LabManualPHY112 PDF

PHY112: ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM
LABORATORY MANUAL
(January - April 2020)
Editor
ARVIND
Department of Physical Sciences

IISER Mohali
Acknowledgements
This lab manual is based on the work done by a number of previous instructors.
In fact a good number of experiments in this lab are locally designed.
The current version is based on the 2017 version compiled by by Dr. Rajeev Kapri.
Arvind
Contents
0 Notes on Error Analysis 1

RAJEEV KAPRI
0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.2 Precision vs Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.3 Three major sources of errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.3.1 Reading Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.3.2 Random Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.3.3 Systematic Error & Instrument Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.4 Mean & Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.5 Stating your results: Absolute & Relative Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . 6
0.6 Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.6.1 Practical Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.6.2 Mistakes and Misconceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.7 Propagation of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.7.1 Propagation of Independent Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.7.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.8 Fitting Data: Least Squares Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.8.1 Fitting to a straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1 Terminal velocity of a magnet through a metal pipe 16

Manish Pareek, Prof. Arvind and Dr.Paramdeep Singh
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.1 Aim of Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Black body radiation and Stefan’s law using an incandescent tung-

sten lamp 21
Prof. Arvind and Dr. Paramdeep Singh
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2 Circuit Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
i
CONTENTS ii
2.2.5 Representation of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3 Random Sampling of an AC source 27

3.1 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.1.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.2 Circuit diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.1 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4 Magnetic moment in the magnetic field 32

Mohammad Aslam and Soumyadip Halder
4.1 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.1.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1.2 Apparatus used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3.1 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5 Biot Savart law 35

Leena Aggarwal and Shekhar Das
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.2 Apparatus used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3.1 Biot-Savart‘s law for the circular current loop . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.4.1 Experimental observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.4.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.5 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6 Studying electromagnetic induction using a magnet & a coil 41

Sudhanshu Shekhar Chaurasia and Jyotsana Ojha
6.1 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6.1.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.2 Basic setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2.1 Measuring induced emf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.2.2 Measuring emf as a function of velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.2.3 Studying charge delivered due to induction . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2.4 Studying electromagnetic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.4 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7 Capacitance of metal spheres 46

CONTENTS iii
Rajeev Kapri
7.1 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7.1.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.1.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.5 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8 Study of Parallel Plate Capacitor using AC source 49

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.3 Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.4 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.5 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.5.1 Realization of parallel plate capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.5.2 Connections and Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.5.3 Calculation of capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.5.4 The variation of capacitance with distance between the plates 56
8.5.5 The variation of capacitance with area of the plates . . . . . . 57
8.5.6 Measurements with Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.5.7 Calculation of dielectric constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.5.8 Verification of the relations for the combination of dielectrics . 59
8.5.9 Study of edge effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9 Equipotential Lines 63
Ketan Patel
9.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.2.1 From the Coulomb’s law to the concept of potential . . . . . . 63
9.3 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.3.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.3.2 After performing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Chapter 0
Notes on Error Analysis
RAJEEV KAPRI
0.1 Introduction
Error or uncertainty about a particular experimental measurement is the best estimate
of the quantitative range within which you can trust your results. Any experimental
measurement you make in the laboratory is meaningless unless quoted with an un-
certainty/error. We are not talking about errors like misreading a scale or slipping
a decimal point while taking a reading. Experimental uncertainties are a statement
about the resolution of your measurement i.e. how far from the “true” value you are
likely to be. There are two kinds of uncertainties associated with the measurement
of an experimental quantity:
• Random uncertainty: associated with unpredictable variations in the exper-
imental conditions. For example changes in room temperature, vibrations from
nearby machinery, error in time period measurement when the experimenter
does not start/stop the stopwatch at exactly the same point in the swing of the
pendulum etc. So if a measurement is repeated a number of times with sufficient
precision, a slightly different value of the measured quantity is obtained each
time and if the experiment is free from bias these variations will be random and
the measurements will group symmetrically about the “true” value.
• Systematic uncertainty: associated with inherent faults in measuring in-
strument or in measurement technique. This is an error that is consistent from
measurement to measurement. For example, measuring length of a table with
a tape that has a kink in it, a weak spring in a current meter, a calibration
error in the measuring device, a clock that runs too fast etc. So if there is an
experimental bias, the measurements will group around the wrong value and
are said to contain a systematic error. If you always round down to the nearest
tic mark on a meter stick while measuring length, you will make a systematic
error of measuring a slightly shorter length.
Random uncertainties are easier to quantify and deal with. There is no general
procedure for estimating the magnitude of systematic uncertainties.
1
0.2. PRECISION VS ACCURACY 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 1: Random vs systematic errors.
0.2 Precision vs Accuracy

Random uncertainty decreases the precision of an experiment whereas systematic
uncertainty decreases the accuracy of the experiment.
NOTE:- Systematic uncertainty does NOT mean that the uncertainty is repeat-
able. It means that the uncertainty has not been accounted for in the analysis.
Accuracy refers to the degree to which your value is correct within uncertainty.
It is largely a matter of having the correct calibration of all reference measurements.
If you used a uncalibrated meter stick that was shorter than the official length of a
meter, you might measure the length of an object with great precision (lots of decimal
places) but poor accuracy (what you think is a meter is not really a meter).
Precision can be thought of as the number of meaningful digits to a measure-
ment. A measurement of a length as being 1.023405 meters is more precise than a
measurement of 1.02 meters.
As an illustration of the concepts of precision and accuracy, consider the analogy
shown in Fig. 1. The measured quantity’s true value lies at the center of all circles
and the various dots represent the data points measured by the same apparatus.
• In the first experiment [Fig.1(a)], the data points show very different values and
are scattered over the circles. In this case, the random as well as systematic
errors are large and so the measurement is neither precise, nor accurate.
• In the second experiment [Fig.1(b)], the random errors are large but the sys-
tematic errors are small. The uncertainty in each measurement is large, so the
measurements are accurate but not precise.
• In the third experiment [Fig. 1(c)], the values lie within an experimental un-
certainty, that is, the random errors are small but since all the measurements
are away from the center, the systematic errors are large. Therefore, the mea-
surements are precise but not accurate.
• In the final experiment [Fig. 1(d)], the values lie both within an experimental
uncertainty and the actual value, that is, the measured value is precise and
accurate.
If we remove the circles from Fig. 1, we do not know the true value of the quantity
being measured. In this situation, we can still assess the random errors (i.e., the
0.3. THREE MAJOR SOURCES OF ERRORS 3
precision of the measured quantity) easily but it is impossible to estimate systematic

errors, i.e., we do not know if our measured quantity is accurate!
0.3 Three major sources of errors

0.3.1 Reading Error
Almost all direct measurements involve reading a scale (ruler, caliper, stopwatch,
analog voltmeter, etc.) or a digital display (e.g., digital multimeter or digital clock).
Sources of uncertainty depend on the equipment we use. One of the unavoidable
sources of errors is a reading error. Reading Error refers to the uncertainties caused
by the limitations of our measuring equipment and/or our own limitations at the
time of measurement (for example, our reaction time while starting or stopping a
stopwatch). This does not refer to any mistakes you may make while taking the
measurements. Rather it refers to the uncertainty inherent to the instrument and
your own ability to minimize this uncertainty. A reading error affects the precision
of the experiment. The uncertainty associated with the reading of the scale and the
need to interpolate between scale markings is relatively easy to estimate. For example,
consider the millimeter (mm) markings on a ruler scale. For a person with a normal
vision it is reasonable to say that the length could be read to the nearest millimeter
at best. Therefore, a reasonable estimate of the uncertainty in this case would be
∆l = ±0.5 mm which is half of the smallest division. A rule of thumb for evaluating
the reading error on analogue readout is to use half of the smallest division (in case
of a meter stick with millimeter divisions it is 0.5 mm), but only the observer can
ultimately decide what is his/her limitation in error evaluation. Note that it is wrong
to assume that the uncertainty is always half of the smallest division of the scale.
For example, for a person with a poor vision the uncertainty while using the same
ruler might be greater than one millimeter. If the scale markings are further apart
(for example, meter stick with markings 1 cm apart), one might reasonably decide
that the length could be read to one-fifth or one-fourth of the smallest division. It
is an estimate of systematic differences between different scales of the multimeter.
However it is the random error that determines the precision, and gives you an idea
of the scatter that you might expect in your readings. Thus, the “± digit” quoted by
the manufacturer might be a better estimate of the random error. Though you should
quote the systematic error at the end of your experiment when you are comparing
your result with some “standard”, it is better to use 1 digit for the random error in
each reading. For example, if your reading is 3.48 mA, you should quote (3.48 ± 0.01)
mA. It is usually difficult or impossible to reduce the inherent reading error in an
instrument. In some cases (usually those in which the reading error of the instrument
approximates a “random error distribution”) it is possible to reduce the reading error
by repeating measurements of exactly the same quantity and averaging them.
0.4. MEAN & STANDARD DEVIATION 4
0.3.2 Random Error

Random Error refers to the spread in the values of a physical quantity from one mea-
surement of the quantity to the next, caused by random fluctuations in the measured
value. For example, in repeating measurements of the time taken for a ball to fall
through a given height, the varying initial conditions, random fluctuations in air mo-
tion, the variation of your reaction time in starting and stopping a watch, etc., will
lead to a significant spread in the times obtained. This type of error also affects the
precision of the experiment.
0.3.3 Systematic Error & Instrument Calibration

Systematic Error refers to an error which is present for every measurement of a given
quantity; it may be caused by a bias on the part of the experimenter, a miscalibrated
or even faulty measuring instrument, etc. Systematic errors affect the accuracy of
the experiment. After evaluating the reading error or the standard error, or both if
necessary, we have to make sure that the scale of our measuring instrument is checked
against an internationally established measuring standard. Such comparison is called
calibration. In the real world, we frequently find that our measuring scale is in slight
disagreement with the standard. For example, if you inspect such simple tools as
rulers, you will find out that no two rulers are exactly the same. It is not uncommon
to find a discrepancy of 1 mm or even more among meter sticks. The correct calibra-
tion of measuring instruments is obviously of great importance. However, in the first
year laboratory, the instruments you will use are usually calibrated by the laboratory
staff and ready to use (unless explicit lab instructions tell you otherwise). In addition
to all the errors discussed above, there can be other sources of error that may pass un-
noticed: variations in temperature, humidity or air pressure, etc. Such disturbances
are more or less constant during our measurements (otherwise they would appear as
random error when the measurement is repeated) and are generally referred to as the
systematic errors. Systematic errors are very difficult to trace since we do not know
where to look for them. It is important to learn to notice all the irregularities that
could become the sources of systematic errors during our experimental work. More-
over, it is particularly important in data-taking always to record some information
about the surrounding physical conditions. Such information may help us later on if
we discover a serious discrepancy in our experimental results. As a rule, the place,
date and time of measurements, and the type and serial numbers and specifications of
the instruments which were used must be recorded. Estimate all your reading errors
while you take your data and write them down with your data. Do the same for all
manufacturers’ error specifications. These usually cannot be guessed later on.
0.4 Mean & Standard Deviation

Mean
If the sources of error in a measurement (say measuring the length of a table) are
random, the values of the length will vary randomly above and below the “true” value
0.4. MEAN & STANDARD DEVIATION 5
of the table length, and will not be biased/skewed toward the lower/higher values.
The procedure to get the most precise value for the length is to take the average or
arithmetic mean
N
x1 + x2 + ... + xN 1 X
x̄ = = xi (1)
N N i=1
where N is the number of measurements and xi is the value of one measurement.
This definition of mean assumes that each measurement of x is independent and has
the same experimental uncertainty.
Standard Deviation
Now that the mean (“best” value) is known, it is important to quantify how much the
individual measurements are scattered about the mean or how “good” each individual
measurement is. If the experiment is precise, all measurements will be very close to
the mean value. So the extent of scatter about the mean is a measure of the precision
and a way to quantify the random uncertainty.
For unbiased measurements (all data points have equal weights), the standard
deviation σ is v
u N
u 1 X
σ= t (xi − x̄)2 (2)
(N − 1) i=1
σ becomes larger if the data is more scattered about the mean.

NOTE:- Convince yourself at this stage that more scatter of data means a larger
standard deviation and also that σ has the same units as xi .
Most Probable Value:

For unbiased measurements, the standard deviation of the mean of a set of measure-
ments, σm , is sP
N 2
i=1 (xi − x̄) σ
σm = =√ . (3)
N (N − 1) N
This is important
√ since it states that the uncertainty in the mean of N measurements
decreases as 1/ N .
NOTE:- Convince yourself that σm is necessarily smaller than σ. Also think about
the difference between σ and σm : σ is the standard deviation associated with indi-
vidual data points whereas σm is the standard deviation of the mean value of a set of
data points, that is, the uncertainty of a set of measurements made under identical
conditions.
EXERCISE:- For a Gaussian distribution, convince yourself that the mean will be
within the range x̄i ± σi 68% of the time, i.e., if another set of N measurements is
made, the mean of this new set has a 68% likelihood of being within the range x̄i ± σi .
0.5. STATING YOUR RESULTS: ABSOLUTE & RELATIVE UNCERTAINTY 6
Random errors and Gaussian distributions

In some measurements, there is a random element involved. Say that you measure the
fraction of times that a coin lands face up. You might refuse to make the measurement,
saying that you know the answer: its going to land face up exactly 50% of the time.
What if you make two measurements? If you flip the coin twice, do you expect it
to land face up once, and face down once, every time you flip it twice? Of course
not! Since each flip of the coin is uncorrelated with the previous flip (the coin has no
reason to remember how it landed last time), there is an intrinsic measurement error
which
√ we can approximate as being equal to the square root of the number of events
N . If we flip a coin N = 100 times, we would expect to have µ = 50 heads. About
2/3 of√the time we will find√ that the number of heads we get is within the range
50 − 50 ≈ 43 and 50 + 50 ≈ 57, and 1/3 outside this range. In the continuum
limit, we expect to get something like a Gaussian (or the normal) distribution of
obtaining heads x:

1 (x − µ)2
P (x; µ, σ) = √ exp − , (4)
σ 2π 2σ 2
about a mean value µ, with standard deviation σ. These two quantities completely
define the Gaussian (or the normal) distribution.
In Fig. 2(a) to 2(d), we have plotted the probability distribution of obtaining
heads in a coin tossing experiment (consisting of N = 100 tosses per trial) when the
experiment is repeated M = 102 , 103 , 104 , and 106 times, respectively. The average
values of heads, µ, and the standard deviation, σ, for each case is reported in the
brackets. We can clearly see that µ approaches the value N/2 = 50 as the number of
trials M increases.
0.5 Stating your results: Absolute & Relative Un-

certainty
In general, the result of any measurement of physical quantity must include both the
value itself (best value) and its error (uncertainty). The result is usually quoted in
the form
x = xbest ± ∆x (5)
where xbest is the best estimate of what we believe is a true value of the physical
quantity and ∆x is the estimate of absolute error (uncertainty). Note that depending
on the type of the experiment the prevailing error could be random or reading error.
In case the reading error and random error are comparable in value, both should
be taken into account and treated as two independent errors. You will learn how
to calculate ∆x in this case in the “Propagation of Errors” section. The meaning
of the uncertainty ∆x is that the true value of x probably lies between (xbest ∆x)
and (xbest + ∆x). It is certainly possible that the correct value lies slightly outside
this range. Note that your measurement can be regarded as satisfactory even if the
accepted value lies slightly outside the estimated range of the measured value.
0.5. STATING YOUR RESULTS: ABSOLUTE & RELATIVE UNCERTAINTY 7
0.12 2
0.1 3
(a) N = 10 (b) N = 10
0.1 0.08
0.08
0.06
P(x)
P(x)
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02 0.02
0 0
30 40 50 60 70 30 40 50 60 70
x x
0.1 4
0.1 6
(c) N = 10 (d) N = 10
0.08 0.08
0.06 0.06
P(x)
P(x)
0.04 0.04
0.02 0.02
0 0
30 40 50 60 70 30 40 50 60 70
x x
Figure 2: Probability distribution P (x) of obtaining heads in a coin tossing exper-

iment consisting of N = 100 tosses per trial. The histograms are the experimental
data and the solid curve is the Gaussian fit, written in the brackets, to the data for (a)
M = 100 trials (µ = 49.1 ± 0.4, σ = 5.2 ± 0.3), (b) For M = 103 trials (µ = 50.3 ± 0.1,
σ = 5.09 ± 0.08) (c) For M = 104 trials (µ = 50.01 ± 0.03, σ = 5.02 ± 0.03), (d) For
N = 106 trials (µ = 49.996 ± 0.003, σ = 5.005 ± 0.002).
∆x indicates the reliability of the measurement, but the quality of the measure-
ment also depends on the value of xbest . For example, an uncertainty of 1 cm in a
distance of 1 km would indicate an unusually precise measurement, whereas the same
uncertainty of 1 cm in a distance of 10 cm would result in a crude estimate. Frac-
tional uncertainty gives us an indication how reliable our experiment is. Fractional
uncertainty is defined as ∆x/xbest where ∆x is the absolute uncertainty. Fractional
uncertainty can be also represented in percentile form (∆x/x)100% . For example,
the length l = (0.50 ± 0.01)m has a best fractional uncertainty of 0.01/0.5 = 0.02
and a percentage uncertainty of 0.02100 = 2%. Note that the fractional uncertainty
is a dimensionless quantity. Fractional uncertainties of about 10% or so are usually
characteristic of rather rough measurements. Fractional uncertainties of 1 or 2% in-
dicate fairly accurate measurements. Fractional uncertainties much less than 1% are
not easy to achieve, and are rare in an introductory physics laboratory.
Percentage disagreement: In some cases, you can compare the value of your
0.6. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 8
experimental measurement with the standard value as

xstd − xexp
| | × 100% (6)
xstd
If your percentage disagreement is more than ten percent, identify the reasons and
explain why this is so in your report.
NOTE:- This percentage disagreement is to give you an idea of the accuracy of
your experiment and in no case is to be used as a substitute for the detailed error
analysis of your experiment.
0.6 Significant Figures

An uncertainty should not be stated with too much precision. The last significant
figure in any stated answer should usually be of the same order of magnitude (in the
same decimal position) as the uncertainty. For example, the answer 92.81 s with an
uncertainty of 0.3 s should be rounded as (92.8 ± 0.3) s. If the uncertainty is 3 s,
then the result is reported as (93 ± 3) s. However, the number of significant figures
used in the calculation of the uncertainty should generally be kept with one more
significant figure than the appropriate number of significant figures in order to reduce
the inaccuracies introduced by rounding off numbers. After the calculations, the final
answer should be rounded off to remove this extra figure.
• The uncertainty σ should have 1 digit or at most 2 digits (all uncertainty calcu-
lations are estimates; there is no such thing as exact uncertainty!). The result
itself should be stated to the same precision as σ, for example, 10.25 ± 0.15sec
or 10.3 ± 0.2sec but NOT 10.25 ± 0.2sec.
• If σ is very large, you will lose significant digits. If the measurement is so bad
that σ is larger than the value itself, you will have no significant digits but only
know the order of magnitude!
0.6.1 Practical Hints

So far, we have found two different errors that affect the precision of a directly mea-
sured quantity: the reading error and the standard error. Which one is the actual
error of precision in the quantity? For practical purposes you can use the following
criterion. Take one reading of the quantity to be measured, and make your best esti-
mate of the reading error. Then repeat the measurement a few times. If the spread
in the values you obtain is about the same size as the reading error or less, use the
reading error. If the spread in values is greater than the reading error, take three
or four more, and calculate a standard error and use it as the error. In cases where
you have both a reading error and a standard error, choose the larger of the two as
“the” error. Be aware that if the dominant source of error is the reading error, taking
multiple measurements will not improve the precision.
0.7. PROPAGATION OF ERRORS 9
0.6.2 Mistakes and Misconceptions

In the introductory physics laboratory, it is almost always meaningless to specify the
error to more than two significant digits; often one is enough. It is a mistake to write:
x = (56.7±0.914606) cm, or x = (56.74057±0.9) cm. Instead, write: x = (56.7±0.9)
cm. You cannot increase either the accuracy or precision by extending the number
of digits in your mean value beyond the decimal place occupied by the error. Keep
in mind that the error, by its nature, denotes the uncertainty in the last one or two
significant digits of the main number and therefore any additional digits obtained
from multiplication or division should be rounded off at the meaningful position. So,
first calculate your error; round it off to one significant figure; then quote the value
of your measurement to the appropriate number of significant figures.
When quoting errors in a result do not use the flawed logic that “my result is x, the
handbook gives a value for this quantity as y, thus the error in my result is ±(x − y)”.
Your quoted error should be the result of your own analysis of your own experiment
whereas (x − y) relates to a comparison of your work to other people’s work. (xy)
represents the difference between your result and the accepted value. The discrepancy
can be used to characterize the consistency between different sets of measurements,
but has nothing to do with the estimate of error in your own experiment. If a result
we produce differs significantly from the accepted value, we then are obligated to
explain what has produced the difference. But in quoting our own result, we must
provide the error of our own experiment.
0.7 Propagation of Errors

In the majority of experiments the quantity of interest is not measured directly, but
must be calculated from other quantities. Such measurements are called indirect.
The quantities measured directly are not exact and have errors associated with them.
While we calculate the parameter of interest from the directly measured values, it
is said that the errors of the direct measurements propagate. Errors can propagate
in measurements. What happens to the final uncertainty in a measurement which
depends on several variables, each with its own uncertainty? The answer is not
obvious and two cases are possible: when the uncertainties in the individual variables
are independent and when the individual uncertainties are dependent. In this lab,
you will work with the assumption that the individual uncertainties are completely
independent.
As an example, consider the following problem. Suppose we have measured the
value of a quantity x with an uncertainty, which we denote ∆x. In order to test a
theoretical formula, suppose that we need to calculate y as function of x i.e., y = f (x).
We want to know the uncertainty in y due to the uncertainty in the value of x. This
is equivalent to asking what will be the variation in y (call it ∆y) as x varies from x
to (x + ∆x)? Mathematically, this variation is given by ∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x). The
answer comes from the differential calculus: if y = f (x) and ∆x is small, then
dy df
∆y ≈ ∆x = ∆x (7)
dx dx
0.7. PROPAGATION OF ERRORS 10
This argument can be extended for the calculation of quantities that are functions of
several different measured quantities. All you will need at this point are the results
that you can find below for different types of functions. Note that we neglect the sign
in the differential, since the sign of all errors may take on numerical values which are
either positive or negative.
0.7.1 Propagation of Independent Errors

Suppose various quantities x1 , · · · , xn , w1 , · · · , wn with uncertainties ∆x1 , · · · , ∆xn , ∆w1 , · · · , ∆w
are used to calculate a quantity y. The uncertainties in x1 , · · · , xn , w1 , · · · , wn prop-
agate through the calculation to cause an uncertainty in y, provided all errors are
independent and random, as follows:
Sums and Differences: If
y = x1 + · · · + xn − (w1 + · · · + wn ),
then q
∆y = (∆x1 )2 + · · · + (∆xn )2 + (∆w1 )2 · · · + (∆wn )2 . (8)
Product and Quotients: If
x1 × · · · × xn
y= ,
w1 × · · · × wn
then s 2 2 2 2
∆y ∆x1 ∆xn ∆w1 ∆wn
= + ··· + + + ··· + . (9)
|y| x1 xn w1 wn
Measured Quantity Times Exact Number: If A is known exactly and
y = Ax,
then
∆y ∆x
∆y = |A|∆x or, equivalently, = . (10)
|y| |x|
Uncertainty in a Power: If n is an exact number and
y = xn ,
then
∆y ∆x
= |n| . (11)
|y| |x|
Uncertainty in a Function of One Variable: If y = f (x) is any function of x,
then
df
∆y = ∆x.
dx
If f (x) is a complicated function, then instead of differentiating f (x), one can use an
0.8. FITTING DATA: LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION 11
equivalent formula
∆y = |f (xbest + ∆x) − f (xbest )|. (12)
General Formula for Error Propagation: If u = f (x, y, z, . . .) is a function of
several variables with the independent variables x, y, z, . . . having independent and
random uncertainties ∆x, ∆y, ∆z.... The uncertainty in u is then given by the formula
s 2 2 2
∂f ∂f ∂f
∆u = ∆x + ∆y + ∆z + · · ·, (13)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where the partial derivatives are all evaluated at the best known values of x, y, z, . . ..
NOTE:- This formula is based on a first-order Taylor series expansion of a function of
many variables and is valid when the individual uncertainties ∆xi ’s are uncorrelated
with each other and are small compared to the values of the quantities. The first-order
Taylor series expansion of any function f at x0 is given by:
d
f (x − x0 ) ≈ f (x0 ) + (x − x0 ) f (x)|x=x0 . (14)
dx
0.7.2 Exercises
Write out the error propagation formula (in terms of ∆f /f ) when the function f (x, y)
is of the form:
1. f = x ∗ y 4. f = x − y 7. f = lne x
5. f = xm y n
2. f = x/y 8. f = log10 x
6. f = kx (k is con-
3. f = x + y stant) 9. f = ex
0.8 Fitting Data: Least Squares Regression

Frequently in the lab you will perform a series of measurements of a quantity y at
different values of x. This gives a more accurate determination of a physical parameter
rather than a single measurement. If you have a linear relationship y = mx + b, you
can determine the uncertainty in the measured slope m and the intercept b.
A common method to find the best curve to fit a set of data points is the “method
of least squares”. If all the data points have nearly the same weight/error, one can
try to arrange the curve so that as many points lie below the line as above. However,
such a visual method is not quantitative.
The least-squares method of curve fitting can be described qualitatively as follows:
Let the data set be represented by the functional form f (x; a, b, . . .) where a, b, .. are
adjustable parameters that can be varied to get the best fit curve. The function, f ,
can be a straight line (f (x) = mx + b where the adjustable parameters are m and b)
or a higher order polynomial or any other complicated function. For each data point
(xi , yi ), the value yi − f (xi ; a, b...) is computed and then the “chi-square” value χ2 is
calculated from the expression

X [yi − f (xi ; a, b, . . .)]2
χ2 (a, b, . . .) = , (15)
i
σi2
where σi is the uncertainty of each data point. The best fit is found by adjusting the
parameters a, b, . . . until the minimum value of χ2 is achieved. For N data points and
n adjustable parameters, the “reduced chi-square” can be calculated from
χ2 χ2
χ2ν = = , (16)
ν N −n
where ν is the “degrees of freedom” in the problem. If the parameters are adjusted
so that χ2ν ≈ 1, a “good fit” is achieved i.e. the difference between the fitted curve
and the data is on an average, as big as the uncertainty in the data itself.
0.8.1 Fitting to a straight line

As an example of the least squares method, consider the problem of fitting of a set
of N data points (xi , yi ) to a straight line f (x) ≡ y = mx + c. It is assumed that the
uncertainty σi associated with each measurement yi is known, and the values of the
dependent variable xi ’s are exactly known. The chi-square merit function given by
Eq.(15) for this case is
N
X
2 (yi − mxi − c)2
χ (m, c) = . (17)
i=1
σi2
To determine the parameters m and c, we need to minimize χ2 (m, c). At its minimum,
the derivatives of χ2 (m, c) with respect to m and c vanishes:
N
X (yi − mxi − c) xi
∂χ2
= −2 2
= 0, (18a)
∂m i=1
σi
and
N
X yi − mxi − c
∂χ2
= −2 = 0. (18b)
∂c i=1
σi2
Define,
N
X N
X N
X
1
wi ≡ 2 ; S≡ wi ; Sx ≡ wi xi ; Sy ≡ wi yi ; (19)
σi i=1 i=1 i=1
N
X N
X
Sxx ≡ wi x2i ; Sxy ≡ w i xi y i .
i=1 i=1
With the above definition, the above equations can be rewritten as simultaneous
equations for m and c:
cS + mSx = Sy , (20a)
and
cSx + mSxx = Sxy . (20b)
The solution of these two equations in two unknowns is calculated as
SSxy − Sx Sy
m= , (21a)
∆
and
Sxx Sy − Sx Sxy
c= , (21b)
∆
with
∆ ≡ SSxx − (Sx )2 . (21c)
This gives the best fit values of the parameters m and c. The next task is the
estimation of the probable uncertainties in the estimates of m and c, which is intro-
duced by the measurement errors in the data. If the data are independent, then each
contributes its own bit of uncertainty to the parameters. Recall from the propagation
of error section [Equation (13)] that the standard deviation σf in the value of any
function f will be
v
u N
uX ∂f 2
σf = t σi2 . (22)
i=1
∂y i
For the straight line, the derivatives of m and c with respect to yi can be directly
evaluated from the solution:
∂m Sxx − Sx xi
=
∂yi σi2 ∆
∂c Sxi − Sx
= . (23)
∂yi σi2 ∆
Substituting these in Eq. (22) and summing over the points we get the standard
deviations r r
Sxx S
σm = and σc = , (24)
∆ ∆
in the estimates of m and c respectively.
If we assume that the uncertainties in y have the same magnitude σy for all the
data points, then the above equations remain valid with wi = 1/σy2 . For this case,
the above equations take the form

P P P
Nxi y i − xi y i
m = (25)
P 2P ∆ P P
xi y i − xi xi y i
c =
∆
X X 2
2
∆ = N xi − xi .
The standard deviation in m and c is given by

rP r
x2i N
σc = σy σm = σy , (26)
∆ ∆
where, the uncertainty σy in the numbers y1 , . . . , yN can be estimated by
v
u N
u 1 X
σy = t (yi − mxi − c)2 , (27)
(N − 2) i=1
assuming that the deviations (yi − mxi − c) are normally distributed.
Example: Let us fit a straight line to a set of data (shown below) that is obtained
by an arbitrary experiment. On the right hand side the data and the best straight
line fit is plotted.
x y
200.0 194.18 550
225.0 223.81 500

250.0 251.71
450
275.0 273.84
400
300.0 314.08
325.0 313.51 350
y
350.0 339.00 300

375.0 379.26
250
400.0 383.45
200
425.0 444.31
450.0 462.51 150
200 250 300 350 400 450 500
475.0 489.33 x
500.0 497.00
Step by step procedure to fit a straight line to a data set:
1. The data looks linear so we can try fitting a straight line y = mx + c to it.
2. The above table does not mention the uncertainties of individual data points so
we can assume that the uncertainties in y’s have the same magnitude σy , which
needs to be calculated.
3. To calculate m and c, we need to calculate the following sums

X X X X
xi = 4550.0 x2i = 1706250.0 yi = 4565.99 xi yi = 1715687.0
4. Using these values in Eq. (25), we get
∆ = 1478750.0 m = 1.03 c = −10.59
5. Next we need to calculate the uncertainties in the constants m and c. We first

calculate the uncertainty σy in y’s by using Eq. (27). For the above set of data
we get σy = 11.19. The uncertainties σm = 0.03 and σc = 12.02 in constant m
and c respectively can then be calculated from Eq. (26).
Result: The slope m and the intercept c of the best fitted straight line to the above
data is
m = 1.03 ± 0.03 c = −10.59 ± 12.02.
IMPORTANT NOTE:- You are expected to plot your data and do least squares
analysis to find the best fit to your data and also estimate the goodness of fit. You
may use gnuplot or other standard computer programs to find the best fit parameters
and also the uncertainties in the parameters. Use the values of σ generated by the
computer program in your analysis of error propagation in your experiment. LAB
REPORTS WHICH DO NOT INCLUDE AN ANALYSIS OF ERRORS WILL NOT
BE GIVEN A FULL GRADE.
References
1. Practical Physics, Third edition, by G. L. Squires, Cambridge University Press
(1999).
2. An Introduction to Error Analysis, Second edition, by J. R. Taylor, University

Science Books (1997).
Experiment 1
Terminal velocity of a magnet

through a metal pipe
Manish Pareek, Prof. Arvind and Dr.Paramdeep Singh
1.1 Introduction
In this experiment, we study the motion of a magnet falling down a metal pipe, versus
a plastic pipe. When a magnet falls through a plastic pipe, it falls under the action
of gravity. However, when it falls through a metal pipe, in addition to gravity, it
experiences an upward force due to electromagnetic induction. The force is velocity
dependent and increases as the magnet speeds up, leading to a final terminal velocity
of the magnet. We use small coils wound outside the pipe as sensors to locate the
position of the magnet. The experiment can be used to measure acceleration due to
gravity g when a plastic pipe is used and for the metal pipe, it can be used to study
the Lenz’s law. The experiment can also be extended to measure the conductivity of
the material of the metallic pipe.
1.2 The Experiment

1.2.1 Aim of Experiment
1. To measure the velocity of a freely falling magnet through a tube fitted with
sensors (sensor tube).
2. To find out the acceleration due to gravity g from data obtained in step (1).
3. To measure the terminal velocity of a falling magnet thorough a conducting

tube (copper or aluminium) which is kept inside the sensor tube.
4. Calculate conductivity of material of pipe.
5. Calculate current flowing through the pipe due to motion of magnet.
16
1.2. THE EXPERIMENT 17
11
00
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11
00
11 111111
000000 00
11
00
11 v 111111
000000 00
11
00
11 000000 00
111111 11
00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
Coil 11
00
00
11 00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11 00
11 Br
00
11 00
11
dz 00
11 00
11
00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11
B
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11 00
11
00
11
Figure 1.1: Schematic setup for the experiment
Apparatus used
A copper pipe, sensing unit, neodymium magnet, germanium diodes, wires, oscillo-
scope, and a gauss meter.
1.2.2 Theory
The strong magnet falling through a conducting pipe experiences an opposing mag-
netic damping force which gradually increases. If the pipe is long enough, the magnet
eventually reaches a constant terminal speed. The damping force on the magnet
arises from circular currents flowing inside the tube wall known as eddy or Foucault
currents. These eddy currents are generated due to the electromotive force (e.m.f.),
ε, induced in the pipe due to the time variation of the magnetic flux caused by the
motion of magnet inside the tube.
Let us start with a short conductive ring of radius a is moving with velocity v in
a region where non-uniform magnetic field B exists we observe
1. A transient e.m.f. ε is induced in the ring which is given by

Z
ε = v × B · d` = vBr (2πa), (1.1)
where Br is the radial component of the magnetic field, and the integral was
evaluated along the ring.
2. A variable retarding magnetic force F appears on the short ring which opposes
its motion. The axial component Fz opposing the motion of the ring along the
z-axis is given by
Fz = i(` × B)z = 2πiaBr . (1.2)
Now consider the motion of a short and strong cylindrical magnet through a
vertical conducting pipe, whose inner and outer radii are a, and b, respectively, under
gravity. The velocity of magnet is v = vẑ. It is assumed that the magnet axis of
symmetry is always coincident with the vertical pipe symmetry as shown in Fig. 1.1.
The field B due to the magnet can be approximated as being produced by a simple
magnetic dipole. The axial component Bz and the radial component Br of the field
are respectively given by

µ0 µ 2z 2 − r2
Bz = , (1.3)
4π (r2 + z 2 )5/2
3µ0 µzr
Br = . (1.4)
4π(r2 + z 2 )5/2
Inserting Br in Eq. 1.1, we get the induced e.m.f.
3µ0 µzr
ε = v(2πa) . (1.5)
4π(r2 + z 2 )5/2
If σ is the conductivity of the material of the pipe wall and dA denotes the cross-
sectional are of a small ring element of length ` = 2πa, then the conductance of this
ring is given by dC = σdA/`, and the induced current di along such a ring is
σdA
di = εdC = ε = Br vσdA. (1.6)
`
If we denote τ as the thickness of the pipe, the magnetic force dF on the small ring
of height dz is given by
dF = `Br di = (2πa)Br2 σvτ dz (1.7)
or 2
3µ0 µ u2 du
dF = (2πa)σvτ , (1.8)
4πa3 (1 + u2 )5
where we have inserted value of Br from Eq. 1.4 and introduced the new variable u
with z = au. Integrating Eq. 1.8 along the pipe gives the effective retarding force on
the magnet
Z ∞ 2 2
3µ0 µ u2 du 2 3µ0 µ f
F = (2πa)σvτ = (2πa )σvτ , (1.9)
−∞ 4πa3 (1 + u2 )5 4πa3 π
where f is a constant whose value is given by

Z ∞
u2 du 5π
f= 2 5
= . (1.10)
−∞ (1 + u ) 256
We can obtain the force experienced by the falling magnet using Eq. 1.9 if we know
the magnetic moment µ̃ = µ0 µ/4π (in SI units) of the magnet. The magnetic moment
can be obtained by measuring the radial field Br of the magnet (using a Gaussmeter)
as a function of distance r from its axis. 1 If we plot Br as a function of 1/r3 , we get
a straight line with slope µ̃/2. The magnetic drag force on the magnet is given by

45π 2 στ µ̃2
F = v = kv, (1.11)
64a4
1 3
The magnetic magnetic field Br due to a magnetic dipole varies as Br = mu/2r
˜
20
Br (×10−4 Tesla)
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
1/(r 3 ) (m−3 )
Figure 1.2: The radial magnetic field Br (in Tesla) vs 1/r3 (in m−3 ) for the magnet.
The slope of the line gives the magnetic moment µ̃/2.
where
45π 2 στ µ̃2
k= , (1.12)
64a4
is the magnetic drag constant. When the magnetic drag force becomes equal to the
weight mg of the magnet, the magnet attains a terminal velocity vT given by
mg
vT = . (1.13)
k
In deriving Eq. (1.11) it was assumed that the thickness of the pipe is much smaller
than the pipe’s inner radius a, i.e., τ a. If we consider a pipe of finite thickness
τ = b − a, where b is the external radii of the pipe. A tube of infinitesimal thickness
da exerts on the falling magnet an infinitesimal force dF given by Eq. (1.11),

45π 2 σv µ̃2
dF = da. (1.14)
64a4
Integrating across the wall, i.e., from a to b, we get

Z b
45π 2 σv µ̃2 0 45π 2 σv µ̃2 1 1
F = da = − . (1.15)
a 64a0 4 64 · 3 a3 b 3
Introducing the thickness parameter λ defined so that b = λa, the above equation
becomes
45π 2 σv µ̃2 a 1
F = 1− 3 . (1.16)
64a4 3 λ
It is therefore useful to define the effective thickness τ 0 of the cylindrical wall as

0 a 1
τ = 1− 3 (1.17)
3 λ
Now replacing the thickness τ by τ 0 in Eq. (1.12) we get the magnetic drag constant
as
45π 2 στ µ̃2 a 1
k= 1− 3 . (1.18)
64a4 3 λ
This value of k should be used in Eq. (1.13) to obtain the terminal velocity.
Experiment 2
Black body radiation and Stefan’s

law using an incandescent tungsten
lamp
2.1 Introduction
Black body radiation experiments are slightly tricky to set-up in an undergraduate
Physics laboratory owing to the requirement that the object under study needs to
be at very high temperatures (T > 103 K). In addition, such an object needs to be
isolated from the environment to prevent oxidation. The incandescent lamps, either
gas filled or having vacuum inside, provide a very convenient source of black body
radiation. In this experiment we will use a lamp with vacuum inside it.
2.2 The Experiment

2.2.1 Aim
The aim of the experiment is:
1. To study the variation of total power radiated by the lamp with temperature.
2. To investigate if this source follows the Stefan’s law.
3. To what extent this source emulate black body.
2.2.2 Circuit Diagram

The setup designed to provide all the requirements is shown in Fig. 2.1 (Left) while
the connection diagram for the experiment is shown in Fig. 2.1(Right). The lamp
is connected to a variable power supply through an ammeter. The voltmeter is con-
nected parallel to the lamp.
21
+ Voltmeter −
+
+ Ammeter −
Figure 2.1: Left: The experimental setup. Right: The connections required for the
experiment.
2.2.3 Theory
We know that an object at an elevated temperature T radiates energy which we can
feel also if the temperature is significantly higher than the environment. The Power P
radiated by such an object is give by the following relation called Stefan-Boltzmann
Equation:
P = σAeT 4 , (2.1)
where, P is the power or the rate at which energy is radiated by the source, σ =
5.6696 × 10−8 W m−2 K −4 is a constant called Stefan’s constant, A is the surface of ra-
diating object, T is the temperature in Kelvin and e is the emissivity and is considered
constant with temperature. For a perfect black body e = 1.
The following assumptions are being made for this experiment:
1. The loss of heat due to conduction is negligible. This is because the lamp used
in this experiment contains a filament in an evacuated chamber.
2. The loss of heat through the wires connecting the filament is assumed to be
negligible. This means that all of the energy supplied by the battery is radiated
as heat.
3. The filament is considered perfect black body with emissivity e = 1.
Taking logarithm of Eq. 2.1 we get
log(P ) = log(σA) + log(T 4 ). (2.2)
Since we have considered that all the electrical energy supplied to the lamp is
radiated, the power radiated can be obtained from the V − I data of the lamp as
P = V I. Where I is the current through the lamp and V is the potential difference
across it. If we are able to obtain T , then we can plot log(P ) vs log(T ) with the
following observations
1. The slope of graph will allow us to validate the Stefan-Boltzmann Equation.

The expected value of slope is 4.
2. The graph allows the measurement of log(σA).

3. If A can be estimated the above measurement will allow to us estimate σ.

Except power, P , the other variables will be obtained indirectly using V − I data.
2.2.4 Procedure
The experimental measurements are divided into two parts:
1. Measurement of V − I data at high temperatures and calculation of required
quantities.
2. Measurement of lamp filament resistance at room temperature.
Measurement of Resistance and calculation of Resistivity at different Tem-

peratures
We know that the resistance of a metal varies with temperature as
Rt = R0 (1 + αt) (2.3)
Where R0 is the resistance at 0 ◦ C and Rt resistance at t ◦ C. For temperatures t1 and

t2 , the Eq. 2.3 can be written as
Rt1 = R0 (1 + αt1 ), (2.4a)

and
Rt2 = R0 (1 + αt2 ). (2.4b)
Dividing Eq. 2.4b by Eq. 2.4a we get
Rt2 (1 + αt2 )
= . (2.5)
Rt1 (1 + αt1 )
The Rt1 is the value of lamp resistance at room temperature t1 . The temperature
coefficient of resistance α for tungsten is 0.0045/◦ C. The temperature t1 is known
(through measurement). Rt2 is the value of resistance obtained from the V − I data.
Remember that you are not to find resistance from V −I graph, but calculate individ-
ual values using R = V /I (Why?). Once the values of Rt2 representing the resistance
measured at different temperatures are known, the resistivity corresponding to those
resistance values can be calculated, which in turn allow us to obtain temperature
values from the standard data.
Calculation of Resistivity
We know that the resistance R of a conductor is given by
`
R=ρ , (2.6)
a
where ` is the length of the conductor and a is its are of the cross section. In our case,
the conductor is a filament (which is usually a cylindrical coil for large and a wire for
S. No. Voltage V Current I Resistance Rt Resistivity ρt Temperature T
Table 2.1: Sample table for the calculation of temperature.
small filaments). The factor `/a is usually constant over a temperature range. Let us
take `/a = k, then from Eq. 2.6, we get
R
k= . (2.7)
ρ
Remember that Rt1 is the resistance at room temperature t1 . We will set R = Rt1
and Rt = Rt2 . Similarly ρ = ρt1 and ρt = ρt2 . For tungsten ρ = 5.6 × 10−8 ohm-m at
20◦ C. This value of k allows us to calculate ρt at different temperatures
Rt
ρt = . (2.8)
k
Calculation of Temperature
Equation 2.5 can be written as
ρt (1 + αt)
= . (2.9)
ρ (1 + α 20)
In Eq. 2.9, ρt , ρ and α are known, and for the room temperature the value of ρ at
20◦ C can be used. From Eq. 2.9 we get

1 ρt
t= (1 + 20α) − 1 . (2.10)
α ρ
Equation 2.10 yields temperature values in ◦ C which needs to be converted to Kelvin

and tabulated as shown in Table. 2.1.
Measurement of lamp filament resistance at room temperature

This part needs more attention. The most convenient way is using V −I data, but even
very small values of current through filament can raise its temperature significantly
so as to change its resistance by a considerable amount. Using lower potential ensures
very small amount of power dissipation in the filament, so that filament temperature
does not increase and its resistance remains constant over the range of measurement.
The preferable current range is µA, therefore, voltage range should be kept very small
(mV). It is recommended that the measured resistance be marked on the lamps and if
R1
+
11
00
AA
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11 AA
−
R2
mV
Figure 2.2: Connections for millivolt power source to measure the resistance of the
bulb at room temperature.
available previously marked lamps can be used. Such low voltage supplies are usually
not available in the lab. To work at such low voltages your supply should be very
clean with no ripples. Best option is to use two AA size batteries with a holder
and potential divider arrangement as shown in Fig. 2.2. Alternatively a good quality
multimeter can be used to measure the filament resistance using the Ohm range (the
requirement here is the current during this measurement should not be more than
couple of hundred µA ).
2.2.5 Representation of Data

The following graphs needs to be plotted
1. V vs I for high temperatures.
2. V vs I for millivolt data (if acquired).
3. log(P ) vs log(T ) for high temperatures.
Calculate the slope of log(P ) vs log(T ). Ideally the slope should be 4. Measure
intercept from the same graph to find log(σA). Look at the lamp and see if you can
optically estimate the length ` of the filament. If ` can be measured, it will allow us
to calculate cross-sectional area of the coil using Eq. 2.6. Using this data the surface
area of the filament can be estimated, which in turn can be used to estimate σ using
log(σA) calculated from the intercept or alternatively effective area of the coil can be
estimated using value of σ.
The plot of V − I characteristics at high temperatures and the plot of log(P ) vs
log(T ) obtained for the experiment are shown in the left and right panels of Fig. 2.3,
respectively.
References
1. B. S. N. Prasad and Rita Mascarenhas, Am.J.Phys. 46, 420 (1978).
2. I. R. Edmonds, Am.J.Phys. 36, 845 (1968).

0.5
0.75
0.45 (3.94*x)-12.63
0.092*x**0.61+0.012 Log(T) vs Log(P) Plot
V-I data at high temperature 0.5
0.4
0.25
0.35
0.3
-0.25
Current A
Log(P)
0.25
-0.5
0.2
-0.75
0.15
-1
0.1
0.05 -1.25
0 -1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
Voltage V Log(T)
Figure 2.3: Left panel: V-I characteristics at high temperatures. Right panel: The
plot of log(P ) vs log(T ).
3. D. H. Jaecks and R. Du Bois, Am.J.Phys. 40, 1179 (1972).

Experiment 3
Random Sampling of an AC source
3.1 The Experiment

3.1.1 Aim
The aim of the experiment is to perform random sampling of an AC source using a
capacitor and use the obtained data to study the following
1. Plotting the probability distribution of mathematical function V = V0 sin(ωt)
and comparing it with the observed distribution.
2. Study the effect of sampled data size on the probability distribution by taking
(a) 100 observations,
(b) 500 observations,
and comparing them.
3. Study the effect of bin size on the probability distribution by plotting the same
set of data with different bin sizes and comparing them.
4. Reconstructing the sinusoidal waveform using the information recovered from
the random data in this experiment.
5. Plotting the probability distribution of the square wave and compare the result
with the sine wave.
Apparatus
A capacitor (nonpolar) 50-100 µF /25V, a DC voltmeter (preferably peak reading), a
low frequency AC source (a step down transformer 0-6V), a DPDT switch.
3.1.2 Circuit diagram

The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.1.
27
3.2. PROCEDURE 28
Digtal dc Voltmeter
DVM
S1
Capacitor
DPDT
ac Source
Figure 3.1: Circuit Schematic
3.2 Procedure
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.1.
2. Switch on the power.
3. Using the toggle switch S1 connect the capacitor to the AC source.
4. Toggle the switch S1 to disconnect the capacitor from ac source and connect
it to the digital voltmeter. The following precautions should be taken while
taking voltage readings
• If a peak reading voltmeter is connected, note down the final reading of

the display.
• If any simple digital multimeter is connected then note down the maximum
which appears on the display.
• The input impedance of the meter should be ≥ 1MΩ.
5. Repeat the procedure in step 3 and 4 to get a data set preferably 500 observa-
tions.
3.2.1 Data Analysis

Let us analyse the data obtained in the previous step. The first step is to obtain the
distribution function n(V ), which is defined as the number of times the measurement
of V results in a value between V and V + ∆V .
Distribution Function
To obtain n(V ), we need to bin the data. Let us assume that in a particular set the
maximum and minimum voltage measured are 8.0 V and -8.0 V. Take V along the
x-axis. We will divide the whole range in a number of bins as follows:
• Let us take 1 V = 1 cm on the graph paper. Using this scale create bins of
width 1 V from −8.0V to +8.0V .
3.2. PROCEDURE 29
−8.0 −7.0 −6.0 −5.0 −4.0 −3.0 −2.0 −1.0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Figure 3.2: Binning data
• Place each data point into its respective bin, i.e., the reading 4.8 will be marked
in the bin between 4.0 and 5.0.
• The data on the graph paper will look like Fig. 3.2, where every cross represents
a measured value.
The corresponding probability distribution of values of V , denoted by P (V ), is

given by
n(V )
P (V )∆V ≡ , (3.1)
N
where N represents the total number of times the voltage is measured. For a sine
wave, the probability distribution P (V ) is given by
1
P (V ) = p 2 , (3.2)
π (V0 − V 2 )
where V0 is the peak value of the voltage.
Plotting the waveform

From Eq. 3.1, the distribution function n(V ) can be written as
n(V ) = N P (V )dV, (3.3)
where we have changed ∆V to differential dV . The accumulated frequency of events

up to a voltage V can then be obtained by integrating Eq. 3.3
Z V
N −1 V
NV = N P (V )dV = sin , (3.4)
0 π V0
Where V0 is the measured peak value of the applied voltage. For discrete bins of size
∆V , the integration is replaced by sum over bins,
X X
NV = n(V ) = N P (V )∆V.
In other words, by a cumulative process of adding the frequencies in bins, starting

from the bin V = 0 to the bin V = V , we recover the sine wave. Inverting Eq. 3.3 we
3.2. PROCEDURE 30
0.25
Normalized n(V) 10
P (V ) = p 1
0.2
V = V0 sin (πNV /N )
π V02 −V 2
8
0.15
6
nv
0.1
4
0.05 2
Re overed waveform
0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
V NV
Figure 3.3: Left: Comparison of theoretical and experimental data. Right: The plot
of NV vs V = V0 sin (πNV /N ) which represents one fourth of the recovered waveform.
get π
V = V0 sin NV , (3.5)
N
with
k
X
NV = ni (V ) (3.6)
i=1
where k represents the kth voltage bin. The voltage points can be calculated from the
following expression !
k
π X
Vk = V0 sin ni (V ) . (3.7)
N i=1
Note that the data from which voltage points are recovered is random. Therefore,
the time relation of these data points and hence the frequency of waveform cannot be
determined.
Sample calculations
A sample set of data with peak value V0 = 10 volts and a set of positive values (157
data points) is shown in Table 3.1. The total number of data points (by taking similar
number of negative values also) are therefore N = 2 × 157 = 314. A comparison
of theoretical probability distribution and experimental observation is shown in the
Left panel of Fig. 3.3. In the Right panel, we have shown the plot of NV vs V =
V0 sin (πNV /N ) which represents a one fourth of the recovered sine waveform.
References
1. Arvind, P. S. Chandi, R. C. Singh, D. Indumathi and R. Shankar, Am. J. Phys.
72, 76 (2004).
3.2. PROCEDURE 31
πNv

S.No Bin n(V) NV V = V0 sin N
1 0.0 0 0 0
2 0.0-0.5 5 5 0.5
3 0.5-1.0 5 10 1.0
4 1.0-1.5 5 15 1.49
5 1.5-2.0 5 20 1.99
6 2.0-2.5 5 25 2.47
7 2.5-3.0 5 30 2.96
8 3.0-3.5 6 36 3.52
9 3.5-4.0 5 41 3.99
10 4.0-4.5 6 47 4.53
11 4.5-5.0 5 52 4.97
12 5.0-5.5 6 58 5.48
13 5.5-6.0 6 64 5.97
14 6.0-6.5 7 71 6.52
15 6.5-7.0 7 78 7.03
16 7.0-7.5 7 85 7.51
17 7.5-8.0 8 93 8.02
18 8.0-8.5 9 102 8.52
19 8.5-9.0 10 112 9.00
20 9.0-9.5 13 125 9.49
21 9.5-10.0 32 157 10.00
Table 3.1: A sample table with set of positive voltage readings.

Experiment 4
Magnetic moment in the magnetic

field
Mohammad Aslam and Soumyadip Halder
4.1 The Experiment

4.1.1 Aim
The aim of the experiment is to determine the torque due to a magnetic moment in
a uniform magnetic field, as a function of
1. The strength of the magnetic field,
2. The angle between the magnetic field in the magnetic moment,
3. The strength of the magnetic moment.
4.1.2 Apparatus used

Pair of Helmholtz coils, conductors circular set, torsion dynamometer 0.01 N, coil
holder, power supply var. 15 VAC/12 VDC/5 A, Support rod -PASS-, square, l 630
mm.
4.2 Theory
The Helmholtz coil provides uniform magnetic field at the centre. If a current carrying
loop is placed at the centre, such a way that the loop contains non zero flux then
there will be a torque on the loop. This torque will rotate the loop until balanced by
the torque, generated from the metallic band of torsion dynamometer. The value of
torque can be read from the reading of torsion dynamometer.
If a current I is passed through a closed loop of area A it produces a magnetic
moment m ~
m ~
~ = I A, (4.1)
32
4.3. PROCEDURE 33
Figure 4.1: Pair of Helmholtz Coil
whose direction is along the direction of the area vector A.~ If this current carrying
~
loop is kept in a uniform magnetic field with flux density B, it experiences the torque
τ given by
τ =m ~ × B.~ (4.2)
~ and the magnetic field B
If the angle between the area vector A ~ is φ (as shown in
Fig. 4.1), then
τ = BIA sin φ. (4.3)
The magnetic field B is given by B = cIH , where c and IH are the Helmholtz coil
constant and the current through the Helmholtz coil, respectively. The torque is thus
given by
τ = cIH IA sin φ. (4.4)
The above equation shows that, the torque τ is directly proportional to
• current IH in the Helmholtz coil,
• current I in the coil,
~ and magnetic field B.
• Sine of angle between the area vector A ~
4.3 Procedure
The connections are shown in Fig. 4.2.
1. First connect the Helmholtz coils in the series so that the current flowing
through the coils are same.
2. Check the conductor coil circuit. Make sure that all the connections are closed.
3. Set the zero position of the torque reading, imprinted on the torsional dyna-
monmeter by rotating the force indication knob [See Fig. 4.2 (point 8)].
4.3. PROCEDURE 34
1. Zero setting knob
2. Zero indication for lever arms
3. Suspension system
4. Lever arm
5. Protective tube for lever arms
6. Eddy current attenuation, shortens

setting time
7. Rod for holding with standard

support material
8. Force indication knob
Figure 4.2: Experimental set-up for determining the torque due to a magnetic moment
in the magnetic field.
4. Set the lever arms [See Fig. 4.2 (point 4)] of the suspension system [See Fig. 4.2
(point 3)] to the zero position by rotating the zero setting knob [See Fig. 4.2
(point 1)]. The zero position for the lever arms [See Fig. 4.2 (point 4)] is
imprinted as the zero indication for lever arms [See Fig. 4.2 (point 2)] on sus-
pension system. Make sure that the metal band has the position for minimum
torque.
In the whole experimental procedure the torque, τ , has to be measured with

respect to the variables IH , I, and φ. Out of these three variable, keep any of the
two constant and make the table of the readings of τ for the different values of the
third variable. Hence, three tables are to be formed. Plot three graphs and do the
data fitting using least square method. Also obtain the Helmholtz coil constant c.
4.3.1 Precautions
The following precautions need to be taking while doing the experiment
1. The currunt should be varied very slowly.
2. The current in the Helmholtz coil must not exceed 3 Amperes and the current
in the inductor coil must not exceed 4.5 Amperes.
3. Better result should be achieved for smaller angles of torsion.

Experiment 5
Biot Savart law
Leena Aggarwal and Shekhar Das
5.1 Introduction
In 1820, Hans Cristian Oersted, a Danish scientist, observed that a compass needle
gets deflected when an electric current from a battery was switched on and off. He
found that when an electric current flows through a wire, it produces a circular mag-
netic field. This discovery provided the first link between electricity and magnetism.
In the same year Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart obtained an equation describing
the magnetic field generated by an electric current which relates the magnetic field to
the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. This equation
is now known as Biot-Savart‘s law.
5.2 The Experiment

5.2.1 Aim
The aim of this experiment is
1. To verify Biot-Savart’s law by showing that magnetic field produced is directly

proportional to the current passed in a coil.
2. To determine the variation of magnetic field with the distance from the center
of the coil at a constant current in air.
3. To compare the magnetic fields at the center of coils with different diameters
by passing same current and show that the field at the center is inversely pro-
portional to the radius of the coil.
5.2.2 Apparatus used

Optical bench, set of circular loops with holders, power supply 0 − 30 V DC, 0 − 20 A,
Gauss meter with axial probe, leads, saddle with micrometer. The apparatus is shown
35
5.3. THEORY 36
Figure 5.1: Apparatus used for the study of Biot-Savart‘s law.
in Fig. 5.1. The existence of magnetic field lines can be studied for a current carrying
conductor of any shape. The conductor can be an infinite long wire, a circular loop
or a cylindrical coil. In this experiment, we will be using circular loops of different
diameter. A current is passed through the loop and the magnetic field is measured
by using a digital gauss meter.
5.3 Theory
~ of a wire carrying a steady current I as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Consider a small element ds
The magnitude of magnetic field dB ~ at point P due to this small current element
should be proportional to the following factors:

 ~ ~
I ds the strength of the current I and the length of the element ds.
dB~ ∝ 1/r2 inverse square of the distance from the center of the wire to point P


sin θ angle between ds~ and r.
Therefore,the magnetic field dB ~ produced

at point P by a small current element ds ~
of a wire carrying current I is given by
~ × r̂
µ0 I ds
~ =
dB , (5.1)
4πr3
where µ0 /4π = 10−7 TmA−1 . Figure 5.2: A current carrying wire
The magnitude of the field is given by
µ0 Ids sin θ
dB = , (5.2)
4πr2
~ which indicates the direction of the current, and
where θ is the angle between ds,
~r. The total field B due to the entire current distribution of wire is obtained by
5.3. THEORY 37
Figure 5.3: The element Id~l of the circular loop of current sets up a field B
~ at point
P on the axis of the loop.
~
integrating over all current elements I ds.
Z Z
µ0 Ids sinθ
B = dB = . (5.3)
4π r2
5.3.1 Biot-Savart‘s law for the circular current loop

Consider a circular loop or radius R carrying current I as shown in Fig. 5.3. Let us
~ at point P on the axis of loop at a distance x from the
calculate the magnetic field B
~ can be resolved into two components
center of the loop. The dB
~ k along the axis of loop,
(i) dB
~ ⊥ , at right angle to the axis.
(ii) dB
Only dB~ k component contributes to the total magnetic field at point P because
the component dB~ k for all current elements lie on the axis and add up directly, where
as the component dB ~ ⊥ point in different directions perpendicular to the axis, and
~ ⊥ for the complete loop is zero, from the symmetry consideration.
the sum of all dB
Therefore, the vector integral over all dB~ is equal to an integral over the parallel
components only. The magnitude of the field is given by
Z
~ k, µ0 Ids cos φ
B = dB with dB~k = dB cos φ = , (5.4)
4πr2
where we have used Eq. 5.2. From Fig 5.3, we have
√ R R
r= R 2 + x2 cos φ = =√ .
r R 2 + x2
Putting these values in Eq. 5.4 we get
Z Z
~k= µ0 IR
B = dB 3 ds
4π(R2 + x2 ) 2
5.4. PROCEDURE 38
µ0 IR2
= 3 , (5.5)
2 (R2 + x2 ) 2
R
where ds = 2πR, is the circumference of the loop.
Special Cases
1. For magnetic field at the center of the loop, i.e., substituting r = R in Eq. 5.5
we get Z
µ0 I µ0 I
B= 2
ds = . (5.6)
4πR 2R
2. If the distance of point P is much larger than the radius of the loop (i.e., x R).
The magnetic field is given by
µ0 IR2
B= . (5.7)
2x3
5.4 Procedure
• Mount the circular conductor and hall probe holder on the optical bench.
• Mount the conductor loop on the holder.
• Mount the axial Hall probe in the holder for Hall probe. Align the Hall probe
towards the center of the circular conductor.
• Adjust the zero of the digital Gauss meter. It must be zero when no current is
passed through the conductor.
• Increase the current in steps of 2 A. Wait a minute after each increment to

stabilize the magnetic field. Then note down the corresponding magnetic field
value.
• Maximum current limit is 20 Amps for 0 − 3V power supply.
• At I = 20A, move the Hall probe and measure the magnetic field as a function
of x.
• Repeat the same steps for another circular loops with different diameter.
5.4.1 Experimental observations

Tabulate the observations as given below
1. Magnetic field B of a coil as a function of current I

5.5. PRECAUTIONS 39
Sr. Circular conductor of dia 40 Circular conductor of dia 80 Circular conductor of dia 120
no. mm mm mm
I (A) B (G) I (A) B (G) I (A) B (G)
2. Magnetic field B of a coil as a function of axial distance x
5.4.2 Results
The results are plotted in Fig. 5.4.
• Fig. 5.4(a) shows a linear dependence of magnetic field B on the current I

flowing through the circular loop (i.e., B ∝ I).
• Fig. 5.4(b) shows the variation of magnetic field with the axial distance x from
the center of the loop. It also compares the magnetic field at the center of the
coils of different diameters (40, 80, and 120 mm) when a current I = 20 A flows
through them.
Further analysis: Calculate the magnetic field B at the center of each coil using the
data obtained, and show that B is inversely proportional to the radius of the coil.
5.5 Precautions
• Set all the knobs of the current source at zero before turning on or off the
system.
• Hall probe should align at the center of the circular loop.
• At zero current, Gauss meter should show zero value.
• Do not pass current for long time. It may cause connection problem due to over
heating.
• Wait for few minutes to stabilize the magnetic field during each measurement.
• Repeat steps 1-13 times for each coil to check the reproducibility.
5.5. PRECAUTIONS 40
8 7
40 mm 120 mm
7 80 mm 6 80 mm
120 mm 40 mm
6
5
5
4
B (G)
B (G)
4 (a) (b)
3
3
2
2
1 1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
I (A) x ( m)
Figure 5.4: (a) Magnetic field B as a function of current I, and (b) Magnetic field B
as a function of distance x from the center for circular loops of various diameters as
indicated. The points are experimental observations and the solid lines are the best
fit to the data by a straight line y = mx + c and using Eq. (5.5) for (a) and (b),
respectively.
Experiment 6
Studying electromagnetic
induction using a magnet & a coil
Sudhanshu Shekhar Chaurasia and Jyotsana Ojha
6.1 The Experiment

6.1.1 Aim
The aim of the experiment is to help you understand the phenomenon of induced emf
in a circuit caused by change of magnetic flux in the circuit. The experimental setup
we have in our lab is designed by Prof. Babulal Saraf.
6.1.2 Basic setup

The setup consist of a magnet mounted on an arc of a semi-circle of radius say R0 as
shown in Fig. 6.1. The arc is rigid aluminium frame suspended at the center so that
whole frame can oscillate freely in its plane. The position of weights on the diagonal
arm can be altered in order to vary the period of oscillations. A coil has been wound
around the arc so that the magnet can pass freely through the coil. The amplitude
of swing can be read from the arc graduations. When the magnet moves through
and out of the coil, the flux of the magnetic field through the coil changes, inducing
an emf. The magnetic flux and the induced emf can be observed by connecting and
oscilloscope to the coil.
6.2 Theory
The Faraday’s second law tells us that the induced emf e is proportional to the rate
of change of flux φ and the direction of this emf opposes the change in flux that
produced it. Mathematically, this can be written as
dφ
e=− . (6.1)
dt
41
6.2. THEORY 42
The induced emf pulse e through the coil as a function of time t as observed using
oscilloscope is plotted in Fig. 6.2.
Figure 6.1: A magnet attached to

an oscillating system passes through a
coil periodically, generating a series of Figure 6.2: Plot of induced emf pulse
emf pulses. e through the coil with time t.
6.2.1 Measuring induced emf

The basic idea is to charge a capacitor through a diode and measure the voltage
developed across the capacitor. If the charging time RC (where R is the resistance
used plus the coil resistance and the forward resistance of the diode) is larger than
the time of generation of emf in the coil, the capacitor does not charge up to the peak
value in a single swing but takes around 10 oscillations to do so. When the charging
current ceases to flow in the galvanometer, the capacitor has been charged to the
peak value of the emf.
6.2.2 Measuring emf as a function of velocity

As the magnet starts far away from the coil, moves through it and recedes, the field
through the coil changes from a small value, increases to maximum and then becomes
small again. Moreover, the speed of the magnet is largest when it approaches the coil.
The magnetic field thus changes quite slowly with time when the magnet is far away
and rapidly as it approaches the coil. The flux varies similarly with time (since only
a constant ’effective area’ i.e the product of number of turns and area of the coil,
relates φ and B).
The induced emf is proportional to dφ/dt and is negative when φ is increasing and
positive when φ is decreasing. This variation of induced emf with time is plotted as a
sequence of two ”pulses”. Consider the effect of these pulses on the charging circuit.
The diode will conduct only during the positive pulse. R At the first half-swing, the
1
capacitor charges up to a potential e1 given by RC e(t)dt. During the next half-
swing, the diode will cutoff until the positive pulse reaches e1 and then capacitor will
charge up to a slightly a higher value say e2 and so on, in a few oscillations, the
capacitor will be charged up to the peak value e0 of the voltage pulse. This will be
indicated by the fact that the galvanometer stops showing any kicks.
6.2. THEORY 43
The induced emf can be written down as

dφ dφ dθ
|e| = = ·
dt dθ dt
The term dφ/dθ depends on magnet and coil geometry. The second term dθ/dt is
deduced from the oscillation equation
2πt dθ 2πθ0 2πt
θ = θ0 sin , which gives = cos .
T dt T T
The peak voltage e0 corresponds to (dφ/dt)max . Since the cosine term does not differ
much from 1 for angles close to 2nπ,

dφ dφ 2πθ0
|e0 | = ≈ (6.2)
dt max dθ max T
Repeat experiments for different swing amplitudes θ0 and see if e0 is proportional
to θ0 . Slide the weights and change T and repeat for different values of T . Check of
e0 is proportional to 1/T . Plot the observed emf e0 against the maximum velocity
( 2πθ
T
0
× R0 ).
6.2.3 Studying charge delivered due to induction

When the charging time (RC) of the capacitor is large compared with the pulse width,
the charge collected in one positive pulse is
Z Z
1 t 1
q1 = e(t)dt = − dφ
R 0 R
The positive pulse corresponds to φ changing from the maximum to zero which leads
to
φmax
q1 = (6.3)
R
φmax
V1 = (6.4)
RC
The diode allows the capacitor to charge only for positive pulse. Arranging two
sets of charging circuits so that one capacitor charges up on the positive pulse and
the other on the negative pulse.
6.2.4 Studying electromagnetic damping

In the experiments considered so far, we have neglected the damping of oscillations.
There are many reasons for damping, for example, the air resistance, the friction at
the point of suspension etc. However, the most important and interesting source is
the induced emf in the coil. The direction of the induced emf always opposes the
change causing it (Lenz’s law). In this experiment it is the motion of the magnet
6.3. PROCEDURE 44
which induces the emf. Therefore, the induced current flows in the coil in such a way
that it opposes the motion of the magnet. Since the velocity of the magnet changes
after each oscillation and so is the energy dissipation. If En is energy of the system
after n oscillations, then
En En
=a which gives = an .
En−1 E0
As the energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude, we have
r
θn En
= = an/2 . (6.5)
θ0 E0
6.3 Procedure
Measurement of emf
1. Design the circuit as shown in Fig. 6.3 (Left).
2. Fix the masses at a specific length, for that particular length note the value
of peak voltage at different angles(θ0 ). Repeat this for 4-5 different values of
lengths.
3. When the magnet goes through the coil, magnetic flux changes and emf in-
duced which causes the deflection in galvanometer and charging of the capacitor.
When the capacitor is fully charged, the galvanometer stops showing deflection,
then press the switch to know the peak voltage on the voltmeter.
4. Now keep pressing the button until the voltmeter shows zero.
5. For a particular time period of oscillation(T ), plot peak voltage(e) vs angle (θ0 ).
6. For a particular value of deflection angle(θ0 ), plot peak voltage(e) vs. 1/T .
Figure 6.3: (Left) Schematic diagram of circuit. (Right) Schematic diagram of circuit
for charge comparison due to both positive and negative induced emf pulses.
6.4. REFERENCE 45
Charge delivered due to induction

1. Arrange things in the circuit such that RC is large and find the voltage acquired
by the capacitor in different number of positive pulses. Check if the relation (6.4)
for V holds and see if acquired voltage is proportional to the number of positive
pulses. (What is the condition under which this will be valid ?).
2. The diode allows the capacitor to charge only for positive pulse. Arrange two
sets of charging circuits as shown in Fig. 6.3(Right) so that one capacitor charges
up on the positive pulse and the other on the negative pulse. Verify that the
charges on the capacitors are nearly the same.
3. If you stop the oscillations (by hand) after a quarter oscillation (from the ex-
treme position of magnet to its mean position), only one capacitor charges up.
Try and find out if the sign of induced emf is as according to Faraday’s law.
Electromagnetic damping
1. First keep the coil open circuited and plot log θn as a function of n.
2. Do the same with a short circuited coil and also with a finite load such as 1k
resistor. Finally try a big capacitor as a load. At each swing, the capacitor keeps
charging up and the energy has to be supplied to build up this energy. Plot all
the experimental data on the same graph and interpret the plots obtained.
6.4 Reference
1. A. Singh, Y. N. Mohapatra, and S. Kumar, Am. J. Phys. 70, 424 (2002).
Experiment 7
Capacitance of metal spheres
Rajeev Kapri
7.1 The Experiment

7.1.1 Aim
The aim of this experiment is to determine the capacitance of metal spheres of dif-
ferent diameters. The basic principle is to charge the metal spheres of different radii
by means of a variable voltage. The induced charges on the conductor are deter-
mined with a measuring amplifier. The corresponding capacitances are deduced from
voltage and charge values.
7.1.2 Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a high voltage (kV) power supply, metal spheres with
different diameters, an amplifier, an auxiliary capacitor, a voltmeter, BNC connector
and connecting cables. The experimental set-up to determine the capacitance of
spherical conductors is shown in Fig. 7.1.
7.2 Theory
If a spherical conductor with capacitance Cco is connected to a charging voltage V1
(in kV), the charge Q accumulated on the conductor is given by
Q = Cco V1 . (7.1)
When this charged conductor is connected in parallel to an auxiliary capacitor of a

known capacitance Cca , the total capacitance of the circuit becomes (Cco + Cca ) and
the same charge Q flows in it. If the voltmeter connected to the circuit measures
a voltage V2 (in volts), which were determined by means of a measuring amplifier
having amplification factor A, we have
Q = (Cco + Cca )V2 . (7.2)
46
7.3. PROCEDURE 47
Test sphere
Conducting
High voltage Sphere
power supply
Electrometer & Amplifier
Auxiliary
Capacitor
Voltmeter
Earth connecting
cable BNC Connector
Figure 7.1: Experimental set-up to determine the capacitance of conduction spheres.
The capacitance of the conductor Cco is in pF, is much less than the capacitance of
the auxiliary capacitor Cca (10 nF), i.e., Cco Cca . Therefore, we can approximate
Eq. 7.2 by
Q ≈ Cca V2 , (7.3)
without introducing much error. Equating Eqs. 7.1 and 7.3, we get
V2 Cco
= . (7.4)
V1 Cca
Which means that if we plot V2 as a function of V1 , we get a straight line whose slope
will be Cco /Cca , which can be obtained by data fitting. Since the value of Cca is given,
we can calculate the capacitance of the conductor.
Theoretically, the capacitance C of a sphere of radius R is given by
C = 4π0 R, (7.5)
where 0 = 8.86 × 10−12 F·m−1 (Farads per meter) is called the vacuum permittivity,
permittivity of free space or electric constant.
7.3 Procedure
1. The two spheres are held on a barrel base and insulated against the latter.
Separate them from each other by approximately 1 meter. Refer Fig. 7.1 for
connections.
2. Connect the smaller sphere by means of the high voltage cord over the 10 MΩ
protective resistor to the positive pole of the 10 kV output of the high voltage
power supply. The negative pole is earthed.
3. Ground both the spheres. Let both the electrometer and power supply be in
switched off position.
7.4. RESULTS 48
4. Turn on the power supply and let adjust the knob to set the desired voltage.
Keep the test sphere grounded and the electrometer off while the smaller sphere
charges for some time.
5. Remove the earthing cable from the test (bigger) sphere and the small sphere
is briefly brought into contact with the test spheres to charge it. High voltage
always must be reset to zero after charging.
6. Connect the test (bigger) sphere to the electrometer using the BNC connector
provided.
7. Connect the voltmeter to the output of the electrometer and measure the voltage
across the auxiliary capacitor with capacitance Cca = 10nF which is connected
in parallel to the BNC connector.
8. Repeat steps 3 and above by increasing the charging voltage by 1 kV.
7.4 Results
• Obtain and plot the data of V2 (in volts) as a function of V1 (in kV) for metal
spheres of various diameters.
• Fit the data to obtain the slope. Find the capacitance of the conductor by using
Eq. 7.4 and the value of the slope.
• Compare the experimentally obtained conductance with the theoretical value

given by Eq. 7.5.
7.5 Precautions
• The power supply and the electrometer have internal circuits that can lead to
induction of charges and may affect the readings.
• Remember that you are working with a high voltage power supply. So be careful
while operating it.
Experiment 8
Study of Parallel Plate Capacitor

using AC source

Experiment : Measure capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor using AC signal and
study the following.
1. The variation of capacitance with distance between the plates
2. The variation of capacitance with area of the plates
3. Measure dielectric constant of two different materials
4. Verify the relations for the combination of dielectrics
(a) For parallel combination of dielectrics.

(b) For series combination of dielectrics.
5. Study of edge effects
8.1 Introduction
Electrostatics is one of the fundamental topics in physics and capacitance as a phe-
nomenon and capacitor as a device are important tools to study. A parallel plate
capacitor is introduced very early on in physics courses, however most students do
not get to work with an actual parallel plate capacitor in a lab. To quantify various
factors affecting the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is a difficult task in an
undergraduate laboratory due to the small capacities of reasonably sized capacitors.
To study a parallel plate capacitor using a DC source requires either very large plates
or a very high voltage source (of the order of 10 kV or more). Most methods cur-
rently used in physics teaching laboratories to measure capacitance involve charge
measuring devices such as electrometers, and usually involve high potentials. Most
49
8.2. THEORY 50
of these devices are expensive and commercial and do not allow the possibility of
student tinkering.
8.2 Theory
In this experiment the properties of a parallel plate capacitor are demonstrated by
using an AC source so that we do not require large plates or high voltage DC sources.
The AC source is a low potential AC signal is used. A capacitor when connected
to an AC source allows current to pass through it, the magnitude of which depends
upon the value of capacitance and the frequency involved. The experimental setup
used consists of a resistor connected in series to the parallel plate capacitor and an
AC signal is applied across the circuit. The potential developed across the resistor is
measured and capacitance is calculated from it. The capacitor itself is configured out
of off the shelf material. The plates are formed using aluminum foil fixed on plastic
sheet.
Block Diagram
Peak Detector Digital

C
Multimeter
Unity gain Scaling

AC Source Buffer Amplifier
R
Figure 8.1: Block Diagram of Setup.
A sinusoidal AC source of frequency f and peak value Vo is connected to the series

combination of capacitor C and resistor R as shown in Figure 8.1. The presence of
the AC signal causes current to flow in the CR circuit. A potential difference develops
across R, which is time varying. Vo is the peak value of applied potential difference,
VR is the potential developed across R and VC is the potential developed across C. Xc
is the capacitive reactance. I is the current through the circuit at any instant in time
and Z is the impedance of the circuit containing C and R. The relation between Vo ,
VR and VC is given by
Vo2 = VR2 + VC2 (8.1)
Replacing VC by Xc leads to
Vo2 = VR2 + IXc ( 2) (8.2)
Io is peak value of the the current through the circuit given by I0 = VZo and the
8.2. THEORY 51
impedance in the circuit Z is p

Z= R2 + Xc2 (8.3)
Equation (8.2) can be written as
Vo2 Xc2
Vo2 = VR2 + (8.4)
(R2 + Xc2 )
which yields p
R Vo2 − VR2
Xc = (8.5)
VR
1
Substituting capacitive reactance Xc = 2πf C
in Eqn. (5) and rearranging leads to
V
C= pR (8.6)
2πf R Vo2 − VR2
The measurement of R, VR and Vo yields the capacitance.

8.3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 52
8.3 Experimental Setup

The aim of this experimental setup is to explicitly show the working of the parallel
plate capacitor to students and to verify the basic laws governing capacitors. The
setup is shown in Figure 8.2
01 1
0
Frequency Meter Display
Amplitude Adjust
Amplitude Frequency Frequency Adjust

Sine Wave Output
1
2
1
0
0
1 Capacitor Plate 11
00
00
11 VR
0
1 00
11
3 Calibration knob
7
R 6 C
4 Peak Amplitude of Applied Signal
Caliberation
Vo
VR
01 1
0 5
500mV (Max) 2V or 2000mV

Connect sensor resistor between 6 and 7
Lower Plate Internally connected to point 6 Connect Upper Plate to Point 3
Figure 8.2: Experimental Setup Schematic.
Following devices devices has been incorporated into the setup.
1. A sine wave generator (frequency range approx 300Hz to 3000Hz, maximum

amplitude upto 10V)
2. Frequency meter with digital frequency readout.
3. A peak reading voltmeter Range 20V
4. A peak reading circuit Range 500mV
8.4 Calibration
It is necessary to check the measured values against the available values of the ca-
pacitors. The setup is sensitive enough to measure capacitances in pF. To proceed,
following values of commercially available ceramic capacitors can be used 10pF, 22pF,
33pF, 47pf, 56pF, 100pF. The sensor resistor from 100 kΩ to 500 kΩ can be used.
Connect the sensor resistor between points 6 and 7 on the apparatus and capacitor be-
tween points 3 and 6. The calibration curve given in Figure 8.3 clearly demonstrates
8.4. CALIBRATION 53
150
Capacitance measured(pF)
112
75
37.5
0
0 37.5 75 112 150
Capacitance(pF)
Figure 8.3: Calibration curve of the measuring apparatus with known commercially
available ceramic capacitors.
the capability of our measurement technique to measure the capacitance in the pF

range. We will use this to measure the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor of
different areas and for varying distance between the capacitor plates.
8.5. MEASUREMENTS 54
8.5 Measurements
Following measurements are feasible using this apparatus
1. Measurement of Capacitance of a capacitor.
2. The variation of capacitance with distance between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor.
3. The variation of capacitance with area of the plates of a parallel plate capacitor.
4. Measure dielectric constant of different materials
5. Verify the relations for the combination of dielectrics
(a) For parallel combination of dielectrics.

(b) For series combination of dielectrics.
6. Study of edge effects
8.5.1 Realization of parallel plate capacitor

The parallel plate capacitor is realized using aluminum foils pasted on acrylic sheets.
The aluminum foil of desired dimensions is cut and pasted on the acrylic sheets using
clear nail paint. advantage of using nail paint is that it dries of quickly and can be
easily removed using good quality nail polish remover. The capacitor is formed by
the aluminum foil pasted on the fixed sheet of the setup and aluminum foil pasted on
the removable sheet separated using spacers.
8.5.2 Connections and Observations

The following text refers to the Figure 8.2.
• Connect sensor resistor between points 6 and 7.
• Connect the upper pate to the point 3 (lower plate is internally connected to
point 6).
• Connect point 1 and 2.
• VoltmeterVo (with LED display is internally connected) displays the peak value
of the applied AC signal Vo . Adjust the display using calibration knob if re-
quired.
• Connect a multimeter set at 2V or 2000mV range across point 5 and the ground.
• Adjust the frequency and the amplitude of the applied signal using the knobs
provided. The LCD display provides the frequency of the AC signal.
Note down the following quantities:
• f frequency of applied signal.
• Vo Peak value of the applied signal.
• VR Peak value of the voltage across sensor resistor R
8.5.3 Calculation of capacitance

Using the above measured quantities calculate capacitance of the parallel plate ca-
pacitor with the following formula.
V
C= pR (8.7)
2πf R Vo2 − VR2
8.5.4 The variation of capacitance with distance between the

plates
With the circuit connected as explained above place the capacitor plates at different
distances using the provided spacers and measure capacitance C for each distance.
Repeat with different capacitor plate areas.
Plot and table of observations

Plot C vs 1/d as shown in Figure 8.4
Frequency f = Area of plates A =
200
28cmx15cm
150
21cmx15cm
Capacitance (pF)
15cmx15cm
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
1/d (mm-1)
Figure 8.4: The variation of the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with dis-
tance.
S. No. d V0 VR C
(mm) (volts) (volts) (pF)
1
2
..
Table 8.1: Variation of capacitance with distance

8.5.5 The variation of capacitance with area of the plates

As explained above find capacitance of capacitors with different plate areas.
Plot and table of observations

Plot capacitance vs area of plates A as shown in Figure 8.5
Frequency f = Distance between plates d =

150
112
Capacitance (pF)
75
37.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
2
Area of Plates (cm )
Figure 8.5: The variation of the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with area
of plates.
S. No. Area A V0 VR C
(cm2 ) (volts) (volts) (pF)
1
2
..
Table 8.2: Variation of capacitance with area of plates

8.5.6 Measurements with Dielectric

Let us first look at the physical quantities involved. These are: capacitance of a
parallel plate capacitor with air between plates C, capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor with medium between plates Cm , area of each plate A, distance between
plates d, permittivity of vacuum o , permittivity of air air (assumed to be equal to
the permittivity of vacuum), K1 and K2 , the dielectric constants of dielectric 1 and
dielectric 2. K|| and Ks are the dielectric values for the combination of dielectrics
defined later.
Capacitance of the air core capacitor is measured first as a function of d with air
between plates, and keeping area of overlap between plates A constant. After that A
is varied and capacitance measured keeping d constant.
o A
C= (8.8)
d
The next measurement we propose is with dielectric between plates. First step
here is to find out dielectric constant of two dielectrics K1 and K2 using the relation
K = CCmo and then relations (8.9), (8.10) and (8.11) can be verified
K1 + K2
C = Co ( ) (8.9)
2
2.K1 .K2
C = Co ( ) (8.10)
K1 + K2
Co
C= (8.11)
t 1
1 − (1 − )
d K
Two different dielectric plates roughly of the same area as the capacitor plates and
of thickness 5 mm each are to be used. The dielectrics can be commercially available
Bakelite and transparent plastic sheets or any other insulator.
Figure 8.6 is the schematic arrangement for the relation (8.9). The relation (8.10)
is represented by the Figure 8.7 and the relation (8.11) is represented by the Figure 8.8.
Plate area ’A’
d K1 K2
Figure 8.6: Two dielectric plates placed in parallel between the capacitor plates.
Plate area ’A’
K1
d
K2 d
2
Figure 8.7: Two dielectric plates placed in series between the capacitor plates.
Plate of area ’A’
d
K1 t
Figure 8.8: Dielectric plate partially filling the space between the capacitor plates.
8.5.7 Calculation of dielectric constants

Assume K1 is dielectric constant of Bakelite sheet denoted Dielectric 1 and K2 is
the dielectric constant of transparent plastic sheet denoted Dielectric 2. The values
of VR with dielectric between capacitor plates and with air between the plates are
measured. The suggested d = 0.5cm. The suggested table is Table 8.3.
Medium between VR C Dielectric

plates (volts) Constant
Air
Dielectric 1
Dielectric 2
Table 8.3: Dielectric constants for Dielectric 1 and Dielectric 2.
8.5.8 Verification of the relations for the combination of di-

electrics
Parallel combination of dielectrics
The dielectric plates are placed as shown in Figure 8.6. The dielectric constant of the
combination K|| is calculated using the relation
K1 + K2
K|| = (8.12)
2
Table 8.4 compares values of K|| calculated from K1 and K2 with values measured
with dielectric filling the space between plates as discussed earlier.
Medium between VR C K|| = Cmedium

Cair K|| = K1 +
2
K2
plates (volts)
Air
Dielectric
K1 +K2
Table 8.4: Parallel combination of dielectrics. Verification of the relation K|| = 2
Series combination of Dielectrics

Next the dielectric plates are placed as shown in Figure( 8.7). The distance between
plates is d = 1.0cm. The dielectric constant of the combination Ks is calculated using
the relation
2.K1 .K2
Ks = (8.13)
K1 + K2
Table 8.5 compares values of Ks calculated from K1 and K2 with values measured
with dielectric filling the space between plates.
Medium between VR C K|| = Cmedium

Cair
2.K1 .K2
Ks = K
1 + K2
plates (volts)
Air
Dielectric
2.K1 .K2
Table 8.5: Series combination of dielectrics. Verification of the relation Ks = K1 +K2
.
Partially filled
The results of measurement when the distance between the plates is partially filled
by the dielectric are to be tabulated in Table 8.6.
Co
C= t (8.14)
1− d
(1 − K1 )
Medium K d t VR C= qVR C= Co
t 1
2πf R Vo2 − VR2 1 − (1 − )
d K
(cm) (cm) (volts)
Air
Dielectric1
Dielectric2
Table 8.6: Verification of the relation C = Co

t 1 when the distance between
1 − (1 − )
d K
the plates is partially filled by the dielectric.
8.5.9 Study of edge effects
1e+03
750
Cxd (pF.mm)
500
250
0
0 3.75 7.5 11.2 15
d (mm)
Figure 8.9: The upper line shows the variation of the product of capacitance and
distance between plates as a function of the distance between the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor. The lower line parallel to the x axis shows the theoretical values for
an ideal capacitor(without considering the contribution of edge effects) of the same
geometry. The plate area is 28 × 15cm2 . AC of frequency 1.5KHz was used. The two
lines meet when the distance tends to zero, indicating negligible contribution of edge
effects in this limit.
The exact validity of Equation (8.8) requires a capacitor with infinite area. For a
finite capacitor, the presence of fringing field near the edges of the plates gives rise to
what is called edge effects. The presence of edge effects in a parallel plate capacitor
can have a significant contribution to the capacitance. Due to this the relation (8.8)
derived for an ideal parallel plate capacitor is not obeyed. We study the edge effects
Capacitance/Area (pF/cm2)
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
-2
1/Area (cm )
Figure 8.10: The upper line shows the variation of capacitance divided by area as
a function of the inverse of the area of the plates of a parallel plate capacitor. The
lower line parallel to x axis shows the same ratio for an ideal capacitor of the same
dimensions. The fact that the two lines tend to meet for an area tending to infinity
indicates that edge effects are negligible in that limit. The distance between the plates
is 5.2mm. AC of frequency 1.5KHz was used.
in this section and demonstrate their presence. We also show how edge effects become
negligible for large areas or for a small separation between the plates. Figure 8.9 shows
the contribution of the edge effects to the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
due to variation in distance between the capacitor plates. As the separation between
plates d increases, the product C ×d increases and clearly shows that the contribution
of the edge effect due to fringing fields increases with increase in separation between
the plates. As the separation decreases, the measured C × d values tends to meet
the C × d value for an ideal capacitor. Had the capacitor been ideal the graph would
have looked like the lower curve with the product of capacitance and distance being
independent of the distance.
Figure 8.10 shows the contribution of the edge effects to the capacitance of parallel
plate capacitor due to variation of area of the capacitor plates. We have plotted
capacitance divided by area as a function of the inverse of area. For an ideal capacitor
the graphs should be a straight line parallel to the x-axis, showing no dependence of
the ratio CA on the area. For a real capacitor the graph shows the contribution due
to edge effects. When extrapolated, the two curves tend to meet as the area tends to
infinity i.e. when 1/A tends to zero the contribution due to edge effects are negligible.
Experiment 9
Equipotential Lines
Ketan Patel
9.1 Aim
To draw the lines of constant electric potential in water for different arrangements of
electrodes.
9.2 Theory
Let’s first understand the concept of electric potential. (Please go through this sec-
tion before starting the experiment and try to understand as much as possible. Some
the concepts discussed below will be introduced in your theory course of electromag-
netism.)
9.2.1 From the Coulomb’s law to the concept of potential

All of the electrostatics (study of forces between the static charges) follows from the
Coulomb’s law. It states that in vacuum the force on a point test charge Q due to a
single point charge q which is at distance r away from the test charge is given by
Q q
F= r̂ , (9.1)
4π0 r2
where r̂ is a direction from the location of q to Q and 0 is a constant called permitivity
of free space. If there exist more than one point charges q1 , q2 , q3 , ..., qn at the
distances r1 , r2 , r3 , ..., rN away from the test charge Q, the total force is can be
written as vector sum of forces created by each of qi , i.e.
n
Q X qi
F= r̂i , (9.2)
4π0 i=1 ri2
63
9.2. THEORY 64
It is quite useful to rewrite the above formula as

n
1 X qi
F = QE with E = r̂i (9.3)
4π0 i=1 ri2
The E define above is called an Electric Field. It provides conceptual simplification

of the Coulomb’s law by providing test charge free interpretation of the force that is
created by given charge distribution. We highly encourage you to think more about
the interpretation of E.
If there are many charges confined in the small region (let’s say if ∆q is the total
charge confined in the region ∆x ∆y ∆z centered at the point x0 ≡ (x0 , y 0 , z 0 )) then
the sum in eq. (9.3) is replaced by and integral and the electric field at some point
x ≡ (x, y, z) is given by:
Z
1 ρ(x0 ) 3 0
E(x) = r̂ d x , (9.4)
4π0 r2
where r ≡ rr̂ = x − x0 , ρ(x0 ) = ∆q/(∆x ∆y ∆z) is a charge density at point at x0

and d3 x0 = dx0 dy 0 dz 0 is a volume element at x0 . Eq. (9.4) gives an electric field at
a given point in space that is produced by charge distributions located everywhere
else. (The electric field at a point nearby you has contributions also from the charges
distributed in the entire universe!)
One can further simplify eq. (9.4). To achieve this, we use

r̂ 1
2
= −∇ , (9.5)
r r
∂ ∂ ∂
where ∇ = î ∂x + ĵ ∂y + k̂ ∂z . The advantage of the above equation is that it represents
the vector quantity (in the LHS) with a gradient of a scalar quantity (in the RHS).
[Show that the relation in eq. (9.5) holds if you haven’t already done it once in your
life.]
Using eq. (9.5) in eq. (9.4), one can write (note that the integration is over primed
coordinates so it is possible to write)
Z
1 ρ(x0 ) 3 0
E(x) = −∇ d x ≡ −∇φ(x) . (9.6)
4π0 r
where Z
1 ρ(x0 ) 3 0
φ(x) ≡ φ(x, y, z) = dx . (9.7)
4π0 r
is called electric scalar potential. Because of its simple scalar nature, φ(x) can
easily be evaluated for given charge distribution. One can derive electric field and
force acting on a test charge in the presence of this field very easily from φ(x).
[Note: Using eq. (9.6), you can show (a) ∇ × E = 0 and (b) The φ(x) and φ(x) + c
lead to the same E(x) if c is a constant function in space.]
9.2. THEORY 65
10 10 10
5 5 5
0 0 0
�
�
-5 -5 -5
-10 -10 -10

-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
� � �
(a) Charge configuration 1 (b) Charge configuration 2 (c) Charge configuration 3
10 10 10
5 5 5
0 0 0
�
�
-5 -5 -5
-10 -10 -10

-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
� � �
(d) Charge configuration 4 (e) Charge configuration 5 (f) Charge configuration 6
Figure 9.1: Equipotential lines obtained using eq. (9.7) for different configurations of
point charges.
Using eq. (9.7), we draw equipotential lines for some simple point charge config-
urations. Consider the point charges in two dimensions:
1. +q at (0, 0).
2. +q at (4, 0) and −q at (−4, 0).
3. +2q at (4, 0) and −2q at (−4, 0).
4. +q at (4, 0), (−4, 0) and −q at (0, 4), (0, −4).
5. +q at (5, 5), (2, −6), +3q at (−8, −2), −2q at (1, 2) and −3q at (−7, 7).
6. Try to guess this charge configuration from Figure.
The equipotential lines for the above charge configurations are shown in respective
figures below. In all the figures, the lines, in descending order of thickness, show the
φ = ±1, ± 0.5, ± 0.3, ± 0.2, ± 0.1 in units of q/(4π0 ). The continuous lines
correspond to positive φ while dashed lines correspond to the negative values of φ.
• Compare the different equipotenrial lines in a given figure. Make also compar-
ison between the equipotential lines presenting same potential in two different
figures.
9.3. EXPERIMENT 66
• How does the strength of potential decrease in each configuration when moving
away fro the charges?
9.3 Experiment
As described in the above, the equipotential surface is an imaginary surface described
by the points at which the electric scalar potential possesses the same value. We
would be performing our experiment on a two dimensional surface (on a graph paper),
therefore we would talk about equipotential lines and not surface.
The equipotential lines are collections for points {(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), ..., (xn , yn )} in
two dimensions for which the potential satisfies the condition φ(x1 , y1 ) = φ(x2 , y2 ) =
..., = φ(xn , yn ).
Since it is experimentally difficult to probe the potential in vacuum or in air, we
would use water as a medium.
9.3.1 Procedure
You are given a D.C. power source, a voltmeter, different kind of electrodes (bars and
discs), a metal ring, a transparent container for water and a test probe.
1. Take two graph papers and place two bar electrodes with maximum distance
between them on the graph paper. Mark their position identically on both the
graph papers.
2. Place a clear transparent container on one of the graph paper. Place the bar
electrodes on already marked positions.
3. Don’t trust your instruments. Take a battery of known output voltage and
check if the voltmeter is calibrated correctly. If yes, using that voltmeter check
the actual output DC voltage of power source given to you. Note down this
actual supplied voltage.
4. Make connections as shown in the Fig. ??. Connect one electrode with +ve
and other with -ve output of power source. Connect the +ve of voltmeter with
test probe and -ve of voltmeter with -ve of power source.
5. Fill the container with normal water until the electrodes get half submerged
into the water. Place a test probe such that it touches the water.
6. Switch on the power source. Starting at some point, note down the potential.
Move your test probe in such a way that the potential remain constant. Note
down this positions and mark them on the other graph paper. Connects the
points representing the same value of potential.
7. Start at another point and do the same. Repeat this until you get a clear picture
of how potential is distributed over the entire surface for a given arrangement
of electrodes.
9.3. EXPERIMENT 67
8. Use imagination: Draw equipotential lines for at least four different config-
urations of electrodes. Use different electrodes, put them in the way you wish
(not necessarily in some symmetric pattern) and draw the equipotential lines.
You can use also more than 2 electrodes kept at different potentials. Also, place
the metal ring in the water and check the potential inside and outside of it.
9.3.2 After performing the experiment

• Observe carefully all the figures of equipotential lines that you have ob-
tained for different electrodes configuration. Try to interpret them.
• Make comparisons between theoretical equipotential lines drawn in Fig. 1
with the equipotential lines you obtain from the experiment.
• Go again through the theory section. Can you tell how the electric field
will look like in each case? Is it possible to derive electric field from the
potential configuration that you have drawn?
• What is your proposal for measuring equipotential surfaces in three di-
mensions?

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PHY112: ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

Department of Physical Sciences

0 Notes on Error Analysis 1

1 Terminal velocity of a magnet through a metal pipe 16

2 Black body radiation and Stefan’s law using an incandescent tung-

2.2.5 Representation of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3 Random Sampling of an AC source 27

3.1 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4 Magnetic moment in the magnetic field 32

4.1 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5 Biot Savart law 35

6 Studying electromagnetic induction using a magnet & a coil 41

6.1 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

7 Capacitance of metal spheres 46

7.1 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

8 Study of Parallel Plate Capacitor using AC source 49

Notes on Error Analysis

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1: Random vs systematic errors.

0.2 Precision vs Accuracy

precision of the measured quantity) easily but it is impossible to estimate systematic

0.3 Three major sources of errors

0.3.2 Random Error

0.3.3 Systematic Error & Instrument Calibration

0.4 Mean & Standard Deviation

σ becomes larger if the data is more scattered about the mean.

Most Probable Value:

Random errors and Gaussian distributions

0.5 Stating your results: Absolute & Relative Un-

Figure 2: Probability distribution P (x) of obtaining heads in a coin tossing exper-

experimental measurement with the standard value as

0.6 Significant Figures

0.6.1 Practical Hints

0.6.2 Mistakes and Misconceptions

0.7 Propagation of Errors

0.7.1 Propagation of Independent Errors

0.8 Fitting Data: Least Squares Regression

calculated from the expression

0.8.1 Fitting to a straight line

the above equations take the form

The standard deviation in m and c is given by

assuming that the deviations (yi − mxi − c) are normally distributed.

225.0 223.81 500

350.0 339.00 300

Step by step procedure to fit a straight line to a data set:

3. To calculate m and c, we need to calculate the following sums

4. Using these values in Eq. (25), we get

∆ = 1478750.0 m = 1.03 c = −10.59

5. Next we need to calculate the uncertainties in the constants m and c. We first

2. An Introduction to Error Analysis, Second edition, by J. R. Taylor, University

Terminal velocity of a magnet

Manish Pareek, Prof. Arvind and Dr.Paramdeep Singh

1.2 The Experiment

3. To measure the terminal velocity of a falling magnet thorough a conducting

4. Calculate conductivity of material of pipe.

5. Calculate current flowing through the pipe due to motion of magnet.

Figure 1.1: Schematic setup for the experiment

1. A transient e.m.f. ε is induced in the ring which is given by

are respectively given by