Manual Electron Diffraction

i
The University of New Mexico

Dept. of Physics and Astronomy
PHYSICS 307L: Junior Laboratory
Fall 2006
Professor Michael Gold
office: 1111 (277-2086) , lab: 131 (277-3604)
E-mail: mgold@unm.edu
ii
Contents
0.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 The Oscilloscope 7
1.1 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Review of Basic Oscilloscope Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Basic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Bandwidth and Risetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Controls and Operating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4 Applications and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 The Ratio e/m for Electrons 15

2.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Qualitative Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Electron Diffraction 21
3.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Important Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.6 Data Taking and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4 Balmer Series 27
4.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
iii
4.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Calibration of the Spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4 The Hydrogen Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.5 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5 Planck’s Constant 31
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 Background Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2.1 Planck’s Quantum Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2.2 The Photoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.3 The h/e Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 Equipment and Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3.1 Using the Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4 Experiment 1: The Photon Theory of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.5 Experiment 2: Determination of h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.5.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.5.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.6 Technical Information on the h/e Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6 Excitation and Ionization Energies of Neon 41

6.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.4 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.5 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7 Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) 49

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.1.1 ESR in Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.1.2 ESR in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.1.3 ESR in Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2 The ESR Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2.1 The Probe Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2.2 Helmholtz Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3 Basic ESR Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.3.1 Required Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
iv
7.3.2 Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4 Taking ESR Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.5 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8 Poisson Statistics 59
8.1 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.2 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9 Mass of the Electron 61

9.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10 The Speed of Light c 65

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
10.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
A General References 73
B Tables 75
C “Energy Levels in helium...”, Am J. Phys Vol 49 No 3, March 1981 83
D “Determination of the rest-mass energy of the electron...”, Am J. Phys

Vol 45 No 11, Nov. 1977 89
E Interactions of Electrons and Photons with Matter 93
F Radiation Dosages 103
v
Introduction 1
1. Purpose of this Course:

Physics is science, hence based on experiment. The majority of research physicists do
experiments and make measurements. This course is meant as an introduction to modern
experimental techniques.
In this course you will:
• apply the theory you have learned in the real (experimental) world;
• learn how to use various types of hardware, instrumentation, and software;
• learn basic statistics, error analysis, and determination of statistical and systematic
errors;
• perform the best possible (i.e. the most precise and accurate) experiment within
the constraints of the available resources (equipment, time, etc.) - just like in real
research!
2. General Information:
Prerequisite: exposure to Modern Physics at the P330 level. Please consult the instructor
if you have not taken this course.
Weekly lecture: M, 13:00-13:50, room 5. This lecture will cover (at an introductory and
practical level) basic electronics, error analysis and statistics as well as essential elements
of the laboratory physics and apparatus. If possible, a brief introduction to the use of
MatLab for graphing and fitting of data will also be given. The course schedule
http://www-hep.phys.unm.edu/∼gold/phys307L/schedule.html
will be continuously updated.

Lab: M/W 14:00-16:50 rooms 116, 135. You nominally sign up for one of the two sessions.
You are expected to show up well-prepared for the lab so that you should be able to
complete the data collection for most the experiments in one afternoon session.
Perform the experiments with a partner, but keep your own lab notebook, do your own
data analysis and write your own lab reports.
Except for the oscilloscope experiment we have only one set-up per experiment. Therefore
you have to sign-up (with the TA or instructor) for an experiment the week before starting
2 Introduction
it. Please keep in mind the schedule– it is your responsibility to complete the experiments
on time!
3. Preparation for each Experiment:

The key to this course is to read and study the write-up (including reference material)
before coming to the laboratory. (It will be obvious to the instructor when you haven’t
done this!) You may want to look at the apparatus of your next experiment in the
week before actually doing it. Remember that you have limited time to spend for the
performance of an experiment - do not spend this valuable time on preparations which
should be done prior to coming into the lab.
4. Lab notebook
Data and observations must be recorded in a lab notebook: The notebook must be
bound and have numbered pages. Pages are not to be torn out; any pages that have a line
drawn through will be ignored. The first page will be an index for your experiments 1-10.
Each experiment must begin on a new page and be labeled by its number, date started,
and lab partner. All raw data must appear in the notebook, as well as a description of
the apparatus, observations, calculations and answers to questions regardless of whether a
formal write-up is being done for this experiment. This log will be examined periodically
and it has to be handed in together with the final lab report at the end of the semester.
Introduction 3
5. Guidelines for writing lab reports:

The lab report is an exercise in critical thinking and scientific writing, as well as
usage of the English language. Lab reports must be typed. No handwritten reports will
be accepted . When relevant, hand-drawn sketches of the experimental apparatus are
acceptable.
#1 Abstract:
A concise (short paragraph) statement of the objective of the experiment, the results
(including errors and accepted values if relevant) and the conclusion. Should include one
or both of the following sentences:
”We have measured q = (xx ± yy)x10z [unit] in [excellent, good, fair, poor] agreement
of the accepted value v [unit]”.
”Our experimental test of the hypothesis h yields a value of [chisq/degree of freedom],

in agreement with the hypothesis at a confidence level of xx %”.
#2 Introduction:
Explain the goals of the experiment. What is the scientific reason for doing the
experiment?
#3 Method:
Briefly describe the apparatus and procedure. This should not be a repeat or summary
of the lab manual, but rather a reflection of your understanding of what the important
components are and how they work. Imagine that you were designing the experiment.
For example, how would you design the Helmholtz coils?
#4 Calibrations:
Explain what calibrations are necessary. Discuss how calibrations were done. Dis-
play calibration data in a table. Describe and include any fits that were done to obtain
calibration constants. Include an estimate of the systematic error, for example from the
error on the fit to a slope.
#5 Data:
Briefly describe how the data was taken, including choice of data points. Present
the raw data in a well organized table or tables. Derive and discuss any formulas
used in applying calibrations and calculating derived quantities from your data. Present
calibrated and derived data in a table or tables.
#6 Analysis and Results:

4 Introduction
Describe any analysis (calculations of averages, graphs, fits, etc.) done to obtain
your final results for parameters measured and/or hypotheses tested (e.g., de Broglie).
Discuss in detail your calculations of statistical and systematic errors. Include a list
of systematic errors considered and discuss how each was estimated.
#7 Conclusions:
Compare your results with expected values and/or discuss how well hypotheses were
verified. Answer all questions in the lab manual or additional questions asked by the
instructor. What is the major source of systematic error that you have considered? If
necessary, conjecture on additional systematics that you did not have time to investigate.
Speculate on the cause of any discrepancies, and suggest further experimentation that
might resolve such discrepancies.
Introduction 5
5. List of Experiments:
The following 10 experiments are to be done this semester1
• The oscilloscope
• e/m Ratio for Electrons (dark)
• Electron Diffraction (very dark, and works marginally)
• Balmer Series (dark)
• Planck’s Constant (dark)
• Excitation Levels of Neon
• Electron Spin Resonance
• Poisson Statistics (MCA)
• Mass of the Electron (MCA)
• Speed of Light (MCA)
Important Notes: The oscilloscope experiment must be done first. It is recommended

that the next four experiments which are less challenging be done next. (They require a
dark room and are set up in room 135.) The last three use a computer interfaced multi-
channel (pulse-height) analyzer (MCA). Take time to read the technical information on
this instrument and to familiarize yourself with its operation. The Poisson statistics and
electron mass are easist to do sequentially as they use the same equipment.
It is recommended that you do some quick data analysis while you’re still taking data,
i.e. using some of your measured numbers calculate a couple final results. This way you
can check right away whether your results are more or less as expected.
1
The five underlined exeriments are to be written up as formal lab reports.
6 Introduction
6. Requirements/Grade:
Complete all 10 experiments, which should not take you more than about 12-13 after-
noons. We like to emphasize quality over quantity. This pace allows you to take additional
data on any given experiment if your analysis reveals problems with your initial data set.
You will formally write up only 5 of the 10 experiments. The grade will be based primarily
on the five lab reports (underlined in the above list). Also important is the completeness
of your lab book, In addition, general performance in the lab will be considered. There
will be no midterm, but there will be a comprehensive final exam, in which you will be
expected to demonstrate understanding and successful completion of all 10 experiments
undertaken. More details on the final exam will be given later.
Experiment 1
The Oscilloscope
1.1 Preface
This simple experiment will help you gain familiarity with one of the most useful and
most widely used instruments in any physics lab, the oscilloscope. In addition, you will
compare the oscilloscope with the digital multimeter (DMM).
1.2 Review of Basic Oscilloscope Functions

1.2.1 Basic Structure
Despite its apparent complexity, the oscilloscope, in its most frequent application, may
simply be considered as a voltmeter which visually displays the input voltage signal as a
curve in time. Visual representation of the signal is provided by means of a cathode-ray
tube (CRT) and two pairs of deflecting electrode plates which control the vertical and
horizontal movement of the CRT electron beam. When a signal appears at the input, it
is first amplified, then split in two. One part is applied to the vertical-deflection plates,
while the other is used to trigger a generator which applies a linear ramp voltage to the
horizontal-deflection plates. This latter voltage causes the beam to be swept horizontally
across the screen at a constant speed. Since the beam is now also being deflected vertically
in proportion to the input signal, a curve representing the waveform of the signal in time
is produced. This is the simplest and most important operation mode of the oscilloscope.
Examples of further applications are given later.
1.2.2 Bandwidth and Risetime

One of the most important operating characteristics of the oscilloscope is the bandwidth
of the vertical amplifier. This parameter essentially governs how fast a signal can be
7
8 Oscill0scope
accepted and correctly displayed by the oscilloscope without distortion. This is especially
important for signals from detectors such as photomultipliers which can emit pulses of
nanosecond risetime. Because of the finite bandwidth of the amplifier, the oscilloscope
has an intrinsic risetime of its own, i.e. a signal with a perfectly vertical rising edge (0
risetime) will be displayed as a signal with a finite risetime (tosc ). A rough relation between
the bandwidth and this risetime is given by the formula tosc [ns] = 350/f3db [M Hz], where
f3db is the bandwidth of the oscilloscope in Megahertz. The risetime displayed for a signal
with a risetime tpulse will thus be a combination of the risetime of the pulse and the
oscilloscope risetime. An approximate formula for tdisp is given by t2disp = t2pulse + t2osc . A
3 ns risetime pulse on a 100 MHz oscilloscope (→ 3.5 ns risetime) will thus be displayed
as a pulse with a 4.6 ns risetime. Similarly, if a 10 ns risetime is measured on the same
oscilloscope, the true risetime of the signal is tpulse = 9.4 ns.
1.2.3 Controls and Operating Modes

Input Coupling
As in any good voltmeter, the input impedance of the oscilloscope is very high (make sure
you understand why!), usually 1M Ω, in parallel with a small capacitance on the order
of 10-20 pF. For fast signal viewing from 50Ω cables, some oscilloscopes also provide a
switch which allows selection of a 50Ω input impedance so as to obviate cable termination.
Otherwise this termination can easily be achieved with a BNC T and a 50Ω terminator
- make sure you know how this is done. On most oscilloscopes two (sometimes more)
inputs are available allowing the simultaneous display of several signals. Depending on
how triggering is performed, this allows a visual comparison of two or more signals. At
each input, the type of coupling may be selected:
AC - In this mode any constant dc level is suppressed and only nonzero ac frequencies
are displayed.
DC - dc constant levels, as well as ac frequencies are displayed. Thus varying signals
superimposed onto a constant dc level may be seen.
GND - The input signal is directly shunted to ground.
Vertical and Horizontal Sensitivity

VERTICAL SENSITIVITY - This controls the vertical scale. On most oscilloscopes a
vernier control is available which allows a continuous adjustment between the indicated
markings. Note that these markings are only valid when the vernier is in the calibrated
position!
TIME - This determines the speed at which the beam is swept across the screen and
thus the horizontal scale. Again, the indicated settings are only valid in the calibrated
Oscilloscope 9
position.
DELAYED SWEEP - In this mode the time sweep is made after a certain delay time
determined by the delay setting dial.
EXTERNAL X - When in this position, the time base generator is disconnected allowing
the horizontal deflection of the beam to be controlled by an external voltage applied at
the EXT-X or channel-2 input.
Triggering(Synchronization)
Triggering or synchronization is the most important adjustment to be made when using

the oscilloscope. As we have seen, the horizontal sweep of the oscilloscope is activated only
when there is a triggering signal satisfying certain conditions. This triggering signal may
be the input signal itself or some other external signal, depending on the mode selected.
The conditions for a trigger include the slope of the signal and its amplitude. In this
manner a precise point on the signal may be selected for the beginning of the sweep. For
a repetitive signal such as a sine wave, for example, this produces a steady trace on the
display screen, always starting at the same point on the signal.
Signal Source
INTERNAL - Triggering is done by the input signal itself as outlined above. This is the
normal mode of operation.
EXTERNAL - Triggering is made by an externally applied signal at the EXT. Trig. input.
LINE - Triggering is made on the ac line voltage.
T rigger Conditions
SLOPE - Selects the slope of the signal on which triggering should be made. Normally,
positive signals are triggered on the positive slope and negative signals on the negative
slope.
LEVEL or THRESHOLD - This defines the voltage level at which triggering of the sweep
begins. Signals not reaching this minimum level are therefore not displayed. For most
beginners, failure to obtain a trace is usually due to setting this level incorrectly.
T rigger M odes
NORMAL - In this mode no sweep is made unless a triggering signal satisfying the desired
conditions is present. At all other times the screen remains blank.
AUTO - A continuous sweep is performed even if no signal is present at the input. This
is useful for finding the trace and adjusting its position on the screen. When a signal is
present, synchronization is as in the normal mode.
SINGLE SWEEP - Only one single sweep is made.
EXTERNAL or X-INPUT - In this position the internal ramp generator is disconnected
and the horizontal movement of the beam is controlled by the voltage at the X-input.
10 Oscill0scope
Figure 1.1: Normal signal viewing
Display Modes
CHANNEL 1 - Displays channel 1 only.
CHANNEL 2 - Displays channel 2 only.
ALTERNATE - Displays channels 1 and 2 on alternate sweeps, i.e. one f ull sweep is made
alternatively for each channel. This mode is useful for comparing the relation between
two signals.
CHOP - In this mode the display is alternated between channels 1 and 2 during a sweep.
This is usually done at a high frequency on the order of 500 kHz. The two signals are
thus “chopped” in appearance.
ADD - The signals in channels 1 and 2 are added and displayed.
1.2.4 Applications and Examples

Signal Viewing
Figure 1.1 shows the scheme for normal signal viewing. If no signal is observed, check
the following (not necessarily in the order listed!)
1) Check slope and trigger level.
2) Check that the trigger is on internal (or external, if that is what you are using).
3) Is the trace positioned on the screen? Put on Auto (if not already) and position
trace with the horizontal and vertical position knobs. If there is still no trace, check the
Oscilloscope 11
Figure 1.2: setting a coincidence
intensity.
4) Check the horizontal and vertical scales. Are they about the right order of magnitude
for the signal you are observing?
5) Check that the input is not on OFF or GND.
6) Are you sure of your input signal? Try one that you know exists.
Comparison of Signals
Signals may be compared in time and amplitude using the setup in Fig. 1.2. The
oscilloscope sweep is triggered by either A or B according to the selection on the trigger
source. With the display on Alternate, the relation in time of the second signal can be
seen. This is the usual method for setting coincidences.
If the oscilloscope is not equipped with two channels an alternate scheme is to use the
external trigger, shown in Fig. 1.3.
A second example of signal comparison is checking the threshold of a discriminator
or setting the levels of a Single Channel Analyzer (SCA). This is shown in Fig. 1.4. The
output of the SCA or discriminator is used to trigger the scope for viewing the linear
signal. Note that a delay must be added in order to take into account the processing time
of the SCA or discriminator. Quite
obviously only those linear signals which pass through the discriminator will be displayed
since only these signals will have a trigger. In this way a certain amplitude may be selected
12 Oscill0scope
Figure 1.3: using the external trigger
or the level of the discriminator checked with respect to the noise.
1.3 Procedure
Review Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s two laws, and simple circuit analysis. You will need to be
thoroughly familiar with those topics. In class we will also discuss the idea of complex
impedance for AC circuits – resistance (R) and reactance (X): Z(ω) = R + iX(ω). In this
formalism, one can apply Kirchoff’s laws to AC circuits with capacitors and inductors just
for DC circuits with resistors. The current and voltage are now frequency dependent (the
real part of complex V,I). Pure capacitive elements contribute a reactance to the circuit
X = 1/(iωC), and pure inductive elements a reactance X = iωL.
You will be using the Heathkit ET-1000 Circuit Design Trainer from the 308 lab of
next semester as a signal generator and a power supply. Familiarize yourself with its
layout and its options. Also make sure that any potential switch on the scope probe is in
the ×1 position.
1. Start by examining a low DC voltage (say +5 V) on the scope. Then examine sine
Oscilloscope 13
Figure 1.4: setting the levels of a discriminator (SCA)
and triangular waves of different frequencies, and compare the measured frequency
with the dial setting on the Heath Trainer. Always compare your measured result
with your expectation.
2. Compare (for relatively low frequencies, ≈ 100 Hz) the sine wave on the scope with
the DMM reading of the same sine wave. Why are the two measurements different,
i.e. what is actually measured in the two instruments? For the scope measurements
is there any noticeable difference between using AC and DC coupling?
3. Study the difference between AC and DC coupling by looking at a sine wave from
our Wavetek Function Generator. Make sure that the DC offset is initially set to
zero. Now vary the DC offset on the Function Generator and carefully observe the
difference on the scope between AC and DC coupling. Note how with AC coupling
the scope display is independent of the DC offset of the input signal, whereas under
DC coupling you can move the sine wave up/down the scope display by varying the
DC offset. Make sure you understand the implications of using AC/DC coupling
and how one can disentangle AC and DC components of a signal or waveform.
14 Oscill0scope
4. Take a low voltage DC power supply and with the scope examine and measure its
AC “ripple”, i.e. the (hopefully small!) AC component sitting on top of the DC.
5. Build a voltage divider from two 10KΩ resistors.
6. Derive an expression for Vout as a function of Vin . Use Vin around 20V and 10k for
the two resistors.
7. With a DMM measure the actual values of R1 , R2 , Vin , Vout , and the current I.
Compare Vout and I with your calculated expectations and comment.
8. Now for a quantitative comparison of the input impedances of DMM (typically

10MΩ) and scope (typically 1MΩ). Measure Vout also with the scope, compare with
the DMM reading, and comment.
9. Now change R2 in such a way that you would expect a difference in Vout between
scope and DMM readings. Compare both readings with the expected Vout , and
explain the differences.
10. Build an AC circuit by replacing in the voltage divider R1 → Z1 = 1/(iωC) and

Z2 = R. What is the characteristic frequency of the circuit? Plot the circuit gain
and phase as a function of frequency. (I suggest using MATLAB for the plotting.)
Now choosing appropriate values for C and R measure the gain and phase shift with
your scope and a waveform generator. Does it agree with your calculation? If time
permits, repeat with Z1 = R and Z2 = iωL.
1.4 References
[1] Melissinos and Napolitano, Ch. 3.
Experiment 2
The Ratio e/m for Electrons
2.1 Objective
Study the effects of electric and magnetic fields on a charged particle and measure the
charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of the electron.
2.2 Theory
In 1897 J.J. Thomson first measured the charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of the electron. His
experiment involved analyzing the electron’s motion in an electric and magnetic field.
Some time later R.A. Millikan determined the charge of the electron and resolved this
ratio using an electric field alone. It was Thompson’s hypothesis of the electron’s existence,
and its charge-to-mass ratio, that lead to the concept of the first atomic particle.
Helmholtz coils give us a simple solution for the value of the magnetic field along the
axis of symmetry. For coils of N wires each carrying current I, having radius R show that
the field along the symmetry axis x is given by,
µR2 N I
B= 3 . (2.1)
(R2 + x2 ) 2
In the Helmholtz configuration, x = R/2, The permeability of free space µ = 4π ×

−7 weber
10 amp−meter . In our apparatus N = 130 and R = .15 meters, therefore
weber
B = (7.8 × 10−4 ) × I. (2.2)
amp − meter2
By measuring V,I, and the radius of curvature r we can detetermine the ratio e/m.
15
16 Electron charge/mass
2.3 Procedure
Fig. 2.1 shows the apparatus. The e/m tube is filled with helium at a pressure of
∼ 10−2 mm Hg. Connect a regulated 6-9 Vdc supply rated at 2 A to the Helmholtz coil
jacks. Be sure to observe the color-coded polarity on all input jacks. You will need
to connect an ammeter in series between the supply and the coil jacks so that you can
measure the current to 1% or better accuracy. A wire wound potentiometer control to
the right of the coil jacks on the panel serves to adjust the current in the coils.
Now connect a 6.3 V (ac or dc, but do not exceed 6.3 V!) supply rated at 1.5 A to
the heater jacks of the electron gun at the right side of the base panel. Besides powering
the heating element, this supply also powers the small scale lamps on the coil brackets.
Lastly connect a high voltage source of 150-300 Vdc rated at 40 mA to the Electrode
jacks of the electron gun. The high voltage applied to the anode of the gun accelerates
the electrons boiled off from the cathode to form the necessary electron beam. The value
of this voltage determines the average velocity of the electrons in the beam and appears
in the final expression for the ratio of e/m. Regardless of the metering on your high
voltage supply, the accelerating voltage must be measured with an accurate dc voltmeter
connected at the jacks labelled Voltmeter on the base panel.
Key to Figure 2.1

E Envelope to vacuum tube
G Electron Gun
F Focusing element of gun
Z Heater or filament of gun within cathode
A Anode of gun
S Electron Beam
H Helmholtz Coils
B Space of magnetic field
M Mirror scale
W Lamps to measure r
All Others Various connectors as labelled
Turn the Current Adjust control to zero and set the switch on the panel to the e/m
position. Nothing should be connected to the jacks labelled Def lection P lates at this
time. Turn on the Heater supply and allow the electron gun filament to heat up for two
minutes. At the end of this time apply a 200 Vdc potential from the high voltage supply
to the Electrodes for the initial value of accelerating voltage.
With the accelerating voltage on, you should be able to see the violet hue of the
electron beam projecting horizontally from the electron gun. For proper viewing of the
beam this experiment should be conducted in a darkened room or in subdued lighting
Electron charge/mass 17
Figure 2.1: Charge-to-Mass Ratio Apparatus.
using a black cloth hood to mask the tube and to backdrop the beam. Turn on the coil
current and increase the Current Adjust control from zero to a current value that bends
the beam around into a complete circle on itself. It may be necessary to rotate the tube
socket until the end of the curving beam strikes between the two wire leads supplying the
heating filament on the left side of the electron gun. This brings the beam and gun into
an exact parallel position with the plane of the coils.
2.4 Data
Three data variables are necessary to make a determination of the ratio e/m. They are
the accelerating voltage, the coil current, and the radius of the beam curvature. Each
of these variables must be measured as accurately as is possible in order that e/m come
close to the accepted value of 1.76 × 1011 coul.
kg
. However, the electron beam radius involves
by far the largest error because the beam is enclosed in a glass envelope forcing a sighting
measurement to be made at a distance which is fraught with parallax error. To overcome
this defect, an anti-parallax scale is mounted and illuminated by two small lamps on the
back of the coil. The technique for measuring the beam radius is to move your head
in order to align the electron beam with the reflection of the beam that you see on
the mirrored scale. Each side of the beam loop may have a slightly different radius of
curvature. Therefore, take a mean of the two radii for the value of r.
For about ten different combinations of accelerating voltage V and coil current I
record the corresponding value of the radius r. Calculate e/m and its error.
In addition, take enough data point to be able to do the following. Plot r vs. I −1 at
const. V , and determine e/m from a linear least squares fit. Do the same via plotting r2
vs. V at const. I.
You now have three results for e/m. Compare the three including their errors with
the accepted value.
Note: The greatest source of systematic error in this experiment is the velocity of the
electrons, ve . First, the non-uniformity of the accelerating field caused by the hole in
the anode causes ve to be slightly less than its theoretical value. Second, collisions with
the helium atoms in the tube further rob the electrons of their velocity. Since e/m is
proportional to 1/r2 , and r is proportional to ve , experimental values for e/m will be
greatly affected by these two effects. To minimize this error you can try to measure radii
to the outside of the beam path. To minimize the relative effect of collisions, keep the
accelerating voltage as high as possible (above ∼250 V tends to give best results). On the
other hand, if the voltage is too high, the radius measurement will be distorted by the
curvature of the glass at the edge of the tube. Best results are typically obtained for radii
of less than ∼5 cm. Your experimental values for e/m will be higher than theoretical,
due to the fact that both sources of error mentioned cause the radius to be measured as
smaller than it should be.
Also go through the qualitative experiments suggested next.
Electron charge/mass 19
2.5 Qualitative Experiments

You can qualitatively demonstrate the vector effects of an electric and magnetic field on
a charged particle with the e/m apparatus as predicted by the Lorentz force law.
With the electron beam on and the Helmholtz coils operating, rotate the glass envelope
and observe the resulting spiral path of the beam in the magnetic field. How does the
Lorentz vector expression account for this spiraling? Turn the coil current down to zero
and then switch the polarity of the coil leads to reverse the current direction which will in
turn reverse the magnetic vector. Turn the coil current on again and observe the deflection
of the electrons.
An applied electric field will also deflect the electron beam. A pair of skewed plates at
the right side of the electron gun produces an electric field around the emerging electron
beam when a voltage is applied. To show the electric field deflection, connect in parallel
the voltage leads from the Electrode jacks to the jacks labelled Def lection P lates. Switch
on the accelerating voltage supply and set the central switch to the Electrical Def lection
position. There should be no current in the coils in this case. Note how the beam deflection
varies with the voltage value. If the polarity of the plates is in the same sense as the color-
coded jacks, can you tell what sign the charge is in the beam? Turn down the voltage to
zero and reverse the polarity of the Def lection P late Jacks. In which direction is the
beam deflected now? Explain. Observe what happens when the beam bends and hits the
deflection plates.
In retrospect, J.J. Thomson originally determined the charge to mass ratio of the
electron by first deflecting an electron beam with an electric field, and then compensating
this deflection with a opposing magnetic field deflection. You can reenact this procedure
here qualitatively. First deflect the electron beam using the electrical deflection plates
(reverse the polarity sense of the jacks). Turn on the current to the Helmholtz coils and
adjust the current until the deflection of the magnetic field cancels the deflection of the
electric field. This is the substance of the historic Thomson experiment which we cannot
reproduce here in a quantitative way due to the uncertainty of the electric field value
between the deflection plates.
2.6 Questions
1. Why do we see the electron beam at all?
2. We ignored the Earth’s magnetic field in our procedure. How much error does this
introduce into this experiment? (see http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/geomag/)
3. Suppose that protons were emitted in the vacuum tube instead of electrons. How
would this effect the experiment?
4. Show that if the magnetic field is held constant, the time t required for an electron
to make a complete circle in your e/m tube and return to the anode is independent
of the accelerating voltage by deriving an expression for this time. The reciprocal
f = 1t is called the electron’s cyclotron frequency.
5. Would a relativistic correction for the electron’s momentum be appreciable for the
present experiment?
Experiment 3
Electron Diffraction
3.1 Objectives
• Electrons as waves.
• Study and verification of the de Broglie hypothesis λ = h/p.
• Measurement of the spacing of diffracting planes in graphite.
3.2 Theory
In a bold and daring hypothesis in his 1924 doctoral dissertation Louis de Broglie rea-
soned that if electromagnetic radiation can be interpreted as both particles (Photoelectric
Effect, Compton Scattering) and waves (diffraction), then perhaps the electron, which
had traditionally been interpreted as a particle, could also have a wave interpretation. De
Broglie hypothesized that all particles have a wave behavior with a universal relationship
between the wavelength and momentum given by λ = h/p. This expression is called
the de Broglie relationship and the wavelength is called the de Broglie wavelength. The
momentum in this relationship is the momentum that is conserved in collisions, i.e. the
relativistic momentum. The de Broglie relationship holds for all particles. Note that it is
identical to the one for photons (E = hν).
Diffraction phenomena represent clear evidence for wave properties. How can an
electron be both wave and particle?
In this experiment you will investigate the diffraction of electrons passing through
a thin layer of graphite (carbon), which acts as a diffraction grating. It was Max von
Laue, who in 1912 suggested (in connection with x-ray studies) that the basic granularity
of matter at the atomic level might provide a suitable grating. Bragg, using the cubic
system of NaCl, first calculated the inter-atomic spacings and showed them to be of the
21
22 Electron diffraction
Figure 3.1: Structure of Graphite
right order for x-rays. Fig. 3.1 shows the hexagonal structure of graphite with the two
characteristic spacings of 0.123 and 0.213 nm.
3.3 Apparatus
Our electron diffraction tube, see Fig. 3.2, comprises a ‘gun’ which emits a narrow,
converging beam of electrons within an evacuated clear glass bulb on the front surface
of which is deposited a luminescent screen. Across the exit aperture of the gun lies a
micro-mesh nickel grid, onto which a very thin layer (only a few molecular layers!) of
graphite has been deposited.
The electron beam penetrates through this graphite target to become diffracted into two
rings corresponding to the separation of the carbon atoms of 0.123 and 0.213 nm. The
diffraction pattern appears as rings due to the polycrystalline nature of graphite. The
source of the electron beam is an indirectly-heated oxide-coated cathode.
3.4 Important Precautions

Due to its extreme thinness the graphite can easily be punctured by current overload.
Such current overload causes the graphite target to become overheated and to glow dull
Electron diffraction 23
Figure 3.2: Schematic of the Electron Diffraction Tube
red. It is therefore important to monitor the anode current and to keep it below 0.25 mA
at all times. Use a handheld digital multimeter. In actuality you will likely find that the
current tends to stay well below this value, typically a few µA (micro-Amps). It is also
good practice to inspect the target periodically during an experiment.
The 33k resistor R in Fig. 3.3 is incorporated into the filament protection circuit of
the stand to provide ‘negative auto-bias’ and so reduce the likelihood of damage to the
target due to accidental abuse. The total emitted current passes through R. Therefore
an increase in current causes the cathode-can to become more negatively biased, thereby
reducing the emitted current.
3.5 Experimental Procedure

Connect the tube into the circuit shown in Fig. 3.3 but ignore VB . Both heater supply
and HV are obtained from the 813 KeV power unit. The HV should be connected to the
“+” and “−” HV connections to get the full voltage which is read on the top-scale of the
KeV unit’s meter. Be sure the high voltage slider is at zero before switching on the unit.
Switching on the unit (in back) will also switch on the heater. IMPORTANT: Switch
on the heater supply (VF ), and wait one minute for the cathode temperature to stabilize
before applying the HV (anode voltage VA ).
24 Electron diffraction
Figure 3.3: Circuit Diagram
3.6 Data Taking and Analysis

The tube is old and rings are faint, so do the best you can. Be sure the room is very dark.
The rings are quite distinct at the full 5 kV, but get very hard to see as you go down in
voltage. Try to go as low as 2.5 kV. Take at least 10 different data points, measuring the
diameter of the two rings with the calipers. You can adjust the position of the spot by
using the little magnet on the neck of the tube. You want the rings centered so you can
do the correction for the curvature of the tube-face. Do the geometry and correct for the
curvature (and thickness?) of the glass (see Figure 3.4 ). The length L in Figure 3.4 is
controlled during production of the tube to be 13.0 ± 0.2 cm.
The kinetic energy and momentum of the electrons are of course related to the ac-
celerating potential. From Fig. 3.4 we also know that D = 2L tan θ, where D is the
extrapolated diameter. Show that by using the de Broglie relation, the lattice spacing d
is related to the accelerating voltage VA approximately by,
4πL~c
d= √ (3.1)
D 2eVA mc2
−1/2
Plot D as a function of VA for all your data and indicate the estimated error in D as
vertical error bars. The straight lines you should get verify the theory and substantiate de
Broglie’s hypothesis. Also calculate the two values for d from your data (no need to make
the above approximation!), and compare with the accepted values of 0.123 and 0.213 nm.
Electron diffraction 25
Figure 3.4: Curvature and glass thickness of the electron diffraction tube. The length
L = 13.0 ± 0.2 cm.
3.7 References
Any good Modern Physics textbook.
26 Balmer series
Experiment 4
Balmer Series
4.1 Objectives
In this experiment we will observe the Balmer Series of Hydrogen and Deuterium.
• Review basic atomic physics.
• Calibrate an optical spectrometer using the known mercury spectrum.
• Study the Balmer Series in the hydrogen spectrum.
• Determine the Rydberg constant for hydrogen.
• Compare hydrogen with deuterium
4.2 Apparatus
The instrument used in this laboratory is a so-called “constant-deviation” spectrometer.
Fig. 4.1 shows the composite prism used in this device and the optical path for an incident
ray. It may be seen that the angle of incidence and the angle of exit can remain fixed
for all wavelengths by an appropriate rotation of the prism. This has obvious advantages
for positioning and alignment of source and detector. All that is required for the spectral
analysis of light is to rotate the prism relative to the incident light keeping the incident
ray and the axis of the analyzing telescope fixed at a 90 deg angle. The rotation of the
prism is calibrated with a known source (Hg in our case), and an interpolation between
the known lines is used for the final calibration.
Our spectrometer may be old, but it is nevertheless a quality instrument which must
be handled carefully. To adjust the spectrometer, first bring the cross-hairs into sharp
focus by sliding the ocular in or out to suit your vision. Next bring the slit into sharp
27
28 Balmer series
Figure 4.1: A Pellin-Broca constant-deviation prism. The prism acts as a spectrometer

because it has a wave-length dependent index of refraction
focus by turning the large knurled ring near the center of the viewing telescope. When
the instrument is properly adjusted, the cross-hairs and the slit will be in sharp focus and
there will be no parallax between them.
Balmer series 29
4.3 Calibration of the Spectrometer

Turn on the mercury tube and let it warm up for a few minutes. With the spectrometer
slit wide ( 12 to 1 mm) find a line of the mercury spectrum. Now narrow the slit until the
mercury line becomes sharp and narrow. In practice the narrower the slit, the better is
the resolution of the instrument. However, narrowing the slit also causes loss of intensity.
In almost all optical equipment there is a trade off between resolution and intensity.
The optical scientist must decide, within the limitations of his/her instrument, how to
compromise intensity and resolution requirements.
Locate all of the mercury lines that you can. You should see all of the lines listed
below. In addition, you may see other faint lines from mercury, from impurities, or from
more complicated molecular behavior.
404.7 nm (deep violet very hard to see!!)
435.8 nm violet
skip (very weak blue-green)
546.1 nm green
577.0 nm yellow
579.0 nm yellow
690.75 nm red
When you are turning the screw drive which rotates the prism, note the positions on
the dial which correspond to the mercury lines listed above. Important: turn the screw
in one direction only to avoid error in gear back lash (the gears do not mesh exactly and
there are dead spots when you reverse the direction). Use your data and the known values
to calibrate your instrument.
4.4 The Hydrogen Spectrum

Observe the spectrum of hydrogen. You should see at least four and possibly five lines.
Show your raw and your corrected (using the above calibration) data. The wavelengths
which you observe can be fitted by an expression of the form of equation 4.1.

1 1 1
=R − , n = 3, 4, 5, ... (4.1)
λ 22 n2
R is the Rydberg constant, and n is the principle quantum number. Use the above
equation to find the value for R. You must correctly identify each wavelength with the
right quantum number in order to get R as a constant. You should get four or five
evaluations of R.
Expression 4.1 above was discovered empirically in 1885 by a Swiss high school teacher
named Balmer for whom this spectral series is named. Although the original equation in
30 Balmer series
a slightly different form was good guess work by Balmer, it remained for both Rydberg
and Ritz to suggest independently in the 1890’s that equation 4.1 might be modified to
be

1 1 1
=R − , m = 1, 2, 3, ... n = 2, 3, 4, ... n > m (4.2)
λ m2 n2
giving rise to the possibility of the existence of other spectral series which were subse-
quently observed. Equation 4.2 is also basic to the Ritz combination principle. If we
convert the hydrogen emission wavelengths to frequencies, we find that certain pairs of
frequencies added together give other frequencies which appear in the spectrum.
The value of the Rydberg constant, R (= µe4 /820 ch3 , µ = reduced mass), was ex-
plained theoretically only after the Bohr model (1913) and the comprehensive develop-
ment of Quantum Mechanics in the 1920’s. Quantum theory owes much to experiments
of the type performed with the constant deviation spectrometer.
Also measure the Balmer spectrum for deuterium. Why would you expect it to be
different from hydrogen? In addition, test the resolving power of your instrument by
observing the doublet splitting of the famous yellow Na lines (λ = 589.0 nm and λ =
589.6 nm). Describe as quantitatively as possible whether you could resolve these two
lines or not.
4.5 Analysis
What is your value of the Rydberg constant and its standard deviation? Compare your
results with the accepted value for hydrogen: R = 1.0967758 × 107 m−1 . In your report
discuss briefly the atomic/quantum physics underlying the hydrogen spectrum.
Calculate the expected difference between hydrogen and deuterium, for the Rydberg
constant and for the wavelength of the Hα line. Compare your hydrogen and deuterium
results. Could you measure any difference, and, in particular, could you even expect to
see any difference based on your Na result?
4.6 References
[1] Melissinos and Napolitano, Chapters 1,5,6.
Experiment 5
Planck’s Constant
5.1 Introduction
The emission and absorption of light was an early subject for investigation by the Ger-
man physicist Max Planck. As he attempted to formulate a theory to explain the spectral
distribution of emitted light based on a classical wave model, he ran into considerable
difficulty. Classical theory (Rayleigh-Jeans Law) predicted that the amount of light emit-
ted from a black body would increase dramatically as the wavelength decreased, whereas
experiment showed that it approached zero. This discrepancy became known as the ul-
traviolet catastrophe.
Experimental data for the radiation of light by a hot, glowing body also showed
that the maximum intensity of emitted light departed dramatically from the classically
predicted values (Wien’s Law). In order to reconcile theory with laboratory results, Planck
was forced to develop a new model for light called the quantum model. In this model,
light is emitted in small, discrete bundles of energy or quanta, later called photons.
The relationship between the classical and quantum theories for the emission and
absorption of light can be investigated with our apparatus. In combination with a mercury
vapor light source an accurate determination of the ratio h/e and thus of h, Planck’s
constant, is possible. This constant has turned out to be one of the most important
fundamental constants in all of modern physics.
5.2 Background Theory

5.2.1 Planck’s Quantum Theory
By the late 1800’s many physicists thought they had explained all the main principles
of the universe and discovered all the natural laws. But as scientists continued working,
inconsistencies that couldn’t easily be explained began showing up in some areas of study.
31
32 Plank’s constant
In 1901 Planck published his law of radiation. In it he stated that an oscillator, or

any similar physical system, has a discrete set of possible energy values or levels; energies
between these values never occur. He went on to state that the emission and absorption
of radiation is associated with transitions or jumps between two energy levels. The energy
lost or gained by the oscillator is emitted or absorbed as a quantum of radiant energy,
the magnitude of which is expressed by the equation E = hν, where E equals the radiant
energy, ν is the frequency of the radiation, and h is a fundamental constant of nature,
later known as Planck’s constant.
Planck’s constant was found to have significance beyond relating the frequency and
energy of light, and became a cornerstone of the quantum mechanical view of the atomic
and subatomic world. In 1918 Planck was awarded the Nobel prize for introducing the
quantum theory of light.
5.2.2 The Photoelectric Effect

In the photoelectric effect, light strikes a material, causing electrons to be emitted. The
classical wave model predicted that as the intensity of incident light was increased, the
amplitude and thus the energy of the wave would increase. This would then cause more
energetic photoelectrons to be emitted. The new quantum theory, however, predicted
that higher frequency light would produce higher energy photoelectrons, independent of
intensity, while increased intensity would only increase the number of electrons emitted
(or the photoelectric current). In the early 1900’s several investigators found that the
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons was dependent on the wavelength, or frequency, and
independent of intensity, while the magnitude of the photoelectric current, or number of
electrons was dependent on the intensity as predicted by the quantum model. Einstein
applied Planck’s theory and explained the photoelectric effect in terms of the quantum
model using his famous equation, for which he received the Nobel prize in 1921:
E = hν = KEmax + W0 (5.1)
where KEmax is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and W0 is
the energy needed to remove them from the surface of the material (the work function).
E is the energy supplied by the quantum of light known as a photon.
5.2.3 The h/e Experiment

A photon with energy hν is incident upon an electron in the cathode of a vacuum tube.
The electron uses a minimum W0 of its energy to escape the cathode, leaving it with a
maximum energy of KEmax in the form of kinetic energy. Normally the emitted electrons
reach the anode of the tube, and can be measured as a photoelectric current. However, by
Plank’s constant 33
applying a reverse potential V between the anode and cathode, the photoelectric current
can be stopped. KEmax can be determined by measuring the minimum reverse potential
needed to stop the photoelectrons and reduce the photoelectric current to zero. In our
experiment the stopping potential is measured directly, rather than by monitoring the
photoelectric current, see later. Relating kinetic energy to stopping potential V gives a
linear relation between V and the frequency ν. Plotting V vs ν allows the extraction of
the constants h and W0 from a least squares fit.
5.3 Equipment and Setup

Fig. 5.1 shows the setup using a mercury vapor light source and the h/e apparatus.
Apart from the equipment shown in Fig. 5.1 only a digital voltmeter is required. Before
proceeding check the two battery voltages. Minimum values are indicated on the h/e
apparatus. Note that the unit can also be powered using a dual ±9 V power supply.
The grating is blazed to produce the brightest spectrum on one side only. During
your experiment you may need to turn the lens/grating assembly around in order to have
the brightest spectrum on a convenient side of your lab table.
Turn on the light source and allow it to warm up for five minutes. Check the alignment
of the light source and the aperture by looking at the light shining on the back of the
lens/grating assembly. If necessary, adjust the back plate of the light aperture assembly
by loosening the two retaining screws and sliding the aperture plate left or right until the
light shines directly on the center of the lens/grating assembly.
Connect a digital voltmeter (DVM) to the OUTPUT terminals of the h/e apparatus.
Set the h/e apparatus directly in front of the light source. By sliding the lens/grating
assembly back and forth on its support rods, focus the light onto the white reflective mask
of the h/e apparatus (Fig. 5.2).
Roll the light shield of the apparatus out of the way to reveal the white photodiode
mask inside the apparatus. Rotate the h/e apparatus until the image of the aperture is
centered on the window in the photodiode mask. Then tighten the thumbscrew on the
base support rod to hold the apparatus in place.
Slide the lens/grating assembly back and forth on its support rods, until you achieve
the sharpest possible image of the aperture on the window in the photodiode mask.
Tighten the thumbscrew on the lens/grating assembly and replace the light shield.
Turn the power switch ON. Rotate the h/e apparatus about the pin of the coupling
bar assembly until one of the colored maxima in the first order shines directly on the slot
in the white reflective mask. Rotate the h/e apparatus on its support base so that the
same spectral maximum that falls on the opening in the white reflective mask also falls
on the window in the photodiode mask. The white reflective mask on the h/e apparatus
is made of a special fluorescent material. This allows you to see the ultraviolet line as a
Figure 5.1: Equipment setup using a mercury vapor light source and the h/e apparatus.
Figure 5.2: h/e Light Shield

blue line, and it also makes the violet line appear more blue. You can see the actual colors
of the light if you hold a piece of white non-fluorescent material in front of the mask. The
palm of your hand works in a pinch, although it fluoresces enough that the UV line will
still be visible.
→ Important: when making measurements it is important that only one color falls on
the photodiode window. There must be no overlap from adjacent spectral maxima.
Press the PUSH TO ZERO button on the side panel of the h/e apparatus to discharge
any accumulated potential in the unit’s electronics. This will assure the apparatus records
only the potential of the light you are measuring. Note that the output voltage will drift
with the absence of light on the photodiode.
Read the output voltage on your DVM. It is a direct measure of the stopping potential
for the photoelectrons. See the Technical Information section at the end of this writeup
for an explanation. For some apparatus, the stopping potential will temporarily read high
and then drop down to the actual stopping potential voltage.
5.3.1 Using the Filters

The h/e apparatus includes three filters: one green and one yellow, plus a variable trans-
mission filter. The filter frames have magnetic strips and mount to the outside of the
white reflective mask of the h/e apparatus. Use the green and yellow filters when you’re
using the green and yellow spectral lines. These filters limit higher frequencies of light
from entering the h/e apparatus. This prevents ambient room light from interfering with
the lower energy yellow and green light and masking the true results. It also blocks the
higher frequency UV light from the higher order spectra which may overlap with lower
orders of yellow and green, see Fig. 5.3. In general you should make sure that room light
does not interfere with your results, i.e. test by switching off the room lights.
The variable transmission filter consists of computer-generated patterns of dots and
lines that vary the intensity (not the frequency) of the incident light. The relative trans-
mission percentages are 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, and 20%.
5.4 Experiment 1: The Photon Theory of Light

According to the photon theory of light, the maximum kinetic energy, KEmax , of photo-
electrons depends only on the frequency of the incident light, and is independent of the
intensity. Thus the higher the frequency of the light, the greater its energy. In contrast,
the classical wave model of light predicted that KEmax would depend on light intensity,
i.e. the brighter the light, the greater its energy.
Both of these assertions will be investigated here.
5.4.1 Procedure
Part A
Set up the equipment, check (and adjust if necessary) focus and alignment as described
earlier. Connect your DVM. Adjust the apparatus so that only one of the spectral colors
falls upon the
opening of the photodiode mask. If you select the green or yellow line, use the correspond-
ing filter. Place the variable transmission filter in front of the white reflective mask (and
over the colored filter, if one is used) so that the light passes through the 100% section
and onto the photodiode. Record the DVM reading.
Press and release the instrument discharge button, and observe how much time is
required to return to the recorded voltage.
Move the variable transmission filter to the next section, record the new DVM reading,
and the time to recharge after the discharge button has been pressed and released. Repeat
these steps for all five sections of the filter. Important: for consistent results you want to
measure the recharge time to reach the same voltage for each of the five intensities.
Repeat the entire procedure using a second color from the spectrum.
Part B
You can easily see five colors in the mercury spectrum. Adjust the apparatus so that only
one of the yellow bands falls upon the photodiode, and use the yellow filter. Record the
DVM voltage. Repeat the process for each color. Be sure to use the green filter when
measuring the green line.
5.4.2 Analysis
Plot your charging time results.
Describe the effect that passing different amounts of the same colored light through
the variable transmission filter has on the stopping potential and thus on the maximum
energy of the photoelectrons, as well as the charging time after pressing the discharge
button.
Describe the effect that different colors of light had on the stopping potential and
thus on the maximum energy of the photoelectrons.
Defend whether this experiment supports a wave or a quantum/photon model of light
based on your lab results.
Explain why there is a slight drop in the measured stopping potential as the light
intensity is decreased.
Figure 5.3: The expected three orders of light gradients you should see.
5.5 Experiment 2: Determination of h

According to the quantum/photon model of light, the energy of light is directly propor-
tional to its frequency. With careful experimentation the constant of proportionality,
Planck’s constant h, can be determined.
5.5.1 Procedure
Make sure focus and alignment are still ok. For each color in the first order measure and
record the stopping potential (don’t forget the yellow and green filters). Repeat these five
measurements to test for reproducibility.
Move to the second order and repeat the above process, i.e. take two sets of readings.
5.5.2 Analysis
Plot all your results. Perform four linear least squares fits to your four data sets, and
determine h and W0 for each fit. Then calculate your final results (incl. errors!) for h
and W0 as a weighted average. Compare with the accepted value of h, and comment on
the quality of your result.
5.6 Technical Information on the h/e Apparatus

In the h/e apparatus, monochromatic light falls on the cathode plate of a vacuum pho-
todiode tube that has a low work function, W0 . Photoelectrons ejected from the cathode
collect on the anode.
The photodiode tube and its associated electronics have a small capacitance which
becomes charged by the photoelectric current. When the potential on this capacitance
reaches the stopping potential of the photoelectrons, the current decreases to zero, and
the anode-to-cathode voltage stabilizes. This final voltage between the anode and cathode
is therefore the stopping potential.
To let you measure the stopping potential, the anode is connected to a built-in ampli-
fier with an ultrahigh input impedance (> 1013 Ω), and the output from this amplifier is
connected to the output jacks. This high impedance, unity gain (Vout /Vin = 1) amplifier
lets you measure the stopping potential with a DVM. Note that while the impedance of
this amplifier is very high, it is not infinite, and some charge will leak off. Thus charging
the apparatus is analogous to filling a bath tub with different water flow rates while the
drain is partly open.
Due to the very high input impedance, once the capacitor has been charged from
the photodiode current it takes a long time to discharge this potential through some
leakage. Therefore a shorting switch (“Push to zero”) enables the user to quickly bleed
off the charge. However, the op-amp output will not stay at zero volts after the switch is
released since the op-amp input is floating.
Due to variances in the assembly process, each apparatus has a slightly different
capacitance. When the zero switch is released, the internal capacitance along with the
user’s body capacitance coupled through the switch is enough to make the output voltage
jump and/or oscillate. Once photoelectrons charge the anode, the input voltage will
stabilize.
Experiment 6
Excitation and Ionization Energies of

Neon
6.1 Theory
The essence of this experiment is the demonstration of energy quantization of atoms, Ne

in this case. This is achieved via inelastic e− scattering off Ne atoms. As such it is closely
related to the original Franck-Hertz experiment (1914), which showed that an electron
must have a certain minimum energy to make an inelastic collision with an atom. We
now interpret that minimum energy as the energy of an excited state of the atom. It is
strongly advised to read up on the Franck-Hertz experiment.
From a collision standpoint, free electrons colliding with orbiting electrons need to
have at least the minimum energy required to excite the bound electrons to higher quan-
tum levels. This experiment involves collecting these electrons after their atomic collisions,
and determining the separate excitation energy levels that are available. The theory is
quite simple. If an electron collides with a bound electron, and has sufficient energy to
“move” the bound electron up into new orbits (or even ionize the atom), then the energy
absorbed by the atom is lost to the free electron. This is an inelastic collision, and the
free electron will slow down appreciably. In particular, it can now easily be captured by
an anode positioned near the beam. As a function of the electron accelerating potential,
VA , the number of electrons captured will increase rapidly near the energy levels of the
atomic gas in the tube. These peaks in current will signal the energy levels of the atom.
The enclosed paper by N. Taylor et al. gives more details and background information
on this type of experiments as well as on the level scheme of Neon.
41
42 Excitation levels of Neon
6.2 Apparatus
• Hertz Critical Potentials tube filled with neon
• Tube stand
• Picoamplifier and Alarmed Meter
• Power Supply and Digital Multimeter
Figs. 6.1 and 6.2 show schematically the tube and circuit diagram. The tube comprises
a cathode ray gun which projects a divergent beam of electrons into a clear glass tube
containing Neon gas at low pressure. Located inside the bulb is a wire ring collector so
positioned that it cannot receive electrons directly from the source of the beam. The ring
is connected to a shielded cable terminating in a BNC plug. The source of the beam is
a tungsten hairpin filament connected to pins 3 and 4, and housed within a cathode can
which is connected to pin 5. The anode cylinder of the gun has an external connection
to pin 1. The inside surface of the glass bulb is coated with a transparent conducting
layer. This coating is insulated from the wire ring but connected internally to the anode
cylinder.
6.3 Objectives
1. Get the hardware to work successfully! This is not completely trivial since you are
dealing with a somehat delicate instrument capable of measuring collector currents
in the pA range. Any movement close to the glass bulb during scanning of the
accelerating voltage should be avoided as it is liable to seriously distort your results.
2. Identify as many energy levels of neon as you can resolve, and determine their
excitation energies in eV .
3. Find the ionization energy (in eV ) of neon.
4. Measure the energy resolution (FWHM) of the first peak, and any others that you
can, or at least give an upper limit if that peak consists of several levels.
6.4 Method
• Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 6.2. For the filament voltage VF use an HP
6213A 12V DC power supply (or similar) capable of delivering ∼ 1 A. Important:
Do not let VF exceed 2.5 V! Make sure that you zero the alarmed meter at the range
Excitation levels of Neon 43
Figure 6.2: Circuit Diagram. For the Data Recorder we use the so-called Alarmed Meter.
setting that you actually end up using. If, for any reason, you decide to play with
the range setting you must zero the alarm readings again. You may decide to use
a DVM instead of the alarm, and the readings on it will not need to be readjusted.
This tube is capable of stable collection currents at constant accelerating voltages,
however it is also easily disturbed. If your setup doesn’t achieve this stability,
examine it for good connection everywhere and disturb the whole table as little as
possible while taking your data.
• Vary the accelerating (Anode) voltage VA and record the collector current IC . Start
with a coarse scan to verify that your results are qualitatively similar to typical
results shown in Fig. 6.3. Then do a finer scan to cover the peak regions with
sufficient data points. For comparison take data for two different filament voltages
VF . Higher VF tend to give better peak-to-valley results, i.e. the excitation energy
peaks tend to show up more prominently. But remember to not exceed 2.5 V for
VF !
• Reverse the potential of the collector ring, and find the ionization potential of neon.
Consult Fig. 6.4 for a typical result.
• Check your answers for excitation energies and ionization energy against known
values bef ore dismantling the equipment. The ionization energy of Neon is 21.56
eV, and known excitation energies can be found in the paper by N.Taylor et al.
6.5 Analysis
Summarize your results, and compare them with known values. What is the electron
configuration of the dominant structures that you found? Fig. 6.3 in the enclosed paper
by N. Taylor et al. will be helpful in this regard. Your peak positions and your ionization
energy will likely have a (hopefully more or less constant) offset relative to the known
values - how do you explain this?
6.6 References
[1] Melissinos and Napolitano, Chapter 1.
[2] Appendix :“Energy Levels in helium...”, Am J. Phys Vol 49 No 3, March 1981.
Figure 6.3: Typical excitation energy spectrum for Neon measured with this type of
apparatus.
Figure 6.4: Onset of ionization in case of reversed collector bias.

48 Electron spin
Experiment 7
Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)
7.1 Introduction
Using ESR (Electron Spin Resonance, also known as Electron Paramagnetic Resonance)
you will be measuring one of the best known quantities in all of physics, the famous gs -
factor of the electron. This will be achieved by looking for the “spin-flip” transition of a
free (unpaired) electron exposed to a magnetic field.
7.1.1 ESR in Theory

The basic setup for ESR is shown in Fig. 7.1. A test sample is placed in a uniform
magnetic field. The sample is also wrapped within a coil that is connected to an RF (radio
frequency) oscillator. The smaller magnetic field induced in the coil by the oscillator is
at right angles to the uniform magnetic field.
Consider, for the moment, a single electron within the test sample. The electron has
an intrinsic (not related to any orbital motion!) magnetic dipole moment ~µs that is related
to its intrinsic angular momentum, or spin, by the vector equation:
~
~µs = −gs µB S/~ (7.1)
where:
gs = a constant characteristic of the electron, its intrinsic g-factor
µB = the Bohr magneton = e~/2me = 5.788 × 10−9 eV /G
~ = the spin of the electron
S
~ = Planck’s constant/2π = 6.582 × 10−16 eV-sec, or ~c = 197.3 eV-nm.
The magnetic dipole moment of this electron interacts with the uniform magnetic
~ Due to its quantum nature, the electron can orient its spin in one
field, E = −~µs · B.
49
50 Electron spin
Figure 7.1: ESR diagram (left), scope display (right)
of only two ways (“space quantization”), spin up or spin down, with energies equal to
E0 ±gs µB B/2; where E0 is the energy of the electron before the magnetic field was applied.
In the language of Quantum Mechanics, the energy degeneracy has been lifted by the B
field, i.e. the energy level has been split. The energy difference between these two possible
orientations is equal to gs µB B.
Resonance occurs when the RF oscillator is tuned to a frequency ν, such that the
photon energy, hν, is equal to the difference between the two possible energy states of the
electron. Electrons in the lower energy state can then absorb a photon and jump to the
higher energy state. This absorption of energy affects the permeability of the test sample,
which affects the inductance of the coil and thereby the oscillations of the RF oscillator.
The result is an observable change in the current flowing through the oscillator. The
condition for resonance, therefore, is:
hν = gs µB B (2)
Electron spin 51
7.1.2 ESR in Practice

For an electron with only two energy states, in a magnetic field of a given magnitude, it
would be necessary to set the RF frequency with considerable accuracy in order to observe
resonance. In practice, this difficulty is solved by varying the magnitude of the B field
about some constant value. With our apparatus, this is done by supplying a small AC
current, superimposed on a larger DC current, to a pair of Helmholtz coils. The result is
a B field that varies sinusoidally about a constant value.
If the RF frequency is such that equation (2) is satisfied at some point between the
minimum and maximum values of the sinusoidally varying B field, then resonance will
occur twice during each cycle of the field. Resonance is normally observed using a dual
trace oscilloscope. The oscilloscope traces, during resonance, appear as in Figure 7.1
(right) . The upper trace is a measure of the current going to the Helmholtz coils, which
is proportional to the B field. The lower trace shows the envelope of the voltage across
the RF oscillator, which dips sharply each time the B field passes through the resonance
point.
7.1.3 ESR in Research

In actual ESR research the situation is significantly more complicated than is implied
above. With multiple unpaired electrons, finite orbital angular momenta, and shared
molecular orbitals the energy level splittings become quite complex. However, the details
of the analysis of such systems provide significant insight into the inner structure of the
molecules.
The test sample included with our apparatus, DPPH (Diphenyl-Picryl-Hydrazyl, see
Fig. 7.2),
is a particularly simple substance for ESR measurements. It has a total orbital angular
momentum of zero, and only one unpaired electron. Therefore, for a given value of
the external B field, it has only a single resonant frequency. This makes it possible to
investigate some of the basic ESR principles without (or before) getting into the more
complex world of ESR analysis.
7.2 The ESR Apparatus

7.2.1 The Probe Unit
The ESR Probe Unit (see Fig. 7.3) is the heart of the ESR apparatus. It contains an RF
oscillator with a built-in signal amplifier, and 1000:1 frequency divider. The frequency
divider allows the RF frequency, which is in the MHz range, to be measured with a
standard kHz frequency meter. The frequency and amplitude of the RF signal can be
52 Electron spin
Figure 7.2: Chemical structure of DPPH, (C6 H5 )2 N − N C6 H2 (N O2 )3 .
controlled using the knobs shown in the Figure. The range of frequencies provided by
the oscillator depends on which RF probe is being used (see Fig. 4). This is because the
inductance of the probe determines, in part, the inductance of the oscillator circuit.
The Probe Unit is connected to the ESR Adapter (see Fig. 7.4), which in turn provides
the connections to the necessary power supply, frequency meter, and oscilloscope. The
Probe Unit requires ±12 V , and the frequency output for a digital counter is a TTL
signal.
Electron spin 53
Figure 7.3: ESR probe unit (left) and Helmholtz coils (right)
7.2.2 Helmholtz Coils
The Helmholtz coils provide a highly uniform magnetic field in which to place the sample
material for the ESR measurement. They should be connected in parallel and placed so
that the separation between them is equal to the radius (see Fig. 7.3). Their diameter
is 13.5 cm, and it turns out that the correct separation is achieved by positioning them
essentially flush against the ESR Probe Unit. Make sure the two coils are as parallel as
possible. When all this is the case, the B field in the central region between the two coils
is highly uniform, and is given in Fig. 7.3. You should be able to derive the expression for
B yourself, starting with the Biot-Savart law. It can also be found in most introductory
physics textbooks.
→ IMPORTANT: The current to each of the coils should never exceed 2A, i.e. the total
current should never exceed 4A!
54 Electron spin
7.3 Basic ESR Setup

7.3.1 Required Equipment
In addition to the Probe Unit, the ESR Adapter, and the Helmholtz coils, you will need the
following additional equipment: Frequency Meter, DC Power Supply (10V, 3-4A), Power
supplies providing ±12 VDC to the ESR Adapter, a Variac plus a 6.3 V transformer
to provide approx. 2 VAC, DC Ammeter, Oscilloscope, a 1000 µF capacitor, and our
home-made phase shifter box.
Figures 7.4 and 7.5 show the setup and the required connections. Please be careful
not to short out anything! The +12 V draws considerably more current than the -12 V,
make sure your power supply doesn’t limit the current too much.
7.3.2 Setup
Connect the Helmholtz coils in parallel (A to A, Z to Z, see Fig. 7.4) and position them
appropriately.
Connect the power supplies, ammeter, oscilloscope, and circuit components to the
Helmholtz coils as shown in Figures 7.4 and 7.5. Do not terminate the scope in 50
Ω.
Circuit Explanation:
The Helmholtz coils require a small AC current superimposed on a larger DC current.
This is supplied by the Variac/small transformer and DC power supply, respectively. They
are connected in parallel, with the 1000 µF capacitor isolating the AC from the DC to
prevent wave distortion. Because of the inductance of the Helmholtz coils, the current in
the coils is out of phase with the voltage that is observed on the oscilloscope. To correct
this, a 100 kΩ variable resistor and a 0.1
µF capacitor are used to shift the phase of the voltage that is displayed on the oscilloscope,
see Fig. 7.5. This allows the experimenter to adjust the phase between the oscilloscope
traces, so that the AC current to the Helmholtz coils and the ESR resonance pulses appear
symmetrical, which in reality they are.
Turn on the power supplies. Adjust the DC to approximately 1 A and the AC to
about 2 V. Channel 1 of the oscilloscope will show the current to the Helmholtz coils,
except for the phase shift caused by the induction of the coils. The trace should be a
simple sine wave. If you switch channel 1 to DC coupling, it should show an AC voltage
superimposed on a DC voltage.
Insert the medium-sized RF probe into the Probe Unit, and turn on the Probe Unit.
Make sure the two green LEDs on the side of the ESR Adapter are on. Adjust the
frequency to about 50 MHz (50 kHz on your frequency meter) and the amplitude to a
Electron spin 55
Figure 7.4: ESR setup

56 Electron spin
Figure 7.5: Schematic for Helmholtz coil connections

Electron spin 57
Figure 7.6: Scope displays
midrange value. Then insert the test sample into the RF probe and place the probe and
sample in the center of the Helmholtz coils, with the Helmholtz coil axis perpendicular
to the sample. The oscilloscope traces should now appear as in Figure 7.6. If you don’t
see the resonance pulses, slowly vary the DC current to the Helmholtz coils, or vary the
RF frequency, until you do.
Note: do not limit the voltage on the coils d.c. power supply, keep this limit relatively high
and only adjust the current to the coils (otherwise the a.c. sine wave may get distorted).
7.4 Taking ESR Data

Adjust the phase shifter so that the resonance pulses are symmetric with respect to the
oscilloscope trace that shows the current to the Helmholtz coils. Refine the adjustment of
the DC current until the resonance pulses occur when the AC component of the current
to the Helmholtz coils is zero.
To do this:
58 Electron spin
a. Make sure that channel 1 is AC coupled.

b. Using the scope controls, ground the input to channel 1, zero the trace, and then
unground the input.
c. Adjust the DC current. As you do, notice how the resonance pulses move closer
together or farther apart. Adjust the DC current, and the phase shifter if necessary, until
the pulses occur just when the AC current to the Helmholtz coils is zero. This is most
accurately accomplished if you adjust the vertical position of channel 2 so that the bottom
of the resonance pulses are just at the zero level of channel 1.
After these adjustments, the scope traces should appear as in Fig. 7.6. Everything is
set for making ESR measurements. Since the current has been adjusted so that the reso-
nance pulses occur when the AC current to the coils is zero, the current to the Helmholtz
coils at resonance is just the DC value indicated by the ammeter.
Measure the RF frequency and the DC current. Then vary the current and find the
new resonance frequency, or the other way around. For each of the three RF probes take
at least five different data points, covering as large a frequency range as possible. In order
of decreasing number of turns the three RF probes cover approximate frequency ranges
of 13-30 MHz, 30-75 MHz, and 75-130 MHz, respectively.
7.5 Analysis
Calculate gs for each data point, then mean, σ, σmean and compare with the accepted
value. You should also determine gs from a linear least squares fit. Comment on your
results relative to the accepted value.
What systematic error do you think results from the fact that the ESR Probe Unit
(metal!) protrudes into the region between the Helmholtz coils? Explain whether your
results show evidence for such a systematic effect.
7.6 References
Experiment 8
Poisson Statistics
8.1 Preface
This simple experiment will help you gain familiarity with the second most important
statistical distribution in physics, the Poisson distribution. It describes the results of
experiments where one counts events that occur at random, but at a definite average rate
(example: radioactive decays). It is of paramount importance in all of atomic, and, in
particular, subatomic physics.
8.2 Method
You will use the same setup as for the electron rest mass experiment. No source will be
needed as you will simply measure the background count rate in our NaI detector. In
addition, you will use our multichannel analyzer (MCA) in multichannel scaling mode
(MCS) instead of pulse height analysis mode (PHA). In MCS function, the MCA no
longer acts as a pulse height selector, but as a multichannel scaler with each channel
acting as an independent scaler. At the start of operation, the MCA counts the incident
pulse signals (regardless of amplitude) for a certain dwell time, and stores this number
in the first channel. It then jumps to the next channel and counts for another dwell time
period, after which it jumps to the next channel and so on. In MCS mode, therefore, the
channels represent bins in time. Typical dwell times will be in the milliseconds range.
Suggested starting values:

HV of 1000V for the NaI, minimum gain (both fine and coarse) for the
preamp/amp/discriminator (PAD) module, no radioactive source.
MCA setup: To put the MCA into MCS mode, we need to connect two pins on the MCA
59
60 Poisson statistics
input connector. This is done with a “hydra” break-out cable. Find a break-out cable,
and connect the cable labeled MCS/REJ to the one labeled SCA. With the computer
off, attach the break-out connector to the MCA card.
Setup the software with 256 channels. (Note: this means the computer will effectively
perform this simple counting experiment 256 times for you!), MCS mode of operation
with 1 pass. Make sure sync is set to internal and presets on (or the number of passes
doesn’t work correctly). And now the important part: adjust the dwell time such that
the average count rate per channel is around 1-2 counts. Save the resulting spectrum as
an ASCII file to a floppy. Repeat this procedure for two other dwell times such that the
average count rate per channel is around 5 counts and around 10 counts, respectively.
8.3 Analysis
Plot your three resulting distributions (with MATLAB). Notice the significant asymmetry
of the distribution for the lowest average count rate (Poisson at work!). Calculate mean
and standard deviation in each case. How closely do your results follow the expectation
for Poisson distributions, i.e. that the standard deviation is equal to the square root of
the mean? Also notice how your highest average count rate case is rather symmetric,
i.e. already for an average count rate of around 10 the Poisson distribution is virtually
indistinguishable from a Gaussian.
Compare your three count rate distributions with the expected Poisson distributions
graphically (with statistical error bars), and calculate the chisquare per degree of freedom.
For the highest average count rate case, repeat with a Gaussian distribution.
8.4 References
Experiment 9
Mass of the Electron
9.1 Objective
To determine the rest mass of the electron, me , via γ-ray interactions (mainly Compton
scattering and photoeffect) in a N aI scintillation detector. Based on the enclosed article
by Mudhole and Umakantha, you will perform this experiment as outlined there.
9.2 Theory
You must become familiar with γ-ray interactions in matter, the Sodium Iodide (N aI) de-
tector including the Photomultiplier Tube (PMT), and the Multichannel Analyzer (MCA).
See the enclosed handout (mainly from ref.1). Our MCA is actually a PC with an internal
MCA card (called PCA3). It digitizes pulses in the range (0-10)V and with risetimes from
(0.5-30)µs.
9.3 Procedure
Warning! Check the polarity of the high voltage for the PMT, and do not exceed the
maximum HV, which should be indicated on the NaI detector. If in doubt, ask before
turning on the HV!
The PMT output needs to be connected to the MCA via a preamp/amplifier module.
Check the signals at various places with an oscilloscope. For instance, the raw anode
output of the PMT should be a negative pulse (why?). The preamp/amp module will
then integrate, amplify, and shape this pulse into a positive (or bipolar with positive
leading part) pulse with significantly longer rise time than the raw anode pulse. This
amplification and shaping is required for the pulse to become ‘digestible’ to the MCA.
61
62 Electron mass
Also observe the PMT output as you change the HV (gain of the PMT increases with
increasing HV - make sure you understand why).
Record the spectra from several γ-sources to familiarize yourself with the physics and
the hardware. If the backscatter peak is weak try to enhance it by positioning some
material appropriately. Use the photopeaks for calibration, i.e., channel number versus
energy deposited. This relationship should be highly linear. Do a linear least squares
fit. Good sources for the calibration are 22 N a, 137 Cs, and 60 Co, resulting in a total of 5
photopeaks. Please make sure your lab report contains copies of all your spectra. The
most useful sources, based on their longevity, are (with their half-life and most abundant
Eγ ):
137
Cs (τ1/2 = 30.2 years; 0.662 MeV)
60
Co (τ1/2 = 5.3 years; 1.17 MeV, 1.33 MeV)
22
N a (τ1/2 = 2.6 years; 0.511 MeV, 1.275 MeV)
133
Ba (τ1/2 = 10.5 years; 0.356 MeV)
Note that in case of 22 N a and 60 Co you might also see the sum peak at higher energies.
Look for it and make sure you understand what is happening there. If you take data
long enough with your detector close to a wall (no Pb bricks as shielding and no sources
around!) you will likely see a peak at 1.46 Mev from 40 K in concrete, a well-known
background line in concrete buildings. Identify this peak in a background spectrum.
Also determine the resolution (FWHM) in % using your 137 Cs photopeak. Typical
numbers for N aI detectors are 5%-10%. Another useful exercise is to take data for a
certain amount of time with a weak source, then remove the source, and take data for
the same amount of time with the MCA in subtract mode, i.e. performing a background
subtraction.
Using your calibration determine the Compton edge and the backscatter peak (both
in keV) for as many sources as possible. Then calculate me incl. error(in keV). It is
important to collect as many data points for me as possible, at least four each from the
Compton edge and from the backscatter peak. If, for example, you can’t use the Compton
edge from a particular source, try to still use the backscatter peak. An example for this
is 60 Co - why can’t you use the Compton edge in this case? For sources with two γ lines
accumulate enough statistics so that you can use the sum peak and its Compton edge.
In addition, take a long-enough background spectrum so that you can use the 40 K line,
mentioned above.
Do your results from the Compton edges indicate whether the half-height point is
really the best measure of the Compton edge?
Is there any systematic difference in your results between the accuracy obtained for
me using the Compton edges vs. using the backscatter peaks? If yes, can you think of a
Electron mass 63
reason why?
Why do the backscatter events show up in a peak, i.e. why are they not distributed
over a much wider energy range?
9.4 References
[2] Appendix: “Determination of the rest-mass energy of the electron...”, Am J. Phys Vol
45 No 11, Nov. 1977.
[3] Appendix : Interaction of Electrons and Photons with Matter
[5] G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, 2nd ed., 1989, Wiley.
[6] W.R. Leo, Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments, 2nd ed., 1994,
Springer.
64 Speed of light
Experiment 10
The Speed of Light c
10.1 Introduction
In this experiment you will measure the speed of light, c. This is one of the most funda-
mental constants in physics, and at the same time the fastest quantity you’ll ever measure!
By using short pulses of light and a high speed detector you will determine c with good
accuracy (few %) in a direct time-of-flight (TOF) measurement over distances of only one
to two meters.
10.2 Apparatus
Warning! This experiment uses a photomultiplier tube (PMT) that will be ruined if
exposed to ambient light when at operating voltages. Please be careful - the PMT must
never be exposed to any bright light source while its high voltage is turned on. Permanent
damage will result!
A schematic of the set-up is shown in Fig. 10.1. The circuit in Fig. 10.2 sends out
short (few nanosecond) light pulses via a green LED (light emitting diode) at frequencies
around f ∼ 10kHz. This frequency is determined by the external dc power supply (150
to 200 Vdc, please do not exceed 200 V!). These light pulses are detected with a PMT
which requires negative high voltage in the range of 1800 to 2400 V.
This high voltage is applied to the photomultiplier tube (PMT). The photocathode
has a thin layer of a photosensitive substance, typically antimony-cesium alloys. The
photocathode will emit a number of electrons proportional to the intensity of light that
it receives. These photoelectrons are accelerated by the potential applied between the
cathode and the first of a series of electrodes called dynodes. A typical PMT will contain
ten to fourteen dynodes. The first dynode is maintained at a positive potential with
65
66 Speed of light
respect to the photocathode. Each subsequent dynode is kept at about the same potential
difference with respect to the preceding one. The electrons that are emitted from the
photocathode are attracted to the first dynode and acquire enough kinetic energy to free
additional electrons as they collide with the dynode (secondary emission). This charge
multiplication process occurs at each dynode. After the last dynode stage, the electrons
are collected at the anode of the tube. The output of the PMT is
therefore a negative current pulse. Our PMT actually has negative HV applied to the
photocathode while the anode is grounded. However, this does not change the basic
physics of the device.
A pulse from the LED pulser labelled ‘start’ in Fig. 10.2 and the anode (not dynode!)
pulse from the PMT (with some time delay cable) are sent to the start and stop input of
a time-to-amplitude (TAC) converter, respectively. The TAC generates an output voltage
pulse whose amplitude is proportional to the start-stop time difference, as long as this
time difference is within the range selected by a front panel knob. The TAC output is
analyzed by a Multichannel Analyzer (MCA), the basic function of which is described at
the end of this handout.
This experiment contains an important source of a systematic error which, if not very
carefully corrected for, could easily ruin your results quite dramatically. The phenomenon
is known as ‘time walk’, and it plays an important role in high resolution timing exper-
iments in nuclear and particle physics. The principle is shown in Fig. 10.3. If a device
(like our TAC) triggers at a fixed voltage or discriminator level, its triggering time will
occur later for smaller pulses than for larger pulses, even if the maximum pulse ampli-
tude is reached at the same time. We are assuming here that the pulse rise time remains
constant, i.e. is independent of pulse amplitude. In our application this time walk occurs
because the PMT signal increases in amplitude as the LED assembly is moved closer to
the PMT. Explain why this is the case.
In order to compensate for this PMT amplitude change we have polarizers mounted
in front of the LED and the PMT. By rotating the PMT relative to the LED assembly
you can change the amount of light hitting the photocathode thereby keeping the output
amplitude constant. NOTE: it is extremely important for good results to take all data
points at one and the same PMT amplitude.
10.3 Procedure
1. Familiarize yourself with the hardware. Note that the TAC has a threshold of -250
mV and requires a ∆t > 2 nsec.
2. With a HV of around 1800 to 2000 V for the PMT, the anode amplitude should be
Speed of light 67
Figure 10.1: Schematic of Speed of Light Apparatus.

68 Speed of light
Figure 10.2: Speed of Light LED-pulsing Circuit.

Speed of light 69
Figure 10.3: Illustration of ‘time walk’.

70 Speed of light
several volts (into 50Ω), even at large distances between LED and PMT. If this is
not the case, you need to adjust the relative alignment of LED/lens assembly and
PMT. The polarizer should be set for maximum amplitude at the largest distances.
3. Using the oscilloscope, look at both start and stop signals for the TAC simulta-
neously, and make sure there is sufficient delay between them. Then take some
data.
4. Calibrate your system, i.e. by inserting several different cables of known delay, or
using a delay box, determine the number of picoseconds per channel. Your time
resolution (Full Width at Half Maximum or FWHM of your peak) should be better
than 1 ns. Think about this remarkable fact in terms of the distance that light
travels in 1 ns! Measure and report your time resolution. In addition, check the
linearity of your calibration.
5. Measure the systematic uncertainty due to the time walk. First, estimate the pre-
cision to which you can hold the amplitude constant (the uncertainty in the am-
plitude). Find a way to measure the systematic uncertainty on the value of c due
to this uncertainty in amplitude. For your measurements, choose a value for the
amplitude that will minimize the systematic uncertainty.
6. Take the following data:
• Measure several times over a short (∼ 25 cm) change in distance and compare
the results, including error, with data taken over a much larger change in
distance (∼ 150 cm). Which set of data would you expect to give better
results, and why?
• Take data at successively larger (or smaller, depending upon where you start)
distances and determine c and its error from a least squares fit to your x
versus t curve. For a comparison take a few data points without the time walk
correction, and determine c from those.
• Summarize and compare your results (incl. their errors) for c from an overall
mean, from your linear least squares fit, and also from your data taken without
the time walk correction. What conclusions do you draw?
7. By using error propagation show that the relative error in c is dominated by the
time resolution σt , and not by the position resolution σx .
8. If you are using the PCA3 software as part of your MCA system, CTRL+F2 will
erase all data. If you happen to press F2 without holding down CTRL, CTRL+F2
will not work until F2 is pressed a second time.
Speed of light 71
10.4 References
[1] Melissinos and Napolitano
[2] Canberra Model 2044 Time Analyzer manual (available in the lab).
[3] W.R. Leo, Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments, 2nd ed., 1994,
Springer.
Appendix A
General References
Note that many of these are available in the lab. Also, see hyperlinks in the
class web page (e.g. table of isotopes).
Statistics and Data Analysis
1. ”Data Analysis for Physical Science Students:, Lous Lyons (my personal favoite)
2. ”Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physicsl Sciences”, P. Bevington, D.
Robinson (updated classic)
Experimental Methods
1. ”Experiments in Modern Physics”, Melissinos and Napolitano, 2nd ed., 2003, Aca-
demic Press.
2. G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, 2nd ed., 1989, Wiley.
3. W.R. Leo, Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments, 2nd ed., 1994,
Springer.
4. Technical notes are available for all experimental hardware.
Physics
1. ”Optics”, Hecht and Zajac, Addison Wesley Publishing Company; 3rd edition (Au-
gust 1997).
2. ”Electricity and Magnetism, Berkeley Physics Series Vol II”, E. Purcell, McGraw-
Hill Science/Engineering/Math; 2 edition (August 1, 1984)
3. any recent modern physics book
4. Melissinos (op. cit.)
73
Appendix B
Tables
75
1. Physical constants 1
1. PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Table 1.1. Reviewed 2005 by P.J. Mohr and B.N. Taylor (NIST). Based mainly on the “CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental
Physical Constants: 2002” by P.J. Mohr and B.N. Taylor, Rev. Mod. Phys. 77, 1 (2005). The last group of constants (beginning with the Fermi
coupling constant) comes from the Particle Data Group. The figures in parentheses after the values give the 1-standard-deviation uncertainties
in the last digits; the corresponding fractional uncertainties in parts per 109 (ppb) are given in the last column. This set of constants (aside
from the last group) is recommended for international use by CODATA (the Committee on Data for Science and Technology). The full 2002
CODATA set of constants may be found at http://physics.nist.gov/constants
Quantity Symbol, equation Value Uncertainty (ppb)

speed of light in vacuum c 299 792 458 m s−1 exact∗
Planck constant h 6.626 0693(11)×10−34 J s 170
Planck constant, reduced ≡ h/2π 1.054 571 68(18)×10−34 J s 170
= 6.582 119 15(56)×10−22 MeV s 85
electron charge magnitude e 1.602 176 53(14)×10−19 C = 4.803 204 41(41)×10−10 esu 85, 85
conversion constant c 197.326 968(17) MeV fm 85
conversion constant (c)2 0.389 379 323(67) GeV2 mbarn 170
electron mass me 0.510 998 918(44) MeV/c2 = 9.109 3826(16)×10−31 kg 86, 170
proton mass mp 938.272 029(80) MeV/c2 = 1.672 621 71(29)×10−27 kg 86, 170
= 1.007 276 466 88(13) u = 1836.152 672 61(85) me 0.13, 0.46
deuteron mass md 1875.612 82(16) MeV/c2 86
unified atomic mass unit (u) (mass 12 C atom)/12 = (1 g)/(NA mol) 931.494 043(80) MeV/c2 = 1.660 538 86(28)×10−27 kg 86, 170
permittivity of free space 0 = 1/µ0 c2 8.854 187 817 . . . ×10−12 F m−1 exact
permeability of free space µ0 4π × 10−7 N A−2 = 12.566 370 614 . . . ×10−7 N A−2 exact
fine-structure constant α = e2 /4π0 c 7.297 352 568(24)×10−3 = 1/137.035 999 11(46)† 3.3, 3.3
classical electron radius re = e2 /4π0 me c2 2.817 940 325(28)×10−15 m 10
(e− Compton wavelength)/2π −
λe = /me c = re α−1 3.861 592 678(26)×10−13 m 6.7
Bohr radius (mnucleus = ∞) a∞ = 4π0 2 /me e2 = re α−2 0.529 177 2108(18)×10−10 m 3.3
wavelength of 1 eV/c particle hc/(1 eV) 1.239 841 91(11)×10−6 m 85
Rydberg energy 4 2 2 2 2
hcR∞ = me e /2(4π0 ) = me c α /2 13.605 6923(12) eV 85
Thomson cross section σT = 8πre2 /3 0.665 245 873(13) barn 20
Bohr magneton µB = e/2me 5.788 381 804(39)×10−11 MeV T−1 6.7
nuclear magneton µN = e/2mp 3.152 451 259(21)×10−14 MeV T−1 6.7
electron cyclotron freq./field e /B = e/m
ωcycl e 1.758 820 12(15)×1011 rad s−1 T−1 86
proton cyclotron freq./field p
ωcycl /B = e/mp 9.578 833 76(82)×107 rad s−1 T−1 86
gravitational constant‡ GN 6.6742(10)×10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 1.5 × 105

= 6.7087(10)×10−39 c (GeV/c2 )−2 1.5 × 105
standard gravitational accel. gn 9.806 65 m s−2 exact
Avogadro constant NA 6.022 1415(10)×1023 mol−1 170
Boltzmann constant k 1.380 6505(24)×10−23 J K−1 1800
= 8.617 343(15)×10−5 eV K−1 1800
molar volume, ideal gas at STP NA k(273.15 K)/(101 325 Pa) 22.413 996(39)×10−3 m3 mol−1 1700
Wien displacement law constant b = λmax T 2.897 7685(51)×10−3 m K 1700
Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ = π2 k 4 /603 c2 5.670 400(40)×10−8 W m−2 K−4 7000
Fermi coupling constant∗∗ GF /(c)3 1.166 37(1)×10−5 GeV−2 9000
weak-mixing angle Z ) (MS)
sin2 θ(M 0.23122(15)†† 6.5 × 105
W ± boson mass mW 80.403(29) GeV/c2 3.6 × 105
Z 0 boson mass mZ 91.1876(21) GeV/c2 2.3 × 104
strong coupling constant αs (mZ ) 0.1176(20) 1.7 × 107
π = 3.141 592 653 589 793 238 e = 2.718 281 828 459 045 235 γ = 0.577 215 664 901 532 861
−4 −19
1 in ≡ 0.0254 m 1 G ≡ 10 T 1 eV = 1.602 176 53(14) × 10 J kT at 300 K = [38.681 684(68)]−1 eV
−5 2 −36
1 Å ≡ 0.1 nm 1 dyne ≡ 10 N 1 eV/c = 1.782 661 81(15) × 10 kg 0 ◦ C ≡ 273.15 K
1 barn ≡ 10−28 m2 1 erg ≡ 10−7 J 2.997 924 58 × 109 esu = 1 C 1 atmosphere ≡ 760 Torr ≡ 101 325 Pa
∗ The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
† At Q2 = 0. At Q2 ≈ m2W the value is ∼ 1/128.
‡ Absolute lab measurements of G have been made only on scales of about 1 cm to 1 m.
N
∗∗ See the discussion in Sec. 10, “Electroweak model and constraints on new physics.”
†† The corresponding sin2 θ for the effective angle is 0.23152(14).
Table 4.1. Revised 2005 by C.G. Wohl (LBNL) and D.E. Groom (LBNL). Adapted from the Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances, “Atomic
Weights of the Elements 1999,” Pure and Applied Chemistry 73, 667 (2001), and G. Audi, A.H. Wapstra, and C. Thibault, Nucl. Phys. A729, 337 (2003). The atomic
number (top left) is the number of protons in the nucleus. The atomic mass (bottom) is weighted by isotopic abundances in the Earth’s surface. Atomic masses are
relative to the mass of 12 C, defined to be exactly 12 unified atomic mass units (u) (approx. g/mole). Relative isotopic abundances often vary considerably, both in
natural and commercial samples; this is reflected in the number of significant figures given. A number in parentheses is the atomic mass of the longest-lived known
isotope of that element—no stable isotope exists. The exceptions are Th, Pa, and U, which do have characteristic terrestrial compositions. As of early 2006 element
112 has not been assigned a name, and there are no confirmed elements with Z > 112.
4. PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

1 18
IA VIIIA
1 H 2 He
Hydrogen 2 13 14 15 16 17 Helium
1.00794 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4.002602
3 Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne
Lithium Beryllium PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.941 9.012182 10.811 12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984032 20.1797
11 Na 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar
Sodium Magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminum Silicon Phosph. Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.989770 24.3050 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB 26.981538 28.0855 30.973761 32.065 35.453 39.948
19 K 20 Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni 29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium German. Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.0983 40.078 44.955910 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938049 55.845 58.933200 58.6934 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.64 74.92160 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 I 54 Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybd. Technet. Ruthen. Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.94 (97.907216) 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.293
55 Cs 56 Ba 57–71 72 Hf 73 Ta 74 W 75 Re 76 Os 77 Ir 78 Pt 79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 85 At 86 Rn
Cesium Barium Lantha- Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.90545 137.327 nides 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.96655 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.98038 (208.982430) (209.987148) (222.017578)
87 Fr 88 Ra 89–103 104 Rf 105 Db 106 Sg 107 Bh 108 Hs 109 Mt 110 Ds 111 Rg 112
4. Periodic table of the elements

Francium Radium Actinides Rutherford. Dubnium Seaborg. Bohrium Hassium Meitner. Darmstadt. Roentgen.
(223.019736) (226.025410) (261.10877) (262.1141) (263.1221) (262.1246) (277.1498) (268.1387) (271.1461) (272.1536) (277.1639)
Lanthanide 57 La 58 Ce 59 Pr 60 Nd 61 Pm 62 Sm 63 Eu 64 Gd 65 Tb 66 Dy 67 Ho 68 Er 69 Tm 70 Yb 71 Lu
series Lanthan. Cerium Praseodym. Neodym. Prometh. Samarium Europium Gadolin. Terbium Dyspros. Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
138.9055 140.116 140.90765 144.24 (144.912749) 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.259 168.93421 173.04 174.967
Actinide 89 Ac 90 Th 91 Pa 92 U 93 Np 94 Pu 95 Am 96 Cm 97 Bk 98 Cf 99 Es 100 Fm 101 Md 102 No 103 Lr

series Actinium Thorium
Protactin. Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americ. Curium Berkelium Californ. Einstein. Fermium Mendelev. Nobelium Lawrenc.
(227.027752) 232.038055 231.035884 238.02891 (237.048173) (244.064204) (243.061381) (247.070354) (247.070307) (251.079587) (252.08298) (257.085105) (258.098431) (259.1010) (262.1096)
1
5. Electronic structure of the elements 1
5. ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF THE ELEMENTS

Table 5.1. Reviewed 2005 by C.G. Wohl (LBNL). The electronic configurations and the ionization energies are from the NIST database,
“Ground Levels and Ionization Energies for the Neutral Atoms,” W.C. Martin, A. Musgrove, S. Kotochigova, and J.E. Sansonetti (2003),
http://physics.nist.gov (select “Physical Reference Data”). The electron configuration for, say, iron indicates an argon electronic core (see
argon) plus six 3d electrons and two 4s electrons. The ionization energy is the least energy necessary to remove to infinity one electron from an
atom of the element.
Ground Ionization
Electron configuration state energy
Element (3d5 = five 3d electrons, etc.) 2S+1 L
J (eV)
1 H Hydrogen 1s 2S 13.5984
1/2
2 He Helium 1s2 1S
0 24.5874
3 Li Lithium (He)2s 2S 5.3917
1/2
4 Be Beryllium (He)2s2 1S
0 9.3227
5 B Boron (He)2s2 2p 2P
1/2 8.2980
6 C Carbon (He)2s2 2p2 3P
0 11.2603
7 N Nitrogen (He)2s2 2p3 4S
3/2 14.5341
8 O Oxygen (He)2s2 2p4 3P
2 13.6181
9 F Fluorine (He)2s2 2p5 2P
3/2 17.4228
10 Ne Neon (He)2s2 2p6 1S
0 21.5645
11 Na Sodium (Ne)3s 2S 5.1391
1/2
12 Mg Magnesium (Ne)3s2 1S
0 7.6462
13 Al Aluminum (Ne)3s2 3p 2P
1/2 5.9858
14 Si Silicon (Ne)3s2 3p2 3P
0 8.1517
15 P Phosphorus (Ne)3s2 3p3 4S
3/2 10.4867
16 S Sulfur (Ne)3s2 3p4 3P
2 10.3600
17 Cl Chlorine (Ne)3s2 3p5 2P
3/2 12.9676
18 Ar Argon (Ne)3s2 3p6 1S
0 15.7596
19 K Potassium (Ar) 4s 2S 4.3407
1/2
20 Ca Calcium (Ar) 4s2 1S
0 6.1132
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
21 Sc Scandium (Ar) 3d 4s2 T 2D
3/2 6.5615
22 Ti Titanium (Ar) 3d2 4s2 r
e
3F
2 6.8281
23 V Vanadium (Ar) 3d3 4s2 a
l
4F
3/2 6.7462
24 Cr Chromium (Ar) 3d5 4s n
e
7S
3 6.7665
25 Mn Manganese (Ar) 3d5 4s2 s 6S 7.4340
m 5/2
i
26 Fe Iron (Ar) 3d6 4s2 e 5D
4 7.9024
t
27 Co Cobalt (Ar) 3d7 4s2 i
n 4F
9/2 7.8810
28 Ni Nickel (Ar) 3d8 4s2 o
t 3F
4 7.6398
29 Cu Copper (Ar) 3d10 4s n
s 2S
1/2 7.7264
30 Zn Zinc (Ar) 3d10 4s2 1S
0 9.3942
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
31 Ga Gallium (Ar) 3d10 4s2 4p 2P
1/2 5.9993
32 Ge Germanium (Ar) 3d10 4s2 4p2 3P
0 7.8994
33 As Arsenic (Ar) 3d10 4s2 4p3 4S
3/2 9.7886
34 Se Selenium (Ar) 3d10 4s2 4p4 3P
2 9.7524
35 Br Bromine (Ar) 3d10 4s2 4p5 2P
3/2 11.8138
36 Kr Krypton (Ar) 3d10 4s2 4p6 1S
0 13.9996
37 Rb Rubidium (Kr) 5s 2S 4.1771
1/2
38 Sr Strontium (Kr) 5s2 1S
0 5.6949
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
39 Y Yttrium (Kr) 4d 5s2 T 2D
3/2 6.2173
40 Zr Zirconium (Kr) 4d2 5s2 r
e
3F
2 6.6339
41 Nb Niobium (Kr) 4d4 5s a
l
6D
1/2 6.7589
42 Mo Molybdenum (Kr) 4d5 5s n
e
7S
3 7.0924
43 Tc Technetium (Kr) 4d5 5s2 s 6S 7.28
m 5/2
i
44 Ru Ruthenium (Kr) 4d7 5s e 5F
5 7.3605
t
45 Rh Rhodium (Kr) 4d8 5s i
n 4F
9/2 7.4589
46 Pd Palladium (Kr) 4d10 o
t 1S
0 8.3369
47 Ag Silver (Kr) 4d10 5s n
s 2S
1/2 7.5762
48 Cd Cadmium (Kr) 4d10 5s2 1S
0 8.9938
2 5. Electronic structure of the elements
49 In Indium (Kr) 4d10 5s2 5p 2P

1/2 5.7864
50 Sn Tin (Kr) 4d10 5s2 5p2 3P
0 7.3439
51 Sb Antimony (Kr) 4d10 5s2 5p3 4S
3/2 8.6084
52 Te Tellurium (Kr) 4d10 5s2 5p4 3P
2 9.0096
53 I Iodine (Kr) 4d10 5s2 5p5 2P
3/2 10.4513
54 Xe Xenon (Kr) 4d10 5s2 5p6 1S
0 12.1298
55 Cs Cesium (Xe) 6s 2S 3.8939
1/2
56 Ba Barium (Xe) 6s 2 1 S0 5.2117
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
57 La Lanthanum (Xe) 5d 6s 2 2 D3/2 5.5769
58 Ce Cerium (Xe)4f 5d 6s2 1G
4 5.5387
59 Pr Praseodymium (Xe)4f 3 6s2 L 4I
9/2 5.473
60 Nd Neodymium (Xe)4f 4 6s2 a 5I
4 5.5250
61 Pm Promethium (Xe)4f 5 6s2 n 6H
5/2 5.582
62 Sm Samarium (Xe)4f 6 6s2 t 7F
0 5.6437
63 Eu Europium (Xe)4f 7 6s2 h 8S 5.6704
7/2
a
64 Gd Gadolinium (Xe)4f 7 5d 6s2 9D
2 6.1498
n
65 Tb Terbium (Xe)4f 9 6s2 i
6H
15/2 5.8638
66 Dy Dysprosium (Xe)4f 10 6s2 d
5I
8 5.9389
67 Ho Holmium (Xe)4f 11 6s2 e
4I
15/2 6.0215
68 Er Erbium (Xe)4f 12 6s2 s 3H
6 6.1077
69 Tm Thulium (Xe)4f 13 6s2 2F
7/2 6.1843
70 Yb Ytterbium (Xe)4f 14 6s2 1S
0 6.2542
71 Lu Lutetium (Xe)4f 14 5d 6s2 2D
3/2 5.4259
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
72 Hf Hafnium (Xe)4f 14 5d2 6s2 T 3F
2 6.8251
73 Ta Tantalum (Xe)4f 14 5d3 6s2 r e
4F
3/2 7.5496
74 W Tungsten (Xe)4f 14 5d4 6s2 a l
5D
0 7.8640
75 Re Rhenium (Xe)4f 14 5d5 6s2 n e
6S
5/2 7.8335
76 Os Osmium (Xe)4f 14 5d6 6s2 s m 5D 8.4382
4
i
77 Ir Iridium (Xe)4f 14 5d7 6s2 e 4F
9/2 8.9670
t
78 Pt Platinum (Xe)4f 14 5d9 6s i
n 3D
3 8.9588
79 Au Gold (Xe)4f 14 5d10 6s o
t 2S1/2 9.2255
s
80 Hg Mercury (Xe)4f 14 5d10 6s2 n
1S
0 10.4375
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
81 Tl Thallium (Xe)4f 14 5d10 6s2 6p 2P
1/2 6.1082
82 Pb Lead (Xe)4f 14 5d10 6s2 6p2 3P
0 7.4167
83 Bi Bismuth (Xe)4f 14 5d10 6s2 6p3 4S
3/2 7.2855
84 Po Polonium (Xe)4f 14 5d10 6s2 6p4 3P
2 8.414
85 At Astatine (Xe)4f 14 5d10 6s2 6p5 2P
3/2
86 Rn Radon (Xe)4f 14 5d10 6s2 6p6 1S
0 10.7485
87 Fr Francium (Rn) 7s 2S 4.0727
1/2
88 Ra Radium (Rn) 7s2 1S
0 5.2784
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
89 Ac Actinium (Rn) 6d 7s2 2D
3/2 5.17
90 Th Thorium (Rn) 6d2 7s 2 3F
2 6.3067
91 Pa Protactinium (Rn)5f 2 6d 7s2 A 4K
11/2
∗ 5.89
92 U Uranium (Rn)5f 3 6d 7s2 c 5L ∗
6 6.1941
93 Np Neptunium (Rn)5f 4 6d 7s2 t 6L
11/2
∗ 6.2657
94 Pu Plutonium (Rn)5f 6 7s2 i 7F
0 6.0260
95 Am Americium (Rn)5f 7 7s2 n 8S 5.9738
7/2
i
96 Cm Curium (Rn)5f 7 6d 7s2 9D
2 5.9914
d
97 Bk Berkelium (Rn)5f 9 7s2 e
6H
15/2 6.1979
98 Cf Californium (Rn)5f 10 7s2 s
5I
8 6.2817
99 Es Einsteinium (Rn)5f 11 7s2 4I
15/2 6.42
100 Fm Fermium (Rn)5f 12 7s2 3H
6 6.50
101 Md Mendelevium (Rn)5f 13 7s2 2F
7/2 6.58
102 No Nobelium (Rn)5f 14 7s2 1S
0 6.65
103 Lr Lawrencium (Rn)5f 14 7s2 7p? 2P
1/2 ? 4.9?
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
104 Rf Rutherfordium (Rn)5f 14 6d2 7s2 ? 3F ?
2 6.0?
∗The usual LS coupling scheme does not apply for these three elements. See the introductory
note to the NIST table from which this table is taken.
6. Atomic and nuclear properties of materials 1
6. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Table 6.1. Revised May 2002 by D.E. Groom (LBNL). Gases are evaluated at 20◦ C and 1 atm (in parentheses) or at STP [square brackets].
Densities and refractive indices without parentheses or brackets are for solids or liquids, or are for cryogenic liquids at the indicated boiling
point (BP) at 1 atm. Refractive indices are evaluated at the sodium D line. Data for compounds and mixtures are from Refs. 1 and 2. Futher
materials and properties are given in Ref. 3 and at http://pdg.lbl.gov/AtomicNuclearProperties.
Material Z A Z/A Nuclear a Nuclear a dE/dx|min b Radiation length c Density Liquid Refractive

collision interaction X0 {g/cm3 } boiling index n
MeV
length λT length λI 2 {g/cm2 } {cm} ({g/} point at ((n − 1)×106
g/cm
{g/cm2 } {g/cm2 } for gas) 1 atm(K) for gas)
H2 gas 1 1.00794 0.99212 43.3 50.8 (4.103) 61.28 d (731000) (0.0838)[0.0899] [139.2]
H2 liquid 1 1.00794 0.99212 43.3 50.8 4.034 61.28 d 866 0.0708 20.39 1.112
D2 1 2.0140 0.49652 45.7 54.7 (2.052) 122.4 724 0.169[0.179] 23.65 1.128 [138]
He 2 4.002602 0.49968 49.9 65.1 (1.937) 94.32 756 0.1249[0.1786] 4.224 1.024 [34.9]
Li 3 6.941 0.43221 54.6 73.4 1.639 82.76 155 0.534 —
Be 4 9.012182 0.44384 55.8 75.2 1.594 65.19 35.28 1.848 —
C 6 12.011 0.49954 60.2 86.3 1.745 42.70 18.8 2.265 e —
N2 7 14.00674 0.49976 61.4 87.8 (1.825) 37.99 47.1 0.8073[1.250] 77.36 1.205 [298]
O2 8 15.9994 0.50002 63.2 91.0 (1.801) 34.24 30.0 1.141[1.428] 90.18 1.22 [296]
F2 9 18.9984032 0.47372 65.5 95.3 (1.675) 32.93 21.85 1.507[1.696] 85.24 [195]
Ne 10 20.1797 0.49555 66.1 96.6 (1.724) 28.94 24.0 1.204[0.9005] 27.09 1.092 [67.1]
Al 13 26.981539 0.48181 70.6 106.4 1.615 24.01 8.9 2.70 —
Si 14 28.0855 0.49848 70.6 106.0 1.664 21.82 9.36 2.33 3.95
Ar 18 39.948 0.45059 76.4 117.2 (1.519) 19.55 14.0 1.396[1.782] 87.28 1.233 [283]
Ti 22 47.867 0.45948 79.9 124.9 1.476 16.17 3.56 4.54 —
Fe 26 55.845 0.46556 82.8 131.9 1.451 13.84 1.76 7.87 —
Cu 29 63.546 0.45636 85.6 134.9 1.403 12.86 1.43 8.96 —
Ge 32 72.61 0.44071 88.3 140.5 1.371 12.25 2.30 5.323 —
Sn 50 118.710 0.42120 100.2 163 1.264 8.82 1.21 7.31 —
Xe 54 131.29 0.41130 102.8 169 (1.255) 8.48 2.87 2.953[5.858] 165.1 [701]
W 74 183.84 0.40250 110.3 185 1.145 6.76 0.35 19.3 —
Pt 78 195.08 0.39984 113.3 189.7 1.129 6.54 0.305 21.45 —
Pb 82 207.2 0.39575 116.2 194 1.123 6.37 0.56 11.35 —
U 92 238.0289 0.38651 117.0 199 1.082 6.00 ≈0.32 ≈18.95 —
Air, (20◦ C, 1 atm.), [STP] 0.49919 62.0 90.0 (1.815) 36.66 [30420] (1.205)[1.2931] 78.8 (273) [293]
H2 O 0.55509 60.1 83.6 1.991 36.08 36.1 1.00 373.15 1.33
CO2 gas 0.49989 62.4 89.7 (1.819) 36.2 [18310] [1.977] [410]
CO2 solid (dry ice) 0.49989 62.4 89.7 1.787 36.2 23.2 1.563 sublimes —
Shielding concrete f 0.50274 67.4 99.9 1.711 26.7 10.7 2.5 —
SiO2 (fused quartz) 0.49926 66.5 97.4 1.699 27.05 12.3 2.20 g 1.458
Dimethyl ether, (CH3 )2 O 0.54778 59.4 82.9 — 38.89 — — 248.7 —
Methane, CH4 0.62333 54.8 73.4 (2.417) 46.22 [64850] 0.4224[0.717] 111.7 [444]
Ethane, C2 H6 0.59861 55.8 75.7 (2.304) 45.47 [34035] 0.509(1.356) h 184.5 (1.038) h
Propane, C3 H8 0.58962 56.2 76.5 (2.262) 45.20 — (1.879) 231.1 —
Isobutane, (CH3 )2 CHCH3 0.58496 56.4 77.0 (2.239) 45.07 [16930] [2.67] 261.42 [1900]
Octane, liquid, CH3 (CH2 )6 CH3 0.57778 56.7 77.7 2.123 44.86 63.8 0.703 398.8 1.397
Paraffin wax, CH3 (CH2 )n≈23 CH3 0.57275 56.9 78.2 2.087 44.71 48.1 0.93 —
Nylon, type 6 i 0.54790 58.5 81.5 1.974 41.84 36.7 1.14 —
Polycarbonate (Lexan) j 0.52697 59.5 83.9 1.886 41.46 34.6 1.20 —
Polyethylene terephthlate (Mylar) k 0.52037 60.2 85.7 1.848 39.95 28.7 1.39 —
Polyethylene l 0.57034 57.0 78.4 2.076 44.64 ≈47.9 0.92–0.95 —
Polyimide film (Kapton) m 0.51264 60.3 85.8 1.820 40.56 28.6 1.42 —
Lucite, Plexiglas n 0.53937 59.3 83.0 1.929 40.49 ≈34.4 1.16–1.20 ≈1.49
Polystyrene, scintillator o 0.53768 58.5 81.9 1.936 43.72 42.4 1.032 1.581
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) p 0.47992 64.2 93.0 1.671 34.84 15.8 2.20 —
Polyvinyltolulene, scintillator q 0.54155 58.3 81.5 1.956 43.83 42.5 1.032 —
Aluminum oxide (Al2 O3 ) 0.49038 67.0 98.9 1.647 27.94 7.04 3.97 1.761
Barium fluoride (BaF2 ) 0.42207 92.0 145 1.303 9.91 2.05 4.89 1.56
Bismuth germanate (BGO) r 0.42065 98.2 157 1.251 7.97 1.12 7.1 2.15
Cesium iodide (CsI) 0.41569 102 167 1.243 8.39 1.85 4.53 1.80
Lithium fluoride (LiF) 0.46262 62.2 88.2 1.614 39.25 14.91 2.632 1.392
Sodium fluoride (NaF) 0.47632 66.9 98.3 1.69 29.87 11.68 2.558 1.336
Sodium iodide (NaI) 0.42697 94.6 151 1.305 9.49 2.59 3.67 1.775
Silica Aerogel s 0.50093 66.3 96.9 1.740 27.25 136@ρ=0.2 0.04–0.6 1.0+0.21ρ
NEMA G10 plate t 62.6 90.2 1.87 33.0 19.4 1.7 —
2 6. Atomic and nuclear properties of materials
Material Dielectric Young’s Coeff. of Specific Electrical Thermal

constant (κ = /0 ) modulus thermal heat resistivity conductivity
() is (κ–1)×106 [106 psi] expansion [cal/g-◦ C] [µΩcm(@◦ C)] [cal/cm-◦ C-sec]
for gas [10−6 cm/cm-◦ C]
H2 (253.9) — — — — —
He (64) — — — — —
Li — — 56 0.86 8.55(0◦ ) 0.17
Be — 37 12.4 0.436 5.885(0◦ ) 0.38
C — 0.7 0.6–4.3 0.165 1375(0◦ ) 0.057
N2 (548.5) — — — — —
O2 (495) — — — — —
Ne (127) — — — — —
Al — 10 23.9 0.215 2.65(20◦ ) 0.53
Si 11.9 16 2.8–7.3 0.162 — 0.20
Ar (517) — — — — —
Ti — 16.8 8.5 0.126 50(0◦ ) —
Fe — 28.5 11.7 0.11 9.71(20◦ ) 0.18
Cu — 16 16.5 0.092 1.67(20◦ ) 0.94
Ge 16.0 — 5.75 0.073 — 0.14
Sn — 6 20 0.052 11.5(20◦ ) 0.16
Xe — — — — — —
W — 50 4.4 0.032 5.5(20◦ ) 0.48
Pt — 21 8.9 0.032 9.83(0◦ ) 0.17
Pb — 2.6 29.3 0.038 20.65(20◦ ) 0.083
U — — 36.1 0.028 29(20◦ ) 0.064
1. R.M. Sternheimer, M.J. Berger, and S.M. Seltzer, Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables 30, 261–271 (1984).
2. S.M. Seltzer and M.J. Berger, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. 33, 1189–1218 (1982).
3. D.E. Groom, N.V. Mokhov, and S.I. Striganov, “Muon stopping-power and range tables,” Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables 78,
183–356 (2001).
4. S.M. Seltzer and M.J. Berger, Int. J. Appl. Radiat. 35, 665 (1984) & http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/Star/Text/contents.html.
a. σT , λT and λI are energy dependent. Values quoted apply to high energyrange, where energy dependence is weak. Mean free path between
collisions (λT ) or inelastic interactions (λI ), calculated from λ−1 = NA wj σj /Aj , where N is Avogadro’s number and wj is the weight
fraction of the jth element in the element, compound, or mixture. σtotal at 80–240 GeV for neutrons (≈ σ for protons) from Murthy et al.,
Nucl. Phys. B92, 269 (1975). This scales approximately as A0.77 . σinelastic = σtotal − σelastic − σquasielastic ; for neutrons at 60–375 GeV
from Roberts et al., Nucl. Phys. B159, 56 (1979). For protons and other particles, see Carroll et al., Phys. Lett. 80B, 319 (1979); note that
σI (p) ≈ σI (n). σI scales approximately as A0.71 .
b. For minimum-ionizing muons (results are very slightly different for other particles). Minimum dE/dx from Ref. 3, using density effect
correction coefficients from Ref. 1. For electrons and positrons see Ref. 4. Ionization energy loss is discussed in Sec. 27.
c. From Y.S. Tsai, Rev. Mod. Phys. 46, 815 (1974); X0 data for all elements up to uranium are given. Corrections for molecular binding
applied for H2 and D2 . For atomic H, X0 = 63.05 g/cm2 .
d. For molecular hydrogen (deuterium). For atomic H, X0 = 63.047 g cm−2 .
e. For pure graphite; industrial graphite density may vary 2.1–2.3 g/cm3 .
f. Standard shielding blocks, typical composition O2 52%, Si 32.5%, Ca 6%, Na 1.5%, Fe 2%, Al 4%, plus reinforcing iron bars. The
attenuation length, = 115 ± 5 g/cm2 , is also valid for earth (typical ρ = 2.15), from CERN–LRL–RHEL Shielding exp., UCRL–17841
(1968).
g. For typical fused quartz. The specific gravity of crystalline quartz is 2.64.
h. Solid ethane density at −60◦ C; gaseous refractive index at 0◦ C, 546 mm pressure.
i. Nylon, Type 6, (NH(CH2 )5 CO)n
j. Polycarbonate (Lexan), (C16 H14 O3 )n
k. Polyethylene terephthlate, monomer, C5 H4 O2
l. Polyethylene, monomer CH2 =CH2
m. Polymide film (Kapton), (C22 H10 N2 O5 )n
n. Polymethylmethacralate, monomer CH2 =C(CH3 )CO2 CH3
o. Polystyrene, monomer C6 H5 CH=CH2
p. Teflon, monomer CF2 =CF2
q. Polyvinyltolulene, monomer 2-CH3 C6 H4 CH=CH2
r. Bismuth germanate (BGO), (Bi2 O3 )2 (GeO2 )3
s. 97% SiO2 + 3% H2 O by weight; see A. R. Buzykaev et al., Nucl. Instrum. Methods A433, 396 (1999). Aerogel in the density range
0.04–0.06 g/cm3 has been used in Čerenkov counters, but aerogel with higher and lower densities has been produced. ρ = density in g/cm3 .
t. G10-plate, typically 60% SiO2 and 40% epoxy.
Appendix C
“Energy Levels in helium...”, Am J.

Phys Vol 49 No 3, March 1981
83
Appendix D
“Determination of the rest-mass

energy of the electron...”, Am J.
Phys Vol 45 No 11, Nov. 1977
89
Appendix E
Interactions of Electrons and

Photons with Matter
93

!#"$ %$ "'&()*+ ,
-/.10324 5657498 : ;=< 24?>A@CB D(EF:G59@IH >=;KJ 8 H L 4M@I@I:N>
O3P#QSRUTVPWYXZ\[]R_â`cbdbde/fhg7ikjmlR_npo\TVP^qsrut\RUQvP#[VTVRUwxgzyd{}|~cTVo\R_t\cw]ydtmjjm[]yhyd?qslua
~ct\W
jOjÛPR_tqsluj
SS ¡
¢)£¤ ¥§¦z¨©mª¬«® °¯ ± ~²[³g±yd{ Qc~²[]R_~²f^_PT ¯ TVPWzR_t1w]o\R_T´TVP#n#w]R_ydtµj¶$o\P·SRUt\P~²w]RUnQc~²[VR¸~²f^_P#T´¹
~ct\W1º»o~¼QvPw]o\PRU[ ¯ T ¯ ~c^ ±P¼~ct\RUt\dTj
gSkfmyd^ P#½t\R¾w]R_ydt rut\R¾w]T$yc[3¿~c^ ¯ P
À Á UR t\PT³wV[ ¯ n#w ¯ []Pnydt\T³wp~ctvw ÂÃ°Â*ÄvÅ°ÆbdÄvÇÈdÈdÈ´ÂdÂÉqsÊvev
qÌË*Í+Ã²ÊdÎÏVÐvÑÉÒ#
Ó Ôt\nRUW\PtÉw3Z~²[Vw]RUn^_P~cTVT ÕYP#¿ÖcÒ Í
× Ôt\nRUW\PtÉw3Z~²[Vw]RUn^_PPt\P#[]cg1ºµÓØÒ Í ÕYP#¿
Ù R_t\P#wVR_nP#t\P#[]cg ÕYP#¿
ÚzÛ Ò Í ^_Pn#w³[]ydtÜ~cT³T/ÝÒ Í bSÆÞÇ°Â*b ÈdÈdßÈSÂ*ßqsÊdÊÉ}Õ!P¿
à¼Û á ^¸~cTVT³R_n¼~c^ PÛPn#wV[]ydtâ[p~cW\R ¯ T `°ÆßSÂÅÈcÊvbÄv`dÇ\qã`cßv}{ä
Ë*Í²Ã²ÊdÎÏ Ð ÚâÛ Ò#Í
åkæ XQvydv~cWS[]y\çT´t ¯ kfmP[ eSÆbv`d`´Â¼Ê\ÂÇ\qÂ*bv ÝèÂ*b Ípé ±yd^sê}ë
ì Ë á o~²[]dPyd{aR_t\nRUW\PtvwZ~²[Vw]RUn^_P
í X´w]yd±RUnt ¯ kfmP#[3yd{ ~²fTVyc[³fmP#[
î X´w]yd±RUn±~cTVTýd{ ~²fTVyc[Vf
P#[ ï±yd^ ê}ë
ðÜÃ î ÊdÎ åkæ à ÛÍ ÚâÛ Ò Í Ã î bSÆÄdbvÅbvÅdÇñÕYP#¿ASê}ën Í
{äyc[3XAòóÂ/±yd^ êë
ô ÕYP¼~ct7Põ\nR¾wp~²w]R_ydtâPt\P#[Vcg P¿öqx÷kø+ùûú±üý#þmý¼ÿ
q§¹ º MPt\TVR¾wxgzPmPn#wnyc[V[]P#n#w]R_ydtzw]y/RUydt\R¼~²w]RUydtzP#t\P#[]cgz^_ydTVT
Ñ ^¸~cTV~Pt\P#[Vcg `cßSÆßSÂ*e
ãíÃ î P#
¿
q
ÊdÎå Ûà Ûé ÚâÛ Ò Í Ã À
å ^_Pn#w³[]ydtÜW\Pt\T³RUwxg q ¯ t\RUw]T$yd{ à¼Û ê é
|P#R_dovw{¸[p~cnw]R_ydt7yd{w]o\P dw]ozP^_P/PtÉw3R_tÜ~ïnydïZmy ¯ t\WÜyc[3±R õSw ¯ []P
t ¯ f
P#[yd { vwVoz·SRUt\WÜyd{ ~²wVyd±T´R_t7~ nyd/Z
y ¯ t\WÜyc[3±R¾õ°w ¯ []P
Ê Àà ÛÍ åkæ)Ã î qãÅ°Â*eSjÊvbdß ïnÜê Í ê}ë{äyc[ î òØÂ//yd^sê}ë
/Ð O~cW\R¸~²w]RUydtÜ^_P#t\cw]o ïnÜê Í
× á []RUwVR_n¼~c^µPt\P[]cgÜ{äyc[3PÛPn#wV[]ydt\T ÕYP#¿
×"!# á []RUwVR_n¼~c^µPt\P[]cgÜ{äyc[3 ¯ ydt\T P#¿
×%$ n¼~cÛPPt\P[]c& g
ÊdÎÃ À ÚâÛ Ò Í `°ÂdjÞ`cbvÇd`ÕYP#¿
')( ÕYyd^_+R P#* []P[p~cW\R ¯ T ïnÜê Í
Á yc[,±R_tz/n ê éÉj
-/.0#120.436587:9<; =4>;@?BADCFEHG8IJLKNM#OPCPQSRUTVADWXCDY[Z]\_^V`badce`gfihjh@Mlk"mnDoPoPp_q
AsrDADadWtADuVWdvwCPTxU\VvyZBz6f{999}|jAD~Pve`wm]7::jHS@S+@q ODQVWd^kHjM#nDoPoPpkeoV7 _
,
}) µ!"$%´}"'&ö*+
ò ì ë Ð+Ã Â` ì Í
Ð+Ãd` qã`dÅ°ÆUÂ*ßv
ò ì Í Ð Æ qã`dÅ°ÆUÂ*Èv
uycw]Pw]o~²ww]o\P/TVP#nydt\Wèw]P#[]={äyc[ P ¯ ~c^_T
Ãd`â~ct\W»[]P#Z\[]P#TVPtvw]Tñw]o\P/W\RUT³Z^¸~cn#P±Ptvw
w]o~²w y ¯ ÛWÜo~¼QvPy°n#n ¯ [V[]PWÜo~cWÜw]o\PW\P Pn#w]RUydt ~cÛ^µy°nn ¯ [³[]PW ~²w$w]o\PT³R_t\d^_PZmydRUtÉw Ãd`°j
Á yc[o\P¼~¼Q°g/R_ydt\T)w]o\Pu ¯ ÛwVRUZ^_P á y ¯ Ûydkf1TVn¼~²wVw]P[]R_t\ko~cT)f
PPtâ±P¼~cT ¯ []P#Wz~ct\W1nydïZ~²[]PW!3RUw]o
Q²~²[]R_y ¯ T´w]o\Pyc[VP#w]R_n~c^W\RUT³wV[]R¾f ¯ w]R_ydt\
T "Äc$Ê #Ìj
&%3 ')(}°¡ }¡+*-,/.0,/1
32\ ¡A ¡3,/2\41
S x¡+5Ü ¡76MÉ8,92
¨©mª;:ªs«ª <!=?>@A=CBD@AE8FHGJI$FLKBDM)N iuRUdo3OûPt\P#[Vcg P^_PnwV[]ydt\TYZ\[]PW\yd±RUt~ctÉw]^¾g^_ydT³P P#t\P#[]cg R_t
~²w³w]P#[ÜfÉg f\[VP±TVT³w³[p~co\^ ¯ t\\~ct\Wo\R_do3OûP#t\P#[]cg'Zo\ycw]ydt\T7fÉgËPËcê Z~cR¾[7Z\[]yhW ¯ n#w]R_ydtµj¶$o\P
npo~²[p~cn#wVP#[]R_T w]R_n»~c±y ¯ tÉwâyd{~²wVw]P#[1wV[]~*QvP#[VTVPW'{äyc[âw]o\PTVP![]P^_~²w]PW'RUtÉw]P[p~cn#w]RUydt\TzRUTzn¼~cÛ^_PW w]o\P
[p~cW\R_~²w]R_ydtYÛPt\cw]{ o Ð ¯ T ¯ ~c^_^¾gY±P¼~cT ¯ [VPW6RUtYznzê Í j$ÔwRUTfmycw]oFqÌ~v3w]o\P±P~ct!W\RUT³wp~ct\nPy*QvP#[
3o\R_npoY~ïo\RUd3o OûPt\P[]cg7PÛPn#wV[Vydt7^_ydTVP#T~c^_^ f ¯ wñÂÃcËñyd{RUw]T$Pt\P#[]cgzfhgâf\[]P/TVT³wV[p~co\^ ¯ t\\
~ct\Wq¬f®R SQ
yd{)w]o\P/±P¼~ctè{¸[]P#P/Z~²w]o{äyc[ñZ~cR¾[ñZ\[]y°W ¯ nw]R_ydtèfÉgè~7o\RUd3o OûPt\P[]cg»Zo\ycw]ydT t " ÄvÇ #ãj ÔxwkR_T~c^_TVyzw]o\P
~²Z\Z\[]ycZ\[VR¸~²w]PYTVn¼~cÛPY^_Pt\cw]o {äyc[âW\PTVn#[VRUfR_t\ o\R_d3o OãPt\P#[]cg PÛPn#wV[]yd±~cdt\P#w]R_nÜn¼~cTVn¼~cW\PT#j /Ðèo~cT
f
PPt7n¼~cÛn ¯ ^¸~²wVPW ~ct\Wzw]~²f ¯ ^¸~²w]PWzfhR g U j j¶´T]~cVR "Äde # N
Â ò'Ê Í åkæ í YÍ X[Z]\
Àà Û î W ^`_ba qãíuD c4 í \ ^fe Æ qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`cbv
ZVd
Ð
Á yc[ î ò Â6 ±yd^sê}ëÊ Àà ÛÍ åkæÃ î òKqãÅ°Â*eSÆÊvbdßF nzê Í ê}ë²j Z \ ^ ~ct\W Z d\ ^ ~²[]PYdR¾QvPt RUt
¶a~²fÛPk`dÅ°jÞ`°j¶ó\Pñ{ ¯ t\n#w]RUydt a qãíuR_Tu~ct7RUtS½t\RUw]PT ¯ 7f ¯ wu{äyc[uPÛP±Ptvw]T ¯ Z wVy ¯ [p~ct\R ¯ n¼~ct7fmP
[]PZ\[]PTVPtvw]PW w]y Ê OãZ^_~cnPñ~cn#n ¯ [p~cn#gâfhg
a qãíu}h ò g fÍ X q iÂ jg Í ê}ë bSÆ `cbv`cbde
_ bSÆÞbdÄded] È g Í bSÆÞbdbdßd]Ä gk _ bSÆÞbdbvl` gnm cpo qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`°Â
3o\P#[]q P gò À r í "ÄvÅ #Ìj
¢)£¤ ¥§¦â¨©mªä¨
¶´T]~cRÌçT ZV\ ~ct\W Z d\ \{äyc[ ¯ T³PRUtân~c^_n ¯ ^_~²w]R_t\w]o\Pu[p~cW\R¸~²wVR_ydt1^_Pt\cwVozRUtÜ~ct
PÛP±Ptvw ¯ TVR_t\ïs
jqã`dÅ°ÆÞ`cbv^ j ^
^_P#±Ptvw í Z \
^
Z d\
^
i Â °Ç jÄSÂ eSj_Â¼ÊdÊ
iuP ` Ê\jÞÅcÈ Ç°jÞev`°Â
R Ä Ê\jÞÅ²Ê Ç°jÞßdbvÇ
lP Ê Ê\jÞÅ°Â Ç°jÞÈv`²Ê
t w]o\P#[]T u Ê Ûtq Â*ßcÊ\Æ_ÂÇíê}ëwv é Ûtq ÂdÂ*ÈcÊ)íê Í v é
uX ^¾w]o\y ¯ dozR¾w$R_T$P¼~cT³g1w]y ¯ TVPV

jqã`dÅ°ÆÞ`cbv w]y/n¼~cÛn ¯ ^¸~²wVP ïÐh\w]o\P{ ¯ t\n#w]RUydt~c^ W\P#ZmPt\W\P#t\nPkydt í
RUT3TVyd/Po~²w3o\R_W\W\P#tµj~co\^Z\[VyQ°R_W\PT3~ïnydïZ~cn#w3½\w$w]y w]o\PW~²wp~x"Ädß# N
Ð ò Å°Â*eSjÊ /nzê Í î Æ qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`d`d
íkqãyí Â\Ût qã`cßvÅdÃ íu
ODQVW ^ kHjM#nDoPoPpkeoV7 _

!#"$ %$ "'&()*+ ,
O3PT ¯ ÛwVT ¯ TVRUt\zw]o\RUT{äyc[] ¯ ^¸~â~cc[]PPp3RUw]o»¶$T]~cRsçTQc~c^ ¯ PTw]yzf
P#wVw]P#[w]o~ctè`°j Ç {äyc[ñ~cÛ^ P^_P#±Ptvw]T
PõSnP#Z\wo\P^_R ¯ 78o\P[]Pw]o\P[]PT ¯ ^¾wRUT~²f
y ¯ wuÇóÛyj
0.20
Positrons
Lead (Z = 82)
Electrons
1.0
0.15
− 1 dE (X0−1)
(cm2 g−1)
Bremsstrahlung
E dx
0.10
Ionization
0.5 Møller (e −)
Bhabha (e +) 0.05
Positron
annihilation
0
1 10 100 1000
E (MeV)
[p~cn#wVR_ydt~câPt\P[]cg!^_ydTVTuZmP[[p~cW\R_~²w]R_ydtYÛPt\cw]o»RUt6ÛP¼~cW6~cT~1{ ¯ t\n#w]RUydt»yd{

¦6¨©mª¬« Á
PÛPn#wV[Vydt/yc[}ZmydTVR¾wV[]ydtïPt\P#[]cgvj3^_P#n#wV[]ydtÜq¬ZmydT³RUwV[]ydtaTVn~²wVw]P#[]RUt\RUT nydt\T³R_W\P#[]P#W~cT RUydt\R¼~²wVR_ydt
3o\Ptw]o\PzPt\P#[]cgF^_ydTVT ZmP#[/nyd^_ÛR_TVRUydtR_T fmPÛy bSj `dÇdÇYÕYP#¿~ct\W ~cTï Õ d^_^_P[YqÌlo~²fo~v
TVn~²wVw]P#[]RUt\ o\Pt RUw1RUT1~²fmy*QvPcjXuW~²Z\w]P#W {¸[]yd Á RU\j)ÄSjÞ`{¸[Vyd Õ!P#TVTVP^~ct\W á [p~ 3{äyc[]Wµ
_ý ù pø+þ \ø+ùø+
þ \ø )ý "!$#&%ù #Ì(ü '°ù #ãø²*
þ )+'°+þ ù #ãø+-
þ ,®úv(ü _ý %/.¼0ø "1ý]3ú 254769ø 838®ý 94ïú²:þ 2;<#=
;ü %¼ø üý %p/ P#[]v~c±ydt []PTVTÂ*ÈvÅcbSj$ÕYPT³TVP^}~ct\W á []~ 3{äyc[]W ¯ TV P Ð q f®òCÇ°jßv`ïÉÖ²n Í
f ¯ w P/o~¼QvP//y°W\RU½P#W6w]o\P½ ¯ []PTwVyz[]P P#n#ww]o\PQ²~c^ ¯ P/dR¾QvPt»RUt6w]o\P/¶a~²f^_P yd{)X´w]yd±RUn
~ct\Wz ¯ n^_P¼~²"[ []ycZ
P#[Vw]RUPT$yd{Õ!~²w]P#[]R_~c^_Tq Ð q f®3ò eSjÄvÅ ÉÖ²n Í j
¶ó\P[]~cW\R¸~²w]RUydtÜ^_P#t\cw]oÜRUt7~ï/R¾õSw ¯ ][ Pyc[nydïZmy ¯ t\W7~¼gfmP~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\RU~²w]PW1fhg

ÂÃ:/Ðuò?> Ã: o qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`cÄv
3o\P#[]P ~ct\W ~²[]PwVo\P{¸[p~cnw]R_ydtâfhg PRUdoÉw~ct\WzwVo\P[p~cW\R_~²w]R_ydtâ^_Pt\cwVoÜ{äyc[$w]o\P"dw]oâP^_P#±Ptvw¼j
¨ ©mª;:ª§¨
ª @
FiIAKCB GJEEDFD"GFB I$GJI0H BIAEFJDpN X$wuÛy NPt\P#[VdR_PTuPÛPn#wV[Vydt\T~ct\WYZ
ydTVRUw³[]ydt\TZ\[]RU~²[]R_^¾g
ÛydTVPPt\P#[]cg1fÉgzRUydt\R¼~²wVR_ydtµ\~c^¾w]o\y ¯ dozycwVo\P#[3Z\[Vy°nPT³TVPTkq¬ÕKdÛ^_P#[$TVn~²wVw]P#[]RUt\\lo~²fo~ TVn~²wVw]P#[]RUt\\
Ë P ~ct\t\R_o\RU^¸~²w]RUydt1n#ydtÉwV[VRUf ¯ w]Pc~cTzTVo\y3tR_t Á R_\j3`dÅ°j_Â*bSj´| o\R_^_P6R_ydt\R¼~²w]R_ydt ^_ydTVTâ[p~²w]PT1[]RUTVP
Ûydv~²[]RUw]o\/R_n¼~cÛÛx g 3RUwVoèPt\P#[]cgvf\[]P±T³T³wV[p~co\^ ¯ t\7^_ydTVT³PT[]RUTVP/t\P~²[]Ûg6^_RUt\P¼~²[]ÛgFqs{¸[]~cn#w]R_ydt~c^}ÛydTVTRUT
t\P¼~²[VÛg1R_t\W\PZmPt\W\Ptvwuyd{Pt\P#[]cg\~ct\WÜW\yd±RUt~²w]PT$~²fmy*QvP~{äP w]P#t\Tyd{ÕYP#¿NR_tz±ydT³w$~²w]P[]R¸~cÛT
Ôydt\R ~²w]R_ydtY^_ydT³TfÉgYPÛPn#wV[]ydt\T~ct\W!ZmydTVR¾wV[]ydt\TW\R
P#[]T{¸[]yd ^_ydT³TfÉgYo\P¼~¼Q°g Z~²[VwVR_nÛPTufmPn¼~ ¯ T³P
yd{wVo\P·SRUt\P~²w]RUnTT³ZRUtµ
~ct\WÜwVo\PR_W\P#tÉw]R¾wxgÜyd{wVo\PR_t\n#R_W\PtvwuPÛPn#wV[]ydt R¾w]oÜw]o\PP^_PnwV[]ydt\T 3o\R_npo
R¾wRUydt\R PT#j á yd/Z^_Pw]PW\RUTVn ¯ TVT³R_ydt\Tu~ct\Wâwp~²f^_PT3n¼~ctzf
P{äy ¯ t\W RUtÜOP#{äTjmÅ°ßS~ct\WY`dÅ°j
,
}) µ!"$%´}"'&ö*+
10 GeV
1.2 Bremsstrahlung
100 GeV
( X0 NA/A) y dσLPM/dy
1 TeV
0.8
10 TeV
0.4 100 TeV
1 PeV
10 PeV
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
y = k/E

¦è¨®©
ªs«« ´¶ o\P±t\yc[]~cÛRPW!f\[]P±T³T³wV[p~co\^ ¯ t\7n#[]ydTVTTVPn#w]RUydt
( ÃYR_t»^_P¼~cW
QvP#[VT ¯ T$wVo\P{¸[p~cnw]R_ydt~c^µZo\ycw]ydtzPt\P#[]cg ò °Ã²×j$¶$o\PQvP#[Vw]RUn¼~c^ ~+õ\RUTó~cT ¯ t\R¾w]T3yd{Zo\ycw]ydt\T
Z
P#[3[]~cW\R¸~²w]RUydtÜ^_P#t\cw]oµj
200
Copper
X0 = 12.86 g cm−2
100 Ec = 19.63 MeV
dE/dx × X0 (MeV)
l
ng
70
o ta
lu
T
ah
Rossi:
50
tr
Ionization per X0
ss
tb E
40 = electron energy
m
s≈
re
em
30
Br
ac
Ionization
Ex
20
Brems = ionization
10
2 5 10 20 50 100 200
Electron energy (MeV)
=
+¦7¨©mª¬«\¨m ¶ yïW\P#½t\RUwVR_ydt\Tyd{w]o\Pn[]RUw]RUn¼~c^µPt\P#[VcgÜ×*j
X´w6QvP[Vg o\R_do Pt\P[]dR_PTè~ct\W Põ\n#P#Z\w~²w!w]o\PFo\RUdo3OûPt\P[]cgØw]R¾Z yd{/wVo\P f\[]P/TVT³wV[p~co\^ ¯ t\


!#"$ %$ "'&()*+ ,
T³Z
Pn#wV[ ¯ 7\w]o\Pn#[VydTVT3T³Pn#w]RUydt7n¼~ctÜf
P~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\RU~²w]PWzR_tâw]o\P³n#yd/Z^_P#wVPTVn[]PPt\RUt\±n¼~cTVP±~cT" Äde#
Ã òAq ÂÃ °Ê Àà ÛÍ q ké _ ké j Í "í Í q Z \ ^ _ba qãíu³ í Z d\ ^ # qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`²ÊÉ
S ë q Â _ Sqãí Í íu o
3o\P#[]` P ïò °Ã²×óR_TwVo\Pñ{¸[p~cn#w]RUydt yd{aw]o\PñPÛPn#wV[VydtµçTuPt\P#[VcgÜwV[p~ct\T³{äP#[]PW w]y±w]o\P[p~cW\R¸~²w]P#W7Zo\ycw]ydtµj
X´w´TV~cÛ^ Yq¬w]o\
P ³RUt\{¸[p~²[]PWâ^_RU±RUw É w]o\Puw]P#[]Iydt1w]o\PTVPn#ydt\WÜ^_RUt\Pu[p~ct\dPT´{¸[]ydKÂdj Å q¬^_y íu w]y
`°jÞÇ =q¬o\R_doYíuyd{w]o\PwVycwp~c^ÌjÔ{aRUw3R_T3R_dt\yc[]P#W ~ct\WÜw]o\P½\[]T³wÛR_t\PTVR_/ZÛRU½PW R¾w]ozw]o\PW\P#½t\RUwVR_ydt
yd8{ /ÐdRUQvPtzR_tzs
jqÌ`dÅ°Æ `cbv3 )Po~¼QvP

ò î
/Ðåkæ ké _ ké
y Í Æ qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`dÇd
¶ó\R_T$n#[]ydTVT3TVPn#wVR_ydtq¬wVR_±PT °R_T$TVo\ytÜfÉgâw]o\PwVycZ7n ¯ [VQvPR_t Á RU\j`dÅ°j_ÂdÂdj
¶ó\R_T {äyc[] ¯ ^¸~RUT)~cnn ¯ [p~²w]PPõSnP#Z\wR_t±t\P¼~²[i òØÂd3o\P#[]PT³n#[]PPt\RUt\k~¼g f
Pnyd±P3R_t\nydïZ^_P#w]P²
~ct\WGt\P¼~²b [ ò=bS 3o\P#[]Pw]o\P RUt\{¸[p~²[]PWMW\RUQvP#[VdPt\nP R_Tè[VP±y*QvPW fhgØw]o\PR_tvw]P#[V{äP#[]Pt\nP yd{
f\[]P#±TVT³wV[]~co\^ ¯ t\ ~c/ZÛRUw ¯ W\P#T{¸[]yd=t\P¼~²[VfÉg6TVn¼~²wVw]P[]R_t\znPtvw]P#[]T1q§w]o\P/ Õ SP
Pn#w "ÄdÈSÊvb#~ct\W
W\RUP^_PnwV[]R_nÜT ¯ Z\Z\[]PTVT³R_yd- t " Ê\ÂdÊÉ` #Ìj=¶$o\PT³PY~ct\W ycw]o\P#[T ¯ Z\Z\[VPTVTVRUydt SP
Pn#w]TRUtFf ¯ Û·F±PW\R_~è~²[]P
W\RUTVn ¯ TVTVP#W R_t Pn²j
`dÅ°jÊ\j Ç°j
| RUw]o6W\Pn#[]P~cTVR_t\ Pt\P[]cg q¬ × Â*b7P¿w]o\Pïo\R_d3o O Yn#[VydTVTTVP#n#w]R_ydt»WS[]ycZTñ~ct\W»wVo\P/n ¯ [VQvP#T
f
Pnyd±P[]y ¯ t\W\PWG~c) T Âdj á ¯ [VQvPT»yd{ïw]o\R_T6{§~c±R_^_~²[YTVo~²ZmPn~ctØfmP TVPPtARUt OydT³TVR " $Ê #
q Á RUdTj`°j_ÂdÂdjÞ`°ÞÄv °TVPPñ~cÛTVyïwVo\P[]P#Q°R_P fÉgâyhnp o AÕ!ycDw " ÊvÄ #ãj
}õ\nP#Z\w~²ww]o\PTVPïPõSwV[VP±PT~ct\WèT³wVR_^_^ RUt»w]o\P nyd/ZÛP#w]P OãTVn#[]PP#t\R_t\Y~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\RU~²w]R_ydtµmwVo\Pïw]o\P
t ¯ kfmP#[ýd{mZo\ycw]ydt\iT 3RUwVoPt\P#[]dRUPT)fmP#0w P#Pt ~ct\W P±R¾wVw]PW/fÉg~ctP#^_Pn#w³[]ydtwV[p~¼QvP^_ÛR_t\
~ W\R_T³wp~ct\n#P Ð R_T
å ±ò Ð! ÊÄ Û#
t " $ _ Êq Äc× _ q $ `²_ × Í ' Í ( Æ qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`cev
&%
¨©m;ª :*ª )µª + A @DBD@ H= GsIFiIFAKB N XutPÛPn#wV[]ydt1ÛydTVPTPt\P#[Vcg±fhg/f\[]P±TVT wV[p~co\^ ¯ t\ ~²w´~[]~²w]Pt\P¼~²[]^¾g
Z\[]ycZ
yc[Vw]RUydt~c^w]y1RUw]TPt\P[]cgv o\RU^_Pkw]o\PR_ydt\R¼~²w]RUydt!ÛydTVTu[p~²w]PkQ²~²[]R_PTydt\^¾g ^_ydv~²[]R¾w]o\±RUn¼~c^_^¾g 3RUw]o
w]o\P PÛPn#wV[]ydt6Pt\P#[]cgvj¶$o\ P #§ù# ]ú ý#þmý -,'.k×R_TTVyd±P#w]RU±PTuW\P#½t\P#W~cTw]o\P Pt\P#[Vcg»~²w
3o\R_npo
w]o\P0w yY^_ydT³T[]~²w]PT ~²[]P1P ¯ ~c^ " Êd$Ê #ãj=lP#[]dP[/~ct\W P^¾Pw P#x [ " Êd$Ê #)~c^_TVy!dRUQvP±wVo\Pz~²Z\Z\[Vy*õSR_~²w]RUydt
× $òGqÌßdbdb ÕYP#¿VÃ\qãí ÂdÆ `dj3¶ó\R_T{äyc[] ¯ ^_~/o~cTfmP#Pt RUW\PÛg ¯ ycw]P#Wµm~ct\W o~cTf
PPtYdRUQvPtÜR_t

ydÛW\P#[uPW\R¾w]R_ydt\T3yd{aw]o\R_0 T /2ý 15#ãý " ÊÉÇ #ÌjKXu±ydt\±~c^¾w]P#[]t~²w]PW\P#½t\RUwVR_ydt\TuR_T$w]o~²wyd{ O3ydTVTViR " $Ê #ã 3o\y
W\P#½t\P#TwVo\Pkn#[]RUwVR_n¼~c^Pt\P#[]cg7~cTw]o\PñPt\P[]cgY~²w 3o\R_npo w]o\PkRUydt\R ¼~²w]RUydt7^_ydT³TZmP#[u[]~cW\R¸~²w]RUydt7^_Pt\cwVo
RUT$P ¯ ~c^mw]yw]o\PP^_PnwV[]ydtÜP#t\P#[]cgvj$s ¯ R¾Qc~cÛPtvw]ÛgvSR¾w$R_Tw]o\PT]~c±P~cTw]o\P½\[VT³wW\P½t\RUw]RUydt 3RUw]o1w]o\P
~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\RU~²w]RUyd4 t 3 É× Ã 3 5 \ 687 × :Ã Ð j3¶ó\R_Tñ{äyc[]=o~cTf
PPt{äy ¯ t\Wèw]y7W\P#TVn#[]R¾fmP/wV[]~ct\T³QvP#[]TVP
PÛPn#wV[Vyd~cdt\P#w]RUnïTVo\y P#[ñW\P#QvP^_ycZ/PtÉwñ±yc[]Pï~cnn ¯ [p~²w]P#ÛgqsTVPP/f
P^_y j¶ó\PTVP/W\P#½t\RUw]RUydt\Tk~²[]P
RU^_^ ¯ T wV[p~²w]PWzR_tâw]o\Pn¼~cT³Pyd{n#ycZ\ZmP#[R_t Á RU\j®`dÅ°j_Â`°j
¶ó\P~cnn ¯ [p~cn#gïyd{µ~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\R_±~²w]P´{äyc[]±T{äyc[ × o~cTf
PPt±ÛR_±R¾w]PWfhg w]o\P3{§~cR_^ ¯ [VP3w]yW\R_T³w]RUt\ ¯ R_TVo
f
P#0w PPt v~cTVPT~ct\WTVydÛR_Wyc[k^_R ¯ RUW\TL o\P[]P±w]o\P#[]P1RUTk~ T ¯ fT³wp~ctvw]R¸~c^W\R mP[]Pt\nP1R_tRUydt\R ¼~²wVR_ydt
~²wkw]o\P[]P#^_P#Q²~ctÉwP#t\P#[]cgfmP#n¼~ ¯ TVPâyd{´wVo\PâW\P#t\TVRUwxgSP
Pn#w¼j$|P1W\R_T³w]RUt\ ¯ R_TVow]o\P#TVPâ0w yYn¼~cT³PTR_t
Á RU\jµ`dÅ°j_Â*ÄSj Á RUwVT P#[]P ~cÛTVy1~cW\q P 3RUw]oY{ ¯ t\n#w]RUydt\Tyd{}wVo\P {äyc[V gSÃ\qãí :9< ;
f ¯ w À ´~cTu{äy ¯ t\W
w]y±f
PkPTVTVP#tÉw]R_~c^_^¾g ¯ t\RUwxgvj R_t\nPk× ~c^_T³yW\P#ZmPt\W\Tydt î môm~ct\WYycw]o\P#[{§~cnw]yc[]TmT ¯ no!{äyc[]±T~²[]P
~²w$fmPT w~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\RU~²w]Pcj

,
}) µ!"$%´}"'&ö*+
1.0
0.9
0.8 NaI
0.7 Ar C
Pb
0.6 H2O
Fe H
P 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
Photon energy (MeV)

¦ ¨©mª¬« ) ÛPn#wV[]ydt n#[VRUw]RUn¼~c^3P#t\P#[]cg {äyc[w]o\PÜno\P#±R_n¼~c^3P^_P#±Ptvw]T ¯ TVR_t\OydT³TVRÌçT
W\P#½t\R¾w]R_ydt " $Ê #ãj=¶ó\P»½\w]T7TVo\y3tN~²[VP»{äyc[ TVydÛR_W\T ~ct\WÛR ¯ R_W\Tq¬TVyd^_RUW'^_RUt\P*z~ct\Wv~cTVP#T
qsW~cT³o\PW ^_R_t\P¼j¶ó\P7[]±T/W\P#QSR_~²w]R_ydt RUT1`°j ` {äyc[w]o\P TVyd^_RUW\T~ct\W Ê\jÞb3 {äyc[w]o\P v~cTVPTj
q á yd/Z ¯ w]P# W 3RUw]ozny°W\PT ¯ Z\Z^_RUPW7fÉgzXkj Á ~cTVTy\ jÞ
1.00
Pair production
( X0 NA/A) dσLPM/dx
0.75
1 TeV
10 TeV
0.50
100 TeV
1 EeV
0.25
1 PeV
100 PeV 10 PeV
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x = E/k

¦¨®©
ªs«
´¶ o\P7t\yc[]~cÛRP#W Z ~cR¾[/Z\[]yhW ¯ n#w]R_ydtFn#[]ydTVTïTVPn#w]RUydt èÃ® QvP#[]T ¯ T
(
{¸[p~cnw]R_ydt~c^µPÛPn#wV[Vydt7Pt\P#[]cg ò × Ãj

!#"$ %$ "'&()*+ ,
(a) Carbon (Z = 6)
1 Mb - experimental σtot
Cross section (barns / atom)

σp.e.
1 kb
σRayleigh
1b
κ nuc
σCompton κe
10 mb
(b) Lead (Z = 82)

- experimental σtot
1 Mb σp.e.
Cross section (barns / atom)
σRayleigh
1 kb
κ nuc
σg.d.r.
1b
σCompton κe
10 mb
10 eV 1 keV 1 MeV 1 GeV 100 GeV
Photon Energy

¦¨©
ªs«: o\ycw]ydtèwVycwp~c^}n#[]ydTVTkTVP#n#w]R_ydt\T~cTñ~7{ ¯ t\n#w]R_ydtyd{´Pt\P[]cgèRUtn¼~²[Vfmydt~ct\W
ÛP¼~cWµTVo\y3 R_t\ w]o\Pn#ydtÉwV[VRUf ¯ w]RUydt\Tyd{W\RmP#[VPtÉw3Z\[]y°n#PTVTVPT N
ò?X$wVyd±R_nuZo\ycw]yhP^_PnwV[]R_nPS
Pn#wq¬P^_PnwV[]ydtÜP Pn#w]RUydtµZo\ycw]ydt7~²fTVyc[VZ\w]RUydt

ò?O~¼gSÛPR_doèqsnydo\P#[]P#tÉw´TVn¼~²wVwVP#[]R_t\° ~²wVyd(t\P#RUw]o\P#[3R_ydt\RPW7t\yc[3PõSnRUw]P#W
ò Ôt\nydo\P#[]PtvwuTVn~²wVw]P#[]RUt\ q á yd/Z\w]ydtâTVn¼~²w³w]P#[]RUt\/y@»~ctÜPÛPn#wV[]ydt
ò }~cRU[$Z\[]y°W ¯ nw]R_ydtµt ¯ n^_P¼~²[3½P^_W
°Û ò }~cRU[$Z\[]y°W ¯ nw]R_ydtµPÛPn#wV[]ydtz½P^_W

^ \ ò o\ycw]ydt ¯ nÛP¼~²[YR_tvw]P#[p~cnw]R_ydt\T±ydT³wÜt\ycwp~²fÛg w]o\PR¸~ctvw RUZ
yd^_PèO3PTVyO
P " Êve #ãjKÔtzw]o\PT³PR_tvw]P#[]~cn#w]R_ydt\T#w]o\Pwp~²[]dPwt ¯ n^_P ¯ TR_T´f\[]yc·vPt ¯ Z j
t~ct\nR
~²wp~!{¸[]yd " ÊÉÅ # Z~²[]~c±P#w]P#[VT/{äyc[
^ \ {¸[Vyd " Êvß #ãj á ¯ [³QvPT/{äyc[±wVo\PTVP7~ct\W ycwVo\P#[
PÛP±Ptvw]TnydïZmy ¯ t\W\T~ct\W7±R õSw ¯ [VPT´~*gf
Pycf\w]~cR_t\PW7{¸[Vyd
"!#$%#'&)(*$#+,&.-0/2123"!*#+405679898 jñ¶$o\P Zo\ycw]ydt w]ycw]~c^7n#[]ydTVT TVPn#wVR_ydt RUT
~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\RU~²w]P^¾`
g ~²w){äyc[´~²w^_P¼~cT w0w yñW\Pn~cW\PT)fmP#gvydt\W±wVo\PPt\P#[]cgï[p~ct\dPT³o\y 3tµj t []R_dRUt~c^
½ ¯ []P#Tny ¯ [VwVPT³; g :\jikji ¯ f\fmPÛ^ qsÔ ¶j

}) µ!"$%´}"'&ö*+
100
10
Sn
Absorption length λ (g/cm 2 )
1
Fe Pb
Si
0.1
H C
0.01
0.001
–4
10
–5
10
–6
10
10 eV 100 eV 1 keV 10 keV 100 keV 1 MeV 10 MeV 100 MeV 1 GeV 10 GeV 100 GeV
Photon energy

¦ ¨®©
ªs«µ ¶ó\PFZo\ycw]ydtA~cTVT6~²wVw]P#t ¯ ~²w]RUydtA^_Pt\cwVoöqsyc[è/P¼~ct {¸[]PP Z~²w]o
ò ÂÃ\q Ã@h{äyc[ Qc~²[VR_y ¯ TFP#^_P±P#tÉwp~c^z~²fTVyc[Vf
P#[]T ~cTF~Ø{ ¯ t\n#w]RUydtIyd{7Zo\ycw]ydtóPt\P[]cgvj
¶ó\Pè~cTVTÜ~²wVw]Pt ¯ ~²w]RUydtny°P
/nR_P#tÉwYRUT Ã@
3o\P#[]P RUTÜw]o\PèW\Pt\T³RUwxgvj¶ó\PR_tvw]Pt\TVR¾wxg
ôM[]P~cRUt\R_t\G~c{¸w]P#[ wV[]~*QvP#[VT]~c^7yd{Yw]o\R_n]·St\P#TVT qsR_tö~cT³TpÖ ¯ t\RUw ~²[]P~vFR_T dRUQvPtIfÉg
ô7òCôÐ6PõSZq _ ³Ã
j3¶$o\PY~cn#n ¯ [p~cn#gFR_T±~è{äP Z
P#[]nPtvw¼j Á yc[~ènpo\P/R_n¼~c^$nyd/Z
y ¯ t\W yc[
±R õSw ¯ [VPckÂÃ 7 6 Ã
3o\P#[]P RUTÜw]o\P»Z\[]ycZ
yc[Vw]RUydt'fhg PR_dovw yd{
w]o\P»P^_P/PtÉx w R¾w]o~²w]yd±RUn6t ¯ kfmP#[6íj3¶ó\PèZ\[]y°nP#TVTVPT7[]P#T³Zmydt\TVR¾f^_P{äyc[!~²wVwVPt ¯ ~²wVR_ydt
~²[]P dRUQvPtIRUtIt\ycw Á R_\j±`dÅ°j_Â*bSj R_t\nPn#ydo\P#[]Ptvw Z\[]y°nP#TVTVPT ~²[]P'RUt\n^ ¯ W\P#Wµ!t\ycw ~c^_^
w]o\P#TVP6Z\[]yhnPTVT³PTÜ[]PT ¯ ÛwzR_t P#t\P#[]cg W\P#ZmydTVR¾w]R_ydtµj¶$o\P!W~²wp~ {äyc[ Ädb P¿ × Â!·vP#¿
~²[]PÜycf\wp~cR_t\PW {¸[]yd " 0% / & ! &- /1*/+9$% 8 %/(*#982("# qsny ¯ [VwVPT³g yd{
[]R_nÕj ¯ ^_^_R¾·STVydtµ/lujñ¶ó\P W~²wp~{äyc[ Â ·vP¿ × Â*bdb P#¿ ~²[]P {¸[]yd
" +"! #$%#'& ($#,&- /1*39!#+4 5 6708 08 7w]oS[]y ¯ doIw]o\P'ny ¯ [³w]PT³gIyd{ :dydo\töikj
i ¯ f\f
P^_^ qsÔ ¶3j
¨©m;ª :ª :ª @
FiIAKCB GJEEDFD"GFB#"LMfECB EFJDpN á ydtvwV[]R¾f ¯ w]R_ydt\T$w]y/w]o\PZo\ycw]ydt7n#[]ydT³TTVPn#wVR_ydt R_t7~/^_RUdoÉw
PÛP±Ptvw qsn~²[Vfmydt~ct\W!~±o\P¼~¼Q°g P#^_P±P#tÉw q¬^_P¼~cW~²[VPkTVo\y3t!R_t Á R_\jm`dÅ°j_Â¼Ê\j´X´w^_yØPt\P[]dR_PTuR¾w
RUTñTVPPtw]o~²ww]o\P±Zo\ycw]y°P#^_Pn#w³[]R_n±PmPn#wW\yd/R_t~²w]PT# ~cÛw]o\y ¯ do á yd/Z\w]ydtT³n¼~²wVw]P#[VR_t\\aO~*g°^_PRUdo
TVn~²wVw]P#[]RUt\\~ct\W6Zo\ycw]ydt ¯ n^_P~²[k~²fTVyc[VZ\wVR_ydtè~cÛTVyânydtÉw³[]RUf ¯ w]P²j¶ó\P Zo\ycw]yhP^_P#n#wV[]RUnïn#[VydTVTT³Pn#w]RUydt
RUTnpo~²[p~cn#w]P#[VR PW fÉgÜW\RUTVnydtvw]R_t ¯ RUwVR_PT qÌ~²fT³yc[VZ\w]R_ydt P#W\dPTp~cTwVoS[]PTVo\ydÛW\Tu{äyc[Zo\ycw]ydRUydt\R ¼~²w]RUydt7yd{
Q²~²[]R_y ¯ Tñ~²w]yd±R_n ^_PQvP^_Tk~²[VP/[]P¼~cnpo\PWµj o\ycw]ydt~²wVwVPt ¯ ~²wVR_ydt^_P#t\cw]o\Tñ{äyc[~ÜQ²~²[]R_Pwg6yd{PÛP±Ptvw]T
~²[]P/TVo\y 3tR_t Á RU\ja`dÅ°jUÂ*eS~ct\WW~²w]~7{äyc[ÄdbÜP#¿ Â*bdbYP#¿ö{äyc[k~cÛ^ PÛP±Ptvw]TñRUTñ~¼Qc~cRU^¸~²fÛP
{¸[]ydöw]o\
P P#f7Z~cdP#TdRUQvP#tÜR_tâw]o\Pn~²Z\w]R_ydtµj$iuP#[]P R_T´w]o\PZo\ycw]ydtÜPt\P[]cgvj
¶ó\PYR_t\n#[]P~cTVR_t\ W\yd±R_t~²wVR_ydt yd{Z~cR¾[Z\[]y°W ¯ nw]R_ydt ~cT1wVo\P!P#t\P#[]cg R_t\n[]P¼~cTVPTâR_T1TVo\y 3t RUt
RÁ U\j´`dÅ°j_ÂÅ°j$ruTVR_t\ ~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\RU~²w]RUydt\TTVR_±RU^¸~²[±wVywVo\ydTVP ¯ T³PW w]y ycf\wp~cRUt V
jqÌ`dÅ°Æ `dÇd3¶$TV~cRÌçT

!#"$ %$ "'&()*+ ,
{äyc[] ¯ ^_~ï{äyc[$w]o\PW\RmP#[]P#tÉw]R_~c^ n#[]ydTVT3TVPn#w]RUydtb"Äde#µ[VPW ¯ nPTwVy

ò î XÂ k qÂ c qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`dÅd
ïÐ+åkæ _ é _
RUt w]o\Pznyd/Z^_Pw]P OûT³n#[]PPt\RUt\è^_RU±RUwkQ²~c^_RUW~²wïo\R_doP#t\P#[]dR_P#TjiuP#[VP òG× ÃRUT w]o\Pz{¸[p~cn#w]RUydt~c^
Pt\P[]cg7wV[p~ct\T³{äP#[w]y±w]o\PñZ~cRU[ OãZ\[]yhW ¯ nPW!P^_PnwV[]ydt qsyc[Z
ydTVRUwV[Vydtµ~ct\W zR_Tw]o\PkRUt\nR_W\P#tÉwZo\ycw]ydt
Pt\P[]cgvj¶ó\PÜn#[VydTVT/TVP#n#w]R_ydtFR_TQvP#[Vg n^_ydT³PÛg []P^_~²w]PW wVy6w]o~²wï{äyc[/f\[]P#±TVT³wV[]~co\^ ¯ t\\)TVRUt\nPÜw]o\P
Á P#gSt\±~ct W\R_~cc[p~c±T~²[]PQ²~²[]R¸~ctvw]T}yd{
ydt\P$~ct\ycw]o\P#[j¶ó\P3n#[VydTVT T³Pn#w]RUydt/R_T}yd{®t\PnPTVT³RUwxg T³gS±/P#wV[]RUn
f
P#0w PPt ~ct\W Â _ ~cTn¼~ct!fmPTVPPt!fhg wVo\P T³yd^_R_WYn ¯ [³QvPïRUt Á RU\j `dÅ°j_ÂÇ°j PPw]o\Pk[]P#Q°R_P Nfhg
ÕYycPw c t ^_TVP#tµ Ay°npo7{äyc[~ï±yc[]PW\P#wp~cRU^_PWâwV[]P¼~²wV±Ptv w " ÊvÈ #ãj

jqã`dÅ°ÆÞ`dÅdÜ~¼gfmP R_tvw]Pc[p~²w]P#WNw]y ½t\WØw]o\P o\R_d3o OãPt\P#[]cg ^_RU±RUw7{äyc[6w]o\Pw]ycwp~c^Ë PËcê
V
Z~cR¾[ OãZ\[]yhW ¯ n#w]RUydt7n#[]ydTVT3TVPn#wVR_ydt N
ò SQ q î :Ã /Ð*åkæuÆ qã`dÅ°ÆÞ`cßv
¯ ~²w]RUydts ®jqã`dÅ°ÆÞ`cßv RUT~cnn ¯ [p~²wVP7w]y 3RUw]o\RUt ~è{äP Z
P#[]nPtvw1W\y t w]yPt\P[]dR_PT1~cT/^_y ~cT
V
ÂñP#¿\Z~²[Vw]RUn ¯ ^¸~²[VÛg1{äyc[o\RUd3o Oí ~²w]P#[]R_~c^_Tj
1.0
0.9
0.8 NaI
0.7 Ar C
Pb
0.6 H2O
Fe H
P 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
Photon energy (MeV)

¦Y¨©
ªs«\©m []ycf~²fRU^_R¾wg wVo~²w~/Zo\ycw]ydt R_tvw]P#[]~cn#w]R_ydt 3R_Û^[]P#T ¯ ÛwuRUtYnydtÉQvP[]TVR_ydt w]y
~ct!ËP Ëdê Z~cRU[j3}õ\nP#Z\w{äyc[~±{äP OãZ
P#[]nP#tÉwnydtvwV[]RUf ¯ wVR_ydt!{¸[]yd Zo\ycw]ydt ¯ n^_P~²[~²fT³yc[VZ\w]R_ydt
²~ []y ¯ t\WFÂ*bzyc[`cbâÕYP#¿ PTVTVPtvw]R_~c^_Ûg»~c^_^}ycw]o\P[ñR_tvw]P#[]~cn#w]R_ydt\TR_t6w]o\R_TPt\P#[]cg![p~ct\dPï[VPT ¯ Ûw
RUt á yd/Z\w]ydt TVn~²wVw]P#[]RUt\ y@~ct ~²w]yd/R_n7PÛPn#wV[Vydtµj Á yc[â~Zo\ycw]ydt ~²wVw]P#t ¯ ~²w]RUydt ^_Pt\cw]o
q Á RU\j}`dÅ°j_Â*evaw]o\PZ\[]ycf~²fR_ÛRUwxgw]o~²w ~YdRUQvPtZo\ycw]ydtbRU^_^Z\[]yhW ¯ nPz~ctFPÛPn#wV[]ydtZ~cRU[
q 3RUwVo\y ¯ w$½\[VT³w á yd/Z\w]ydtâTVn¼~²wVwVP#[]R_t\ÉR_tâw]o\R_n]·°t\PTVTýd{~²fTVyc[Vf
P#[RUT!"¾Â _ PõSZq _ ³Ã
0#ãj

Appendix F
Radiation Dosages
103

"!#$&%'
(
)+*-,/.10323456087:9;4< 4=9?> @
.103234=0A9;4B5DC E;.D5F9HGA769;4B5DC
IKJLNMPOQJRTSUJVXWY#Z[\[\]_â`bI#YcSdYfehg\ijlknmXJporqs tquvjliXRxwyYfzdjlOQOX| {g o}SUq~w/Ku

JLNMOJRSUJVXWYl\y^n`YcvYXq~Mmo}SUqw/ujliXRSdYIKgUJOQPJ oI/thuY
B h}X ¡
¢ kXJ£inWQJ ij&W¤MPg\ijl¥ g\¦§¦§MPOQOQMg\i¨g\iHIjlRXMj&W¤Mg\iª©iXM«W¤OjliXR:¬JjlOQm J¦§JiW¤Oor£ I ©hu
J ®g\¦§¦§JiXRXOW¤kXJ¯mXOQJ#g\°Sa£$mXiXMPW¤OY ¢ kXJ J°±g J#²$J#MPOWSa£ mXiXMPW¤O³ OW´'°±g\Pg ²$JR^n`µ®¶\Oyo·g glW¤kXJ
®g\¦¸¦§g\i'umXiXMPW¤OKMi-V'j JiW¤kXJOQJO´¹²KkXJ J¯WQkXJ`RXM«º»J Y
¼¾½¿À±Á#Â'Ã$Ä'ÅlÁ ÀrÆfÀ±ÁÈÇÉ ^»J®ÊUmXJ J$or®m MJuË
Z#sÊ É Z¯RXMOQMPinW¤J¶ j&W¤Mg\iµOÌÍ+Î É Z ÏXoÐNÑcÒyÓ|ZUÍÔ&uK MPÕ
¼¾½¿À±Á#Â'Ã$ÄÖ=×Â'ØÙÖBÚNÛTÛÂ¹×Ú-À·¿TÄ'¿»Ç|Ü|ÄXÁÚUØÙÀÝÄ¹ÞßÉ ¶ j`|o jlR'uË
Záàv` É Zâãg\mXPJhäU¶NÌBÍ+o É Z&åJ ¶§¶NÌÍ É Z\ jlR'u
É ]NÑæ&ç¾Ó|ZUÍèá¬bJéêäN¶NÌÍRXJVdg\OQMPWQJRpJiXJ ¶l`
¼½¿À±Á¯Â¹ÃÚaëfìBÂd×íØ Ú ´µwî¦¸JjlOQm Jhg\°VkXglW¤g\i-ïmXJiX®J#j&Wj®J W¤jlMiµVdg\MiWMiOãV'jl®J#MPinW¤J¶ j&W¤JR
gLJ W¤MP¦§JlÚMPi_W¤J ¦§Og\°MPg\i-®ðkj ¶\Jg\°~JM«W¤kXJ OQMP¶\iñV gURXmX®JR-â`§OQJ®g\iXRj `ñJJ®W g\iXOMi-jyOQ¦_jl
Lg\PmX¦§Jvg\°=jlM j&^»g\mNWW¤kXJhV»g\MiWË
É ZáòäN¶ ÌÍ g\°=jlM o gUJiW¤¶\Ji~Z#ó É Z¯JOQm¥®¦ Ìô MPi¥jlM É UYælõÓZ Ìfå òäN¶ ÌÍ u
£¦¸VPM®M«WáMiTW¤kXJ_RXJ³iXM«W¤Mg\iöMOáWQkXJñjlOQOQmX¦¸VXW¤MPg\iW¤kj&WyW¤kXJ_OQ¦_jlPW¤JOWyLg\mX¦§J¸MOyJ¦y^»JRXRXJRßMPi
jOmN÷§®MPJinWQP`|j ¶\J§mXiXMP°±g ¦§P`bM Q jlRXMøj&WQJRùLg\mX¦¸J+W¤kj&W¯W¤kXJ§inmX¦^dJ g\° OQJ®g\iXRj `|JJ®W g\iXO
JiW¤J MiX¶¥W¤kXJ¾Lg\mX¦§J¾JÊUmjlPO¯W¤kXJ+iamX¦y^dJ JjLUMiX¶orOQg&úû®jlPJRù®Èkj ¶\JRV'j W¤M®J¾JÊUmXMPMP^ MmX¦ñuY
¢ kXMOmXiXMPW/MOOQg\¦§J²Kkj&WkXMOW¤g M®jl·´^mNW/j&VXV»Jj O/g\i¥¦§jlin`ñ¦§JjlOQm MiX¶+MiXOW mX¦§JiW¤OY
¼½µ¿À±Á_Â¹Ã/ÚNüíÀÝÆNÄ'ÞrÚU¿»Á§ÛÂ¹×Ú o·°±g ^MPg\g\¶\M®jlBRjl¦§jl¶\Ju É OQMPJLJ W Î É Z\ J¦ o Ø gUJinW¤¶\Ji
Ú ÊUmXMPL&jlJinW¯°±g Ü jli'uÕËKÊUmXMPL&jlJinW#RXg\OQJ§ý+þöSaLuMijlig ¶jlibÿ;MPO#JÊamjlBWQgµW¤kXJ_j&Ôg ^»JR
RXg\OQJµMiöW¤kXJg ¶jli o}àv`Xu#W¤M¦§JOWQkXJ jlRXMj&W¤Mg\iT² JMP¶\knW¤MPiX¶ù°Ýjl®WQg or°±g ¦§J «`W¤kXJÊamjlM«W`
°Ýjl®WQg ´^mNW MPORXJ³iXJRñ°±g W¤kXJ jlRXMj&W¤Mg\i¸MiX®MPRXJinW$g\i¸W¤kXJK^dgURN`XuY£ WJ NV JOQOQJO Pg\iX¶&ú}W¤J ¦
MPOäNO¸orV MP¦_j MPP`¥®jliX®J jliXRùJmNäJ¦¸Møju° g\¦Fg²ú}JLJB®ðk g\iXMP®¸J UV»g\OQm JlYK£ W¯RXJV»JiXRXO#mNV»g\i
W¤kXJhW ÙV»Jhg\° jlRXMøj&W¤MPg\i¥jliXRglWQkXJ °Ýjl®WQg O´'jlOK°±g\Pg²/OáÎ«ZÕË
ÄÖ=ÞÝÚ
IjlRXMj&W¤Mg\i-² JM¶\kW¤MPiX¶¸°Ýjl®W¤g OY
IjlRXMj&W¤Mg\i
¥újliX R dú j`NO´jlPJiXJ ¶\MPJO Z
J®W g\iXOjliXR¥¦mXg\iXO´'jlPJiXJ ¶\MPJO Z
tJmNW g\iX O ZäJé
Z ¹Z\yäJé Z
Z\äJé W¤g§¾¬Jé l
Nl¾¬bJé Z
l¾¬bJé
glW¤g\iXO#o·glW¤kXJ W¤kjli J®g\MPOðu ¬Jé
w«VkjlO´'³OOQMg\i¥° jl¶\¦§JiW¤O ´ kXJjLU`-iamX®JM l
!#"%$&"('*),+.-0/ 1(23/547698;:=<,>?A@CB%DE8EFHGIJ69KL89MNPORQJSUTWVXSZY\[][5B ^`_ba9cEcEdRe
6gf969TWKh69iJKWjk8EI3lOJjN7m*Yn-o-o-qp]69rEjXSk_tsvuxwP+.y.z{z]|~}=H|5Hv{5e D9FJKWQ^=]B%a9cEcEd^XcJ+ R

Manual Electron Diffraction

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual Electron Diffraction

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual Electron Diffraction

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

i

The University of New Mexico

2 The Ratio e/m for Electrons 15

6 Excitation and Ionization Energies of Neon 41

7 Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) 49

9 Mass of the Electron 61

10 The Speed of Light c 65

C “Energy Levels in helium...”, Am J. Phys Vol 49 No 3, March 1981 83

D “Determination of the rest-mass energy of the electron...”, Am J. Phys

E Interactions of Electrons and Photons with Matter 93

F Radiation Dosages 103

1. Purpose of this Course:

In this course you will:

• learn how to use various types of hardware, instrumentation, and software;

will be continuously updated.

3. Preparation for each Experiment:

5. Guidelines for writing lab reports:

”Our experimental test of the hypothesis h yields a value of [chisq/degree of freedom],

#6 Analysis and Results:

• e/m Ratio for Electrons (dark)

• Electron Diffraction (very dark, and works marginally)

• Balmer Series (dark)

• Planck’s Constant (dark)

• Excitation Levels of Neon

• Electron Spin Resonance

• Poisson Statistics (MCA)

• Mass of the Electron (MCA)

• Speed of Light (MCA)

Important Notes: The oscilloscope experiment must be done first. It is recommended

1.2 Review of Basic Oscilloscope Functions

1.2.2 Bandwidth and Risetime

1.2.3 Controls and Operating Modes

Vertical and Horizontal Sensitivity

Triggering or synchronization is the most important adjustment to be made when using

Figure 1.1: Normal signal viewing

1.2.4 Applications and Examples

Figure 1.2: setting a coincidence

Figure 1.3: using the external trigger

or the level of the discriminator checked with respect to the noise.

Figure 1.4: setting the levels of a discriminator (SCA)

5. Build a voltage divider from two 10KΩ resistors.

8. Now for a quantitative comparison of the input impedances of DMM (typically

10. Build an AC circuit by replacing in the voltage divider R1 → Z1 = 1/(iωC) and

The Ratio e/m for Electrons

In the Helmholtz configuration, x = R/2, The permeability of free space µ = 4π ×

Key to Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1: Charge-to-Mass Ratio Apparatus.

an exact parallel position with the plane of the coils.

2.5 Qualitative Experiments

• Study and verification of the de Broglie hypothesis λ = h/p.

• Measurement of the spacing of diffracting planes in graphite.

Figure 3.1: Structure of Graphite

3.4 Important Precautions

Figure 3.2: Schematic of the Electron Diffraction Tube

3.5 Experimental Procedure

Figure 3.3: Circuit Diagram

3.6 Data Taking and Analysis

• Review basic atomic physics.

• Calibrate an optical spectrometer using the known mercury spectrum.

• Study the Balmer Series in the hydrogen spectrum.

uX ^¾w]o\y ¯ dozR¾w$R_T$P¼~cT³g1w]y ¯ TVPV

¶´o\P[]~cW\R¸~²w]RUydtÜ^_P#t\cw]oÜRUt7~ï/R¾õSw ¯ ][ Pyc[nydïZmy ¯ t\W7~¼gfmP~²Z\Z\[]y¼õ\RU~²w]PW1fhg

X´w6QvP[Vg o\R_do Pt\P[]dR_PTè~ct\W Põ\n#P#Z\w~²w!w]o\PFo\RUdo3OûPt\P[]cgØw]R¾Z yd{/wVo\P f\[]P/TVT³wV[p~co\^ ¯ t\

ODQVW ^ kHjM#nDoPoPpkeoV7 _

ODQVW ^ kHjM#nDoPoPpkeoV7 _

ODQVW ^ kHjM#nDoPoPpkeoV7 _

IKJLNMPOQJRTSUJVXWY#Z[\[\]_^a`bI#YcSdYfehg\ijlknmXJporqs tquvjliXRxwyYfzdjlOQOX| {g o}SUq~w/Ku