in Cambridge. For
years to come he would continue to call himself an individualist, quickly
adding that he meant the term in the spiritual sense, and not as used in politics
or economics.

The Afterlife
When Buttereld stepped down as vice-chancellor in October 1961, he
complained that he felt distinctly older and physically ill for the rst time in his
career. He now joked about his image in the mirror each morning looking
more and more like Ruskin Spears clown-like portrait of him. He had no
respite from administration, however, since he still had his duties as Master of
Peterhouse.
Butterelds college, like the other colleges, experienced in miniature ag-
grandizing trends similar to those in the university as a whole. Under his
guidance, the college allowed the number of its three-year undergraduates
to drift upwards from about 150 to around 200, but, unlike the university,
placed a ceiling on further increase. He continued his about-face in favour of
research students, and led the college to be among the rst in Cambridge to
emphasize meeting their needs. Their number doubled to around 40, which,
with the fourth-year students, put the total student gure at about 260, keep-
ing Peterhouse still among the smallest in Cambridge. Buttereld was able to
direct part of the large bequest from William Stone, a wealthy alumnus of the
college, towards the assistance of research students, including, from 1961 to
1963, nine new nonvoting research fellowships. New common facilities for
research students were established in an old part of the college near the Hall,
but they were not used much. The college took over the building vacated by
Fitzwilliam House next to the Masters Lodge, and soon converted it into a
residence for research students, called The Hostel. Buttereld himself con-
tinued to take on research students, who during the 1960s included C. B.
McCullough, Frank OGorman, and Patrick Cosgrave. However, with the
swelling in the overall number of research students in Cambridge, he super-
vised many fewer in this period than Kitson Clark and the very active younger
historians Owen Chadwick, Geoffrey Elton, and J. H. Plumb.
326 The Top and After the Top

The college also increased the number of Fellows, bringing the total to
twenty-six by 19621963, and expanding the elds covered by the college,
particularly in the sciences. To accommodate the Fellows, some of the Stone
money paid for an new eight-storey building in the college gardens, a modern
structure that easily elicited jokes about putting the solemn and sober Master
on the top oor. When Denis Mack Smith left the college in 1962 for All
Souls College, Oxford, and David Knowles retired as Regius Professor in
1963, the elections of Roger Lovatt and Maurice Cowling as Fellows kept the
history-related contingent at eight. The temporary addition of J. R. Vincent
raised the number briey to nine until M. M. Postan retired in 1965. The
departure of Knowles and Postan reduced the professors in the college who
were listed with the History Faculty to Brogan and Buttereld. Brogans retire-
ment in 1967 left Buttereld as the lone Professor of History, within a cohort
of seven remaining historians. The retirements of the professors, which could
not be helped, and the increase of the number of Fellows and the diversica-
tion of elds, both pursued according to sound educational policy, had the
unintended effect of reducing the relative importance of history within the
college. Ironically, it was the historian Buttereld who promoted and presided
over the end of the dominance of historical studies in Peterhouse.
At the end of his vice-chancellorship, Buttereld freely admitted that his
historical work was suffering severely. He appeared particularly contempla-
tive about his own contribution as a historian thus far in his career. Near the
end of 1961 or early in 1962, he wrote out a lengthy memoir commenting on
the achievements of several historians active during his time. The subtext was
his unspoken reections on his own place within twentieth-century English
historiography. The collage of comments revealed his own desires about
himself as a historian. To his arch-opponent Namier, who had just died, he
accorded less than a sentence, set within his remarks about someone else. But
what a sentence it was: No one could say for a moment that he [ John Neale]
had the brilliance and the imaginative vision of Namier, or the extraordinary
insights and originalityall those things which in Namier went beyond mere
technique. Perhaps only Trevelyan received the higher praise. On Butter-
elds reckoning, Trevelyan was the one English historian who most de-
nitely bears the marks of greatness. He was not a great technical historian, he
made no discoveries through research, and he was a poor lecturer, but he made
the past live again and expressed a deep human wisdom which is his com-
mentary on the story he narrates. Trevelyan had been Butterelds constant
admirer since 1931, when he gave the young historian the Fox papers and
opened the road for him to pursue the biography of Fox. Trevelyan died not
long after Buttereld drafted this private memoir, the Fox work still unn-
 The Top and After the Top 327

ished. Buttereld accorded Toynbee high praise, calling him the doyen of those
historians still at work. In spite of Toynbees inaccuracies and apparent ego-
tism, and although the form of his project was archaic even when he began,
what he has done has real signicance and importance, because it has been so
stimulating and has provoked so much discussion. Buttereld liked R. H.
Tawney, who had just died, admired his compassion for the poor and the cause
of the working class, and praised his powers in technical research which pro-
duced the things that made students change their structural ideas, but he
objected to Tawneys slant, which made so much of his work propaganda for
Labour, just as Trevelyan could not help being the Whig historian. G. N.
Clark, he thought, has altered our view of the nature of general history, since
he sees the importance of studying all the various facets of an age, and he
regarded him a the principal editor of history of his day, but, he continued, I
do not regard him as a powerful mind. T. H. Ashton was the most genuinely
unassuming of all the historians, a patient collector of data without wide
horizons, but a real master about industrialization, the limited world he had
chosen to examine. Of the Oxford historians, both A. J. P. Taylor and Hugh
Trevor-Roper were brilliant historians, Buttereld said, as well as excep-
tionally clever and prolic journalists, but not trustworthy guides to history.
They slapped down their work too fast, especially Taylor, who reviewed one
of my books without having read it, and became impatient when his book on
the origins of the First World War took more than six months of his time.
Buttereld left ample clues in other places about his emerging self-
assessment. In November 1961 Temperleys son, Neville Temperley, now a
scientist, revived the question of the biography that Buttereld had promised
twenty years before to write about his teacher and protector, reminding him
that Temperleys papers were still in Butterelds basement. Buttereld con-
fessed that he was quite aware, as he put it, that all my long-term writing
projects are held upincluding my main researches, commitments which go
back earlier than the memoir, and earlier even than 1939. In 1958 he had
already made the painful admission to his teachers widow, Dorothy Tem-
perley, that he had damaged his productivity as an academic historian by
allowing himself to undertake so many lectures and papers over the years: If I
hadnt adopted the policy of publishing these and digging out for publication
things largely written many years ago, Im afraid I should have produced
nothing. In any case, he confessed, the Temperley memoir had gotten out of
hand and turned into a much larger project than he initially thought. I rather
dreamed of making it something of a model of its kind, he told her. Neville
Temperleys inquiry led Buttereld to meditate on his mentors life as well as
his own. He sat down and in short order wrote out a 173-page memoir of
328 The Top and After the Top

Temperley as well as another 67 pages of autobiography covering his rela-

tionship with Temperley, Vellacott, his father, and his teachers in his youth.
The hoped-for little book on Temperley remained on his unnished list, how-
ever. The Temperley family asked him to return the papers they had loaned
him. Some of the Temperley material did make it into introductions Butter-
eld wrote for reprints of two of Temperleys books, one in 1966 and the other
in 1968.
Buttereld amplied his self-assessment in the draft of a letter suggesting
that he resign from the British Rockefeller committee on international theory
which he had founded and still chaired. The vice-chancellorship was over, he
said, but he was still Master of his college and immersed in university affairs.
He admitted that the plan for him to ll the role of the scholar-Master had
failed, and he had no proper time for his own research and writing. He then
identied the areas in which he believed he had made real achievements: his-
tory of science, history of historiography, history and religion, what he called
the various kinds of history that I have tried to promote. His remarkably
candid commentary on himself displayed insight about where to look when
evaluating his accomplishments, but he worded the statement as if his work in
those three elds impeded the fullment of his real calling, which, he said, was
to be a research historian. Repeatedly during the 1960s he would belittle the
more reective and theoretical sides of his own work, and tell people, I am
merely a technical historian, essentially a secular historian.
The act which assuaged Butterelds despondency was his long delayed
selection, announced in April 1963, as Regius Professor of Modern History.
With the retirement of Knowles, he at last received the Crowns appointment
to the most prestigious history chair in Cambridge. He ranked the honour as
the capstone of his achievements within the university, worth more to him
than the vice-chancellorship. He became the sixteenth occupant since the
Crown established the chair in 1724. He could relish the thought that he now
was truly a successor to Acton. So much of his life had revolved around certain
of the gures who held the chair before him in the twentieth centuryActon,
Bury, Trevelyan, Clark, Knowles. He was in their company. The History
Faculty now listed ten professors and thirty-one university lecturers, within a
total of about a hundred historians altogether. C. H. Wilson succeeded him in
the chair of modern history, C. R. Cheney had held the medieval chair since
1955, and Owen Chadwick had been Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical History
since 1958. George Kitson Clark still had his readership, J. H. Plumb had just
received one, and F. H. Hinsley received one shortly thereafter. As if he needed
more administrative duties, Buttereld became chair of the board of the His-
 The Top and After the Top 329

tory Faculty in 1964, and helped superintend the expansion of the university
history staff and the next phase of reforms in the curriculum.
The other usual symbols of recognition in England came to him late as well.
After six honourary doctorates outside England, English universities nally
began to celebrate his achievementsShefeld (1962), Hull (1963), Man-
chester (1966), Warwick (1967), London (1968). He was nally elected a
Fellow of the British Academy in 1965, nearly twenty years after his friend
Knowles. With the Regius appointment in hand, he received, and accepted, the
invitation from the Scottish authorities to deliver the prestigious Gifford Lec-
tures in religion for 1965 and 1966, to be held at Glasgow University, joining a
list which included Reinhold Niebuhr, Rudolph Bultmann, Karl Barth, and
Arnold Toynbee.
At the same time, Butterelds fame extended still further outside Britain,
particularly in the United States, Canada, and Germany. The media were new
and reissued editions of his most inuential books, especially in North Amer-
ica, and translations of his work into other languages. Scribner reissued the
American edition of Christianity and History in 1961, and by 1966 the book
had been translated into nine foreign languages: German, Norwegian, Chi-
nese, Swedish, French, Spanish, Finnish, Italian, and Dutch. The revised edi-
tion of Origins of Modern Science, which appeared from Bell in London in
1957, was published by Macmillan in New York as well, and still more re-
issues came from Collier in New York in 1962, the Free Press in New York in
1965, and Clarke in Toronto in 1968. The book was translated into Spanish,
Italian, Swedish, Greek, and Japanese. No translation of Whig Interpretation
of History appeared, except for the unauthorized publication of two chapters
in a French political newspaper. The book remained in active circulation in the
English and American editions of the early fties, and new publishers brought
out editions: Norton in New York in 1965, followed by a mass circulation
Penguin edition in 1973. Man on His Past reached an American edition for the
rst time in 1960, published by Beacon Press in Boston.
The new life granted Butterelds books overseas stimulated a constant line
of overseas historians, especially Americans and Germans, to come for a visit
to Peterhouse, and American and German universities issued invitations to
him in abundance. Throughout the 1960s, American institutions issued invita-
tions for him to deliver special lectures or occupy a visiting professorship,
many reporting that he would follow Toynbee or Paul Tillich or Karl Popper or
some other notable: Harvard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Union
Theological Seminary in New York, American University, Johns Hopkins,
Rice, Colgate Rochester Divinity School, Pittsburgh, Stanford, University of
330 The Top and After the Top

California at Berkeley, Yale, Dartmouth, Wesleyan, St. Louis, Oberlin, the

Smithsonian Institute, Duke, North Carolina, Denver, New York University,
Cornell, and many more. In his new mood of self-assessment, he determined to
decline all of them, that is, nearly all, protesting that he was too busy or
spreading himself too thin. German universities took him to Germany three
times in the 1960s. The last was in 1968 when the University of Bonn awarded
him an honourary doctorate, his twelfth, for his accomplishments benecial to
German scholarship. In 1967, the American Historical Association, the Amer-
ican Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Royal Irish Society each made him
an honourary member. He was especially gratied when the American Histori-
cal Association proudly recalled that Ranke had been the rst foreign historian
accorded that status. Paradoxically, the grander his reputation became in the
sixties, the more despondent he felt about the inadequacies of his achievement
as a technical historian.
After 1961 Buttereld had fully intended to settle back into the long-range
projects he counted as his real work. These were the life of Fox, for which I
have a lot of material not yet written up, and the Concise Cambridge Mod-
ern History, a large volume hardly half nished, which he began to call
The Shorter Cambridge Modern History. He wrote the administrator at the
Rockefeller Foundation, Kenneth Thompson, that he felt both the university
and the college would approve and assist the project of my drawing a hard
line across my administrative career, regarding my return to history as the
primary object. He was shing for an invitation to Villa Serbelloni, owned
by the Rockefeller Foundation at Bellagio on Lake Como in northern Italy. He
had fallen in love with the villa in the spring of 1960 when, as promotional
advertising for their newly acquired retreat, the foundation treated him to a
couple weeks there between terms. Buttereld caught his sh, and he got the
Lent term 1962 at the villa, his rst little sabbatical leave since 1949 when he
went for one term to Princeton.
He used the time to advantage, but not to further the Fox biography or the
Shorter History. He wrote up instead the material for two outside lectureships,
the very thing he wanted to get away from. These were his Lindsay Lectures
from November 1961, for publication as The Universities and Education
Today, and his Creighton Lecture in History at the University of London from
October 1961, which London published as Charles James Fox: The Peace
Negotiations of 1806. The London lecture did, of course, take him back to
Fox in a sense, but not in the way Buttereld wished. He rummaged through his
old research notes for Napoleons Peace Tactics from the 1920s, as if neither he
nor historiography had moved on in the intervening thirty-some years. At the
lecture itself he confessed, I am appalled to nd myself offering for the occa-
 The Top and After the Top 331

sion the useless narrative of one of the craziest negotiations that I have ever
studied. He removed the line from the printed version of the lecture.
In the coming months he did pull out his drafts of England and the French
Revolution of 1792, material that nearly became the nal section of George
III and the Historians ve years earlier. He added a little more to the manu-
script, but did not complete it. He produced a fascinating paper entitled Rem-
iniscences of an Enquiry into the Crisis of 1792, read to audiences at Peter-
house and Trinity College in 1963, in which he submitted himself to a kind of
historiographical reconstruction, analyzing the steps that he had taken since
the 1920s in deciding that 1792 was the third great crisis of George IIIs
period. The other two crises were the case of John Wilkes and Middlesex in
17691770, and the episodes of 17791780 which he included in George III,
Lord North, and the People.
Buttereld was beginning to realize that Fox was slipping too far out of his
reach. He told F. M. H. Markham of Oxford, then planning his own book on
Fox, that he still had the biography in mind and that though I am sure that
the world will never believe me, I personally think that it will appear some day
but not yet. His notes show that he scratched a little further in some Fox
materials, perhaps as late as 1967, but not much. At this point in his life he
seemed to have genuinely lost interest in Fox, although he kept on telling
himself and others that Fox was his real work.
Even the Concise Cambridge Modern History was slipping away as well. As
vice-chancellor he had given no courses, and now he was entirely free to offer
whatever he wished. He could have resumed his lectures on the general history
of modern Europe, and used them as he once hoped, to generate work on the
book. Instead his big course on modern Europe died quietly and his career as a
lecturer on general history simply faded away. His student J. H. Elliott carried
on alone with a different course covering a briefer period, 14941715. Butter-
eld took the big decision to devote his university lectures to the eighteenth
century. He rst devised a one-term course, Diplomatic History in the 18th
Century, related to his interest in the states-system and international affairs.
Then, upon becoming Regius Professor in 1963, he switched to George III
and the Politicians, 1760 to 1765, on the political controversies during the
rst ve years of the new kings rule. It appeared under Special Subjects
leading to the Tripos examinations, and entailed lectures twice a week for
two terms. His lectures engaged in the minute dissection of documents in con-
nection with topics that historians had controverted since the 1760s. The
subjects seemed genuinely to intrigue him. He raised the same sorts of issues
that took him off Fox in the 1930s to begin with and that later channeled his
antagonism towards Namier in the 1950s. He told the editors of the Historical
332 The Top and After the Top

Journal, speaking of the early George III, I dont like the way the interpreta-
tion of this period is going; and fundamentally, I think my way of treating the
controversy is the proper one. The immediate question he had in mind con-
cerned the foreign policy of George III, but his remark applied equally to home
politics.
The course was to be the nale of his lecturing career. In a mysterious way it
also took him back to the very beginning, to 19211922 when he himself
prepared George III and the Whigs, 176071 for his Tripos. His approach
stressed historical criticism of the documents, although he did not eschew
controversy. He liked the debate about documents that kept things uid and
questioned the prevailing orthodoxies. It was as if he were seeking to revive the
technical historian within him, the technician who deals precisely with docu-
ments. By the time he retired in 1968 he had accumulated at least twenty
lectures running to about three hundred pages of text. Some of the lectures
came in several versions or stages of revision, adding up to many more pages.
His lectures analyzed the reversionary interest, the accession of George III, the
resignation of Pitt, the fall of Newcastle, Bute and Frederick the Great, and the
victory of Fox and Bute. He raised the same questions that had stayed with
him for years: did George III intend to increase royal power? was a two-party
system in operation in 1760? was there a genuine opposition? what were the
relations of the king with his ministers? what was the English role in the
diplomatic revolution around 1763?
In the process, he seemed to give up his acrimonious debate with Namier,
even to undermine his own stringent comments against Namier on the BBC in
1961 and 1964 and in his review of The History of Parliament early in 1965.
Namier appeared in the rst lecture in the course, the introductory lecture,
where Buttereld set up the historiographical problem. He re-found his recon-
ciling method and, with little fanfare, simply absorbed Namier into his spongy
notion of different levels on which to see the same thing. He construed
Namiers work as belonging to the level of the underlying structures and
conditions, while his own work belonged to the level of the reconstruction of
the narrative of the actions of important political individuals: Here is the
ultimate issue: Given the character and structure of the country as described in
Namiers Structure of Politics, looking down on the whole from the top, how
were you to govern a country in that particular state, that particular predica-
ment? With this as his intellectual resolution of the Namier controversy, he
sought to heal his human relations with John Brooke. He did with Namiers
successor what he failed to do with Namier. He met with Brooke in November
1965 at Peterhouse, where they talked amicably at length about the compati-
bility of their approaches to history. It was an act of virtual self-renunciation.
Buttereld managed to publish a couple of articles and give some special
 The Top and After the Top 333

lectures on George III and related themes. He very nearly produced a small
book on the king. He signed a contract in 1967 for George III: Great Lives
Observed in a series for Prentice-Hall which combined a biography with se-
lected documents. But he broke the agreement over what he claimed was the
publishers unfair treatment of authors and alleged deception about the -
nances of the series. The complaint was convenient, since on second thought,
he had found himself unhappy with the format of the series, and felt that if he
were going to publish a book on George III or the eighteenth century, he
wanted to dene the character of the work for himself. After consultation with
Buttereld, Denis Mack Smith chose to go ahead with his volume on Garibaldi
in the series.
He received other invitations to publish. Geoffrey Barraclough brought him
an attractive proposal to write a volume on the eighteenth century, or maybe
the scientic revolution, for a new, fully illustrated Thames and Hudson series
on European history. Buttereld paused only briey before turning it down.
Later, Robert Blake asked him to contribute the volume on 17601865 for the
Granada series on British history. He declined this request as well. He nearly
became entangled as general editor of a twenty-volume World History Li-
brary to be published by Paul Hamlyn, who thought Buttereld had agreed to
sign on, but he got himself out of the thicket by excusing himself for not being
clear when he was trying to say no. He explained, I am afraid I am a victim of
my temperament, and, if I have taken anything on, I often nd that through
some inner compulsion of my own it gives me a lot of work though nobody
intends this to happen.
He occasionally found new general history projects still springing up in his
mind. He revived his old love for historical geography from the 1940s, and in
1964 proposed to R. W. David, the new secretary of Cambridge University
Press, that he do a Historical Geography of Europe. Citing the support of
G. R. Potter, he added the suggestion of an entire Cambridge series on histor-
ical geography, written and edited by historians. David loved the idea, but the
immediate proposal collapsed. The Press eventually carried Butterelds sug-
gestion forward on a different scale and in another format, but with Butter-
elds title. In the meantime, David gently reminded Buttereld that we still
have you cast as the author of the Concise Modern History, and during the
next few years continued to put light pressure on him to complete the work.
Buttereld may have done some reworking of a few chapters in the 1960s, but
he seemed not to be able to keep his mind on the project.
All the same, he still found both time and motivation to publish yet another
study or two on Lord Acton, almost as afrmation of the unagging con-
tinuity of his historical vocation.
 13

Going Global

Global Historiography
The thing that most nourished Butterelds imagination after his vice-
chancellorship was his love for historical thought. Thinking in general about
history could go in his head while he was doing something else, even university
administration. Subtly, without explicit resolve, he occupied himself more and
more with the history of historiography. His thinking became comparative,
and expanded to cover the whole globe. In spite of his exaltation of technical
history, he had neither the time nor, apparently, the interest to resume the mi-
nutely detailed and seemingly unending research that his method demanded.
He had already demonstrated that general historical thinking could produce
far-reaching effects, with the promise of long-lasting results. In the history of
historiography, he found new purpose, new inspiration, and when he nally
gave himself again to the subject, new excitement in his work.
The lecture he delivered by invitation at the International Congress of His-
torical Sciences in Stockholm, August 1960, while vice-chancellor, laid out a
direction consistent with the wide view of ideas of history he had begun to
adopt. He issued something like an appeal for the historical profession to
pursue an all-embracing history of History, fully global and fully compara-
tive. As usual he called for an approach that travelled well beyond the mere
history of books or the history of historians, but now he also wished to move

334
 Going Global 335

beyond what he had advocated so earnestly and so recently about technical

history as a branch of science in Man on His Past, as well as beyond the
appreciation of history as a branch of literature which he had promised in the
earliest years of his career. The history of History would be a species of
general history, and bear some of the features of universal history. He had in
mind the notion of the idea of history, something he had raised before,
which he also called an attitude to the past. He urged the study of the
multiple forms of the whole attitude of human beings to the pastthe atti-
tude of the men of any period to the course of events in time. Butterelds
Stockholm address had a missionary ring to it, like his Wiles lectures in Belfast
six years previously when he rst preached the merits of the history of histo-
riography. Now he embraced the whole globe, many cultures, and many more
aspects of the topic.
The breadth and inclusivity of his proposal for the history of History
appeared very clearly in a plan he was pursuing quietly on the side. In anticipa-
tion of Stockholm, he sent an exploratory letter about a possible conference on
the history of historiography to Arnold Momigliano of Turin and London,
C. H. Phillips of the London School of Oriental and African Studies, and
Theodore Schieder of Cologne. His thought was to invite a select number of
scholars with a major interest in the subject to Villa Serbelloni, the Rockefeller
Foundations site in northern Italy. He wrote out a sheet of names of possible
German scholars, and at Stockholm talked with Stuart Hughes of Harvard,
Franco Venturi of Turin, and Giorgio Spini of Florence. When the conference
of the International Society for the History of Ideas met at Peterhouse just
after Stockholm, he discussed his idea with Karl Lwith, Pietro Rossi, and
J. Romein. All encouraged him to carry on. The director of the villa advised
him to develop a plan.
Buttereld drafted a lengthy memorandum on the scope and objects of the
conference, producing a programmatic statement of his still expanding idea
for the study of the history of historiography. Three points mattered most to
him, all three comprehensive in their import. The study needed to treat the
subject as a whole, reaching into all elds that dealt with historical writings
theology, history, philosophy, classics, biblical studies, Oriental and African
studies, literature, law, education, anthropology, and so on. The study had to
be comparative, placing culture after culture next to each other. The study also
should cover all aspects of the subjecthistorical writing, ideas of the past,
the use of the past, notions of time-process, philosophy of history, historians,
historical method, precedent, attitudes to the past, historical education, mem-
ory, and more. Perhaps without realizing it, he was playing with a strategy of
team scholarship, a collective enterprise closer, ironically, to Namiers model
336 Going Global

than to his own of the individual scholar working in isolation. The questions
raised by such a study would require wide collaboration among scholars in
order to arrive at answers. For instance, why did Indian culture seem to lack,
as he presumed, the historical sense? Why did Chinese historiography develop
so differently from European versions? What has been the relation between
historiography and religion in various cultures? What impact have Europe and
America had on Chinese and Indian historiography in recent times? He could,
of course, multiply questions like these endlessly. Indeed, no sooner did Butter-
eld write his memo than he realized that no conference could cover what he
had in mind. In any case, he was too overwhelmed with his affairs to organize
such a complicated conference far from home. He never sent the memo. The
proposal for a conference collapsed. Nonetheless, he gained from the experi-
ence a clearer picture in his own mind of a eld of study which he found
wonderful.
While he was spinning all these threads with no result, he received inde-
pendent support for his leadership in historiography from the United States.
George Nadel, an editor of the newly founded journal History and Theory,
honoured him as the source of inspiration for the wider approach to the
history of historiography that motivated the journal: The fog . . . has been
dispelled by you, some of the ground rules adumbratedin short, we are once
more indebted to you for a new avenue of historical study.
Buttereld was also source of renewed inspiration for another journal
founded in the United States some years earlier, Journal of the History of
Ideas. When the International Society for the History of Ideas began in New
York in 1959, Buttereld and Gilbert Chinard of Princeton wrote the state-
ment of the objectives of the organization. It was shortly after Stockholm that
he hosted the rst conference of the new body at Peterhouse. He continued to
be active in the society in one way or another into the 1970s.
After Stockholm, Buttereld returned to the London School of Oriental
and African Studies in the fall of 1960 to sketch the history of attitudes to
the past. In September 1961 he went on the BBC with a smaller version of the
same thing. The theme that attracted him above all was the question of the
emergence of what we call the sense for the past. This was the same ques-
tion of origins that had concerned him about modern science. Why and how
did people come to have attitudes to the past and to convert their attitudes into
the drive to create historical thinking and historical writing? He offered no
answer in the lecture, and merely suggested what might be needed to answer
so comprehensive a question. To nd an answer would require, he said, a
deep cut into many civilizations and a look at human actions as seemingly
 Going Global 337

far apart as astronomy, calendar making, business accounting, religion, law,

and philosophy.
China was beginning to stand out as Butterelds other culture, and Chi-
nese historical writing was moving to the top of his agenda as the important
non-European tradition to study for comparative purposes. He followed in
this choice the example of Joseph Needham, his long-time colleague in the
history of science in Cambridge, and the director of a monumental series of
volumes on the history of science in China.
China, he decided, was the one society outside Western civilization that
had developed historical writing and historical thinking on a large scale. With-
out looking closely at the matter, he accepted the conventional judgment
about the insignicance of the historical thought and writing of India, and at
this moment in his calculations he overlooked Islamic societies and underrated
the oral traditions of Africa and elsewhere. Even his choice of China belittled
Chinese achievements. The European and American student, he concluded,
ought to look to China if only in order to learn how historical scholarship
may go wrong. This he said over the BBC. He went on to downgrade the
historiography of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Latin and Byzan-
tine Christendom. The historical interest, he declared, emerges as a mixed
and mongrel thing, not anything so pure as is often imagined. At rst his-
tory came entangled with other things, such as king lists, scriptures, law
codes, business records, myth-making, war heroics, the legitimation of power,
and much more. Only late in the day, in western Europe, did the world effect
the historical revolution in the nineteenth century comparable to the scientic
revolution in the seventeenth, and thus achieve the genuine article.
He revealed once again, even when thinking globally, that he celebrated
post-Gttingen historiography, the tradition he discussed in Man on His Past,
as the real history, and that European scientic history served as the norm
by which he judged all other historiography. He continued as well to structure
the analysis around his habitual separation of real history from all the other
activities and features of life.
A clear direction opened in front of him, one he himself might wish to
pursue. He possessed a compelling interest in the work and held the sketch of a
program in his hand, even if negative evaluations of other cultures generated
much of the inspiration. In its generality and vast range, this project was the
extreme opposite of the model of scientic history he had upheld since the
1920s: the minutely detailed search into the documents, the day-by-day colla-
tion of the evidence, and the piecemeal reconstruction of the narrative. The
project also shot him straight past Europe as the stuff of general history. If he
338 Going Global

adopted even a portion of the new program for himself, he would embark on a
course of action quite different from the ordinary.
Arnold Toynbees new work gave Buttereld the opportunity to declare
himself. The London Sunday Telegraph asked him to review Toynbees Recon-
siderations, the extraordinary twelfth volume of A Study of History, published
in 1961. He pointedly took sides against the specialized technical historians
who picked away at Toynbees work. In Reconsiderations Toynbee painstak-
ingly reviewed the mountain of criticism hurled by specialists against his com-
parative world history, and rethought the entirety of his general theory. Butter-
eld reviewed the volume and once again publicly announced his fundamental
sympathy for Toynbees monumental achievement. He endorsed the project of
global historical analysis. At a moment when Toynbee was out favour with the
specialists in both Europe and North America, Buttereld, the arch-exponent
of minute technical history, praised him: In any case, is it not a good thing if
one man in a generation, instead of burrowing into some microscopic period,
brings an analytical mind to the whole panorama of the historical civilisa-
tions? Where work is of this pioneering character and the area is of such
colossal magnitude, to judge a Toynbee by the number of his mistakes, rather
than by his contribution to science and human understanding, is to cry for the
victory of the second-rate.
Without making a big decision about the matter, Buttereld began to follow
his new interest. We can watch as the global history of History pushes aside
both Fox and the Concise Cambridge Modern History. He took three steps.
First, he decided to try to read every piece of historical writing emanating from
classical China that was available to him in translation. He announced his
intentions in his lectures on university education at Keele in the fall of 1961.
His references to China over the BBC in September 1961 got him stung by
China specialists because of his negative reading of Chinese historiography,
but he carried on undaunted, modifying his approach only slightly in their
direction. He reviewed very positively, and no doubt learned from, the rst
three volumes of Historical Writing on the Peoples of Asia, produced under
the leadership of C. H. Phillips at the London School of Oriental and African
Studies and published in 1961. This included a volume on historiography in
India and South Asia. He persisted nonetheless in regarding Indian attitudes as
ahistorical and continued to assess non-European traditions against the norm
of modern European historiography.
Secondly, he studied the rise of historical criticism in western Europe, a
theme that drove him to read Greek, Roman, and medieval Christian histor-
ical writing in detail. He had made a start on this theme around 1957. He
produced his initial paper on the subject for presentation in Oxford in 1962,
 Going Global 339

and then a much expanded version in 1965 as visiting professor at Wesleyan

University in Connecticut, the center that housed the journal History and
Theory. In Cambridge, his share of a lecture course, Introduction to the
Materials of Modern History, which ran from 1962 to 1966, included a
lecture on this theme.
Thirdly, and branching off from the second, he sought to understand the rise
of Christian historiography. This study brought him back to Augustine, who,
he believed, marked the effective transition towards the positive apprecia-
tion of the mundane course of events that he felt became characteristic of
Christianity. Years later he commented, Augustine is the most interesting
person Ive studied. In a lecture presented at Rice University in Texas in 1963
he conrmed his judgment that the primary thing affecting the way a Christian
historian would interpret history was the interest that Christianity took in
mundane history. He returned also to the critical study of the biblical writ-
ings, acquainting himself at this time with the work of Gerhard von Rad,
H. H. Rowley, John Bright, Martin Noth, and W. F. Albright on the Old
Testament, and Ernst Fuchs, James Robinson, B. H. Throckmorton, and more
Bultmann on the New Testament. He was struck by what he saw as the em-
phasis on history in the Hebrew Bible, which he called the Old Testament.
Without much comparative reading, and certainly none in the ancient histor-
ical writings of India known as the Puranas, he appropriated the sharp con-
trast conventionally drawn by European and American scholars between the
historical religion of Israel and the mystical ahistorical religions and phi-
losophies of Asia.
The invitation to offer the famous Gifford Lectures in Scotland arrived at
his door in 1963 as an exceedingly timely gift. He had just been elevated to
the Regius professorship of modern history. He had already entered deeply
into his comparative studies with no destination in view. He was undertaking
global travels for the International Association of UniversitiesMexico City,
Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Delhi, Madras, and would soon go to Warsaw,
Moscow, and Tokyo. Without a pause, he proposed to devote his Gifford
Lectures to the theme of the emergence of the historical sense as an element of
global history. From this moment on, the prospect of the lectures, scheduled
for the fall terms of 1965 and 1966, provided the incentive for him to concen-
trate his scholarly attention on the world history of historiography.
His decision made, Buttereld mounted a campaign to read across a very
wide range of the history of historical writing. He dug into his les and folders
over the years and collected all the notes he could nd on his readings in
historiography. It was already a formidable, if haphazard, agglomeration:
cards, notebooks, large sheets, and the familiar 312& 512& slips of paper that
340 Going Global

he manufactured himself by folding and tearing A2 size sheets. He arranged

his notes by cultures and periods: Egypt, Hittites, Old Testament, Latin histo-
riography, early Christian historiography, medieval, and so on. During the
two-year interval between the invitation and the rst round of lectures, he read
voluminously in historical writings and critical studies, wrote thought-essays
and lecture-length drafts. He felt overwhelmed by the gaps in his reading.
Probably at this time he began to collect his notes in medium-sized, loose-leaf,
two-ring blue notebooks, marked China, Hittites, or what-not, which
were easy for him to carry from place to place.
To write the lectures, he tried, but failed, to get time in 1964 and again in
1965 at the Rockefeller Villa Serbelloni. He went instead in March 1965 to
Wesleyan University, where he wrote part of the rst set of lectures. He had
started the practice around the time of his vice-chancellorship of taking a
room for a week or ten days in a hotel by the sea or in a Suffolk town, and
going away with his notes and drafts to write. Pamela would sometimes come
and use the time to draw. This he did again to write the Gifford Lectures. The
Rockefeller Foundation did give him time at the villa in 1966 to prepare a
portion of the second set. Referring to his difculties with getting time for
research and writing, he told the foundation, Please understand that I have
found that, in order to be a scholar, I must always conduct a desperate ght.
The closer he got to the lectures the less sure he became about whether he had
enough to say.
The lectures in Glasgow were ten in all, ve on consecutive Fridays during
November and early December 1965 and the remaining ve a year later. They
bore the general title History of Historiography. For all the fame of the
lectureship and its great importance in the history of ideas, his audience num-
bered only about fty people. Buttereld recalled the excitement generated by
the hundreds who attended his lectures on Christianity and history in 1948,
and decided that times had changed.
In his opening remarks, Buttereld poses his central question: How did
men come to have an idea of their existence in time, a notion of what the past
had been like, a conception of that human drama which takes place under the
sun? He adds the specic comparative question that motivated his study:
how (did) the West came to be so historically-minded?
He constructs his search for answers around the question of origins and
what he takes to be the origins of successive phases in the history of historical
consciousness. He follows a trail that began in Sumer and Babylon and leads
to the customary roster of Germans and Germanophile historians in the nine-
teenth century. He believes from the outset that the connection between his-
tory and religion would provide his focus, and, appropriately, he winds in and
 Going Global 341

out of religious topics. The destination is clear: the achievement of scientic

narrative history in nineteenth-century western Europe, especially in Ger-
many. He seeks to trace the origins of modern scientic history as a branch of
his study of the origins of modern science. And as he did in Origins of Modern
Science, so with the origins of scientic history. He maintains an anachronistic
focus on the modern xture at the end of the story.
In the rst set of lectures, he treated historical writing in Mesopotamia, the
pre-classical empires, the Old Testament, Greece and Rome, and China. In the
second set a year later, he discussed the New Testament, early Christian histo-
riography with Eusebius and Augustine, historical criticism, the Great Secu-
larisation, and the nineteenth-century historical revolution.
The route he follows through the terrain is the conventional history of
Western civilization as traced in continental Europe or North America. It is
important to him that he begins in Mesopotamia, rather than Greece, the
usual starting point for someone in Britain. The choice of Greece registers the
impact of scholars trained in classics, but since he had escaped classics by
resisting his headmaster at Keighley, he remained free to take the milieu of the
Old Testament as the decisive beginning. In a thought-essay written while
composing the lectures, he commented: Even today there are people who are
willing to say that Herodotus is the Father of History; and the Encyclopedia
Britannica begins with ancient Greece, without showing any awareness of the
fact that it is starting the story almost exactly in the middle.
The story, as Buttereld unfolds it, travelled from Sumer to Ranke by a
process of the progressive revelation of the features of modern historical con-
sciousness and modern scientic history. He retraces the route of the story by
looking for the appearance of rsts. The rsts are those aspects of the
historiographical legacy of each of the peoples he encounters that are similar
to his model. While the destination might be far off, he believes he can gain
frequent glimpses of the nal product.
The beginnings are the king lists found in profusion in ancient Mesopo-
tamia. The construction of these lists of the succession of kings and things in
time required orderly and detailed work and provided, as he thinks, the rst
inklings of historical science. Then come the annals of the Egyptians, the
Hittites, the Assyrians, and the Babylonians, which contained the rst, albeit
rudimentary, historical narratives.
The rsts he associates with the scriptures of the ancient Hebrews amounted
to a quantum leap forward beyond their neighbours. His handling of these
writings evidences that he had absorbed some of the strategies of critical
biblical scholarship. He poses the thesis that these writings, for the rst time in
human history, displayed an interest in the actual events of the past, and
342 Going Global

differentiated a sense of the past from the need to record contemporary affairs
or to transmit the record to the next generation. The pivotal episode which
elicited this new sense of the past was the escape from Egypt of a part of the
people who became the Hebrews. The memory of this exodus converted it into
an act of divine deliverance and transmuted it into the experience of all the
Hebrews. Jewish historical writing began in order to preserve the memory of
the exodus, and the historical memory helped to constitute the people of
Israel. The Jews produced the rst historian as such, the gure we know as J,
the writer of the Jahwehist document that critical biblical theory projects
behind some of the text of the Pentateuch. Buttereld regards the discovery of
J as a near matchless feat of modern historical criticism. In Butterelds story,
J replaces Herodotus as the Father of History. Buttereld observes, speaking
of J, His work confronts us for the rst time with something that we can
really call history, something that is based on an interest in what happened in
the past. . . . And here is the rst attempt at anything you can really call a
history of mankind [as well as] the rst attempt ever known to produce the
history of a nation. In addition to the J document, he is willing to name
Samuel and the rst book of Maccabees as the exceptional pieces of real
history in ancient historical writing.
The series continued with Buttereld indicating the traits of modern his-
torical consciousness and scientic history as they came to the surface. The
Greeks were the rst to examine the human factors involved in actual happen-
ings and to put forward rational explanations for events, contributing thereby
to the development of a scientic way of treating the historical data that had
been established. Eusebius, an early Christian historian, brought to expres-
sion a higher order of genuine historical consciousness and created ecclesiasti-
cal history as a genre. Augustine produced the rst comprehensive interpreta-
tion of world history. Lorenzo Valla brought historical criticism to a higher
realm. The Benedictine monk Mabillon established the rules for the scientic
criticism of charters. And so on. Buttereld passes through the secularization
of historical study to the veritable revolution in nineteenth-century western
Europe, personied by Ranke, that established what Buttereld regards as
modern historical consciousness and the scientic historical method.
The lectures deviate only once from the traditional route from Sumer to
Ranke: the Chinese. Buttereld enumerates their accomplishments. The Chi-
nese, very early, produced actual historians whose names we know, these
historians wrote complicated histories, their histories offered rational and
human explanations for the happenings discussed, and, from a crucial mo-
ment in the second century b.c., their historical explanations turned on re-
markably rened exercises of historical criticism. Buttereld had done his
 Going Global 343

homework after his initial excursion into China when the specialists assaulted
his handling of Chinese achievements. In response, he discards his merely
negative assessment of Chinese historiography. Yet he scarcely takes the Chi-
nese historians in their own right, and he neglects to consider their histories in
themselves or the integrity of their histories within Chinese cultures. He places
little emphasis on what was different about the understandings of history
revealed by Chinese writings and the social relationships and practices associ-
ated with them. Instead, he scans the histories for what might seem similar to
modern European historiography. The Chinese play the role in his argument
of the outsiders who, amazingly, manage to approximate certain of the feats of
the main actors in the story in Europe.
After we see what Buttereld does with China, we are able to realize that he
has done the same with every culture he encounters in his story, except for
post-Gttingen European historiography. Strictly speaking, Butterelds study
of China discloses not Chinese historiography, but aspects of real history
in China. Likewise, he examines Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israel, Greece, early
Christianity, and medieval and early modern Europe only in so far as they
display features similar to, or appear as precursors of, historiography in mod-
ern western Europe. J, if not D, the Deuteronomist, was the rst historian
because he seemed to achieve real history that approximated later German
historiography. Buttereld scarcely treats any writings of the other histori-
ographies in their own integrity and on their own merits.
His Gifford Lectures deliver much less than the expectations raised by his
Stockholm address in 1960. In Stockholm he called for the study of the multi-
ple forms of the whole attitude of human beings to the pastthe attitude of
the men of any period to the course of events in time. In Glasgow he delivers
merely the ways he thinks certain peoples anticipated post-Gttingen histo-
riography. We now understand better the character of the project to which at
Stockholm he gave the name an all-embracing history of History. The capi-
tal H on History indicates the one historical method and the nal history
that are valid for all and belong to all, whatever their politics or religion, and,
we may add, whatever their culture or time.
There is, however, an opposite tendency pulsing through his lectures, even if
it is weaker than the dominant one. To be sure, Buttereld has not yet found a
way to handle the diversity and indigeneity of the historical writings and the
historical sense of the astounding variety of the peoples of the globe, all of
whom have their own historical traditions. However, he does signal his aware-
ness of the complexity of the experiences of historiography throughout global
history. In his introductory statement at the start of his second year of lectures
in Glasgow, in the lecture on the New Testament, he writes: There is a sense,
344 Going Global

therefore, in which our story has to go back to the beginning again, as it

already had to do in a number of casesthe Egyptians, the Assyrians, the
ancient Hebrews and the ancient Greeks, for example. That is to say, we have
to trace the actual genesis of an interest in the past, a concern for history, in a
people initially without it. Even if the sub-story of rsts is simple, Butter-
elds whole story is not. When he tells us about the historiography of each of
these peoples, including the Chinese, he engages, at the very least, the things
that encompass the rsts. The strategy that propels him past Herodotus as
the Father of History also induces him to enlarge the range of what he calls
historical writing. He brings forward as historiography a great variety of
writings not normally included by the term, such as king lists, scriptures, law
codes, business records, astronomical charts, and more. He suggests the mak-
ings of an approach that, further pursued, could honour the sheer variety of
modes of historical expression of each people. The global history of histo-
riography to which he points would encompass the special character of each
peoples sense of history, and the multiplicity of ways the peoples of the world
have expressed their historical understandings of themselves and the world. It
might not be too large a step, even for him, to pass beyond things written to a
global history of historical consciousness, and to embrace, for example, the
oral traditions of aboriginal peoples and the peoples of Africa as their ways of
giving account of the course of things in time. Butterelds lectures showed no
signs, however, that he would accept the point Toynbee raised previously with
him concerning Man on His Past, when Toynbee chided him for universalizing
modern German historiography. Not even for a moment would he entertain
the excision of post-Gttingen historiography as the goal and the guiding
light of the history of History. To do so would require a different history
altogether.
Buttereld had barely nished presenting the Gifford Lectures when he
announced that it would be a while before the lectures were ready to publish.
He was aware that the tradition of the Gifford Lectures involved their publica-
tion, but he was determined not simply to reproduce the lectures as a book.
Perhaps he knew enough to talk to his audience in Glasgow, he said, but he did
not know enough to publish a book on so vast a range of topics. He had only
begun his reading on the topics of his lectures, he said, and there were other
topics to add.
Without a break in his stride, he moved from the platform to Glasgow to the
library in Cambridge. He commenced the ambitious project of trying to read
all the relevant historical writing available in translation in English, German,
French, and Italian. He read materials from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, the
Hittite empire, ancient Israel, early Christianity, and China, in addition to a
 Going Global 345

sizeable new block of historical writing from medieval Latin Christianity and
early modern Europe. To this he added his already vast reading in European
historiography from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. He lled
notebook after notebook and sheet after sheet with extracts and notes from
his reading. Before he had completed his reading on one topic he would begin
to redraft his material, and then read some more and redraft again. Twice he
published references to his work in progress.
For two years after 1966, he battled sporadically with Cambridge Univer-
sity Press over his desire to see a reprint of Man on His Past and to secure
control over the rights to the book. He repeated to friends privately what he
had said long ago, that CUP did not promote books well and that he wanted to
move the book to a commercial house. He explained to CUP that he expects
the book to revive when his Gifford Lectures appear in print. He behaved as if
that day were imminent, and turned to Peters, his agent, to nd a commercial
publisher to release both books. CUP quashed the scheme, however, by assert-
ing its control over Man on His Past and forcing Buttereld to back down.
The episode did drive CUP to issue the reprint edition of Man on His Past
in 1969.
Buttereld seemed not entirely aware of the scale of the project he had taken
on. His pace was slow and his scope was huge, and after only a couple years of
work he began to realize that he was nowhere near the end of the plan he had
set for himself. It was beginning to appear that he was doing with the Gifford
Lectures what he had done with Fox. He dened a project too large and
adopted a method too minute ever to nish.

International Politics
The new campaign for the history of historiography did not crush all of
Butterelds other academic activity during the 1960s. He kept alive his course
on the early reign of George III, and published a couple of pieces on related
topics. These included an article, Some Reections on the Early Years of
George IIIs Reign, in the Journal of British Studies, and a chapter of general
history, England in the Eighteenth Century, for a volume on the history of
Methodism.
He ostentatiously maintained his position as chair of the British Rockefeller
Committee in the Theory of International Politics, which had the side effect of
creating new initiatives in diplomatic history. While his interest in historiogra-
phy shifted to ideas of history and the history of historical writings within
global history, his attention in international politics turned to the idea of the
balance of power and the idea of the states-system. There, too, he came to
346 Going Global

appreciate the value of a global perspective. He seemed more and more to

become the historian of ideas, but one socialized in the methods and outlook
of the diplomatic historian. He would tell people, as he always had, that he
was not seriously interested in current politics, and ranked the reading of the
daily newspaper as his most boring duty. He continued nonetheless to take
serious notice of world politics and, in spite of himself, readily allowed his
political interpretation of contemporary international affairs to guide and
inform his historical scholarship. His historical studies for the Rockefeller
committee did not match his model of neutral scientic history.
In his book International Conict in the Twentieth Century, published in
1960, with material dating from 1958, he had already spoken against the
bomb and breathed the possibility of unilateral nuclear disarmament, but he
had passed this message through a screen of double negatives. It was possible
to miss his message entirely. Leonard Liggio, for instance, allowed his own
anti-Communist politics, coupled with his overall attraction to Buttereld, ac-
tually to reverse Butterelds meaning. Liggio put him in the camp of those
who staunchly opposed unilateral disarmament. Butterelds abhorrence of
the bomb was not a slip of the tongue or a casual feeling of the moment, how-
ever. It derived straight from his root-belief in the centrality of human per-
sonality and his rejection of self-righteousness in politics and war. The bomb,
he gured, surpassed all previous devices of human ingenuity in its power to
destroy human beings and civilization, and the use the bomb would constitute
a supreme act of self-righteousness. As the nuclear fear worsened in the world
at large, he began to remove the qualifying words. He bluntly called himself a
near pacist and a nuclear pacist. To make himself very clear, he was
telling the Rockefeller committee in 1961, Ultimately I would prefer to see
the world Communist or Russian rather than ghting with these weapons.
The explicitness of his discourse against the bomb has the surprising effect
of illuminating the strength of his convictions as a Nonconformist in eccle-
siastical matters. The creation of the bomb and its role in human affairs, he
tells us, present the world with an unspeakable calamity, but not a calamity
without parallel in human history. He identied the awful twin of the nuclear
bomb before an audience in 1967. It was the establishment of Christianity as
the religion of the state in the fourth century, in the wake of the conversion of
the Roman emperor Constantine to Christianity. This is no hyperbole. The
pair matched one of his fundamental dualisms. If the bomb can materially
destroy human personality and civilization, religious establishment destroys
human spirituality. This amounted to a maxim of history, and his reading of
the history of Christianity demonstrated how the maxim works.
Going public against the bomb had satised his sense of moral witness, but
 Going Global 347

he strictly refused to join any religious or political group that sought to pres-
sure governments. He was in earnest about his priorities when he said that
public demonstrations and big petitions seek change through force and not
through conversion of the heart, and they entangle the peace movement with
undesirable connections. He declined invitations, for instance, to support
the Church Peace Commission in New York or the Cambridge University
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament or the petition for The Hague Peace
Rally. He certainly considered his position apolitical. His strategy rested on
his handling of the biblical metaphor about the leaven that leavens the whole
lump. He told the Methodist Peace Fellowship, when invited to join the
group, that the Christian gift to the peace movement ought to be directed not
at governments, but at persons: If it is desired to carry the argument further,
then, at the present moment, I believe that the best thing that can be done is to
clarify the Christian attitude to the fundamental problem of foreign relations,
including the Christian attitude to the Communist system. I regard this as the
point where Christians might have something to contribute to the problem of
peace. He held rmly to the paradoxical view, expressed most fully in Chris-
tianity in European History, that Christians have exercised the greatest inu-
ence on society for good when they did not try directly to inuence society, but
went about simply being spiritual and ethical and preaching the Gospel. He
walked a ne line. He eventually agreed to join the Methodist Peace Fellow-
ship in 1963, but only after the leaders assured him that they would limit
themselves to public testimony for peace and would not try to inuence the
government. He agreed to let the leading British organization in the peace
movement, the Christian Group of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
(CND), publish the fourth essay in his book International Conict, where he
spoke against the bomb, but he declined their invitation to join the organiza-
tion. CND published the essay in 1964 as a pamphlet in their educational
series, under the title Human Nature and the Dominion of Fear. He regarded it
simply as his personal testimony, nothing more. The group, however, and the
reading public, no doubt took his statement as a useful political instrument
wielded by a famous historian. He had earlier permitted the same essay to be
included in a notable collection of writings, introduced by Thomas Merton,
aimed at peace activism in the United States in 1962. His stand against the
bomb appeared even more ostentatiously an act of dissent in the American
ambience of the Cold War.
The election of John F. Kennedy as president of the United States in 1960
pleased him, but he became furious when Kennedy sent American advisers
into Vietnam in 1962, and even more furious when President Lyndon Johnson
authorized American military involvement in Vietnam in 1964. American
348 Going Global

intrusion in Vietnam made him really angry about politics for what he claimed
was the second time in his life. The rst, he said, was the Nazi invasion of
Prague. In 1968, in the privacy of his journal, he condemned the American
experience in the Vietnam war as the most miserable humiliation ever suf-
fered by a great power.
As the sixties proceeded, he displayed fundamental favour towards the
movements of protest against the bomb and the war, and felt sympathetic with
the stirrings among university students that challenged the assumptions and
practices of the educational system. But in his talks and writings during the
sixties he frequently remarked that the world in general was disturbed, and he
worried whether such ceaseless turmoil might threatened the well-being of
universities and historical studies.
Amid all these troubles of the world, new clarity of purpose emerged in his
vision for the British Rockefeller committee. The committee itself might be
like leaven in the world. The strategy assumed that ideas inuence action.
The key to changing action was not to pit one force against another in a
struggle for political power, but to help people to think differently, and so
to act differently. The committee would generate ideas about international
politics, and these ideas would become available to other people. Buttereld
would contribute to the work by means of his own ideas, ideas he achieved by
conjoining his historical thinking, his religious and moral commitment, and
his interest in global political affairs. In the process he took distinct positions
on some of the most important issues of the day, and, through the committee,
sought to use the power of ideas to affect the way other people acted in
international politics. He continued to claim that his work was not political.
While his work with the committee surely did not entail party politics, it bore
the marks of politics in a more profound sense.
The undisputed leader of the Rockefeller committee was Buttereld, but
he exercised his leadership through an informal inner committee. At rst he
worked with Martin Wight and Desmond Williams, and later with Martin
Wight and Hedley Bull. When the larger group convened for the weekend
discussions he kept thick notes, and after each such occasion wrote out a
thorough record. The record shows that the committee at the start possessed
no overall plan, but allowed the discussions to move where the members
decided to go from session to session. The topics of future papers emerged
from the discussions, usually determined by common consent, often at the
suggestion of one of the members. The committee followed a primary rule
which Buttereld considered vital for genuine research: to pursue the hunches
and thoughts that come to mind without regard for the consequences. The
second rule he felt to be almost equally important: to proceed without the
 Going Global 349

intention to publish. Buttereld was resisting the notion of collective scholar-

ship and the creation of a band of scholars. He gured that the effects of the
committees work would appear in subtle ways within the writings of the
members as individuals.
In spite of Butterelds best efforts, the committee actually fostered team
research and created a team mentality, and pulled even him into the act. He
began to sing a different tune. By 1962 he was lamenting the lack of results
after three years, and suggesting that the committee ought to publish a book of
papers. By the end of 1963 he was saying it was time to do some stock-
taking about the direction of their discussions so that their work together
would become slightly less miscellaneous, and in January 1964 he began the
process. By 1966 he teamed with Martin Wight as co-editor to publish a
collection of twelve papers from the committee, including two of his own. The
volume, entitled Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of Interna-
tional Politics, appeared in 1966, his twentieth book. Buttereld selected the
papers, on topics loosely related to international diplomacy, and wrote the
preface. At the same time, in 1966, he was calling for the committee to design
an actual programme of work. He also confessed that my present concerns
seem so remote from this sort of thing. By 1968, after ten years on the job, he
decided to resign as chair, admitting that his interest had waned. Altogether
Buttereld wrote eight papers for the Rockefeller committee out of the total of
some seventy papers produced by all members during the ten years of his
leadership. Participation in the work of the committee, he said, was one of the
really impressive experiences of our lives.
The name of the committee as well as the subtitle of Diplomatic Investiga-
tions emphasized theory, and indeed, as the discussions moved on, the talk in
the committee as a whole seemed to become more theoretical. Members dis-
cussed issues of international theory, natural law, foreign policy, war, and
disarmament. But it is hard to characterize any of Butterelds contributions
except his lastas theoretical or anything other than historical studies. He
said that he wanted to see what benet could be gained from the examination
of the ideas germane to international politics in the past and from the study of
long-term history. After his rst paper, in 1959, on his ethical misgivings about
contemporary European and North American attitudes towards Communism
and the colonial peoples, he undertook several fairly straightforward excur-
sion into the history of ideas and the history of diplomacy: the idea of the
balance of power, contrasts between old and new ideas of diplomacy, the ideas
of Hugo Grotius, the debate over pro-German and anti-German attitudes in
foreign policy before 1914. Little of this work explored the uses of long-term
history for the development of theory.
350 Going Global

Buttereld surfaced from his studies with renewed, but perhaps slightly
chastened, attraction to the diplomacy of the eighteenth century. He had
drawn pointed criticism for his one-sided enthusiasm in Christianity, Diplo-
macy and War for the achievements of the aristocratic diplomats without
acknowledging their self-righteousness and extravagant uses of power. He still
liked what he saw as their emphasis on the preservation of the international
order itself, and their attempts to relativize the separate interests of any state,
or ideology, or regime. He offered the striking observation that, since the
advent of the nuclear bomb, a weapon which rendered resort to total war truly
unthinkable, a qualitative change had occurred in international relations. He
thought that factors other than sheer power had moved to rst position in the
calculations of foreign policy, factors such as ideology, propaganda, morality,
diplomacy, anger, and simply nasty behaviour. This interpretation of interna-
tional diplomacy since 1945 brought back onto the table the very factors he
had sought to eliminate when he wrote at the end of the 1940s and in the early
1950s against moralistic diplomacy and in favour of scientic diplomacy.
Butterelds horror of the bomb effected a reversal in his thought. He handled
the change by drawing a line between an old diplomacy before the bomb
and a new diplomacy after the bomb. This was a different rendering of old
and new diplomacy from his previous version, when old meant the bene-
cial eighteenth-century variety and new meant the harmful moralistic jock-
eying since 1914 over wars for righteousness. In Butterelds new analysis,
moral arguments and ideology now mattered, and systematic thinking or his
own consistency was not for him the issue. He said these things in two essays,
The Balance of Power, from April 1959, and The New Diplomacy and
Historical Diplomacy, from September 1960, both of which he put into Dip-
lomatic Investigations.
At some point, possibly around the time when he was putting together
Diplomatic Investigations, he began to say in the committee that there was no
adequate history of diplomacy. He meant a study that dealt with diplomacy as
technique over the centuries. The observation paralleled the remark he usually
made about the history of historical criticism. He thought a worthwhile ques-
tion to explore would be whether the sheer technique of diplomacy really
adds anything to the life of the world. As a sideline he began to read and
collect notes for a study on the history of diplomacy as technique, although
he seemed not to be clear about whether the scale of treatment would be brief
or perhaps book-length.
When Buttereld assessed the work of the committee, he felt that the mem-
bers were forming a common mind, and, although he did not say it, the
characteristics he noticed bore his personal stamp. Such a result occurred
 Going Global 351

partly because he ensured that people congenial to his approach were added to
the committee, and partly because he exercised such a presiding hand. He
dened the common mind as the concern above all with both history and
morality in the affairs of actual international systems of states. He named the
approach the British Classical method. This he contrasted sharply with
projects to construct a general theory, or with social scientic approaches deal-
ing primarily with contemporary affairs, or even with the American Rocke-
feller committee, which he understood to be less interested in historical ques-
tions and more absorbed by questions of morality and foreign policy. The
British Classical method, he said, favours the study of continuities in inter-
national relations and gives priority to the practical wisdom of the ages over
modern abstract concepts. It canonizes the classical writers, such as Grotius
and Burke, ignores recent sociology and psychology, and inclines towards the
study of the corpus of diplomatic and military experience in order to refor-
mulate its lessons in relation to contemporary needs. The results produced by
this approach were what Buttereld meant by theory. He stayed very close to
the discourse on maxims he began with his study of Machiavelli in the late
1930s, and continued in Christianity, Diplomacy and War. He displayed re-
markable hostility towards other approaches to theory, which he called simply
mistaken or wrong. His attitude towards them mirrored his enduring hostility
towards Namier. He saw no truth in the other approaches and withheld his
habitually inclusive and reconciling method.
In his contribution to the committees stock-taking in January 1964, But-
tereld took a new turn in his discourse about the application of historical
method to the task of international theory. He proposed that the committee
examine the idea and the practice of the states-system itself. Almost as an
appendix, he attached a paragraph which suggested extending the analysis to
the internal relations of systems existing entirely outside our own. He men-
tioned ancient Greece and China as possibilities, raising the prospect of a
historical and comparative study of states-systems or similar political rela-
tions throughout world history. The idea of global analysis spilled over from
his study of ideas of history that he was simultaneously preparing for the
Gifford Lectures.
The committee took the recommendation and commenced a study of the
states-system. Most of the papers Buttereld had previously written for the
committee had looked directly at the history of certain ideas. At rst it seemed
he had in mind merely more of the same when his initial paper on the new
topic, in July 1964, discussed the historical meaning of Great Power. He
argued that the term did not refer simply to the magnitude of a particular
states power, but represented a technical designation of the status of a state in
352 Going Global

the system, and that the actual power of those states called Great Powers
varied considerably. Both he and the other members began to chase the
implications of the reference to global history. It became evident to the mem-
bers that what they had so far been discussing was not the states-system, but
the modern European states-system, only one of many arguably similar con-
gurations of political jurisdictions throughout world history. Within one year
committee members gave papers that looked at the ancient Greek city-states,
traditional China, traditional Islam, and medieval Europe. Butterelds paper
in January 1965, entitled The Historic States-Systems, probably his last
full paper to the group, added other systems to the list of candidates for
studythe modern Arab system, the Communist states, Renaissance Italy, the
states after the breakup of Alexander the Greats empire, Sumer, the Hittite
system, systems on the African continent. The list went well beyond the com-
mittees capacity.
The exploration of the states-system that Buttereld launched differed
categorically from the way he handled modern science and what he called
History, that is, modern scientic history. Whereas in the latter two cases
he took the modern European instances as the normative destination of the
tendency of previous history, he did not promote the European states-system
as the analogous goal of global political relations. Instead he reected at a
higher altitude on the many cases he cited, from ancient to modern times, and
produced a tentative analysis of the factors that might generally operate in
favour of creating unied systems of states, even though the particular circum-
stances and colouration differed in each case. He ventured the theoretical
explanation that antecedent common culture as well as common political
hegemony seems to be necessary, as well as geographical proximity, perhaps
common religion or other shared deep values, and the need to combine against
a common outside enemy. He did not ponder the effect of economic factors, or
language, or other considerations, but his list of possible requisites was al-
ready multifactoral. He had set foot upon the territory of Arnold Toynbee. He
was collecting known cases of systems of states, or state-like relations of
power, asking a typically historical question about the factors at work in their
origins, and coming up with the rudiments of a historical theory about how it
is that states-systems come into existence. Buttereld had usually quietly
harboured the criticism that Toynbee spent his time justifying a theory formu-
lated in advance, rather than the other way around, but after his favourable
review of Reconsiderations in 1961, he seemed more friendly to the theoretical
carriage of Toynbees enterprise. He saw afresh how Toynbee reconstructed
his theory to make it respond more exibly to the sheer variety of civilizations
in world history. Perhaps he did not fully apprehend the implications of such
 Going Global 353

discourse. By stepping onto such terrain, Buttereld went about as far away
from his traditional model of the technical historian as he could get and still
have the nerve, within his own terms, to call his studies historical.
The discussions continued in the committee, and Buttereld meditated on
the topic of the historic states-systems. By April 1967, he was talking about
the committee publishing a second volume of essays, one with greater prelimi-
nary design, and with members writing made-to-order papers to ll the gaps.
He outlined a possible table of contents for a book of essays on states-systems.
He would write a chapter on prerequisites of international systems, working
out his historical theory about the origins of states-systems. He would write a
straight historical chapter, The Origins of the European International Sys-
tem, a draft of which he had already put on paper. Maybe he would write a
chapter on the Ancient World. The plan faltered at once. He himself was too
engrossed in his new monumental project on the comparative history of histo-
riography. He admitted to Martin Wight, We are not properly organized to
carry out a serious project like e.g., States-Systems, but we could produce
another miscellany like Diplomatic Investigation.
Buttereld left the Rockefeller committee in September 1968, and the vol-
ume died. Diplomatic Investigations remained the only book produced by the
committee under his leadership. Martin Wight took over as chair, and the
committee went on to other things. There was soon talk of a volume of essays
on ethical questions about international politics, with an abundance of candi-
dates available to supply essays for the book. Buttereld continued to receive
the papers of the committee after his retirement and occasionally sat in on a
meeting, but he took no active part.
Thinking about international theory reenlivened Butterelds devotion to
diplomatic history. Amid the confusing and conicting voices preaching the
values of this or that new type of social and cultural history, he sang the merits
of the type of history into which Temperley had initiated him in the 1920s. By
the early 1960s he was freely uttering lament for the loss of dominance by
political history as written by what he called the school of Ranke. A paper
he read to the Cambridge History Club in 1963 bearing the title In Defence of
Diplomatic History spoke fervently on behalf of a discipline he knew was out
of favour. In the paper he uses the metaphor of the seesaw to indicate why he
now emphasizes a seemingly archaic mode of history. After one side of the see-
saw gets the weight, then must come the other. Shifting the metaphor to the
shopkeepers scale, he adds, and one has always to be looking out for the
proper balance. His dissenting ethos goes to work against the newly domi-
nant styles of history. He goes further than merely keeping two things in
balance, however. He once again proclaims his most basic commitments. To
354 Going Global

be sure, he does not wish to abandon his commitment to study the history of
societies and civilization in their multifaceted arrangements that he had ar-
gued for in his lectures on the modern history of Europe, but he feels the need
of the day now required him to stress the importance in history of the deci-
sions men makethe enormous leverage that the historical process can give
even to a single mans will.
Diplomatic history is a branch of political history and, as a discipline, stud-
ies individuals, he writes. The individuals in question are the wielders of gov-
ernment power operating on the international level. Their decisions affect war
and peace, international stability, order and revolution, liberty and tyranny.
These include the Hitlers, the Stalins, and the Sir Edward Greys whose deci-
sions produced massive consequences and affected everyone. As an example of
the primary role played by diplomatic history, he points to the effects of war
and dynasty on society, and argues for the necessity of understanding diplo-
matic history as a prerequisite for comprehending social and cultural history.
War touches virtually everything, he says, including the state, the economy,
education, the natural sciences, the arts, ideas, even religion. And dynasty
provides the key to understanding the modern map of the nations of Europe.
The interactions of the ruling families of the continent hundreds of years ago
underlay the division of Europe into separate states, and antedated the power
of language, popular national sentiment, culture, and other factors.
The individualist conception of the operation of international relations that
Buttereld expounded in his discourse contained no notion of states as institu-
tions of political and military power interacting on a vast scale, and no refer-
ence to the operation of states as organizations of monumental economic
power within international banking, monetary exchange, trade, and industrial
production. At the same time, however, he also overlooked the immense im-
pact of individual people in many other aspects of society, such as nance,
multinational corporations, labour unions, religion, social movements, popu-
lar music, and Hollywood movies. Even as he explicitly took credit for broad-
ening the Cambridge treatment of general history, he promoted the primacy of
diplomatic history, and neglected his argument which stressed the interrela-
tionship of many factors and regarded as vain the conventional search for the
key factor. Setting to one side his belief in the absolute power of individual
spirituality, his case for diplomatic history presumed that international politics
dealt with what mattered most in the course of what he called mundane
history: rulers, political power, war, governments, diplomacy. At least in the
way he put the case, he underplayed the signicance of culture, the economy,
social relations, migration, religion, and even ideas, which he had come to
emphasize in his current work. He now admitted, for probably the rst time,
 Going Global 355

that the modern study of history, which he called variously academic history
or scientic history or technical history, grew up under the tutelage of
diplomatic history. The rules characteristic of a certain type of diplomatic
history transmuted into the rules of scientic history as a whole. In other
words, the vision of scientic history he had so long expounded privileged
and promoted the hegemony of not only one branch of history, but one par-
ticular way of practicing within that branch, notably the approach generated
among nineteenth-century German historians and inculcated by Temperley
forty years previously. Buttereld did not allow that academic history might be
seen as comprehending many methods, even apparently conicting methods,
each betting the purposes and subjects of the study. Nor did he entertain the
option of developing entirely new approaches to the historical study of inter-
national affairs which were attentive to the intertwinement of international
politics, international economy, international culture, international religious
movements, international charity, and much more. Instead, he perpetuated his
assumption that the nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century methods
of diplomatic history properly dened the very character of historical study
itself. He uttered the most extreme claim he had yet put forward for the
importance of Ranke, the exemplar of diplomatic history in the nineteenth
century. Ranke was, he said, the greatest man who ever addressed himself to
the work of historical research, and the only mind of anything like Shake-
spearian quality that ever engaged itself in academic history.
The inaugural lecture that Buttereld delivered on 10 November 1964 as
Regius Professor of Modern History carried the impressive title The Present
State of Historical Scholarship. Of all the things he might have said on so
august an occasion, and instead of indicating the way ahead towards creative
and innovative historiography, instead of, for instance, urging the global vi-
sion he was then developing, he decided to reiterate his support for one par-
ticular style of doing diplomatic and political history. He hurls a few menacing
words in the direction of economic and social history, the areas enjoying the
greatest favour at the time, and then devotes the greater part of the lecture to
the importance of his chosen elds. He describes these elds as dealing with
an intermediate realm lying between society taken as a whole and the sub-
microscopic world of the millions of social particles treated statistically by
certain of the new types of history. Political and diplomatic history, he says,
remind the world that individual human wills matter, and that there is a
whole universe of countless possible futures. Diplomatic and political history
militate against determinism. Once again he identies his deepest concern,
that individual persons are the only reality in the world. His individualist
vision of diplomatic and political history again polarizes individuals over
356 Going Global

against social relationships and institutions, and blocks his view of the corpo-
rate and multifactoral character of the subject matter of those elds. His vision
also tricks him into believing that there are no tendencies on politics and
diplomacy that inundate individual people. As an aside, he then urges a change
in governmental policy concerning the fty-year rule, the British regulation
that closed the documents of state to research for fty years after the events.
He recommends lowering the limit to thirty years, which, he says, in a world
moving swiftly, would allow documentary materials crucial for public under-
standing to surface more quickly. It is an argument that reveals a political hope
that diplomatic history might impact contemporary attitudes in international
affairs. Ironically when his own papers reached the manuscript room of Cam-
bridge University Library after his death, the keepers automatically clamped
on the fty-year rule on about 20 percent of his materials, not knowing about
his proposal for archival time restrictions.
In 1964, the ftieth anniversary of the beginning of the First World War
gave him the opportunity to reengage in some actual diplomatic history while
resuming his old cause on behalf of fair treatment for Germany in the history
books. He asked the BBC to let him go on national radio, claiming that the
problem seems to me to be almost a national matter, but he failed to get the
time. He made connections with the semi-ofcial British Council and several
German universities, including those who had hosted him during the high days
of Hitler in 1938. They arranged for him to tour Germany in July 1964,
visiting the universities of Cologne, Bonn, Munich, Berlin, Gttingen, and
later Mainz, with a lecture on Sir Edward Grey and the crisis of July 1914.
He discussed the British tradition of blaming Germany for the outbreak of the
war, and what he said sounded good to German ears. He knew that critics
could discount him as pro-German. The whole episode took him back emo-
tionally to his youth in Oxenhope and the shock to his consciousness of the
wider world when the British went to war against Germany, the land he had
learned growing up was the primeval source of Teutonic liberty. For him
personally, the tour renewed his direct contact with German historians and
German scholarship.
The research he conducted for the lecture went no farther than the ofcial
British volumes of documents edited by his friend Gooch and mentor, Tem-
perley, and the counterpart volumes from other nations, but he managed
afterwards to double the size of the lecture and turn it into an article, Sir
Edward Grey in July 1914. It was the rst piece of footnoted history he had
published since part two of George III and the Historians in 1958, work
which was much older still. He apparently no longer worried that such vol-
umes of selected documents published by governments functioned as ofcial
 Going Global 357

history. His elaborate argument wound around to the thesis that, while it is
true that Germany was a threat to peace in 1914, so was Russia. Grey trapped
himself in moralistic attitudes against the Germans, and failed to take the
scientic view that recognized the double threat embedded within the com-
plexity of the European states-system. Along the way, Buttereld uttered sev-
eral maxims, which he took to be lessons of history, applicable to situations
similar to that of Germany and Russia in 1914. Chief among the maxims
were these:

When there are two of these monsters, however, the threat to liberty is not
doubled; it is likely to be greatly reduced.

And,

A exible diplomacy is able to address itself to a dual problem of this kind: for
it is not a rare thing to have a menace urgently impending from one side, while
a remoter threat, not less terrible, looms up from the opposite quarter.

Travelling to Germany again in 1968 to receive his honourary doctorate at

Bonn, thirty years after his rst visit to the country, he put the case for political
history in stronger terms than he had used before, terms according undoubted
priority among all the types of history to the historical study of politics. It was
a polemic against the domination of history by social and economic history.
These elds of history, he said, leave students with a conception of general
history with no inner structure. The proper way to provide structure was to
emphasize the leading part played by states and governments in the history of
human affairs. At the same time, such an approach would better do justice to
individuals and free will in history, and would introduce students to the wis-
dom of the ages: Politics still forms the main core of historical study. It
provides the strongest ribs in the structure of general history. Without it, the
student of history feels men too much at the mercy of conditionshe does not
realize the importance of the human will in history. In my view, therefore, it is
still true that what our young people need is an education in statesmanship
and that the teacher of history should always keep this in mind. He gave no
reasons why general history could not just as well be structured around eco-
nomic activity or daily social life or cultural practices or religion, since any of
those human engagements display both comprehensiveness and specicity as
well as sequences in time, and all involve individual decision and human will.
At the same time, he failed to recognize that politics can seem vague, remote,
and deterministic to all but the small elite who exercise power at the moment.
In his own mind, there in Germany, he was back in Gttingen at the end of the
eighteenth century when, as he had argued, the professors of history were
358 Going Global

creating the modern form of the study of history and instructing the young
men of the German nobility in the wisdom of the ages and the ways of states-
manship. The young aristocrats would then move into the leadership of public
life throughout the German states. There was something of old Cambridge in
the model as well. Gttingen and old Cambridge were worth emulating.
During the sixties, as the student movement within the universities gained
ground, he continued to express sympathy with students complaints, but
hardened his position against their proposals and methods, both of which he
felt politicized the university. In the Lindsay lectures at Keele in 1961 he had
spoken against the tendencies in universities which he perceived were pro-
letarianizing everybody. He urged the universities, one might say, to aristoc-
ratize the students instead. Universities should equip individual students to
seize on the ne things that were the privileges of aristocracies (the enjoy-
ment of a free voice in government being only one of these) and set out to
extend them to everybody. He echoed the thesis of Englishman and His
History, where he claimed that all England had successfully avoided the ter-
rors of revolution by passing the benets of the aristocracy down to ordinary
people. Recalling Gttingen, he began to talk about the role of the univer-
sity in the production of an elite, something he insisted was different from
creating elite universities. He agreed with Lord Snow who, reportedly, im-
plored Englishmen not to go too far in their egalitarianism. With such talk,
Buttereld could begin to sound like the historian with working-class roots
who embraced and defended the culture and privileges of the ruling elites of
the world.
Championing a classical approach to international theory and the priority
of diplomatic and political history derived from his moral and religious con-
victions, and his decision to go against the tide was a direct expression of his
dissenter ethos. Throughout the sixties he once again became vocal about his
Methodist identity. The events that elicited his renewed public Methodism
were the conversations between the Methodism Church and the Church of
England aimed at achieving the reunication of the two traditions. What
troubled him was not Anglican liturgy or spirituality or even Anglicanism, all
of which he had not found unattractive over the years at Peterhouse. Both in
his role as Master and out of personal sympathy he participated actively in the
life of Peterhouse chapel. He aimed his objection against the ofcial alliance of
the Church of England with the state. He developed a talk on Methodism and
the role of Nonconformity which he delivered several times to Methodist
groups. He emphasized certain ideas which he believed belonged to the very
character of Methodism, and which he did not want lost in any conversations
with the established church. He contemplated what might be Methodist dis-
 Going Global 359

tinctives, and reread John Wesley, especially the sermons. He noted Wesleys
words in the sermon A Caution against Bigotry, where he said, Nor are
any animosities so deep and irreconcilable as those that spring from disagree-
ments in religion, and in the sermon Catholic Spirit, where Wesley said,
Love me with the love that covereth all things. The primary distinctive of
Methodism, Buttereld thought, lay in its emphasis on experience: Through-
out life Wesley never ceased to be comparatively indifferent to orthodoxy so
long as a man had the witness of the Spirit, proving itself in works of faith.
Methodists, Buttereld said, had a way of going behind the ecclesiastical tradi-
tions in order to meet directly with the experience of the early Christians. The
fresh encounter with the New Testament encouraged radical thinking, fun-
damental re-thinking of the rst principles of Christianity in relation to the
affairs of today. The emphasis on the laity militated against a clerical church,
and the tendency to use the small group, the cell, the Class meeting, weighed
against reliance on vast organization and mere activism. At a conference on
higher education convened by Marjorie Reeves in 1963, he gave an example of
how he dealt in the line of Wesley with religious orthodoxy and intellectual
vitality. The Christian doctrine that the truth has been revealed, which he
afrmed that he accepted in some sense, poses an intellectual danger when
overstressed, as, for example, when the truth is encased in a few hard for-
mulas, as though here were the end rather than the beginning of questinga
closing-in of thought instead of the opening-out of a mystery.
In 1964 the report of the Methodist-Anglican commission published the
proposed steps leading to church union. The document caused Buttereld such
alarm that he reacted in a manner entirely unprecedented in his career. He
issued a public statement of his misgivings, and persuaded his Methodist friend
R. Y. Jennings, Whewell Professor of International Law at Cambridge, to co-
sign, both using their professional titles. He did not oppose church unity, he
said, but he categorically rejected the plan to make Methodism part of the reli-
gious establishment. That status, he charged, was bound to constrict religious
development and radical thought. He knew full well that Methodists had
divided from the Church of England in clear violation of the teachings of John
Wesley, who died a cleric in the established church. But against this he raised
the historical argument that, because of the dynamic of passing out of the
church establishment, Methodists had gravitated over the years towards the
older ecclesial communities of Dissentthe Nonconformistswhich origi-
nated in the divisions of the seventeenth century. Methodists had already
formed especially useful alliances with Presbyterians, Baptists, and Congrega-
tionalists. In so doing they had helped save those traditions from unravelling on
the fringe of English society, and had developed for themselves a dissenting role
360 Going Global

against state religion. Instead of a movement towards reunion with the Church
of England, he favoured the spontaneous union of Methodists with other
Protestant traditions outside the establishment. A united movement of Meth-
odists and the older Nonconformists would serve, he said, to give spiritual
meaning and purpose to the new generations general attitude of protest.
In another unprecedented act, quite out of line with his usual quietist self, he
joined the campaign mounted by the National Liaison Committee of Method-
ists to pressure the Methodist Church to defeat the proposed reunion with the
Church of England. He was not unhappy with the failure of the plans for
reunion not long after, and he might be justied in thinking that he had a hand
in the collapse.
When Basil Willey, his friend and Peterhouse colleague, retired in 1964 from
a professorship in English at Cambridge, Buttereld wrote a tribute which
summarized Willeys Methodism: He has been a Methodist too, still in the
tradition of liberal nonconformityready as a thinker to take his stand on
the validity of religious experience, but determined, in spite of the depths of
the feelings involved, to confront with relentless honesty the intellectual prob-
lems that Christianity presents. These were the very terms that Buttereld
might wish to use about himself.

Surprise
Peterhouse had given Buttereld many shocks in his life, by electing him
to a fellowship, electing him Master, and other things. Now it was his turn to
give Peterhouse a shock. The date of his retirement from the Regius professor-
ship was set, according to the regulation, for 1968, but the college statues
would allow him to continue as Master until 1970, the year in which he
became seventy years of age. He testied that he was very happy as Master, but
he had been unable to adhere to the plan for him to be the scholar-Master. He
confessed to one inquirer, Perhaps I have been in danger of loving too much
the administrative side of the work. He added to another, I found that I
loved it all and to my great surprise I got a tremendous enjoyment out of com-
mittees. He felt, however, that his historical scholarship was in shambles.
Just after he nished the Gifford Lectures, in December 1966, he carefully
reconsidered his prospects for productive scholarship. He was exceedingly
hopeful of bringing his new comparative work on the history of historiogra-
phy to a worthwhile nish. He was content to continue to let go of Fox and
George III in order to work on a book from the Gifford Lecture. He was
beginning to experience his role on the Rockefeller committee as a distraction.
 Going Global 361

To the surprise of everybody, Buttereld made his decision and, early in

1967, announced that he would resign as Master two years early, to take effect
on 30 September 1968. That same day he would step down from the Regius
professorship as well as from the chair of the Rockefeller committee. He
explained the extraordinary move as a desperate attempt to write. I seem to
have spent such a lot of time on the business side of university and college life
that I would like to make up a bit on the academic side. With a twinkle, he
explained, I decided that at age 68 one has a right to do what one likes
assuming one still has a decent object in life. He recalled the aspirations of his
youth, and explained the decision as due to the stronger pull of my initial
boyhood desire to write something good if possible. Looking back over his
career, he ranked The Peace Tactics of Napoleon of 1929 as still his best book,
precisely because of its literary style. When he wrote a new draft of a paper or a
chapter or a lecture, his goal was more likely to be better style than better
thought. He might wonder if the writer in him had more to come.
His explanation seemed too naive and too sincere in a world where simple
reasons sometimes masked intrigue. The gossip suggested that his stated intent
to retire was a threat to get his way in college politics, and it took a while for
the Fellows realize that he really meant to retire early in order to write. He was
well liked and perceived as a devoted and conservative Master. The Fellows
came to believe him and accept his wishes. At the end, however, they gave
him a jolt in return by electing a still older man as Master, even taking the
extreme step of revising the college statutes to permit the later retiring age.
Charles Burkill, mathematician, college bursar, and long-time Fellow of the
college, succeeded Buttereld as Master of Peterhouse in October 1968, the
rst non-historian at the head of the college since the 1930s.
Buttereld became an Honourary Fellow of the college, joining his col-
leagues Postan, Brogan, and Knowles. With his retirement there was no longer
any Fellow of Peterhouse holding a professorship in history. It was certainly
the end of a long era for history in Peterhouse. In the university, he became
Emeritus Regius Professor of Modern History, and his younger friend Owen
Chadwick replaced him in the Regius chair.
Queen Elizabeth summoned Buttereld to come to Buckingham Palace on
9 July 1968 and conferred a knighthood upon him for his services to the
college, the university, and the historical profession. Hereafter Pamela and he
were Lady Buttereld and Sir Herbert. The man born in the workers cottage
in Oxenhope delighted in the knighthood probably more than any other of the
honours he ever received.
After nearly fourteen years as Master, and after almost fty years with
362 Going Global

accommodation in the college, Buttereld moved out of the Masters Lodge,

and out of the college, in July 1968, giving the college time to redecorate for
the next Master. Pamela and he retired to Sawston, a village on the bus line a
few miles south of Cambridge. He took with him all his papers and all his
books, and looked forward to life doing nothing but thinking about history
and religion.
 14

Nothing but History and Religion

Meditations
The new Sir Herbert and Lady Buttereld found their life in Sawston a
delightful improvement over the Masters Lodge. Sawston was removed far
enough from Cambridge to allow them to make a fresh start, but, being right
on the bus line, close enough for them to go into Cambridge whenever they
liked. The Butterelds had neighbours again and made new friends, took
walks in the village, and, for the rst time in decades, did their own shopping
and cooking.
The village differed from Oxenhope. Sawston was smaller and, instead of
hills, was surrounded by at, fertile land, with new housing developments
rising to the north, and it possessed no industrial legacy. The village had a few
Methodists, a dominant Anglican parish, and a signicant Roman Catholic
presence. Sawston Hall, a ne Elizabethan stately home, had remained in the
hands of Roman Catholic nobility through the centuries. Many of the inhabi-
tants of the village and the adjacent housing estates oriented themselves to-
wards Cambridge.
The Butterelds loved their new home, a handsome half-timbered house
from the sixteenth century, near the centre of the village, at 26 High Street. The
sale of the house on Tenison Road made the purchase possible. Buttereld
settled in quickly. Anticipating a busy correspondence, or at least spotting a

363
364 Nothing but History and Religion

bargain, he had 2,000 sheets of new letterhead printed, with the address read-
ing 28 High Street. He thought it wasteful to throw the sheets away, so on
every letter he crossed out the number and wrote 26. The supply outlasted
him. With the house paid for, they lived adequately on his pension, supple-
mented by a small income from royalties from his books and from special
lectures.
In his large study at one end of the ground oor Buttereld had ample space
for his les, his books, and his piano. He had kept his piano playing alive since
his youth, and now he had the time to give to it. He rested Temperleys bust of
the young Napoleon on a stand near the centre of the room.
Buttereld became a local celebrity in Sawston. He gave talks to Sawston
Village College, the Sawston Mens Guild, the Sawston Methodist Womens
Meeting, and other village groups. He accepted the chairmanship of the Cam-
bridge Area Methodist Circuit Festival. He became a regular participant in a
Methodist Class Meeting for the Sawston area. On Sunday mornings he went
faithfully into Cambridge to Wesley Methodist Church. Sunday evenings he
attended evening prayer regularly in the local Church of England parish, and
sometimes he had lunch with the vicar.
He went into Peterhouse now and then. When he received a visiting scholar,
he used a college room shared by retired Fellows or a lounge in the new
University Centre on Laundress Green for research students and university
teaching staff. Invariably he would focus the conversation on what the visiting
scholar was doing, and he gave the impression that he was genuinely interested
what his visitor had to say.
Early and repeatedly, he declared that he would devote himself to what he
called my real work at the moment, the task of converting his Gifford
Lectures into a book on the history of historiography. He seemed to have in
mind the production of a magnum opus. He spoke of the work as his retire-
ment project, and planned to subordinate everything else to it. He had al-
ready put administration behind him, and he fully intended to reduce the
number of invited lectures as well.
Buttereld did not stick to his intentions, however. First, his mind kept
going on a wide expanse of themes other than the Gifford Lectures, and he
brought his new thinking to the public in lecture after lecture in Great Britain
and the United States. He spoke often on BBC radio, and made his second
appearance on television, this time on the topic Evil in History, the rst
having been in 1965 with a talk on the Reformation. His understated per-
sonality and utter dependence on reading his lectures may have suited radio
superbly, but those traits, together with his slight appearance and lack of ani-
mation, scarcely matched the new visual medium. The contrast with the extro-
 Nothing but History and Religion 365

verted A. J. P. Taylor, who ourished on TV, could hardly have been more
extreme.
Second, he continued to feel the weight of his long-standing projects, and he
kept inventing new projects. The Gifford Lectures did receive his attention,
but not the exclusive devotion he expected to give them. He became very busy
and delighted to tell people, Im really engaged in studiesthe one thing that
a university in these days doesnt allow one to do.
Publishers scrambled to republish his books, and Butterelds reputation
continued to spread. Cambridge reprinted Man on His Past (1969), Bell issued
a corrected reprint of Origins of Modern Science (1970), Penguin Books re-
published Whig Interpretation of History (1973, 1978), after Bell reprinted
the book (1968), and various American publishers reprinted George III, Lord
North, and the People (1968), Englishman and His History (1970), Histori-
cal Novel (1971, 1975, 1977), Peace Tactics of Napoleon (1972), and Inter-
national Conict in the Twentieth Century (1974). Only Christianity and
History of his most inuential books remained out of print. Distinctions con-
tinued to come his way. The Royal Historical Society elected him an honour-
ary vice-president in 1968. In October 1970, J. H. Elliott brought him a book
of eleven essays by colleagues, scholar-friends, and former students published
in his honour, a festschrift entitled The Diversity of History. Two more En-
glish universities granted him honourary degrees, Bradford in 1973 and Cam-
bridge in 1974, his thirteenth and fourteenth honourary doctorates. David
Knowles congratulated him on the Cambridge award, noting wryly that both
Buttereld and he had opposed the university giving such degrees to its own
members, but that both meekly accepted them when the honour arrived at
their door. Oxford did not give Buttereld an honourary degree, although they
gave one to Knowles.
Around the moment of his retirement, Buttereld meditated often about the
course of his own life and the affairs of the world. His thinking about history
went hand in hand with world events, and world events stimulated his histor-
ical thinking more than reading books. He attempted several times to write
more memoirs. In his speeches, lectures, and correspondence he recalled epi-
sodes in his life, sometimes turning his talks into autobiography. A notable
example was his address upon receiving the honourary doctorate at Bonn in
1968. He read great quantities of books and articles for his projects, and wrote
incessantly to himself. He refused to imitate those scholars, whether in old age
or middle age, who stop reading and even thinking, and just churn out the
publications. He started a commonplace book of his thoughts on world
affairs. He began once again to write something of a journal, what we might
call journal-sheets, hundreds of sheets of paper and pages of notebooks,
366 Nothing but History and Religion

many of them bearing a date, containing his thoughts as they came to him.
These new efforts at a journal were not at all systematic or regular, and turn up
in widely scattered les in his papers, reecting the variety of settings in which
his comments came to him. Much of what he wrote took the form of thought-
essays, a loose sheet or two, or a few loose sheets, in which he worked out his
thoughts by writing. It was a format he had used since the 1920s. Some of his
thoughts came out in the form of brief sentences, almost as if they were sayings
or maxims, and one can imagine he had in mind the model of Acton and
Actons notes in the Cambridge Library. He used his habits as a historian to
formulate his thoughts about history, education, politics, and religion. His
meditations surfaced in unexpected places in his writings and public lectures,
time and again eliciting the query, Why did he say that there? Both in scale
and content, his unpublished journal-sheets and thought-essays constitute a
major body of meditations on his life and human history.
The passage of the generations and his moment in time occupied his thoughts
more than usual. People close to him were dying or becoming ill. During the
rst month of his retirement, his sister, Edie, was hit by a Green Line bus on a
London street, and she died soon after from the injuries. Hannah, the widow of
his brother Arthur, died the following year. On the eve of his retirement, his
friend G. P. Gooch died, at the high age of ninety-four, a link with Temperley
and even Acton. Gooch was an Anglican, but from his earliest years had shown
sympathy towards Methodists, which Buttereld sensed. Buttereld accepted
invitations from both the British Academy and the American Philosophical
Society to write a brief biography of Gooch, and he contemplated in detail a
historians life with interests not unlike his own. Eve Bogle took ill in 1970, and
he lost the aid of his secretary, research assistant, and friend of twenty-ve
years. He was made certain of his own fragility when he became ill with heart
disease during most of 1971, and had to begin regular visits to the chest clinic at
Addenbrookes Hospital. He noticed the trouble while he was preparing the
Raleigh Lecture for the British Academy. He felt weak even as he delivered the
lecture in May, not sure that he would be able to nish. Buttereld, the chain
smoker, broke the chain and never smoked again.
At the opposite end of time, Pamela and he kept close touch with their sons
and grandchildren. Peter had become a lecturer in history at University Col-
lege, Dublin, after periods lecturing in Birmingham and Southern Rhodesia.
Robin was an English teacher in a school in York. Buttereld liked seeing his
grandchildren when he visited Peter or lectured in Dublin. He had often re-
ferred to the role of the tales of a grandfather in arousing interest in the
young about the past, and now he was the grandfather. He commenced a
lecture at Southampton, soon after his retirement, with the suggestion that
 Nothing but History and Religion 367

the tales of a grandfather may serve as the rst source of a historical sense in
the ancient peoples of the world as well as in the life of the young throughout
much of the world today. It is likely that he himself never heard his own
grandfathers tales.
The student protest movements which reached crescendo in 1968, espe-
cially on American university campuses and in Paris and Rome, interested him
intensely. By now the American presence in Vietnam had transmuted into the
American war in Vietnam, and this too captured his attention. The voices of
Blacks and women in many places had become unmistakable in their appeal
for justice and equality. Now retired, Buttereld was something of the out-
sider, but his ardour for apolitical scholarship and the politically removed
university diminished not at all. All the same, his method of reacting to the
events of the day, especially those that most seriously impacted him personally,
evidenced exactly the opposite relationship between politics, religion, the uni-
versity, and academic scholarship to what his theory delineated. He detested
the American war in Vietnam, and he completely sympathized with the stu-
dent antiwar protests. His sympathies for student protests stopped short at a
crucial point, however. He turned adamantly against student activism in uni-
versities that aimed to increase the role of students in university government,
and that opposed what the students regarded as racism in university hiring,
admissions, and campus affairs, and he resisted the emerging aspirations of
women in university life. His objections t exactly with his own oft-expressed
views about the role of the historian and historical scholarship, and placed the
political character of his vigorous apoliticality in sharp relief. He was prepared
to admire the protesters moral concern, and, had they been content merely to
testify of their morality, he would have been happy. When they turned to
political action, however, they posed force against force in order to gain power
within the university system, and that he opposed. He detected straightfor-
ward self-righteousness in their protests. They were too certain of their own
cause, too ready to cast blame on others, and perhaps too intoxicated with
their newfound power. He wanted the students to direct their energies else-
where. He wrote in his journal, I might have been more able to think the
young were idealists, trying to better the world, if they had set up their strikes,
demonstrations, etc. in protest against the nuclear weapon. He accepted the
view that only a handful of radicals made all the noise, and he praised the
vast majority of students, whom he found more compassionate and less self-
oriented than students of some other periods.
Cornell University invited him to take up a distinguished research fellowship
for one term in 19691970. He accepted, but then became alarmed by reports
of student sit-ins and Black Power at Cornell. He sought advice about whether
368 Nothing but History and Religion

still to go. He explained his hesitations to Max Black, professor of philosophy,

and chair of the research centre that would host him: But I should be rather a
handful for you in Cornell, for I can never see why undergraduates should have
the kind of license they now claim while I, at nearly 69, must take care of every
word I say for fear of displeasing them. And I really cant go back to university
life under the conditions which the young are now producing in various
places. Stuart Brown, a Cornell vice-president, replied that academic life went
on unabated, and tried to help Buttereld understand the point of view of the
protesters: There will, I am sure, be student unrest everywhere in the USA so
long as the Vietnam war continues and so long as we fail to make major gains
towards solving the problems of Black people and the cities in which most of
them dwell. Buttereld was not persuaded, and he hardened his position
against what he felt was the politicization of the university. Academic study
and the university ought to stand outside the noisy clamour of ideology and
politics, he said. His language echoed his traditional polarization of technical
history and politics, with the effect that he fought for the existing distribution
of power within the system and resisted the movements of protest. He cut his
ideal for apolitical historical scholarship and his anti-student politics from the
same seamless cloth. His model was Ranke himself. He represented Ranke as
taking the position that the historian should be primarily a scholar, aloof
from the movements of his time. He wrote this sentence on Ranke in a
signicant article on historiography in the Dictionary of the History of Ideas
which he drafted in February 1969, very shortly before he had to put his beliefs
to the test in June in the Cornell episode. In any case, he said, he wanted to
carry on his scholarship in peace. He withdrew from the fellowship, even
though he would lose much-needed extra income.
The solution Buttereld had in mind for student discontent in universities
might allow Cambridge and Oxford, with their traditions of college teaching,
to escape the onslaught: I am sure it is an excellent thing to regard universi-
ties as a society of scholars who stimulate one another and advance thought
itselfbut I think that undergraduates should be regarded as part of that
society, treated as part of that societynot just treated as students. Student
participation in the society of scholars, supported by an almost intangible, but
no less real, transformation of attitude, would bet the nature of universities
better than the political changes now sought by the student protesters. Even
more than usual, he exalted the model of Peterhouse, which, he said, almost
provided the intimacies (without the exasperations) of family life. He took
no notice of how odd his metaphor seemed amid the rising voices of women
for equality in Cambridge colleges. If Peterhouse was a family, it was a
family of fathers and sons only, served by other men as college porters, with
 Nothing but History and Religion 369

no mothers and daughters in sight. In the face of increasing political pressures

from women, he spoke out strongly against the admission of women to Peter-
house. He declared himself willing to preserve his college to the end, if need be,
as the last all-male bastion in Cambridge. In such a volatile context, his ex-
pressions of appreciation towards the college porters had the sound of no-
blesse oblige. He congratulated the undergraduates who refused to join any of
the protests, stuck to their studies, and felt that they are lucky to be in
Cambridge.
The contact with all that disturbing protest stimulated Buttereld to contem-
plate change through time, and meditate on the wisdom of the ages. By now his
thought ran easily to global comparisons. As his discourse unfolded after 1968,
into the 1970s, the sheer continuity of his moral consciousness and historical
analysis radiated through his every word, and his long-term memory seemed to
grow stronger with every passing day as he leapt over thirty, forty, fty years of
his life. His discourse bore afnities with book after book and article after
article that he had already written. Buttereld had settled on the language of
maxims of history and wisdom, rather than laws of history, even though
laws sounded more like something scientic. Maxims crowded into his
consciousness and became the primary way for him to express his historical
thought.
The model of Machiavelli, whom he discussed in The Statecraft of Ma-
chiavelli in 1940, rushed to the fore. Machiavelli studied the known cases of
conspiracies against rulers in order to understand how they worked, and how
a ruler might avoid one. So, too, into Butterelds mind came the methods of
the Marxists, whom he rst discussed in 1933, who studied revolutions in
history in order to nd out how they operated and how to make one happen.
These approaches, he said, whether we agree with the politics of their progeni-
tors or not, enable historians and theorists to derive maxims from a study of
many cases of similar kinds of events. Buttereld ran through possible analo-
gies to the student protests of the day, and came up with examples of other
youth movements in history whose aim was political power and whose nour-
ishment was served by some political ideologythe Hitler youth, the young
Turks, Mazzinis young Italy, and so on, back at least to the young Jews of the
year 66 who pushed for war against the Roman imperium. He sensed that, had
he been around, he would have objected to all these youth movements, and so,
too, the ones of his own day.
Reection on revolutions in history intrigued him, as in Christianity, Diplo-
macy and War in 1953, and dominated his thinking. He wrote a major paper
entitled Revolution, delivered at Corpus Christi College in Cambridge in
1972, which he never published. He showed himself to be remarkably exible
370 Nothing but History and Religion

and surprising in the observations he made about revolutions as recurring

historical phenomena. He was still convinced that revolution would effect no
improvement for Western society as a whole, and, all the more so, that
revolution was no solution for the universities of the Western world. He
willingly acknowledged the deformities of industrial capitalist society, as in his
vividly anticapitalist remarks on America when he studied there in the 1920s.
He understood why the young might wish to overthrow capitalism: We look
at the entire order of things under which we live, and we are shocked to see
how much it answers to the cupidities of human beings, catering to those
cupidities, encouraging the competitive spirit, and leaving the weak so often at
the mercy of the strong. Time and again throughout his career he professed
that human cupidities never agged, and he did so once more. He liked the
word cupidities, which seemed more expressive and less sinister than sins,
and he returned to it. If capitalist society were overthrown, the new social
order that took its place, whatever the form, would still service human cupid-
ities. The new system would merely alter the pattern of their operation. The
source of cupidities lies deep within the human personality, he said, and the
best that a social order can do is not to block up the source, but merely to
restrain them, and make people behave better than they really are. After fty
years of historical study since the Liverpool police strike of 1919 rst shook
his naivete about human goodness, Buttereld still drew upon the religious
message he then learned by experience: all people are sinners.
The antidote to revolution was the same patriotic prescription he offered in
Englishman and His History in 1944. In place of revolution, he said, the youth
in Western society should listen to the maxim of the Whig politicians, that
gradual reform worked best, with the conservatives giving way in time and the
progressives not pressing too hard, enveloping all within the slow growth of
reasonableness which transformed the whole. By obeying this maxim, En-
gland led the way to moral progress in the West. England, more than any
other nation, internalized the imponderables, notably a mood of tolerance,
a respect for the other mans personality, a willingness to rely on persuasion
and discussion.
Maybe each society needed one revolution, he thought, or at least one
revolution somewhere to point to, before the gradual mode of social change
took hold. England had its revolution and beheaded a king, and then pursued
the gradual path. Russia had its revolution in 1917, and perhaps had settled
down. He acknowledged that he felt less strongly about Communism than
he did after the Second World War, and that he had revised his assessment of
the revolution. Occurring as it did in the midst of the awful havoc caused by
the First World War, that revolution, after all, may have been perhaps the
 Nothing but History and Religion 371

most justiable of any in history, and maybe Communism has been better in
reality for Russia. Now China had its revolution, and, like many regions of
Asia, he thought, the situation is more desperateso desperate that it is
difcult to see how anything except agrarian revolution can be of any use.
The Maoists were probably good for China, he said. Ireland had one revolu-
tion which was still incomplete. In a letter to the London Times he argued that
Northern Ireland could not expect the end of revolutionary violence until
there was a complete junction with the Irish Republic. He agreed that resort
to revolution in Northern Ireland by Roman Catholics seemed justied so long
as their genuine grievances remained untended to.
A clear message was emerging from his contemplation of history and his
direct experience of the protests of students, Blacks, and women. It restated a
long-present motif in his historical thought, although he registered the mes-
sage as new: In contradiction to the views that I held earlier in my life, I think
that there is something to be said for the thesis that basic patterns do recur,
however much circumstances may have changed in the course of two or three
thousand years. . . . The fundamental patterns often repeat themselves in a
curious way.
No sooner did he speak of patterns, analogies, and similarities in diverse
events over the ages, than he felt compelled to state the opposite. If his dis-
course about maxims, protest movements, and revolution stressed the recur-
rences and continuities of history, he wondered about the discontinuities in
history. When it came time to prepare the prestigious Rede Lecture at Cam-
bridge for 1971, he decided to consider the effects of discontinuities over time,
and, as the new retiree, especially one battling with heart disease, he focused
on the differences due to generational change. He gave the lecture the title
The Discontinuities between the Generations. The theme transported him
to the early years of his career, when, forty years before, in Whig Interpreta-
tion of History, he underlined the need to assume that bygone ages were not
like our own. He showed signs of physical frailty as he delivered the lecture in
the Senate House.
Noting the subtleties and paradoxes of historical change was his aim, and
Buttereld said things he had never said before. His thought was more compli-
cated now than in 1931, but it was no more systematic. His ideas came as
ashes and seemed almost random. The lecture resembled a collage more than
a sequenced ordering of meaning. For instance, he noted that each generation,
each person, starts over and has difculty understanding the experiences of
previous people, even the experiences of ones parents. Debates are often won
and new ideas adopted not because of their merit or the force of argument, but
simply because the old generation passes away and the new generation comes
372 Nothing but History and Religion

along. The inuence of the parents can seem mysterious and inexplicable
within the same family: in the case of two brothers brought up in very much
the same way, we have the one who becomes a nonconformist minister be-
cause his father was a nonconformist minister, while his brother becomes
a militant atheist because his father was a nonconformist minister. People
blame their parents for the mess that the world is in when they are born into
history, but then the parents can blame their parents, who in turn can blame
theirs, until no one takes responsibility for what is wrong. It is not the young
who should turn apocalyptic, but the very old. The young must be careful to
preserve a world to live in, while the aged no longer need the comforts of the
status quo and are free to project new visions of better futures. Such discourse
sounds like epigrams, and a listener requires time to catch the meaning. The
glimpse of Butterelds own family was inescapable: he the Methodist histo-
rian/preacher, and one son the historian/Roman Catholic, one deceased, and
one the English teacher/convinced non-Christian.
Suddenly his thoughts stopped in mid-lecture. His glance at the discontinu-
ities felt like an excursus, or maybe an exercise to satisfy his need for balance.
He quickly uttered his central message. The discontinuities were secondary.
Political experience accumulates over many generations, political wisdom de-
velops in history, if only people maintain sufcient peace, stability and d-
tente. The accumulation of wisdom ran contrary to the abstractions gener-
ated by the forms of political science that careened towards scientism, the
political science that seemed to remove the human element from history and
absolutized science. At the same time, Buttereld gave signals that he was soft-
ening in his earlier strict opposition to American social-scientic approaches,
the view he expressed in Diplomatic Investigations. In April 1968 he had
participated in a discussion at the Rockefeller Foundations Villa Serbelloni
on the confrontation between approaches based on history and philosophy
and those using the techniques of the social sciences. Before going he read
American international theory, including works by Morton A. Kaplan and
Charles C. McClelland. Afterwards he thought about the matter in his jour-
nal: I might be regarded as holding an intermediate position between those
who believe in wisdom-literature and those who prefer science; but I believe
so intensely in both that the term intermediate will hardly meet the case. In
any case, the important thing is to secure the right relationship between the
two ways of envisaging the problem. The solution that he played with was to
relate the two methods sequentially. First use the social-scientic methods, and
then afterwards work over the material with the wisdom gathered from the
historical analysis of continuous long-term human experience and common
sense. He was trying to see the good in approaches he formerly dismissed. For
 Nothing but History and Religion 373

the rst time in a long time, he was moving his reconciling method into action,
the mode of thinking which he had developed in the 1920s and 1930s to
handle the opposing options presented him by others.
It seemed like a long step for Buttereld, the historian who consistently
presented himself as unconcerned with party politics, to convert his experi-
ence of the student protests into reections on the political parties of England.
The connection was probably the reminder that he liked what he knew in
England, and that, indeed, he considered English political society since the
seventeenth century to be the prime model of moral progress in modern his-
tory. He poured out a long thought-essay on contemporary party politics, his
most explicit writing ever on the subject. He felt attracted to and repulsed
by both the Labour party and the Conservative party, and the Liberal party
favoured by his father in his youth had become inconsequential. He felt La-
bour was too materialistic in outlook, too devoted to the interests of the
better-off workers, too ready to proletarianize everybody. The Conserva-
tives were too prone to the dictatorship of industrial interests, too much
merely anti-socialist, too unthinkingly traditional. He estimated that the ma-
jority of the country was really Liberal at heart and rather like him. He would
not side with the Conservatives, but he also distrusted Socialism, he disliked
the materialism of capitalism, but he also disliked the grimmer dangers of
Socialism. The situation called for the revival of the Liberals, he thought,
provided they became a progressive non-socialist party, and focused their
political thought on fundamental principles and long-term horizons for the
improvement of the quality of life. He sounded for just a moment as if he could
be moved into alignment with a political party if the right one were there.
Nonetheless, his meditations on politics brought him no closer than before to
getting out to vote.
These were the sounds of the centrist, Buttereld merely measuring his
distance from the fences on either side of the political highway. As in the
1920s, he depicted his views as stereoscopic, taking in both left and right at
once and creating his own vision that went beyond the existing alternatives. It
was like his search for an intermediate position that would reconcile both
science and wisdom in political theory. There were echoes of the via media of
the Anglican politicians and divines.
He wrote often in his journal. The important question for him, as it had
been for decades, was the role of the individual in relation to society, but now
his thinking seemed to reach a new resolution of the tensions involved. He
continued to say that the individual, not society, has the soul, and he continued
to reject the notion of serving society or the state, in favour of simply serving
other individuals. On a relative scale, he could regard the Socialists, with their
374 Nothing but History and Religion

focus on equality, society, and the state, as grimmer than the Conservatives
who, in the interests of capitalism, tended at least to promote some individ-
uals, albeit those most privileged by the system. But now he felt that both sides
erred in their emphasis. The assertion that the individual matters most, he said
in his journal, is made with the divine point of view in mind, but there is
another perspective: I am not sure that anything better has ever been thought
of than that both the individual and society exist for the glory of God. . . .
From a mundane point of view (but only from a mundane point of view) both
are to be treated as ends in themselves and never as mere instrumentsnever
as the one existing for the sake of the otherthough it is true that they cannot
exist without one another. . . . Their glory is their existence. They are the
highest manifestations of creation. But they are created thingsnot gods.
The distinction between the mundane and the divine points of view gave him
the pivot he needed to turn towards this more positive appreciation of society.
Both individuals and society are creatures, and both live before God in the
world. The signicance of the rhetorical shift within Butterelds discourse is
huge. He has taken the language he formerly had always reserved exclusively
for individual people and applied it for the rst time to society as a whole. The
implications for his social thought would be equally great.
For years Buttereld had murmured both against mere individualism and
against proletarianizing everybody. Now, in his journal, the search was on
for a political view of equality, suffering, and the poor that was stereoscopic,
beyond both the Conservatives and the Socialists. Characteristically, his politi-
cal discourse took the form of reection on historical process. He still did not
get very far, but he reached a position consonant with the rest of his discourse
that satised him for the moment. Nothing in life is ever really equal to any-
thing else, he began, and, in general, the experience of social inequality may
have the value sometimes of driving people to improve their condition. But the
poor might be a special case, requiring special attention. Their condition of
inequality is usually not due to any fault of their own, but to a combination of
the inheritance of suffering from the past and the creation of new suffering
today by our own systems and acts of social injustice. His consciousness of the
tenuousness of life for most of the population of the world was acute: If it is a
question of viewing life on the earth (or life in time) as cataclysmic we must
distinguish between [the few] and the great masses of people for whom ordi-
nary life was an astonishingly cataclysmic thing throughout the ageshow
near to death you always were until almost the 20th centuryfamilies being
numerous but taking death in their stride. If there were to be equality in
some sense in society, Buttereld thought, it should come about by bringing
the people at the bottom of the social ladder into the good already achieved by
the people at the top. The way to the goal would be this: a gradual process of
 Nothing but History and Religion 375

lifting all men up and heightening the quality of their livesa thing which the
vast majority of Englishmen over 45 must have realised to have gone on in
their own case during the last 30 years. He wanted a society of inclusion,
rather than conict or polarization, one which brought everyone to the top,
rather than eliminating the top or merely stopping at the middle. The strategy
of social gradualism paralleled the New Whig political method he had advo-
cated for decades. The metaphor of uplift mirrored his image of England
successfully bringing the ordinary Englishman into the world of the impon-
derables enjoyed by the aristocracy. The road to equality was social eleva-
tion. Butterelds strategy was autobiographical, recapitulating the process of
social uplift enjoyed by his father, as well as the experience of his own life,
moving from the workers cottage in Oxenhopes Upper Town to the Masters
Lodge in Peterhouse.
At every conjuncture, Butterelds meditations in the period surrounding
his retirement brought him to religion. He lled more journal-sheets on reli-
gion than on any other subject. The pursuit of the stereoscopic vision, the
intermediate position, also affected his attitudes in religion. He felt both yes
and no towards the variety of traditions presented to him within Christianity,
including his own. He reafrmed his deep commitment to dissent when he
wrote, The Christian ought to be a nonconformist. Christianity ought to be a
sort of opposition. But there were signs that he was tiring of some of the
features of his Methodist tradition. In one journal entry, after reading Shake-
speare, he remarked that Falstaff reminds me of the way I have misspent my
life, and, having had a little dietary trouble in the course of the day, my whole
being now revolts against lemonade, coca-cola, ginger beer, soda-water, gren-
adine, appelsaft, and tea. At the Villa Serbelloni, after an absence of several
years, he observed in his journal, The wine is certainly as good as everthe
Machiavelli, white and red, giving great pleasure. His rebellion could turn
even against his teetotaling. In another entry, he wrote, I am not happy
about our existing (Methodist) cult, and . . . I prefer the Church of England
prayer-book to the current practices of nonconformity. His practice of wor-
shiping in the college chapel during his time as Master prepared him for his
decision to attend evening prayer in the Sawston parish church during his
retirement. A few years before retirement he had acknowledged that he liked
the historic episcopate and would hope that an ultimately unied Christian
church might accept the episcopal system. His attitude of tolerance and
exibility in matters of doctrine and orthodoxy betted the historical Meth-
odist emphasis on experience, but it also suited the comprehension of the
Anglican tradition. Indeed, there is a sense in which he knew that his recon-
ciling method, the stereoscopic vision, replicated the Anglican via media in
thought and churchmanship, and Anglican inconclusiveness with respect to
376 Nothing but History and Religion

doctrinal authority. But one feature of the Church of England repelled him
almost more than he had the ability to express: the connection with the state as
the Established Church. Comment after comment in his journal railed against
Establishment: it associated religion with power, with ofcialdom, with the
hint of compulsion in belief, with the status quo, with rule by priests. Even
Nonconformity, he thought, had begun to act like Establishment. His mind
swung to the Quakers. He found the Quakers to be the best model of how
Christians should act in the worldquietly, with conviction, simply bearing
witness without regard for the consequences. He often referred with favour to
the Roman Catholic tradition of monasticism. The monks knew how to medi-
tate, how to contemplate, and, although they retreated from the world, their
spirituality gave them better balance towards the world, so that in the end they
served the world in creative and unpredictable ways. The world needed such
contemplation, he said, and even a political party would benet if it were to
send someone into a monastery for a year or two to meditate on things over a
longer range and on a deeper level. He looked around at the condition of
things in the world and the evidences he saw of religion. In 1968, he ventured a
prediction which included a worry. He wrote, If things go on as they are
doing there will be a revival of religioneven a danger of the wrong sort of
religion. He had in mind conservative forms of religion, which fostered cer-
tainty in belief and practice, and obedience to authority in religion. Like his
prediction as vice-chancellor that the decade of the 1960s could be the most
momentous in the history of universities, his estimate of the immediate future
of religion during the 1970s and 1980s proved particularly apt.
Clarity on what was utterly essential in religion concerned him. In his
journal-sheets he wrote epigrams and repeatedly made lists of the essential
things. They tended to relate to Christian spirituality and the Christian doc-
trine of man. He looked more and more like the Acton, whose lists and
sayings he admired in Cambridge University Library. He was searching to nd
the things that he might call timeless. Some items reappeared on his lists:

hating the sin and not the sinner

being governed not by ones hatred but by ones love
regard for personality
getting rid of self-righteousness
...

and

The one thing that matters is the existence of the spiritual realm

And so on.
 Nothing but History and Religion 377

The meditations recorded on his journal-sheets frequently showed up in his

public statements, usually in a closing statement or a pithy summation of what
he thought was essential to say to each audience. The Cambridge History
Faculty celebrated his career at a dinner in his honour in November 1968. His
speech to the historians with whom he had spent his life was disarmingly
autobiographical. Then he came to his parting message: I think I ought to
declare my belief that the future of history depends on its being treated as a
Humanistic subject, with great respect for human personalityand great re-
spect for the depth and mystery of it, even though people may exist in great
masses and some parts of their activity may be amenable to science. In the
Rede Lecture in 1971: If I were trying to push my comments on human
history of the point of greatest generality, I believe I would say that men in the
course of their lives, and readers of history in their studies, tend easily to leave
certain things out of account. They do not sufciently understand or try to
bring into operation the healing effects of time; the great progress that comes
from the gradual growth of reasonableness among men; and the benets that
accrue from long periods of peace and stability. At the University of South-
ampton in November 1968: The essential thing is to keep human feeling still
warm in a competitive world, keep the personal touch in spite of the machine
age. There should be some people working to raise the quality of life, to
deepen human personality itself and to promote the slow growth of reason-
ableness among men. Those who want that gentler kind of world should
consider the Christian thesis that it is important to hate the sin without hating
the sinner. . . . And if a technological civilisation tends to drain the humanity
out of [the] social world or dry up the hearts of men, one ought to ask whether
anything less than a deeply-grounded feeling for the spiritual dimension will
be sufcient for the most crucial conict of all: the war against sheer material-
ism. He continued his tradition of looking for the compelling sentence to
end a piece of exposition. Feeling into the role of the old man, he concluded the
Rede Lecture to all his Cambridge colleagues with these words: These latter
[the very aged] had better move quietly in the haunts of men, not screaming at
all, but bleating and moaningand, when they meet the odd person in the
highway, just murmuring incessantly Brethern, love one another. At the
close of a sermon-address in St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, in April 1970, he
put these words: If I desired to say perhaps one thing that might be remem-
bered for a while, I would say that sometimes I wonder at the dead of night
whether, during the next fty years, Protestantism may not be at a disadvan-
tage because a few centuries ago, it decided to get rid of monks. Since it
followed that policy, a greater responsibility falls on us to give something of
ourselves to contemplation and silence, and listening to the still small voice.
378 Nothing but History and Religion

Remarkably, in virtually all of his statements of the essentials in religion,

whether in his journals or in his public talks, he repeated convictions he had
uttered at least since the early 1920s, and probably earlier still. The continuity
of the basic convictions was unmistakable, but now he said things directly,
with a greater tone of nality.

Many Other Claims

Buttereld had always appeared humble about his own achievements,
always understated things about himself, but around the time of his retirement
he repeatedly used language about the course of his life that went further.
His discourse could best be described as self-deprecating. The trait was most
prominent in his talks to academic audiences, especially in his humour, his
self-deprecating humour. At a dinner, for instance, where he replaced an-
other speaker at the last minute, he began, Its what Ive really been doing all
my lifejust catching by a uke honours and pleasures that really belonged to
somebody else. He would say, referring to Whig Interpretation, that he got a
name for himself much too early in his career and he had never been able to
live up to it thereafter. In a speech to the students of a well-to-do private
school, he joked, Even after today, I shant be able to say that I came out of
the top drawer. At the dinner in his honour in the Cambridge History Faculty,
he opened his reminiscences with the quip that in his own past he could
remember only a succession of gaffes. He closed his speech with the parting
message about history as a humanistic subject, and then added the nal words,
I apologise for a hundred inadequacies.
Something more than convention lay behind his remarks. Buttereld seemed
particularly to have in mind the research he had not nished, the books not
written, the plans unfulled, the distractions too often followed. I am driv-
ellingly slow as a scholar and a writer, he said. Upon retirement he solemnly
promised to subordinate everything to his retirement project, the revision
and publication of his Gifford Lectures on the history of historiography. But
alongside this, he faced a formidable quantity of other unnished work, and he
kept loading on still more projects. He still kept himself working, or intending
to work, on all his many writing projects at once. Each of his long-standing
projects could claim his promise to complete it, and many insistent appellants
came to his door to remind him of his undertakings. On top of all this, he
accepted a very large number of new invitations to present special lectures.
During the rst year of his retirement, 19681969, he delivered at least fteen
invited lectures, more than any other year in his career except for 19501951
and 19551956. He delivered at least nine more during each of the next two
 Nothing but History and Religion 379

years. As usual he wrote out each lecture fresh and in full. It seemed to take his
trouble with heart disease from 1971 onwards for him to reduce his outside
lecture load.
It became very clear how wide were his interests and how diverse were his
projects. On the brief standard form sent him by the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences after his election as a Foreign Honorary Member in 1967, he
presented the following self-description when he lled in the blanks:

Professional Field
A. General: History
B. Special Area(s):
Diplomatic History; Political Theory (crossed out); History of Thought; Eigh-
teenth Century
C. Special Topical Interests:
Napoleon; History of Science; History of Historiography; the Reign of
George III
Avocational Specialties
The relation between religion and history. Music. University Education

The retirement project appeared as merely one of his Special Topical Inter-
ests. His many other projects spanned the entire range of his specializations.
In the 1970s, he made lists of the projects still on his agenda.
Above all, there was Fox. Butterelds decision to undertake the Fox biogra-
phy dated from 1931, nearly forty years before. For some time he had offered
people an unconvincing explanation for his delay with Fox: I personally
always like to wait till other people have published their books rstpeople
always condemn me for not having produced my proposed life of Fox ten or
twenty years ago, but I always think what a fool I should have been if I had
done that. His former publisher, Bell, came after him for the book at least
twice after he announced his intention to retire as Master. Bell reminded him
that they had talked together before the Second World War about publishing
the book. Buttereld replied that he had some other things to tend to rst, but
that of course, [I] would still like to do a life of Fox.
In a sense, throughout the forty years, he had never really worked seri-
ously on the biography of Fox as such. From the start in the early 1930s he
had adopted the strategy of gathering material around specic episodes that
caught his attention17791780, 1792, 1806and then letting his mind
wander off into the general issues of the reign of George III. So far, after
all his research, he had published only two pieces directly on Fox. Both came
from very old research, and both studied themes that had interested him
since the 1920s, before the biography became his project. Fox and the Whig
380 Nothing but History and Religion

Opposition in 1792, published in 1949, went back to a paper probably

presented in 1925 in which he tangled with Trevelyan, and Charles James
Fox and Napoleon: The Peace Negotiations of 1806, of 1962, stemmed from
his Napoleon research in the 1920s.
He took the opportunity offered by the important Raleigh Lecture for the
British Academy in 1971 to produce his rst strictly biographical study of Fox.
In twenty-four published pages he compressed forty years of research into his
answer to the question whether Fox was sincere as a politician. To write the
lecture he gathered the entirety of his collection of notes on Fox, read the notes
with his question in mind, and wrote out thought-essays in notebooks. Then
he handwrote the paper through multiple drafts. He did all this while feeling
weak from heart disease.
The published lecture included references to much of Foxs life, but concen-
trated on two of Butterelds favourite years, 1792 and 1806. The results
displayed Buttereld working over the life of one man, a politician, trying
to gure out a subtle matter of personality and ethics, and, in keeping with
his theory about freedom and necessity, estimating what might be the bal-
ance between Foxs moral responsibility and the interaction of circumstances
beyond his control. When he came to write up what he had to say, he found
that two of his long-standing theoretical recommendations conicted. On one
hand, he had repeatedly urged that individuals and political history were best
understood through narrative. On the other, he had advocated writing history
by focusing on problems, following advice taken from Actons notes. He had
to choose one approach over the other, and produced a lecture about a prob-
lem, with very little story. The process shows Buttereld practicing a very
intimate relationship between his own theory and his own writing, listening to
the messages he had broadcast for the benet of others.
The lecture opens with the revelation that he has found that single piece of
documentary evidence that clinched the argument about whether or not Fox
was sincere about parliamentary reform in 1792. It is a letter by Fox to Earl
Fitzwilliam in which Fox admitted to Fitzwilliam that he was not. Here, for
Buttereld, is a clean classroom case illustrating the point he repeated so often
from Acton about the importance of the one hard document that can trans-
form the whole account. But then Buttereld dirties his own example. Foxs
admission, he acknowledges, is open to more than one interpretation, depend-
ing in part upon what the historian thinks sincerity really is. The further he
goes in the lecture the more complicated his answer to the question of Foxs
sincerity becomes. It gets tangled up with changes in Foxs position in politics
over many years, and with the unpredictable, often moody, ways in which Fox
arrived at his political decisions. Much of Butterelds exposition amounts to
 Nothing but History and Religion 381

saying that sometimes Fox was probably sincere and sometimes he was proba-
bly not. He concludes that, on at least one matter, the historian could be sure
of Foxs sincerity, that is, sure that Fox really possessed a political and ethical
conviction that would operate with constancy within his politics: It would
generally be recognized that the key to this entire situationas indeed to Foxs
careerlies in his passionate hatred for the king and his extravagant fear of
the monarchy. . . . Here, as no doubt everybody would agree, the student of
Fox can feel that he has reached bedrock. Buttereld has his illustration
of an actual fact that the labours of generations of historians working on
Fox had rmly established. To enhance his case, in the nal sentence of the
lecture he throws in the evidence of the overall portrait of Fox, presented in his
signature convoluted style: It is difcult to imagine that a career devoted to
the support of government and order would have suited and sustained the
libertarian character or conformed with the prevailing impressionthe pre-
vailing pictureof his personality.
The lecture nished, Buttereld experienced positive terror when preparing
the text for publication. Perhaps because he had grown accustomed to pub-
lishing so much without footnotes, perhaps simply because he was ill, he made
numerous technical errors in the typescript of his footnotes, and had to send
an embarrassing letter to the British Academy correcting them all. When the
publication appeared he held in his hands the only detailed piece of biographi-
cal writing he had ever produced on Fox. But he knew that he could do no
more than this on Fox, at least, not for now, not if he were serious about the
Gifford Lectures. So he let go of Fox once again.
Other projects about eighteenth-century England still ranked high in his
plans. On the table before him lay three hundred pages of manuscript towards
a book on the early years of George III. The present state of the text derived
from his course of lectures George III and the Politicians, 176065, which
he developed between 1963 and 1968, with roots in his lectures and research
during the 1930s. He was telling people that he intended to spend some of his
retirement producing a book on the subject. He began vigorously in his usual
manner by taking a lecture entitled The Early Years of George III to Canter-
bury, Durham, and York in 1968 and 1969. However, aside from repeating a
lecture now and then on George III and Bute or some other such topic, he
never returned to the theme. On top of this, he still had in his les his 250-page
manuscript for a book on England and the French Revolution, 1792, the
unnished nal section for George III and the Historians, dating from 1957. It
is possible he worked on this volume a little in the early 1960s, but in his
retirement, although he glanced at it, he did nothing further. The work re-
mained unnished.
382 Nothing but History and Religion

The lecture The Early Years of George III signalled that he was shifting
around in his views of academic history. By 1968 and 1969, clashes over
politics and ideology in historical study had increased rather than diminished
among historians. The very same movements that Buttereld felt made things
difcult for universitiesVietnam, racism, womens issueshad begun to
challenge the reigning assumptions of the historical profession itself. By a
surprising twist of events, critics and protesters within the profession pro-
voked historians who had been opponents of each other to unite in a common
front against them. Economic and social historians joined traditional political
historians in a vigorous defense of just doing history against what they
called the politicization of the profession and historical study. At the same
time, Buttereld had made his peace with the work of Namier and reconciled
with his supporters. Nonetheless, within the special world of the historians of
eighteenth-century England, controversy had not at all ceased. Butterelds
views about the solidity of facts and the triumph of the nal story, put him
securely on the side of the apolitical model of historical study that dominated
the profession. He suddenly found himself in the overwhelmingly majority
against the critics, rather than occupying the position of dissent he had in-
tended for himself. The situation was bound to make him feel uncomfortable.
In Butterelds terms, the issue, in part, was the relationship between ac-
cepted fact and political and ideological conict in historical study. The
treatment of George III by historians, he said, was an excellent case to con-
sider. On one hand, after many generations of working over a subject, histo-
rians tend to achieve hard results: They gradually establish one point after
another, building up a solid core of scholarship on which people of all parties
can be agreeddemonstrating by the evidence that Luther did actually do this
or say that or proving that a situation was such-and-suchuntil after a suc-
cession of centuries there is a great body of accepted factProtestants and
Catholic historians can agree in the twentieth century over a remarkable area
of the eld. On the other hand, ideological differences remain and contro-
versy continues over a broad eld. Faced with such an experience, he started to
shift his position. He now wanted to accept such ideological controversy as
part of academic history, actually a valid component of the process of coming
to agreement, and not to be excluded because it was ideological:
Still they will always tell the story differently because they approach it with
different sets of values. . . . We ought not to deplore controversy in historyit
seems that problems are properly threshed out, and often in the past it has
driven scholars to more profound enquiriesnew ranges of discovery. It has
even improved historical technique. . . . A richer, though perhaps more com-
plicated kind of truth comes to be established at the nish if both sides to
 Nothing but History and Religion 383

the controversy have fully presented their case and fully criticised the other
partys case. But this seems to take centuriesyou have to wait until all the
evidence has properly shaken down and you have emerged completely from
the atmosphere of controversy. Till that stage is reached it is better not to have
very hard and very rigid views about the issues that history presents.

He persisted in his faith that ideological conict would eventually wither

away, as academic historians established the story at the nish. At the
end, the results of historical science would stand above the wind and the
weather. But, for now, that destination seemed indenitely postponed. A fu-
ture apolitical history seemed little more than an eschatological hope. In the
meantime, academic history carried on, marked by seemingly endless contro-
versy, leaving behind few solid remains. In the case of George III, he said,
perhaps the controversies had ceased about the structure of politics, the sub-
jects of Namiers histories. But the controversies still swirled round questions
of our judgment of the policy, the statesmanship, of the leading people dur-
ing that reign. In other words, Namier may have succeeded in making his
case, apparently without taking centuries, or was it, perhaps, that Buttereld
had ceased raising controversy against Namier? It remained for Buttereld to
make his case against his critics about the issues he found compelling. There
is a sense in which I personally would like to keep it controversial, he said. It
appears, however, that he gave no more time to the issues as such after 1969.
The Concise Cambridge Modern History made exceedingly strong claims
upon Buttereld. He not worked on this major project for at least twelve
years, probably longer. He was sitting on at least a thousand pages of type-
script in various stages of revision. R. W. David at Cambridge University Press
still wanted the book, thirty years after the initial contract of 1939, and was
still reminding him of his agreement and repeated promises to do it. Almost as
a prod, David asked him to review Lord Actons big project, the original
Cambridge Modern History, with a reprint in view. Buttereld did his home-
work and prepared a lengthy report, recommending only a few selected chap-
ters for a special volume. He appended comments on the merits of each rec-
ommended chapter. Temperleys chapter England, 16871702 he felt was
beautifully written, and Temperleys chapter The Age of Walpole and the
Pelhams was brilliant both in its general political account and in its treat-
ment of Wesley. Goochs Growth of Historical Science was a remarkable
piece of work and led later to the production of his most important work.
The review of Actons offspring pushed him no closer to work on the Concise
Modern History, but it did remind him that, in 1945, he had wanted to write
something on Actons role in the Cambridge Modern History. He uncovered
384 Nothing but History and Religion

his twenty-ve-year-old notes and drafts about the origins of the Cambridge
Modern History, and in September 1971 made a fresh start on an essay he
variously entitled Lord Acton and the Original CMH, or The Original
CMHComedy or Tragedy. Deep down there were also his three hundred
pages of The Historical Background of General Knowledge, from 1943, the
basis of his proposal to Cambridge University Press in 1964 for a book on the
historical geography of Europe. He worked no further on the historical geog-
raphy, and the Acton study still remained unnished, as did his Concise Mod-
ern History.
Acton still called, however. Buttereld nurtured remote hopes for the vol-
ume of Actons early journals with commentary, maybe even a biography,
which he had planned since the late 1940s. He was still trying to get someone
interested in editing the complete Acton letters, adding to the letters with
Dllinger, Newman, and Simpson already published or being prepared for
publication. He still adamantly opposed publishing any mere selection of let-
ters. David Knowles was suggesting to him an Acton Opera Omnia. In 1972,
Knowles, Buttereld, and Owen Chadwick, three successive Regius Professors
of Modern History, joined together and arranged for Cambridge University
Library to purchase from Douglas Woodruff and his wife over ve thousand
letters by Lord Acton, Regius Professor from another era. Nothing more
came of Butterelds own plans for work on Acton, although he continued his
practice of referring to Acton in virtually everything he wrote.
Stepping off the British Rockefeller Committee on the Theory of Interna-
tional Politics when he retired had formally ended his activity concerning
international relations, but not his interest. He felt no obligation to work
further on the volume of essays he had proposed on states-systems, and al-
lowed it to die at his retirement. But he did play a little further with a possible
study of the history of diplomacy, a project he had mentioned while still
chairing the committee. It would have been an examination of diplomacy as
technique over the centuries. He may have added to his reading on the history
of diplomacy at this time. He did put down on paper his observations on the
study of international relations at the London School of Economics, which he
felt neglected historical study in favour of an emphasis on contemporary af-
fairs. He also produced a long essay, The Development of Diplomacy. But he
went no further. He included a history of diplomacy on his lists of unnished
projects, although he left vague whether he intended a book.
People kept coming to Buttereld with invitations for articles and lectures
on international politics which he did not decline. In February 1969, he n-
ished a long article, Balance of Power, for the Dictionary of the History of
Ideas, published in 1973. He accepted the assignment in 1967, thinking he
 Nothing but History and Religion 385

would write the article after his retirement. The article was a historical treat-
ment of the idea of the balance of power, an expanded version of his essay on
the subject in Diplomatic Investigations. His history took the eighteenth-
century version of the idea as the norm, calling it the nal synthesis and a
mature theory of balance of power, and he discussed earlier and later interna-
tional relations as tending towards the eighteenth-century idea or away from
it. He inserted many sentences here and there about the value of maxims
derived from reection on long-term history. He was not as sure as he once
seemed to be, notably in Diplomatic Investigations, that the threat of the
nuclear weapon rendered the idea of balance of power out of date by elevating
the importance of factors other than sheer power in international politics,
factors like persuasion and morality.
Later in 1969 Buttereld discussed the moral framework of international
relations at a conference at Aberystwyth in Wales. He reminded the audience
that he was no theorist of realpolitik, but a historian contemplating ethical
principles. His message reafrmed his perennial claim that the ethical princi-
ples for life in general apply equally to international politics and to any other
aspect of life. He named the principles: love, charity, self-sacrice, respect for
human personality, and doing to others as we should expect them to do to
us. He knew very well that he had stated what he regarded as the core
Christian principles.
Another foray in the history of ideas in international politics came in 1975,
with a rambling lecture on the history of the idea of raison dtat. The occa-
sion, at the University of Sussex, was a commemoration of Martin Wight, his
friend and successor as head of the Rockefeller committee, who died suddenly
in 1972. Unlike his treatment of the idea of the balance of power, Butterelds
approach did not x the classic version of this idea as the norm and did not
make Cardinal Richelieu his hero. He offered no maxims drawn from the
study, no considerations of theory at all, merely a few observations on the
evolution of the modern idea of the state, with Cardinal Richelieu at the centre
of the picture. His approach was a reminder to himself, and his hearers and
eventual readers, that he ventured into international theory not as a theorist,
but as the historian who occasionally found it interesting to reect on the long-
term course of history. This lecture turned out to be his last excursion in the
territory of the Rockefeller committee.
Perhaps rst in personal duty came the Temperley biography, the memoir
about his master teacher he had been intending to write since Temperleys
sudden death in 1939. He possessed a manuscript on Temperley of some 170
pages, dating from perhaps 1963. When it came time for Buttereld to move
out of the Masters Lodge, a dozen cases of Temperley papers still sat in the
386 Nothing but History and Religion

basement, and a smaller lot waited in his study. He faced a repetition of his
handling of the Fox papers he had borrowed from Trevelyan for twenty years
without reading them. He approached Temperleys son with the request to
keep the papers still longer. I would like to do, not a big book, he said, but
an adequate biography of Harold and a picture of his world, chiey with the
object of getting a Portrait of a Historiani.e. as much as I can do of his rather
vivid external personality and his amazingly human interior. He added the
caveat that this biography isnt the rst job I have to do. He got permission
from the son to keep the papers, but he apparently never worked on the
project again.
On the eve of his retirement, unable to stop himself, Buttereld dreamed of
new publishing projects. It occurred to him that he might publish a collection
of his essays, putting more of his work into book form. He discussed the idea
with A. D. Peters, his agent now for twenty years, who thought that a commer-
cial house might consider a package that included the collected essays. Butter-
eld played with several possible tables of contents and by 1970 had at least
two volumes in view, with third on his mind. His lists covered some thirty-ve
lectures, articles, and reviews, published and unpublished, running back to his
rst inaugural lecture in 1944. All of his pieces on Acton went on the lists, and
he was, he said, very attached to grouping the articles on Namier together.
In addition to these, he envisaged possibly a volume also connected with
Christianity. Yet in spite of his hopes, he took none of the ideas for collected
essays any further.

Historiography and Religion

This left the history of historiography. With all the special lectures and
writings, and all the other claims on his attention during his retirement, he
allowed himself little time for what he advertised as his retirement project.
When people came to him with invitations related to historiography, in some
cases he touched up some of his very old work, and in others agreed to take on
several new projects branching off from the Gifford Lectures. Before long he
was thinking deeply again about religion and history. The revision of the
Gifford Lectures took second place in his schedule even within the area of the
history of historiography.
The assignment Buttereld set for himself in revising the Gifford Lectures
was clear, but time-consuming. His homework was to keep reading the histor-
ical writing produced in the cultures he had selected, notably Mesopotamia,
ancient Egypt, the Hittite empire, ancient Israel, classical China, and the early
Christian community. On top of the histories, he was also to read modern
 Nothing but History and Religion 387

critical literature produced about the histories, especially criticism about the
Old and New Testament. He continued the approach he took in the lectures
themselves, and gave structure to his readings and analysis by looking at a
problem, rather than telling a story. He also decided to stay with the problem
he had chosen for the lectures, the problem of origins, but now perhaps some-
what more precisely dened. For the ancient societies, he examined how his-
torical thinking and writing began within each one. He concentrated on what
he described as civilisations in their early stages where their divergencies can
be tracked down. At the moment of his retirement, he summarized the pri-
mary questions in his mind: how historical writing and the historical sense
and the impulse to historical research really originated, . . . what factors set the
historical enterprise going in the rst place, what elements of human nature it
catered for, why some cultures never developed history study as recording.
For modern European civilization, he would retain his examination of the
problem of origins in a different sense, focusing on the beginnings of modern
historical criticism and modern secular approaches to historical study.
In the early years of his retirement he apparently gave very little time to the
actual study of these questions, but he did produce a number of writings that
showed how his thinking about the history of historiography was going. Two
quite opposite tendencies seemed evident. The rst tendency was to x his
attention ever more narrowly on diplomatic and political history. The second
was to swing out ever more widely into universal and global history.
With the rst tendency, he continued to constrict his vision for academic
history as he did in his inaugural lecture in 1964 as Regius Professor of Modern
History and his paper In Defence of Diplomatic History in 1963 to the Cam-
bridge History Club. He claimed the priority of political and diplomatic his-
tory, understood very particularly as the narrative rendering of individuals in
power. In this context, his meditations on the political parties of England
formed a component of his increasing stress on politics as the paramount fac-
tor in history. In December 1968, in a centenary address to the Royal Historical
Society, of which he was now an honourary vice-president, he surveyed the last
century of important developments in scholarship on modern history. He con-
structed the story as if the greatest achievements in historical study since 1868
belonged to the elds of diplomatic and political history, and centred especially
on German scholarship and the techniques of archival research and criticism
associated with Ranke. His account included merely passing reference to eco-
nomic history and cultural history, and nothing about social history, religious
history, quantitative history, demographic history, womens history, family
history, global history, comparative history, or the many other histories then
coming into vogue. He made relatively few references to historical study in
388 Nothing but History and Religion

Great Britain, and none at all to historical study in the United States, France, or
elsewhere, no acknowledgment of, for instance, the French Annales historians,
or American social science history. The names he cited repeatedly in the survey
were none other than Ranke, Acton, and Temperley. The survey was Butter-
eld at his most narrow.
In the same vein, he published an article on the evolution of British histo-
riography since the sixteenth century, ostensibly a review of J. R. Hales an-
thology on the subject, in which he interpreted the great complexity of British
historical scholarship as pivoting on political history, and especially on mat-
ters of research technique and narrative exposition. Once again he issued his
call for the study of the history of research techniques and criticism, by which
he meant history as science. To this he added an explicit appeal for the study of
the development of the art or the technique of historical narrating as such,
which he called the study of history as literature. This echoed his interest in
writing style and sheer narration dating from the 1920s. Almost by the way he
cast a dart or two at historians who indulged in quantication and compli-
cated analysis.
Likewise, for the Stenton Lecture at the University of Reading, in November
1968, he signalled his allegiance to a strictly traditional mode of English politi-
cal history. He applied his celebrated historiographical method, demonstrated
in Man on His Past in 1955, to the changing treatments of the Magna Carta by
historians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. He rummaged through
his old notes on Whig historiography, going back to his materials for English-
man and His History of 1944 and even Whig Interpretation of History of
1931. The lecture was another classroom illustration of the benets of histo-
riographical study, this time seeking to demonstrate the role of political his-
tory in the development of historical thinking and writing. The case of the
Magna Carta, he thought, would clinch his point that political history was
central to the whole life of a nation. However, he neglected to consider the
relative importance of other factors when making his point.
The epitome of his increasing acclamation of political history, construed as
the narrative of the powerful, was a signicant paper, The Nature of Political
History, probably written about the same time as his paper Revolution of
1972. Like Revolution, this remained unpublished. He explicitly admitted
that his new views on the centrality of political history meant that he now
abandoned his earlier commitment from the 1930s to the multifaceted histor-
ical study of civilization or society. He denigrated his previous writings
which approved such an inclusive approach to historical study, calling them
hymns of praise glorifying this great tendency in historical scholarship. As a
result of his study of the history of historiography, he was drawing the conclu-
 Nothing but History and Religion 389

sion that political history was the most creative generator of historical study in
world history, beginning with the empires of ancient Mesopotamia. In his
enthusiasm, he now asserted that political history ought to continue, now and
into the future, to occupy the central role in historical study.
The supports he offered to bolster his claims for the centrality of political
history were really a gathering together of things he had been saying for some
time. First, political history provides a clear and precise framework for general
historical study. Second, the political centre of a country shapes the affairs of
the whole nation, as, for instance, through the decisions about war and the
effects of dynasty or other ruling authority. Third, political events reveal hu-
man beings as individuals who are free to act upon their choices, actions
particularly suited to treatment by narrative methods. Fourth, political affairs
over the long term were conducive to maxims and the accumulation of wis-
dom worth teaching to successive generations. His points were really asser-
tions. He seemed not to worry about the things left out of his way of construct-
ing political history or the things left unconsidered by his assumptions about
other areas of historical study. For instance, political history can be vague, the
political centre can be inconsequential and remote, political events can over-
whelm individual persons, and political affairs in the long term can display
confusion or difference or discontinuity. Each of the four points he advances
for political history can be said with equal force about economic history or
womens history or the history of religion, and so too each of the consider-
ations he left out.
Butterelds withdrawal into a reductionist view of political history, coming
as it did at just the moment when the variety of histories and approaches to
history was burgeoning, left him completely out of touch with the new trends
in historiography. His new position could appear simply reactionary were it
not for the realization that three of his four points represented his enduring
beliefs and practice. Only the rst point marked a reversal, a retreat from his
broadly conceived general history in the 1930s. He seemed to be squirming
when he excused his extravagance in favour of political history as a response
to exaggerated claims for social history put to him by an undergraduate, not
due to the examination of the very best writings in social and economic his-
tory. He apparently did not take the time to read the other modes of history.
He gave himself no opportunity to apply his reconciling method to womens
history, Black history, serial history, and all the other new forms and methods
that were then becoming commonplace in historical study.
The second tendency evident in his occasional writings in historiography
after 1968 was the opposite of the rst. Even as he continued to limit his vi-
sion to a particular style of narrative political history, he also continued to
390 Nothing but History and Religion

elaborate his historical understanding on the widest horizon of universal his-

tory. This, too, continued a trend which antedated his retirement, commenced
in Jerusalem in December 1957 and at the London School of Oriental and
African Studies in January 1958, and leading to his choice of theme for the
Gifford Lectures. In 1970 he travelled to Hong Kong as an adviser on curricu-
lum for the Chinese University of Hong Kong. With his interest in Chinese
historical writing intensifying, he promoted a vision of historical study that
embraced both Chinese and Western civilizations. The coming need, he said,
was the study of universal history. It was not enough, he said, to picture
universal history as the diffusion of Western civilization, or as the sum of the
particular histories of each nation of the world, or as Western civilization
plus another major sample civilization or two. Historians needed to step en-
tirely out of their culture of origin and adopt a genuinely global conception of
world history: They [global events] ought to be studied on a global scale, and
from the point of view of mankind as a whole. It would be wrong even to say
that we will study global history from the Western point of view or the
Chinese point of viewI think it is necessary that we should strive as much as
we can for a global point of view, having in mind the overall development of
one single world civilization. This was new discourse for Buttereld. It took
him into a realm where talk of religion easily oated to the surface. The
conception of universal history he recommended directly transposed the
European-wide perspective in the study of European history that he had
adopted for his Cambridge lectures since the 1930s to the new reality of global
experience. The effect would be to deemphasize nations and even civilizations
in favour of generating a worldwide perspective for the history of the whole
world. With such thinking he was pushing beyond even Arnold Toynbee, who
at that very moment was wondering whether his life-long project of construct-
ing world history out of the blocks he named civilizations might not be
missing the point, the emergence of a worldwide civilization that compre-
hended humanity as a whole. Butterelds new understanding of universal
history did not come unalloyed, however. He accompanied his advice about a
truly worldwide perspective with other, more traditional recommendations.
Students should study their own civilization rst, he said, and then look at one
other. And they should feature political history, and bring the experience of the
ages home to themselves via the study of political history over the long term.
In his retirement Buttereld had no opportunity to put his curricular sugges-
tions into practice, and he left no notes about how he might transform his old
course on the history of European civilization since 1494. What the Cam-
bridge tradition, and he, had always called modern history seemed even
more narrow than previously thought when held next to his new statement of
 Nothing but History and Religion 391

the scope of universal history. His new conception of universal history, to-
gether with his new assertion of the primacy of narrative political history,
could only serve to mount still further impediments to his progress on the
Concise Cambridge Modern History. The thousand pages of writing he had
accumulated on that project stood frozen at the stage reached by his thinking
in the 1930s and 1940s. And, in the animated world of historical study in
1970s, that could feel like ages ago.
The two opposing tendencies in his discourse posed no problem for Butter-
eld. He unabashedly paired the two, and formulated a major thesis to which
his massive studies of the history of historiography were bringing him. His
thesis surfaced as a generalization which he used to structure a major sum-
mary of the history of historiography. The piece was a massive article, entitled
Historiography: History of Historiography, which he nished in March
1969 for the Dictionary of the History of Ideas (1973). It ran to 186 pages of
typescript. It combined what began as two articles assigned him by the dictio-
nary editors, one on historical criticism and the other on the history of histo-
riography. The outcome he described as an essay of the genesis of ideas and
developments in Historiography. It covered all the ground traversed by his
projected revision of the Gifford Lectures and represented a masterful conden-
sation by his own hand of his whole retirement project.
The overarching thesis of Historiography claims that the multitude of
historical writings from the earliest Mesopotamian inscriptions to the histo-
ries produced in nineteenth-century western Europe can be divided in a fairly
clear-cut manner into two big classes, one which was always described as
universal history, while the other we today at least would call political his-
tory. Political history arose out of the mundane need to celebrate or record
the contemporary history of ones own state. Universal history emerged as
religious history in response to the spiritual need to understand the destiny,
purpose, and meaning of human existence in the world. If religious history
took the story back to the creation, political history brought the story up to the
very present, usually the present of ones own state. Buttereld embraces both
types of history with lan. Both are valid and necessary. His perception of the
pair neatly expresses the abiding dualism that structures his understanding of
life: the spiritual/religious and the mundane/material.
The use of the phrase the other we today at least would call political
history allows him to obscure a vast complexity. The term political history
does not mean the same thing over time, and neither does the term state, as
he moves from ancient Mesopotamia through many other ancient societies to
eighteenth-century England, and nally on to his contemporary England. The
terms mask important differences. He ignores incomparable differences in the
392 Nothing but History and Religion

organization of life and the deployment of power that obtained in each of

those situations. His term political history might well apply to one spe-
cialized form of historical study produced in his own day, one branch of
history positioned next to countless other branches. But when he applies the
term across thousands of years, he imposes a modern denition of relation-
ships on dissimilar situations. He misses the range and variety of previous
histories that went by a changing list of names from culture to culture. Some of
those histories appeared far more skeletal than his modern political history.
Other varieties routinely surpassed the ordinary range of the modern norm,
and mingled elements of what we now would call geography and demography,
social and economic history, political and intellectual history, and religious
history. A trick of the simplication of language enables him to reduce the
complicated historiographical eld to merely his dualistic pair.
The emphasis on universal history led Buttereld straight into renewed
thinking about religion and history. The theme immediately before him was
the problem of the origins of a Christian historiography, the subject of two of
the original lectures in Glasgow. He demonstrated yet another time that his
historical thinking easily transmuted into religious thinking. After 1968 he
composed several writings and lectures on religion and history that incorpo-
rated or branched out from his Gifford material.
By far the longest was a 200-page typescript for the Dictionary of the His-
tory of Ideas, completed in May 1970, entitled Christianity in History. This
was his third signicant study for that major work of reference. Balance of
Power was the rst, and now these two, Christianity in History and His-
toriography, both of which are longer than Whig Interpretation of History
and at least three of his other books.
Christianity in History is a piece of historical writing that surveys the
course of that religion from its beginning. His treatment might be expected to
meet his standards for academic history and present a study that eliminates the
historians religion and politics from the exposition of the history. In actuality
it well illustrates exactly the opposite of his theory. It is as much a vehicle for
the expression of his own religion as it is a history. The basic categories, the
general structure, and the explanatory devices all rest directly on his own
convictions about Christianity. The history presents a highly conventional tale
centred on western Europe and the outreach of European missions. He divides
it into the four conventional periods: early, medieval, Reformation and Coun-
terreformation, and modern. A brief fth section, virtually an appendix, tells
about Christianity in the Orthodox world of Russia, eastern Europe, and
Greece. In this way he at least gives some evidence that his emerging global
perspective has started to take effect, allowing him at least to notice the exis-
 Nothing but History and Religion 393

tence of a few of the vast and varied forms of Christianity outside western
Europe and North America, even if as yet he had no idea how to integrate or
expand this knowledge into his history.
The history is structured as a story, but it is sprinkled with Buttereld-
created maxims about history and religion. The maxims function in an ex-
planatory manner to move his story along. Here is a sample: So long as a
religious revival retains its character, it is not in its nature to encourage mam-
monism, a point which even the Puritans of seventeenth-century England illus-
trate. The maxims as well as the actual structure of the story disclose once
again his lifelong belief that Christianity is truly a spiritual experience occur-
ring within the souls of individuals. In keeping with this belief, he arranges his
story to show that the well-being of the religion revived when Christians gave
their attention to spiritual things, and declined when they entangled them-
selves with mundane concerns, and that the institutional church was most
healthy and the effects of Christianity on society most benecial when Chris-
tians acted as if both the church and their social inuence were mere by-
products of, and not channels or substitutes for, communion with God. His
religious beliefs shape his historical account about the religion, and his history
reveals his religious beliefs.
Two journeys to the United States, where his fame ranked higher now than
in England, gave him new audiences for his thoughts on Christianity in history.
He used his visits to Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, Duke Univer-
sity, and the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, in 1969, and to North-
western University in 1974 to try out a combination of the Gifford material on
the origins of Christian historiography and his reections on religion and
history. The ease with which he moves between the historical questions and
the theological questions weakens any case he might want to make for the
erection of a high wall between history and the historians religion. In this case,
however, the lectures belong to a different genre from historical writing. It is
the same genre as Christianity and History of 1948 and 1949, wherein he
made no claim to be writing academic history, but rather, as a historian,
he openly advocated his own Christian perspective on history and historical
study. Except for the Gifford material, he adds little that is new to the things he
had been saying on these themes for decades.
The message of the lectures did fall on new ears, however, and produced
new excitement as another wave of Americans heard Butterelds paradoxical
words for the rst time. His thought on the struggle between good and evil
appealed to James Reston and Harrison Salisbury, both writers for the New
York Times, who arranged to place two articles worth of what he had to say in
a prominent spot in the newspaper during January 1973. One article carried
394 Nothing but History and Religion

the catchy title The Moderate Cupidity of Everyman. He reiterates his old,
but still disconcerting message, that the world needs no monsters or devils to
create the evils of history. The little cupidities of each person, when multiplied
by millions in one society after another, are enough to cause all the wars,
tragedies, and sufferings of humanity. The same material had served him for
an appearance on BBC television in 1970 when he gave his talk entitled Evil
in History.
Of all these lectures, Buttereld took special delight in one entitled Does
Belief in Christianity Validly Affect the Modern Historian? He presented an
early version of it at Rice University in 1963, a revised version at Chapel Hill in
1969, another revision at Northwestern in 1974, and in 1977 he was still
making revisions to his text. The title mutated into Can Belief in Christianity
Validly Affect the Work of the Modern Technical Historian? The theme was
the same he had treated in The Christian and Historical Study, published in
History and Human Relations in 1951. His question forced him to bring face
to face two equally strong components of his thought. He still had not ade-
quately elaborated on paper the relationship between his rm commitment to
the independence of academic history from religion, politics, and ideology, on
one hand, and his unyielding commitment to the involvement of his Chris-
tianity in his vocation as a historian. He seemed to want to nd a way to
formulate their coexistence.
By the early 1970s the world of historical study had changed so greatly that
it was becoming less and less plausible to talk about such a thing as neutral
history at all. The achievements in the areas of Black history, womens history,
and postcolonial history since the 1960s were having an effect on the debates
about history in the profession as a whole. The charge that so-called scientic
history was utterly political and ideological was getting harder to defeat.
Buttereld is raising questions about the moral and religious character of
what passes as scientic history. The new points in his thinking in this lecture
are two. First, he lters into his discussion the knowledge he gained in his
Gifford researches about the origins and effects of a Christian interpretation of
history, giving his reections on the theme greater historical depth. Second, he
frankly concedes, more explicitly and more denitely than ever before, that
perhaps indeed only a comparative few of the things that historians assert in
their publications are, or even can be, historically established in so coercive
a manner that they hold as true for any student of the pastProtestant or
Catholic, Christian or non-Christian, Frenchman or Englishman, and Whig or
Tory. His language shows him clinging to his norm for technical history in
the midst of the highly politicized environment of the historical profession.
But now he is coming to admit that his criterion would apply to very little of
 Nothing but History and Religion 395

what historians actually wrote, perhaps less than ten per cent. And this, he
adds, was not likely to be the most important 10 percent.
That left the other 90 percent of what historians put in their histories. He
mentions a point which he might have pursued in the lecture, possibly a third
new point: Historians do not remain mere technicians, therefore, and they
must bring all that they know about life and themselves, all their personal
experience and their accumulated knowledge of the centuries behind them, all
that they have ever felt in the deepest parts of themselves, to enrich their
understanding of human events and even their interpretation of pieces of
evidence. In the case of Christian historians, he continues, there were things
that Christians know about life and themselves that arise directly from their
Christianity which validly ought to affect their study of history. So certain is he
that he has tapped straight into the source of the truth of the universe that he
represents this knowledge as if it were, or ought to be, the common knowledge
of the historical profession itself. The things he identies corresponded with
his recent meditations, as well as with what he had reiterated throughout his
whole career. Christian historians, he says, ought to have the highest regard
for individual personality, to be cognizant of the inner life of people, to try to
understand the people of the past and not to blame them, to be conscious of
human will and responsibility, to count mundane events as signicant, and to
value the recovery of the past for the sake of the truth. Christian historians, in
other words, ought to write a humanist kind of history. These are the sorts
of things that saturate Butterelds historical study. They cannot be discussed
adequately in terms of the quantity or percentage of text to which they
applied. They inform everything he writes as a historian. Buttereld goes no
further. He makes no attempt to give an explanation of the relationship be-
tween the study of history and the historians commitments in religion, poli-
tics, or ideology. He does not follow his own lead, that the historians do not
remain mere technicians when engaged in historical study. At the end of the
day, he clings in principle to the neutrality of technical, scientic history,
even in the face of profound considerations to the contrary which he readily
acknowledges.
All of Butterelds lectures and writings since 1968 on themes arising from
his Gifford Lectures no doubt helped him think about what he wanted to do to
turn the lectures into a magnum opus. Nonetheless, he still needed actually to
work on the revisions. He seemed to nd it hard to concentrate on the project
now that he had no deadline. He did not begin solid reading with an eye on his
revisions until 1973, seven years after he nished the lectures. By then he had
completed the shorter writings he had accepted at the start of his retirement,
and he felt physically recovered from his rounds with heart disease.
396 Nothing but History and Religion

The notes he took in 1973 show him reading extensively on Egyptian histor-
ical writing and copying out the texts of inscriptions and hymns: Thutmosis
III, Ramesses II, Menes, Papyrus Harris No. 1, Poem on the Victory of Mer-
neptah, and so on. He was reading studies about the Hittites and lling out his
understanding of Old Testament criticism. In his journal for 5 April 1973 he
complained that he experienced tremendous difculty in keeping himself
from collecting more material and forcing himself to write. So, he wrote,
perhaps the solution is just to write, without waiting for the inspiration.
Perhaps one creates the inspiration for oneself, manufactures it in the very
fever of writing. He managed to get more time at Villa Serbelloni as the
guest of the Rockefeller Foundation in July 1973, and he carried his materials
with him to write. As it turned out, this was his last stay at the villa, a place
which gave him some of the best moments of his life.
He seems to have worked intermittently between 1973 and 1976 on further
reading and further writing. Some of this reading included histories produced
by classical Islamic historians. The work Buttereld completed on the rst ve
lectures, the set from 1965, enabled him to start calling them chapters for
the book. The chapters covered Sumer, Akkad, Egypt, the Hittites, Assyria,
Babylon, Israel, Greece, and the Chinese. He started revisions on the second
group of ve, from 1966, but he did not nish them and they remained frag-
ments. This was the set running from the earliest Christian writings to the rise
of modern European historical study in the nineteenth century. He wrote out
an entirely new and quite tentative passage on Islam which took him beyond
the range of the Gifford Lectures.
In comparison with the originals, the revised texts are much longer, contain
many more quotations from sources, refer to a wider range of issues, and en-
gage more critical scholarship. The basic structure of the story remains the
same. Buttereld still interprets historical writing as moving from ancient
Mesopotamia to modern western Europe, and he still travels a route formed by
a sequence of rsts which he believes anticipated modern western European
historical thought and writing. The exception is still China, which serves para-
doxically to underline the Eurocentric character of his tale. The main story is
about Western civilization, which he calls my quarter of the globe. In con-
trast with Toynbee, who places the beginning of Western civilization after
the disintegration of Greco-Roman civilization, he begins his Western civiliza-
tion with Sumer and Akkad, reenforcing, indeed exaggerating, the long linear
movement of his story towards modern German historical scholarship.
He does not achieve the global point of view that he had hoped for. But
because he is aware that there might be a global point of view to strive for,
he does appear, in his revisions, to want to undermine the strong impression of
 Nothing but History and Religion 397

linear movement from Sumer to Ranke produced by the shorter scale of his
original lectures. He now singles out China and the West as the two main
civilizations of world history, giving him, in principle, two centres to his
story. He still belittles India and other civilizations for failing to develop their
writing or their scholarship in this eld in the way that China and the West
developed theirs. But he appears slightly uncomfortable in making the re-
mark. By now he knows better than to handle whole cultures in so dismissive a
manner, as he indicated a few years earlier. In a review of J. H. Plumbs new
book, The Death of the Past, he criticized those historians, philosophers, and
scientists who measure everything by its conformity with the modern period,
and who see in the past a legion of wrong views. He has perhaps become
aware of his own guilt in the matter, two or three times over, and is earnestly
trying to change.
In the revised text, the linear movement still inherent in the general structure
of his story now jostles with a modied cyclic interpretation of the origins of
historical consciousness. He certainly believes that there was a line of inuence
running from the historiography of the earliest cultures of Mesopotamia and
Egypt through Israel, Greece, and Rome, and thence to modern Europe. But at
the same time, he pictures that, in each of the cultures in his story, the interest
in the past has emerged fairly spontaneously, coming on each occasion in its
own way, appearing as a native thing. In a revised fragment of his sixth lec-
ture, on the early Christians and the New Testament, he interprets the rst
Christians as a people initially without an interest in the past who went
through an actual genesis of the historical sense. These Christians experi-
enced their own genesis, different from the genesis experienced by the
Sumerians, Egyptians, and Jews, and not derived by diffusion from their pre-
decessors. The dominating question in his study concerns the origins of the
historical sense. To his surprise, the answer he begins to construct recognizes
more than one centre of historical genesis, and displays many origins, indeed
a sequence of origins reappearing in cycles, as he moves from culture to
culture.
In an essay on the history of encyclopedias for the Times Literary Supple-
ment written during this moment we nd him trying out his new perspective.
He moves freely between China and Europe as he seeks a nonlinear way of
construing what he understands as the tendency of human beings to copy,
accumulate, and classify what they know.
During 1974, while Buttereld pushed his revisions forward at full stride,
two of the people closest to him at Peterhouse died, Dennis Brogan in January
and David Knowles in November. He wrote compelling memoirs of each of
them.
398 Nothing but History and Religion

From at least January 1975, he begun to contemplate death, death in gen-

eral and his own death. He put many of his reections into thought-essays. He
did not fail to realize the importance of the theme for understanding of histor-
ical processes. Under the title What can we do about death?, he composed
an emotionally charged list, almost a checklist, of attitudes that would help a
person cope with the end of his personal earthly history. He expresed lament
that terror of the nuclear weapon and domination of individuals by mass
culture might be contributing to the loss of a sense of personal or group
posterity. He jotted down sayings about death and heaven, such as these:

The fact of death necessarily raises in a stark manner the question of the
meaning of life.

. . . the bliss of heaven is really the contemplation of God, the undying happi-
ness of eternally experiencing his spiritual presence.

Buttereld became ill in 1976, experiencing some paralysis on the left side.
After most of his movement returned he resumed his work, writing a few
lectures and reviews, but gave very little time to his history of historiography.
Often he felt weak, however, and he came to believe that he might be ap-
proaching the end of his work as a historian.
It turned out that his intuition was in touch with events. He became acutely
ill and went suddenly into hospital in early June 1979. His body declined very
slowly, especially the lungs and kidneys, and he occasionally lost conscious-
ness. He died at home in Sawston on 20 July 1979, at age seventy-eight, just
nine days before his ftieth wedding anniversary, and nearly sixty years after
he entered Peterhouse. The small funeral occurred in the Anglican chapel at
Peterhouse on the 26th, with a Methodist cremation afterwards, and his ashes
were buried in the college chapel. A simple stone remembering his life was
placed in the centre of the chapel oor.
In the years from 1975 onwards, after Buttereld began his reections on
death, he would talk about his unnished work with those around him. He
mentioned his big book on historiography several times to Adam Watson, his
long-standing friend, whom he called John, and who was, among many ap-
pointments in British external affairs, former British ambassador to Cuba. On
one occasion, in January 1979, he told Watson, that the rst ve chapters were
ready but that the second half of the book still needed revision. He added the
remark that someone like you would probably have to take a look at it.
In June 1975 Buttereld gave some of his unpublished writings on Chris-
tianity and history to me to read, and he later responded with enthusiasm to
my proposal to edit a volume of his essays on religion and history. I was
 Nothing but History and Religion 399

unaware that Buttereld had expressed his desire for such a collection to his
literary agent around the time of his retirement seven years earlier. In January
1979, before his nal illness, a 330-page volume of his essays on religion,
together with my introductory essay, appeared in New York under the title
Writings on Christianity and History. The collection of seventeen essays,
which I had chosen, contained all the important short pieces on the theme that
Buttereld had written since 1948, and formed a sequel to his famous book
Christianity and History. The volume was his twenty-rst book, and, since all
but ve of the writings were lectures, added to his list of publications based on
lectures. The nine previously unpublished pieces consisted of three of the four
Bristol lectures from 1956, the original version of the seventh Gifford Lecture,
The Establishment of a Christian Interpretation of World History from
1966, his address on the future of Christianity given in St. Giles Cathedral,
Edinburgh, in 1970, and all four of the Northwestern lectures of 1974, includ-
ing the 1977 revision of Does Belief in Christianity Validly Affect the Modern
Historian? The remaining eight pieces were previously published fugitive
works. They consisted of the four short pieces on rival interpretations of
history from The Christian News-Letter (1949), his most important synoptic
statement, entitled God in History (1951), his fullest statement on individ-
ual personality, under the title The Role of the Individual in History (1955),
his earliest attempt to identify how Christian convictions affected the histo-
rians writings, the essay The Christian and Historical Study (1951), and a
major statement on Christianity and politics (1967) written during the inten-
sity of the Vietnam war and student protests. Many other short writings on
religion and history remained in Butterelds papers, but none appeared to
add anything important to the writings now published.
No mention of moral judgments occurs in the volume. When I questioned
him in 1977 about how his views had changed on the subject, Buttereld
responded with an eleven-page essay, bearing the title Moral Judgments,
which he wrote overnight and handed me the next morning. He insisted that
he had not changed on the important point: Let me make it quite clear that I
have never objected to the condemnation of acts. I always insist that, e.g.
religious persecution is wrong and murder is wrongby which I mean that
they are always wrong, they are absolutely wrong, no matter what allowances
can be made for conditioning circumstances. . . . What I attack is not anything
of this sort, but the moral judgment that is directed against personalitiesthe
sort that Lord Acton once said he wanted: the verdict that this particular man
is a bad man. He had forgotten Whig Interpretation of History, where the
distinction between moral judgments against acts and those against person-
alities does not appear. In Whig Interpretation he condemns the intrusion of
400 Nothing but History and Religion

moral judgments as such into historical writing, and his words appear equally
to forbid moral judgments against both people and their acts. Indeed, he par-
ticularly abhors the moral judgments that surreptitiously structure the story
and convert the actual history into a moral judgment against people and whole
sequences of acts and events over time. Only much later did he attempt to
distinguish between people and acts, and even then the object of his condem-
nation remained unclear. Ironically, his ad hoc paper in 1977, which does not
fail to cite Acton, probably constitutes the most precise writing he ever pro-
duced on moral judgments. He draws distinctions of various sorts which seem
to respond to the near-continuous barrage of complaints put forward by peo-
ple who could never quite be sure what he meant to exclude. He most sharply
distinguishes between people and their acts. That he would feel strongly
enough to write the paper and speak so clearly on that point demonstrates in a
most existential manner just how crucial it is to him not to condemn people,
but to honour everyone as a personality before God in the universe.
After Buttereld died, Adam Watson received Pamela Butterelds approval
to edit the writings on the history of historiography for publication. The
Origins of History came out in New York in 1981, a volume of 250 pages,
Butterelds twenty-second book, and yet another book based on lectures. The
editor supplied the name of the book with an obvious reference to The Origins
of Modern Science, forming a companion piece. He made the decision to limit
the edition to eight pieces instead of the ten of the original series. The rst four,
on beginnings, Egypt and Mesopotamia, Israel, and Greece, publish Butter-
elds writings almost exactly as he left them, and read as proper chapters. The
fth, on China, reproduces Butterelds typescript up to a long nal section on
Ss-ma Chien. This Watson moved to the end of the book where it forms an
appendix on the man Buttereld treated as the Ranke of China, the most
inuential classical Chinese historian.
The editor created three additional pieces by placing together selected mate-
rial from the typescripts of Butterelds remaining ve lectures. This required
numerous judgments about how to handle the available material, some of
which came in more than one rendition. The published version of these last
three chapters splices passages from the original Gifford Lectures with frag-
ments of material which Buttereld later revised. Watson provided the titles
for piece six, The Establishment of a Christian Historiography, and piece
seven, The Development of Historical Criticism. The sixth published piece
joins passages on the New Testament with material on Eusebius, Augustine,
and Orosius taken from revised segments of lectures six and seven. Piece seven
presents a very short writing on the rise of historical criticism, a topic on which
longer, and arguably better, versions exist in his papers. Piece eight is a pas-
 Nothing but History and Religion 401

tiche, combining material on the secularization of the historical outlook from

the original ninth lecture with some other reworked material and miscella-
neous fragments. The title of the eighth piece, The Great Secularisation,
comes from lecture nine. At the end of piece eight is the curious addition of the
entirely new fragment on Islam that Buttereld wrote up in the mid-1970s.
The book contains no portions of the tenth lecture on Voltaire, Gibbon, and
the nineteenth century. The editor also created all the subtitles; the original
lectures contained only Roman numerals to mark breaks in the text. Overall,
the rst ve chapters of the published volume offer accomplished writing
which Buttereld carried well past the stage of the lecture. The last three pieces
form something of an anthology of selected material of uneven quality. The
result cannot quite be said to represent Butterelds Gifford Lectures.
The retirement project had remained unnished, and Buttereld had not
managed to transform the Gifford Lectures into his magnum opus. But in the
rst ve chapters of The Origins of History he proceeded further than any
historian before him to synthesize the historiography of Mesopotamia, Egypt,
Israel, Greece, China, and early Christianity into an analysis of the emer-
gence of historical writing and human consciousness of history. In spite of the
patchwork and fragments, the reviewer in the American Historical Review
remarked that the volume does more than any other single work to explore
the beginnings and the development of historiography. Even after death,
Butterelds voice spoke with originality.
 Conclusion

Looking at Butterelds work over the long term of his career as histo-
rian, we cannot help but notice the versatility of his interests and projects. Yet,
we detect a constant force pulling in one direction through all his work, no
matter what the topic or theme ostensibly in view. In one way or another just
about everything he treats becomes a question of general historical think-
ing. He is continuously engaged over the decades with the contemplation of
the larger questions of human history and historical study, particularly those
which induce him to ponder history and religion. When we consider what
might be his most signicant contributions overall, a clear answer emerges.
His best gifts to the worlds he inhabited are his intellectual reconsiderations of
history and historical study, and of the inter-suffusion of religion and history.
He provided a lasting model of the benets for historians and other scholars of
general historical thinking.
The consequences of his engagement with historical thinking were enor-
mous and tangible. He certainly affected the way other people thought about
and did history. But more than that, he helped give shape to whole elds of
study. His work had these results in Cambridge University, but also in the
world beyond. We have seen his presence in quite a range of elds, and we
come to realize the scale of his impact. In all these elds his works continued to
be cited, quoted, rejected, and admired years after his studies on those topics
appeared. He meets the denition of a seminal thinker.

403
404 Conclusion

It should not surprise us that Buttereld himself knew very well that histor-
ical reections could have enduring consequences. By at least 1954, he had
realized that Ranke and Acton were remembered by others, and important to
him, not because of their actual results as research historians, but, as he put it,
because of their historical ideas, their principles of interpretation and their
comments on the process of things in time. This is most certainly the case
with Buttereld. Buttereld is important because of his historical thought.
Butterelds awareness of the lasting importance of general historical think-
ing only complicated his life. He held rmly to a doctrine about scientic
history which belittled spending time on historical thinking. He resisted giving
time to it. He repeatedly insisted that his real work, and indeed the only
generator of real history, was highly detailed documentary research which
collected facts and issued in scientic history. Such work ranked abso-
lutely highest on his agenda for historical study, and he never relieved the
pressure he placed on himself to produce that kind of history. This priority
underlay his persistent self-assessment, which surfaced at least by the end of
the 1930s, and which he repeated until the end of his life, that he was not
productive as a scholar.
This is a man who published twenty-two books and scores upon scores of
booklets, articles, and reviews, presented countless invited lectures, carried
more than his share of the lecture load in the Cambridge History Faculty, and
left behind a vast storehouse of unpublished writings. He belonged to a style of
historian who wrote incessantly. He said he wanted to be a writer, and we can
observe that he did indeed write. From his earliest adult days until his last, he
thought by writing. He wrote out every classroom lecture. He wrote more
than one draft of anything he published as well as the things he did not
publish. If he sat down, he began to write. He most surely realized his youthful
aspiration to be a writer.
But all that productivity did not satisfy him. What counted was books of
scientic history. And he published only one book that met that standard,
The Peace Tactics of Napoleon, 180608. He was twenty-nine. In the Cam-
bridge system, where he never wrote a doctoral dissertation, this book was the
substitute, the product of his apprenticeship under Temperley. It was a book of
diplomatic history about the activity of a few elite gures over a microscopic
period of time, and it depended largely on published documents, very little
archival research, and the close correlation of chronologically arranged de-
tails. We have seen that the study took him years to complete, far longer than
the actual events he studied, and he had Temperleys intense pressure on his
back the whole time. It served as his model for scientic history. At the time
of his retirement he called it his best book, not least because he liked his
writing in it.
 Conclusion 405

For the rest, he spent nearly fty years saying that he was writing a sec-
ond book which would have met his scientic standard, the biography of
Charles James Fox. He undertook the project in 1931, thanks to Trevelyans
generosity with the Fox papers, but he apparently had already nurtured from
his youth the hope of writing a biography of Fox, which perhaps stretches the
Fox desire to something like sixty-ve years. That is a long time to talk about
one project. He never wrote the biography, and mercilessly chastised himself
for not doing so. Meanwhile a string of other people did write biographies of
Fox. Not one of them came even close to approaching the standard of detail,
thoroughness, and complexity that Buttereld had set for himself as betting
his version of scientic history.
The only other book of Butterelds in the running as scientic history
was George III, Lord North, and the People, 17791780 (1949). It certainly
contained many passages of carefully researched history, but it was such a
miscellany, so apparently haphazard, that it did not meet his own standard
for the genuine article. It did position his presence in the eld of English
eighteenth-century history, an area in which he carried on considerable work
for decades. Beginning with that book and extending throughout the 1950s,
notably in George III and the Historians (1957), he drew his own picture of
the eighteenth century and especially the early years of George III. As we have
seen, his rendering contrasted sharply with Namiers, and his debate with
Namier became a celebrated case of the interplay of contempt, status, mistake,
intellect, and insight in academic interchange. His position stood out as well
against the inuential neo-Marxist version of the eighteenth century produced
by E. P. Thompson. Thompsons rst statement appeared in 1963, followed by
another in 1975, and Thompsons eighteenth century eclipsed both Butter-
elds and Namiers as new trends in historiography turned away from narrow
concentration on politics.
By observing Buttereld at work the way we have, we see the personal cost
of his theory of scientic history. He burdened himself with the impossible
task of producing the nal and detailed biography of Fox. He thus guaranteed
the unlikelihood of the completion of the book. His theory and method of
scientic history stopped him from doing scientic history.
Ironically, in contrast with the endless labour for few results in scientic
history, virtually all of his publications attached to his general historical think-
ing came swiftly out of his pen. Some of these reections represented years of
pondering the topics or problems, but when it came to the actual writing he
was quick. His greatest impact came from the least work.
His writings on historical thought are abundant. Altogether probably sev-
enteen of his twenty-two books t the description. It is probably also fair to
say that most of his shorter writings and the preponderance of his unpublished
406 Conclusion

materials belonged to the same territory. All these writings are also in some
sense religious thought. His religious sensibilities continuously inform what he
advocates for the course of human history, the approach to historical study,
and the understanding of human relations. The published material generated
by his historical and religious reections created his reputation.
In two important cases he failed to keep his theory of scientic history
away from his work on general historical thinking. In both cases he killed
those projects with his theory the way he did the Fox biography. Neither the
Concise Cambridge Modern History nor his Gifford Lectures reached publica-
tion from his hand.
Reviewing his career, we can say that at some point he himself made the
practical decision to devote his most energetic efforts to the contemplation of
history, rather than to the production of actual scientic history. He became
the historian of ideas and the creator of ideas about history instead the scien-
tic historian doing the things he professed he ought do. If we take his work
on Fox as the sign, then we can say that he probably gave up the serious
pursuit of researched history by the late 1930s, even though there were brief
moments of the revival of his Fox drive now and then after he became Pro-
fessor of Modern History in 1944.
The practical move towards a life of historical reections may have come
around 1938. One marker at that time is the preparation for his controversial
tour of Hitlers Germany with the lecture on the history of the Whig inter-
pretation of history. Another marker about the same time is the sidetracking
from Fox onto Machiavellis maxims. The rst led into the wartime patriotism
of Englishman and His History (1944), and the second to The Statecraft of
Machiavelli (1940). This amoutned to the virtually intentional neglect of his
publicly stated rst priority of writing scientic history, and propelled him
into his career of self-criticism. But it permitted him to accomplish extraor-
dinarily creative work that owed unimpeded from within him.
Perhaps he always preferred the road of historical reections and histo-
riography, long before 1938, even though his rhetoric said the opposite. His
rst book was about historical thought, The Historical Novel (1924), and
then after Peace Tactics of Napoleon (1929) came the all-important Whig
Interpretation of History (1931). Thereafter he kept producing books, arti-
cles, lectures, and notes on historical thought or on how to apply his historical
thought or on the history of historical thought.
By far Butterelds most far-reaching accomplishment in historical thinking
was his simplest. He left his imprint on the basic terminology of the historical
discipline as well as other elds. His creation of the odd term Whiggish
history gave historians and students a way to recognize, admit to, and over-
come the monumental faults of presentistic self-indulgence within historical
 Conclusion 407

study. Once Buttereld said it, people could see it of course. Even those who
had never read the book that produced the term could promote the attack on
Whiggish history. In The Whig Interpretation of History he indicated the
role of historical interpretation in the composition of whole societies, and
indeed of whole areas of knowledge.
He went on to apply his historical thinking to several elds, notably the
natural sciences, historical study itself, international politics, and religion. The
Origins of Modern Science (1949) is a discussion of his own historical ideas
and how to use them to reconceive the subject raised by the title. As an unex-
pected side effect, he thereby helped give denition and impetus to the history
of science, a eld of study taking shape in universities after the Second World
War. The book stimulated rising historians to go into the eld, and became
mandatory reading in courses.
In a number of his writings he promoted historical thinking about the study
of history itself, what he called the history of historiography. He was not the
rst to do so, by any means, but with Man on His Past (1955), George III and
the Historians, and Magna Carta in the Historiography of the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries (1968) he gave lasting impetus to the use of the history
of historiography as a way of understanding any subject. His monumental
article Historiography in the Dictionary of the History of Ideas (1973) is
crucial. So also are his Gifford Lectures (1965, 1966) and the posthumous
Origins of History (1981). He gave decisive inspiration to two important
journals in the eld, Journal of the History of Ideas and History and Theory,
and provided incentive for the creation and maintenance of historiography
courses in history departments and history faculties.
His reections on history over the long term reached into the study of in-
ternational politics. The combination of Christianity, Diplomacy and War
(1953) with International Conict in the Twentieth Century (1960) helped
engender the historical study of international relations, and contributed to
establishing the study of international relations as an independent eld. His
discourse on war, revolution, the nuclear bomb, and the conict between
world Communism and the capitalist West caught the attention of both
liberal and conservative theorists as well as radical activists against the bomb.
Religion is a special case. We have seen how his Methodist religion ani-
mated his work as historian. His commitments to religion and historical un-
derstanding blend into each other. His religious thought is historical and his
historical thought is religious. Our study of Buttereld has encountered a man
whose daily interests and work concerned the basic matters of human history
and religion, and who recommended to others what he came to believe was
ultimately good and true and right.
Late in life Buttereld offered his self-perception about his work and
408 Conclusion

motivation: though I shudder at what must appear to be the priggishness of

the confession, we must all have something to live for, and the desire to preach
the Gospel, though it has been submerged on occasion, has perhaps been my
most constant motor. No sooner did he utter this admission, however, than
in the next breath he recorded a contrary remark by Virginia Woolf to Clive
Bell which no doubt reached into his heart: I never meant to preach, and
agree that like God, one shouldnt.
Buttereld preached. He preached in his actual sermons on the Methodist
circuit until his mid-thirties, and he preached in his explicitly religious lec-
tures and writings, such as Christianity and History (1949), History and Hu-
man Relations (1951), and Christianity, Diplomacy and War. But, so too, he
preached in the rest of his writings and lectures which convey his historical
reections. Indeed, all of his work is suffused with his religious sensibilities.
Buttereld realized in this unexpected way his youthful aspiration to be a
preacher.
His writings and lectures on the interconnections of religion and history
allowed Buttereld to speak to the university world about understanding re-
ligons as historical phenomena. He introduced new readings of the historical
character of Christianity. His work also let him cross over from academia to
the general public. Christianity and History gave him by far his greatest out-
reach. Of all his books, that one was the most widely sold, most widely re-
viewed, most widely translated, and most widely remembered. His broadcasts
of the lectures on BBC national radio put him into direct communication with
a vast public. The rapport he established with the general public transmuted
into frequent appearances in national and local public settings outside the
university. Scholars and general readers alike found his message inspiring.
Many responded like Eve Bogle, who testied, He introduced me to the
historical Jesus.
Buttereld brought to the theme of Christianity and history the sensibilities
and habits of the historian. It was an area of discourse dominated by theolo-
gians, and understood simply as a matter of theology. He took the discussion
out of the realm of abstract ideas about theology and transferred it to the
plane of human history and historical study. Particularly signicant was his
suggestion that certain beliefs held by Christian historians, especially those
about human personality, human cupidity, and human action in conjunction
with divine Providence, had, or ought to have, radical consequences for their
study of human history. He articulated some of the intrinsic afnities between
history and religion. His work on the theme contributed quite unexpectedly to
the major revival of Christian interpretations of history among religious think-
ers and historians after the Second World War.
 Conclusion 409

The success that Buttereld enjoyed with his historical thinking was due in
no small degree to his gift for making the arresting statement. Again and again
we have heard the phrase or seen the example which evokes so vivid an image
in our minds that we understand instantly what pages of involved logic could
never convey. Here are three we have met along the way:
On historical explanation: in the case of two brothers brought up in very
much the same way, we have the one who becomes a nonconformist minister
because his father was a nonconformist minister, while his brother becomes a
militant atheist because his father was a nonconformist minister.

The nal line of Christianity and History: We can do worse than remember a
principle which both gives us a rm Rock and leaves us the maximum elas-
ticity for our minds: the principle: Hold to Christ, and for the rest be totally
uncommitted.

On the source of the greatest harm done in history: The Moderate Cupidity
of Everyman.

These are the phrases, and countles others like them, which carry his message
home, and which people can repeat even years later.
Our study of Butterelds labours as historian has disclosed some vital fea-
tures about his career. Nothing is more striking than the sheer continuity of his
vocation, convictions, and interests. From the moment he came up to Peter-
house in 1919, indeed starting in his nal years at Keighley, and extending
throughout his career, he immersed himself almost entirely in the academic life
and the work of being the historian, and he thrived. All of his cardinal re-
ligious and political tenets had direct connections with the world of his youth,
and they were in place from his early years in Cambridge. They remained with
him until he died. These include his Methodist identity, the contemplative
spirituality, the preference for piety over doctrine, the individualism and per-
sonalism, and the noncommittal New Whig tendency in politics. It was during
his undergraduate years that he stabilized his primary historical interests,
some of which began to form in his mind before Cambridge, and he main-
tained the same chief interests thereafter until the end. Notable are the focus
on elite political and diplomatic history, the attraction to Fox and eighteenth-
century England, the fascination with historical reections and historiogra-
phy, the mystique of Germany, the afnity for narrative, the insistence on
history as a certain type of science, and the attachment to Acton and Ranke. It
is striking in retrospect how few thinkers he adds to his repertoire as he works
out his discourse over the decades.
Equally striking was the enduring power of the small world of Cambridge in
410 Conclusion

shaping his life. Once he completed the wrenching passage from the industrial
village of Oxenhope to the highstanding milieu of Cambridge, his course
became steady. Given his absolute commitment to the free will of discrete
individuals and the lack of provision for community in his discourse, it is re-
markable just how completely his membership in particular Cambridge com-
munities determined his own career. Our study has shown the near total domi-
nation of his life after Oxenhope by the social, academic, and religious cul-
ture of Cambridge. Peterhouse, the prize system, undergraduate supervisions,
courses of lectures, examinations, academic politics, patronage, professor-
ships, the Fellows, the Faculty of History, Wesley Methodist Church, Peter-
house chapel, Cambridge Historical Journal, Cambridge University Press: all
these presented him with tracks to ride on, and moved him through his ca-
reer. A mere handful of people exercised constant and overwhelming inuence
upon him: Temperley and Vellacott in Peterhouse, and Acton and Ranke
whom he encountered through Temperley and Peterhouse, and his father at
home. When his fame spread beyond Cambridge, it travelled via precise chan-
nels made available to him because of his Cambridge status: the BBC, the
London daily press, particular book publishers, invited lectureships, the His-
torical Association, outside visitors. The changes and innovations he negoti-
ated during the course of his career were modications within the boundaries
set by his enduring beliefs and interests and his Cambridge small world.
We have tracked the subtle permutations of Butterelds discourse, and
noted as precisely as possible when something new appeared in his work. It
becomes apparent that the books are products of long and complex processes.
Sometimes they generate further creative processes, but frequently they repre-
sent sidetracking and the exhaustion of thought. The books are like the islands
in the Mediterranean. Our observation of Butterelds labour has permitted us
to map the contours of the sea oor, so we can see the subaqueous geological
structures of which the books are the visible land formations. We can see that
he thought about history before he published. He jotted down notes, scribbled
thought-essays, started drafts of papers, and wrote out his lectures. New dis-
course usually appeared rst in these unpublished materials rather than in the
drafts for the books. The published pieces become more intelligible when seen
within the sequences of his labour. His intellectual impact, of course, pro-
ceeded largely from his publications, as well as from his university lectures
and work with undergraduates and research students. But his intellectual cre-
ativity occurred chiey before the writing of the publications. Some of the
unpublished writings surpass in importance large quantities of what did get
published. The prime case is the material for the Concise Cambridge Modern
History, in which he writes general history and in some of which he demon-
 Conclusion 411

strates far better than in any of his published statements the merits of his
approach to general history. Sometimes the unpublished essays reveal more
about his approach than anything he did publish. For instance, we have seen
how his unpublished essays, especially In Defence of Diplomatic History in
1963, and The Nature of Political History around 1972, illuminate a major
tendency operating throughout his career and explain much of what we need
to know about his rejection of new methods and approaches in historical
study in the 1960s and 1970s.
If the successes of some of Butterelds historical reections were huge,
certain of his major recommendations seemed to fall to the ground as soon as
he uttered them, even if he repeated himself. Undoubtedly the least helpful of
his primary proposals was, as we have seen, his relentless promotion of scien-
tic history, which he also called technical history. This became a mark of
his approach. His repeated admonitions against moral judgments by histo-
rians depended on his idea of technical history. Even sympathetic readers
branded his views as amoral. At the same time, however, his own writings
appeared to contain ample quantities of the very things he objected to.
Also unhelpful was his perennial reassertion of the priority of political and
diplomatic history. He began his career by working in these elds in the 1920s.
He then tied his understanding of technical history to the brand of method
he used at that time. Meanwhile, within the historical profession at large,
criticisms of traditional political and diplomatic history increased, rising to a
crescendo in the 1960s, and the beginnings of new varieties of history became
noticeable at the same time. At least by 1962, he was expressing his awareness
that the new trends in historical study were leaving him behind with his at-
tachment to the school of Ranke. His unpublished lecture In Defence of
Diplomatic History in 1963 put him deliberately and even vehemently in
opposition to most of the new trends. He then gave over his inaugural address
as Regius Professor of Modern History in 1964 to the vigorous promotion of
old-style political history. He might have used the platform afforded by the
Regius prestige to say something generative of the future course of the histor-
ical profession. But he did not. He chose rather to pronounce his objection to
the new trends, and to announce his withdrawal into old-style history.
The third unhelpful item worth mentioning about his historical reections
was his unwavering intellectual dependence on the dualistic polarization of op-
posites. With nary a lapse, he remained the unagging dualist. Once he empha-
sized one pole in his thought, he simply had to swing to the opposite. His
presumption in favour of polarized pairs created intellectual inpediments to his
analysis and depiction of things historical. The sets of oppositions he prolifer-
ated implanted confusion in virtually every one of his intellectual discussions.
412 Conclusion

His polarities were ubiquitous: individuals or society, detailed history or

general history, moral or technical, scientic or religious, narrative or analysis,
inner or outer, material or spiritual, souls as real or states as abstract nouns,
neutral history or politicized history, and so on. With each of these opposi-
tions, when he emphasized one pole, as was his habit, he would tend to neglect
the other pole, and he could not perceive the living presence of what he took to
be the other pole within the rst pole. For instance, when deeply engaged
in stressing the polarities, he treated individuals as if they were not utterly
social, he underrated the ways in which detailed history is saturated with
general history, he left unacknowledged the moral character of the choices
about technical things, he overlooked the religious impulses behind science,
he missed the point that narrative requires analysis, he neglected the outer as
the expression of the inner, he missed the spirituality of material life, and
so on. The contradictions surge forward again and again as he swings from
pole to pole. We encountered this process repeatedly throughout his career as
he generated opposites. We did not feel relief from the force of these intel-
lectual polarities until he nally sought the reconciliation of opposites at a
higher level.
After all is said and done, there remains his pervasive commitment to sheer
dissent. The effects of his version of Methodism are direct. As we contemplate
the effects on himself and others of the polarities in his thought, we realize at
another level that the oppositional tensions are not at all happenstantial. They
form part of his intellectual equipment of dissent. They are simply intrinsic to
his normal mode of discourse. His oppositional construction of history arises
from his religious construal of the world. It derives as well from his enthusias-
tic embrace of the untidiness of historical processes which mere thinking can-
not straighten up. He maximizes the effects of the polarities in his discourse by
his reliance on metaphor and his rejection of carefully constructed concepts.
And more than even all that, he may be the type of personality disinclined in
any case to privilege logic and rational modes of knowing. In Buttereld we
never met an appeal for orderly thinking or a worry about the contradictions.
If I were to hazard a guess about his personality type in the terms of the
Jungian Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Buttereld would emerge INFP. If that is
so, there is little point in waiting for him to produce precise and systematic
thought.
In the rst instance his dissent was an intellectual strategy. Whatever bar-
riers his polarization of opposites may have erected against intellectual under-
standing of things historical, the assertion of the oppositions served the strat-
egy of intellectual dissent many times over. Buttereld wished for his thought
to unsettle the thinking of others. He called this picking up the other end of
 Conclusion 413

the stick, and elasticity of mind. The mere mention of one thing evoked in
him the opposite. This enabled him to ask the questions others did not think
about, or want to think about. When others presented him a problem, he
reconstructed it and gave it back to them in transmuted form. In his writing as
well as in his teaching, his contradictory thinking destabilized thought.
The drive to unsettle was automatic. He utilized counterpoise, paradox,
ambiguity, and metaphor, put there on purpose. The adversative style oper-
ated everywhere. The letters of reference he wrote on behalf of peoples ap-
plications for lectureship and professorships exemplied candour in the way
he gave praise in one paragraph and took away praise in the next. We have
seen how some of his students and colleagues recalled his delight in keeping
things loose by uttering the very thing that ran contrary to what they just said.
This he did without letting on whether the position he presented was his own
or not. People sometimes found him exasperating, hard to pin down, and,
because of this, they would sometimes call him undercutting and they might
not know when to believe him. He deliberately excavated the very things they
most took for granted, and provoked them to think differently.
His impulse to dissent was also political. It is uncanny how he and E. P.
Thompson, whose vision of the eighteenth century came to overwhelm his
own, both derived their spirit of dissent from the Methodism of their youth.
The one remained the Methodist, the other abandoned it, a neat instantiation
of Butterelds historical explanation seen above. Thompson lived outside the
system running English academia. By contrast, Buttereld occupied just about
every position of authority that was possible in his profession, and received
just about every honour there was to receive. Yet, he too always felt the
outsider, even as he rose in rank and fame and power. His dissenting politics,
like his intellectual strategy, operated automatically, whatever the milieu,
whether in historical studies, the university, society, government elections, and
religion, or at high table with other Fellows, in the teaching of undergraduates
in Peterhouse, and in his correspondence. He seemed almost congenitally un-
able to agree with what people said, whether they were his students, other
historians, chief administrators, higher authorities, or leaders in religion and
politics, especially when their views represented the dominant line. He sought
to defeat the sureties of those who dominate.
Not the least of his acts of dissent was his admission of his religious convic-
tions within the very process of conducting historical study. History and reli-
gion lived in tension throughout his discourse. To the historical establishment,
this intrusion of religion into historical study was a problem. To him it was a
matter of dissent. Among Christians, his appeal on behalf of Christ was not
for the establishment of a presence in society or academia, not for peace, not
414 Conclusion

for safety in the arms of Jesus, not for healing, not even for salvation. He
incited people to an insurgent type of Christianity. His nal line in Christianity
and History preached only one certainty: Hold to Christ, and for the rest be
totally uncommitted.
Paradoxically, Buttereld seemed curiously drawn to the very things from
which he wanted most to dissent. Throughout his entire adult life he locked
himself to Lord Acton, the person who most personied the historian as judge
and avenger, the dispenser of moral judgments in history. He spent all of his
academic life studying the state, writing on Napoleon and wanting to write on
Fox, exalting diplomatic and political history, assessing Machiavelli, focusing
on George III, and developing the theory of international politics. Yet, the
state is the very thing he insisted is unreal, nothing more than an abstract
noun. He ranked the establishment of religion and the use of the atomic bomb,
both actions executed by the ruling powers, as the two most unspeakable
calamities in human history. During the last three decades of his life this
Yorkshire Methodist drifted inexorably towards Anglican traditions. We then
realize that the seeming contradictions in these cases, and in so many others,
emerge as still more ways to unsettle the thinking of those who notice.
Faced with the diversication of histories in the sixties and seventies, and
confronted with what he felt was the dissolution of the debate into sheer
politics, Buttereld seemed to give up. Most of what he had to say about the
character of historical study was completely out of touch with the debates
about the future of history that then burst upon the profession.
The great exceptions were three points he raised which promised to contrib-
ute to the future conguration of the historical discipline. The rst was his
work in the 1960s for the Gifford Lectures on the history of historical study,
where he took steps to expand his outlook to the horizon of global history. His
revision of certain of these lectures, to be found in The Origins of History,
suggested an alternative to the traditional long story of the progress, or rather
the lack of progress, of the cultures of the past along the road to modern
scientic history. His new treatment offered instead a glimpse of the begin-
nings of a unied global treatment of the history of historical consciousness
which respected the radical multiplicity of the views and methods of history
found throughout the ages and across the world. He opened a window onto
general history embracing China, Islam, the Bible, Greece, Europe, and, by
extension, all other cultures.
His suggestions in the Gifford Lectures renewed and expanded his cam-
paign from the 1930s to broaden the scope of general modern history and to
overthrow the hegemony within historical study of the political history of the
powerful. The one thousand pages intended for his Concise Cambridge Mod-
 Conclusion 415

ern History that never got put into print included, besides the ordinary, fresh
hints of ways to reconstruct general history that passed beyond mere survey or
the collection of national histories. He was in full stride towards developing
inclusive studies of the many aspects of human societies, and he was beginning
to employ multifactorial modes of historical explanation.
The second potential contribution to the future of historical study was
epistemological. He frequently noted the signicance of the primary convic-
tions about life, politics, religion, and morality that historians bring to their
study for the kind of history they produce. The point represented a reconciling
unity that he constructed to overcome the debilitating effects of his original
polarities. His observations suggested something extraordinarily relevant to
the debates then getting underway about the signicance of the historians
gender, social class, politics, nationality, economic position, race, and culture,
indeed the historians whole persona, for the conguration of historical stud-
ies. Historians basic convictions inexorably steer their work even when, per-
haps especially when, they do not realize it.
With the combination of these two points he possessed the wherewithal to
keep on generating original thought, to lead rather than to disappear from the
historical profession in the 1970s. After all, he was reading on China and
Islam ahead of all the other historians of eighteenth-century England. And he
was drawing the lines of a world-scale portrait of historical consciousness
before most historians of European topics looked up from the page of their
specialized reading. Both points promised to undermine the dominance of the
scientic model for historical study.
On both points, instead, he worked against himself. In retreat, he admitted
in the late 1970s that his theory of scientic history might account for
perhaps less than ten per cent of what historians achieve. It was a severely
undermined version of all he had said for decades. He was holding steadfastly
to the theory nonetheless. Pursuing the two points together would have com-
pelled him to reformulate his theory of historical study. They would have
required him to refocus his attention upon the 90 percent of the historians
work untouched by his assertions. He would have had to deal with the rest of
life beyond political history and beyond the elevation of European thought as
the destination of history. Rather than follow out the implications of what he
put forward, he defeated himself. He declined to consider that his advocacy of
technical history left out too much. He simply repeated once again his
claims for the 10 percent that he still insisted might be devoid of the effects of
the profoundest human convictions. He could enjoy the irony that his views
on technical history, when not ignored, stimulated others to overcome the
defects in what he proposed about the character of historical study.
416 Conclusion

Butterelds third potential contribution to the future shape of history was

his most constructive. Since at least The Whig Interpretation of History he had
articulated a reconciling method that enabled him to raise his handling of
historical thinking to another level. The reconciliation of opposites, like dis-
sent, operated intuitively. Once he perceived the barriers raised against intel-
lectual understanding by the ubiquity of his polarities, he eventually, as we
have seen, sought to nd a higher unity. His stereoscopic vision allowed him to
see the good on both sides of any opposing pair, or indeed, as he usually
admitted in practice, on a multiplicity of sides on any matter. He revelled in
difference, he preached tolerance, he rejected the moral judgment of others.
His stereoscopic vision might have worked wonders on the new tendencies in
historical study in the 1960s and 1970s. The initial achievements of the new
histories offered him the opportunity to embrace something in all of them. He
died before extending his reconciling method that far.
Paradoxically, even his reconciling move became a form of dissent. It put
him at odds with others, especially those in power. It was as if his reconciling
thrust presented a challenge to both sides of any of the oppositions he identi-
ed. In one stunning case above all, the reconciling move brought an ava-
lanche of criticism on his head: his attempts to understand Hitler and withhold
moral judgment from the perpetrator of Nazi Germany.
There was one brief moment when Butterelds reconciling method prom-
ised to defeat the presence of polarities in his discourse entirely. It happened in
1951. He surprised us with a transcending image that relieves the perpetual
tensions. As we saw, he unveiled the image before one thousand Christian
youth in Wales in his address God in History. He recalled the image briey
in Man on His Past in 1955. The image is of threes. With this image the things
that seem like oppositions are really not. They are, rather, different ways to see
the same thing. He dismisses his dualist discourse of the past, and speaks
instead of threes. With his customary imprecision, he adds term to term which
we learn to read as synonyms, or perhaps to extrapolate as multiple ways of
seeing even threes. There are in historical thinking, he proposes, three ways of
seeing the same thing, and they transmute into three levels of thinking, three
types of analysis, three kinds of explanation. All three ways are true at once
without contradiction: humans are makers of history, history operates in ac-
cordance with laws, and God acts in history. Why did such and such happen?
Three answers come back from Buttereld: because those people acted to
make it happen, because multiple laws of history converged, and because of
the Providence of God. In one image of threes he surpasses his reliance on all
those twos. He unveils the image, but then he puts it aside without further
thought, and passes on. The image of the three ways exemplies his reconcil-
 Conclusion 417

ing method. It joins the lengthy list of arresting comments that unsettle our
thought.
Our study of Buttereld as historian has let us feel the compelling power of a
candid man. We hear the new and the intriguing, as well as the repetitious and
the sometimes unintelligible. No life is simply wonderful, and certainly not the
academic life. When we think of the most signicant historians of the twen-
tieth century in the English-speaking world, we can understand why Butter-
eld comes immediately to mind. He made himself noticeable as he joined the
long march of historians throughout the history of historiography.
We now can fathom the nuances of comments made about him by two
historians who later held positions he once held. One felt in sympathy with
him, the other did not. Owen Chadwick, Butterelds immediate successor
as Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge, put his achievement
succinctly: [He] brought to an end an epoch of historical writing. Hugh
Trevor-Roper, one of Butterelds successors as Master of Peterhouse, and
one-time Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, spoke about Butter-
eld when questioned at High Table in Peterhouse:
Q. Did you ever meet Buttereld?
A. Yes.
Q. What did you think of him?
A. A likeable man.
Q. Did you read any of his books?
A. Not if I could help it.
 Abbreviations

HB Herbert Buttereld
CTM C. T. McIntire
ms manuscript
typ typescript
p page or pages
ssp single-spaced pages
ed./eds. editor/editors
Jan, Feb the months

419
 Notes

Introduction
1. HB, The Whig Interpretation of History (London: Bell, 1931).
2. For the British Library chronology, see http://www.bl.uk/collections/british/
modbrichron.html. The other histories on the list are by Lytton Strachey (1918), R. H.
Tawney (1921 and 1926), Lewis Namier (1929), George Dangereld (1935), and E. P.
Thompson (1963).
3. Annabel Patterson, Nobodys Perfect: A New Whig Interpretation of History (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 1, 1719.
4. Denis Brogan, Sir Herbert Buttereld as a Historian: An Appreciation, in J. H.
Elliott and H. G. Koenigsberger, eds., The Diversity of History: Essays in Honour of Sir
Herbert Buttereld (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970), 3.
5. Noel Annan, The Dons: Mentors, Eccentrics, and Geniuses (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1999), 265266.
6. Among the historians with whom Buttereld mingled in Cambridge over the years,
we may name the following: Adolphus Ward, J. B. Bury, Harold Temperley, G. M. Tre-
velyan, G. P. Gooch, G. M. Clark, Ernest Barker, J. H. Clapham, Eileen Power, M. M.
Postan, C. W. Previt-Orton, G. G. Coulton, Z. N. Brooke, Denis Brogan, R. H. Tawney,
David Knowles, Nicholas Pevsner, George Kitson Clark, Joseph Needham, Michael
Oakeshott, C. R. Cheney, Owen Chadwick, E. H. Carr, Charles H. Wilson, F. H. Hinsley,
J. H. Plumb, Walter Ullman, G. R. Elton, Gordon Rupp, Derek Beales, Maurice Cowl-
ing, and a remarkable stream of research students who went on to become historians
of note.

421
422 Notes to Pages xii1

7. See Maurice Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine in Modern England (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); see also C. H. Sissons review of Cowling, in
Times Literary Supplement (6 Feb 1981), 129.
8. Elliott and Koenigsberger, eds., The Diversity of History.
9. Noel Annan, Our Age: Portrait of a Generation (London: Weidenfeld and Nich-
olson, 1990), 3, 269270, 392; Annan, The Dons, 264265.
10. Owen Chadwick, Sir Herbert Buttereld, Cambridge Review (16 Nov 1979), 7.
Edward Norman, Christian and Sceptic, Times Higher Education Supplement (9 Dec
1983), 15.
11. Annan, the Dons, 264; Patterson, Nobodys Perfect, 2, 1113; Editorial, in Radical
Philosophy, 37 (Summer 1984), 1.
12. Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine, 195, 198199, 229; J. C. D. Clark, Revo-
lution and Rebellion: State and Society in England in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 15.
13. HB to Acland, 27 Nov 1953.
14. Patrick Cosgrave, An Englishman and His History, Spectator (18 July 1979),
2223.
15. HB to Acland, 27 Nov 1953.
16. Buttereld made his declaration about not being Tory in his taped interviews with
me, when he also told the story of the suggestion made by Charles Smyth, a staunch Tory,
after reading The Whig Interpretation of History. Norman Cantor, quite on his own,
suggested that in the context of English historiography Buttereld might be identied as a
neo-Whig. See Cantor, The English: A History of Politics and Society to 1760 (New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1967), 291.
17. Jonathan Haslam, The Vices of Integrity: E. H. Carr, 18921982 (London: Verso,
1999).
18. The fourth section of the bibliography lists writings about Buttereld arranged
chronologically.
19. The rst three sections of the bibliography list Butterelds published works, his
unpublished works, and works projected or invited.
20. C. T. McIntire, ed. with an Introduction: Herbert Buttereld, Writings on Chris-
tianity and History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).
21. Lady Buttereld presented the Buttereld papers in December 1979 through the
Friends of Cambridge University Library; the library records the benefaction as January
1980. Lady Buttereld to CTM, 31 Dec 1979; Lady Buttereld to William Kenny, 15 Jan
1980; Memorandum by R. W. K. Hinton, 18 Feb 1980. The website for the Buttereld
papers is: http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/MSS/Butterf.html
22. HB to CTM, 24 May 1979.

Chapter 1 Aspirations
1. In general throughout this study I have not tried to identify the specic source of
each piece of information about Butterelds life. A large portion of such information
comes from my own interviews with him at Peterhouse in 1975 and 1977 as well as my
correspondence with him over several years. Other information derives from my inter-
 Notes to Pages 39 423

views with Lady Buttereld between 1977 and 1986, with Mrs. Eve Bogle in 1986, and
with colleagues, students, and friends over several years. The unpublished autobiographi-
cal writings in his papers include: Personal: Early Youth, Father, Temperley, Vellacott
(ms, 67p, c1963); My Early Life (typ, 5p, 1978); and My Literary Productions (typ,
19p, 1978). The collection of his speeches delivered on various occasions around the time
of his retirement appears as: Miscellaneous Comments (mss, talks and short speeches,
1960s).
2. Entry 59 in Register of Marriages Solemnized at the Wesleyan Chapel, Lower
Town, in the County of York. On the occasion of his fortieth wedding anniversary
Herberts father sent him one of the bell-shaped fold-out announcements for the wed-
ding. It was apparently the one meant at the time for Mary Bucklands parents, who then
lived at 16 Drapers Lane, Leominster, Herefordshire: Albert Buttereld to HB, 8 April
1938. See Herbert Buttereld (the uncle) to Herbert Buttereld, n.d. (c1956).
3. The register of baptisms records the baptism as follows: December 9th, 1900,
Herbert, son of Albert and Ada Mary Buttereld, Upper Town, Oxenhope, born Octo-
ber 7th, 1900, William H. Bright, minister. I attended a service at the church on Sunday,
30 March 1980, when three baptisms occurred, completing the very same register book
nearly 80 years and 397 baptisms later. The people in the church that day were very
proud that the rst name in the register book was Herbert Buttereld.
4. For information on the woolen mills of Oxenhope I have to thank Sidney Bancroft,
former owner of Charles Mill, and a younger friend of Butterelds. For information on
the Dewhirst relationship I am indebted to Ian Dewhirst of Keighley, grandson of Amos
Dewhirst, and author of Yorkshire through the Years (London: Batsford, 1975), who has
the account books and other paraphernalia from the shop. Interview with Ian Dewhirst,
March 1980; and Dewhirst to CTM, 4 April 1980.
5. HB to CTM, 9 July 1976.
6. HB, The Remembrance of Things Past (Southampton: University of Southampton,
1968), 3. See David Joy, A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain, vol. 8,
South and West Yorkshire (London: David and Charles, 1975), 7172.
7. The Trade and Grammar School was located in part of the complex now occupied
by Keighley Technical College at the corner of Cavendish and North Street. The grammar
school, now known as Oakbank School, moved into new buildings away from the centre
of town in the 1960s.
8. HB, Crowes Memorandum of Jan. 1, 1907 (typ, 21p, British Committee on the
Theory of International Politics, July 1960), 1213.
9. HB, Whig Interpretation of History; HB, The Englishman and His History (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944), 410, 3336.
10. C. H. H. Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music, 5th ed. (London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, Trubner, 1909). The book is housed with the Buttereld collection in Ward
Library in Peterhouse.
11. See HB, Universal History and the Comparative Study of Civilization, in Noah
Edward Fehl, ed., Sir Herbert Buttereld, Cho Yun Hsu, and William H. McNeill on Chi-
nese and World History (Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1971), 2627.
12. HB, Diary, 1936.
13. I have not yet succeeded in locating the poem.
424 Notes to Pages 1017

14. Owen M. Edwards and others, A School History of England (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1901).
15. Buttereld gave these measurements to those who asked: Height: 5%712&; Chest:
41&; Hat: 718&.
16. Wesley Methodist Church, Haworth and Oakworth Circuit Plan and Directory.
HB, Memoir, 1970s.
17. Wesley Methodist Church, Haworth and Oakworth Circuit Plan and Directory.
See HB, Sir Edward Grey in July 1914, Historical Studies, 5 (1965), 125; HB, Revo-
lution (ms, 34p, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 1972).
18. For the details of Butterelds relationship with Peterhouse between 1919 and
1939, see E. Ansell, comp., Admissions to Peterhouse in the University of Cambridge,
October 1911December 1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1939), 331.
19. HB, The Colleges and Halls of the University: Peterhouse, in J. P. C. Roach, ed.,
A History of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely, 8, The City and University of
Cambridge (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), 334335.
20. See Appendix 1, Fellows and Undergraduates of the Mens Colleges, 1869
1919, in Christopher N. L. Brooke, A History of the University of Cambridge, vol. 4,
18701990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 593595.
21. See John D. Fair, Harold Temperley: A Scholar and Romantic in the Public Realm
(Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1992), 5354, 5859. A. T. Bartholomew, A
Bibliography of Adolphus William Ward, 18371924, with A Memoir, by T. F. Tout
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926); A. T. Bartholomew, Sir A. W. Ward, a
Great Cambridge Historian, Times (20 June 1924); Stanley Leathes, The Editorial
Methods of Sir Adolphus Ward, 1, The Cambridge Modern History, Cambridge Histor-
ical Journal, 1:2 (1924), 219221. See Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine, 205212;
Roland Hill, Lord Acton (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 396397; George
Kitson Clark, A Hundred Years of the Teaching of History at Cambridge, 18731973,
Historical Journal, 16 (1973), 536537; Brooke, History of the University of Cambridge,
vol. 4: 5254, 235236.
22. See Clark, History at Cambridge, 18731973, 540545; T. A. Walker, Bio-
graphical Register of Peterhouse, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Peterhouse, 1927); and Peterhouse
(Cambridge: Peterhouse, 1935). Fair, Harold Temperley, 1517; Doris Goldstein, The
Professionalization of History in Britain in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth
Centuries, History of Historiography, 3 (1983), 326.
23. HB to Eleanor Millward Buttereld of Toronto, Canada, 6 Nov 1957.
24. See HB, Talk to the Cambridge History Faculty on the occasion of his retirement,
Nov 1968, and HB, Talk to the Cambridgeshire Air Squadron, c1968, in: Miscellaneous
Comments.
25. Buttereld left behind major unpublished writings on Temperley and Peterhouse:
Memoir of H. W. V. Temperley (ms, 173p, c1962/1963); Peterhouse in Temperleys
Time (ms, 60p, about 1956); and Personal: Early Youth, Father, Temperley, Vellacott
(ms, 67p, c1962/1963). Also very useful is The Sex, the student magazine from the
Peterhouse Sexcentenary Club, housed in Peterhouse Library. Buttereld also talked
about his relationship with Temperley in my interviews with him. See Fair, Harold Tem-
perley, especially chap. 8, The Buttereld Connection, 167189.
 Notes to Pages 1723 425

26. HB, Paul Vellacott: Master of Peterhouse, 19391954, The Sex, 114 (June
1956), 14. Roger Lovatt, David Knowles and Peterhouse, in Christopher Brooke,
Roger Lovatt, David Luscombe, and Aelred Sillem, David Knowles Remembered (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 8588. Cowling, Religion and Public Doc-
trine, 219220.
27. No copy of the paper now exists, and we do not know what Buttereld said which
so impressed everyone. See Fair, Harold Temperley, 168169.
28. Temperley, Life of Canning (London: Finch, 1905); Frederic the Great and Kaiser
Joseph: An Episode of War & Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century (London: Duck-
worth, 1915); and The Foreign Policy of Canning, 18221827: England, the Neo-Holy
Alliance, and the New World (London G. Bell 1925). Fair, Harold Temperley, chaps. 5
and 6.
29. Buttereld scattered references to Temperleys teaching throughout his writings
and spoke freely about him in his interviews with me. There are notable references in the
following: HB, Personal: Early Youth, Father, Temperley, Vellacott; HBs introductions
to the second editions of Temperleys books on Canning and Frederick the Great; the
speeches collected in the le Miscellaneous Comments; HB, The Study of History:
An Inaugural Lecture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944), 16. See Fair,
Harold Temperley, 168173.
30. HB, Talk to the Cambridgeshire Air Squadron, c1968, in: Miscellaneous Comments.
31. HB, Universal History and the Comparative Study of Civilizations, in Fehl, ed.,
Sir Herbert Buttereld, Cho Yun Hsu, William H. McNeill on Chinese and World His-
tory, 26. See HB, The Universities and Education Today (London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1962). The theme appears repeatedly in his writings and speeches over the years.
32. Temperley to HB, 19 June 1920.
33. A. Lovejoy to HB, 6 May 1952: Temperley would come around to all our rooms at
any time to talk.
34. HB, Harold Temperley and George Canning, in Temperley, The Foreign Policy of
Canning, 18221827: England, the Neo-Holy Alliance, and the New World, 2d ed.
(London: Frank Cass, 1966), vii. See Fair, Harold Temperley, 1314, 1618.
35. HB, George Peabody Gooch, Contemporary Review, 200 (JulDec 1961), 502
Frank Eyck, G. P. Gooch: A Study in History and Politics (London: Macmillan, 1982).
36. The Sex, 76 (Lent term 1923), 31.
37. The Sex, 70 (Lent term 1921), 47.
38. The Sex, 73 (Lent term 1922), with HBs Editorial, 312.
39. Leathes, The Editorial Methods of Sir Adolphus Ward: The Cambridge Modern
History; The Sex, 66 (Michaelmas term 1919), 49; The Sex, 69 (Michaelmas term
1920), 52.
40. Lord Acton, Lectures on Modern History, ed. J. N. Figgis and R. V. Laurence
(London: Macmillan, 1906; rpt. 1918). See Owen Chadwick, Acton and Buttereld,
Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 38 (1987), 386405.
41. See HB, Temperley and Canning, xxxxi; HB, Introduction to the Second
Edition, Temperley, Frederic the Great and Kaiser Joseph: An Episode of War and
Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century, 2d ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1968), xixiii; Tem-
perley, Research and Modern History: An Inaugural Lecture (Cambridge: Cambridge
426 Notes to Pages 2329

University Press, 1930). See Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine, 212219, and
Doris S. Goldstein, History at Oxford and Cambridge: Professionalization and the
Inuence of Ranke, in Georg G. Iggers and James M. Powell, eds., Leopold von Ranke
and the Shaping of the Historical Discipline (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1990),
14153. See Hill, Lord Acton, 372 and Fair, Harold Temperley, 177178.
42. G. P. Gooch, Historical Novels, Contemporary Review, 117 (1920), 204212.
Temperley, Maurus Jokai and the Historical Novel, Contemporary Review, 86 (July
1904), 107110. Temperley, Foreign Historical Novels (London: Bell, 1929). See HB to
Neville Masterman, 12 Oct 1966.
43. None of Butterelds undergraduate essays appear to survive.
44. Samples of his poetry from 1919, 1920, and 1926 survive with his Diaries.
45. HB, Incomplete essay (ms, c1921/1922).
46. HB, Editorial, The Sex, 73 (Lent term 1922), 312.
47. The Sex, 69 (Michaelmas term 1920), 62; The Sex, 70 (Lent term 1921), 60; The
Sex, 72 (Michaelmas term 1921), 62; The Sex, 74 (Easter term 1922), 72.
48. HB, Diary, probably May 1922.
49. HB, Journal, Sunday, 23 Aug 1970.
50. Herbert Buttereld, The Sex, 75 (Michaelmas term 1922), 810.
51. See W. H. Hughes, Ten Years, Wesley House Magazine, no. 5 (Easter 1931).

Chapter 2 Art and Science

1. See Goldstein, History at Oxford and Cambridge, 146153.
2. Temperleys special period on Napoleon focused on the years 18131815. But-
tereld tells of Temperleys interest in Tilsit in: HB, Temperley and Canning, Tem-
perley, The Foreign Policy of Canning, 2d edition, xviixviii. Temperley presented his
views about research in a series of ve lectures during Michaelmas term 1923, Materials
for Research in the Diplomatic Archives at Cambridge.
3. See HB, The Study of History, 5.
4. Temperley, The Foreign Policy of Canning (1925).
5. C. K. Webster, The Foreign Policy of Castlereagh, 18151822: Britain and the
European Alliance (London: G. Bell, 1925).
6. HB, Peterhouse in Temperleys Time (ms, 60p, about 1956); HB. The Study of
History, 34.
7. Temperley, ed., A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, 6 vols. (London:
Oxford University Press, 19201924). Temperley invited G. P. Gooch to assist him with
the British papers. Temperley and G. P. Gooch, eds., British Documents on the Origins of
the War, 18981914, 11 vols. in 13 (London: His Majestys Stationery Ofce, 1926
1938). See HB, The Study of History, 5.
8. See C. K. Webster, The Study of International History, History, 18 (19331934),
97114.
9. See HB, The Study of History, 23.
10. There is a manuscript in Butterelds papers which may well be the draft of his
Members Prize essay: HB, Charles Dickens, unpublished ms, 76p + iiip.
11. The Sex, 79 (Michaelmas term 1923), 37.
 Notes to Pages 2939 427

12. HB, no title, Essay on G. K. Chesterton (ms, 13p, early 1920s).

13. HB, The Historical Novel: An Essay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1924). For Tilsit, see 2124.
14. Historical Novel, 25, 8283. Rankes phrase was wie es eigentlich gewesen,
commonly translated what actually happened. Ranke, Geschichten der romanischen
und germanischen Volker von 1494 bis 1514, 3d ed. (Leipzig: Duncker und Humblot,
[1824] 1885), vviii. See Introduction to the History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations
[1824], in Rober Wines, ed. and trans., Selected Writings [by Leopold von Ranke] on the
Art and Science of History (New York: Fordham University Press, 1981), 5659.
15. Historical Novel, 23, 89, 11.
16. Historical Novel, 714.
17. Historical Novel, 1418.
18. Historical Novel, 1724.
19. Historical Novel, 3339.
20. Historical Novel, 71, 74.
21. Historical Novel, 1415, 24, 7374, 111113.
22. Historical Novel, 23.
23. Historical Novel, 2429.
24. Historical Novel, 910.
25. See: J. C. Squire, The Observer (24 June 1924); New Statesman (19 July 1924),
446, 448; Florence M. G. Higham, History, 10 (1926), 362363.
26. The two reprint editions: Folcroft, Pa.: Folcroft Library Editions, 1971; and Nor-
wood, Pa.; Norwood Editions, 1975. Michael Bentley, Buttereld at the Millennium:
The Sir Herbert Buttereld Lecture, 1999, Storia della Storiograa, 38 (2000), 1732.
27. The Sex, 78 (Michaelmas term 1923), 7, and 79 (Lent term 1924), 37.
28. HBs Onotto Diary, 1924.
29. The Sex, no. 79 (Lent term 1924).
30. HB, Diary, 1 Oct 1924.
31. Fragments of this manuscript exist in his papers.
32. Buttereld wrote a brief unpublished memoir of Canon Gillett, who was Dean of
the chapel until 1932, at the time of his death in 1957.
33. Buttereld would see Francis from time to time over the years and wrote an
unpublished memoir for the author of Franciss biography: HB to L. B. Greaves, 17 May
1967. See Greaves, Carey Francis of Kenya (London: Rex Collings, 1969).
34. On Chalmers, see Harold Temperley, Lord Chalmers, Cambridge Review (2 Dec
1938), 144145.
35. HB, review of A. T. Bartholomew, A Bibliography of Sir Adolphus William Ward,
with A Memoir by T. F. Tout (1926), in Cambridge Review (3 Sept 1926), 159.
36. Butterelds notes on his American projects were transferred from a collapsed
box into three unnamed boxes, the rst of which contains a packet marked: USA
Miscellaneous.
37. Diary, 9 Feb 1925.
38. Diary, 6 March and 8 March 1925.
39. Diary, 2325 Jan 1925, and 2122 March 1925, and various memoirs of Hart
Crane, 1949.
428 Notes to Pages 4047

40. Eight volumes of Butterelds Cambridge Pocket Diary are extant for the sixteen
years from 19281929 through 19431944. Thereafter, except for 19581959, the run
of volumes is complete through the year of his death. His Onotto Diary for 1924 is the
only other such daily book extant. He used these diaries for his academic, social, and
special appointments such as outside lectures and lay preaching, although it is clear that
they do not provide a complete record of all his appointments.
41. Diary, 4 Feb 1926.
42. Diary, 13 Feb 1926, and 4 Feb 1926.
43. Diary, 3 March 1926.
44. Diary, 9 March 1926.
45. See HB, The Study of History, 5.
46. HB, Temperley and Canning, xvixx. HB, Some Trends in Scholarship 1868
1968, in the Field of Modern History, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th
series, 19 (1969), 168.
47. HB, The Study of History, 4.
48. The three titles: Napoleon and the Peace of Europe, 18061808; The Problem
of Peace in Europe, 18061808; and Napoleon and Europe, 18061808.
49. Many of Butterelds notes for the study and various drafts remain scattered in his
papers, in miscellaneous boxes of notes, and in boxes labelled: 1806; Fox, Foreign Secre-
tary, 1806. See HB, The Dangers of History, History and Human Relations (London:
Collins, 1951), 175.
50. HB, A French Minister at Vienna, 18061807, Cambridge Historical Journal
(1927), 185190.
51. HB, The Peace Tactics of Napoleon, 180608 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1929). See Fair, Harold Temperley, 301.
52. Peace Tactics, viiviii, 50.
53. Peace Tactics, 269273.
54. Peace Tactics, 269273, 250252.
55. Peace Tactics, 251260, 270273.
56. Peace Tactics, 249.
57. Peace Tactics, viii, 357.
58. Peace Tactics, 265268. Presumably these pages constitute Butterelds essay on
the inner life of Czar Alexander at Tilsit.
59. Peace Tactics, vii.
60. Peace Tactics, 231232.
61. Peace Tactics, e.g., viiviii, 266267, and the many personality portraits through-
out the book.
62. Peace Tactics, 266. Buttereld has identied the personality essays under each
gures name in the index.
63. See Peace Tactics, viivii, 50, 231232, 249, 266267, 273275, 355, 357.
64. Peace Tactics, 260.
65. Hall, American Historical Review, 35 (19291930), 857858; Reddaway, Cam-
bridge Review (7 March 1930), 326; and H. M. Best, English Historical Review, 45
(1930), 658659.
 Notes to Pages 4855 429

66. Ian F. D. Morrow, History, 18 (19331934), 179181.

67. New York: Octogon Books, 1972, by arrangement with Cambridge University
Press.
68. For example, Morrow, in History, and Reddaway, in Cambridge Review.
69. Savoie Lottinville, The Rhetoric of History (Norman: Oklahoma University Press,
1976).
70. HB, Temperley and Canning, xxxxi; HB, Introduction to the Second Edition,
Temperley, Frederic the Great, xixiii; Temperley, Research and Modern History: An
Inaugural Lecture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930). Buttereld refers
extensively to Ranke, Hardenberg und die Geschichte des preussischen Staates von
17931813, in Smtliche Werke, 4648 (1879).
71. The inaugural address had been published in Actons Lectures on Modern History
in 1906 and reprinted in 1918.
72. I am referring to the thinking about Acton that led Buttereld into his next book,
The Whig Interpretation of History, and Ranke gures there as well.
73.G. M. Trevelyan, The Present Position of History: Inaugural Lecture (1927), in
Clio, a Muse, and Other Essays (London: Longmans, Green, 1930). See also Clio, a
Muse in the same volume.
74. See HB, History as a Branch of Literature, in History and Human Relations.
Buttereld made his comments in the interviews with me.

Chapter 3 Reconciler
1. Butterelds standing and activities in the Faculty of History over the years are
reported in successive issues of Cambridge University Reporter. See Elisabeth Leedham-
Green, A Concise History of the University of Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1996), 189190.
2. For what follows, I rely chiey on my interviews with Buttereld, and on the clues
he gave in The Whig Interpretation of History to the thinking that led to the book.
3. Bury, The Science of History: An Inaugural (1903), and Cleopatras Nose
(1916), in Temperley, ed., Selected Essays of J. B. Bury (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1930).
4. Bury, The Science of History, and Cleopatras Nose.
5. G. M. Trevelyan, Lord Grey of the Reformed Bill, being the Life of Charles, Second
Earl Grey (London: Longmans, Green, 1920).
6. Butterelds paper from 1925 apparently is gone, but many jottings on Fox and
1792 remain. The problem of Fox and 1792 preoccupied him for years to come, and
eventually he published an article on the subject: HB, Charles James Fox and the Whig
Opposition in 1792, Cambridge Historical Journal, 9 (1949), 293330.
7. Acton, The Study of History, in his Lectures on Modern History, ed. J. N. Figgis
and R. V. Laurence (London: Macmillan, 1906).
8. Acton, The Study of History.
9. Acton to Creighton, Cannes, 5 April 1887, in J. Rufus Fears, ed., Selected Writings
of Lord Acton, 3 vols. (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 19851987), 2:384.
430 Notes to Pages 5661

10. HB, Whig Interpretation, 109120. HB, Diary, 1 Oct 1924.

11. Buttereld recounted how Whig Interpretation came about in his interviews
with me.
12. Whig Interpretation, vvi, 7073.
13. These phrases come from Whig Interpretation, 109110. The analytic philoso-
phers apparently did not launch their usual criticism against Whig Interpretation, but one
of them, Patrick Gardiner, did do so twenty years later against Christianity and History.
See Patrick Gardiner, in Mind, 60 (1951), 133134.
14. This passage runs on for two pages: Whig Interpretation, 5254.
15. E. H. Carr, What Is History? (London: Macmillan, 1961), 3336.
16. Patterson, Nobodys Perfect, 1. David Hackett Fischer, Historians Fallacies: To-
ward a Logic of Historical Thought (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), 281.
17. Whig Interpretation, v.
18. Whig Interpretation, 34.
19. Michael Bentley, Modern Historiography: An Introduction (London: Routledge,
1999), 6365.
20. Patterson, Nobodys Perfect, 117. See Nicholas Capaldi and Donald W. Living-
ston, eds., Liberty in Humes History of England (Dortrecht: Kluwer, 1990). Hill, Lord
Acton, 105.
21. Buttereld mentioned this story, without identifying Charles Smyth as the voice, in
his review of Carr, What Is History?, in Cambridge Review (2 Dec 1961), 174175. He
also recounted the story in his interviews with me. He got the reversal of Burkes title right
in the riposte to Carr. With me, however, he hesitated and then quoted Smyth as saying
that his books should be entitled An Appeal from the New Whigs to the Old. Burkes
essay is actually entitled An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (London: J. Dodsley,
1791). Burke thought that Fox, the New Whig of his day, was too sympathetic to the
French Revolution of 1789, and called for a return to the ancient Whigs and their admira-
tion for the fundamental principles informing the laws, constitution, and usages of the
kingdom. Compare Edmund Burke, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs, 2d ed.,
in The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke (London: Thomas McLean,
1823), 6: 7374, 261264. Buttereld again mistook the wording of Smyths suggestion
in a list he drew up of corrections to the proofs of my essay introducing his Writings on
Christianity and History. HB to CTM, 11 May 1979. See CTM, Herbert Buttereld on
Christianity and History, xxxxxxii. On Smyth, see Cowling, Religion and Public Doc-
trine, 4950, 7295, 192, 197.
22. Whig Interpretation, 4. See Michael Stanford, A Companion to the Study of His-
tory (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 8586.
23. Whig Interpretation, 109.
24. Lord Acton to Marie Acton, 10 July 1877, quoted in Hill, Lord Acton, 105.
25. Whig Interpretation, 120125.
26. Whig Interpretation, 7071.
27. Whig Interpretation, 11, 24, 16, 31.
28. William H. Dray, in On History and Philosophers of History (Leiden: E. J. Brill,
1989), chap. 10, reads the phrase to mean some such things.
29. Whig Interpretation, 72.
 Notes to Pages 6273 431

30. Whig Interpretation, 11, 92.

31. HB, Magna Carta in the Historiography of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Cen-
turies (Reading: University of Reading, 1969), 8.
32. Whig Interpretation, 1112, 6263. See Fischer, Historians Fallacies, 139, 281;
P. B. M. Blaas, Continuity and Anachronism: Parliamentary and Constitutional Develop-
ment in Whig Historiography and the Anti-Whig Reaction between 1890 and 1930 (The
Hague: Nijhoff, 1978); and Marshall Poe, Butterelds Sociology of Whig History: A
Contribution to the Study of Anachronism in Modern Historical Thought, Clio: A
Journal of Literature, History and the Philosophy of History, 25 (1996), 345363. Clark,
Revolution and Rebellion, 10, 15. Kevin Sharpe, Remapping Early Modern England: The
Culture of Seventeenth Century Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000),
6.
33. Whig Interpretation, 912, 1618, 3439.
34. Whig Interpretation, 45.
35. Whig Interpretation, 5358.
36. Whig Interpretation, 2022, 3947.
37. Whig Interpretation, 1820. Buttereld refers once (129) to laws related to
historical study, meaning that the kind of thinking that goes on in historical study has
rules of its own.
38. Whig Interpretation, 19.
39. Whig Interpretation, 2022, 73. See John Passmore, The Objectivity of History,
Philosophy, 33 (1958), 97111.
40. Whig Interpretation, 1416, 6575, 9096.
41. Whig Interpretation, 1416, 69, 96103.
42. Ranke, Introduction to the History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations, in Wines,
ed. and trans., The Secret of World History: Selected Writing [by Ranke], 5659; Ranke,
Geschichten der romanischen und germanischen Volker, 3d ed., vviii.
43. Whig Interpretation, 6465.
44. Whig Interpretation, 107108.
45. Whig Interpretation, 12, 107, 109120.
46. Whig Interpretation, 73, 107108, 104106.
47. Whig Interpretation, 6468. Buttereld uses the unusual term judgments of
value rather than the more customary term value judgments.
48. Whig Interpretation, 13, 107109.
49. Whig Interpretation, 7375.
50. Whig Interpretation, 104106.
51. Whig Interpretation, 104106.
52. Whig Interpretation, 125, but also passim.
53. Whig Interpretation, 7989.
54. Whig Interpretation, 8789, 77.
55. Whig Interpretation, 109120.
56. See Whig Interpretation, 7174.
57. Matthew 7:15.
58. See Keith C. Sewell, Providence and Method: Herbert Buttereld and the Inter-
pretation of History (Sioux Center, Iowa: By the Author, 2001), 109.
432 Notes to Pages 7381

59. Romans 8:28.

60. Whig Interpretation, 23, 45, 4849, 77, 8889.
61. HB, Historical Novel, 8, 81.
62. Whig Interpretation, especially 107108, 115118, 120, 130.
63. Whig Interpretation, 23, 130.
64. Whig Interpretation, 131132.
65. See, for example, D. C. Somervell, in History, 32 (1932), 86; and B. H. Sumner, in
English Historical Review, 48 (1933), 174.
66. Trevelyan, Clio, a Muse, in Clio, a Muse, and Other Essays, 172. See David
Cannadine, G. M. Trevelyan: A Life in History (London: HarperCollins, 1992), 209, and
Fair, Harold Temperley, 16.

Chapter 4 General Horizons

1. Buttereld told this story about Vellacott and Trevelyan in his interviews with me.
Some of it is caught in Ved Mehta, The Fly and the Fly-Bottle: Encounters with British
Intellectuals (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963), 257259. HB calls Trevelyan a Whig histo-
rian in Historiography in England (typ, 22p, late 1961 or early 1962). See Earl John
Russell, The Life and Times of Charles James Fox, 3 vols. (London: Bentley, 1866);
George Otto Trevelyan, The Early Life of Charles James Fox (London: Longmans,
Green, 1880); and G. M. Trevelyan, History of England (London: Longmans, Green,
1926). See also Joseph M. Hernon, Jr., The Last Whig Historian and Consensus His-
tory: George Macaulay Trevelyan, 18761962, American Historical Review, 81 (1976),
6697.
2. HB, Borrowed from Professor Trevelyan (7 Dec 1931); and HB, List of Pro-
fessor G. M. Trevelyans Fox Papers (May 1951). In his biography of Trevelyan, David
Cannadine placed Trevelyans interaction with Buttereld on Fox a decade and a half
late, and reversed the sequence. He had Buttereld taking on the project of writing the
denitive biography of Fox in 1945, and Trevelyan making the Fox papers available to
Buttereld after that, perhaps as late as 1949, instead of 1931. See Cannadine, G. M.
Trevelyan, 211212, including note 98.
3. HB, Napoleon and the Peace of Europe, 180608 (typs, late 1920s), 2930.
4. HB, Lecture on Fox, in his lectures entitled George III and the Constitution, 1769
82 (ms, c19351937).
5. HB, Diary with various notes about Napoleon, 1922; HB, Peace Tactics, passim.
6. These were the judgments Buttereld brought against Napoleon in Napoleon (Lon-
don: Duckworth, 1939).
7. This was Maurice Cowlings observation to me at Peterhouse, April 1986. Mehta,
Fly and the Fly-Bottle, 259.
8. HB, Diary, 3 March 1926.
9. Haslam, Vices of Integrity, 58; Brian Porter, E. H. Carrthe Aberystwyth Years,
19361947, in Michael Cox, ed., E. H. Carr: A Critical Appraisal (Basingstoke and
New York: Palgrave, 2000), 4142.
10. Lewis Namier, The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III (London:
 Notes to Pages 8188 433

Macmillan, 1929); and England in the Age of American Revolution (London: Mac-
millan, 1930).
11. Some of Butterelds request slips for Fox material in the British Museum are in his
papers. The notes he took on Fox during the 1930s are in boxes marked Fox, but some
are scattered in other places, for instance, in two boxes marked 1806. Most of Butter-
elds library is in the Ward Library of Peterhouse.
12. See HB, George Peabody Gooch, 18731968, Proceedings of the British Acad-
emy, 55 (1969), 335.
13. The publishers were Edward Arnold and Bell.
14. HB, Lord North and Mr Robinson, 1779, Cambridge Historical Journal, 5
(1937), 255279.
15. HB, Bolingbroke and the Patriot King, Cambridge Review (10 March 1933),
308310.
16. HB, Lectures: George III and the Constitution, 176982.
17. HB, Whig Interpretation, 8081, 125.
18. HB, Napoleon, 99100, 12425.
19. Lord Acton, Introduction, to Nicol Machiavelli, Il Principe, ed. Laurence
Arthur Burd (Oxford: Clarendon, 1891), xixxl.
20. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19361937; HB, The Statecraft of Machiavelli
(London: Bell, 1940).
21. Statecraft of Machiavelli, 15558, 161.
22. Statecraft of Machiavelli, 162165. See Namier, England in the Age of the Ameri-
can Revolution.
23. HB, The Master, The Sex, no. 104 (May 1938), 1011. Buttereld later wrote a
memoir of Lord Birdwood in a letter to the author of the article on Birdwood in the
Dictionary of National Biography: HB to R. V. Rhodes James, 4 Aug 1966. Birdwood
published his own memoirs, which included his tenure at Peterhouse: Khaki and Gown:
An Autobiography (London: Ward, Lock, 1941); and In My Time: Recollections and
Anecdotes (London: Skefngton, n.d. [1945]). Buttereld recounted that Birdwoods
name was put forward by a Fellow, probably the Senior Fellow, Professor W. E. Barnes,
who was an obvious candidate himself but who was considered unsuitable by Butter-
eld and others.
24. Interview with Brian Wormald, 1980. Brian Wormald, Brian Wormald Adds
[addendum on Sir Herbert Buttereld], in Cambridge Review (16 Nov 1979), 9. Fair,
Harold Temperley, 186187. See Cowling on Wormald, Religion and Public Doctrine,
192194.
25. On Aydelotte, see Fair, Harold Temperley, 234235, J. H. Plumb, The Road to
Professional History, in vol. 1, The Collected Essays of J. H. Plumb, The Making of an
Historian (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1988), 1: 67. Plumbs memory put his rst
meetings with Buttereld during 19351936, whereas Butterelds Cambridge Pocket
Diary records many meetings with Plumb starting in 19341935 and continuing in
19351936 (the diary for 19361937 is missing). See Fair, Harold Temperley, 219220.
26. Many years later Buttereld still commented favourably on the tradition, in In
Defence of Diplomatic History (ms, 23p, 1963).
434 Notes to Pages 8994

27. HB, editor, Select Documents of European History, vol. 3, 17151920 (London:
Methuen, 1931).
28. HB, Man on His Past: The Study of the History of Historical Scholarship (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955), 118.
29. Acton, Preface, The Cambridge Modern History, vol. 1, The Renaissance (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1902).
30. HB, Arguments Pertaining to the Thesis: That the division of the Modern History
Course at 1715 . . . is detrimental . . . (ms, 6p, c1935).
31. HB, Diary, 9 Feb 1925.
32. HB, Introduction, to Temperley, Frederic the Great (2d ed), xvi. Buttereld later
reviewed favourably Trevelyans English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries, in
HB, English Social History, Cambridge Review (10 Feb 1945), 18889. See HB, But-
tereld on Trevelyan, Radio Times (16 Feb 1976).
33. HB, Historiography in England (ms, 22p, 1962), 78. HB, History and the
Marxian Method, Scrutiny, 1 (19321933), 343. HB, History in 1934, Bookman, 87
(Dec 1934), 141142.
34. Marc Bloch, The Historians Craft (New York: Knopf, 1953; Manchester: Man-
chester University Press, 1954). See Introduction, Past and Present: A Journal of Scien-
tic History, 1 (1952), 1; Carole Fink, Marc Bloch: A Life in History (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1989), especially chaps. 7 and 10; Peter Burke, The French
Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 192989 (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1990), 2; and Franois Dosse, New History in France: The Triumph of the Annales
(Urabana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), chap. 1.
35. Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans. S. G. S.
Middlemore (London: Phaidon, 1926; Harrap, 1929).
36. In many of his writings Buttereld comments on the importance of Marxist inu-
ence on non-Marxists, including, In Defence of Diplomatic History, 2122.
37. Ronald Hayman, Leavis (London: Heinemann, 1976). See Georgi Plekhanov
[18561918], Fundamental Problems of Marxism (London: Lawrence and Wishart,
1927); Maurice H. Dobb, Capitalist Enterprise and Social Progress (London: Routledge
1925). See Harvey J. Kaye, The British Marxist Historians: An Introductory Analysis
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984).
38. HB, History and the Marxian Method, Scrutiny, 1 (19321933), 339355.
39. History and the Marxian Method, 340348.
40. History and the Marxian Method, 35053, 355. Cowling, Religion and Public
Doctrine, 224.
41. Some of Butterelds notes from c1935 on the history of science remain in his
papers. He said in 19451946 that he had been promoting the history of science at
Cambridge for fteen years, but it cannot have been before he wrote Whig Interpretation
of History since no sign of the notion of science in history shows up there.
42. HB, The Philosopher as Historian, Bookman, 87 (1934), 194195.
43. HBs draft of the text of the History Faculty regulation of 1938.
44. E.g., HB, In Defence of Diplomatic History, 46.
45. About fteen typescripts of his lectures from the 1930s exist, in boxes marked
Cambridge Modern History or Cambridge Concise Modern History, and various lists of
 Notes to Pages 94106 435

titles of his lectures are found in his Cambridge Pocket Diary for 19351936, 1937
1938, and 19411942.
46. Whig Interpretation, 68.
47. History and the Marxian Method, 352354.
48. History and the Marxian Method, 354355.
49. History and the Marxian Method, 339, 347, 352353.
50. Statecraft of Machiavelli, 1525.
51. Statecraft of Machiavelli, 1620.
52. Statecraft of Machiavelli, 5961, 7683.
53. Nicol Machiavelli, The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius, trans.
Christian E. Detmold (New York: Modern Library, 1950), Book 3, chap. 6, Of conspir-
acies. See Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. Luigi Ricci, revised E. R. P. Vincent (New
York: Modern Library, 1950), chap. 19, That we must avoid being despised and hated.
54. Statecraft of Machiavelli, 8283.
55. Buttereld discussed Machiavelli several times in later years, notably: HB, Intro-
duction, for Nicol Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. W. K. Marriott (London: Everyman,
1958); HB, review of Felix Gilbert, Machiavelli and Guicciardini: Politics and History in
Sixteenth Century Florence, in New York Times Book Review (21 Feb 1965), 6, 14; and
HB, review of Nicol Machiavelli, Legazione, Commissarie, Scritti di Governo, vol. 1,
ed. Fredi Chiappelli, in Renaissance Quarterly, 26 (1973), 314317.
56. Buttereld edited volume 5, number 2, in 1936, and then with volume 6, number 1,
in 1938 he became permanent editor.
57. Memorandum of Agreement between HB and Cambridge University Press, 8 Dec
1939.

Chapter 5 Patriotic History

1. HB, Diary, 11 May 1933.
2. HB, Note on Socialism and Fascism, c1933. See Plumb, The Road to Professional
History, Collected Essays, 1:7.
3. HB, Diary, c1933.
4. Diary, 27 Aug 1932.
5. Diary, 1933.
6. Diary, possibly c1933.
7. Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19331934, 19341935, 19351936. Wesley House
Magazine, June 1936, 86.
8. Diary and various notes, 1930s.
9. HB, A Kings Dilemma: The Fabulous History of Edward and Wally, a story for
children, which includes the Chorus of the Self-Righteous, in his Diary 1936.
10. Diary, 3 Oct 1936. See Haslam, Vices of Integrity, 228, 251. See also Annan, The
Dons, 245255, and the photo before 215.
11. Diary, c1936.
12. Diary, c1936.
13. Diary, c1936.
14. Buttereld discussed his attitude towards voting in his interviews with me, and
436 Notes to Pages 106114

wrote a brief account in Raison dEtat: The Relations between Morality and Government
(Brighton: University of Sussex, 1975), 15.
15. HB, George III and the Constitution, (ms), rst lecture, p. 4.
16. HB, George Peabody Gooch, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
(1969), 125; Hernon, The Last Whig Historian and Consensus History, 87.
17. HB to Arthur Salter, 24 June 1941, Folder Foreign Historians I.
18. Buttereld writes of his relationship with Galinsky in letters after the war: HB to
H. K. Galinsky, 6 Nov 1946; Galinsky to HB, 27 Nov 1946; HB testimonial for Galinsky,
6 Dec 1946; HB testimonial for Galinsky, 16 April 1948; HB to Mr Birley, 16 April 1948,
in folder Foreign Historians I.
19. At about the time of his retirement in 1968, Buttereld recalled that the German
invasion of Prague in 1939 and the involvement of the United States in Vietnam in the
1960s were the two events in international politics during his life that angered him. See
folder: Miscellaneous Comments.
20. HB to H. K. Galinsky, 6 Nov 1946; Galinsky to HB, 27 Nov 1946; HB testimonial
for Galinsky, 6 Dec 1946; HB testimonial for Galinsky, 16 April 1948; HB to Mr Birley,
16 April 1948, in folder Foreign Historians I.
21. This he said in his interviews with me. See Annan, The Dons, 246; and Annan, Our
Age, 392393.
22. HB, Napoleon, 1618, 10208.
23. Trevelyan, The Legacy of Napoleon, Cambridge Review (19 Jan 1940), 177.
24. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19411942.
25. HB, Cambridge during the War: Peterhouse, Cambridge Review (1 Dec 1945),
140; HB, Peterhouse, 19391943 (The Peterhouse Society); The Sex, 106 (19391940).
26. Probably HB, Harold Temperley, Cambridge Historical Journal, 6 (1939), 123.
G. P. Gooch, Harold Temperley, 18791939, Proceedings of the British Academy, 25
(1939), 355393.
27. Trevelyan to HB, 5 Dec 1939.
28. HB, Statecraft of Machiavelli, 102.
29. HB, Diary, 24 Sept 1940, and 12 Oct 1940; HB, Napoleon and Hitler, Cam-
bridge Review (6 June 1941), 474475.
30. Annan published the gossip in Our Age, 392393. HB, Diary, c1940; HB, Napo-
leon and Hitler, 474475. HB, The Englishman and His History (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1944), vvii.
31. France, 4 vols., B.R. 503503C, Geographical Handbook Series (London: Great
Britain, Admiralty, Naval Staff, Naval Intelligence Division, 1942). Butterelds sections
were The Age of Napoleon (with I. L. Foster), and From Waterloo to Sedan, in vol. 2,
B.R. 503A, History and Administration, 124146, 147165.
32. C. E. Carrington to HB, 5 March 1953, and HB to Carrington, 9 March 1953, in
folder Cambridge University Press Iend of 1964. HB et al. A Short History of France
from Early Times to 1958, ed. Hampden Jackson (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1959); 2d ed., retitled A Short History of France from Early Times to 1972 (1974).
33. HB to Helen Cam, 12 Nov 1941; HB to J. H. Clapham, 29 May 1942; HB to
Clapham, 19 Feb 1943; HB to Cam, 16 Dec 1943; Resolutions carried at the Informal
Conference of Historians at Cambridge, on 23 Mach 1942; Interim Report on the
 Notes to Pages 114119 437

Work of the History Committee (March 1948): in folder Foreign Historians I. See HB,
Tendencies in Historical Study in England, Irish Historical Studies, 4:15 (March 1945),
217.
34. Outline for a course, The Historical Background for General Knowledge, in box
Historical Geography.
35. Historical Geography, (typ, 209p, plus ms, c125p, 1943); Brooke to HB, 22 Sept
1943, in box Historical Geography. After the war, Brooke succeeded Previt-Orton as
Professor of Medieval History at Cambridge. See E. A. Freeman, The Historical Geogra-
phy of Europe, ed. J. B. Bury, 3d ed. (London: Longmans, 1903).
36. HB, Napoleon, 1718.
37. The edition most available to Buttereld at the time was: Edmund Burke, Reec-
tions on the French Revolution and Other Essays. Everymans Library, no. 460 (London:
Dent, 1929).
38. HB, The Englishman and His History appeared as number 19 in the series Current
Problems edited by his colleague at Peterhouse, Sir Ernest Barker, for Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
39. Englishman, 1.
40. Englishman, vvi.
41. Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine, 230.
42. Englishman, 4, 16, 3336.
43. HB, Preface1970, The Englishman and His History (Hamden, Conn.: Ar-
chon, 1970), iii.
44. The text of Butterelds address at the memorial service for Churchill in Great Saint
Marys Church, 31 Jan 1965, was published: HB, In Memoriam Winston Churchill,
Cambridge Review (6 Feb 1965), 234. See Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine, 230,
233.
45. Englishman, 7 and vii.
46. Englishman, vvii, and Contents on ixx.
47. Englishman, vivii, 14, 7882.
48. See, for example: Times Literary Supplement (8 July 1944), 331332, 335; A. J.
Woolford, The Interpretation of History, Scrutiny, 13 (19451946), 211; G. Kitson
Clark, History and the English Tradition, Cambridge Review (4 Nov 1944), 6061;
and particularly Carr, What Is History?, 3536. Cannadine, G. M. Trevelyan, 209
210. Patterson, Nobodys Perfect, 1318, 255. A major exception is Keith Sewell, who
stressed the continuities and offered a noteworthy solution of what he calls The Herbert
Buttereld Problem, compatible with my exegesis, in his book Providence and Method,
9598.
49. Englishman, 73.
50. Englishman, 35, 52. See G. R. Elton, Herbert Buttereld and the Study of His-
tory, Historical Journal, 28 (1984), 729743; and Elton, F. W. Maitland (London:
Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1985), 3436.
51. Englishman, vivii, 14, 7882. See Hernon, The Last Whig Historian and Con-
sensus History, 8687. Hernon did not notice that Buttereld himself had already ex-
panded the location of the Whig interpretation from the writings of certain historians to
the outlook of the whole of the English nation.
438 Notes to Pages 119134

52. Englishman, 8390.

53. Carr, What Is History?, 3336.
54. HB, What Is History?, Cambridge Review (2 Dec 1961), 172, 174175.
55. Carr to HB, 12 Dec 1961; Carr to HB, 8 Jan 1963.
56. Mehta, Fly and the Fly-Bottle, 252257. See Haslam, Vices of Integrity, 208209,
217.
57. Englishman, 8992, 9498.
58. Englishman, 104117, 127135.
59. Englishman, vi, 10, 3334, 8182, 100, 106108, 112117, 127, 138.
60. Englishman, 137139.
61. See HB, Capitalism and the Rise of Protestantism, Cambridge Review (23 May
1942), 324325.
62. Englishman, 118121.
63. Englishman, 100101, 126127.
64. Englishman, 1.
65. Englishman, 138139.
66. Englishman, 118127.
67. Englishman, 122, 127131.
68. Englishman, vvii, 96102, 116117, 133136.
69. Englishman, 127128, 132133.
70. Englishman, 124127, 134.
71. E.g., Times Literary Supplement (8 July 1944), 331332, 335; A. J. Woolford,
The Interpretation of History, Scrutiny, 13 (19451946), 211; G. Kitson Clark, His-
tory and the English Tradition, 6061. For acceptance by historians after the war, see,
for instance, A. L. Rowse, The Use of History, Teach Yourself History Library (London:
Hodder and Stoughton, 1946).
72. Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine, 233.
73. Interview with HB, 1977. My interpretation of the relation of Butterelds politics
in relation to his history walks between Butterelds views of himself and E. H. Carrs
views of Buttereld. I think Buttereld is right to claim continuity between Whig Inter-
pretation and Englishman and to lament that Carr missed his new distinction between
Whig history and Whig politics. But Carr is right to point out that the patriotic needs of
the war inuenced Butterelds interpretation of history. Buttereld changed from ambiv-
alence towards the Whigs to clear favour for the Whigs politically, and he violated his
admonition not to use the study of the past to serve present politics.

Chapter 6 Professor
1. Haslam, Vices of Integrity, 58, 111.
2. See, for instance, John Kenyon, The History Men, 161162. Cannadine, G. M.
Trevelyan, 210, 212.
3. Trevelyan to HB, 21 June 1944. HB to Dorothy Temperley, 9 Jan 1946; HB to
Dorothy Temperley, 10 July 1946; Dorothy Temperley to HB, 13 July 1946; HB to Lillian
Penson, 12 April 1946. Dorothy Temperley to HB, 2 June 1948. HB to the Editor, Times
Literary Supplement (30 April 1949), 286. See Fair, Harold Temperley, 1112.
 Notes to Pages 134142 439

4. Trevelyan to HB, 21 June 1944, and 26 June 1946; HB to Trevelyan, 2 July 1946;
Trevelyan to HB, n.d. (July 1946).
5. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, from 19441945 to 19491950. From other refer-
ences we know that he gave more lectures and attended more meetings than he recorded
in his diary. HB to E. R. Adair, 12 Feb 1945.
6. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary for 19451949; List of Papers Given (19451951).
7. See Brooke et al., David Knowles Remembered, especially Roger Lovatts chapter
David Knowles and Peterhouse, 82122.
8. The others (1947): G. N. Clark, then J. R. M. Butler (Regius), Norman Sykes (Dixie
Ecclesiastical), F. E. Adcock (Ancient), E. A. Walker (Vere harmsworth Imperial and
Naval), and the visiting chair (American). See Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine,
147.
9. Brooke, History of the University of Cambridge, vol. 4: 207, 236239.
10. HB, The General Boards Prime Stipend, Cambridge Review (8 March 1947),
328.
11. HB, The Study of Modern History: An Inaugural Lecture (London: Bell, 1944).
12. Study of Modern History, 1617, 31, 33.
13. Study of Modern History, 56.
14. Study of Modern History, 713, 2122, 2627.
15. Study of Modern History, 627.
16. Study of Modern History, 7, 2526.
17. Study of Modern History, 2934.
18. Interviews with Eve Bogle, Cambridge, June 1986. Butterelds Cambridge Pocket
Diary over the years records many of the things Buttereld and Bogle did together. Her
name appears for the rst time in his Cambridge Pocket Diary for 19441945. However,
his diaries for 19421943 and 19431944 are missing. As an example of how he ex-
plained her role to archivists and librarians, see HB to M. Mackensie (Royal Archives),
17 Oct 1951.
19. Eve Bogles Cambridge Pocket Diary for 19451946 records when she typed
Butterelds writings.
20. HB to Director, British Museum, 12 Oct 1945; HB to York City Librarian, 7 Dec
1945, plus similar letters to Nottingham, Bedford, Shefeld, Devize, Winchester, Salis-
bury; HB to Lord Stanhope, 28 Jan 1946.
21. HB, The Yorkshire Association and the Crisis of 177980, Transactions of the
Royal Historical Society, 4th series, 29 (1947), 6991. He read the paper to the Royal
Society on 16 March 1946.
22. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary for 19451946 and 19461947. This is the activity
Cannadine mistook as Butterelds start on the biography of Fox, when, if anything, his
new research diverted him from Fox, which he started in 1931. He also missed the
connection between Butterelds work on Fox and his big book which pleased Trevelyan
so much, George III, Lord North, and the People, 17991780 (London: Bell, 1949).
Cannadine, G. M. Trevelyan, 210212.
23. See Namier, The Structure of Politics, and England in the Age of the American
Revolution.
24. Butterelds notes, handwritten drafts, typescripts, and much of his correspondence
440 Notes to Pages 143152

about Fox are contained in various boxes and folders labelled with names like Fox, or
1780, or Ireland, or 1779; HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary for 19451946 and 19461947.
25. HB to E. M. Hampson, 15 Oct 1947; HB to J. Opochensky, 28 Jan 1948; HB to
J. H. Watkin, 9 April 1953.
26. HB to Trevelyan, 7 July 1948; HB, George III, Lord North, and the People, vii, ix.
27. HB, Charles James Fox and the Whig Opposition in 1792, Cambridge Historical
Journal, 9 (1949), 293330.
28. George III, Lord North. Trevelyan to HB, 8 July 1948; Trevelyan to HB, 10 Oct
and 11 Oct 1949.
29. George III, Lord North, 710.
30. George III, Lord North, 281283.
31. George III, Lord North, viiviii, 56.
32. George III, Lord North, 7576.
33. George III, Lord North, vvi.
34. George III, Lord North, 379382, and see 255257.
35. George III, Lord North, 317, 138139, 233243.
36. Noteworthy reviews: Times Literary Supplement (6 Jan 1950), 841842; Mark A.
Thomson, in History, 38 (1953), 260261; A. J. P. Taylor, in New Statesman (12 Nov
1949), 556, 558; Listener (10 Nov 1949), 821; J. M. Hone, in Irish Times (19 Nov 1949);
R. R. Sedgwick, in Cambridge Review (22 April 1950), 449450; W. T. Laprade, in
American Historical Review, 56 (1951), 340341. See G. Scott Bremner, Two Notable
Books by a Yorkshire Scholar, in Yorkshire Post (14 Oct 1949)the other book was
Origins of Modern Science.
37. J. H. Plumb, England in the Eighteenth Century (Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1950), 137, 216. Harold T. Parker, Herbert Buttereld, 1900, in William S. Halperin,
ed., Some Twentieth Century Historians: Essays on Eminent Europeans (Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1961), 75101. John Derry, Herbert Buttereld, in John
Cannon, ed., The Historian at Work (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980), 178.
Elton, Herbert Buttereld and the Study of History, 737738. Clark, Revolution and
Rebellion, 4142.
38. The typescripts from the 1940s are in boxes marked Cambridge Modern History
or Concise Cambridge Modern History. Typescripts of some of his lectures from the
1930s are also there, along with later revisions from the 1950s. R. J. L. Kingsford to HB,
15 Dec 1948, HB to Kingsford, 28 Dec 1948, and Kingsford to HB, 31 Jan 1949, in folder
Cambridge University Pressto end 1964.
39. HB, Tendencies in Historical Study in England, Irish Historical Studies, 4:15
(March 1945), 209223. The paper was actually published before he delivered it on
10 April 1945.
40. Tendencies in Historical Study, 210217.
41. HB, Lectures on History of England, 16881792 (ms, 44p, 194446).
42. S. C. Roberts to HB, 14 Feb 1945, and 1 March 1945, in which he sends Buttereld
copies of documents from the archives of the Press, in folder: Acton and the Cambridge
Modern History.
43. G. N. Clark and HB, Report on the Cambridge Modern History, 23 April 1945.
 Notes to Pages 153157 441

The report was drafted by Clark, the senior professor, but it incorporated sections on
general history taken from two drafts written by Buttereld, in folder: Acton and the
Cambridge Modern History.
44. HBs outlines are in folder: Acton and the Cambridge Modern History.
45. Roberts to Clark, 30 May 1945; Paul Vellacott to HB, 29 May 1945; Clark to HB,
6 June 1945; HB to Roberts, 6 June 1945.
46. HB to Roberts, 6 June 1945, postscript; Roberts to HB, 8 June 1945; Clark to HB,
20 Sept 1945. The advisory committee consisted of Clark, J. M. R. Butler, E. A. Banians,
and J. P. T. Bury. The rst volume appeared in 1957 and the nal companion volume, a
thirteenth volume, was published in 1979. See Jean Lindsay to HB, 21 Oct 1948, where
she refers to efforts by Clark, Banians, and herself to persuade Buttereld to write for
volume 5 on 17131763, perhaps writing on the Diplomatic Revolution, or the Enlight-
enment, or the history of science, or the rise of Prussia. See G. R. Potter to HB, 21 March
1951, and Potter to HB, 20 April 1951, where Potter asked him to write on Interna-
tional Relations in the West for volume 1 on the Renaissance.
47. F. Kessler to HB, 17 July 1945; HB to Kessler, 24 July 1945; Potter to HB, 5 Dec
1976. E. Bonjour, H. S. Offer, G. R. Potter, A Short History of Switzerland (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1952). Buttereld had initially suggested that Geoffrey Barraclough,
A. J. P. Taylor, and Potter divide the work in thirds.
48. Norman Sykes to HB, 14 Feb 1946, with a note by Vellacott in the margin. The rst
volume of the Oxford History of the Christian Church appeared in 1976, and the four-
teenth in 2001.
49. Alfred Cobban to HB, 5 May 1947.
50. HB, The History of Science, Time and Tide (5 Jan 1946), 6.
51. HB, Tendencies in Historical Study, 213214.
52. HB, The History of Science, 6.
53. Radio Times, 23 Sept 1949, quoting a letter from HB to the BBC in fall 1945; HB,
Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19451946.
54. HB, The History of Science, 6. My interviews with Buttereld; my interview with
Joseph Needham, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, 3 June 1986. HB, Cambridge
Pocket Diary, 19471948 and 19481949.
55. Butterelds interviews with me; interview with Joseph Needham. See Maurice
Cowling, Joseph Needham and the History of Chinese Science, New Criterion 11:6
(Feb 1993). See Anna-K. Mayer, Setting Up a Discipline: Conicting Agendas of the
Cambridge History of Science Committee, 19361950, Studies in History and Philoso-
phy of Science, Part A, 31 (2000), 665689.
56. HB, Notebook on the history of science, in box: Misc. Notes. HB, The Origins of
Modern Science, 13001800 (London: Bell, 1949), 10. See George Sarton, Introduction
to the History of Science, 2 vols. (Washington: Carnegie Institution, 19271931); the
third volume appeared in 1948, too late for Butterelds purposes. HB might have con-
sulted, for instance, Philippe Lenard, Great Men of Science: A History of Scientic Prog-
ress, trans. H. Stafford Hateld (London: Bell, 1933), or Grove Wilson, Great Men of
Science: Their Lives and Discoveries (New York: New Home Library, 1942).
57. HB, Diary note, early 1949.
442 Notes to Pages 157163

58. Origins of Modern Science, Introduction.

59. See I. Bernard Cohen, Revolution in Science (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard
University Press, 1985), 396399.
60. Origins of Modern Science, Introduction.
61. HB, Man on His Past, 118. See as an example, Robert Fox, The History of
Science, in Harold Perkins, ed., History: An Introduction for the Intending Student
(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970), 182184.
62. Origins of Modern Science, 15, 129133, 151152, 171172, 204.
63. Origins of Modern Science, 171172, 187192.
64. Origins of Modern Science, 191202.
65. Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 8 (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1954), 118119, 499500.
66. Origins of Modern Science, Introduction.
67. Origins of Modern Science, 192.
68. Origins of Modern Science, 1415, 100101, 159, 190191, 204205, 210212.
Joseph Needham had recently published a lecture on his research, Science and Society in
Ancient China (London: Watts, 1947), and was then at work on his extended study of
science and civilization in China. Interview with Joseph Needham, June 1986.
69. E.g., Charles Singer, Spectator (16 Sept 1949), 362364; Times Educational Sup-
plement (7 Oct 1949); Henry Dale, Sunday Times (16 Oct 1949); J. Bronowski, New
Statesman (19 Nov 1949), 586; Times Literary Supplement (25 Nov 1949), 761, 763;
Philip P. Wiener, New York Times Book Review (26 Feb 1950); A. C. Crombie, Cam-
bridge Review (20 May 1950), 537538; A. R. Hall, Cambridge Journal (June 1950),
568571.
70. William D. Stahlman, Science (12 Sept 1958), 589. See Carl Gustavson, A Preface
to History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955), 148150. Stephen Toulman and June Toul-
min, Observer (1 Jan 1967). Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientic Revolutions,
vol. 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962): and Kuhn, The Essential Tension:
Selected Studies of Scientic Tradition and Change (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1977), 35, 131133. See Gerd Buchdahl, A Revolution in the Historiography of
Science, History of Science: An Annual Review of Literature, Research and Teaching, 4
(1965), 58.
71. Interview with Joseph Needham, June 1986. See Cohen, Revolution in Science,
396399. A. Mark Smith, Knowing Things Inside Out: The Scientic Revolution from a
Medieval Perspective, American Historical Review, 95 (1990), 726.
72. HB, Europe, History of, Chambers Encyclopaedia, vol. 5 (1950), 467481; HB,
The Seventeenth Century, Encyclopaedia Americana, vol. 24 (1954), 613618.
73. See Radio Times (23 Sept 1949). HB, A Bridge between the Arts and the Sciences,
Listener (15 July 1948), 9596. HB (as de facto editor), The History of Science: Origins
and Results of the Scientic Revolution (London: Cohen and West; Glencoe, Ill.: Free
Press, 1951), containing HB, Dantes View of the Universe (1524), and HB, Newton
and His Universe (7786). Other contributors included Sir Henry Tizard, Sir Lawrence
Bragg, Sir Henry Dale, Charles E. Raven, then vice-chancellor of Cambridge University,
and Prof. M. M. Postan. See HB, The Historian and the History of Science, Bulletin of
the British Society for the History of Science, 1:3 (April 1950), 4958.
 Notes to Pages 163171 443

74. HB, Essays on the History of Science, ed. Karl W. Schweizer (Lewiston and Lon-
don: Edwin, Mellen, 1998).

Chapter 7 Religion
1. HB, Tendencies in Historical Study in England, 219223.
2. HB, Tendencies in Historical Study, 215218. The essay by Meinecke is Die
Deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft und die modernen Bedrfnisse, in Die Hilfe, 6 April
1916, reprinted in Meinecke, Preussen und Deutschland im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert:
Historische und Politische Aufstze (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1918).
3. HB to John (Adam) Watson, 19 May 1948. See HB, Ofcial History: Its Pitfalls
and Its Criteria, Studies, 38 (1949), 130132, 142143.
4. HB to M. D. OSullivan, 18 June 1945.
5. HB, Diary, August 1945.
6. HB, German History Lectures (typ, 89p, 19451947). There are a number of
manuscript versions of these lectures.
7. See Butterelds correspondence with the British Council, in box: British Council.
8. HB to Klaus Dockhorn, 9 March 1948, 2 June 1948, 18 June 1948, and 22 Feb
1949.
9. HB, Die Gefahren der Geschichte, Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, 1
(1950), 525539. Buttereld published an English version in HB History and Human
Relations (London: Bell, 1951), 158181.
10. Grahame Clark to HB, 3 Feb 1945; Memorandum by HB, Research Degrees for
Work in Government Departments, 11 Feb 1945 (ms, 6p), in folder: Ofcial History.
11. HB, George Peabody Gooch, 18731968, Proceedings of the British Academy,
55 (1969), 323338; W. N. Medlicott to HB, 3 Aug 1949.
12. HB to Vellacott, 10 July 1947; HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19481949; various
letters from Williams to HB in 1948.
13. HB, Ofcial History, 12932; HB to P. J. Connolly, 16 Feb 1949 and 20 Feb
1949, in folder: Ofcial History.
14. HB to Taylor, 2 Aug 1949.
15. Desmond Williams to HB, 24 March 1949, and HB to Williams, 1 April 1949; HB
to Connolly, 25 July 1949; see the lists of names to whom Buttereld sent the article.
Medlicott to HB, 3 Aug 1949, and 13 Aug 1949; HB to Medlicott, 5 Aug 1949; Wood-
ward to HB, 28 July 1949, and 1 Aug 1949. HB to Connolly, 24 Aug 1949. See Eve Bogle
to CTM, 26 Jan 1987. See also Prof Desmond Williams, obituary in the Daily Tele-
graph, 21 Jan 1987. Interview with Edward Norman, 1987.
16. HB to Bragg, 14 June 1951.
17. Trevelyan to HB, 1 March 1946.
18. HB, review of David Mathew, Acton: The Formative Years, in English Historical
Review, 61 (1946), 412417.
19. Knowles to HB, 16 Sept 1947; Gooch to HB, 4 Feb 1947.
20. HB to G. N. Clark, 5 June 1946; HB to the Editor, Fortnightly Review (18 Feb
1947). HB, The Journal of Lord Acton: Rome 1857, Cambridge Historical Review, 8
(1946), 186204.
444 Notes to Pages 172180

21. HB, Lord Acton (London: The Historical Association, 1948), 67, 1013.
22. HB to Rupert Hart-Davis, 5 Nov 1948.
23. HB, Lord Acton, passim. Some years later he published another pamphlet on Acton
in Italian which highlighted Actons struggle with the Roman Catholic Church: HB, Lord
Acton (Milan: Vit e Pensiero, 1962).
24. Watkin to HB, 11 July 1948; HB to Watkin, 14 July 1948. See F. A. Gasquet, ed.,
Lord Acton and His Circle (London: Burns and Oates, 1906). Aelred Watkin and HB,
Gasquet and the Acton-Simpson Correspondence, Cambridge Historical Journal, 10
(1950), 75105. HB to Watkin, 31 May 1949; Watkin to HB, 17 June 1949. See Chad-
wick, Acton and Buttereld, 395, where Buttereld tends to get the credit. George
Kitson Clark, The Critical Historian (London: Heinemann, 1967), 117118.
25. See HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary for 1944 to 1949; HB, Antidote to Dogmatic
History, Time and Tide (12 Jan 1946), 2930; HB, Limits of Historical Understand-
ing, Listener (26 June 1947), 997998; HB, Reections on the Predicament of Our
Time, Cambridge Journal, 1:1 (Oct 1947), 513.
26. This and much of the information about the lectures which follows come from my
interviews with Buttereld.
27. HB, notebooks named Notes and Extracts 19478, and Notes and Extracts 1948,
and notebook with no name in box: Old Testament.
28. My interviews with HB.
29. Christopher Wright, in John OLondons Weekly (9 Dec 1949), 1. Interview with
Kingsley Joblin, June 1987.
30. HB, Christianity and History (London: Bell, 1949), 3539, 4445, 60.
31. The Cambridge Faculty of Divinity, also excited about the response to Buttereld,
mounted the special Saturday morning lectures during the Michaelmas terms of the next
two years: in 1949, Alec Vidler on Christian Belief, and in 1950, Basil Willey on
Christianity Past and Present. The need for the series seemed to lapse after that, per-
haps a sign that the postwar era was over.
32. Peter Laslett, Radio Times (25 March 1949); Harman Grisewood, The Third
Programme and Its Audience, World Review (Dec 1949), 3336; Martin Wight, His-
torys Theme, Observer (23 Oct 1949). Eve Bogle to CTM, 10 June 1986.
33. HB, Christianity and History, Listener (7 April, 14 April, 21 April, 28 April,
5 May, 12, May 1949). The lectures were broadcast 2 April, 9 April, 16 April, 23 April,
30 April, and 7 May 1949.
34. HB, Diary note, early 1949; W. A. R. Collins to HB, 25 May 1949; HB to Collins,
30 May 1949; Collins to HB, 3 June 1949; HB to Collins, 3 June 1949.
35. From my interviews with Buttereld.
36. Both Thorp and Sewell discuss at length certain matters touched upon here. While
both books deal with Christianity and History, they also range over a large portion of
Butterelds corpus in pursuing their themes. See Malcolm R. Thorp, Herbert Buttereld
and the Reinterpretation of the Christian Historical Perspective (Lewiston and Queens-
town: Edwin Mellen, 1997); and Sewell, Providence and Method.
37. Christianity and History, 22 and 146.
38. Christianity and History, 1920.
39. Christianity and History, 1214, 1925.
 Notes to Pages 180200 445

40. Christianity and History, 1415.

41. Christianity and History, 1619.
42. Christianity and History, 19.
43. See Acton, A Lecture on the Study of History, Lectures on Modern History, in
Fears, ed., Selected Writings of Lord Acton 1: 530532.
44. Christianity and History, 1925.
45. Christianity and History, 46.
46. Christianity and History, 4547.
47. See Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 9 (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1954), 194210.
48. Christianity and History, 1921.
49. Christianity and History, 2628.
50. Christianity and History, 2647.
51. Christianity and History, 2629. See William A. Speck, Herbert Buttereld on the
Christian and Historical Study, Fides et Historia, 4 (1971), 51.
52. Christianity and History, 58.
53. Christianity and History, 3639, 4344, 6465, 8183, 9397.
54. Christianity and History, 8183, 108109.
55. Christianity and History, 4345.
56. Christianity and History, 4445, 91.
57. Christianity and History, 4853, 5759.
58. Christianity and History, 5258.
59. Christianity and History, 9397. See Sewells discussion of Providence in Butter-
elds thinking, in Providence and Method, especially chap. 8.
60. Christianity and History, 9799.
61. Christianity and History, 3435, 9899, 109.
62. Christianity and History, 9899, 9495.
63. Christianity and History, 99111.
64. Christianity and History, 5760, 111112.
65. Christianity and History, 9596. See Sidney Hook, Philosophy and History (New
York: New York University Press, 1963), 265266.
66. Christianity and History, 99102.
67. Christianity and History, 2325, 113.
68. Christianity and History, 23, 119129.
69. Christianity and History, 2324, 9192, 98.
70. See, for instance, Philip Wright, Parish of Littlebury, in Saffron Walden Deanery
Parish Magazine (Oct 1950); B. A. Y., in Religion in Education (Spring 1950); F. M.
Powicke, in History, 35 (1950), 193201; Calcutta Statesman (12 March 1950); Chris-
topher Wood, in Montreal Gazette (7 Jan 1950); Roger Lloyd, Herbert Buttereld,
Church Times (11 Jan 1952), 24; Bishop of Licheld, in Church of England Newspaper
(17 Nov 1950); John J. OConnor, in America (June 1950); Paul Ramsey, in New York
Times (30 April 1950).
71. Martin Wight, History and Judgment: Buttereld, Niebuhr, and the Technical
Historian, Frontier, 1:8 (Aug), 301314. Keith C. Sewell, The Concept of Technical
History in the Thought of Herbert Buttereld, Fides et Historia, 27 (1995), 5276;
446 Notes to Pages 200206

Sewell, Providence and Method, especially chap. 9. Sydney W. Jackman, in ISIS, 41

(1950), 326327. See John Cannon, Teaching History at University, Teaching of History
Series, 56 (London: The Historical Association, 1984), 9, 33. Patrick Gardiner, in Mind,
60 (1951), 133134. See Annan, Our Age, 270; and Cannadine repeating Annan, in
G. M. Trevelyan, 212. Ironically, Annan took an image which Ved Mehta had drawn, not
of Buttereld, but of the Times and Lewis Namier, and transposed it unkindly onto
Buttereld. See Mehta, Fly and the Fly-Bottle, 240.
72. Ranke, Geschichten der romanischen und germanischen Volker, 3d ed., vviii. See
Ranke, Introduction to the History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations [14941535], in
Wines, ed., The Secret of World History: Selected Writings [by Leopold von Ranke], 56
59.
73. See CTM, ed., God, History, and Historians: Modern Christian Views of History
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1977).
74. Butler to HB, 8 Oct 1949; Trevelyan to HB, 10 Oct 1949; Times Educational
Supplement (27 Jan 1950). See Charles Smyth, in Christendom (June 1950).

Chapter 8 Public Figure

1. See HB to J. Robert Oppenheimer, 12 Oct 1963.
2. HB, Memoir, 6 and 7 Sept 1949, written aboard ship crossing the Atlantic.
3. J. R. M. Butler to HB, 30 Oct 1949.
4. HB, Christianity and History, 142145.
5. HB, Notes on: How far can and should the subject of International Relations be
included in the curriculum for undergraduate students in History?, presented to the
Fourth Conference on the University Teaching of International Relations, London School
of Economics and Political Science, 67 Jan 1949 (typ, 4p). Possibly also discussed at the
Royal Institute for International Affairs, Chatham House, London, April 1949.
6. HB, The Tragic Element in Modern International Conict, Review of Politics, 12
(April 1950), 147164; also published in The Wind and the Rain, 7:1 (Autumn 1950), 8
21. See HB to Arnold Toynbee, 7 June 1950.
7. See HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary for these years.
8. Humphrey Sumner to HB, 21 Oct 1947.
9. HB to Trevelyan, 15 March 1951; HB to John Hope Franklin, 14 July 1969.
10. See HB to J. T. Saunders, 6 Jan 1953.
11. For examples of reviews: Irish Times (13 Jan 1951); Economist (17 Nov 1951);
Malcolm Muggeridge, in Daily Telegraph (23 Dec 1951); L. T. Heron, in Chicago Sunday
Tribune (1 July 1951); J. M. S. Careless, in Canadian Forum (Sept 1951); Boyd C. Shafer,
in American Historical Review, 58 (19521953), 156. See Donald G. Creighton, To-
wards the Discovery of Canada (Toronto: Macmillan, 1972), 25, and J. W. Burrow, A
Liberal Descent: Victorian Historians and the English Past (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1981), 13. See Donald R. Kelley to HB, 7 July 1970, who remembers that
Whig Interpretation and R. G. Collingwoods Idea of History were the cornerstones for
history and literature majors at Harvard in the early 1950s.
12. David Watkin, Morality and Architecture: The Development of a Theme in Archi-
tectural History and Theory from the Gothic Revival to the Modern Movement (Oxford:
 Notes to Pages 206209 447

Clarendon, 1977), viiviii. Donald R. Kelley, review in Journal of the History of Ideas, 40
(1979), 663. Peter R. H. Slee, Learning and a Liberal Education: The Study of Modern
History in the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Manchester, 18001914 (Man-
chester: Manchester University Press, 1986), 4. J. C. D. Clark, Revolution and Rebellion,
11, 15, 164, and English Society, 16881832 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985), 1, 6. Bonnie G. Smith, The Contribution of Women to Modern Historiography
in Great Britain, France, and the United States, 17501940, American Historical Re-
view, 89 (1984), 709710. V. H. Galbraith, An Introduction to the Study of History
(London: Watts, 1964), 56. Paul K. Conklin and Roland N. Stromberg, The Heri-
tage and Challenge of History (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1975), 7778, 99100. David
Thomson, The Aims of History: Values of the Historical Attitude (London: Thames and
Hudson, 1969), 4856. J. H. Plumb, The Death of the Past (London: Macmillan, 1969),
4142. Elton, Herbert Buttereld and the Study of History, 736.
13. Christopher Hill, Reformation to Industrial Revolution (London: Weidenfeld and
Nicholson, 1967), 20. Patterson, Nobodys Perfect, 1.
14. HB to Woodcock, 6 April 1951. Bentley, Modern Historiography, 6365. Eyck,
G. P. Gooch, 268.
15. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19841949. HB, The Christian and Academic
History, The Christian and the Biblical Interpretation of History, The Christian
and the Marxian Interpretation of History, and The Christian and the Ecclesiastical
Interpretation of History, Christian News-Letter, 333 (16 March 1949), 336 (27 April
1949), and 341 (6 July 1949).
16. HB, The Predicament of Central Europe, and The Predicament That Leads to
War, Time and Tide (14 Jan and 21 Jan 1950).
17. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19491950, and 19501951. Lists of Commit-
ments for 1950 and 1951, and Promises of Visits covering the same period.
18. HB, Christianity in European History (London: Oxford University Press, 1951), in
an edition of only 800 copies as stipulated by agreement between Durham and OUP. It
was republished by Collins in 1952.
19. HB, The Reconstruction of an Historical Episode: The History of the Enquiry into
the Origins of the Seven Years War, Glasgow University Publications, 91 (Glasgow:
Jackson, 1951).
20. Wights review of Christianity and History, in Observer (23 Oct 1949). HB, Cam-
bridge Pocket Diary, 19491950, on the pages for 912 Nov 1949. Otherwise, the pages
for the fall 1949, when he was in Princeton, are blank. See Trevelyan to HB, 23 Oct.
1951.
21. See for example, Toynbee to HB, 2 June 1950; Wight to HB, 2 Sept 1950; Geyl to
HB, 8 Feb 1951.
22. Kingsford to HB, 26 April 1949; HB to Kingsford, 3 May 1949.
23. HB, History and Human Relations (London: Collins, 1951; New York: Mac-
millan, 1952). Memorandum of Agreement between HB and Collins, 25 Jan 1951. After
History and Human Relations was published, in keeping with the advice of his agent,
Buttereld rejected Oxford University Presss request to print more copies of Christianity
in European History and turned again to Collins, who then brought the book out under
its imprint in 1952.
448 Notes to Pages 209216

24. The three published essays were: The Tragic Element in Modern International
Conict, The Dangers of History, and Ofcial History. The six beginning as lectures
were: three of his standard lectures, given under various titles and revisions: Marxist
History (since Jan 1948), Moral Judgments in History (since May 1945), The Dan-
gers of History (since March 1947); and three lectures from particular occasions: The
Tragic Element in Modern International Conict (for Notre Dame University, fall
1949), Ofcial History (for University College, Dublin, Dec 1948), and History as a
Branch of Literature (for the Literary and Philosophical Society, Newcastle, March
1950). A seventh, The Christian and Historical Study, was lially related to his essays
in the Christian News Letter and possibly a compound of two or three lectures, including
How Christianity Affects the Teaching of History (for the Popular Historical Associa-
tion, Nov 1950). Even the eighth, Christianity and Human Relationships, could have
derived from his many lectures and sermons to church audiences.
25. Toynbee to HB, 2 June 1950; Wight to HB, 2 Sept 1950; Geyl to HB, 8 Feb 1951;
Taylor, in New Statesman and Nation (24 Nov 1951), 594, 596; Barraclough, in History
Today, 1 (1951), 7071; Berlin to HB, 15 Sept 1953.
26. Taylor, in New Statesman and Nation (24 Nov 1951); Geoffrey Barraclough, An
Introduction to Contemporary History (London: Watts, 1964), 11. Bryant, in Sunday
Times (14 Oct 1951); The Historian as Moralist, in Times Literary Supplement (17 Au-
gust 1951). Trevelyan to HB, 29 July 1951.
27. The seven books were: in 1949, George III, Lord North, and the People, Origins of
Modern Science, and Christianity and History; in 1951, History and Human Relations,
Christianity in European History, and ed., The History of Science: Origins and Results of
the Scientic Revolution; and in 1950, the reissue of Whig Interpretation of History.
28. HB to Maurice Powicke (Oxford), 2 Nov 1954.
29. HB to John (Adam) Watson, 25 August 1953. HB, Christentum und Geschichte,
trans. Sylvia Erdmann (Stuttgart: Engelhornverlag, 1952).
30. HB, Christianity and Human Relationships, History and Human Relations, 41.
31. Christianity and Human Relationships, 4343, 5152, 62.
32. Christianity and Human Relationships, 4155, 6365.
33. Christianity and Historical Study, History and Human Relations, 152154.
34. HB, Christianity in European History, 5256.
35. See, for example, HB, Christianity, Diplomacy and War (London: Epworth, 1953;
Nashville: Abington-Cokesbury, 1953), 1718; and HB, International Conict in the
Twentieth Century: A Christian View (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960), 23, 118
120.
36. History and Human Relations, 74, 101103, 134136, 146.
37. History and Human Relations, 145146.
38. History and Human Relations, 101102, 135, 146, 147; see Christianity and
History, 1718.
39. Marxist History, History and Human Relations, 8889 and 82. See HB, His-
tory and the Marxian Method, Scrutiny, 1 (19321933), 339355. See Sidney Hook,
letter to Times Literary Supplement (29 April 1977).
40. Marxist History, 83, 86; and see Moral Judgments in History, History and
Human Relations, 101102; also Whig Interpretation, vvi.
 Notes to Pages 216229 449

41. See Christianity and History, 46.

42. Christianity and History, 4344.
43. Marxist History, 6667.
44. Marxist History, 73, 77.
45. Marxist History, 7980.
46. Marxist History, 6971, 75.
47. Whig Interpretation, 2022, 73; Christianity and History, 1921.
48. Marxist History, 6870, and Moral Judgments in History, 127.
49. Marxist History, 6970, 7980, and see Moral Judgments in History, 118
119 and 120.
50. The Study of History, and Christianity and History, 27.
51. Marxist History, 74.
52. Moral Judgments in History, 129. See Gordon Wright, History as a Moral
Science, American Historical Review, 81 (1979), 2, 11; Hans Meyerhoff, ed., The Phi-
losophy of History in Our Time (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959); Gordon Leff,
History and Social Theory (London: Merlin, 1969), 94102; Howard Zinn, The Politics
of History (Boston: Beacon, 1970), 284285; C. Behan McCullagh, Justifying Historical
Descriptions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 222225; and Adrian
Oldeld, Moral Judgments in History, History and Theory, 20 (1981), 260277.
53. HB to Beloff, 19 Oct 1951.
54. HB to John (Adam) Watson, 25 August 1953.
55. Moral Judgments in History, 103.
56. Moral Judgments in History, 111.
57. Moral Judgments in History, 103, 111.
58. Moral Judgments in History, 112113.
59. Moral Judgments in History, 103, 108, 106, and see 116, 118, 123.
60. Moral Judgments in History, 106107.
61. Moral Judgments in History, 120, 122, 123, 125.
62. Moral Judgments in History, 120127.
63. Moral Judgments in History, 126129, and see 104, 111.
64. Moral Judgments in History, 103, 111.
65. HB, The Christian and Academic History, Christian News Letter, 333, (16 March
1949).
66. The Christian and Historical Study, 131157.
67. The Christian and Historical Study, 136137, 139, 142143.
68. The Christian and Historical Study, 145146.
69. The Christian and Historical Study, 147148.
70. E. Harris Harbison, reviewing History and Human Relations, was among those
who noted at the time that Buttereld had identied his approach to history as Christian.
Harbison, review in William and Mary Quarterly, 9 (1952), 414416.
71. The Christian and Historical Study, 148152.
72. HB, Christianity in European History, 22, 2425, 3132, 5556. HB to Van
Doren, 20 Feb 1952. See review by Kenneth Scott Latourette, American Historical Re-
view, 59 (19531954), 410411.
73. HB, Liberty in the Modern World (Toronto: Ryerson, 1952), 29. William J.
450 Notes to Pages 229237

McGill, Herbert Buttereld and the Idea of Liberty, South Atlantic Quarterly, 70
(1971), 112. See George Watson, Lord Actons History of Liberty: A Study of His
Library, with an Edited Text of His History of Liberty Notes (Aldershot: Scolar Press,
1994).
74. HB to Beloff, 19 Oct 1951.
75. See the report of a meeting on the Theory of International Relations at Columbia
University which Buttereld attended, 12 June 1956, where he discussed his approach as
a historian, in folder: Rockefeller Foundation.
76. The Christian and Historical Study, 138139, 144145.
77. HB, The Scientic versus the Moralistic Approach in International Affairs, Inter-
national Affairs, 27 (1951), 411, 418.
78. Kenneth Slack, Bangor 1951Discoveries and Tensions, British Weekly (6 Sept
1951); HB, God in History, Church of England Youth Council News-Letter Reprint, No.
2, 1952, 49.
79. God in History, 45, 79.
80. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19511952, and 19521953. See HB to Dr. Mc-
Cracken (Regional Radium Institute, Bradford), 22 March 1950; HB to Aubrey Gwynn,
21 March 1950.

Chapter 9 On War and Historiography

1. HB to Paul Vellacott, 5 June 1951, and 25 Feb 1952; HB to Trevelyan, 15 March
1951.
2. See G. N. Clark to HB, 25 May 1952: after noting that the CHJ had only two
editors in its then thirty-year history, Temperley and Buttereld, Clark wrote, I must
take this opportunity of saying that the Journal could not have been edited better than it
has been by you, and that there is no living editor of a historical periodical who has
upheld higher standards of scholarship. See HB to G. R. Elton, 3 Nov 1955; HB to J. P. T.
Bury, 7 May 1956; HB to J. H. Plumb, 26 July 1956.
3. HB to M. Mackensie (Royal Archives), 17 Oct 1951; M. Mackensie to HB, 18 Oct
1951.
4. Trevelyan to HB, 9 March 1951; HB to Trevelyan, 15 March 1951.
5. Woodruff to HB, 8 Feb 1951; HB to Woodruff, 13 Feb 1951; Woodruff to HB,
4 June 1951; HB to Woodruff, 8 June 1951; Woodruff to HB, 11 June 1951, and 4 Jan
1952.
6. HB, The Acton Correspondence (typ, 14p n.d., cJan 1952), in folder: Acton,
Correspondence About. HB to Vellacott, 5 Feb 1952; Vellacott to HB, 20 Feb 1952; HB
to Vellacott, 25 Feb 1952; HB to Maurice Cowling, 18 July 1952.
7. HB to Vellacott, 25 Feb 1952.
8. Kendall (Collins) to HB, 23 Jan 1952. The Burke manuscripts are in the box:
Burke. See Acton, Inaugural Lecture, in Fears, ed., Selected Writings of Lord Acton, 2:
551. See HB, Man on His Past, 18, 6870.
9. R. J. L. Kingsford to HB, 21 May 1952.
10. Douglas Woodruff, ed., Acton, Essays on Church and State (London: Hollis and
Carter, 1952).
 Notes to Pages 237242 451

11. HB to Vellacott, 29 Feb 1952. HB to R. F. Treharne (Editor, History), 9 July 1952;

Treharne to HB, 14 July 1952. HB to Richard Pares (Editor, English Historical Review),
2 July 1952; Pares to HB, 7 July 1952; Duncan Forbes to HB, 11 July 1952. See HB to
T. S. Gregory (BBC), 9 May 1951.
12. HB to Woodruff, 12 Sept 1952; T. F. Burns (Hollis and Carter) to HB, 24 Sept 1952,
with Vellacotts remarks written on the letter; HB to Burns, 29 Sept 1952.
13. Woodruff to HB, 8 Oct 1952; HB to David Knowles, 20 Feb 1952.
14. HB to Woodruff, 13 Feb 1951; HB to T. S. Gregory, 9 May 1951; HB to Vellacott,
25 Feb 1952. See HB to H. R. Aldridge (British Museum), 31 May 1949. See Chadwick,
Acton and Buttereld, 394397. Butterelds and Eve Bogles notes are spread in
several les.
15. HB, Lord Acton, Cambridge Journal, 6 (19521953), 475485. He broadcast
the BBC lecture on 19 June 1952.
16. HB, Acton and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Cambridge Historical Journal,
11 (1953), 2747; see Lord Acton, 480.
17. Lord Acton, 475485. Acton, The Study of History, in Fears, ed., Selected
Writings of Lord Acton, 2: 513514.
18. HB to Kingsford, 20 Jan 1953; HB to Vellacott, 3 Feb 1953; HB to Burns, 3 Feb
1953; Kingsford to HB, 6 Feb 1953.
19. HB to O. Evennett, 1 Feb 1956. Conzemius to HB, 3 June and 4 Dec 1956; HB to
Conzemius, 30 Jan 1957. Victor Conzemius, ed., Ignaz von Dllinger, Briefwechsel,
18201890. 4 vols. (Munich: C. H. Beck, 19631981). Buttereld reviewed the rst
volume, the letters with Acton, 18501869: HB, Lord Actons Correspondence with
Dllinger, Historical Journal, 9 (1966), 140144.
20. Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman [various editors], 31 vols. (Oxford:
Clarendon Press; London and New York: Thomas Nelson, 19611977).
21. HB to R. W. David (CUP), 21 Oct 1965. Damian McElrath to HB, 26 June 1965,
and 6 Oct 1965; HB to David, 21 Oct 1965; David Knowles to David, 25 Oct 1965. J. L.
Altholz and Damian McElrath, eds., The Correspondence of Lord Acton and Richard
Simpson, 3 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 19711975). See Chadwick,
Acton and Buttereld, 394397.
22. See Gerald Humphrey (Headmaster, Leys School) to HB, 15 May 1950. My inter-
views with Eve Bogle and Buttereld.
23. HB to Director, Buckinghamshire County Record Ofce, 25 Sept 1953.
24. C. W. Previt-Orton, The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, 2 vols. (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1952). Previt-Ortons contract for this set appar-
ently, like Butterelds, dated from the 1930s.
25. Kingsford to HB, 3 April 1951.
26. HB to Vellacott, 25 Feb 1952.
27. HB to J. R. M. Butler, 18 Nov 1952; HB to R. C. Smail, 18 Nov 1952.
28. The extant typescripts in Butterelds papers belonging to the revision of the 1950s
are labelled Modern European History Lectures. For Butterelds commitment to the
necessity of including the material factors within the interaction, see HB, Marxist
History, History and Human Relations, especially 6686.
29. See HB to Isaiah Berlin, 16 May 1953; HB to Adolf Spemann, 3 Feb 1953.
452 Notes to Pages 242252

30. See Christianity and History, chap. 7.

31. Butterelds talk over the BBC entitled Scientic Diplomacy was not published,
but he expanded it into his lecture The Scientic versus the Moralistic Approach in
International Affairs: HB to Michael Oakshott, 16 July 1951. See HB, Cambridge
Pocket Diary for 19521953.
32. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, chaps. 13.
33. Christianity, and History, 137, 139; Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 56, 2526,
34ff., 97, 111, 121122.
34. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 56, 35, 102106; Christianity and History,
138139.
35. The Scientic versus the Moralistic Approach in International Affairs, Inter-
national Affairs, 27 (1951), 411422; The Tragic Element in Modern Conict, 1729;
Christianity and History, 142; Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 6268, 7477. HB to
John (Adam) Watson, 2 May 1949.
36. Tragic Element in Modern International Conict, 1823.
37. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 3740, 44, 52, 68, 8586, 111.
38. Tragic Element, 2527, 30; Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 106107, 115
116, 125126. See HB to Beloff, 19 Oct 1951.
39. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 56, 910, 2021, 2326, 8384, 9899.
40. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 5455, 8186, 107, 114.
41. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 82.
42. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 2324, 5455, 93, 106109.
43. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 2930, 57, 72, 101, 107108, 111, 122.
44. Acton to Mandell Creighton, Cannes, 5 April 1887, in Fears, ed., Selected Writings
of Lord Acton, 2: 383; The Scientic versus the Moralistic Approach, 411, 418.
45. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 910.
46. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 2930; the numbers in brackets are mine, not
Butterelds.
47. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 84, 98.
48. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 81, 84, 8688.
49. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 108ff.
50. Christianity, Diplomacy and War, 114118.
51. Stuart Hampshire, in New Statesman and Nation (22 Aug 1953); H. G. Wood, in
Birmingham Post (19 Jan 1954); Maurice B. Reckitt, in Time and Tide (29 Aug 1953);
Martin Wight, in Observer (15 Aug 1953); Coulson to HB, 29 Sept 1951, and HB to
Coulson, 4 Oct 1951, where he gives a long defense of his idea of scientic diplomacy
and technical diplomacy.
52. Editorial, Life (2 Nov 1953).
53. Charles Van Doren to HB, 20 Feb 1952; HB to Van Doren, 20 Feb 1952.
54. The Highest Thing, Times Literary Supplement (21 Aug 1953); Charles Webster,
Lay Sermons, Spectator (21 Aug 1953), 204; A. R. Burns, in History, 40 (1955), 151
152.
55. HB, Thought-essay, 1953; HB to Reckett, 28 August 1953.
56. HB to Berlin, 16 May 1953, Berlin to HB, 1 Sept 1953, HB to Berlin, 21 Sept 1953,
Berlin to HB, c25 Sept 1953.
 Notes to Pages 253260 453

57. HB to Acland, 27 Nov 1953. When Acland approached Buttereld, Lets Start
Waging Peace already included as signatories G. D. H. Cole, Frida Laski, Charles Raven,
Donald Soper, Mervyn Stockwood, and about twenty others inside and outside Parlia-
ment.
58. Thompson to HB, 12 April 1954; HB to Thompson, 26 April 1954; Thompson to
HB, 30 April 1954in le: Rockefeller Foundation.
59. Eric Ashby (vice-chancellor, Queens University, Belfast) to HB, 22 Oct 1952;
Ashby to HB, 9 May 1953; Ashby to HB, 12 May 1953; HB to Ashby, 15 May 1953; HB
to Janet D. Boyd (founder of the Wiles Trust), 15 May 1953; see Man on His Past, xi.
60. HB, The Wiles Lectures at Queens University, Belfast (typs, 7p, Jan 1954).
Vellacott to HB, 14 May 1953, and 29 Jan 1954. HB to Ashby, 15 May 1953.
61. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19541955. HB, Man and His Past (BBC, four
scripts, typs, 89p, Nov and Dec 1954).
62. See HB to Kingsford, 18 March 1955; M. H. Black to HB, 29 April 1955. The
contract for Man on His Past was part of the agreement between CUP and the Wiles Trust
to publish the lectures annually, beginning with Butterelds.
63. Man on His Past, xv; HB to Ashby, 6 Oct 1954.
64. Man on His Past, xiixv, 103.
65. HB, The Wiles Lectures at Queens University, Belfast; HB to Ashby, 6 Oct 1954;
Man on His Past, xiii, 2223.
66. See Appendices to Man on His Past, 205232, where he displays his fascination
with Actons attachment to the history of historiography.
67. Reconstruction of an Historical Episode, Man on His Past, 151, 154.
68. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19451946; Eve Bogle, Cambridge Pocket Diary,
19451946. See HB to Humphrey Sumner, 28 March 1947.
69. HB, review of Pieter Geyl, Napoleon: For and Against, in Time and Tide (22 Jan
1949), 80; Man on His Past, xv, 35.
70. Christianity and History, 1225.
71. Reconstruction of an Historical Episode, 142.
72. Reconstruction of an Historical Episode, noting especially 143, 145, 152, 161
162. See the review of the little book Reconstruction of an Historical Episode published
by the English Historical Review, 67 (1952), 447.
73. Reconstruction of an Historical Episode, 143, 151, and passim; see also Man on
His Past, xiii, 12, 103, 141.
74. Reconstruction of an Historical Episode, 160162, 169170; see also Man on
His Past, 15, 6061, 100.
75. Butterelds notes and lists on Actons research appear in numerous les in his
papers.
76. Acton and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Man on His Past, 171181, 186
195.
77. Acton and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 67, 181183, 186187, 199201.
Hill, Lord Acton, 184185.
78. Acton and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 193195, and the section called
Loose Ends, 195201.
79. Man on His Past, 23, 14.
454 Notes to Pages 260266

80. Man on His Past, 214, 3961. On page 5, Buttereld writes at the start of his
brief survey of the rise of the German school of the history of historiography, The rst of
this series Gttingen history professors, J. C. Gatterer, wrote in 1760. . . .
81. See the sections entitled Its Subject-Matter and Its Scope and Its Utility for the
Student of History, in Man on His Past, 1426.
82. Man on His Past, xiiiix, 1718, 42.
83. Man on His Past, 2225, 64.
84. The Rise of the German Historical School, Man on His Past, 3261, esp. 61;
see also Preface, xiv and xv.
85. Man on His Past, xvi.
86. Man on His Past, 15.
87. Man on His Past, 1, and see note 1.
88. Acton and the Historical Movement, Man on His Past, 94.
89. Man on His Past, 139140. See Sewell, The Concept of Technical History in the
Thought of Herbert Buttereld; also Sewell, Providence and Method, chap. 9.
90. Man on His Past, 139, and compare 94, 95.
91. Pieter Geyl, in Cambridge Historical Journal, 12 (1956), 8992; and Geyl, En-
counters in History (London: Collins, 1963), 252257.
92. Man on His Past, 140141; see HB, God in History, Church of England Youth
Council News-Letter Reprint, No. 2, 1952. See Michael Hobart, History and Religion
in the Thought of Herbert Buttereld, Journal of the History of Ideas, 32 (1971), 543
554; and Geyl, Herbert Buttereld, or Thinking at Two Levels, in Encounters in His-
tory, 252257.
93. Man on His Past, 141.
94. Preface, Man on His Past, xixii.
95. Ranke and the Conception of General History, Man on His Past, 104109.
96. Ranke and the Conception of General History, 114116; and see the section
The Problem of Universal History, Man on His Past, 4450.
97. Preface, Man on His Past, xiixiii, 2121.
98. Times Literary Supplement (2 Dec 1955); Boyd C. Shafer, in American Historical
Review, 61 (1956), 93031; Eric John, in History, 41 (1956), 192193; Duncan Forbes,
in Cambridge Review (19 Nov 1955), 208209; Arnold Toynbee, in Observer (3 Nov
1955); Economist (12 Nov 1955); Outram Evenette, in Tablet (31 Dec 1955); Times
Educational Supplement (9 Dec 1955); G. M. Young, in Sunday Times (23 Oct 1955);
Ernest Nagel, in New York Nation (3 March 1956). See Eric J. Sharpe, Comparative
Religion: A History (London: Duckworth, 1975), 290292.
99. Buttereld himself very kindly spoke with me about his son. Others who were
willing to discuss the life of Giles Buttereld with me were Eve Bogle, Denis Mack Smith,
Brian Wormald, and R. W. K. Hinton. Buttereld included news about his children in
letters to various people from time to time.
100. Gerald Humphrey to HB, 15 May 1950.
101. HB to J. Opochensky, 2 Oct 1952; HB to Wolfgang von Tirpitz, 9 March 1954;
HB to John Watson, 25 March 1954.
102. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19531954.
 Notes to Pages 267275 455

103. HB to Kenneth Thompson, 26 April 1954; HB to Desmond Williams, 14 July

1954. Buttereld, Eve Bogle, Denis Mack Smith, and Brian Wormald talked about these
things in their interviews with me.
104. George Potter to HB, 15 June 1954; HB to Potter, 16 June 1954. See HB to Milton
Waldman (Collins), 5 Nov 1957. See Adrian Morey, David Knowles: A Memoir (Lon-
don: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1979).
105. HB, Paul Vellacott, Times, 16 Nov 1954; HB, Paul Vellacott: Master of Peter-
house, The Sex, 114 (June 1956), 14.
106. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, 19541955.
107. Knowles to HB, 7 Dec 1954.
108. HB to Governors, Birkbeck College, London, 4 Dec 1950. Lovatt, in David
Remembered, 116117.

Chapter 10 Master and Aggression

1. Buttereld himself compiled what is probably the most accurate list of the succes-
sion of Masters, in HB, The Colleges and Halls of the University: Peterhouse, in Roach,
ed., A History of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely, 3:339340. Maurice
Cowling, Raymond Williams in Retrospect, New Criterion (8 Feb 1990). See Keighley
News (22 Jan 1955).
2. Interviews with various Peterhouse Fellows. Eve Bogle to CTM, 10 June 1986;
Bogle to CTM, 13 Feb 1987. See Mehta, Fly and the Fly-Bottle, 245. HB to Mehta, 17 Jan
1963. Maya Jaggi, Ved Mehta, Guardian (25 Aug 2001).
3. The others listed in the Faculty of History were (1955): Norman Sykes (Dixie
Ecclesiastical), A. H. M. Jones (Ancient), E. E. Rich (Vere Harmsworth Imperial and
Naval), C. R. Cheney (Medieval), P. N. S. Mansergh (Smuts British Commonwealth), and
the annually changing chair (American).
4. Quoted in The Sex, 113 (1954), 13.
5. Tim Voelcker, Peterhouse and the Fellows, The Sex, 113 (1954), 2425.
6. Matriculation gures are in The Historical Register of the University of Cam-
bridge, Supplement 19511955. Figures for distribution by elds are based on an enrol-
ment of 154, as in Peterhouse 19511953 (published by the college for the Peterhouse
Society).
7. Peterhouse Survey, The Sex, 111 (June 1952), 2326. See The Sex, 114 (June
1956).
8. See HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary, from 1954 onwards. See Charles Walker, The
Chapel, The Sex, 114 (June 1956), 1617; Maurice Cowling, Buttereld, Sir Herbert
(19001979), Dictionary of National Biography, 19711980, 117.
9. HB, Peterhouse in Temperleys Time (ms, 60p, c1956).
10. HB, Peterhouse, in Roach, ed., A History of the County of Cambridge and the
Isle of Ely, 3:334340. Butterelds abundant notes for this history remain in the Peter-
house Archives.
11. Peterhouse 19391943, Peterhouse 19491951, Peterhouse 19491951, Peter-
house 19511953, Peterhouse 19551968: all published by the college for the
456 Notes to Pages 275279

Peterhouse Society. See also HB, Cambridge during the War: Peterhouse, Cambridge
Review (1 Dec 1945), 140. Some of his speeches to the Peterhouse Society remain in his
papers.
12. HB, History in the Twentieth Century, in Jubilee Addresses 1956 (London:
Historical Association, 1956), 26. HB, In Defence of History: Association of Teachers
and Laymen, Times Educational Supplement (6 Jan 1956), 10.
13. Lists of Engagements for 1955 through 1958. HB, Cambridge Pocket Diary for
those years.
14. HB, Renaissance Art and Modern Science, University Review, 1:2 (1954), 25
34. Several versions of Butterelds lecture on Leonardo are in his papers, and none was
published.
15. HB, The Historian and His Evidence (typ, 22p, c1955).
16. HB, The Role of the Individual in History, History, 40 (1955), 117; see HB,
Man on His Past, xvi.
17. The Historical Association, 19061956 (London: Historical Association, 1955).
HB to Medlicott, 2 May 1955; HB to Geoffrey Barraclough, 2 May 1955; Stretton to HB,
18 June 1955. See also HB, The History of the Historical Association, History Today, 6
(1956), 6367.
18. HB (de facto editor), Historical Writing, a special issue of the Times Literary
Supplement (6 Jan 1956), with introduction by Buttereld, ixxvii. See HB to E. H. Carr,
12 Feb 1960, where he claims that he got the TLS to do the special number. HB, Clio in
Council, Times Literary Supplement (6 Jan 1956), 7. HB, History in the Twentieth
Century, 1628.
19. Clio in Council, 7; History in the Twentieth Century, 23.
20. See for example, HB, review of Gordon Rupp, The Righteousness of God: Luther
Studies, in Cambridge Review (13 Feb 1954), 300.
21. HB to Edward F. DArms (Rockefeller Foundation), 10 May 1956; HB to Worm-
ald, 15 Nov 1956. Wormald prepared a description in November 1956 for a course
entitled European Historiography since the Renaissance, and the course was rst of-
fered in 19601961.
22. See Man on His Past, xvi. Research students producing theses on the history of
historiography included: John Nurser on the idea of conscience in Lord Acton; Hedra
Ben-Israel on English historiography of the French Revolution; and David W. L. Earl on
Rapin de Thoyras and the English historiography of his time.
23. Felix Raab, The English Face of Machiavelli: A Changing Interpretation, 1500
1700 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964); Donald R. Kelley, Foundations of Mod-
ern Historical Scholarship: Language, Law, and History in the French Renaissance (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1970), v; Joseph M. Levine, Humanism and History:
Origins of Modern English Historiography (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), 214.
24. See Namier, The Structure of Politics. HB, plan for The Wiles Lectures at Queens
University, Belfast (Jan 1954). See G. R. Elton, The Practice of History (Sydney: Sydney
University Press, and London: Methuen, 1967), 132. The rst volumes of Namiers project
appeared after his death in 1960: Lewis Namier and John Brooke, eds., The History of
Parliament: The House of Commons, 17541790, 3 vols. (London: Published for History
of Parliament Trust by H. M. Stationery Ofce, 1964); other volumes followed until 1983.
 Notes to Pages 280285 457

25. HB to Desmond Williams, 23 March 1955. Plumb, The Road to Professional

History, Collected Essays, 1: 9.
26. HB to Ross J. S. Hoffman (Fordham University), 29 May 1957.
27. HB to Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge University, and Master of Christs College,
11 April 1957. See HB, Historiography in England (ms, 22p, late 1961 or early
1962), 14.
28. I have read many such letters in Butterelds papers with his approval before they
were deposited in Cambridge University Library, where most such correspondence is held
under general restrictions of condentiality until 2030! HB, Historiography in En-
gland, 1, 3, 8. See C. H. Sisson, The English Ideology, Times Literary Supplement
(6 Feb 1981), 129.
29. HB, George III and the Historians (typ, 64p, March 1956). HB, Historiography
of George III (typ, 16p, Anglo-American Historians Conference, July). The notes are in
the le: History of the Historiography of George III. Some of the draft writings are in the
le: Anglo-American Conference, July 1956.
30. HB, George III and Historical Method, review of John Brooke, The Chatham
Administration, 176668, in Cambridge Review (1 Dec 1956), 232233. See HB to
Milton Waldman (Collins), 5 Nov 1957.
31. HB, The Originality of the Namier School, review of J. B. Owen, The Rise of the
Pelhams, in Cambridge Review (25 May 1957), 614616.
32. Kendall (Collins) to HB, 23 Jan 1952; HB to Waldman, 5 Nov 1957.
33. HB, George III and the Namier School, Encounter (April 1957), 7076. HB to
Hoffman, 22 May 1957.
34. HB to Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge University, and Master of Christs College,
11 April 1957.
35. HB, George III and the Historians (London: Collins, 1957). See HB to Waldman,
1 April 1957; Mark Bonham Carter (Collins) to HB, 9 April 1957; Carter to HB, 17 Sept
1957.
36. HB to Adrian House (Collins), 2 Nov 1957; HB to Waldman, 5 Nov 1957.
37. HB to Carter, 11 Sept 1957; HB to Waldman, 5 Nov 1957.
38. HB to Desmond Williams, 28 Jan 1958.
39. Lewis Namier, Foreword to John Brooke, The Chatham Administration, 176668
(London: Macmillan, 1956); George III and the Historians, 285.
40. HB to Waldman, 5 Nov 1957.
41. George III and the Historians, Book 3, chaps. 37. See HB, Bolingbroke and the
Patriot King, Cambridge Review (10 March 1933), 308310.
42. Namier, The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III (2d ed.: London:
Macmillan, 1957). See Cannon, Teaching History at University, 8.
43. Notable are: Times Literary Supplement (22 Nov 1957); Times Educational Sup-
plement (27 Dec 1957); Times (London), (28 Nov 1957); C. L. Mowat, in William and
Mary Quarterly, 16 (1959), 12128.
44. Cobban to HB, 23 Oct 1957, and HB to Cobban, 25 Oct 1957; HB to the Editor,
Times Literary Supplement (29 Nov 1957), 721. HB, George III and the Constitution,
History, 43 (1958), 1433. Ian R. Christie, George III and the HistoriansThirty Years
On, History, 71 (1986), 215.
458 Notes to Pages 285294

45. Reviewers favourable to Butterelds criticism of Namier included: Michael Oake-

shott, in Spectator (22 Nov 1957); David Thomson, in Time and Tide (23 Nov 1957);
A. J. P. Taylor, in Observer (7 Nov 1957); Arthur Schlesinger, in Encounter (March
1958), 7377; W. T. Laprade, in American Historical Review, 63 (1958), 96768; Derek
Beales, Sir Lewis Namier and the Party System, Cambridge Review (31 May 1958),
599, 601, and 603.
46. R. R. Sedgwick, in Listener (5 Dec 1957), and in Daily Telegraph (23 Nov 1957).
47. John B. Owen, Professor Buttereld and the Namier School, Cambridge Review
(10 May 1958), 528531.
48. Lewis B. Namier to the Editor, Times Literary Supplement (6 Dec 1957); HB to the
Editor, Times Literary Supplement (13 Dec 1957).
49. Namier to HB, 16 Dec 1957; HB to Namier, 18 Dec 1957, 13 Jan 1958, and 10 Dec
1958; Namier to HB, 11 Dec 1958. HB to Desmond Williams, 28 Jan 1958.
50. HB to Desmond Williams, 28 Jan 1958, and 19 May 1958. HB to the Editor,
Cambridge Review (17 May 1958).
51. Elton, The Practice of History, 132133. On Namiers religion, see Plumb, The
Road to Professional History, 1012.
52. Christie, George III and the Historians, 210211, 214, 215221. Plumb, The
Atomic Historian, New Statesman (1 August 1969), in Collected Essays, 1: 1216.
53. Linda Colley, Lewis Namier (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1989), 108. See,
for example, H. T. Dickinson, Liberty and Prosperity: Political Ideology in Eighteenth
Century Britain (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1977), 3. G. R. Elton, Political
History: Principles and Practice (London: Allen Lane, 1970), 106107.
54. HB, Sir Lewis Namier as Historian, Listener (18 May 1961), 873876; HB,
The History of Parliament, Listener (8 Oct 1964), 535537. Brooke to the Editor,
Listener (15 Oct 1964), 591. See also HB, review of Namier and Brooke, eds., The
History of Parliament: The House of Commons, in English Historical Review, 80 (1965),
801805. See Mehta, Fly and the Fly-Bottle, 238269, especially 243. HB to Mehta,
17 Jan 1963.
55. Boyd C. Schafer (Executive Secretary of the American Historical Association) to
HB, 13 Sept 1962; HB to Schafer, 8 Oct 1962.
56. J. C. D. Clark, The Dynamics of Change: The Crisis of the 1750s and English Party
Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 448; Clark, English Society,
16881832, 8. Patterson, Nobodys Perfect, 13, 1117.
57. HB, draft of England and the French Revolution, 1792 (typs, 250p, c1957). See
Felix Markham to HB, 30 April 1963; and HB to Markham, 14 May 1963.

Chapter 11 World Ideas, World Politics

1. HB, Jerusalem Lectures I and II (typ, c35p, Jerusalem, 1957); HB, Paper given to
School of Oriental and African Studies (typ, 20p, London, Jan 1958).
2. HB, History as the Emancipation from the Past (London: London School of Eco-
nomics and Political Science, 1956), a booklet of 18 pages.
3. HB, Christianity in the Twentieth Century (typ, four lectures, c100p, Bristol,
JanFeb 1956).
 Notes to Pages 295301 459

4. HB to Editor, Times (10 Nov 1956), published 12 Nov 1956.

5. HB, review of Reinhold Niebuhr, Faith and History: A Comparison of Christian
and Modern Views of History, in Observer (29 Jan 1950).
6. Editor of Longmans Publishers to HB, 29 March 1957.
7. Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vols. 710 (London: Oxford University Press,
1954). See C. T. McIntire and Marvin Perry, Arnold J. Toynbee: Reappraisals (Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1989). See also HB, The History of the Writing of History,
Rapports du Congrs International des Sciences Historiques, Stockholm, 2128 aut
1960 (Goteborg: Almquist and Wiksell, 1960), 1: 29.
8. Toynbee, An Historians Approach to Religion (London: Oxford University Press,
1956).
9. Toynbee to HB, 2 June 1950; G. Cumberlege to HB, 6 Sept 1954. Toynbee, A Study
of History, 8: 118119, 170, 498500, and 9: 4647, 6669, 191196, 206208.
Toynbee, review of HB, Man on His Past, in Observer (3 Nov 1955). Toynbee, Reconsid-
erations, vol. 12 of A Study of History (London: Oxford University Press, 1961); HB,
review of Reconsiderations, in Sunday Telegraph (7 May 1961).
10. See M. S. Khan to HB, 21 Oct 1957 and 25 Dec 1957.
11. See folder: Bibliography, which contains titles on the history of historiography.
12. See HB circular letter, 5 Dec 1958, sent to various people, including C. H. Phillips
(Director, SOAS) and Peter Hardy (research student in Islamic Studies at SOAS).
13. HB, Historiography, (typ, 150p), translated into Hebrew by his former doctoral
student Hedra Ben-Israel, and published in Encyclopedia Hebraica (1960), 14: col. 259
318.
14. Barraclough to HB, 5 Feb 1960; HB to Barraclough, 12 Feb 1960, and 18 March
1960.
15. E.g.: HB, The Christian and History, Spectator (29 April 1955), 540543; HB,
Christianity and Humanism (typ, 12p, Oct 1955, Christs College, Cambridge).
16. HB, review of Rudolf Bultmann, History and Eschatology, in Times Literary Sup-
plement (30 Aug 1957), 522. Butterelds thought-essays about Bultmann are in the
le: Bultmann.
17. The series in Bristol contained four lectures under the title Christianity in the
Twentieth Century (typs, c100p, Bristol, JanFeb 1956). Three were published in CTM,
ed., HB, Writings on Christianity and History (1979). They are: The Challenge to
Belief, The Obstruction to Belief, and The Prospect for Christianity. The remaining
lecture, Religion and the Problems of the World, was actually the third in the series, and
is unpublished.
18. The Robert Waley Cohen Lecture for 1956, sponsored by the British Council of
Christians and Jews, and published as HB, Historical Development of the Principle of
Toleration in British Life (London: Epworth Press, 1957), a booklet of 17 pages.
19. HB, The Prospect for Christianity, in Writings on Christianity and History, 253
254, 259260.
20. HB, Morality and Historical Process in International Affairs (typ, 49p, New
York, June 1956). A report of the discussion was kept: Theory of International Rela-
tions Meeting, 2:00p.m., June 12, 1956, Mens Faculty Club, Columbia University (typ,
9p). Those present, in addition to Buttereld, were: William T. R. Fox, Louis Halle,
460 Notes to Pages 301311

Reinhold Niebuhr, Paul Nitze, Kenneth Thompson, Arnold Wolfers, and Kenneth Waltz
(rapporteur); Hans Morgenthau could not come that day, but sent comments on the
paper, which had been distributed to the participants in advance. George Kennan joined
the group some time later. See HB to Martin Wight, 6 May 1958.
21. HB, I ought not to talk about politics. . . . (ms, 18p, 27 April 1956, Peterhouse
Chapel Fellowship).
22. Morality and Historical Process, 13, 15.
23. Morality and Historical Process, 8.
24. Morality and Historical Process, 1821.
25. Morality and Historical Process, 2829.
26. Morality and Historical Process, 3235, 4649.
27. Theory of International Relations Meeting, June 12, 1956; HB to Martin Wight,
6 May 1958.
28. Niebuhr and Bennett to HB, 20 Dec 1956; HB to Niebuhr, 1 Jan 1957; HB to
Wayne Cowen, 17 Nov 1960; plus other letters in folder: Christianity and Crisis.
29. Watson to HB, 1 Nov 1955; HB to Watson, 10 Nov 1955.
30. Wayne Cowen to HB, 10 June 1965; HB to Cowen, 10 June 1965. HB, Interna-
tionalism and the Defense of the Existing Status Quo. Chrisitianity and Crisis (10 June
1957), 7577; and HB, Western Policy and Colonialism, Christianity and Crisis (4 Aug
1958), 111114. The 1957 article was included in Wayne Cowen, ed., Witness to a
Generation: Signicant Writings from Christianity and Crisis, 19411966 (Indianapolis:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1966), 7983, with preface by HB, viiix.
31. Theory of International Relations Meeting, 12 June 1956.
32. Buttereld recounted the beginnings of the committee in Raison dEtat, 56. HB to
Thompson, 17 Oct 1956; Thompson to HB, 14 Dec 1956; HB to Thompson, 1 Jan 1957.
33. HB to Wight, 6 May 1958; HB to Thompson, 6 May 1958; Wight to HB, 9 May
1958; HB to Thompson, 27 Dec 1958. See the memoir by Adam Watson, The British
Committee for the Theory of International Politics: Some Historical Notes (Nov 1998),
posted on this website: [www.ukc.ac.uk/politics/englishschool/watson98.doc].
34. HB to Williams, 1 July 1960; HB to Watson, 10 March 1959; Wight to HB, 3 Aug
1960; and various letters in folder: Rockefeller Committee, Personal Material. See Has-
lam, Vices of Integrity, 251252.
35. HB, Misgivings about the Western Attitude to World Affairs (ms, 68p, Jan 1959,
Peterhouse). The papers read are in two boxes: Rockefeller Committee Papers.
36. HB, The Balance of Power, April 1959, published with revisions, in HB and
Martin Wight, eds., Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International
Politics (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966), 132148.
37. HB, International Conict in the Twentieth Century: A Christian View (New York:
Harper, 1960). See HB to Anshen, 7 Dec 1959. See also HB to Kenneth Thompson,
18 Feb 1960, where he acknowledges putting material from the New York paper in the
book. See Alberto R. Coll, The Wisdom of Statecraft: Sir Herbert Buttereld and the
Philosophy of International Politics (Durham: Duke University Press, 1985).
38. International Conict, 1519, 34, 83.
39. International Conict, 4157, esp. 4849, 5657.
40. Haslam, Vices of Integrity, 190191.
 Notes to Pages 311319 461

41. International Conict, 3638, 5455, 7172, 91, 9798, 104106.

42. International Conict, 6365, 7178.
43. Human Nature and the Dominion of Fear, International Conict, 8198. HB to
Kenneth Thompson, 9 Nov 1959.
44. International Conict, 9596.
45. HB, Diary, August 1945.
46. International Conict, 9598.
47. HB, Draft statement against nuclear weapons (typ, 5p, 1958). HB, paper to the
Cambridge Christian Action Group, 1959.
48. Christianity and Global Revolution, International Conict, 101120; Writings
on Christianity and History, 254.
49. HB to Knowles, 3 March 1956.
50. Annan, The Dons, 266267. Plumb, Collected Essays, 1: 7, 164165, 374. HB to
Knowles, 8 Oct 1955. Kitson Clark, History at Cambridge, 18731973,550553.
51. Kitson Clark to HB, 15 Jan 1955; HB to G. K. Clark, 20 Jan 1955. HB to Knowles,
18 Oct 1954. HB to Kitson Clark, 12 Dec 1957; Kitson Clark to HB, 16 Dec 1957;
Knowles to HB, 18 Dec 1957. See Kitson Clark to HB, 7 Oct 1951, a friendly letter in
which Kitson Clark took the same view against team research in Namiers History of
Parliament project that Buttereld latter expressed in public.
52. For two years, 19711973, I participated with pleasure in Kitson Clarks collo-
quium, which met in his rooms over the Great Gate of Trinity College. The courses,
which ran between 1962 and 1966, were: Materials of Modern History, with Butter-
eld, Kitson Clark, C. H. Wilson, F. H. Hinsley, and Peter Laslett; and Classes on Select
Topics in the Materials of Modern History, with Buttereld, Elton, C. B. A. Behrens,
Peter Mathias, J. H. Elliott, C. W. Crawley, and J. P. T. Bury.
53. Those attending the meeting with Buttereld were: C. W. Crawley, O. Evennett,
J. P. T. Bury, F. H. Hinsley, C. B. A. Behrens, Jean Lindsay, Denis Mack Smith, and Charles
Wilson. HB to Knowles and Plumb, 21 Feb 1957; Knowles to HB, 22 Feb 1957; Plumb to
HB, 25 Feb 1957. HB circular letter to Lecturers in European History, 27 Feb 1957;
Behrens to HB, 8 March 1957; HB to Behrens, 12 March 1957; Behrens to HB, 14 March
1957; HB to Behrens, 15 March 1957. HB to Crawley, 30 Jan 1957.
54. Spear to HB, 20 July 1959. HB, Speech at the opening of an art exhibition at
Keighley, summer 1961, in: Miscellaneous Comments. See Simba Vellacott to HB, 3 Dec
1959.

Chapter 12 The Top and After the Top

1. The archives of the University of Cambridge for Butterelds time as vice-
chancellor have not been open to me for research. Since my interest is, in any case,
Buttereld as historian, I have been content to use the following principal sources: letters,
speeches, documents, and other materials in Butterelds papers; Butterelds Cambridge
Pocket Diary; interviews with Buttereld, Eve Bogle, Fellows of Peterhouse, and a few
other people active at the time, including Owen Chadwick (Dixie Professor of Ecclesiasti-
cal History from 1958), C. R. Cheney (Professor of Medieval History from 1955), and
Joseph Needham (History of Science); the publications of the university, notably the
462 Notes to Pages 320328

Cambridge University Reporter; and comment on Buttereld in the public press and in
the Cambridge Review.
2. HB to Eric Ashby, 30 Oct 1967.
3. HB to Wayne Cowen, 17 Nov 1960; HB to Harcourt Brown, 12 Aug 1960
4. HB to CTM, 24 May 1979.
5. See Butterelds rst ofcial address as vice-chancellor, 1 Oct 1960, in Cambridge
University Reporter, 91 (19601961), 256261.
6. Many of Butterelds speeches and talks remain scattered throughout his papers,
but especially in a collection named: Miscellaneous Comments. See Butterelds second
ofcial address as vice-chancellor, 2 Oct 1961, in Cambridge University Reporter, 92
(19611962), 253258.
7. Owen Chadwick, Sir Herbert Buttereld, Cambridge Review (16 Nov 1979), 8.
8. HB, The American StudentA Visiting Professors View: Is He Lacking in Intel-
lectual Drive?, Saturday Review (13 Sept 1958), 25. His visit to Wabash College came
in March and early April 1958.
9. HB, The Universities and Education Today (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1962), 8, 2023. He gave the lectures over a period of three weeks in November 1961.
10. HB to Frank Cumbers (Epworth Press), 9 March 1960.
11. HB, Why I Am a Non-Conformist (typ, 23p, June 1959). See W. F. Flemington to
Bernard Watson, 10 Nov 1959. Watson wrote three articles on Buttereld in Vanguard
(Nov 1959, Dec 1959, Jan 1960), the periodical of the Salvation Army in England.
12. HB, Reections on Religion and Individualism, Journal of the History of Ideas,
22 (1961), 3346. HB, No title: on Methodism, (ms, 6p, cSept 1961).
13. See many of his memoir notes from the 1970s. He stressed the differences em-
phatically in his interviews with me.
14. HB to P. E. Schramm, 24 Oct 1961; HB to Joseph Altholtz, 14 July 1961; HB to
Eric Ashby (vice-chancellor, Cambridge University), 30 Oct 1967. HB, Speech at the
opening of an art exhibition in Keighley, summer 1961.
15. See Butterelds reports to the Peterhouse Society for 1960 and 1961. See also Peter-
house 1968 (Published by the College for the Peterhouse Society, 1968), probably written
by Buttereld, which covered the activities of the college during Butterelds time as Master.
It was the rst such report since the series stopped with Butterelds election as Master.
16. HB, Historiography in England (ms, 22p, late 1961 or early 1962).
17. H. N. V. Temperley to HB, 5 Nov 1961; HB to Temperley, 4 Dec 1961; HB to
Dorothy Temperley, 13 Aug 1958.
18. HB, Temperley (ms, 173p, c1962/1963); HB, Personal: Early Youth, Father,
Temperley, Vellacott (ms, 67p, c1962/1963). HB, Temperley and Canning, in Tem-
perley, The Foreign Policy of Canning, 2d ed.; HB, Introduction to the Second Edition,
in Temperley, Frederic the Great and Kaiser Joseph, 2d ed. See Fair, Harold Temperley,
1213.
19. HB to Kenneth Thompson, draft ms, no date (late 1961 or early 1962), apparently
not sent.
20. E.g., HB to Dean, New York University, 2 June 1967.
21. In the twentieth century, of the Regius Professors, only J. R. M. Butler seemed to
make no impact on him, but to look up to him instead, embarrassingly so.
 Notes to Pages 329333 463

22. The other historians with professorships during Butterelds time as Regius Pro-
fessor were: Economic History: D. M. Joslin (succeeding Postan in 1965); Ancient: still
Jones; British Commonwealth: still Mansergh; Imperial and Naval: still Rich; Political
Science: Brogan; Political Economy: J. E. Meade. Special chairs were created: Modern
English History (1966) for Plumb; Medieval Ecclesiastical History (1966) for Walter
Ullman; English Constitutional History (1967) for Elton. J. R. Pole became a Reader in
1963; M. I. Finley in 1964; and F. H. Hinsley in 1965.
23. The rst two chapters of Whig Interpretation of History appeared, without permis-
sion, as: HB, Linterpretation progressiste de lHistoire, La Table Ronde (Feb 1967),
2441. The various editions and reissues of Butterelds books are listed in the bibliogra-
phy following the original entry for each work.
24. See the le: America Invitations From (Accepted and Declined).
25. HB to Thompson, 27 April 1961.
26. Dean Rusk (Rockefeller Foundation) to HB, 18 Aug 1959; HB to John Marshall
(Villa Serbelloni), 9 April 1960. HB to Thompson, 3 May 1962.
27. HB, Charles James Fox: The Peace Negotiations of 1806 (London: University of
London, The Athlone Press, 1962).
28. See Butterelds handwritten statement at the top of the typescript of the lecture, in
folder: 1806. See also folder: Additional 1806.
29. HB, Reminiscences of an Enquiry into the Crisis of 1792 (typ, 19p, Peterhouse
and Trinity College, 1963).
30. HB to Markham, 14 May 1963.
31. HB to F. H. Hinsley, 3 June 1962. See HB, British Policy, 17621765, Historical
Journal, 6 (1963), 131140, a review of F. Spencer, ed., The Fourth Earl of Sandwich:
Diplomatic Correspondence, 17631765.
32. The bulk of the lectures are in a bundle labelled: George III, 17601765. Three are
in typescript from 1967, and the others are in manuscript from at least 1965 to 1968.
Other lectures are in separate folders, including: George III; Education of George III;
Party in the 18th Century.
33. HB, No title (the rst lecture of the course on George III and the Politicians, 1760
1765), 2. See also Butterelds diary notes about the discussions at the Conference of
British Studies in New York in April 1963.
34. Brooke to HB, 26 Nov 1965.
35. Butterelds public lectures included: Some Controversial Issues of George IIIs
Reign (typ, 16p, Cambridge, 1963); Earl of Bute and Frederick the Great (Cambridge
Historical Association, 1963); The Early Years of George III (various typ, c30p, Can-
terbury, Durham, York, 1968 and 1969). His published work included: HB, Some
Reections on the Early Years of George IIIs Reign, Journal of British Studies, 4 (1965),
78101; HB, England in the Eighteenth Century, in Rupert Davies and Gordon Rupp,
eds., A History of the Methodist Church in Great Britain, vol. 1 (London: Epworth Press,
1965), 333.
36. Gerard Emanuel Stearn (Prentice-Hall) to HB, 25 Nov 1966; HB to Stearn, 12 Jan
1967; HB to A. D. Peters, 12 April 1967; Peters to Peter C. Grenquist (Prentice-Hall),
2 May 1967; HB to Stearn, 14 June 1967; and see other letters in folder: George III: Great
Lives Observed.
464 Notes to Pages 333339

37. Barraclough to HB, 21 Aug 1963.

38. Blake to HB, 14 Dec 1968; HB to Blake, 2 Jan 1969.
39. Hamlyn to HB, 8 Aug 1967; HB to Hamlyn, 11 Aug 1967.
40. See Norman J. G. Pounds, An Historical Geography of Europe, 3 vols. (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 19731985).
41. HB to David, 10 Feb 1964; David to HB, 14 Feb 1964. See David to HB, 21 April
1966. See drafts of passages for the Concise History with 1964 written on them, in the
bundle: The Enlightenment.
42. HB, Acton: His Training, Methods, and Intellectual System, in A. O. Sarkissian,
ed., Studies in Honour of G. P. Gooch (London: Longmans 1961), 169198; HB, Lord
Acton (20p in Italian; Milan: Vit e Pensiero, 1962).

Chapter 13 Going Global

1. HB, The History of the Writing of History, Rapports du XI Congrs Interna-
tional des Sciences Historiques, 1: 2539.
2. The History of the Writing of History, 2628, 3538.
3. HB to Momigliano, Phillips, Schieder, 9 Aug 1960; HB to John Marshall (Villa
Serbelloni), 31 Aug 1960; Marshall to HB, 6 Sept 1960.
4. HB to Marshall, 26 Sept 1960. HB, draft about a Conference of those working on
the History of Historiography (after 26 Sept 1960).
5. Nadel to HB, n.d. (cAug/Sept 1960)the letter probably was written after Butter-
elds address at the Stockholm conference.
6. Minutes of the Organizational Meeting of the International Society for the History
of Ideas, 30 Jan1 Feb 1959, New York. See various letters in folder: History of Ideas
(Society for the).
7. HB, History and Mans Attitude to the Past: Their Role in the Story of Civilization
(London: University of London School of Oriental and African Studies, 1961). HB,
History and Mans Attitude to the Past, Listener (21 Sept 1961), 421423.
8. Joseph Needham, ed., Science and Civilisation in China (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1954). My interviews with Buttereld; my interview with Needham.
9. HB, History and Mans Attitude to the Past; HB, History and Mans Attitude to
the Past, 421423.
10. HB, review of Toynbee, Reconsiderations, vol. 12 of A Study of History, in Sunday
Telegraph (7 May 1961).
11. HB, Universities and Education Today, 6566, 10405. E. G. Pulleyblank to the
Editor, and Jane Hutchings to the Editor, Listener (28 Sept 1961), 473; HB to the Editor,
Listener (5 Oct 1961), 503.
12. HB, The History of the East, History, 47 (1962), 157165, review of Historical
Writing on the Peoples of Asia, vols. 13. He reviewed vol. 4 in History, 50 (1965), 396
397.
13. See folders: Development of Historical Criticism; and Dublin LectureHistorical
Criticism. The papers include the following: HB, The Rise of Historical Criticism (typ,
16p, 1962); HB, The Use of Historical Materials (typ, 7p, 1962); HB, no title (Second
lecture on the Use of Materials, typ, 17p, 1962); HB, no title (on Development of Histor-
ical Criticism, typ, 41p, c1962/1963); Criticism in the Pre-Critical Age (typ, 20p,
 Notes to Pages 339348 465

Wesleyan University, 1965). His notes are collected in various folders (e.g., Thucydides,
Latin Historiography) or unnamed boxes of notes.
14. HB, no titleon the Christian believer and the academic historian (typ, 10p, Rice
University, 1963).
15. HB, History and Mans Attitude to the Past, 1011; the remark about Augustine is
from my interviews with Buttereld. Buttereld purchased books by these people for his
own library, and his notes and the underlinings in the books indicate his readings. These
books went to Peterhouse Library.
16. HB to Kenneth Thompson, 13 May 1964; HB to John Marshall, 9 Feb 1965; HB to
Thompson, 14 July 1965.
17. HB, Preface for Gifford Lectures (typ, 3p, 1965). In what follows, I have used
where possible Butterelds texts labelled gifford lectures, which include his hand-
written annotations.
18. The original texts of some, but not all, of his Gifford Lectures, with his handwritten
additions, remain in his papers. These typescripts carry the heading gifford lectures.
19. No title (ms, 7p, c1964), in folder: Gifford, Old Testament.
20. Toynbee, review of HB, Man on His Past, in Observer (3 Nov 1955).
21. Buttereld summarized his new enterprise in the history of historiography in an
address c1968, in Miscellaneous Comments.
22. HB, History as the Organization of Mans Memory, in Paul H. Oehser, ed.,
Knowledge among Men: Eleven Essays on Science, Culture, and Society Commemorat-
ing the 200th Anniversary of the Birth of James Smithson (New York: Simon and Schus-
ter, 1966), 3342; HB, The Remembrance of Things Past.
23. HB to Michael Roberts, 21 Oct 1966; HB to R. W. David (CUP), 12 Oct 1966; HB
to A. D. Peters, 10 April 1968; David to HB, 23 April 1968; HB to Secretary of the
Syndic, Cambridge University Press, 6 May 1968; Peters to HB, 7 May 1968; HB to
David, 20 May 1968; and other letters in folder: CUP and Wiles Trust.
24. HB, Some Reections on the Early Years of George IIIs Reign, Journal of British
Studies, 4 (1965), 78101; HB, England in the Eighteenth Century, in Davies and
Rupp, eds., A History of the Methodist Church in Great Britain, 1: 333.
25. HB to Martin Wight, 29 June 1966; HB, Remarks on international relations at the
London School of Economics (ms, 15p, late 1960s).
26. HB, Memorandum of discussion in the British Committee on the Theory of Inter-
national Politics, cApril 1961. See Leonard Liggio, Herbert Buttereld: Christian Histo-
rian as Creative Critic, New Individualist Review, 1, 3 (Nov 1961), 29.
27. See HB, Talk, c1967, in: Miscellaneous Comments.
28. HB to A. J. Muste (Church Peace Commission, New York), 24 Nov 1960; HB to
Tony Southall (Cambridge University Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament), 30 Nov
1961; HB to Eleanor Aitken (Petition for The Hague Peace Rally), 1 May 1964.
29. John Stacy (Methodist Peace Fellowship) to HB, 12 April 1963; HB to Stacy,
30 March 1964, and 11 April 1964.
30. HB, Human Nature and the Dominion of Fear (London: Christian CND Pamphlet
No. 3, 1964).
31. HB, Human Nature and the Dominion of Fear, in Breakthrough to Peace (Nor-
folk, Conn.: New Directions, 1962), 159171.
32. HB, Journal, 12 Jan 1968; Journal, cJuly 1968.
466 Notes to Pages 348361

33. See HB talks in: Miscellaneous Comments.

34. HB to Thompson, 18 Jan 1963.
35. The papers and notes are in two boxes: Rockefeller Committee Papers. See HB to
Martin Wight, 7 April 1968.
36. HB to Thompson, draft letter c. early 1962; HB, Notes for a Discussion on the
Theory of International Politics (typ, 8p, Jan 1964), 1; HB to Wight, 29 June 1966; HB
to Wight, 7 April 1968; HB to Thompson, 24 July 1968.
37. HB, Remarks on International Relations at the London School of Economics (ms,
15p, late 1960s). Butterelds notes and other materials are in a box: History of Diplo-
macy. See Adam Watson, Introduction, in HB, The Origins of History, ed. Adam
Watson (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 1011.
38. HB and Wight, Preface, Diplomatic Investigations, 1213.
39. HB, Notes for a Discussion on the Theory of International Politics (typ, 8p, Jan
1964).
40. HB, The Great Powers (typ, 7p, July 1964).
41. HB, The Historic States-Systems (typ, 6p, Jan 1965).
42. See HB, review of Arnold Toynbee, Reconsiderations.
43. Outline of contents for a volume on states-systems, April 1967; HB, No title, on the
origins of the European states-system (typ, 10p, c1965); HB to Wight, 7 April 1968.
44. See HB to Boyd C. Schafer, 8 Oct 1962.
45. HB, In Defence of Diplomatic History (typ, 23p, Cambridge University History
Club, Nov 1963).
46. In Defence of Diplomatic History.
47. HB, The Present State of Historical Scholarship: An Inaugural Lecture (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965).
48. HB to T. S. Gregory, 8 May 1964.
49. See letters in les: German Visit May 1964; German Visit 1965.
50. See HB to P. E. Schramm (Gttingen), 8 March 1965; HB to the British Council,
7 Aug 1964.
51. HB, Sir Edward Grey in July 1914, Historical Studies, 5 (1965), 125.
52. HB, Address (two drafts, ms, 8p, and ms, 9p, University of Bonn, July 1968); HB,
In Defense of Diplomatic History, 7.
53. HB, Universities and Education Today, 79. HB, talk to an American audience,
c1967, in folder: Miscellaneous Comments.
54. See Butterelds notes on Wesley in the le: Wesley. See also HB, Talk on Method-
ism, in: Miscellaneous Comments (ms, 6p, 1961). Butterelds copy of John Wesleys Ser-
mons on Several Occasions, 3 vols. (London: Wesleyan Conference Ofce, 1864) is well
marked. HB, The Springs of Intellectual Vitality, in Marjorie Reeves, ed., Eighteen Plus:
Unity and Diversity in Higher Education (London: Faber and Faber, 1965), 196199.
55. HB and R. Y. Jennings to the Editor, Methodist Recorder, 25 April 1964.
56. HB to C. K. Barrett, 18 Oct 1965, sending his signature of the statement circulated
by the National Liaison Committee, and adding his marginal comments.
57. HB, Basil Willey, A Tribute: The English Mind (typ, 2p, 1964).
58. HB to Francis Rundall, 10 Aug 1967; HB to G. S. Windass, 2 March 1970.
59. HB statement to the Cambridge News, 6 June 1967; HB to Rundall, 10 Aug 1967;
HB to D. W. L. Earl, 16 Feb 1968; HB to Windass, 2 March 1970.
 Notes to Pages 361370 467

60. HB to the Secretary to the Syndic, Cambridge University Press, 6 May 1968.
61. Cowling, Buttereld, Dictionary of National Biography, 19711980, 116.

Chapter 14 Nothing but History and Religion

1. See e.g., HB to M. H. Varvill, 10 Oct 1969; HB to Peter J. Stanlis, 20 June 1969.
Buttereld discussed his retirement project in my interviews with him.
2. HB, No title: On the Reformation (typ, 6p, BBC Television script, 1965). HB, Evil
in History (typ, 5p, BBC Television, 1970). See Kathleen Burk, Troublemaker: The Life
and History of A. J. P. Taylor (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). HB, Speech to a
society of Cambridge Alumni, cOct/Nov 1968.
3. J. H. Elliott and H. G. Koenigsberger, eds., The Diversity of History: Essays in
Honour of Sir Herbert Buttereld (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1970).
4. Knowles to HB, 5 June 1974.
5. Many, but by no means all, of the sheets of his thoughts are in the les: Christianity;
From July 1968; Memoirs. See Butterelds talks and speeches in: Miscellaneous Com-
ments; and in: Bonn, Honours Degree. His published writings around this time usually
contained some autobiographical remarks.
6. HB, Memoir of G. P. Gooch (ms, c90p, c1969). HB, George Peabody Gooch,
18731968, Proceedings of the British Academy, 55 (1969), 311338; HB, George
Peabody Gooch, 18731968, Year Book of the American Philosophical Society (1969),
12226. HB, G. P. Gooch, Contemporary Review, 213 (Nov 1968), 226228. See
Eyck, G. P. Gooch, 4, 57.
7. Sincerity and Insincerity in Charles James Fox, in Proceedings of the British
Academy, 57 (1971), 327.
8. HB, The Remembrance of Things Past, 3.
9. HB, Journal, 12 Jan 1968; various, July 1968; 2 July 1970; and other entries c1970.
10. HB, Journal, cJuly 1968.
11. HB, Speech to Kingswood School, c1968. HB, Speech to a society of Cambridge
graduates, HB to Brown. 24 June 1969; cOct/Nov 1968. HB, Journal, cJuly 1968,
23 Aug 1970.
12. HB to Black, 6 June 1969; Brown to HB, 20 June 1969; HB to Black, 24 June 1969;
and other letters in le: Cornell. See HB, Historiography, Dictionary of the History of
Ideas, 2 (New York: Charles Scribner, 1973), 464498.
13. HB, Talk to Peterhouse Society, cJune 1968. He referred to his interview with the
undergraduate newspaper Varsity about the admission of women. Speech to a society of
Cambridge graduates, cOct/Nov 1968.
14. HB, The Discontinuities between the Generations in History: Their Effect on the
Transmission of Political Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972),
1723. HB, No title, on the nature of political history (ms, 34p, c1972), 3334.
15. HB, Revolution (ms, 34p, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 1972), 12. He
added to the text, but then removed, these words, after the phrase encouraging the
competitive spirit: consigning us to the struggle for existence.
16. Revolution, 12, 911, 2023; The Discontinuities between the Generations,
2627.
468 Notes to Pages 371381

17. Revolution, 2932; HB to Henry Steele (Felix) Commager, 6 Sept 1968. Butter-
eld referred to the China case in my interviews with him.
18. HB to the Editor, Times (London), draft, c1972.
19. Revolution, 3233.
20. I attended Butterelds Rede Lecture in November 1971.
21. The Discontinuities between the Generations, 8, 3032. See HB, The Remem-
berance of Things Past, 7. HB, Revolution, 9. HB to CTM, 24 May 1979.
22. The Discontinuities between the Generations, 17, 2729.
23. The Discontinuities between the Generations, 1213. HB, Journal, cApril 1968.
See Butterelds notes and letters in the le: International Politics, Theory of.
24. HB, thought-essay on English party politics (ms, 8p, 3 Oct 1969), in le: Chris-
tianity.
25. HB, Journal, 23 Aug 1970.
26. Journal, c1968/1969.
27. Journal, various, c1968, and 23 Aug 1970; HB to CTM, 9 July 1976.
28. Journal, various, July 1968.
29. What follows is based especially on: HB, Journal notebook on religion, cSept 1968
(ms, 47p; on one page the date for yesterday appears as 29 Sept 1968); and Journal
writings in le; Christianity. In making quotations, I have written out all words which
Buttereld abbreviated, e.g., Xn = Christian, and Xty = Christianity.
30. Journal, 1 Sept 1970.
31. Journal, 8 July 1973.
32. Journal, 11 June 1967.
33. HB to C. K. Barrett, 18 Oct 1965.
34. Journal, July 1968.
35. HB, Speech to the History Faculty, Cambridge, 12 Nov 1968, in: Miscellaneous
Comments.
36. HB, The Discontinuities between the Generations, 28.
37. HB, The Remembrance of Things Past, 8.
38. HB, The Discontinuities between the Generations, 32.
39. HB, No title, Sermon-Address, St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh (mimeograph for
distribution, 19 April 1970).
40. See particularly Butterelds talks around the time of his retirement in: Miscella-
neous Comments.
41. HB to Francis Rundall, 10 Aug 1967.
42. See le: American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
43. HB to Frank OGorman, 7 March 1966; HB to Felix Markham, 17 Feb 1960.
44. C. A. Williamson to HB, 18 Sept 1967; M. H. Varvill to HB, 3 Oct 1969; HB to
Varvill, 10 Oct 1969.
45. HB, Sincerity and Insincerity in Charles James Fox; and HB, Sincerity and Insin-
cerity in Charles James Fox (London: Oxford University Press, 1972).
46. Sincerity and Insincerity, 1718.
47. Sincerity and Insincerity, 27.
48. HB to D. F. Allen (Secretary of the British Academy), 26 July 1972.
49. HB to Peter J. Stanlis, 20 June 1969; HB to M. H. Varvill, 10 Oct 1969.
 Notes to Pages 381390 469

50. HB, The Early Years of George III (various typ, c30p, Canterbury, Durham,
York, 1968 and 1969).
51. Early Years of George III, the opening pages for the version presented at Durham
and York (ms, 4p, 1969).
52. R. W. David to HB, 9 June 1969; HB to David, 21 Oct 1969.
53. The old materials and new draft are in the folder: Acton and the Cambridge
Modern History.
54. HB to Damian McElrath, 17 Aug 1966; HB to S. W. Jackson, 21 April 1967; HB to
Knowles, 2 June 1967.
55. See the le: Acton Papers 1972. Chadwick, Acton and Buttereld, 396397.
56. HB, Remarks on International Relations at the London School of Economics (ms,
15p, c1968/1969). HB, The Development of Diplomacy (ms, 38p, c1969). Butterelds
materials are in a box: History of Diplomacy. See Watson, Introduction, in HB, The
Origins of History, 1011.
57. HB, Balance of Power, Dictionary of the History of Ideas, 1 (New York: Charles
Scribner, 1973), 179188.
58. HB, The Moral Framework of International Relations (Aberystwyth, 1969), in
the le: The Moral Framework of International Relations. The section on the core ethical
principles is in a draft version of his remarks, but was not placed in the printed version:
HB, Morality and an International Order, in Brian Porter, ed., The Aberystwyth Pa-
pers: International Politics, 19191969 (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), 336
357.
59. HB, Raison dtat. He delivered the lecture on 23 April 1975.
60. HB to Neville Temperley, 4 May 1968; Neville Temperley to HB, 9 May 1968.
Humphrey Temperley, Neville Temperleys son, Harold Temperleys grandson, was at-
tending Peterhouse at the time.
61. Peters to HB, 7 May 1968; various letters and lists from 1970 in the folder:
Publication of Essays.
62. HB, Speech, c1968, in: Miscellaneous Comments.
63. HB, Some Trends in Scholarship, 18681968, in the Field of Modern History,
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 19 (1969), 159184.
64. HB, Narrative History and the Spade-Work behind It, History, 53 (1968), 165
180, esp. 165167. The article started off as a review J. R. Hale, ed., The Evolution of
British Historiography from Bacon to Namier (1967).
65. HB, Magna Carta in the Historiography of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Cen-
turies (Reading: University of Reading, 1969).
66. HB, The Nature of Political History (ms, 34p, c1972).
67. HB, Universal History and the Comparative Study of Civilization, in Fehl, ed.,
Sir Herbert Buttereld, Cho Yun Hsu, William H. McNeill on Chinese and World His-
tory, 2426.
68. See Arnold J. Toynbee with Jane Caplan, A Study of History, new edition in one
volume (London: Oxford University Press, 1972). Contrast that with: Arnold Toynbee,
Mankind and Mother Earth: A Narrative History of the World (London: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1976).
69. HB, Universal History and the Comparative Study of Civilization, 2425.
470 Notes to Pages 391397

70. HB, Historiography, Dictionary of the History of Ideas, 464498. The original
text is in the le: Dictionary Typescript. HB to Philip P. Wiener, 22 Aug 1969.
71. HB, Universal History and the Comparative History of Civilization, 2123; HB,
The Nature of Political History, 15.
72. HB, Christianity in History, Dictionary of the History of Ideas, 373412.
73. Christianity in History, 396.
74. Butterelds lectures at Duke (April 1969): The Originality of the Old Testament,
The Development of a Christian View of History, Christianity in a Secularized
World, and Christianity and Contemporary Affairs. His lectures at Chapel Hill (April
1969): The Historian and Morality, Moral Judgments in History, Christianity and
the Practising Historian, and History as the Struggle of Good and Evil. The lectures at
Northwestern (April 1974): The Conict between Right and Wrong in History, The
Originality of the Old Testament, The Modern Historian and the New Testament,
and Does Belief in Christianity Validly Affect the Modern Historian?
75. HB, Global Good and Evil: part I, The Moderate Cupidity of Everyman, New
York Times (3 Jan 1973), 39, and part II, Inward to Glory, New York Times (4 Jan
1973), 37.
76. HB, Evil in History (typ, 5p, BBC Television), March 1970.
77. HB, Does Belief in Christianity Validly Affect the Modern Historian? (typ, 19p,
lecture 4 of the series The Secular Historian and the Christian Religion, Northwestern
University, April 1974, as revised in 1977). See the le: Can belief in Christianity validly
affect the work of the modern technical historian?
78. See Does Belief in Christianity Validly Affect the Modern Historian? Buttereld
offered the gure of less than 10 percent in my interviews with him.
79. See HB folder: Egypt: New Material 1973.
80. HB, Journal, 5 April 1973.
81. HB, Journal at Villa Serbelloni, 1973. HB, Villa Serbelloni under John Marshall,
in John Burchard, ed., Thoughts from the Lake of Time: A Group of Essays in Honor of
the Villa Serbelloni and Especially John and Charlotte Marshall (New York: Josiah Macy
Junior Foundation), 269275.
82. The original typescripts of the ve chapters revised from the Gifford Lectures as
well as the revised fragments for later chapters are in a box: History of Historiography
drafts used for The Origins of History.
83. The new role for China and the failure of India are announced in his revised
preface. HB, review of J. H. Plumb, The Death of the Past, in Cambridge Review (29 May
1970), 195.
84. Compare the original Gifford Lectures with the revisions. The original typescripts
marked: gifford lectures; the revisions in a box: History of Historiographydrafts
used for The Origins of History. See also HB, Universal History and the Comparative
Study of Civilization, 19, 2426.
85. HB, The History of Encyclopedias, Times Literary Supplement (17 May 1974),
531533.
86. HB, Address at the Memorial Service for Sir Denis Brogan, Great St. Marys
Church, 9 Feb 1974; HB, Denis Brogan, Encounter (April 1974), 6466. Buttereld
sent a memoir of Knowles to Dom Adrian Morey for use in preparing Morey, David
Knowles: A Memoir (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1979).
 Notes to Pages 398417 471

87. HB, Journal, 16 Jan 1975, 28 Jan 1975, and many other entries around the same
period.
88. Pamela Buttereld to CTM, 3 June 1979; Peter Buttereld and Robin Buttereld to
CTM, 15 June 1979; telephone conversation with Pamela Buttereld and Peter Butter-
eld, 29 June 1979; Peter Buttereld to CTM, 21 June 1979. See Maurice Cowling,
Buttereld, Sir Herbert, Dictionary of National Biography, 19711980 (1986), 116
117.
89. Watson, Introduction, in HB, Origins of History, 1011.
90. Contrary to how the book is sometimes listed, it was not a posthumous work.
91. HB, Moral Judgments (ms, 11p, May 1977, written in response to an interview
with me).
92. HB, Origins of History, passim.
93. Watson briey describes the editorial process in Introduction, Origins of History,
1012. The texts which served as the basis of the book are in the box: History of
Historiographydrafts used for The Origins of History. The original Gifford Lectures
and various other revised portions or versions are scattered in Butterelds papers, includ-
ing these folders: Untitled (Gifford lectures?); Beginnings of historical writing; Meso-
potamia; Butterelds essays; H. Butterelds essays. Christianity; History of historical
criticism.
94. Review by Lester D. Stephens, in American Historical Review, 87 (1982), 1041.

Conclusion
1. HB, Man on His Past, 2122.
2. HB to the Secretary to the Syndics, Cambridge University Press, 6 May 1968.
3. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London: Victor Gol-
lancz, 1963). E. P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origins of the Black Act (Lon-
don: Allen Lane, 1975).
4. One day I came across a chat in progress on the Internet that somehow brought up
Whiggish History. The most self-assured of the participants claried the issue: The
term Whig (or Whiggish) history has its origin in Herbert Butterelds book The Whig
Interpretation of History (1931) which I havent read, but as far as I know the term was
used by Buttereld as meaning. . . . Carsten Sestoft, accessed 7 April 1998.
5. HB, Memoir, 1970s.
6. HB, Note, 1970s, quoting Virginia Woolf to Clive Bell, Feb 1909, in HB 32,
folder: E.
7. Interview with Eve Bogle, 1986.
8. HB, The Discontinuities between the Generations.
9. HB, Christianity and History, 146.
10. HB, Global Good and Evil: part I, The Moderate Cupidity of Everyman, New
York Times (3 Jan 1973), 39.
11. INFP: IntrovertExtrovert, iNtuitiveSensing, FeelingThinking, Perceiving
Judging.
12. HB, God in History, in CTM, ed., God History, and Historians, 192204; and in
CTM, ed., HB, Writings on Christianity and History, 316. HB, Man on His Past, 140
141.
472 Notes to Page 417

13. See, for example, Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern,
2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).
14. Owen Chadwick, Freedom and the Historian: An Inaugural Lecture, delivered
27 Nov 1968 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969). See Chadwick, Sir Her-
bert Buttereld, Cambridge Review (16 Nov 1979), 68.
15. From my conversation with Lord Dacre, Peterhouse, 1986.
 Bibliography

1. By Buttereld: Published Works

This list offers a chronological record of all of Butterelds published books, booklets,
chapters in books, and articles known to me. It does not list his writings that are simply
book reviews, although it includes review articles, and it does not aim to include all
reprintings of his writings. It is clear to me that Buttereld did not know everything that
he had published. In July 1978, he sent me a list of his writings published since 1968, and
I soon realized that he had left off a fair number of pieces.
This list is the result of a thorough search in Butterelds papers as well as in the usual
bibliographical resources. It adds to and extends three other bibliographies of his works.
Eileen Partington compiled a record of his writings, including his reviews, to the year
1963, in Bibliography of Works by and about Herbert Buttereld (Project for Diploma,
University of London School of Librarianship, 1963). R. W. K. Hinton, Fellow of Peter-
house, listed most of his scholarly works, and a few book reviews, to the year of his
retirement, in Bibliography of Sir Herbert Butterelds Writings (to 1968), in J. H.
Elliott and H. G. Koenigsberger, eds., The Diversity of History: Essays in Honour of Sir
Herbert Buttereld (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, and Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1970), 315325. Keith C. Sewell published an extensive bibliography in Provi-
dence and Method: Herbert Buttereld and the Intepretation of History (Sioux Center,
Iowa: By the Author, 2001), 224254. His bibliography provides the fullest list to date of
book reviews written by Buttereld as well as reviews of Butterelds books written by
others. I am aware of more reviews not listed there, but I have not sought to include
reviews here.

473
474 Bibliography

I have marked with an *asterisk the twenty-two volumes which, for the purposes of
this study, I have counted as a book by Buttereld. This includes three books that he
edited or coedited, and two books of his writings edited by others with his approval. Two
further books collecting some of his writings were edited by others after his death.
Within each year, books and booklets are placed rst, followed by articles and chap-
ters, listed alphabetically within those groupings.

c1917, a poem, possibly published at Keighley, not found.

Editorial, The Sex, 73 (Lent 1922), 312.
*The Historical Novel: An Essay. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1924. Fol-
croft: Folcroft Library Editions, 1971; Norwood: Norwood Editions, 1975; Phila-
delphia: R. West, 1977.
A French Minister at Vienna, 18061807, Cambridge Historical Journal 2 (1927),
185190.
*The Peace Tactics of Napoleon, 180608. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1929. Reprint ed., with new preface: New York: Octagon, Hippocrene Books, 1972.
*Ed., Select Documents of European History, vol. 3, 17151920. London: Methuen,
1931.
*The Whig Interpretation of History. London: Bell, 1931. London: Bell, 1950; New
York: Charles Scribner, 1951; New York: Norton, 1965; Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1973; New York: AMS Press, 1978; eText: [http://www.eliohs.uni.it/testi/900/
buttereld], 2002.
Bolingbroke and the Patriot King, Cambridge Review (10 March 1933), 308310.
History and the Marxian Method, Scrutiny, 1 (19321933), 339355.
Wesley House Concert, March 3, 1933, Wesley House Magazine (June 1933), 45.
History in 1934, The Bookman, 87 (1934), 141143.
The Philosopher as Historian, The Bookman, 87 (1934), 194195.
Lord North and Mr Robinson, 1779, Cambridge Historical Journal, 5 (1937), 255
279.
The Master [Temperley], The Sex, 104 (May 1938), 1011.
*Napoleon. London: Duckworth, 1939. Revised ed., 1940, 1962. New York: Collier,
1962.
Harold Temperley, Cambridge Historical Journal, 6 (1939), 123.
*The Statecraft of Machiavelli. London: Bell, 1940; republished, 1955. New York: Mac-
millan, 1956; London: Collier Macmillan, 1962; New York: Collier, 1962.
Napoleon and Hitler, Cambridge Review (6 June 1941), 474475.
The Age of Napoleon (with I. L. Foster), and From Waterloo to Sedan, in History
and Administration, vol. 2, B.R. 503A, in France, 4 vols., B.R. 503503C, Geograph-
ical Handbook Series. London: Great Britain, Admiralty, Naval Staff, Naval Intel-
ligence Division, 1942. 124146, 147165.
Peterhouse, 19391943. Cambridge: The Peterhouse Society, 1943.
The History Teacher and Over-Specialisation, Cambridge Review (27 Nov 1943),
103105.
*The Englishman and His History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and New
York: Macmillan, 1944. Reprint ed., with new preface: Hamden, Conn.: Archon,
1970.
 Bibliography 475

The Study of History: An Inaugural Lecture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1944.
Cambridge during the War: Peterhouse, Cambridge Review (1 Dec 1945), 140.
Tendencies in Historical Study in England, Irish Historical Studies, 4: 15 (March
1945), 209223.
An Antidote to Dogmatic History, Time and Tide (12 Jan 1946), 2930.
The History of Science, Time and Tide (5 Jan 1946), 67.
The Journal of Lord Acton: Rome 1857, Cambridge Historical Journal, 8 (1946), 186
204.
The Master [Vellacott], The Sex, 106 (1946), 56.
Sir John Clapham, 18731946, Cambridge Historical Journal, 8 (1946), 115116.
The Birkbeck Lectures on Luther, Delivered by E. Gordon Rupp, Cambridge Review
(24 May 1947), 490, 492.
The General Boards Prime Stipend, Cambridge Review (8 March 1947), 328330.
Limits of Historical Understanding, The Listener (26 June 1947), 997998.
Reections on the Predicament of Our Time, Cambridge Journal, 1 (1947), 513.
The Yorkshire Association and the Crisis of 177980, Transactions of the Royal His-
torical Society, 4th series, 29 (1947), 6991.
Lord Acton. London: The Historical Association, 1948.
Peterhouse, 19441948. Cambridge: The Peterhouse Society, 1948.
A Bridge between the Arts and the Sciences, The Listener (15 July 1948), 9596.
The Protestant Church and the West, The Listener (24 June 1948), 10081009.
The Teaching of English History, Cambridge Journal, 2 (1948), 310.
*Christianity and History. London: Bell, 1949. New York: Charles Scribner, 1950; Lon-
don: Collins Fontana, 1957.
*George III, Lord North and the People, 17791780. London: Bell, 1949. New York:
Russell and Russell, 1968.
*The Origins of Modern Science, 13001800, London: Bell, 1949. New York: Mac-
millan, 1951. Second ed., Bell, 1957; corrected 1970; New York: Macmillan, 1957;
New York: Collier, 1962; New York: Free Press, 1965; Toronto: Clarke, 1968; Lon-
don: Bell and Hyman, 1982.
Charles James Fox and the Whig Opposition in 1792, Cambridge Historical Journal, 9
(1949), 293330.
The Christian and History, The Christian News-Letter, 4 parts: The Christian and
Academic History, Supplement to 333 (16 March 1949), 8896; The Christian and
the Biblical Interpretation of History, Supplement to 336 (27 April 1949), 136144;
The Christian and the Marxian Interpretation of History, and The Christian and
the Ecclesiastical Interpretation of History, Supplement to 341 (6 July 1945), 215
223, 224232.
Christianity and History, The Listener, 6 parts: Christianity and the Historian
(7 April 1949), 559560, 581583; Human Nature in History (14 April 1949),
621623, 626; Judgment in History (21 April 1949), 666669, 672; Cataclysm
and Tragic Conict (29 April 1949), 711713, 720; Providence and Historical Pro-
cess (5 May 1949), 755757, 760761; and Christianity as a Historical Religion
(12 May 1949), 794796, 805807.
The History of Science, Radio Times, 76 (23 Sept 1949), 37.
476 Bibliography

Ofcial History: Its Pitfalls and Its Criteria, Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review of
Letters, Philosophy, and Science, 38 (1949): 129144.
The Protestant View of Church and State, in The Western Tradition. London: Vox
Mundi, 1949. Boston: Beacon Press, 1951, 4550.
The Christian Idea of God, The Listener (23 Nov 1950), 591, 594.
Christianity and the Historian, University of Chicago Round Table, no. 661 (1950),
1317.
The Crucixion in Human History, British Weekly, 127, 3308 (6 April 1950), 12.
Europe, History of, Chambers Encyclopedia, 1950, 5: 467481. New ed., 5: 442454,
including new passage Post Second World War, 1966.
With Aelred Watkin, Gasquet and the Acton-Simpson Correspondence, Cambridge
Historical Journal, 10 (1950): 75105.
Die Gefahren der Geschichte, Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, 1 (1950),
525539.
The Historian and the History of Science, Bulletin of the British Society for the History
of Science, 1:3 (April 1950), 4958.
The Predicament of Central Europe, Time and Tide (14 Jan 1950), 3132. German
translation: Das Mitteleuropaische Dilemma, Die Bruecke, 167: 405.
The Predicament That Leads to War, Time and Tide (21 Jan 1950), 56.
The Tragic Element in Modern International Conict, Review of Politics, 12 (1950),
147164; also published in The Wind and the Rain, 7:1 (Autumn 1950), 822.
*Christianity in European History, London: Oxford University Press; London: Collins,
1952.
*History and Human Relations. London: Collins, 1951. New York: Macmillan, 1952.
*De facto ed., The History of Science: Origins and Results of the Scientic Revolution.
London: Cohen and West; Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1951. Includes: Dantes View of
the Universe, 1524, and Newton and His Universe, 7786. New ed. with new
title, HB et al., A Short History of Science: Origins and Results of the Scientic Revolu-
tion. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Anchor Books, 1959.
Peterhouse, 19491951. Cambridge: The Peterhouse Society, 1951.
The Reconstruction of an Historical Episode: The History of the Enquiry into the Origins
of the Seven Years War, Glasgow University Publications, 91, Glasgow: Jackson,
1951.
Broadcasting and History, BBC Quarterly, 6:3 (1951) 129135.
Christianity and Western Ideals, in The Church and the Festival. London: SPCK, 1951,
78, 1011.
The Contribution of Christianity to Our Civilization, in Festival of Britain Supplement,
Methodist Recorder (3 May 1951), 1.
Framework of the Future: By What Values?, The Listener (22 March 1951), 457458.
Reprinted in: World Christian Digest (July 1951), 2426.
Historical Perspective, Britain Today, 188 (Dec 1951), 610.
A Historian Looks at the World We Live In, Religion in Education, 18 (1951), 4349.
The Natural Scientist, Times Literary Supplement (21 Sept 1951), 597.
The Scientic versus the Moralistic Approach in International Affairs, International
Affairs, 27 (1951), 411422.
 Bibliography 477

*Liberty in the Modern World. Toronto: Ryerson, 1952.

God in History, Church of England Youth Council News-Letter (July 1952). Also
issued as booklet: God in History, Church of England Youth Council News-Letter
Reprint, No. 2, 1952. Reprinted in: R. J. W., ed., Steps to Christian Understanding.
London: Oxford University Press, 1952. 105121.
*Christianity, Diplomacy and War. London: Epworth; Nashville: Abington-Cokesbury,
1953.
Peterhouse, 19511953. Cambridge: The Peterhouse Society, 1953.
Acton and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Cambridge Historical Journal, 11 (1953),
2747.
Lord Acton, Cambridge Journal, 6 (19521953), 475485.
The Prospect for Christianity, Religion in Life, 22 (1953) 271379; The Preachers
Quarterly, 1 (Dec 1954), 3645.
Foreword, in Edward Herbert Dance. History without Bias? A Textbook Survey on
Group Antagonisms. London: Council of Christians and Jews, 1954, 711.
Paul Vellacott, Times (16 Nov 1954).
Renaissance Art and Modern Science, University Review, 1, 2 (1954), 2534.
The Seventeenth Century, Encyclopedia Americana, 1954, 24: 613618.
*Man on His Past: The Study of the History of Historical Scholarship. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1955. Boston: Beacon Press, 1960, with a new preface.
De facto author, with Foreword. The Historical Association, 19061956. London:
Historical Association, 1955.
The Christian and History, Spectator (29 April 1955), 540543.
The Role of the Individual in History, History, 40, 138139 (FebJune 1955), 117.
De facto ed., Historical Writing, Special Issue, Times Literary Supplement (6 Jan 1956),
with Introduction, ixxvii.
History as the Emancipation from the Past. London: London School of Economics and
Political Science, 1956.
Clio in Council, Times Literary Supplement (6 Jan 1956), 7.
History in the Twentieth Century, in Jubilee Addresses 1956. London: Historical Asso-
ciation, 1956, 1628.
The History of the Historical Association, History Today, 6 (Jan 1956), 6367.
In Defense of History: Association of Teachers and Laymen, Times Educational Sup-
plement (6 Jan 1956), 10.
Paul Vellacott: Master of Peterhouse, 19391954, The Sex, 114 (June 1956), 14.
The Sense of the Past, Times Literary Supplement (17 Aug 1956), x, xii.
*George III and the Historians. London: Collins, 1957. Revised ed., London: Cassell;
New York: Macmillan, 1959.
Historical Development of the Principle of Toleration in British Life. London: Epworth,
1957.
George III and the Namier School, Encounter (April 1957), 7076.
History and Humanism, Times Literary Supplement (20 Dec 1957), 773.
Internationalism and the Defense of the Existing Status Quo, Christianity and Crisis
(10 June 1957), 7577. With new title, Christianity and the Status Quo, in Wayne
Cowen, ed., Witness to a Generation: Signicant Writings from Christianity and Crisis,
478 Bibliography

19411966. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966. 7983. Internet: Christianity and the

Status Quo, Religion Online (http://www.religiononline.org), c2001.
A Sense of the Past, Times Literary Supplement (27 Sept 1957), 577.
The American StudentA Visiting Professors View: Is He Lacking in Intellectual
Drive?, Saturday Review (13 Sept 1958), 25.
George III and the Constitution, History, 43 (1958), 1433.
Introduction to Machiavelli, in Nicolo Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. W. K. Marriott.
London: Everyman, 1958. vxi.
Western Policy and Colonialism, Christianity and Crisis (4 Aug 1958), 111114.
HB et al. A Short History of France from Early Times to 1958. Edited by Hampden
Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959. Second ed., retitled, A Short
History of France from Early Times to 1972, 1974.
Christianity and the Global Revolution, The Chaplain (April 1959), 1112.
The Colleges and Halls of the University: Peterhouse, in J. P. C. Roach, ed., A History
of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely, 8, The City and University of Cam-
bridge. London: Oxford University Press, 1959. 334340.
The Dominion of Fear, Motive (Jan 1959), 23.
The History of Science and the Study of History, Harvard Library Bulletin, 13 (1959),
329347.
Introduction, in Arthur Koestler, The Sleepwalkers: A History of Mans Changing
Vision of the Universe. London: Hutchinson; New York: Macmillan, 1959. 1112.
London: Penguin, 1964.
Lord Acton, Te Elfder Ure, 9 (1959), 284292.
Macaulay as Historian: A Centenary Assessment, Methodist Recorder (31 Dec 1959), 9.
*International Conict in the Twentieth Century: A Christian View. New York: Harper,
1960. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1974.
Historiography (in Hebrew), Encyclopedia Hebraica, 1960, 14: col. 259318.
The History of the Writing of History, Rapports du XI Congrs International des
Sciences Historiques, Stockholm, 2128 aot 1960. Goteborg: Almquist and Wiksell,
1960. 1:2539.
The Scientic Revolution, Scientic American (Sept 1960), 173192.
History and Mans Attitude to the Past: Their Role in the Story of Civilization. London:
University of London School of Oriental and African Studies, 1961.
Acton: His Training, Methods, and Intellectual System, in A. O. Sarkissian, ed., Studies
in Diplomatic History and Historiography in Honour of G. P. Gooch. London: Long-
mans, 1961. 169198.
George Peabody Gooch, Contemporary Review, 200 (JulyDec 1961), 501505.
History and Mans Attitude to the Past, The Listener (21 Sept 1961), 421423.
Portrait of a Turbulent Century, Methodist Recorder (6 April 1961), 34, 7.
Reections on Religion and Individualism, Journal of the History of Ideas, 22 (1961),
3346. Reprinted in: Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland, eds., Ideas in Cultural
Perspective. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1962. 725738.
Sir Lewis Namier as Historian, The Listener (18 May 1961), 873876.
The Springs of Discovery, Observer Weekend Review (9 July 1961), 17.
*The Universities and Education Today. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962.
 Bibliography 479

Charles James Fox: The Peace Negotiations of 1806. London: University of London, The
Athlone Press, 1962.
Lord Acton. Milan: Vit e Pensiero, 1962.
Human Nature and the Dominion of Fear, in Breakthrough to Peace. Norfolk, Conn.:
New Directions Books, 1962. 159171.
British Policy, 17621765, Historical Journal, 6 (1963), 131140.
Charlotte Bront and Her Sisters in the Crucial Year, Bront Society Transactions, 14
(1963), 317.
Printings Role in World Thought, Times (16 July 1963), 11.
[Untitled note on Trevelyan], History, 48 (1963), 4445.
Human Nature and the Dominion of Fear. Pamphlet No. 3. London: Christian Cam-
paign for Nuclear Disarmament, 1964.
Additional Comments [on the Working Paper], in Report of the Seminar on Postgradu-
ate Teaching and Research in History [1114 January 1964, Delhi University]. New
Delhi: University Grants Commission, 1964. 2224.
Basil Willey: A Tribute, in Hugh Sykes Davies and George Watson, eds., The English
Mind: Studies in the English Moralists Presented to Basil Willey. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1964. 16.
The History of Historiography and the History of Science, in Mlanges Alexandre
Koyr, vol. 2, Laventure de lesprit. Paris: Hermann, 1964. 5768.
The History of Parliament, The Listener (8 Oct 1964), 535537.
The War That Shaped the Worlds Future, Methodist Recorder (30 July 1964), 10.
Moral Judgments in History. The Foundation Oration. London: Goldsmith College,
1965.
The Present State of Historical Scholarship: An Inaugural Lecture. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1965.
England in the Eighteenth Century, in Rupert Davies and Gordon Rupp, eds., A His-
tory of the Methodist Church in Great Britain, vol. 1. London: Epworth, 1965. 333.
History as the Organisation of Mans Memory, Nature (11 Dec 1965), 10361039.
Gooch, George Peabody, Chambers World Survey 1965, 1965, 208.
In Memorian Winston Churchill, Cambridge Review (6 Feb 1965), 234.
Sir Edward Grey in July 1914, Historical Studies: Papers Read before the Sixth Con-
ference of Irish Historians, 5 (1965), 125.
Some Reections on the Early Years of George IIIs Reign, Journal of British Studies, 4
(1965), 78101.
The Springs of Intellectual Vitality, in Marjorie Reeves, ed., Eighteen Plus: Unity and
Diversity in Higher Education. London: Faber and Faber, 1965. 186199.
*With Martin Wight, eds., Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of Interna-
tional Politics. London: George Allen and Unwin; Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1966. Includes: The Balance of Power, 132148, and The New Diplomacy
and Historical Diplomacy, 181192.
Harold Temperley and George Canning, in Harold Temperley, The Foreign Policy of
Canning, 18221827: England, the Neo-Holy Alliance, and the New World. London:
Frank Cass, 1966. viixxvi.
History as the Organization of Mans Memory, in Paul H. Oehser, ed., Knowledge
480 Bibliography

among Men: Eleven Essays on Science, Culture, and Society Commemorating the
200th Anniversary of the Birth of James Smithson. New York: Simon and Schuster,
1966. 3341.
Preface, in Wayne Cowen, ed., Witness to a Generation: Signicant Writings from
Christianity and Crisis, 19411966. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966. viiix.
Christianity and Politics, Orbis: A Quarterly Journal of World Affairs, 10 (1967),
12331246.
Delays and Paradoxes in the Development of Historiography, in Kenneth Bourne and
D. C. Watt, eds., Studies in International History: Essays Presented to W. N. Medlicott.
London: Longmans, Green, 1967. 115.
Linterpretation progressiste de lhistoire, La Table Ronde (Feb 1967), 2441.
Luther Opened a Wider Door Than He Knew: Issues Raised That Stand for All Time,
Methodist Recorder (26 Oct 1967), 12.
Professor Pieter Geyl: An Eminent Dutch Historian, Times (3 Jan 1967), 3.
Thirty Years Work in Irish History: The Eighteenth Century, Irish Historical Studies,
15 (1967), 376390.
Peterhouse, 1968. Cambridge: The Peterhouse Society, 1968.
The Remembrance of Things Past. Southampton: University of Southampton, 1968.
George Peabody Gooch, Contemporary Review, 213 (Nov 1968), 226228.
Introduction to the Second Edition, in Harold Temperley, Frederic the Great and
Kaiser Joseph: An Episode of War and Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century, 2d
edition. London: Frank Cass, 1968. viixxii.
Narrative History and the Spade-Work behind It, History, 53 (1968), 165180.
Magna Carta in the Historiography of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Reading:
University of Reading, 1969.
George Peabody Gooch, 18731968, Proceedings of the British Academy, 55 (1969),
311338. Reprinted as: George Peabody Gooch, 18731968. London: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1970.
The Objectives of Society, BACIE [British Association for Commercial and Industrial
Education] Journal, 23 (1969), 1115.
Some Trends in Scholarship, 18681968, in the Field of Modern History, Transactions
of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 19 (1969), 159184.
Diplomacy, in R. Hatton and M. S. Anderson, eds., Studies in Diplomatic History:
Essays in Memory of David Bayne Horn. London: Longmans, Green, 1970. 357372.
George Peabody Gooch, 18731968, Year Book of the American Philosophical So-
ciety [1969], 1970, 122126.
Sermon-Address (19 April 1970). Edinburgh: St. Giles Cathedral.
The Dangers of History, in Arthur N. Gilbert, ed., In Search of a Meaningful Past.
Boston: Houghton Mifin, 1971. 112126.
Eighteenth Century Ireland, 17021800, in T. W. Moody, ed., Irish Historiography,
19361970. Dublin: Irish Committee of Historical Science, 1971. 5570.
Frederich Crosseld Happold, 18931971, Times (19 July 1971), 13.
Sincerity and Insincerity in Charles James Fox, Proceedings of the British Academy, 57
(1971), 327. Reprinted as: Sincerity and Insincerity in Charles James Fox. London:
Oxford University Press, 1972.
Universal History and the Comparative Study of Civilization, in Noah Edward Fehl,
 Bibliography 481

ed., Sir Herbert Buttereld, Cho Yun Hsu, William H. McNeill on Chinese and World
History. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1971. 1829
Villa Serbelloni under John Marshall, in John Burchard, ed., Thoughts from the
Lake of Time: A Group of Essays in Honor of the Villa Serbelloni and Especially
John and Charlotte Marshall. New York: Josiah Macy Junior Foundation, 1971.
269275.
The Discontinuities between the Generations: Their Effect on the Transmission of His-
torical Experience [Rede Lecture, 1971]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1972.
Morality and an International Order, Brian Porter, ed., The Aberystwyth Papers:
International Politics, 19191969. London: Oxford University Press, 1972. 336
357.
Balance of Power, in Dictionary of the History of Ideas. New York: Charles Scribner,
1973. 1: 179188.
Christianity in History, in Dictionary of the History of Ideas. New York: Charles
Scribner, 1973. 2: 373412.
Global Good and Evil: part I, The Moderate Cupidity of Everyman, New York
Times (3 Jan 1973), 39; and part II, Inward to Glory, New York Times (4 Jan 1973),
37.
Historiography: History of Historiography, in Dictionary of the History of Ideas. New
York: Charles Scribner, 1973. 2: 464498.
Reections on Macaulay, The Listener (13 Dec 1973), 826827.
Address by Sir Herbert Buttereld at the Memorial Service for Sir Denis Brogan, at
the University Church of St. Marys, Saturday, 9 February 1974, Peterhouse, 1974,
1417.
Denis Brogan, Encounter (April 1974), 6466.
The History of Encyclopedias, Times Literary Supplement (17 May 1974), 531533.
Sermon preached by Professor Sir Herbert Buttereld at the Commemoration of Bene-
factors in the College Chapel on 6 February 1974, Peterhouse, 1974, 37.
Raison dtat: The Relations between Morality and Government. Brighton: University of
Sussex, 1975.
Buttereld on Trevelyan, Radio Times (16 Feb 1976).
Global Good and Evil, in Kenneth Thompson and Robert J. Myers, eds., A Tribute to
Hans Morgenthau. Washington: New Republic Book Co., 1977. 199203. Under new
title, Truth and Tragedy. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1984.
A New Look at Jabez Bunting, Methodist Recorder (14 Sept 1978), 89.
*Writings on Christianity and History. Edited by C. T. McIntire. New York and London:
Oxford University Press, 1979.
Toleration in Religion and Politics. Adam Watson on behalf of Sir Herbert Buttereld.
New York: Council on Religion and International Affairs, 1980.
*Origins of History. Edited by Adam Watson. New York: Basic Books; London: Eyre
Methuen, 1981.
Herbert Buttereld on History. Edited by Robin W. Winks. New York: Garland, 1985.
Essays on the History of Science. Edited by Karl W. Schweizer. Lewiston, New York, and
London: Edwin Mellen, 1998.
482 Bibliography

2. By Buttereld: Unpublished Works

This section lists chronologically the writings which Buttereld left unpublished in his
papers. It includes completed writings, lectures, unnished writings, journals, diaries,
pocket diaries, notes, and what I have called thought-essays. Most of these materials
are now collected in the Buttereld Papers in Cambridge University Library. The website
of the Buttereld Papers is: [http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/mss/butterf.html]. The papers
may be accessed with the aid of an inventory, A Catalogue of Papers of Sir Herbert
Buttereld, 19001979, 2 vols. (Cambridge University Library, 1994). The inventory is
available in the Department of Manuscripts of Cambridge University Library as well as in
the Bodleian Library in Oxford, and in the National Registry of Archives at Quality
Court, Chancery Lane, in London.
However, certain of the materials listed below remained in the possession of the Butter-
eld family, and were not included in the inventory. One piece, entitled Moral Judg-
ments (ms, 11p, May 1977), Buttereld wrote in response to my questions and gave to
me. I have also included the tapes of my interviews with Buttereld, which remain with
me. Another, on Cambridge University in the Renaissance and Reformation (ms, 18p,
c1952), is in the Buttereld Papers in Peterhouse Library. Peterhouse Library also main-
tains a collection of about seven hundred books from Butterelds personal library, many
of which contain his annotations and marginalia.

Diaries: various cards and sheets; including samples of his poetry from 1919, 1920, and
1926.
Charles Dickens (typ, 76p + iiip, early 1920s).
Chesterton (ms, 13p, early 1920s).
Napoleon and the Peace of Europe, 18061808 (typ, c170p, with fragments of other
drafts, and with other titles: The Problem of Peace in Europe, 18061808, and
Napoleon and Europe, 18061808, 1920s).
No title: Notebook on the history of science (ms, 14p, c1927).
George the III and the Constitution, 17691782 (ms, c135p, c25 lectures, 1935
1937).
Arguments pertaining to the thesis . . . That the division of the Modern History course at
1715 . . . is detrimental . . . (ms, 5p, c1936, perhaps related to course on Modern
European History, 14921715, given 19351937).
No title: On Modern European History (type, 169ssp, 16 lectures, late 1930s).
The Historical Background of General Knowledge (typ, 209p, + ms, c125p. 1943).
History of England, 16881792 (typ, 44ssp, 6 lectures, 19441946).
Factors in German History (typ, 89p, lectures, 19441947).
Notes on How Far Can and Should the Subject of International Relations Be Included in
the Curriculum for Undergraduates of History? (typ, 4ssp, 1949).
No title: On European History (typ, 30p, Dublin, May 1949).
The Concise Cambridge Modern History/The Cambridge Shorter Modern History
(typ, c944p, c66 chapters, late 1940s).
History of Historiography (typ, 29p, Kingston, Ontario, Jan 1950).
How Do We Know (typ, 12p, BBC, 11 Oct 1950).
 Bibliography 483

Leonardo da Vinci (typ, 10ssp, 1950).

No title: On Cambridge University in the Renaissance and Reformation (ms, 18p,
c1952).
Modern European History (typ, c716p, c43 lectures, 19531957).
Man and His Past (typ, 89p, 4 lectures, BBC Script, 1954).
Christianity and Humanism (typ, 12p, 1955).
The Historian and His Evidence (typ, 22p, 1955).
Morality and Historical Process in International Affairs (typ, 49p, American Rocke-
feller Committee on International Relations, 1956).
Peterhouse in Temperleys Time (ms, 60p, 1956).
Religion and the Problems of the World (typ, c25p, Lecture 3 in the series Christianity
in the Twentieth Century, Bristol, 1956).
No title: On politics and the Christian (ms, 18p, Peterhouse Chapel Fellowship, 1956).
England and the French Revolution, 1792 (typ, 250p, 1957).
The Hebrew Scriptures and the Western Idea of History (typ, 35p, 2 lectures, Jeru-
salem, 1957).
Edmund Burke (ms, 40p, 1958).
The Old Testament and the Western Idea of History (typ, 20p, London School of
Oriental Studies, 1958).
Misgivings about the Western Attitude to World Affairs (ms, 57p, British Committee
on the Theory of International Politics, 1959).
Why I Am a Non-Conformist (typ, 23p, June 1959).
Diary: kept while vice-chancellor of Cambridge University (ms, very big, c1959
1961).
The Christians and History (typ, 8p, before 1955).
Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism (typ, 11p, 1950s).
Notebooks on Peterhouse history (ms, many pages, late 1950s).
Crowes Memorandum of January 1907 (typ, 21p, British Committee on the Theory of
International Politics, 1960).
Historiography in England (ms, 22p, late 1961 or early 1962).
No title: On Methodism (ms, 6p, 1961).
Comments on Hedley Bulls Paper on the Grotian Conception of International Rela-
tions (typ, 14p, British Committee on the Theory of International Relations, 1962).
Personal: Early Youth, Father, Temperley, Vellacott (ms, 67p, c1962/1963).
2nd Lecture on the Use of Materials (typ, 17p, 1962).
Temperley (ms, 173p, c1962/1963).
The Use of Historical Materials (typ, 7p, 1962, for a course with Kitson Clark).
In Defence of Diplomatic History (typ, 23p, Cambridge University History Club, Nov
1963).
Reminicences of an Enquiry into the Crisis of 1792 (typ, 19p, Peterhouse and Trinity
College, 1963).
No title: On the Christian believer and the academic historian (typ, 10p, Rice University,
1963).
No title: On the spiritual nature of Christianity (ms, 18p, University of London Method-
ist Society, 1963).
484 Bibliography

George III and the Politicians, Oct 1760Aug 1965 (typ, 41p, 3 lectures, plus ms,
c300+ pages in various stages of revision, at least 17 lectures, 19631965).
The Great Powers (typ, 7p, British Committee on the Theory of International Rela-
tions, 1964).
History Teaching in Schools and Universities (typ, 20p, 1961).
Notes for a Discussion on the Theory of International Relations (typ, 8p, British Com-
mittee on the Theory of International Relations, 1964).
No title: On the causes of the outbreak of the war of 1914 (ms, 11p, 1964).
Criticism in the Pre-Critical Age (typ, 20p, Wesleyan University, 1965).
The European States-System (typ, 10p, British Committee on the Theory of Interna-
tional Relations, 1965).
The Historic States-System (typ, 17p, British Committee on the Theory of Interna-
tional Relations, 1965).
No title: On the development of historical criticism (typ, 41p, c1965).
No title: On history in the curriculum (typ, 14p, July 1965).
No title: On the life of Carey Francis (typ, 4p, 1965).
No title: On the Reformation (typ, 6p, BBC Television script, 1965).
Christians and Present-Day Problems (ms, 18p, Duke University, Spring 1969).
The Development of Diplomacy (ms, 38p, c1969).
The Early Years of George III (various typ and mss, including 30p, for Canterbury,
Durham, and York, c1968/1969).
Historical Criticism (typ, 41p, c1968).
The Rise of a Christian Interpretation of History (typ, 18p, Duke University, Spring
1969).
Journal-sheets: many, 1960s.
The Flight from History (typ, 31p, Eton, 1960s).
The Function of Teacher and Student in a University History Department (typ, 38p,
Dublin, 1960s).
The Rise of Historical Criticism (typ, 16p, 1960s).
The Use of Imagination in the Study of History (typ, 42p, 1960s).
Why Remember the Past? (typ, 25p, 1960s).
Why We Study History (typ, 29p, 1960s).
Miscellaneous Comments: talks and short speeches, 1960s.
Thought-essays and notes, 1960s.
Evil in History (typ, 5p, BBC Television, 1970).
The Role of the Historian in History (typ, 31p, Public Record Ofce, Feb 1970).
No title: Memoirs (typ, 11p, 1970).
The Nature of Political History (ms, 34p, c1972).
Revolution (ms, 34p, Corpus Christi College, 1972).
Macaulay the Historian (typ, 6p, BBC Script, 1973).
Interviews with C. T. McIntire at Peterhouse (3 tape cassettes, c412 hours, 17 June 1975).
Interviews with C. T. McIntire at Peterhouse (9 tape cassettes, c1612 hours, 1124 May
1977).
Moral Judgments (ms, 11p, May 1977, written in response to interview with C. T.
McIntire, Peterhouse).
 Bibliography 485

No title: Memoirs: My Early Life and My Literary Productions (typ, 26p, for Ken-
neth Thompson, 1977).
No title: On religion and politics (typ, 13p, Council on Religion and International Affairs,
1977).
Journal-sheets and thought-essays (100s of pages), 1970s.
Pocket diaries: The Onoto Diary, for 1924; Cambridge Pocket Diary, for the following
years: 19281929, 19291930, 19311932, 19331934, 19341935, 19351936,
19371938, 19411942, 19441945, 19451946, 19461947, 19471948, 1948
1949, 19491950, 19501951, 19511952, 19521953, 19531954, 19541955,
19551956, 19561957, 19571958, 19581959 with Eve Bogle, 19591960,
19601961, 19611962, 19621963, 19631964, 19641965, 19651966, 1966
1967, 19671968, 19681969, 19691970, 19701971, 19711972, 19721973,
19731974, 19741975, 19751976, 19761977, 19771978, 19781979; and Eve
Bogles Cambridge Pocket Diary, for 19451946.

3. By Buttereld: Works Projected

This section attempts to list chronologically all the books that Buttereld proposed,
planned, or agreed to write or edit, but did not complete or, in some cases, begin. It also
lists the books or other major publications which others invited him to write or edit or
participate in, and which he declined. The projected works, plus the invitations declined
to write or edit works, are arranged according to the year in which the work was con-
ceived, or the invitation received.

Essays on American Relations with European States, 18481849: undertakes research in

the United States, 19241925.
Fox Biography: decision to begin 1931.
The Concise Cambridge Modern History: contract 1939.
School Text-Book on Modern European History: proposed by Cambridge University
Press; declines, 1930s.
Historical Geography of Europe: states intention to write, based on proposed course,
with manuscript The Historical Background of General Knowledge, 1943; renews
proposal to Cambridge University Press in 1964, along with proposal for a series, The
Cambridge Historical Geography.
New Cambridge Modern History: invited by Cambridge University Press to edit with
G. N. Clark, 1945; agrees and begins to plan, but then withdraws when Clark declines.
Short History of Switzerland: invited by Societ Pro Helvetia to edit; declines, recom-
mends G. R. Potter who co-authors the book, 1945.
Cambridge History of the Christian Church: invited by Norman Sykes to join planning
group in Bishop Stephen Neills rooms at Trinity, 1946; declines; project fails, but later
carried out under different direction as the Oxford History of the Christian Church.
Temperley Memoir/Biography: pledges to Dorothy to write a memoir of Temperley,
1946; proposes to Temperleys son in 1965 to make it a short biography.
Acton Diaries, 18521859: intention to edit, 1947.
486 Bibliography

Burkes Correspondence: invited by Alfred Cobban to edit the correspondence on English

Politics, Ireland, and America, 1947; declines.
Acton Essays: suggests edition to Bell Publishers, 1948.
New Cambridge Modern History: invited to contribute chapters in volumes 5 and 1,
1948 and 1951; declines.
UNESCO History: invited to participate, 1951; declines.
Burke: denies offer by Collins Publishers to write a volume for Brief Lives Series, 1951.
New History of Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: declines proposal by
Cambridge University Press, 1951.
Acton Correspondence: proposes to edit for Cambridge University Press, 1952.
Acton Biography: considers with Cambridge University Press, 1953.
England and the French Revolution, 1792: extends section intended as part 4 of George
III and the Historians, and tells Collins Publishers the book will be ready in about 18
months, 1957.
Volume on the Eighteenth Century or the Scientic Revolution: invited by Geoffrey
Barraclough to write a volume for the Thames and Hudson series on European His-
tory, 1963; declines.
History of History. Gifford Lectures: intended for publication soon after delivery, 1965
and 1966.
George III: Great Lives Observed: contract with Prentice-Hall to edit, then withdraws in
dispute over publishers contract practice, c1967.
State-Systems: proposes project to edit a volume of papers from the British Committee on
the Theory of International Relations, 1967.
World History Library, General Editorship: invited by Hamlyn Publishers to edit a 20-
volume series, 1967.
British History, 17601865: invited by Robert Blake to write volume 8 for the Granada
series on British history, 1968; declines.
The History of Diplomacy as Technique: suggests book around the time of his retirement,
prepares initial notes and brief manuscript, c19681969.
The Early Reign of George III: plan to publish a book from his lectures, 1969.
The Language and Style of Historians: invited by Faber and Faber, 1969; declines.
Collected Essays, Essays on Namier, Essays on Christianity: proposes three volumes of
collected writings to his agent A. D. Peters, 1970.
Political Biography of Fox, or Burke, or Pitt the Younger: invited by A. L. Rowse to write
a short book for the series Men and Their Times, to include a Penguin paperback
edition, 1973; declines.

4. About Buttereld, Excluding Reviews

This list presents in alphabetical order books and articles devoted to, containing sub-
stantial passages about, or making signicant reference to Buttereld. It makes no claim
to be complete, and it does not include writings that are chiey book reviews.

Anon. Herbert Buttereld. The Sex, 75 (Michaelmas term, 1922), 810.

Beales, Derek. History and Biography: An Inaugural Lecture. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1981.
 Bibliography 487

Bentley, Michael. Buttereld at the Millennium: The Sir Herbert Buttereld Lecture,
1999. Storia della Storiograa, 38 (2000), 1732.
Blaas, P. B. M. Continuity and Anachronism: Parliamentary and Constitutional Develop-
ment in Whig Historiography and the Anti-Whig Reaction between 1890 and 1930.
The Hague: Nijhoff, 1978.
Bradley, William L. The Tragic View of History, Theology and Life, 4 (1961), 305
315.
Brent, Richard. Butterelds Tories: High Politics and the Writing of British Political
History. Historical Journal, 30 (1987), 943954.
Brooke, Christopher N. L. A History of the University of Cambridge, vol. 4, 18701990.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Bultmann, Rudolf. History and Eschatology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press,
1957.
Burke, Peter. Buttereld, [Sir] Herbert, in Lucian Boia, ed.-in-chief, Great Historians
of the Modern Age: An International Dictionary. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood,
1991.
Cabral, Regis. Herbert Buttereld (190079) as a Christian Historian of Science. Stud-
ies in History and Philosophy of Science, Part A, 27 (1996), 547564.
Cannadine, David. G. M. Trevelyan: A Life in History. London: HarperCollins, 1992.
London: Penguin, 1997.
Cannon, John A. Buttereld, Herbert, in Cannon et al., eds., The Blackwell Dictionary
of Historians. New York: Blackwell, 1988. 6162.
. Teaching History at University, Teaching of History Series, 56. London: The
Historical Association, 1984.
Carr, E. H. What Is History? London: Macmillan, 1961.
Chadwick, Owen. Acton and Buttereld. Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 38 (1987),
386405.
. Freedom and the Historian: An Inaugural Lecture. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1969.
. Sir Herbert Buttereld. Cambridge Review (16 Nov 1979), 68.
Christie, Ian. George III and the HistoriansThirty Years On. History, 71 (1986),
205221.
Clive, John. Not by Fact Alone: Essays on the Writing and Reading of History. New
York: Knopf, 1989.
. The Prying Yorkshireman. New Republic (23 June 1982), 3136.
Clouse, Robert. Herbert Buttereld, in Michael Bauman and Martin Klauber, eds.,
Historians of the Christian Tradition: Their Methodology and Inuence on Western
Thought. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1995. 519529.
Cohen, I. Bernard. Revolution in Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985.
Coll, Alberto R. The Wisdom of Statecraft: Sir Herbert Buttereld and the Philosophy of
International Politics. Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1983.
. The Wisdom of Statecraft: Sir Herbert Buttereld and the Philosophy of Interna-
tional Relations. Durham: Duke University Press, 1985.
Conzemius, Victor. Sir Herbert Buttereld: Ein Dissenter in englischen Geschichts-
schreibung. Neue Burcher Zeitung (7 Oct 1975), 37.
488 Bibliography

Cosgrave, Patrick. An Englishman and His History. Spectator (28 July 1979), 2223.
. A Spectators Notebook. Spectator (8 Nov 1975), 591.
Cowling, Maurice. Buttereld, Sir Herbert. Dictionary of National Biography, 1971
1980, 1986. 116117.
. Herbert Buttereld, 19001979. Proceedings of the British Academy, 65
(1979), 595609.
[]. Professor Sir Herbert Buttereld: Sober Life and Wide Inuence. Times
(19 Nov 1979).
. Religion and Public Doctrine in England. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1980.
Cunningham, Andrew, and Perry Williams. De-centering the Big Picture: The Origins
of Modern Science and the Modern Origins of Science. British Journal for the History
of Science, 26 (1993), 407432.
Danielou, Jean. The Lord of History: Reections on the Inner Meaning of History.
London: Longmans, Green, 1958.
Derry, John. Herbert Buttereld, in John Cannon, ed., The Historian at Work. London:
George Allen and Unwin, 1980. 171187.
. Whig Interpretation of History, in Cannon et al., eds., The Blackwell Dictionary
of Historians. New York: Blackwell, 1988. 448450.
Dukelow, Owen Warner. Herbert Buttereld: The Epistemology of a Working Histo-
rian. Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1960.
Elliott, J. H., and H. G. Koenigsberger, eds. The Diversity of History: Essays in Honour
of Sir Herbert Buttereld. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970.
Elton, G. R. Herbert Buttereld and the Study of History. Historical Journal, 28
(1984), 729743. Reprinted in: G. R. Elton, Studies in Tudor and Stuart Politics and
Government, vol. 4, Papers and Reviews, 19821990. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1992.
Epp, Roger. The Augustinian Moment in International Politics: Niebuhr, Butter-
eld, Wight, and the Reclaiming of a Tradition. International Research Papers,
no. 10. Aberystwyth: Department of International Politics, University College of
Wales, 1991.
Fair, John D. Harold Temperley: A Scholar and Romantic in the Public Realm. Newark:
University of Delaware Press, 1992.
Fehl, Noah Edward. History and Society. Hong Kong: Chung Chi College, The Chinese
University of Hong Kong, 1964.
Fox, Robert. The History of Science, in Harold Perkins, ed., History: An Introduction
for the Intending Student. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970. 173186.
Fryer, Geoffry R. English Politics in the Age of Burke: Herbert Butterelds Achieve-
ment. Studies in Burke and His Time, 11 (1970), 15191542.
Gale, George. Herbert Buttereld, Historian. Encounter (Nov 1979), 8790.
Geyl, Pieter. Encounters in History. London: Collins, 1963.
Grafton, Anthony. The Footnote from de Thou to Ranke. History and Theory, 33
(Theme Issue, 1994), 5376.
Hall, A. Rupert. On Whiggism. History of Science, 21 (1983), 4559.
Harbison, E. H. Christianity and History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963.
 Bibliography 489

. The Meaning of History and the Writing of History. Church History, 21

(1952), 97107.
Hernon, Joseph M., Jr., The Last Whig Historian and Consensus History: George Ma-
caulay Trevelyan, 18761962. American Historical Review, 81 (1976), 6697.
Hinsley, F. H. A Obra do Historiador Herbert Buttereld. Correio do Vouga (28 Nov
1957).
Hobart, Michael. History and Religion in the Thought of Herbert Buttereld. Journal
of the History of Ideas, 32 (1971), 543554.
Holmer, Paul L. Historical Research and Christianity. Encounter, 20 (1959), 367372.
Inoue, Hiroshi. The Critique of Anthropology as Historical Study: Japanese, Cultural
History, and Herbert Buttereld. Ph.D. diss., University of Oregon, 1990.
Jantzen, Kyle. Herbert Buttereld, in Kelly Boyd, ed., Encyclopedia of Historians and
Historical Writing. London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999.
Jones, A. Where Governing Is the Use of Words, Historical Journal, 19 (1976), 253
254.
Kenyon, John. The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renais-
sance. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1983.
Liggio, Leonard. Herbert Buttereld: Christian Historian as Creative Critic. New Indi-
vidualist Review, 1: 3 (Nov 1961), 2632.
Lindberg, David C., and Robert S. Westman, eds. Reappraisals of the Scientic Revolu-
tion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Lindborg, Rolf. Positivism Eller Humanism? Rupert Halls Kritik av Herbert Butterelds
Ideer om en Whig-Tolkning av Historien. Lychnos 1990, 275291.
Lloyd, Roger. Herbert Buttereld. Church Times (11 Jan 1952), 24.
Lottinville, Savoie. The Rhetoric of History. Norman: Oklahoma University Press, 1976.
Marsden, George, and Frank Roberts, eds. A Christian View of History?. Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Eerdmans, 1975.
Mayer, Anna-K. Setting Up a Discipline: Conicting Agendas of the Cambridge History
of Science Committee, 19361950. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, Part
A, 31 (2000), 665689.
Mayr, Ernst. When Is Historiography Whiggish? Journal of the History of Ideas, 51
(1990), 301309.
McGee, Daniel Bennett. The Meaning of History and Political Ethics in the Thought of
Herbert Buttereld. Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1966.
McGill, William J. Herbert Buttereld and the Idea of Liberty. South Atlantic Quar-
terly, 70 (1971), 112.
McIntire, C. T. Buttereld, Herbert, in The Routledge Encyclopedia of Protestantism,
vol. 1. London: Routledge, 2003.
. Herbert Buttereld on Christianity and History, in Herbert Buttereld, Writings
on Christianity and History, ed. C. T. McIntire. New York: Oxford University Press,
1979. xilviii.
. Herbert Buttereld, Scientic and Christian. Christian History 20: 4 (Nov
2001), 4748.
. Moral Judgments in History: The Case of Herbert Buttereld. Colloquium
Paper, Department of History, University of Toronto (21 Jan 1987).
490 Bibliography

. The Ongoing Task of Christian Historiography. Toronto: Institute for Christian

Studies, 1974.
, ed. God, History, and Historians: Modern Christian Views of History. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1977.
Mehta, Ved. The Fly and the Fly-Bottle: Encounters with British Intellectuals. Boston:
Little, Brown, 1963.
. Onward and Upward with the Arts: The Flight of Crook-Taloned Birds, Part 2.
New Yorker (15 Dec 1962), 47129, especially 106129.
Meyerhoff, Hans, ed. The Philosophy of History in Our Time. Garden City, N.Y.: Dou-
bleday, 1959.
Montgomery, John Warwick, and James R. Moore, The Speck in Butterelds Eye: A
Reply to William A. Speck. Fides et Historia, 4 (1971), 7177.
Morton, Patricia M. Life after Buttereld? John Burrows Liberal Descent and the
Recent Historiography of Victorian Historians. Historical Reections/Reexions
Historiques, 10 (1983), 229244.
Neatby, Hilda. Christian Views of History: Toynbee and Buttereld. Transactions of
the Royal Society of Canada, 52, section 2 (June 1958), 3342.
Nixon, Mark. Buttereld, Herbert, 19001979. The Literary Encyclopedia and Liter-
ary Dictionary, 2003. [http://www.litencyc.com].
Norman, Edward. Christian and Sceptic. Times Higher Education Supplement (9 Dec
1983), 15.
Oldeld, Adrian, Moral Judgments in History. History and Theory, 20 (1981), 260
277.
Parker, Harold T. Herbert Buttereld, in S. W. Halperin, ed., Some Twentieth Century
Historians: Essays on Eminent Europeans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1961. 75103.
Partington, Eileen. Bibliography of Works by and about Herbert Buttereld. Project
for Diploma, University of London School of Librarianship, 1963.
Partner, Nancy. Making Up Lost Time: Writing on the Writing of History. Speculum,
61 (1986), 90117.
Patterson, Annabel. Nobodys Perfect: A New Whig Interpretation of History. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 2002.
Plumb, J. H. The Road to Professional History, in The Collected Essays of J. H. Plumb,
vol. 1, The Making of an Historian. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1988. 19.
Poe, Marshall. Butterelds Sociology of Whig History: A Contribution to the Study of
Anachronism in Modern Historical Thought. Clio: A Journal of Literature, History
and the Philosophy of History, 25 (1996), 345363.
Price, Jacob M. Party, Purpose, and Pattern: Sir Lewis Namier and His Critics. Journal
of British Studies, 1 (1961), 7193.
Reid, W. Stanford. Professor Buttereld and a Christian Interpretation of History. His,
16 (May 1956), 2325.
Rickman, H. P. The Horizons of History. Hibbert Journal, 56 (1956), 167176.
Roe, P. The Intrastate Security Dilemma: Ethnic Conict as a Tragedy. Journal of
Peace Research, 36 (1998), 183202.
 Bibliography 491

Schweizer, Karl W. Buttereld, Sir Herbert (19001979). A Global Encyclopedia of

Historical Writing. New York: Garland, 1998. 1: 126127.
. Introduction. Herbert Buttereld, Essays on the History of Science, ed. Karl W.
Schweizer. Lewiston and London: Edwin Mellen, 1998. iiixi.
Sewell, Keith C. The Concept of Technical History in the Thought of Herbert Butter-
eld. Fides et Historia, 27 (1995), 5276.
. Herbert Buttereld as Historical Detective: British Policy and the Origins of the
First World War. The History Institute of Victoria, Ninth Joyce Memorial Lecture,
University of Melbourne, 28 July 1993.
. Leading Conceptions in the Theory and Historiography of Sir Herbert Butter-
eld. M.A. thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, 1978.
. Providence and Method: Herbert Buttereld and the Interpretation of History.
Ph.D. diss., Deakin University, 1990.
. Providence and Method: Herbert Buttereld and the Interpretation of History.
Sioux Center, Iowa: By the Author, 2001.
Sharp, Paul. The English School, Herbert Buttereld, and Diplomacy. Discussion Pa-
pers in Diplomacy, 83. The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations
Clingendael, Nov 2002.
. Herbert Buttereld, the English School, and the Civilizing Virtues of Diplomacy,
International Affairs, 79 (2003), 855878.
Soffer, Reba N. The Conservative Historical Imagination in the Twentieth Century.
Albion, 28 (1996), 117.
Speck, William A. Herbert Buttereld on the Christian and Historical Study. Fides et
Historia, 4 (1971), 5070.
. The Role of the Christian Historian in the Twentieth Century as Seen in the
Writings of Kenneth Scott Latourette, Christopher Dawson, and Herbert Buttereld.
Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1965.
Thompson, Kenneth W. Buttereld, Herbert, in David L. Shils, ed., International Ency-
clopedia of Social Sciences, 18, Biographical Supplement. New York: Free Press/Mac-
millan 1979. 9197.
. Masters of International Thought. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,
1980.
, ed. Herbert Buttereld: The Ethics of History and Politics. Lanham, Md.: Univer-
sity Press of America, 1980.
Thomson, David. The Aims of History: Values of the Historical Attitude. London:
Thames and Hudson, 1969.
Thorp, Malcolm R. Herbert Buttereld and the Reinterpretation of the Christian Histori-
cal Perspective. Lewiston, Queenston, Lampeter: Edwin Mellen, 1997.
. The Inescapable Predicament: Sir Herbert Butterelds Reections on the Hu-
man Dilemma. Fides et Historia, 14 (1983), 617.
Turner, J. Munsey. The Christian and the Study of History: Sir Herbert Buttereld,
19001979. Proceedings of the Wesley Historical Society, 46 (1987), 112.
Tyson, Brady B. Herbert Butterelds Concept of International Relations: An Analysis
and Comparison of a Christian Approach. Ph.D. diss., American University, 1963.
492 Bibliography

Vigezzi, Brunello. Saggio introduttivo, in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, eds., Lespan-
sione della societ internazionale: LEuropa e il mondo dalla ne del Medioeva ai tempi
nostri. Milan: Jaca, 1994. 598.
Vincent, John. The Whig Interpretation of History: Why Buttereld Matters, in Vin-
cent, An Intelligent Persons Guide to History. London: Duckworth, 1995. 5762.
Watson, Adam. Introduction Herbert Buttereld, The Origins of History, ed. Adam
Watson. New York: Basic Books; London: Eyre and Methuen, 1981. 712.
Watson, Bernard. [Three articles on Buttereld], Vanguard [Salvation Army], (Nov and
Dec 1959 and Jan 1960).
Watson, George. The War against the Whigs: Butterelds Victory . . . and Defeat.
Encounter (Jan 1986), 1925.
Wiener, Philip P. Sir Herbert Buttereld, 19001979: In Memoriam. Journal of the
History of Ideas, 41 (1980), 157158.
Wight, Martin. History and Judgment: Buttereld, Niebuhr, and the Technical Histo-
rian. Frontier, 1: 8 (Aug 1950), 301314.
Wilson, Adrian, and T. G. Ashplant. Whig History and Present-Centred History. His-
torical Journal, 31 (1988), 116.
Windsor, Mary P. The Practitioner of Science: Everyone Her Own Historian. Journal of
the History of Biology, 34 (2001), 229245.
Winks, Robin W., ed. Herbert Buttereld on History. New York: Garland, 1985.
Wollheim, Richard. The New Conservatism in Britain. Partisan Review, 24 (1957),
539560.
Wormald, Brian. Brian Wormald Adds [addendum on Sir Herbert Buttereld]. Cam-
bridge Review (16 Nov 1979), 9.
Wright, Esmond. Professor Sir Herbert Buttereld. Contemporary Review, 253 (Dec
1979), 293295.
 Index

The index seeks to identify the principal people with whom Buttereld interacted, as well
as the principal themes and subjects that occupied his attention. Not all people or themes
mentioned in the text are cited here, and none of his book titles are included. The notes
identify the principal places where his books are cited, and the bibliography names the
people who wrote about him, most of whom are not included in the index.

Academic history. See Scientic history Barker, Ernest, 40, 84, 113, 272
Acland, Richard, 252253 Barraclough, Geoffrey, 209, 297
Acton, Lord, xi, 1516, 94, 234, 366 Beales, Derek, 285
409410; criticism of, 5556, 6061, Beloff, Max, 220
6769, 7178, 258259; impact of, Berlin, Isaiah, 209, 251252
2223, 35, 4849, 85, 109, 229; as Bogle, Eve, xix, 140143, 170171, 204,
model, 201, 238239, 258, 260261, 236, 240, 254, 266267, 271272,
324325, 366, 404, 414; preoccupa- 297, 366, 408
tion with, 100101, 139, 151, 164, Brogan, Denis, x, 110, 113, 326, 361, 397
172, 328, 333, 380, 399; research on, Brooke, Z. N., 115
141, 152, 170173; writing on, 171 Bull, Hedley, 307
172, 235240, 254264, 383384 Bultmann, Rudolf, 196
American history, 38 Burke, Edmund, 59, 61, 115, 144, 153
Annales, Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre, 89, 154, 237, 239, 291
91, 140, 217, 388 Bury, J. B., 36, 5255, 178
Ashton, T. H., 327 Butler, J. R. M, 134, 201, 267

493
494 Index

Buttereld, Ada Mary, 34, 1213, 26, relation with, 11, 54, 358360, 373,
233234 375376, 414
Buttereld, Albert, 26, 16, 39, 60, 104, Civilization, 55, 159, 178, 244247,
235, 328, 375, 423; inuence, 1114, 260, 293; diffusion of, from higher to
2426, 104, 125126, 135, 204, 233 lower, 46, 3840, 125127, 305,
234, 410 358, 374375; as a unity, 9091, 94,
Buttereld family, xvixvii, 3, 233234, 151152, 241, 317, 336, 388392
266267, 366367; sons, 8687, Clark, G. N. 90, 133, 152154, 280,
140141, 202, 204, 240, 265268, 327328, 450
366, 372 Commager, Henry Steele, 136, 272
Buttereld, Pamela, Lady (Edith Joyce Communism, 102103, 156, 220, 370
Crawshaw), xviiixix, 4950, 52, 204, 371; Soviet Union, 176, 202203,
270272, 340, 361363, 400 243246, 251, 303315, 354. See
Marxist interpretation of history
Cambridge University, xi, 1415, 7677, Cowling, Maurice, xii, 80, 201, 237
274, 409410; and degrees, 26, 41 238, 270, 326
42; and Faculty of History, xii, 51, 87,
93, 100, 109, 133134, 241, 315 Diplomatic history, xiv, 18, 2728, 203,
318, 328329, 377, 410, 421, 463; 350, 356358, 384, 409; as model, 42,
and vice-chancellor, xiii, 318325, 376 88, 137138, 242, 261, 275278,
Carr, E. H., 57, 80, 118121, 134, 306 345346, 353358, 387389, 411
307, 430, 438 Dissent, xivxv, xx, 39, 76, 176, 220
Chadwick, Owen, xviiixix, 154, 322, 221, 228229, 244245, 267, 273,
325, 328, 361, 384, 417 412417; insurgent Christianity as,
Chesterton, G. K., 29, 45 297300, 315; intellectual, 2526, 58,
Christian historian, 20, 5860, 208209, 97, 140, 242, 261, 302; political,
251252, 262263, 398400, 415; social, 41, 7980, 105106, 112, 131,
Christian shaping of historical study, 170, 202203, 313315; religion as,
67, 76, 195201, 225233, 242, xv, 38, 7172, 126128, 297300,
262264, 393395, 407409; self- 314315, 324325, 346, 358360,
disclosure, 131132, 174178; credo, 363, 375376; teaching as, 8586; at
7376, 177178, 297300, 315, the top, xv, 322. See Christian histo-
347, 377378, 414. See Dissent; rian; Teetotaler
Methodist Dualism, 193195, 208209, 230233,
Christian interpretation of history, 126 262266, 287, 301302, 411412;
132, 174201, 207, 227, 296, 339, history-nature, 184; freedom-necessity,
393, 397400, 408 284; morality-history, 7476, 116, 213,
Christianity in history, xiii, 196, 228 310; religious-material, 41, 197, 346,
229, 392392 391; spiritual-mundane, 213, 391;
Church history, 36, 40, 61, 94, 177, 228 inner-outer, 4345, 179187, 213
229
Church of England, Anglican, 72, 86, Editor, of journal, 100, 110, 235236; of
126127, 273, 300, 315, 363; Peter- books, 8889, 171, 229, 236240,
house Chapel, 24, 36, 274, 398, 410; 333, 386
 Index 495

English history, 1921, 5859, 7172, Gooch, G. P., 21, 23, 106, 110, 171, 206,
87, 121132, 152, 229, 315316; 356, 366, 383
eighteenth century studies, 52, 6061,
140150, 204, 345, 409. See Fox, Hinton, R. W. K., 272
Charles James; George III; Whig inter- Historian, xvivii, 1, 810, 3034, 394,
pretation of history 398, 409; becoming a, 19, 2127, 35,
41, 4950
Fox, Charles James, xiii, 60, 409; impedi- Historical geography, 90, 94, 114115,
ments, 87, 132, 163, 217, 239240, 167, 333, 384
265, 278, 338, 360; research on, 78 Historical novel, xii, 2, 8, 23, 2934, 60,
84, 140143, 202, 210, 235236, 263
240, 326327, 432, 439; writing on, Historical process, 1, 29, 4445, 54,
143144, 281, 290291, 330331, 185190, 230233, 263; various
379381 understandings of, 32, 6267, 73, 92,
Francis, Carey, 37, 135 185186, 189190, 217218, 291.
French history, 112113, 115, 282, 290, See Providence
331, 381. See Napoleon Bonapart Historical study, 3033, 43, 6162, 137
140, 178182; limits of, 31, 72, 116,
Galinsky, Hans K. 107108, 137 173. See Scientic history; Technical
General history, xiixiii, 52, 6667, 87 history
94, 138140, 144146, 335, 357, Historical thinking, ixx, 21, 2930, 58,
410411; European, 87, 9394, 111, 106, 157160, 292293, 334345;
150154, 315318; world, 140, 293 importance of, xiixiii, 67, 76, 177,
297, 389392; writing on, 100101, 210, 238239, 265, 278, 306, 348,
136137, 202, 235, 240241, 254, 362, 403409; sources of, 166167,
262264, 276, 330333, 338. See 203, 306, 365366; use of, 4647,
World history, global historiography 6162, 99100, 253254, 259261.
George III, 20, 142150, 331333, 360, See History of historiography
381, 414; early reign of, xiv, 8284, History of historiography, xii, 106, 213,
345, 381383; historiography of, 241242, 334345; method, 255
278291, 383 256, 259261, 278279, 283285,
Germany, 67, 110115, 188189, 191, 334; as science, 257; as writing on,
224, 355, 396; against negative atti- 253265, 276, 296297, 364, 391
tudes to, 137, 165168, 171176, 392, 406407. See George III; World
242246, 256257, 308, 337, 340 history, global historiography
341, 349, 356, 409; visits to, 106109, History of ideas, xiii, 384385
168, 207, 330, 357. See Nazis History of science, xiii, 9091, 94, 153
Geyl, Pieter, 209, 262263 163, 204, 207, 400
God in history, xiv, 184, 192193, 207, Hitler, Adolf, 106114, 127, 176, 187,
213, 294295; experience of, 4041, 220221, 225, 251, 354. See Nazis
103104, 178; as nal judge, 6870, Honours, xixii, 413; Festschrift, 365;
167; and systematic theory, 230233, honourary degrees, 254, 267, 301,
247, 263, 301, 416417 329330, 357, 365; knighthood, 361
God in nature, 184, 294 362; other awards, 37, 367368, 379;
496 Index

Honours (continued) 247248, 301304; and revolution,

prizes, 1920, 2829, 34, 36, 410; 303304, 311312, 369371. See
scholarships, 6, 910, 14 Maxims
Lecturer, ix, 40, 204, 207210, 235; on
Idea(s) of history, 2930, 292297, 335 Christianity and history, 174177, 298
Imagination, imaginative sympathy, 31 300; on diplomacy and war, 241242;
33, 45, 66, 180, 185187, 194, 213 on historiography, 253254, 339340;
214, 219, 226227 and lecture style, 5152, 8586, 156,
Individual(s), xiv, 194, 212, 221, 263, 177, 204, 210, 310, 331, 371; on mod-
348349, 393; individualism as doc- ern science, 155157; and publications,
trine of, 3, 129, 197199, 301302, 208; as public lecturer, 135, 137, 164,
309, 324325, 354356, 409; as real, 173, 275276, 309, 329330, 364,
182186, 216217, 229233, 246, 378380; as university lecturer, 49, 51
299300; writing on, 276278 52, 8788, 9394, 114, 137
Intellectual biography, xvxx Liberty, history of, 7, 910, 55, 6364,
International theory, international rela- 71, 171, 212213; as English liberty,
tions, xi, xiii, 213, 253, 300315, 331, 7, 115117, 122, 144145, 229, 305,
345353; balance of power, 308, 345, 356, 373. See Acton, Lord; Whig inter-
384385; raison detat, 385; scientic pretation of history
approach to, 98, 203, 207, 230, 242 Lovatt, Roger, 326
24, 306, 309315, 357; states-system, Love, 211213, 228229, 377; as
246250, 331, 345, 351353; writing charitable-mindedness, 212, 221, 302
on 242253, 301, 304305, 309, 407.
See War Machiavelli, Nicolo, xiii, 8384, 98
Interpretation of history, 21, 66, 95, 195, 101, 111112, 137, 141, 146147,
207. See Christian interpretation of 306, 369, 414
history; Marxist interpretation of Mack Smith, Denis, 135, 266267, 272
history Marxist interpretation of history, 9193,
102, 173, 176, 213217; as example,
Jews, Judaism, 177, 211212, 223224, 9598, 181; as inuence, 123124,
273, 288, 294295, 299, 393, 397 230, 306, 369; and Marxism, 102, 205
Maxims, 71, 98100, 112, 247250,
Keighley, Yorkshire, 2, 37, 233, 270, 319, 357, 389, 393; as explanation,
409; Keighley Trade and Grammar 146147, 248249, 308, 346347; as
School, 610, 17, 8687, 154, 423 theory, 300306, 349353, 369371.
Kitson Clark, George, 87, 315318, 328 See Machiavelli
Knowles, David, 135136, 272, 326, McKinnon, Donald, 306307
328, 361; as friend, 135, 171, 237, Medlicott, W. M., 169170, 276277
240, 267269, 315318, 365, 384, Method, historical, xii, 145146, 278
397 279, 348349, 356357, 410411;
and diversity of, 277278, 288, 387
Languages, xii, 8, 258 389, 394, 410411, 414; and journal-
Laski, Harold, 109 sheets, 365366, 377378; as micro-
Laws in history, 5354, 95, 230233, scopic research, 4243, 8082, 141
 Index 497

142, 145146, 202, 238, 258; on mod- Oxenhope, Yorkshire, xi, xix, 214, 16,
ern science, 155157; as reading, 175, 26, 3637, 3940, 60, 356, 363, 375,
339340, 344345, 396; and thought- 410, 423
essays, 5456, 104, 251, 366, 398. See
Diplomatic history; Political history; Personality, 33, 39, 111, 177, 183185;
Stereoscopic vision; Technical history and Christianity, 128129; and his-
Methodist, xi, xv, 314315, 347, 375 tory, 4547, 50, 64, 143, 299; and per-
376, 407409, 414; as chapel or sonalism, 103106, 409; and person-
church, 23, 1014, 86, 363364, ality type, 412. See Individual(s)
398; as identity, 16, 26, 3738, 267, Peterhouse, ix, xi, 1426, 37, 80, 154,
298300, 324325, 358360, 372. 398, 409; and Fellow, 35, 40, 84, 109
See Dissent; Preacher; Wesley House; 110, 203, 272; and historians, 40, 84
Wesley Methodist 85, 109110, 135136, 272273,
Moral judgments, xiv, 5556, 6773, 325326, 361; and Honourary Fellow,
186189, 208209, 219225, 399 361; and Master, xi, 268275, 306
400; and amorality, 209, 251252, 307, 315, 318, 325, 328, 360362; as
411; and contemporary history, 104 model, 368369; and student, 2, 10,
109, 164165, 171172, 302303; 14, 1722, 26; and studentship, 26,
and historical study, 213, 411. See 3435
Acton, Lord Plumb, J. H., 86, 150, 206, 279280,
315318, 325, 328, 397
Namier, Lewis, 146, 149, 206, 217, 279 Political history, xiii, 275278, 353358,
293, 326, 332, 386; and method, 80 388392, 409, 411, 414415. See
83, 332, 335336, 383. See George III Diplomatic history
Napoleon Bonaparte, xiixiii, 20, 7071, Politics, xvxvi, 131, 314, 345348,
8081, 134, 176, 243, 414; research 358360, 367368, 373375; and
on, 2728, 4143; writing on, 4349, options, 1011, 25, 102106, 252
60, 8384, 101, 108115, 127 253, 304305; and quietism, 102
Narrative, 4547, 137138, 143145, 106. See New Whig
284, 291, 306, 409; and past and pres- Postan, M. M., 84, 110, 135, 272, 326,
ent, 6166; and political history, 388 361
390; as story structure, 6972, 157, Potter, G. R., 21, 154
180, 277, 392393. See Diplomatic Preacher, 2324, 7576, 178, 207, 210,
history; Political history 321325, 335; aspiration to be, 2, 14
Nazis, 102, 106109, 127, 137, 165 17, 21, 26, 41, 50; as lay preacher, 2,
168, 176, 220225, 308, 348. See Hit- 1314, 24, 3637, 3940, 103104,
ler, Adolf 137; and preaching the Gospel, 174
Needham, Joseph, 155, 161, 337 175, 233, 298300, 407409. See
New Whig, xvi, 5960, 76, 119122, Methodist
131, 409, 422, 430; and historical Predicament, 165, 173174, 177, 185
study, 149, 287288; and social 186, 207; in world affairs, 203, 244
change, 305, 322, 375. See Politics 246, 310315
Niebuhr, Reinhold, 175, 199, 207, 209, Previte-Orton, 10, 100, 110, 240
253, 268, 301312, 329 Princeton, 3739, 41, 202
498 Index

Professor of Modern History, xi, 110, ituality, 376; and Whig interpretation,
133, 137140, 163, 170, 203, 241, 270 60, 76, 119, 171173. See Acton,
Providence, xiv, 7374, 127128, 189 Lord; Knowles, David
193; as constant, 1, 11, 39, 174, 177,
198, 207, 210. See God in history Sawston, Cambridgeshire, xi, xix, 363
364, 398
Ranke, Leopold von, xi, 330, 404, 409 Scientic history, xiv, 3233, 199, 207,
411; impact of, 2223, 30, 4849, 94, 254265, 354355, 404407, 409;
170172, 178, 200; as model, 42, 53, and Christianity, 226228; denition
68, 290, 353355, 368, 400; writing of, 179182, 261264; as nal, 256
on, 254255, 263264. See Scientic 259, 264, 286, 343, 382385; as
history induction, 98100; as linked with
Reconciler, historian as, 7575, 97, 146, laws, 5354, 230233; as model, 337
196197, 372373, 389, 416417; 344, 352, 404405, 415; as neutral to
and the reconciliation of opposites, religion and politics, 37, 72, 94100,
5154, 195197, 226. See Love; Ster- 113116, 165166, 176, 180181,
eoscopic vision 196197, 200201, 346, 394; as
Regius Professor of Modern History, xi, research and criticism, 53, 94. See His-
267269, 315318, 328329, 331, tory of historiography; Technical
355, 360361, 411, 417 history
Religion, the historians, xiiixiv, 61, Sedgwick, R. R., 21, 282, 285287, 291
126132, 172177, 195, 415; and his- Sin, 105106, 129131, 165, 187, 191,
torical study, 181182, 197201. See 211, 251, 302, 313; cupidity, 131, 173,
Christian historian 176177, 185, 211, 370, 393
Research students, 86, 135136, 163, Smyth, Charles, 5960, 120, 430
204, 278, 325, 410, 456; and Fest- Social class, 4142, 358, 374375; as
schrift, 365; and support, 86, 110, gentleman class, 17, 21, 2425, 27,
135, 272, 285, 316317, 321 8687, 135, 270; and history, 123
Rockefeller Foundation, 253, 300; and 126, 246247; as working class, xi, 2
the America Committee on the Theory 6, 1617, 270, 361
of International Relations, 301306, Spirituality, 14, 2425, 4041, 299,
309, 312; and the British Committee 376378, 393, 409
for the Theory of International Rela- State, society, 197198, 301302, 314
tions, 300301, 306309, 328, 345 315, 346347, 354355, 376, 391
353, 360361, 384; and Villa Ser- 393, 410; and nominalism, 183, 197
belloni, 330, 335, 340, 372, 375, 396. 198; as provisionally real, 373374;
See International theory, international as unreal, 183186, 212, 229, 246,
relations 287, 309310, 324325, 414. See
Roman Catholic(s), 7, 11, 29, 228, 236, Individual(s)
239, 273, 300, 363; and family, Stereoscopic vision, 2526, 5354, 97,
friends, 267269; in history, 7172, 146, 373376, 416417. See Recon-
148, 258259, 311312, 392; and ciler, historian as
individualism, 324325; as instances,
9596, 181, 225, 262263; and spir- Tawney, R. H., 136, 272, 327
 Index 499

Taylor, A. J. P., 170, 209, 327, 364365 bombs, 111; Great War of 19141919,
Technical history, 116, 225, 252, 278, Seven Years War, 256258; Vietnam
294, 354356, 411, 415; and Chris- War, 347348, 367; and wars for righ-
tianity, 193197; denition of, 179 teousness, 242250; World War I, xi,
181, 213219, 261264; and histo- xiv, 67, 14, 87, 165166, 256, 356
rians, 167170, 262, 328; as neutral to 358; World War II, 7, 101102, 109
religion and politics, 198199, 208 116, 132. See International theory
209, 213219, 225229, 262263, Ward, Adolphus, 1516, 22, 24, 3738,
367368, 394395. See Scientic 270
history Watson, Adam (John), 304, 307, 398,
Teetotaler, 11, 16, 26, 35, 39, 49, 271, 400401
274, 320321, 375. See Dissent Wesley House, 26, 36, 274, 315; teaching
Temperley, Harold, xi, 2426, 327328, in, 36, 40, 61, 137
356, 383, 385386, 424, 426; and Wesley Methodist Church, 24, 36, 40,
biography, 134, 327328; impact of, 104, 203204, 274, 315
1522, 90, 178, 206, 353355, 410; Whig historians, Whig politicians, 7, 59,
as Master, 109110, 270; as Professor, 6169, 78, 117121, 305, 308, 317,
53, 87, 109110, 133, 275; as sup- 370
porter, 26, 35, 3738, 40, 48, 100; as Whig interpretation of history, 9597,
teacher, 1719, 2729, 4143, 85 117122, 205, 290; denition of, 58
Thompson, Kenneth, 253, 301, 306 59, 62; and Whiggish history, the
Toynbee, Arnold, 178, 206, 209, 230, Whiggish fallacy, ixx, 63, 67, 108
327, 329; as critic, 159160, 182, 344; 109, 116, 145146, 160162, 205
impact of, 8991, 295297, 338, 352 206; writing on, 5677. See New Whig
353 Wight, Martin, 177, 199, 208209, 251,
Trevelyan, George Macaulay, 7677, 87, 306307, 348349, 353
106, 178, 280, 326328; and history Williams, Desmond, 169170, 306, 348
as literature, 5255; impact of, 4849, Womens history, women, 15, 35, 368
90, 143; as supporter, 7879, 109, 369, 387, 389, 394
133134, 170171, 201, 210 World Council of Churches, 314
Trevor-Roper, Hugh, 327, 417 World history, global historiography, xii,
140, 152, 200, 293297, 304315,
Undergraduate teaching, 1719, 8586 333; and China, xiii, 314, 336338,
University education, xiiixiv, 319325, 342345, 390, 396397, 400401,
367368 414415; and historical writing, 334
353, 370371, 389391, 395398;
Vellacott, Paul, 17, 24, 37, 40, 84, 93; and India, 8485, 199, 314, 336339,
impact of, 17, 136, 268, 270, 318; as 397; and Islam, 72, 200, 214, 228,
Master, 110, 136, 268, 270, 318; as 396, 401, 414415
supporter, 21, 7879, 106, 154, 235, Wormald, Brian, 8586, 110, 266267,
237, 240, 254 278
Writer, 35, 5052, 204,404407; aspira-
War, 191, 242; and the bomb, 166167, tion to be, 12, 14, 21, 23; style, 33
312315, 346347, 350, 407; and 34, 4748, 5657, 219, 226