10 1 1 838 5956 PDF

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL MUSEUMS IN
EGYPT DURING THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES:

IMPERIALISM, NATIONALISM, UNESCO PATRONAGE, AND EGYPTIAN
MUSEOLOGY TODAY
by
Shadia Mahmoud
Dissertation
In
HISTORY
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Approved
Dr. John Howe

Chair of Committee
6DDG$EL+DPDG
Abigail Swingen
Gary Edson
Peggy Gordon Miller

Dean of the Graduate School
May, 2012
Copyright 2012, Shadia Mahmoud
Texas Tech University, Shadia Mahmoud, May 2012
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks my Allah for granting me the opportunity and the ability to successfully
complete my dissertation
My overwhelming thanks go to my supervisor and committee chairperson, Dr.
John Howe, who has in every way been available as a support emotionally, socially, and
academically. I cannot overstate the importance of my supervisors involvement in my
graduate career, whose guidance from the initial to the final level enabled me to develop
an understanding of the subject. I also thank the members of my graduate committee
Professor Gary Edson, Dr. Saad Abi Hamad, and Dr. Abigail Swingen for their help and
recommendations.
I want to express my gratitude to the Graduate School of Texas Tech University
and the History Department, for providing me scholarships to obtain this degree. My
grateful thanks also go to Ms. Conni Kitten, library associate and her staffs who have
made the references of the library of Texas Tech University available in a number of
ways. I am indebted to Dianne Crowley who was an indispensable friend.
I owe my deepest gratitude to my family members specially my mother, Samir,
Samy, Sameh, and Rowaida for their faith in me and allowing me to be as ambitious as I
wanted. Without my mother's encouragement, I would not have finished this degree.
Finally, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any
respect during the completion of the project.
ii
INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
ABSTRACT vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS viii-ix
CHAPTERS:
1. INTRODUCTION 1-13
2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSEOLOGY 14-32
2.1. Museum Science as a Discipline 14-18
2.2. Museological Thought up to 1900 18-24
2.3. The Professionalization of Museology from 1900-1934 24-26
2.4. Museology from 1934 to 1976 26-28
2.5. The Foundation of ICOFOM in 1977 as a Turning Point of Museology 28-32
3. THE TRADITION OF CULTURAL PRESERVATION IN EGYPT 33-59
3.1. The Original Museum in Alexandria 33-37
3.2. Later Egyptian Traditions of Cultural Preservation 37-42
3.3. Napoleon Brings Europe to Egypt 42-45
3.4. Egyptology in the Early Nineteenth Century 45-54
3.4. Problems Posed by Increasing European Domination 54-59
4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSEUMS IN MODERN EGYPT 60-102
iii
4.1. Al-Tahtawi and the First Open Museum in Egypt 61-64
4.2. French Contributions to the Development of Museums in Egypt 64-71
4.3. The Egyptian Museum 72-85
4.4. The Greco-Roman Museum 85-89
4.5. The Coptic Museum 89-94
4.6. The Museum of Islamic (Arab) Art 94-95
4.7. Political Issues Involved in the Development of Egyptian Museology 96-101
4.8. Conclusion 101-102
5. MUSEUM MANAGEMENT AND THE POLITICS OF NATIONALISM 103-141
5.1. The Triumph of Egyptian Nationalism 103-113
5.2. Museum Policies Change 113-128
5.3. El-Wafd and the Beginning of the Nationalization of Egyptology 128-134
5.4. The Triumph of Nasser 134-137
5.5. Monuments Laws Intended to Protect Egyptian Antiquities 137-141
6. THE MODERNIZING UNESCO AGENDA IN EGYPT 142-166
6.1. UNESCO and the Preservation of the Monuments of Nubia 148-156
6.2. The 1980 UNESCO Project to Renovate the Egyptian Museum 156-158
6.3. UNESCO and the Coptic Museum 158-160
6.4. UNESCO and the Museum of Islamic Art 160-162
6.5. UNESCO Museology Programs 162-166
iv
7. EGYPTIAN MUSEUM PERSONNEL LOOK AT EGYPTIAN MUSEOLOGY
167-197
7.1. Questionnaire and Responses 167-170
7.2. Interview: Tharwat Okasha, Egyptologist (1921-) 170-174
7.3. Interview: Tuhfah Handusah, Egyptologist (1933-) 174-177
7.4. Interview: Soaad Abdel Al aal, Egyptologist (1955-) 177-178
7.5. Interview: Ali Al Asfar, Egyptologist and Inspector (1953-) 178-180
7.6. Interview: Mai Trad, Egyptologist (1929-) 180-182
7.7. Interview: Mohamed Saleh, Egyptologist (1936-) 182-186
7.8. Interview: Abd El Halim Nur El Din, Egyptologist (1943-) 186-188
7.9. Interview: Rageh Zaher Mohamed, Curator (1964-) 188-191
7.10. Interview: Sanaa Ali, Egyptologist (1959-) 191-193
7.11. Analyses 193-197
8. CONCLUSION 198-207
BIBLIOGRAPHY 208-232
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: The Entente Cordiale Agreement 233-234
Appendix 2: The UNESCO Constitution and Charter 235-246
Appendix 3: Egyptian Members of the UNESCO Executive Board 247
Appendix 4: Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing
the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property 1970
248-257
v
ABSTRACT
With the growth of awareness about cultural heritage preservation, museums that exhibit,
preserve, and study the material culture of ancient people are increasingly important. The
English term museum, borrowed from the French musum, refers back to the Hellenistic
Mouseion of Alexandria, a temple, library, and research institute built in honor of the
Muses in the third century BC. The Museum of Alexandria is considered a conceptual
foundation for the creation of the modern museum. Egypt with its wealth of ancient
artifacts has a long tradition of cultural preservation from the Ptolemies until the present,
one complicated in recent centuries by the attempts of European powers to preserve and
to profit from Egypts cultural heritage. This dissertation examines the modern
development of archaeological and historical museums in Egypt in a broad contextual
setting that includes the roles of imperialism and nationalism as well as the impact of
international organizations such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It studies the development of the first Egyptian
Museum that was built during the Age of Imperialism. It introduces the Greco-Roman
and Coptic Museum to show the main mission of European scholars. It investigates
whether native Egyptians have played significant roles in the development of their
museums. It analyzes the challenges faced by Egyptian museums today in an independent
Egypt. The conclusion suggests possible ways forward in Egyptian museology.
vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo in 1960
2. The Faade of the Egyptian Museum in 2011
3. General view of the Monastery of Saint Catherine
4. A plan of the Monastery of Qasr El Wizz
5. Ribat Athar El Naby, recent photo after renovation
6. The Boulaq Museum
7. Memorandum of the cancellation of the School of Egyptology 29 December,
1885.
8. Mmorandum de l'annulation de l'cole de l'gyptologie 29 Dcembre, 1885.
9. The main entrance of the Egyptian Museum and the core exhibition
10. A part of the core exhibition in the Egyptian Museum
11. Greco-Roman collections in the Egyptian Museum
12. A part of the Egyptian Museum exhibition
13. The floor plan of the museum by Evaristo Breccia
14. The Faade of the Greco-Roman Museum
15. Statues, stelae, and blocks scattered in the Egyptian Museum exhibition
16. A plan of the old and new wings in the Coptic Museum
17. The Coptic Museum, hall 6, with capitals from the Monastery of Jeremias at
Saqqara
18. The courtyard of the Coptic Museum
19. Watercolor by Welles Bosworth of the proposed museum and research center to
be built in Cairo with the financial support of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1925.
vii
1. The Egyptian Museum, Cairo, in 1960
viii
2. The faade of the Egyptian Museum in 2011, photographed by
Shadia Mahmoud on June 2011
ix
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
It is ironic that Egypt, the site of the world's first known "museum," the museum
of Alexandria, faced difficulties in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries when its people
sought to manage their own antiquities. This dissertation attempts to describe challenges
faced by museums in modern Egypt as they have developed and are developing.
Although Egypt had a long tradition of cultural preservation, the growth of its museums
during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries is associated with imperialism,
colonization, and nationalism. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Europeans
managed to construct museums in Egypt in order to preserve some of the excavated
collections; however, most artifacts were shipped to fill the museums and private
collections of Europe. The history of museum management runs parallel with the history
of imperialism, nationalism, and cultural and architectural history; it provides a case
study of how the changing political situation can affect museum development.
The intention of this dissertation is to study the major archaeological and
historical museums in Egypt, starting from the museum of Boulaq. My research will
examine the growth of museums in Egypt during the European colonization and during
the nationalist movements. This study, although offering an introduction to the historical
background of public presentations that helped to inspire Egyptian museum initiatives,
primarily examines the growth of archaeological and historical museums in Egypt during
the European colonial period and during the nationalist movements and the emergence of
1
an independent Egypt. While I consider architectural and cultural features, my main
concern is to illustrate how Egyptian archaeologists (or museologists), architects, and
designers were able to construct, design, and manage their museums. What control did
they have over how their past was presented? Although European Egyptologists
influenced the development of museums in Egypt, did this in some ways lead to the
decline of the Egyptian museums, and, until recent times, did this sometimes lead to the
disqualification or marginalization of Egyptian museologists? Even today much of the
scholarly world of Egyptology remains western and the experts continue to be foreigners.
As Egyptians in 2012 prepare to re-examine their governmental institutions, an
investigation of how its museums developed can be important because museums and their
contents express national identity. Ancient antiquities are the remains left by ancestors
from ancient times. They are rare and irreplaceable. These antiquities are very important
for comprehending the past. It is essential to understand the past in order to develop the
present and predict the future. The cultural heritage of ancient peoples embodies
important messages and information for their local communities and for humanity in
general. Some objects are unique, because they have artistic value on their own. Other
objects are significant for the information they hold. In this sense, they are sources of
knowledge with no regard to their artistic value. However, all artifacts have messages to
be transmitted. As a source of knowledge, they play a pivotal role in society in terms of
aesthetic and educational values. Hence, preservation of valuable heritage means
protecting the information it includes. The saving of these antiquities is the responsibility
2
of the country in which they are located and the international organizations that care
about the preservation of cultural heritage.
The preservation of cultural heritage in Egypt has always presented special
challenges: in the time of pharaohs monuments were hidden or built in secure locations to
protect them from human and natural threats. During the Coptic and Islamic periods,
though the idea of preservation existed, pharaonic monuments suffered because of
religious conflict. Several tombs and temples were destroyed or converted into
monasteries or churches during the Coptic period. Both Arab and Western historians note
that modern Muslim rulers such as Ahmed ibn Tulun (835-884), Salah el Din Yusif ibn
Ayoubi ibn Marwan (1137-1197), and others tried to destroy, disfigure, or quarry
Pharaonic monuments. However, as the Muslim scholars studied ancient Egyptian culture
and history, their writings stimulated the preservation of this cultural heritage.
Several Arab travelers and historians recorded the monuments of Egypt which
they had encountered during their visits to Egypt or had heard about from others.
Muwaffaq al-Din Muhammad 'Abd al-Latif ibn Yusuf al-Baghdadi (11621231, a
physician, historian, Egyptologist, and traveler), Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-
Qurtubi al-Hasani al-Sabti (1099-1165, a geographer, cartographer, and Egyptologist),
Ab Ubayd Abd Allh ibn Abd al-Azz al-Bakr (1014-1094, a historian), and
Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn 'Ali ibn 'Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhammad al-Maqrizi (1364 1442, a
historian) studied the ancient Egyptian history and called for the preservation of such
unique antiquities. They conducted several excavations in the archaeological sites.
Unfortunately, only portions of their works have survived.
3
The French under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt during the
last part of the Mamluk period. French troops stayed for a short time during which they
recorded major archaeological sites and introduced the first published large scale
systematic study of Egypt, Description de l'gypte. However, a great many artifacts were
looted during Napoleon's Egyptian campaign and many archaeological sites were
destroyed.1 The same thing happened during the British invasion in 1801.
The British competed with the French to possess as many as Egyptian antiquities
they could. Both the British Museum and the Louvre Museum were enriched with rare
Egyptian antiquities before any policies were adopted to protect the invaluable cultural
heritage of Egypt. During the reign of Mohamed Ali Pasha, Egyptians struggled to
preserve their ancient heritage and keep it away from foreign collectors and scholars. A
number of Egyptians were sent abroad for training and education. After their coming
back, they encouraged the Pasha to issue acts and laws to protect and preserve Egyptian
antiquities. Though Mohamed Ali Pasha took several steps to protect scattered
archaeological sites and antiquities and hired Egyptian inspectors to control the work of
foreign expeditions, thousands of Egyptian antiquities were illegally removed from
Egypt. Thus, the Europeans' control over Egypt prevented a complete protection of
cultural heritage. It was necessary to find another way to protect monuments and rare
artifacts. The idea of museum had been initiated by Egyptians, but their political
circumstances and lack of funds did not allow them to continue in the field.
1
John Alan Cohan, An Examination of Archaeological Ethics and the Repatriation Movement
Respecting Cultural Property, Environmental Law and Policy Journal, vol. 28, no. 2 (2004), p. 14,
available from http://environs.law.ucdavis.edu/issues/28/1/cohan.pdf, accessed November 2011.
4
Branden Fjerstad, in a recent paper titled The Evolution of Museology in Egypt:
An International Comparative Study of Ancient Egyptian Exhibitions formulates the
problem concisely: Egyptian museology and archaeology have been shaped and
influenced by foreigners.2 The Europeans believed that they had the right to represent
the orient in the west all by themselves.3 The nineteenth century witnessed a growth in
the construction of museums throughout the world. This of course was associated with
intensive collecting. At that time, Egyptians were not fully aware of the value of their
antiquities or their significance to the nation. The collecting policy remained uncontrolled
and thousands of Egyptian artifacts were transported to Europe without any objection
from the Egyptian government.
Museums were founded within Egypt, but were organized and dominated by
foreigners. An Egyptian National Museum in Cairo was located in the palace of Ismail
Pasha in El Giza in 1890. Then it was moved to Qasr El Nile (its current location). The
Greco-Roman Museum was constructed in Alexandria. The Europeans gave their
attention not only to the Pharaonic or ancient Egyptian civilization but also to the Islamic
civilization. Thus, in 1891, the Arabic (now Islamic) Art Museum was founded in Cairo.
In addition, Europeans inspired the Egyptians who founded the Coptic museum. The
2
Branden Fjerstad, The Evolution of Museology in Egypt: An International Comparative Study of
Ancient Egyptian Exhibitions (Senior Archaeology Thesis, University of Wisconsin La Crosse, 2007),
p.1, available http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/32045, accessed December 2010.
Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978).

3
5
Coptic and Islamic museums came to represent both an emerging scholarly discipline and
eras of Egypts past.4
Though Egyptians during the colonial era tried to control their cultural heritage,
they could not maintain it, especially in the field of museum studies. Nationalists and
politicians who sought the independence of Egypt such as Rifaa Rafi al Tahtawi,
Qasim Amin, Ahmed Lutfi al-Sayed, Mustafa Kamil, Muhammad Farid, King Fuad,
Ahmed Shawqi, Abd al-Aziz Fahmi, Taha Husayn, Husayn Fawzi, and Louis Awad
assumed that this would include control of its cultural heritage.5 During the twentieth
century national journals opposed the European colonizers and their control over Egypt.
Inflamed national spirit led to the 1919 revolution. However, only in the1950s with
Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Free Officers did Egyptians finally get an opportunity to
take control over their national museums.
But had the Egyptians been trained to manage and preserve their cultural
heritage? Would the necessary resources be available? And what messages would
museum displays convey? To help in the process, UNESCO made funds and personnel
available and took a leading role in the construction of new museums. But have
UNESCO efforts facilitated or hindered the ability of Egyptian museologists to take
control over their cultural heritage? Have they been cost effective? Are there ways that
4
Donald M. Reid, Cromer and the Classics: Imperialism, Nationalism and the Greco-Roman Past
in Modern Egypt, Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 32, no. 1 (January 1996), available
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283773, accessed November 2009), p. 3.
5
Reid, Cromer and the Classics, p. 2.
6
Egyptian museum management could be improved to better reflect national attitude and
needs?
These questions are important because the answers will affect future museum
management in Egypt. They could help Egyptians guide UNESCO on how the funds it
provides could better serve to develop museums in Egypt. In this respect, Dr. Zahi
Hawass in A New Era for Museums in Egypt, states that until now museums in Egypt
have had no real written philosophy or strategy to guide their development.6 Even though
UNESCO supports and facilitates the new museums, they still require good management
and well trained personnel.
Previous scholarly work has investigated aspects of these questions and studies
that have been especially helpful to my work deserve mention here. Beverley Butler
provides valuable orientation. Her work on the library of Alexandria relates directly to
several chapters of this dissertation. She provides a narrative on the ancient museum of
Alexandria as a representative of old museology in Egypt and the new project of
Alexandria as the new museology. With its comprehensive survey of the ancient museum
of Alexandria, this work reveals that it was a combination of Greek knowledge and
Egyptian, Jewish, Chaldaean, and Indian heritage. Butler proves that Egyptians since
ancient times were involved in the field of museums. As the ancient museum of
Alexandria was central to the history of the development of museums in Egypt, it was
essential to consult the proper literature on that subject. This study contains a great deal
6
Zahi Hawass, A New Era for Museums in Egypt, Museum: Heritage Landscape of Egypt, vol.
7 (January 2005): 7-23, esp. 7.
7
of bibliographical data as well as information on the new library of Alexandria that is
considered a site of international museological and heritage activity.
As both imperialism and nationalism were central to the development of museums
in Egypt, it was necessary to consult the literature on those subjects. Undoubtedly, the
most important and comprehensive are Edward Saids Orientalism and Timothy
Mitchells Colonizing Egypt. Edward Said shows how the West legitimizes the policy of
domination, restructuring, and having power over the East. Said asserts that the West
represents the East or the Orient as primitive and inferior, and its culture as spiritual and
irrational. Saids research covers the period of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
through which the West exploited the East and developed academic studies depending on
its culture and history. Though Saids survey offers a rather unique analysis of the Orient
as seen through Western eyes, it lacks the Orientalist writings. Saids studies inspired
many other scholars.7
Timothy Mitchell examines the power that Europeans used to colonize. Mitchell
asserts that Westerners in their expansion into Egypt and the Middle East tried to re-
conceptualize social, economic, agricultural, and cultural aspects of Egypt. Mitchell
explains how Western ideals inserted themselves into Egyptian culture and tradition. He
criticizes the misconduct of the West in Egypt. He suggests that the Westerners depended
on their own political metaphysics to reshape Egypts social, educational, economic, and
political systems, and that the result was a misrepresentation of Egyptian culture.8
7
Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978).
8
Timothy Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Middle East
Library, 1988).
8
Various publications attest briefly the role that foreigners played in constructing
and managing Egyptian museums. Several scholars from the West competed in studying,
recording, and cataloguing ancient masterpieces stored in the Egyptian Museum and they
emphasize the role of Western scholars in preserving such rare collections. However, the
earliest researches did not mention native Egyptian scholars. While working on the
library of the Egyptian Museum, Dia Abou Ghazi searched the museums documents and
archives in order to present a biography of Ahmed Kamal, the first Egyptian curator.
Though Abou Ghazis research is only a short biography of Ahmed Kamal, it gives us
information about the contributions of the Egyptian museologists that Westerners have
not recognized.9
No other studies investigate the development of museums in Egypt until the time
of Donald Malcolm Reid, whose work, though written from a social point of view, is
considered the major research in the field. Reid examines the history of museums in
Egypt and provides a detailed study on how museums were constructed by western
discoverers such as August Mariette, Gaston Maspero, and others, while slighting Rifaa
al-Tahtawi, Ahmed Kamal, and other Egyptians contributions. Reid gives a general
description of the Egyptian museums built by Europeans. He stresses the importance of
the interaction between Western and Egyptian Egyptologists from which the Westerners
benefited most. He devotes several pages to the contribution of Europeans in the fields of
Egyptology and museums. Though he makes the mistakes of his forerunners in conflating
9
Dia Abou Ghazi, "Personalities that Developed the Egyptian Museum," Annales du Service des
antiquits de lEgypte, Cahier no. 32 (Cairo: General Organization for Government Printing Offices, 1988).
9
the founding of museums in Egypt with the arrival of the westerners into Egypt, his
research is no less valuable to the scholarship of the development of museums in Egypt.10
The next great contribution to the study of the development of museums in Egypt
is Branden Fjerstads paper on The Evolution of Museology in Egypt: An International
Comparative Study of Ancient Egyptian Exhibitions, which describes archaeological
and museological presentations in Egyptian museums, emphasizing the development of
museum displays of ancient Egyptian archaeological antiquities from the earliest
development of Egyptian museums. Fjerstad gives a concise description of the museums
display which was built and managed by foreigners. Fjerstads research expands upon the
work of Reid in that it focuses more extensively on museums. However, he depends
heavily on secondary sources such as Reid, Abt Jeffrey, Brian Fagan, and others.11
Abd El Halim Nur El Din in his book Matahef Al Athar Fi Misr we Al Watan Al
AArabi: Dirasaa Fi Aalm El Matahef, gives a brief introduction to the development of
museums in Egypt and the Arab World. Nur El Din shows how the museums in Egypt
were constructed and how they were managed. In doing his research, Nur El Din depends
on both Egyptian and western sources. He also depends on his experience while working
as the Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities and the chief of ICOM-
10
Donald M. Reid, Whose Pharaohs? Archaeology, Museums, and Egyptian National Identity
from Napoleon to World War I (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
11
Branden Fjerstad, The Evolution of Museology in Egypt: An International Comparative Study
of Ancient Egyptian Exhibitions, UW-L Archaeology Senior Thesis, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse,
2007, available from http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/32045, accessed December 2010.
10
Arab. However, Nur El Dins book is a general guide rather than a detailed narrative
survey.12
The above scholars and their work form the corpus of scholarship directly related
to the development of museums that will be treated in this dissertation. It is evident that
archaeology, studies of imperialism and nationalism, and religious studies are amongst
the disciplines necessary for a comprehensive understanding of how the museums in
Egypt were developed. It has only been in the twenty-first century that a broad history of
the development of museums in Egypt was produced. In order to connect the area studies
to a larger context, it is necessary to draw on the work of scholars whose methods and
theories reflect a wider and more inclusive approach, and whose topics bear on the
present study.
Additional study is needed on the development of museums in Egypt. Even
though Reid and others have produced larger narratives encompassing a substantial
portion of the recorded history of the museums in Egypt, a synthetic history of its
development as it appears to Egyptians working within museums has yet to be produced.
There are themes within the history of museums that require closer evaluation. One of the
main purposes of this dissertation is to study from an Egyptian perspective the major
archaeological and historical museums in Egypt that have previously been studied from a
western perspective.
This dissertation is organized according to a chronologically ordered narrative
structure, preceded by some necessary background information. Following this present
12
Mohammed Abd El Halim Nur El Din, Matahef Al Athar Fi Misr we Al Watan Al AArabi:
Dirasaa Fi Aalm El Matahef (Al Qahira: Al Aqsa Press, 2009).
11
introductory chapter, Chapter II examines the development of professional museology in
Europe, referencing especially the mission statement of International Council of
Museums (ICOM) and its code of ethics, focusing on the guidelines established relating
to museum selection, preservation, and exhibit management. It also refers to the creation
of UNESCO and other cultural initiatives. Chapter III surveys the historical background
that has inspired Egyptian museology from the Museum of Alexandria, through the
tradition of public displays during the Coptic and Islamic periods, through the
development of increased European fascination with Egyptian Antiquities. Chapter IV
looks at how museological ideals were put into practice in Egypt during the colonial
period in specific major museums, starting with the open museum arranged by Al-
Tahtawi and managed by Yusuf Dia Effendi in Al-Azbakiyya Square in Cairo and the
development process of the first Egyptian Museum under French directors and Egyptian
directors. It investigates political issues that affected the development of the museums in
Egypt. Chapter V focuses on the nationalist movement and the management of Egyptian
museums and on the monuments laws intended to protect Egyptian antiquities. Chapter
VI explores the modernizing UNESCO agenda in Egypt that became influential in 1960
with the saving of the Nubian monuments, the construction of the Nubia museum in
Aswan, and UNESCO proposed projects to develop the museums in Egypt. Chapter VII
includes interviews with some of today's senior Egyptologists. Their responses to
European management activities will be analyzed. This examination of museum studies
of Europe and Egypt during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries will seek to illuminate
the European impact on Egyptian museums and perhaps to discover hints about possible
12
new directions. Chapter VIII, the conclusion, presents some recommendations to develop
a more Egypt-centered museum program. All this needs to begin with background on
museology in general and on the Egyptian museum tradition in particular.
13
CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSEOLOGY
2.1. Museum Science as a Discipline:
To understand the problems faced by museums in Egypt it is necessary to
understand something about the problems faced by all museums. During the nineteenth
and twentieth century, museum science has emerged as an academic discipline in its own
right. The past and present situation of Egyptian museums is intertwined with this
development. Before presenting the history of Egyptian museology, it is useful to present
this broader development, a background that both illuminates and is illuminated by the
Egyptian story.
Museology is the study of museums in general, their history and main philosophy,
the various ways in which they have been established and developed, their policies, and
their functions and role in society.13 Unfortunately, the field of museology was and still is
much more problematical. Museology is defined according the place and the
philosophical framework in which it exists. Its definition varies from one country to
another according to local priorities. In general, the term applies to all museum-related
issues.14 Museology is the field that encompasses the ideas and issues involved in the
museum profession. It refers to day-to-day skills needed to operate a museum. It is also
13
Peter Vergo, The New Museology (London: Reaktion Books, 1997), p. 1.
14
Sheila Watson, Museums and Their Communities (London: Routledge, 2007), p. 13.
14
considers the role of museums in local communities. Museology in this sense
incorporates both practical and theoretical studies. It is a general theory about
preservation, research, communication of heritages and the inclusion of museums into
various forms of sustainable progress.15 Museology, museum science, or museum studies
are terms used to refer to academic programs, usually graduate programs, that teach the
management, administration, and theory of museums. However, all museum
professionals accept the 1971 standard definition of museology or museum studies the
International Council of Museums (ICOM) that stresses both its the theoretical and
practical natures.16
The International Council of Museums, founded in 1946, is devoted to the
promotion and development of museums and the museum profession at an international
level. It seeks the improvement of the museum profession through specific training
courses and graduate studies. During the 7th ICOM General Conference, meeting in
Amsterdam on 11 July 1962 museology was approved as a course of instruction in
museum theory whereas museography was applied to the various techniques of museum
work.17 Thus, the two disciplines concern the theoretical and practical training of
15
Ale Ganik, Ethnological Museology of Intangible Heritage: The Culture of Masking in
Museums, in ICOM, International Council of Museums, ICOFOM, International Committee for
Museology Comit international pour la Musologie, Museology and Intangible Heritage II, International
Symposium, organized by ICOFOM, 20th General Conference of ICOM (Seoul, ICOFOM, 2004), p. 35.
16
Sonja Tanner-Kaplash, The Common Heritage of All Mankind: A Study of Cultural Policy and
Legislation Pertinent to Cultural Objects, (PhD diss., University of Leicester, 1989), p. 80; Franois
Mairesse, Andr Desvalles, "Brve histoire de la musologie," in Lobjet de la musologie, ed. P. Mariaux
(Neuchtel: Institut dhistoire de lart et de musologie, 2005), pp. 1-50.
17
Amsterdam 1962, the 7th ICOM General Conference, available from http://icom.museum/who-
we-are/the-governance/general-assembly/resolutions-adopted-by-icoms-general-assemblies-1946-to-
date/amsterdam-1962.html, accessed November 2011.
15
individuals in museum work. The different academic programs came to emphasize a
proper combination of theoretical and practical study emphasizing both comprehensive
achievement in the training of museum professionals and mutual academic advancement
in both disciplines.18
ICOM emphasizes the importance of graduate studies for the development of
museums and other cultural institutions.19 However, the precise definition of museology
is still debated among people working in the field or other scholars interested in the study
of museology. The lack of agreement is evident in specialist handbooks and
encyclopedias.20 In an attempt to define the word museology, Jong Ho Choe derives it
from the Greek words Logos, which means study, and Muses, which refers to the
goddesses, daughters of Zeus credited with creative imagination.21 Choes statement
recalls the Museum of Alexandria that is considered the archetype of the modern
museums in the world. Although some Western scholars do not agree that there is a
connection between the Museum of Alexandria and museums today, I think Choe is right
to stress the importance of the Museum of Alexandria and its contribution to the creation
of museology. In this sense, museum studies are a natural development of the increased
18
Jong Ho Choe, Museology, Ethnographic Museums and Intangible Heritage in Korea, in
Museology and Intangible Heritage: Museology and the Types of Intangible Heritage; Museology,
Museums and Intangible Environment; 5 October 2004, Seoul, Korea: Proceedings of the Joint Meeting of
ICOM International Committee (Seoul: ICOFOM Korean Society of Museum Studies, 2004), p. 4.
19
UNESCO Chair of Museology and World Heritage Czech Republic, Museology-Museum
Studies in the 21st century: Issues of Studies and Teaching (Saint-Petersburg, May 19-21, 2010), pp.1-40,
esp. 11, available from www.icofom.com.ar/forms/reader.pdf, accessed November 2011.
20
Tomislav ola, "The Concept and Nature of Museology," Museum, no. 153, vol. 39 (Paris:
UNESCO, 1987): 45-49 esp. 45.
21
Choe, Museology, p. 2.
16
awareness of the significance of heritage preservation that has resulted in the expansion
of museums throughout the world.
George Henri Rivire was a leading figure in establishing modern museology.
Rivire believed that
Museology was fundamentally synthetic in character, covering as it did a number

of activities, varied from one museum to another and from one country to another.
Hitherto no large-scale endeavor had been made at the international level to
systematize the theories and standards outlined in different countries, with a view
to their adaptation to various cultures and to the requirements of all museums.
Such an endeavor must be made, because the need for a specialized museological
training was universally felt and that training should be practical as well as
theoretical.22
A number of scholars while exploring the problem of museology and the debates about
definition accept Rivires definition and consider it as the most applicable to the field.
Andr Desvalles and Franois Mairesse, leading figures in the field, conclude
that the museum world experienced a wave of unprecedented changes and that it is still
changing in ways that require the development of its applied science. Desvalles and
Mairesse accept the theoretical and practical nature of museology. 23 The theoretical part
of the museum deals with professionals and their relation to ethics whereas the practical
nature of museology, to which Desvalles and Mairesse refer, deals with objects which
form the museums collections.24 The theory of museology according to Desvalles and
22
George Henri Rivire, The Museum--The Intensification of Scientific Research and the
Growth of Art Production, UNESCO International Symposium on Museums in the Contemporary World
(Paris: UNESCO, 1969): pp. 1-50 esp. 18.
23
Andr Desvalles and Franois Mairesse (eds.), Key Concepts of Museology, International
Council of Museums (Paris: Armand Colin, 2010), p. 19.
24
Desvalles and Mairesse, Key Concepts of Museology, p. 20.
17
Mairesse is encompassed in museography. The definition of the museology and its origin
are still debated among scholars today.
Tereza Scheiner describes the techniques of museology or museum science that enable
all forms of museums to operate. Scheiner examines the relationship between technique
and museology. Technique is related to museology. Through the multiple relationships
between museums, museology, and heritage fields, the relevance of the collections is
emphasized.25 Scheiner concludes that museology includes the basic museum functions
such as collecting, documenting, interpreting, researching, conserving the products of
human labor.26 Museology incorporates theoretical and practical knowledge of
collections.
Ivo Maroevi and Gary Edson divide the phases of the development of museology
into four periods: 1) the phase of beginnings of museological thought (up to the 1900);
2) the proto-scientific phase (1900-1934); 3) the empirical-descriptive phase (1934-
1976), and 4) the theoretical-synthetic phase (1976 to the present).27 Each of these
periods merits its own analysis.
2.2. Museological Thought up to 1900:
25
Tereza Scheiner, "Mouson and Techn--Reflections of Contemporary Culture," Symposium:
Museology, Universal Heritage, and Techniques. ICOFOM Study Series, no. 36 (Munich:
ICOM/UNESCO, 2007), pp. 89-98 esp. 89.
26
Scheiner, "Mouson and Techn," p. 89.
27
Ivo Maroevi, Introduction to Museology: The European Approach, ed. Gary Edson (Munich:
Verlag Dr. Christian Mller-Straten, 1998), p. 74.
18
The development of museums and museology in Europe is linked to the
renaissance and the new technology that Europe started to invent. Since the development
of museums in Europe would ultimately affect the construction of museums in Egypt,
some background is required. During the Renaissance, several museums were founded to
preserve ancient monuments, precious books, and different animal and plant specimens.
The collecting of precious materials led to the emergence of the cabinet of curiosities.
The cabinet contained varieties of collections; sculptures, metal and stone objects, fossils,
and animal species. The collections were open to individual visitors. Personal collections
from both Francis I and Louis XIV and their families were housed in Chateau De
Chambord that was built by Francis I during the Renaissance period.28
During the eighteenth century, the desire to collect extraordinary objects
increased among Europeans. French, British, Italian, and other nationalities traveled to
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Africa to obtain antiquities. Collections were acquired by
adventurers and antiquarians: soldiers gathered antiquities from different parts in the
world that their armies invaded; kings possessed collections as symbols of their power;
and, most important, some developments in scientific terms also occurred. One of the
most important developments of the eighteenth century was the introduction of museums
open to the public. Thus, growth of collections, cabinets, and museums led gradually to
development of the scientific discipline of museology.29
28
Kristin Skjaeringrud, Chateau De ChambordA Renaissance Masterpiece in the Heart of the
Loire Valley, available http://EzineArticles.com/5801045, accessed May 2011.
29
Maroevi, Introduction to Museology, p. 73.
19
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, written works appeared that began to
describe collections scientifically. The most influential books were the work of a Swede,
Charles Linnaeus, whose Systema naturae (The System of Nature) includes classification
of natural species, and whose Instructio musei rerum naturalium (Establishment of a
Museum of Natural Things) describes the scientific systematic aims of collecting.30 These
books contributed to the formulation of postulates for new approaches to both collecting
and museum work.31 Peter Van Mensch, a professor of museology in the Reinwardt
Academy, Amsterdam School of Arts, asserts that museum science appeared in two
different terminologies; first, the term museography, referring to the understanding and
establishment of museums, which appeared in the early eighteenth century in Germany;
second, the term museology, found in Philipp Leopold Martins Praxis der
Naturgeschichte (1869), which referred to the exhibition and preservation of naturalia.32
As museums started to assume political and economic as well as cultural roles, it was
essential to recognize museology as a science.
Respect for French leadership in scientific study was in part a legacy of
Bonapartes expedition to Egypt. Although both the sciences of collecting and protecting
had existed in Egypt since Pharaonic times, the evolution of the two interrelated sciences
came from Europe, especially from France. The Egyptian historian Al-Jabarti condemns
some cultural elements of France that are discordant with his own culture, but he admires
30
31
32
Choe, Museology, p. 2.
20
French interest in learning and the sciences.33 Frenchmen spent a great deal of time
studying ancient cultures and they sought to master previous work done by ancient
Egyptian and Arab scholars.34 The French expedition had opened a new era in
museological studies in Europe, although some academies that dealt with the cabinet of
curiosities had already been founded in Europe such as Royal Society in London, the
Academy of Sciences in Paris and the Leopoldine Academy in Germany.35 After the
discovery of Egyptian antiquities by the French, the development of museological
studies accelerated. Egyptian antiquities became the focus of attention between the two
greatest European powers, France and England.
Le XIXe sicle est une priode cruciale pour lhistoire de la musographie. A la

gloire des nations, des cits et des dirigeants qui les construisent, les muses dart
accueillent le public dans des lieux gnralement fastueux o se mlent,
architecture grandiloquente, riches dcors et uvres disposes en abondance, les
unes ct des autres.36
According to the previous statement, the nineteenth century was a crucial period in the
history of museums. To the glory of nations, and of the cities and leaders who built them,
art museums open to the public mixed together elite and non-elite social classes,
grandiose architecture, scenery, and rich works arranged in abundance.
33
Abd-al-Rahman al-Jabart, Journal dun notable du Caire durant lexpdition franaise, 1798-
1801, trans. Joseph Cuoq (Paris: Albin Michel, 1979), pp. 188 and 316.
34
Okasha El Daly, Egyptology, The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic
Writings (London: UCL Press, 2005), p. 57.
35
H. A. Hagen, The Origin and Development of Museums, The American Naturalist, vol. 10,
no. 3 (March 1876): 135-136.
36
Franois Poncele, Regards actuels sur la musographie dentre-deux-guerres, CeROArt
[Online], available from http://ceroart.revues.org/5652, accessed May 2011.
21
The oldest public museum in Britain was the Ashmolean Museum that houses the
University of Oxfords unrivalled collection of art and antiquities from Europe, the
Middle East, and Asia.37 The first collection of its curiosities was made by John
Tradescant (d. ca. 1638), a Dutchman by birth who was raised in England. After
Tradescant died, his son bequeathed the collections by a deed of gift to Elias Ashmole (d.
1692).38 The collection of Elias Ashmole became the base of the Ashmolean Museum.
Another collection was made by Sir Hans Sloane, which the English Parliament decided
to purchase in 1753 for 20.000 English pounds.39 The collection of Sloane was very
important because it contributed to the organization of the British Museum that was
opened on January 1759.
Both the French Revolution and Napoleons expedition to Egypt had positive
effects on the development of museums in France. Moreover, philosophers such as
Montesquieu and Rousseau stimulated the democratic revolutionary thought of the late
eighteenth century and the French Revolution in particular. The opening of public
museums was influenced by Rousseaus attitudes regarding the rights of individuals in
society. Rousseau considered citizenship a group of rights and duties, without which
37
Arthur MacGregor, The Ashmolean Museum: A Brief History of the Museum and its Collections
(London: Ashmolean Museum in Association with Jonathan Home, 2001), p. 84.
38
Philip Bury Buncan, A Catalogue of the Ashmolean Museum: Descriptive of Zoological
Specimens, Antiquities, Coins, and Miscellaneous (London: S. Collingwood, 1836), p. iv.
39
C. Taylor, The Literary Panorama: Review of Books, Magazine of Varieties, and Annual
Register; Comprising Interesting Intelligence from the Various Districts of the United Kingdom, the British
Connections in the East-Indies, the West-Indies, America, Africa, Western, Asia and from the Continent of
Europe, vol. 5 (London: Printed by Cox, Son, and Baylis, 1809), pp. 287-288.
22
there would be no organized political society.40 Rousseaus philosophy had its impact on
al-Tahtawi, the Egyptian scholar who was sent to get higher degrees from French
universities. Philosophers such as Rousseau and others had aimed to exhibit collections to
every member of society, and during the French Revolution the palace of the Louvre was
converted into the first public museum in France. The Louvre Museum became a model
for the development of national museums in other countries.41 The construction of several
museums in Europe led to the evolution of museology.
The opening of the two great museums in England and France occurred as
publications in museum work were beginning to appear and museum science began to
develop. Museographia, by C. F. Neicklius, the first handbook written about museology,
was published by Dr. Johan Kanold of Vienna in 1727 in Leipzig and Breslau. Museum
personnel were encouraged to create general systems and new methods of display. In this
respect, when Champollion joined the Louvre museums staff at the start of the
nineteenth century, he assisted in designing displays that did not follow the custom of
organizing collections along aesthetic lines, and displayed instead three series of
chronologically ordered objectsreligious, civil, funerary.42 In 1882, the oldest
museological school, the cole de Louvre, was established in Paris. It would positively
40
Dora Kostakopoulou, The Future Governance of Citizenship (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2008), p. 24.
41
Philip L. Kohl, Nationalism and Archaeology: On the Constructions of Nations and the
Reconstructions of the Remote Past, Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 27 (1998): 227.
42
Reid, Whose Pharaohs? pp. 46-47.
23
influence the development of Egyptian museums in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, as will be seen here in subsequent chapters.
2.3. The Professionalization of Museology from 1900-1934
The movement toward the professionalization of museums was initiated in Great
Britain at the end of the nineteenth century. However, the efflorscence of museological
literature did not begin until the last decade of the nineteenth century. By 1889, the first
museum association in the world, the Museums Association in the United Kingdom,
attempted to solve or come into compromise with all types of practical problems that face
museums. In 1901, the Museums Association launched the Museums Journal, the first
national journal for the museum field as a whole.43 In 1906, the American Association of
Museums was founded. Attempts to professionalize the field of museum studies came
through such organizations. Brazilian museologist Waldisa Russio places at the
beginning of the twentieth century the recognition of the necessity of professionalization
of the field of museology in connection with the emergence of new publics, resulting
from urbanization, industrialization and modernization.44 The professionalization of the
science of museology resulted from and contributed to significant work in literature,
journals, magazines, and academic schools. Thus, the science of museology emerged as
an academic field. Moreover, the modernization of museums led to the appearance of
museum associations that strengthened the international position of the profession.45
43
Jane R. Glaser and Artemis A. Zenetou, Museums: A Place to Work: Planning Museum Careers
(New York: Routledge, 1996), p. 215.
44
Van Mensch, Towards a Methodology of Museology, p. 4.
45
24
In the beginning, some museum professionals hesitated to accept the idea of
museum studies or museology. They did not accept museology in its theoretical form (the
study of the theory, history, and the role of museums) and in its practical aspects (the
documentation of collections, preventive conservation, and exhibition techniques).46
Moreover, some professionals did not believe that museum studies programs could
adequately prepare people to work in museums. Frederic A. Lucas (d. 1929), while
Curator in Chief of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences (1904-11), believed that a
curator was born, not made; Lucas adds, I do not believe you can train a man [and
almost all were men] to be a curator. He is the result of the combination of natural ability
and circumstances.47 George Brown Goode (d. 1896) of the Smithsonian, one of the first
American museum leaders, believed that intelligence, a moderate education,
administrative ability, eagerness, and that special natural quality, which may be called
the museum sense, are all prerequisite qualifications.48
Nevertheless, several organizations and schools were founded to teach principles
of museum work. The first university chair of museology was established in 1922 at Brno
University and lectures were held from 1922 to 1939.49 Between 1900 and 1934, several
manuals appeared. The earliest of these was Mouseion, the bulletin of the Organisation
46
Glaser and Zenetou, Museums: A Place to Work, p. 158.
47
48
49
25
internationale des muses, first issued in 1927.50 In the same period, museum
professionals gave more attention to the general public by designing special programs
and exhibitions to attract their visitors. However the transitional period in the field of
museology started in 1934.
2.4. Museology from 1934 to 1976
A new period in the history of museology is bounded on one side by the Madrid
Conference of 1934 and on the other by the foundation of the International Committee of
ICOM for Museology (ICOFOM) in 1976.51 The Madrid Conference was organized by
the Organization Internationale des muses (OIM) and was attended by museum
professionals from around the world who met to discuss museography. Although several
issues were addressed in the Madrid Conference, the main topic was the need to develop
new methods of exhibiting, collecting, storing, maintaining, researching, and evaluating
museum objects.52 The conference was concluded by defining the museum as the central
theme of museology.53
50
Janick Daniel Aquilina, "The Babelian Tale of Museology and Museography: A History in
Words," international Scientific Electronic Journal, no. 6, 2011, pp. 1-20 esp. 13, available from
http://www.museum.ct.aegean.gr/articles/2011104172254.pdf, accessed March 2012.
51
52
53
26
Important literature resulted from the Madrid Conference. Museography54, a
collective work in two parts published in Paris in 1937, defined the theoretical level of
museum work.55 Also appearing were L. V. Colemans Museums in America and Alma S.
Wittlins The Museum: Its History and Its Tasks in Education.56 After World War II,
scholars from different academic fields attempted to conceptualize a museological
discipline and all their efforts centered in Paris at ICOM Conference. Van Mensch states,
The first full ICOM General Conference in 1948 called for the proper recognition
and training of the museum's technical staff using the then current title of
'museographers' to cover a wide range of support staff, including collections care
and exhibition technicians. The following General Conference, in London in
1950, recognized restorers as a distinct museological profession. The next General
Conference, held in Milan in 1953, recognized the need for museums to have
education specialists with teaching qualifications.57
Subsequent conferences held by ICOM recognized the importance of the field of
museology as a way to improve museum operations. ICOM defined museology as a
"branch of knowledge concerned with the study of the purposes and organizations of
museums."58 The ICOM International Committee for Administration and Personnel
emphasized the training of museum personnel. The ICOM International Committee for
Administration concluded in a 1965 General Conference that curators or any other
54
UNESCO considered the museography department as an important section in the museum
which is responsible for preparing and appraising plans for the display of exhibits and other operations
requiring technical nowledge, and for supervising the execution of each plan by the museums workshops
or by outside contractors, UNESCO, Education Clearing House, World Health Organization, Educational
Studies and Documents, no. 38 (Paris: UNESCO, 1960), p. 14.
55
56
57
Van Mensch, Towards a Methodology of Museology, pp. 5- 6.
58
George Henri Rivire, UNESCO Regional Seminar on the Educational Role of Museums, Rio de
Janiero (Brazil, 7-30 September, 1958), Educational Studies and Documents, no. 38 (Paris: UNESCO,
1960), pp. 1-65 esp. 34.
27
professions involved with collections should be trained in museology through seminars,
workshops, internships, or graduate degrees.59 Moreover in a symposium held in
Leicester in 1969, the International Committee for the Training of Personnel (ICTOP)
addressed museology as an academic discipline at the level of the university while the
museum profession and museography go to the level of technical training.60
Some members of ICOM attempted to found an International Committee for Museology.
Jan Jelinek, a chairman of ICOMs Advisory Committee and a president of ICOM from
1971 to 1977, proposed the foundation of a Committee on Museology that could serve as
the conscience of ICOM, the proposal met with approval from the Advisory Committee
in June 1976, after which it was discussed by Executive Council. However, the
Committee on Museology was not founded until 1977.
2.5. The Foundation of ICOFOM in 1977 as a Turning Point of Museology:

The activities of ICOM have influenced the development of museology. Several
schools of museology were established, emphasizing museology as a science designed to
establish definite relations between museums, on the one hand, and between science,
culture, history, memory, and society on the other.61 In 1976, the Reinwardt Academy
was founded in Leiden, the Netherlands, and soon became one of the most important
59
"Training of Museum Personnel," Papers from the Seventh General Conference of the
International Council of Museums (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1965), pp. 74-79.
60
61
Rivire, Museum Studies: The Theory and Practice of Curatorial Training, in UNESCO
International Symposium on Museums in the Contemporary World (Paris: UNESCO House, 24-28
November 1969), Final Report
(Paris: UNESCO, 1969), p. 13.
28
centers for museological education and research in Europe. The master program in
museology was initiated in the Reinwardt Academy. Reinwardt Academy introduced
critical museology incorporating the theory and practice of museum work.
In 1987, Tomislav ola pointed out to the challenges museologists faced in order
to develop museology. According to ola, the traditional museology focused on the
museum and its mode of activity and considered museums as a means to an end.62 Yet
museologists decided to develop museology, a process initiated in France in 1980 and
then spread internationally from 1984 on. A new museology emerged by which
museologists recognized the significance of the museum and its activities, but they
"realized the subject of the theory as an essential part of the very phenomenon of heritage
of which the museums are only a part."63 The new museology emphasized the social role
of museums and its interdisciplinary character, along with its new styles of expression
and communication.64 It concerned the development of communities, enlightening
peoples, bringing them together, and associating them in future projects.
ICOM was concentrating more on the development and recognition of museology
as an independent science. An initiative of the Advisory Committee of ICOM laid the
ground for the establishment of the International Committee for Museology and endorsed
the following recommendations:
Every branch of professional activity needs to be studied, developed, and adapted

to changing contemporary conditionsand not least that of museology. To pursue
62
ola, "The Concept and Nature of Museology," p. 48.
63
ola, "The Concept and Nature of Museology," p. 48.
64
Desvalles and Mairesse, Key Concepts of Museology, p. 55.
29
the aims of distributing knowledge of modern museological ideas and to help in

different fields of museological development will be the programme of ICOM
International Committee for Museology.65
ICOMs statement recognizes the study of museums as a separate subject area
needing an organization to ensure connection and communication between museologists
in different parts of the world. Attempts to conceptualize a museological discipline were
started as early as 1950. George Henri Rivire (1897-1985) made the first definition of
museology at the UNESCO Regional Seminar in Education held at Rio de Janiero in
1958.66 Neo-museology was initiated in France by Rivire and Hugues de Varine (1935-).
Neo-museology encourages new approaches to museums, giving them a social role. It
deals with museum activities in society such as eco-museums and open air museums.67 If
museums were to play a new role in society as educational institutes, UNESCO was
convinced that it was necessary to train and educate museum personnel so that they could
meet the needs of the population and museum visitors.68 Members of the ICOM
Executive Council headed by Rivire had tried to professionalize the field of museology
but without success until 1977. The International Committee for Museology held its first
formal meeting at the 12th General Conference of ICOM in Moscow in 1977. In this
65
Vinos Sofka, My Adventurous Life with ICOFOM, Museology, Museologists and anti-
Museologists, giving Special Reference to ICOFOM Study Series (April 1995), p. 12, available from
network.icom.museum/.../ISS%20HISTORY%201995%20V.%20SOFKA.pdf, accessed May 2011.
66
Rivire, UNESCO Regional Seminar on the Educational Role of Museums, p. 12.
67
Hugues De Varine, Tomorrows Community Museum, available from
http://assembly.coe.int/Museum/ForumEuroMusee/Conferences/tomorrow.htm, accessed May 2011.
68
Stephan F. de Borhegyi, The Museum as a Cultural Centre in the Development of the
Community, in UNESCO, Fifth Regional Seminar, Mexico City during 17 September-14 October (New
York: New American Library, 1963), pp. 1-50 esp.35.
30
conference, ICOFOM was recognized as an International Committee of ICOM
concerned with the theoretical approach to any individual or collective human activity
related to the preservation, interpretation and communication of our cultural and natural
heritage, and with the social context in which a specific man/object relationship takes
place.69
Members of ICOFOM cooperated to publish a journal in which museologists can
participate in discussing and changing ideas and solving fundamental museological
problems. Museological Working Papers (MuWoP) is the journal of museological
debates edited by Vinos Sofka. This journal was founded to emphasize that it was
inevitable to create and establish museology as a specific professional activityand to
establish it as a scientific discipline having its place in universities.70 Publications of
museology were not limited to museum people as the evaluation of museology paved the
way to develop more rational, objective, and scientific procedures.
In this respect, Jiri Neustupny wrote in Museology Work Papers:
We must state that museology is a very heterogeneous discipline and that it is

obliged to accept the theories and methods of other disciplinesfor instance of
sociology, of education science, of historiography, and of the academic
disciplines represented in museum collections. Museology applies these theories
and methods to museum work. But, in spite of all this, museology remains a
clearly limited discipline, fully and exclusively confined to the theory and
methodology of museum work.71
69
ICOFOMMuseology International Committee for Museology, definition available from
http://icom.museum/who-we-are/the-committees/international-committees/international-
committee/international-committee-for-museology.html, accessed on November 2011.
70
Jan Jelinek, We Wish You Well, Journal of Museological Working Papers, no. 1 (Stockholm:
ICOFOM Studies Series, 1980), pp. 4-5 esp. 4.
71
Jiri Neustupny, On the Homogeneity of Museology, Journal of Museological Working
Papers, no. 2 (Stockholm: ICOFOM Studies Series, 1982): 46-47 esp. 47.
31
Developing countries follow Western prototypes in founding their museums.
However, there are several examples of developing countries that could develop their
own museums through incorporating traditional knowledge into projects using
appropriate technologies. Museum sciences programs have been established in Japan,
Taiwan, and others. In these countries, museum practices were shaped to fit each
communitys needs and circumstances, based on peoples concepts of conservation and
methods of treating cultural materials. In Egypt, the government is responsible for
founding a professional museology that helps to educate museum personnel. Of course
political conflicts and foreign interest in Egyptian antiquities hindered such professional
development. In addition, even among the outstanding Egyptian Egyptologists, there is a
tendency to imitate Western, professionally-oriented museum models.
To conclude, Both England and France contributed to the development of
museological thought. In Europe in the modern times, France and England were the first
countries to open museums to public visit, though they remained royal properties until the
nineteenth century. Museums then were transformed into national museums. The first
Museum Associations was founded in the United Kingdom. French professionals played
a pivotal role in professionalizing the field of museology and the establishment of the
International Committee of Museology. However, the development of the field in the
international level did not lead to the professionalization of the field in Egypt.
32
CHAPTER III
THE TRADITION OF CULTURAL PRESERVATION IN EGYPT
3.1. The Original Museum in Alexandria:
The preservation of precious and rare manuscripts and objects has a long tradition
in Egypt. Valuable collections of art and literature were stored, preserved, and exhibited
in Pharaonic temples, Greek and Roman temples, and medieval monasteries, churches,
and mosques. This antecedent cultural tradition animates and inspires museum efforts in
Egypt today. To understand current challenges it is helpful to review this past history.
A number of publications debate the origins and the beginning of what are today
called museums. Paula Young Lee states that Museum histories routinely trace the
origins of the modern museum back to 1793 in Revolutionary France, when the National
Convention formally declared that the holdings of the Cabinet du Roi and the Cabinet
dhistoire naturelle were no longer the property of the king but belonged to the entire
French nation.72 However, if the first modern museum was founded in France, the first
ancient museum was established in Egypt. The prototype of French term musum had
already appeared during the third century BCE when the Ptolemies constructed the
Mouseion in Alexandria, the largest center of learning in the ancient world.73 The King
hired a keeper to collect the valuable books from different parts of the ancient world.
72
Paula Young Lee, The Museum of Alexandria and the Formation of the Museum in
Eighteenth-Century Europe, The Art Bulletin, vol. 79, no. 3 (September, 1997): 385.
73
Daniel Heller-Roazen, Traditions Destruction: On the Library of Alexandria, October, vol.
100, Obsolescence (Spring, 2002): 135, available http://www.jstor.org/stable/779096, accessed October
2010.
33
In the only detailed surviving account describing the physical plan of the museum
of Alexandria, the geographer Strabo explains that The Mouseion is part of a royal
quarter and it has a cloister and an arcade and a large house in which is provided the
common meal of men of learning who share the Mouseion. And this community has
common funds, and a priest in charge of the Mouseion, who was appointed previously by
the kings.74 According to Strabo, the centerpiece of the complex in the Ptolemaic period
was the Mouseion and its associated library.
The museum is part of the palaces. It has a public walk and a place furnished
with seats, and a large hall, in which the men of learning, who belong to the
museum, take their common meal. This community possesses also property in
common; and a priest, formerly appointed by the kings, but at present by Caesar,
presides over the museum.75
Flavius Josephus in the first century AD wrote Demetrius Phalerius who was the
library-keeper to the king, was now endeavoring, if it were possible, to gather together all
the books that were in the habitable earth, and buying whatsoever was any where
valuable, or agreeable to the kings inclination (who was very earnestly set upon
collecting of books) to which inclination of his Demetrius was zealously subservient.76
Although some scholars argue that the museum of Alexandria was not like a modern
museum, the museum possessed public collections of objects valued for their historic,
74
Peter Marshall Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 315.
75
Strabo, The Geography of Strabo, book 17, trans. Horace Leonard Jones (London: William
Heinemann, 1949), vol. 8, pp. 33-35.
76
Flavius Josephus, The Works of Flavius Josephus, the Learned and Authentic Jewish Historian
and Celebrated Warrior, 6 vols. trans. William Whiston (Philadelphia: William W. Woodward, 1825), vol.
2, p. 136.
34
religious, or magical importance which let us consider the museum comparable to our
recent museums.77
The exact date of its construction is still debated. Some scholars, whose earliest
source lies in the Letter to Philocrates of the second century BCE, identify it as the
creation of the second Ptolemaic ruler, Ptolemy Philadelphos.78 Different testimony
comes from Irenaeus account in the second century AD, which dates the building of the
museum of Alexandria back to the reign of the first Ptolemaic ruler, Ptolemy Soter, at
very beginning of the third century. To support his statement, Irenaeus cites Demetrius of
Phateron whose advice led to the foundation of the Museum of Alexandria. According to
Irenaeus, Demetrius of Phateron was exiled during the reign of Ptolemy II, therefore,
Irenaeus dates the library of Alexandria back to the time of the first Ptolemaic ruler,
Ptolemy Soter.79 Demetrius of Phateron as the political advisor of Ptolemy Soter played a
central role in constructing the Mouseion.80 Some scholars believe that he advised
Ptolemy Soter to construct it to compete with the Mouseion of Athens, which was built
by Theophrastus of Lesbos in Athens. Rudolf Blum believes that the construction of the
77
Edward Porter Alexander and Mary Alexander, Museums in Motion: An Introduction to the
History and Functions of Museums (Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1979), p.
3.
78
Heller-Roazen, Traditions Destruction, p. 135.
79
Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 3. 21. 2; cp.61. 3-4.
80
Paul H. Chapman, The Alexandrian Library: Crucible of a Renaissance, Neurosurgery, vol.
49, no. 1 (July, 2001): 5, MEDLINE, EBSCOhost, accessed on July 2010.
35
Mouseion of Alexandria ought to be considered the end of ancient Greek history and the
beginning of the Hellenistic era.81
The Mouseion of Alexandria was a scholarly community. According to Alexander
Kazhdan and Robert Browning, The Mouseion was a center of scholarship and letters;
its members received a stipend and many engaged in teaching. The Mouseion and its
associated library continued to enjoy official support throughout the Hellenistic and
Roman periods.82 Ptolemy acquired rare collections from different countries to be
studied and be researched by the most outstanding philosophers and scientists. Although
it is considered by some scholars to parallel academic communities that had long existed
in the Greek world, it was different in that it was a royal palace that supported wide
ranging inquiries by a multitude of distinguished scholars.83 Scholars were active and
busy on various research projects or in educating disciples in art, science, philosophy,
geography, and other fields. However, the mentality of colonizers has been the same
since ancient times; they prefer to keep the indigenous people ignorant of any new
science. In this retrospect, Rudolf Blum states, it is still debatable whether the Egyptian
gymnasia were engaged in their mental and artistic education in addition to the physical
training of young people.84
81
Rudolf Blum, Kallimachos: The Alexandrian Library and the Origins of Bibliography
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), p. 95.
82
Alexander Kazhdan and Robert Browning, Mouseion and Library of Alexandria, in The
Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, 3 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), vol. 2, p. 1420.
83
Chapman, The Alexandrian Library, p. 5.
84
Blum, Kallimachos, p. 96.
36
Thus the museum resembled todays public museums as an institution for
learning and enlightenment that received official funding to continue in operation.85
Some scholars believe that it had a religious character. In this respect, Peter Marshall
Fraser states, the Mouseion of Alexandria takes its place in a combined tradition of cult
and religious feeling, and also of literary activity; Fraser adds, It is only in the Roman
period that the Mouseia develop into secular centres of learning, the ancient equivalent of
a University, a development due to the ecumenical prestige of the Alexandrian
Mouseion.86 However, although the original Egyptian museum was started by the
Ptolemies and with a Hellenistic idea, it can be argued that the notion of museum was not
a total novelty in ancient Egypt, but rather a modernization and revitalization of an
existing tradition.87
3.2. Later Egyptian Traditions of Cultural Preservation:
The Museum of Alexandria suffered from riots and violence in Late Antiquity and
was ultimately destroyed.88 The museum ideal did not disappear from Egypt, and it
continued to exist in a form of public display that could be found in some monasteries
85
Pitman, Muses, Museums, and Memories, p. 2.
86
Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 313.
87
To confirm her point, Dr. Fayza Haikal recalls the conservation between an ancient Egyptian
priest and a famous Greek visitor, Solon, that Plato reports in theTimaeus:
But the oldest one among the (Egyptian) priests exclaimed: Solon, Solon, you Greeks are always children;
there are no old men in Greece! What are young in spirit, replied the Egyptian priest, for you possess no
truly antique traditions, no notion gray with timeit is said that here are preserved the oldest traditions
Thus there is nothing beautiful nor great nor remarkable done, be it in your country (Greece), or here, or in
another country known to us, which has not long since been consigned to writing and preserved in our
temples; see Fayza M. Haikal, Private Collections and Temple Libraries in Ancient Egypt, in What
happened to the Ancient Library of Alexandria, ed. Mostafa El Abbadi and Omnia Mounir Fathallah
(Leiden: Brill, 2008), p. 39.
88
Chapman, The Alexandrian Library, p. 4.
37
and mosques. The main idea of the museum is the collecting or the selecting of rare and
unique collections. According to the American Association of Museums a museum is an
organized and permanent non-profit institution, essentially educational and aesthetic in
purpose, with professional staff, which owns or utilizes tangible objects, cares for them,
[and] exhibits them to the public on some regular schedule.89 Traditions of collection
and display can be found in medieval Egypt. David N. Edwards says that some
monasteries located in the urban centers (e.g. Old Dongola) were clearly wealthy and
important institutions which appear to have selected huge mural paintings of some kings
to be exhibited.90 Thus, monasteries acted as locations for public display. According to
Edward Alexander, the museum idea was barely kept alive during the Middle Ages;
Churches, Cathedrals, Monasteries venerated alleged relics of the Virgin, Christ, the
apostles, and the saints and embellished them with gold, silver, and jewels, manuscripts
in sumptuous metal bindings, and rich oriental fabrics.91
An outstanding example is the monastery of Saint Catherine. The monastery is
situated among the mountains of Sinai and it is one of the oldest monasteries in the
Christian world, built by Justinian I between 548 and 565 and originally famous as a
pilgrim destination for its display of the burning bush that Moses had seen; in the tenth
89
The American Association of Museums, What is a Museum? available
www.aam_us.org/aboutmuseums/abc.cfm, accessed June 2010.
90
David N. Edwards, The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan (London: Routledge Taylor
& Francis Group, 2004), p. 245.
91
Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, p. 3.
38
century it became known as St. Catherine's monastery because it possessed the relics of
St. Catherine of Alexandria.92
3. General view of the Monastery of Saint Catherine93
The monastery of Saint Catherine preserved a tremendous number of old icons, which
survived there on its isolated mountain when other icons throughout the Byzantine
Empire were destroyed.94 Its collection of ancient icons, frescoes, and manuscripts
attracted visitors from the entire world to come to see the art and the artifacts on display.
Thus, the monastery became one of the worlds richest depositories of ancient treasures.95
Accordingly, it can be claimed that monasteries possessed a tradition of public display.
92
Alice-Mary Talbot, Catherine, Monastery of Saint, in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, 3
vols., ed. Alexander Kazhdan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), vol. 1, p. 392.
Source: UNESCO's website, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/954.

93
94
Elizabeth Zelensky and Lela Gilbert, Windows to Heaven: Introducing Icons to Protestants and
Catholics (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2005), p. 117.
95
Zelensky and Gilbert, Windows to Heaven, p. 117.
39
There is also a similarity between the interior design of monasteries and
museums. David Edwards and George Scanlon provide some information about the
interior design of the monastery of Qasr El Wizz. Edwards and Scanlon state that the
monastery consisted of a main building with refectory, long corridors, library, and study
rooms.96 The interior design of the monastery could be compared to the ancient museum
with slight differences.
4. A plan of the Monastery of Qasr El Wizz97
The museum contained a library, lecture halls, covered walks, refectory,
laboratories for dissection and scientific studies, and botanical and zoological gardens.98
96
George T. Scanlon, Excavation at Kasr el-Wizz: A Preliminary Report II: The Monastery,
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 58 (Aug., 1972): 30, available http://www.jstor.org/stable/3856236 ,
accessed December 2010; and Edwards, The Nubian Past, p. 245.
Source: Scanlon, Excavation at Kasr el-Wizz.

97
98
Alexander and Alexander, Museums in Motion, p. 5.
40
The architectural style of the monastery of Saint Catherine is somehow different. It is
among the finest surviving examples of Byzantine architecture. The monastery of Saint
Catherine consists of an enclosed courtyard with its perimeter wall lined with rooms,
cells, store rooms, and offices; the monastery church occupies the centre of the open
courtyard.99 The monastery is associated with a library that holds rare icons and
manuscripts. Not only was there a kind of public display in the Coptic period, but there
were also Islamic examples.
During the Islamic period, the tradition of public display was found in some
mosques. An outstanding example is Ribat Athar El Naby or the Mosque of the Prophets
Relics.
5. Ribat Athar El Naby, recent photo after renovation100
99
Lyn Rodley, Cave Monasteries of Byzantine Cappadocia (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2010), p. 241.
Source: Ibn Battuta, Rihlat Ibn Battutah: al-Musamah Tuhfat al-Nuzzar fi gharaib al-amsar,
100
ed. Talah Harb (Beruit: Dar al-Kutub al-llmiyah, 2007), p. 65.

41
Al Maqrizi, in his book Kitab al Mawaiz wa-Iltibar fi zikr al khitat wa l-athar or The
Sermons and Thought in mentioning the Plans and Monuments,101 and in his book Kitab
al-Muqqaffa al-Kabir or The Great Ends, explains that El Saheb Taj El Din collected
some of the Prophets objects to be preserved and exhibited in the Mosque of the
Prophets Relics. The mosque was associated with a library that possessed rare books
from different Islamic intellectual traditions.
The famous traveler Ibn Battuta, in his diary Rihlat Ibn Battutah: al-Musamah
Tuhfat al-Nuzzar fi gharaib al-amsar,102 describes the Mosque of the Prophets Relics as
a great building that was built to preserve the Prophets collections: his wooden pot,
kohl tool (eyeliner), needle for sewing his shoes; and Quran.103 The Mosque of the
Prophets Relics was the object of interest for a number of travelers and historians such
as Dr. Fawzi Mohamed Fawzi, Dr. Assem Mohamed Rizq (the director of the Islamic
Archaeology Documentation Center in citadel of Salah El Din), Dr. Mohamed El
Sheshtawi, and others. The Mosque was destroyed as a result of a Nile flood and the
monuments were transferred to the Mosque of Qunsuh EL Ghori and then to El Hussein
Mosque, where they have been preserved in a private room until today.
3.3. Napoleon Brings Europe to Egypt:
101
li-Taq al-Dn Amad ibn Al ibn Abd al-Qdir al-Maqrz (1364-1442) , Kitab al Mawaiz
wa-Iltibar fi zikr al khitat wa l-athar, ed. Ayman Fu'ad Sayyid, vol. 4, no. 2 (Index analytique)
(London: Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation Press, 2003), pp. 801-802.
102
Ibn Battuta, Rihlat Ibn Battutah: al-Musamah Tuhfat al-Nuzzar fi gharaib al-amsar, ed. Talah
Harb (Beruit: Dar al-Kutub al-llmiyah, 2007), p. 65.
103
The Quran was copied by Ali Bin Abi Taleb (my translation from Arabic).
42
A French expedition under Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Egypt at the end of the
eighteenth century. Napoleon brought with him a group of artists, engineers, surveyors,
and architects, including the communications engineer J. M. Lepre, the surveyor E. F.
Jomard, and the artist Franois-Michel Cecile who created precise views of many of the
pyramids in Egypt.104 The French expedition to Egypt was not Napoleon Bonapartes
original idea but had been planned long before: according to Henry Redhead Yorke, the
plan of subjugating Egypt was conceived under the reign of Lewis XIV, and lay for
whole generations in the depot at the Invalids, untouched, but not forgotten. It was, at
length, summoned into council, and executed in a mode that astonished all Europe.105
Bonaparte was credited for his scientific expedition that focused on studying the
antiquities, flora, fauna, and social circumstances of Egypt and recording them for all
future generations. The expedition also investigated the possibility of completing the
ancient canal in Suez that was initiated by pharaohs. During Napoleons short stay in
Egypt, the French scholars accompanying the expedition founded the Institute d' gypte.
The institute was established to serve as an instrument of colonization to support
French interests in Egypt.106 The institute had a library, workshops, laboratory, and
important collections of antiquities.107 Objects were collected by the French while in
104
Alan Winston, Early Travelers and Explorers to the Pyramids, part I, available
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/pyramidtravelers1.htm, accessed November 2009.
105
Henry Redhead Yorke, Letters from France, in 1802, 2 vols. (London: Printed for H. D.
Symonds by Bye and Law, 1804), vol. 2, p.150.
106
Fernand Beaucour, Yves Laissus, and Chantal Orgogozo, The Discovery of Egypt: Artists,
Travelers, and Scientists (New York: Abbeville, 1993), p. 81.
107
Reid, Whose Pharaohs? p. 32.
43
Egypt to provide research materials for the Commission des sciences et arts dgypte and
the Institute dgypte; French scholars selected specific pieces that they considered the
finest examples of Egyptian art.108 They intended to ship as many Egyptian antiquities as
they could to France. An impressed English observer wrote in 1800 that the monuments
that were to be transferred to museums in Paris would be a glory of the Louvre.109 Yet
events did not proceed as planned. While the French scholars were busy examining the
ancient documents and antiquities and the French army was scattered in different parts of
Egypt, the British suddenly appeared.
Later in the year in the battle of the Nile Admiral Nelson destroyed the French
fleet, and in 1801 in the battle of Aboukir General Abercromby defeated the army which
Napoleon had left in Egypt.110 The British army together with thirty thousand Turks and
Arabs then attacked Cairo where a French army was located. After twenty days of
resistance, the French forces surrendered. The Ottomans and British divided the French
ships and took all the monuments of antiquity and art which the French scientists had
collected. Today they are displayed in the British Museum.111 The British and French
108
Stephanie Moser, Wondrous Curiosities: Ancient Egypt at the British Museum (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2006), p. 39.
109
Charles Norry, An Account of the French Expedition to Egypt: Comprehending a View of the
Country of Lower Egypt, its Cities, Monuments and Inhabitants at the Time of the Arrival of the French;
and a Particular Description and Measurement of Pompeys Pillar (London: Printed by S. Gosnell for
James Ridgway, 1800), p. 28.
110
Yorke, Letters from France, p. 150.
111
Norry, An Account of the French Expedition to Egypt, pp. 342-342
44
concluded the Treaty of Amiens. Napoleons Egyptian campaign was over and his
army was forced to leave.112
The situation in Europe remained unsettled which led Emperor Napoleon to ally
with Sultan Selim III of Turkey. Learning about this alliance, the British sent an army
under General Alexander Mackenzie-Fraser to Egypt. On March 1807, the army landed
near Alexandria and sought alliance with the Mamluks against Mohamed Ali, then the
Wali or the viceroy of Egypt. Mohamed Ali was among a troop of Albanian soldiers that
had been dispatched to Egypt by order of Sultan Selim III to help in the eviction of the
French.113 Mohamed Ali planned to take control of Egypt by gaining the admiration of
the Egyptian public by helping them to evacuate the French. The British occupied the
Delta region, but Mohamed Ali defeated them and forced them to leave Egypt on
September of the same year. Although both the French and British military invasions of
Egypt failed, the cultural campaign of the French scholars led to the beginning of modern
Egyptology.
3.4. Egyptology in the Early Nineteenth Century:
After Napoleon's invasion, Europeans could not ignore Egyptian antiquities. As
soon as Baron Dominique Vivant-Denon had published his Voyage dans la haute et la
basse gypte and Description de l'gypte, European scholars and students started to plan
their journeys to the land of mysteries. The French Institute in Egypt acted as a laboratory
112
Piers Mackesy, British Victory in Egypt (London: Routledge, 1995).
113
Churton E. Churton, The Life of Mohammed Ali, Viceroy of Egypt (London: Bardbury and
Evans, 1840), p. 10.
45
in which some objects were studied and examined, prior to transportation to France for
further study. Such objects have never been returned, but they are exhibited in the Louvre
museum and other private museums.
As an earlier Orientalist, the great French scholar Sylvestre de Sacy said
[I] had planned to establish a museum, which was to be a vast depot of objects of all
kinds, of drawings, of original books, maps, accounts of voyages, all offered to those who
wish to give themselves to the study of (the Orient) in such way that each of these
students would be able to feel himself transported as if by enchantment into the midst of
whichever he might have made the object of his studies.114
The Orient was transferred to Europe by writers, artists, and photographers.
According to Donald Preziosi, Europeans brought Egypt to Europe either through artistic
representations or through real objects.115 The Orient thus became an object against
which Europeans could define themselves as they preserved their own history and social
memory.116 One of the great exhibitions held in Paris showed Cairo with its streets,
pyramids, camels, dirt, etc. The exhibit offended Egyptian visitors because it represented
Egyptians as old-fashioned and rural; as one Egyptian observed, even the paint on the
buildings was made dirty.117 Perhaps the Europeans planned to represent the Egyptians as
uncivilized, primitive, and in need of Western assistance. The exhibit was designed to
provide an excuse to the West to take control over the cultural heritage of Egypt in order
to preserve it.
114
Donald Preziosi, The Art of Art History: A Critical Anthology, 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009), p. 412.
115
Preziosi, Art of Art History, p. 412.
116
Preziosi, Art of Art History, p. 489.
117
Timothy Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), p. 104.
46
Although the collecting of Egyptian antiquities began before the French
expedition to Egypt, it increased greatly during the reign of Napoleon. Museums in
Europe, developing as centers of public education, needed collections of objects to
display. Acquiring artifacts became part of the French mission civilisatrice beyond
Europe and helped create a European image of Egypt.118 The most important discovery
found during the French military campaign was the Rosetta Stone.119 It is a fragment of a
memorial stela which represents a bilingual decree issued at Memphis, the capital of
Egypt during the Old Kingdom, by the Egyptian priests to honor the anniversary of the
succession of Ptolemy V.120 A long period of ignorance in the West about Ancient Egypt
came to end with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone.121 The world could finally put words
to the statues and the monuments, the mummies and the papyri of Ancient Egyptian
civilization. It took more than two decades before Jean-Franois Champollion completed
the decoding of the stone. He had studied in the Lyceum of Grenoble, and afterwards
went to Paris in 1807, where he learned the oriental languages under Louis-Mathieu
Langls (1763-1824) and Silvestre De Sacy (1758-1838).122 He studied Coptic and
Egyptian archaeology in general. In his first published work, L'gypte sous les Pharaons:
118
Margarita Diaz-Andreu Garcia, A World History of Nineteenth-Century Archaeology:
Nationalism, Colonialism and the Past (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 75.
119
A record of the importance of the stone was published in the Courier de l'Egypte, where in the
August 1799 issue, the discovery of the stone was described, and it was stated that "the stone offers great
interest for the study of hieroglyphic characters, perhaps it will even give us the key at last."
120
Reeves, Ancient Egypt, p. 14.
121
El Daly, Egyptology: The Missing Millennium, p. 1.
122
Charles Knight, The English Cyclopedia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, 2 vols.
(London: Bradbury and Evans, 1858), vol. 1, p. 159.
47
ou, recherches sur la gographie, la religion, la langue, les critures et l'histoire de
l'gypte avant l'invasion de Cambyse, Champollion wrote "that it was to be hoped that
from these monuments, on which ancient Egypt painted mere material objects, we should
be able at last to discover the sounds of its language, and the expression of its thought."123
The work of Champollion promoted the development of professional academic
Egyptology, with more and more professionals working in the field.
Along with the deciphering of the ancient Egyptian language, unprecedented
missions of exploration were launched in the early nineteenth century. Both France and
Britain appointed consuls in Egypt with missions to enhance the British Museum and the
Louvre Museum collections. These consuls competed to dominate the important
archaeological sites. Egyptian archaeological sites were divided between Henry Salt,
appointed British Consul-General in 1815 and Bernardino Michel Maria Drovetti,
appointed French Consul-General in 1811. During the nineteenth century, Giovanni
Battista Belzoni and Henry Salt were not only consuls of their countries but also
excavators and famous dealers dealing Egyptian antiquities to great museums and private
collections.124 Representatives from other nations also engaged in the exploration of
ancient Egypt, such as the Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt who was the first
European to visit Abu Simbel. During the period the works of the British Egyptologist,
John Gardner Wilkinson contributed to the advancement of the British Egyptology. Later
123
Jean-Franois Champollion, L'gypte sous les Pharaons: ou, recherches sur la gographie, la
religion, la langue, les critures et l'histoire de l'gypte avant l'invasion de Cambyse (Pennsylvania: J.H.
Peyronard, 1811), p. 4.
124
Antonio Brancaglion Junior, "From Egypt to Brazil: An Egyptian Collection in Rio de Janeiro,"
in Egyptian Museum Collections around the World Studies for the Centennial of the Egyptian Museum,
Cairo, ed. Mamdouh El Damaty and Mai Trad (Cairo, Egypt: Supreme Council of Antiquities, 2002), vol.
1, p.155.
48
on, Karl Lepsius undertook the best prepared expedition ever to have gone to Egypt.
According to James Henry Breasted, later hailed as the first American Egyptologist,
Lepsius was the only one who carried away an intelligent record and account of the
place.125
Auguste Mariette (1821-81), an assistant in the Egyptian Department of the
Louvre Museum, was sent out to Egypt in 1850 to purchase some Coptic manuscripts.
Although Mariette had been a restorer of papyri and a specialist in Coptic studies, after
his arrival to Egypt he determined to focus on excavations. His first discovery was the
Serapeum at Memphis that was recorded in the writing of Strabo. In describing such a
great discovery, Mariette wrote,
Did it not seem that Strabo had written his sentence to help us rediscover, after
over eighteen centuries, the famous temple dedicated to Serapis? It was
impossible to doubt it. This buried Sphinx, the companion of fifteen others I had
encountered in Alexandria and Cairo, formed with them, according to the
evidence, part of the avenue that led to the Memphis Serapeum. It did not seem to
me possible to leave to others the credit and profit of exploring this temple whose
remains a fortunate chance had allowed me to discover and whose location
henceforth would be known. Undoubtedly many precious fragments, many
statues, many unknown texts were hidden beneath the sand upon which I stood.
These considerations made all my scruples disappear. At that instant I forgot my
mission (obtaining Coptic texts from the monasteries), I forgot the Patriarch, the
convents, the Coptic and Syriac manuscripts. Linant Bey himself, and it was thus,
on 1 November 1850, during one of the most beautiful sunrises I had ever seen in
Egypt, that a group of thirty workmen, working under my orders near that sphinx,
were about to cause such total upheaval in the conditions of my stay in Egypt.126
Mariette sent all the finds to the Louvre Museum, without informing or getting
permission from the Egyptian authority. For example, stone sarcophagi of sacred and
125
Charles Breasted, Pioneer to the Past: The Story of James Henry Breasted Archaeologist
(Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1943), p. 177.
126
Auguste Mariette-Pasha, Le Srapum de Memphis (Paris: F. Vieweg, 1882), p. 27.
49
mummified bulls with other precious artifacts that were excavated in the Serapeum of the
Bulls of Apis were shipped to the Louvre.127 More than 7000 antiquities were transferred
to France, a service for which in 1852 Mariette became a Chevalier de la Legion d
Honneur.128 Mariettes work encouraged excavations in different sites in Egypt, but he
wanted to find a way to keep all the archaeological sites under his control. If he could
control the archaeological sites, he could help France and other European nations develop
the field of Egyptology.129
The professionalization of Egyptology that started in the first decades of the
nineteenth century with the work of Wilkinson, Lepsius, and others, led to an aggressive
exploitation of Egyptian antiquities. Innumerable cultural objects are found dispersed in
both private collections and museums throughout Europe and North America.
Westerners aimed to study the Egyptian antiquities and develop the field of Egyptology
in their countries, so they exploited their advantages in Egypt, often without
permission.130 Hence, collected Egyptian antiquities ranging from scarabs and mummy
hands to papyri, sarcophagi, colossal heads and the walls and ceilings of tombs and
127
Murray, Milestones, p. 226.
128
Murray, Milestones, p. 226.
Catherine Hall, Civilizing Subjects: Colony and Metropole in the English Imagination, 1830-
129
1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 265.

130
Sherif, Architecture as a System of Appropriation, p.2.
50
temples were shipped to Europe.131 Then they were transferred to other parts in the world,
either by auction or by donation.132
Egyptian antiquities were widely dispersed. As Dr. Yan Haiying, professor of
world history from Peking University recently revealed at a special session for the 20th
Confucius Salon at the Confucius Institute of the University of Texas at Dallas:
In 2005, three Egyptian sarcophagi and 50 stelae were found in the storage room
of National Museum in Beijing, China. These Egyptian antiquities originated
from the epoch ranging between the Old Kingdom and the Roman period. They
were brought to China by Duan Fang, a governor from Chinas last Qing Dynasty,
who purchased them in 1906 on his way back home from his exploratory trip to
Europe. Since then, they had been stored in oblivion. While Egyptian antiquities
have been collected in Egypt, Europe and other Western countries, this is the first
Egyptian collection in China.133
In an exhibit review entitled Durham, Oriental Museum: Egyptian Antiquities
from Private Collections, Nicholas Reeves praises the opportunity to show what kinds
of object are to be found in private collections today but he adds that the assembled
artifacts are not the sort of material which the present-day collectors might expect to
obtain on the open market because the availability of fine Egyptian antiquities has
greatly decreased over recent years, and it is symptomatic of this that the majority of the
better objects exhibited at Durham came from the older collections.134 Reeves review
131
Darrell Dykstra, "Pyramids, Prophets, and Progress: Ancient Egypt in the Writings of Ali
Mubarak," in Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 114, no. 1 (January-March, 1994): 54-65 esp.
55, available from http://www.jstor.org/stable/604952, accessed on August 2010.
132
Egyptian Museum Collections around the World, ed. El Damaty and Trad, vol. 1, p. 133.
133
Gu Mingdongand Tian Xiangbin, Cross Space-Time: Egyptian Antiquities Rediscovered in
China, Confucius Institute News, available
http://www.cnconfucius.cn/news/news/confuciusinstitute/america/2011-03-08/3809.html, accessed
December 2009.
134
Nicholas Reeves, Durham, Oriental Museum: Egyptian Antiquities from Private Collections,
51
shows the investment of European collectors in Egyptian antiquities not only during the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries but also in more recent times.
The presence of Egyptian antiquities around the world had their impact on the
Western architectural design and eventually led to the emergence of Egyptomania. The
term Egyptomania refers to a recurring fascination with ancient Egypt in Western
European art and culture. This fashion resulted from popularization of the scientific study
of ancient Egypt. Denon's Voyage, which revealed the wonders of Egypt to audiences in
Europe and America, not only launched Egyptology as an academic field but also
precipitated popular Egyptomania. It first gained toehold in France, and then quickly
spread to other Western nations including Britain, Germany, Italy, and America.135 New
waves occurred sporadically, as in Australia, for example, where, in the absence of any
detailed study of all Egyptian monuments, new discoveries such as the tomb of
Tutankhamen would promote a major revival of interest in Ancient Egypt and another
phase of Egyptomania.136 Ancient Egyptian images and characteristic architectural forms
were appropriated for all sorts of uses.137 The development of architecture was influenced
by ancient Egyptian monuments.138 In some cases, Egyptian-style fashions served as a
The Burlington Magazine, vol. 130, no. 1027 (Oct., 1988): 791, available
http://www.jstor.org/stable/883520, accessed August 2010.
135
Brian A. Curran, review of Egyptomania: Egypt in Western Art, 1730-1930 by Jean-Marcel
Humbert, Michael Pantazzi, Christiane Ziegler, The Art Bulletin, vol. 78, no. 4 (Dec., 1992): 739-745 esp.
739, available http://www.jstor.or/stable/3046219, accessed December 2011.
136
Humbert and Price, Imhotep Today, p. 180.
137
Jeans-Marcel Humbert and Clifford Price, Imhotep Today: Egyptianizing Architecture
(London: UCL Press, 2003), p. 161.
138
James Stevens Curl, The Egyptian Revival: Ancient Egypt as the Inspiration for Design Motifs
in the West (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 366.
52
marker for cultural affiliation and aspiration.139 Westerners were fascinated with the
Egyptian culture and assimilated every aspect of it:
Throughout [the nineteenth and twentieth centuries) publications, exhibitions,

and salons propelled the rage for all things Egyptian: members of archaeological
and tourist expeditions published articles and books; luxury and antiquarian
imports from Egypt commanded top price on the European market; hairstyles,
clothing, home decorating and architecture defined the look of the Egyptian
vogue; intellectuals and artists attended the Louvres exhibitions of Egyptian
antiquities.140
The importance of Egyptian antiquities was not only recognized in the West but
also in Egypt. Jacques Tagher has illustrated how the Egyptian upper class, from the
1820 on, seems to have developed a bit of an imitative taste, expressed in the addition of
a pharaonic piece or two to domestic dcor, or in the assembling of a small collection of
artifacts.141 On the official side, the khedives, a title granted by the Ottoman Sultan Abdel
Aziz (1830-1876) to the hereditary pasha of Egypt, set regulations to protect the Egyptian
antiquities, but the removal of the Egyptian antiquities persisted either through illegal
purchase or with permission from the Egyptian authorities. These regulations remained
on paper and were poorly enforced by the Egyptian authority, specifically the khedive
who might himself allow the removal of antiquities. The Egyptian rulers in the nineteenth
century began to recognize the value of cultural heritage and started to stock a supply of
artifacts to distribute as politically useful gifts and rewards. One atrocious instance came
139
Humbert and Price, Imhotep Today, p. 161; Sasha Colby, Stratified Modernism: The Poetics of
Excavation from Gautier to Olson (New York: Peter Lang, 2009), p. 28.
140
Colby, Stratified Modernism, p. 37.
141
Jacques Tagher, "Fouilleurs et antiquaires en gypte au XIX' sicle," Cahiers d'histoire
gyptienne, vol. 3 (1950): 72-86, esp. 73.
53
in 1855 when Khedive Abbas I himself improvidently presented a visiting Austrian
prince with the entire contents of an antiquities museum after the guest declined to accept
a horse as a gift.142
Mohamed Ali started this tradition to implement his ambitious in developing
Egypt to be comparable to Europe at that time. After him his successors followed
Mohamed Alis footsteps in seeking to develop Egypt and rewarding Europeans. At that
time, the khedives were technically officers of the Sultan of Turkey, but in practice they
ruled Egypt under British and French domination.
3.5. Problems Posed by Increasing European Domination:
Political events in Egypt in the nineteenth century made it difficult for Egyptians
to take control over their own cultural heritage. The nineteenth-century Egyptians and
their government were increasingly dependent upon European financiers and competing
political powers. Western attempts to modernize Egypt led its rulers to incur huge debts,
which led first to European financial control and then to political domination. Since 1805
Egypt had been governed by Mohamed Ali Pasha, who instituted far reaching military,
economic, and cultural reforms, turning Egypt into one of the most modern developed
states outside Europe.143 As James Augustus Sterling John noted, Mohamed Ali
142
Yunan Labib Rizk, A Tale of Theft and Squander, Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 461 (December
1999), available www.ahramweekly.org.eg/1999/461/chrncls..htm , accessed December 2010.
143
Arthur Goldschmidt, The Formation of a Nation-State: Modern Egypt (Boulder: Westview
Press, 2004), p. 26.
54
commenced a political and moral revolution.144 However, efforts at modernization by
Mohamed Ali and his successors drove Egypt into severe debt, facilitating the colonial
penetration of Britain, who took formal control in1882 and maintained direct power until
1922.
The efforts of Mohamed Ali disturbed the British, who did not want a powerful
country threatening to interrupt the flow of travelers and mail across Egypt, the shortest
route between England and India. Seeking to replace Mohamed Ali with a weak ruler
who would support the British interests, British forces as it is previously indicated,
invaded Egypt in 1807 and occupied Alexandria, but Mohamed Ali soon defeated them.
Although the British forces left Egypt, the British government still planned to control
Egypt indirectly. In 1839, Mohamed Ali and the Egyptian army went to war against the
Ottoman Empire. Britain intervened and forced Mohamed Ali to get rid of all import
obligations in the name of free trade. It is the new policy that the British followed to keep
the colonies bound to Britain while still using them as agents for further British
expansion.145 Egypt's growing industries could not compete with the flood of cheap
British products. Subsequently, Egypt exported raw cotton, imported manufactured
goods, and became an economic dependency of Britain.146
144
James Augustus Sterling John, Egypt and Mohamed Ali: Travels in the Valley of the Nile, vol. 1
(London: Green and Longman, 1834), p. viii.
John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, "The Imperialism of Free Trade," the Economic History
145
Review, new series, vol. 6, no. 1 (1953): 1-15 esp. 13, available http://www.jstor.org/stable/2591017,
accessed on March 2012.
146
Richard W. Bulliet, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven W. Hirsch, and Lyman L.
Johnson, The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Since 1500, vol. 2 (Boston: Wadsworth Cengage
Learning, 2012), p. 522.
55
Mohamed Ali's successors continued modernizing reforms, but were under
increasing European influence. Meanwhile, in 1851, England started to build a rail line
connecting Alexandria to Cairo. In turn, the French began the Suez Canal in 1859 with
the financial support of international investors, using the forced labor of Egyptian
peasants who worked under terrible conditions. At that time, European textile industries
were dependent on American cotton; therefore, when the war was fought in 1861, Europe
was forced to buy its cotton from Egypt. Consequently, Egypt, under Ismail Pasha,
experienced a brief economic boom. But Ismail continued to borrow foreign funds to
invest in numerous projects, including schools, cultural institutions, transportation, and
industrial advancements. Later in Ismail's reign, because of the dropping of the cotton
prices, he found himself deeply in debt. In 1878, England and France, the major
investors in Egypt, stepped in and established control over Egypt's assets. Ismail tried to
get rid of them and to outline a new constitution, but England and France removed him
from power and installed his son, whom they could easily control.
Egyptian political parties and troops called on Egyptians to resist the
encroachments of the West. Some sought freedom through violence such as al-Sayyid
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-1897), a pan-Islamic agitator of Afghan birth, while
Mohamed Abduh (1849-1905) and others believed that the renaissance of Muslim
countries through education and persuasion were to be the right way to secure freedom.
In 1881, a group of army officers led by Ahmed Urabi (1841-1911), a colonel in the
Egyptian army, raised a nationalist movement against the French and British. In response,
both France and Britain sent naval fleets to Alexandria. Riots broke out in Alexandria
56
against the invaders, so the French fleet turned around and sailed home, leaving the
British alone. On September 13, 1882, battle broke out between British and the
nationalist army at Tell el-Kebir where the latter was defeated and Urabi was arrested and
exiled. Consequently, the British had taken military control of Egypt. In spite of
England's earlier promise to withdraw its troops, it refused to leave Egypt. In theory, the
Egyptian khedive and his ministers were in control of the government, but in reality, the
British Consul-General and his advisers were in charge.147
At that time, France and Britain were competing to have control over Egypt.
However, they had to strengthen their ties against their common enemy, Germany.
Britain and France commenced to align and signed the Entente Cordiale of 1906 (see
Appendix 1). This reconciliation between France and England affected the development
of Egyptian antiquity policy: the Entente Cordiale ratified Englands political and
economic control of Egypt but recognized Frances traditional cultural power over
Egyptian antiquities. Even though England approved Frances privileges over Egyptian
antiquities, the English continued to collect antiquities through their officials and
permitted expeditions.
The political situation in the nineteenth and early twentieth century made it
difficult for Egyptians to develop their own antiquities policies. Collection policy was
randomly operated as James Breasted states,
Excavation and exploration have now long since ceased to be treasure-hunting.

Mariette and Schliemann dug for treasure only. The conscientious scientist of
today knows that an exhaustive record of everything stationary or movable found
147
Lanver Mak, The British in Egypt: Community, Crime, and Crises, 1882-1922 (London: I.B.
Tauris, 2011), p. 10.
57
on the spot is the supremely important thing, including especially all inscriptions,
reliefs, decorations, and the like, in facsimile. The search for fine museum pieces
is mere commercial treasure-hunting.148
The early European excavators cared only for collecting treasures; later excavators saw
themselves as more scientific but they still delighted in spectacular finds and were not
always conscientious about preserving lesser discoveries. Andrzej Niwinski describes
how the unsystematic collecting policy caused the loss of rare coffins dated back to the
21st dynasty. According to Niwinski, such coffins have never been inventoried because of
the lack of any record of those days. In addition, the coffins of the 21st dynasty have been
sent to the European museums, but in the course of the preparation of sending the coffins
off, some errors were committed and pieces which originally were parts of one coffin
were in some instances sent off to different museums.149 Gaston Maspero, the successor
of Mariette states, "the whole collection which reached Boulaq was without any other
classification than the size and the nature of objects."150
European excavators were not necessarily interested in the development of a
coherent collection policy for the benefit of the Egyptian people, since the museums and
universities which funded excavations had a vested interest in securing artifacts for
themselves. In order to have complete control over Egyptian archaeological sites and
museum, Europeans continuously reported that Egyptian officials were impeding the
148
Breasted, Pioneer to the Past: The Story of James Henry Breasted Archaeologist, p. 177.
149
Andrzej Niwinski, "Coffins of the 21st Dynasty in the Cairo Egyptian Museum: History of their
Acquistion and Documentation, and the Actual Project of their Complete Publication," in Egyptian
Museum Collections around the World, ed. El Damaty and Trad, vol. 1, p. 866.
150
Niwinski, "Coffins of the 21st Dynasty in the Cairo Egyptian Museum," p. 864.
58
development of the collecting process. Consequently, Egyptian officials were
marginalized and disregarded as European-dominated Egyptology developed.
In short, Egypt possessed the first museum in the ancient world which is
comparable to our today's museums. Although the museum was destroyed as a result of
the civil war, a tradition of public display continued in Egypt during the Coptic and
Islamic periods. French expedition had a real impact on the development of the field of
Egyptology. However, the field remained European and the Egyptians were kept away
from their field. The following chapter presents brief analyses of the development of the
main museums in Egypt in order to understand to what extent the evolution of museum
studies in Europe influenced the establishment of the field in Egypt.
59
CHAPTER IV
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSEUMS IN MODERN EGYPT
In the nineteenth century world, modern museums developed in parallel with the
colonial expansion. Museums were among the newly designed public services that were
constructed to help manage and educate growing populations.151 The museum is
understood as an instrument for the fabrication and manipulation of cultural heritage. In
the colonial world, colonizers could exercise their power through the accumulation and
interpretation of antiquities. By the reconstruction of monuments, they conveyed a
message to the natives they have always been or have become incapable of either
greatness or self-rule.152 Tony Bennett in the Birth of the Museum: History, Theory,
Politics states,
The public museum, as is well known today, acquired its modern form during the
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The process of its formation was as
complex as it was protracted, involving most obviously and immediately a
transformation of practices of earlier collecting institutions and the creative
adaptation of aspects of other new institutions. However, the museums
formationwhether understood as a developmental process or as an achieved
formcannot be adequately understood unless viewed in the light of a more
general set of developments through which culture, in coming to be thought of as
useful for governing, was fashioned as a vehicle for the exercise of new forms of
power.153
151
Jennifer Barrett, Museums and the Public Sphere (Malden, MA: John Wiley and Sons, 2010),
p. 59.
152
Benedict Richard OGorman Anderson, Imagined Communities, (London: Verso, 2006), p.
181.
153
Tony Bennett, The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics (New York: Routledge,
2009), p. 19.
60
Egypt offers a case study of how the development of museums could be
intimately linked to the development of colonial power. Its museums were developed and
promoted and controlled by European powers. This chapter will show how the museum
came to serve as an instrument of colonization which supported European interests in
Egypt. 154 It examines the first museum initiatives in Egypt and the advent of French
dominance over Egyptian antiquities preservation; the creation of the Egyptian Museum,
the Greco-Roman Museum, the Coptic Museum, and the Museum of Islamic Art; and it
examines some problems presented by European dominance. Nevertheless, despite these
problems, museums became an enduring part of the national identity of modern
Egyptians.
4.1. Al-Tahtawi and the First Open Museum in Egypt
Some of the first interest in new Egyptian museums came from Egyptians
themselves. Rifaa Raf Al-Tahtawi (1801-1873) was a governmental official and
educational reformer who was originally from Upper Egypt. He received his education in
Al-Azhar. He was one of the first generation of Egyptians sent to Europe, where he spent
five years in France and was fascinated by French culture.155 After his return, he told
Mohamed Ali Pasha about his trip and reported the following: It is well-known that
Europeans have buildings for keeping antiquities--stones covered with paintings and
154
Fernand Beaucour, Yves Laissus, and Chantal Orgogozo, The Discovery of Egypt: Artists,
Travelers, and Scientists (New York: Abbeville Press, 1993), p. 81.
155
David Commins, review of Arab Travelers and Western Civilization by Nazik Saba Yared,
International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 31, no. 4 (November, 1999): 674-677, available
http://www.jstor.org/stable/176474, accessed November 2010.
61
inscriptions, and other such objects are carefully preserved there and shown to the
inhabitants of the country, as well as to travelers... Such institutions bring great renown to
the countries that have them.156 Mohamed Ali was inspired by Al-Tahtawis
observation. In 1835, al-Tahtawi proposed a plan to Mohammed Ali Pasha to preserve
the Egyptian antiquities. The plan, published in the Al-Waqa'i Al-Masryia157 newspaper,
required that any antiquities found by individuals should be handed over to al-Tahtawi as
the dean of Al-Alsun School.158 Mohamed Ali announced a decree on August 15th 1835
that envisaged a museum in Cairo to house the finds of Egyptian antiquities under the
supervision of Yusuf Dia Effendi.
The creation of this museum did not in itself solve the problems associated with
the looting and export of antiquities. Al-Tahtawi stood against the plundering of
Egyptian antiquities by European collectors and excavators: he publicized a law intended
to limit the export of old artifacts and he protested Mohamed Alis plan to export an
obelisk to Europe.159 He had some European allies: Jean Francois Champollion sent an
appeal to Mohamed Ali Pasha asking him to protect the Egyptian antiquities from
fellahin and unauthorized collectors. Champollion wrote the following: all of Europe
156
Gaston Wiet, Mohamed Ali et les Beaux-Arts (Cairo: Socit royale des tudes historiques,
1949), p. 28.
157
The first Egyptian newspaper that was founded by Refaa al-Tahtawi.
158
Personalities of Egypt Left a Footprint on Our Lives: Rifaa Rafie Al-Tahtawi, Here Cairo
Egypt (Monday, May 12th 2008), available http://herecairo.blogspot.com/2008/05/refaah-rafie-al-
tahtawi.html, accessed May 2011.
159
Michael Wood, The Use of the Pharaonic Past in Modern Egyptian Nationalism, Journal of
the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 35 (1998): 179-196, esp. 179, available
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40000469, accessed November 2010.
62
will take notice of the active measures which His Highness would want to take to assure
the conservation of temples, palaces, tombs, and all kind of monuments which still attest
to the power and grandeur of ancient Egypt, and which are at the same time the most
beautiful ornaments of Modern Egypt.160 Both al-Tahtawi and Champollion encouraged
Mohamed Ali Pasha to issue a decree to protect the Egyptian antiquities. In 1836,
Mohamed Ali did agree to forbid the export of antiquities, and eventually he appointed
antiquity inspectors.161
The Antiquities Service was entrusted to Yusuf Dia Effendi and housed in the
Azbakiyya quarter of Cairo.162 Effendi was responsible for the Antiquities Service and
the new museum. The open museum in Azbakiyya was the first place in which old
artifacts were stored and preserved. The museum was known as the museum of Sheikh
Rifaa.163Although the Egyptians had no experience or education to manage such a
museum, it was a good first step. Yet the European missions did not always support al-
Tahtawi and his colleagues plans to preserve Egyptian antiquities and the European
states wielded considerable power over Mohamed Ali. Effendi tried to protect the
Egyptian antiquities, but lack of available resources did not allow Egyptians to have the
upper hand either in the field or in the museum. Foreign excavators were supported
financially through private sectors such as institutes, universities, religious organizations,
160
Jean Franois Champollion, Lettres crites dgypte et de Nubie, en 1828 et 1829 (Geneva,
1973, reprint of the Paris 1833 edition), pp. 456-457.
161
Wood, Use of the Pharaonic Past, p. 180.
162
Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot, Introduction, in Napoleon in Egypt, ed. Irene A. Bierman
(Reading, UK: Ithaca Press, 2003), p. 162.
163
Tawfiq Habib, Rifaa Raf Al-Tahtawi, Al-Hilal, 1 November 1923, p. 135.
63
and others. The plans of al-Tahtawi and Effendi would take much of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries to become a reality.164
4.2. French Contributions to the Development of Museums in Egypt
Even though al-Tahtawi initiated the edict for the protection of the Egyptian
antiquities, the majority of scholars in Europe and Egypt credit new efforts to protect
Egyptian antiquities to the French archaeologist Auguste Mariette, who was introduced in
the previous chapter as a minor official sent to Egypt by the French government to
acquire some Coptic material for the Louvre Museum who then embarked on his own
career as an archaeological excavator. 165 After working many years in Egypt, in 1858
Mariette persuaded Said Pasha, Mohamed Alis successor, to try to stem the continuing
illicit trade in Egyptian artifacts by approving the creation of the Antiquities Service (the
Service des antiquits) and by appointing Mariette himself as its director. This new
governmental department was responsible not only for approving and supervising foreign
archaeological missions but also for carrying out its own excavations.166 During the time
of Mohamed Ali and his successors Said and Ismail, diplomatic relations between France
and Egypt were very close and most of the offices of the Antiquities Services were
assigned to French citizens. The French government and private sectors enthusiastically
collected ancient Egyptian antiquities. Officials of French museums and associations
164
Wood, Use of the Pharaonic Past, p. 180.
165
Tim Murray, Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara: ABC-
CLIO, 2007), p. 226.
166
Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), A Brief History of the Supreme Council of
Antiquities: 1858 to Present, available www.sca-egypt.org/eng/SCA_History.htm, accessed November
2009.
64
were sent to excavate, collect, and search for Egyptian antiquities and then they sought to
ship valuable ones back to France. Egyptian antiquities from various parts of Egypt began
to flow to French museums as a result.
The Egyptian government wanted to control the foreign excavators and to put an
end to the antiquities free for all. Mariette himself was opposed to excavations that he
could not control. He was convinced that the only way he could dominate excavations
and publishing was to persuade the Pasha to establish the Museum. The Museum of
Boulaq became a reality in 1863. Its collections were arranged according to their
aesthetic value. When Mariette was criticized for this design, he defended himself, stating
the following:
Certainly as an archaeologist, I would be disposed to deplore these useless

arrangements of no use of science; but if the Museum thus arranged pleases those
for whom it is intended, if they come back often and in so doing are inoculated
without knowing it with a taste for the study and, I would almost say, the love of
the antiquities of Egypt, my intention will have been accomplished.167
Later on, to strengthen the power and control of France over Egyptian antiquities,
Mariette founded the French Archaeology Mission in 1882, which is known later as the
French Institute of Oriental Archaeology. French representatives used every opportunity
to keep the Egyptian antiquities under their power.
167
Auguste Mariette, Notice des principaux monuments exposs dans les galleries frovisoires du
Muse dAntiquits gyptiennes de S. A. le Vice-Roi a Boulaq (Alexandria: Imprimerie Franaise
Mours, 1868), pp. 10-11.
65
6. The Museum of Boulaq168
The British were also active. The Egyptian Exploration Society was founded in
1882 and incorporated in 1888 as the Egypt Exploration Fund to explore, survey, and
excavate at ancient sites in Egypt and Sudan, and to publish the results of this work. The
Fund conducted explorations and excavations in Egypt and Sudan for obtaining
information about the ancient history, religion, arts, and science.169 In the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries, large teams of archaeologists descended upon Egypt,
Source: the archives of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, 1858.

168
169
Egyptian Exploration Fund, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vols. 74-75 (1989): xi.
66
hoping to uncover spectacular treasures for the museums that sponsored them. However,
the Egyptian Exploration Fund still had to receive licenses to excavate in Egypt from the
French-dominated Service des antiquits. This could be complicated: on 12 December
1927, J. G. Maxwell, President of Egyptian Exploration Society stated, may be less than
overjoyed when he refers to the Egyptian Service des antiquits having kindly allowed
us to retain the concession though digging only in alternate years.170
As director of both the Antiquities Service and the Boulaq museum, Mariette had
influence over the foreign missions and therefore had to deal with the Khedives desire to
forbid the export of antiquities. Mariette said that it was no longer possible for agents of
European missions to justify removing treasures from Egypt on the grounds that the
Egyptians were not capable of looking after them because now Egypt had a museum in
which the finds of the excavations could be preserved.171 Mariette, in theory, was trying
to save the Egyptian antiquities for the Egyptians. However, he refused to give
permission to excavate in important archaeological sites, and many of the most important
sites were absolutely and entirely reserved for him, such as the Thebes necropolis.172
Mariette's good intentions are called into question, however, by the continued export of
antiquities. For example, the editor of the Times of London said that the Egyptian
Museum at the Louvre has just received a donation as remarkable for the beauty of the
objects of which it is composed as for the rarity and scientific interest attached to them.
170
The Heretic King: An Offer for Egyptian Research, The Times, Monday, 12 December 1927,
p. 10, no. 44762, col. D.
171
Jeanette Greenfield, The Return of Cultural Treasures (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2007), p. 98.
172
A Man with a Mission, Al-Ahram Weekly, 26 August-1 September 2004, no. 705.
67
This present is from a young and learned Polish Traveler, Count Michal Tyszkiewiex,
who collected the objects during his researches in Egypt.173 Tyszkiewiex was an owner
of a journal that published Mariettes news and reports. Between 1861 and 1862,
Tyszkiewiex visited Karnak, Philae, and Abu Simbel sites and made valuable
descriptions in his journal. Tyszkiewiex collection was not the only one that suggests
that Mariettes intention in founding the Museum of Boulaq was not to halt exports to his
friends. An exhibit titled Goddesses, Tombs: the World of Egypt was held in the city of
Lille in France, and featured several objects transferred in from Egypt. The two incidents
above suggest that not all the objects Mariette excavated in Egypt ended up in the first
Egyptian Museum of Antiquities in Boulaq.174 What he did in Egypt was natural, for, as
the Times complained, the French believe that the antiquities of Egypt belong to France
and Frenchmen, who alone are worthy to elucidate their mysteries.175 In 1878, the
Director-General of the Louvre Museum offered its curatorship, the highest museum
office in France, to Mariette, but Mariette refused because he felt he had to stay in Egypt:
he asked his counterparts; "would you be satisfied if a German had gotten control over
the field of Egyptology, a field that was taken over so far by French Egyptologists? We
should stand against the growing German influence in Egypt.176
173
Egyptian Antiquities: the Egyptian Museum, The Times, Tuesday, 15 April 1862, p.7, no.
24220, col. C.
174
A Man with a Mission, Al-Ahram Weekly.
175
Egyptian Antiquities, The Times, Saturday, 16 April 1881.
176
Peter France, The Rape of Egypt: How the Europeans Stripped Egypt of Its Heritage (London:
Barrie & Jenkins, 1991), p. 148.
68
The Egyptian Antiquities Service remained dominated by the French. Auguste
Mariette directed it from 1858 to1881; then it was managed by a succession of French
Egyptologists: Gaston Maspero 1881-1886), Eugne Grbaut (1886-1892), Jacques de
Morgan (1892-1897), Victor Loret (1897-1899), Gaston Maspero again (1899-1914),
Pierre Lacau (1914-1936), and tienne Drioton (1936-1952). During the French
directorship, while the Louvre Museum became a model for the development of national
museums in other countries,177 a place where new display methods were applied, the
Egyptian Museum continued to be a storehouse in which collections were roughly
exhibited.
Gaston Maspero (1881-1916) had been introduced to Mariette in 1867 during his
visit to Paris. However, Maspero was already competent to translate newly found
hieroglyphic texts which Mariette confided to him.178 In 1881, after Mariettes
resignation, Maspero was appointed to direct the Boulaq Museum and the Antiquities
Service. Although he resigned after six years, the French were not satisfied by the
subsequent work of the Antiquities Service, so Maspero was reappointed for a second
term that ran from 1899 until 1914. Unfortunately, he opened the archaeological sites of
Egypt to all foreign expeditions without exception. In order to strengthen his ties with the
177
Kohl, Nationalism and Archaeology, p. 227.
178
Death of Sir Gaston Maspero, The Times, Monday, 3 July 1916; p. 6, no. 41209, col. C.
69
British after their conquest of Egypt, Maspero allowed them to have antiquities from the
Museum if during their excavation campaigns they had no luck in the field.179
An article in the El Muqtataf, an Egyptian newspaper, states that Heinrich
Brugsch, a member of the Egyptian science committee, chief curator in the Berlin
museum, and the consul of Prussia in Cairo, founded an Arabic language school to
educate Egyptian students in the science of Egyptology and in different ancient and
foreign languages.180 A few students joined the school and all of them were enthusiastic
to work in the Egyptian museums. Brugsch tried to get the students of his school
positions in the Egyptian Museum, but Mariette refused.181 Maspero followed Mariettes
way of rejecting the involvement of Egyptians in museum management, and he
succeeded in his campaign to close Brugschs Arabic school, although later on he did hire
Ahmed Kamal to avoid the nationalists anger.182 It is not clear whether he was
prejudiced against Egyptian Egyptologists, the Germans who sponsored their training, or,
most likely, both.
179
Egypt, Wizarat al-Ashghal al-Umumiyah, Egypt Maslahat al-Athar, and Institute Francais d'
Archeology Orientale du Caire, Learned Institutions and Societies (Cairo: Institute Francais d' Archeology
Orientale du Caire, 1900), p. 10.
180
El Muqtataf November,1923, p.173.
181
El Muqtataf November, 1923, p. 173.
182
El Muqtataf November, 1923, p. 173.
70
7. Memorandum of the
cancellation of the school of
Egyptology 29 December,
1885.183
8. Mmorandum de l'annulation de
l'cole de l'gyptologie 29
Dcembre, 1885.184
Source: the archives of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, 1885.

183
Ibid.
184
71
4.3. The Egyptian Museum:
The opening of the Egyptian Museum was a major event. Dia Abu Ghazi states
that 15 November 1902 is an unforgettable day in the history of the Museum in which it
was opened to the public and thus the hope of the generations since Mohamed Ali
became a real fact, a Museum for the day and for tomorrow. It has all means of work: a
library, laboratory, security, and an extra land that extends to the Nile-bank for all future
extensions, beside foundations for more wings.185 The Egyptian Museum was the first
museum in the world to be originally constructed as a museum instead of being a
transformed palace or other building. The museum was formally opened by the Khedive
in front of 500 invited Egyptian and colonial dignitaries.186 Yet the Egyptian Museum in
Cairo was in a purely western neo-classical style and continued to be managed by
Europeans until the 1950s.187
The collections of the Egyptian Museum had originally been stored in the old
museum of Boulaq. That museum had been threatened by flood. It could not
accommodate the excavated finds that were expanding rapidly as a result of the intensive
activities of the foreign expeditions in the ancient Egyptian sites. It was an era notable for
scientific excavations sponsored by outstanding foreign institutes such as the Oriental
institute of Chicago (1919), the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1884), and others. On
185
Dia M. Abou-Ghazi, The Journey of the Egyptian Museum from Boulaq to Kasr el-Nil,
Annales du Service des antiquits de l'gypte, vol. 67 (1988): 15-18, esp. 17.
186
Petra Kuppinger, Globalization and Exterritoriality in Metropolitan Cairo, The Geographical
Review, vol. 95, no. 3 (July, 2005): 361.
187
Sherif, Architecture as a System of Appropriation, p. 5.
72
January 1890 Boulaqs collections were moved to the palace of Ismail Pasha in Giza.
Ismail Pasha visited the museum and opened it to the public. However, even it was
overloaded by objects and it was necessary to create a new museum.
The Egyptian Museum reflected Western architectural style. This was the policy
of imperialism that tended to change the architecture and education in colonized countries
in order to convince colonial subjects of the superiority of European Civilization.
Mohamed Ali, in his modernization process, had brought European engineers, designers,
and architects to assist him in the westernization of Egypt. He and his successors
privileged the Western style in architecture. Thus, the Egyptian Museum was designed by
the French architect, Marcel Dourgnon and built by the Italians Giuseppe Garozzo and
Francesco Zaffrani.188 Imperialists not only managed Egyptian archaeological sites and
museums but also decided to re-design Cairo city according their western style. Since the
designer of the main museum in Egypt, the Egyptian Museum, was French, he enforced
the massage of the neo- classical style with a faade that included statues of all the
European Egyptologists who worked in the museum. Though it is necessary to consider
the architecture in the urban environment in terms of regeneration, cultural tourism,
memorialization, symbolism, metropolitanization, and so on, the designer overlooked
these facts.189 First, the museum design did not consider the surrounding urban
environment when it came to enforce mainly European elements of architecture. Second,
188
Rosanna Pirelli and Francesco Tiradritti, Il contributo italiano alla costruzione del Museo
Egizio del Cairo, Guide agli caccolte egizie d Italia (Montepulciano: Harwa, 2010), p. 22.
189
Suzanne Macleod, Reshaping Museum Space: Architecture, Design, Exhibitions (London:
Routledge, 2005), p. 55.
73
the museum faade includes the European Egyptologists as contributors to the Egyptian
Museum. Third, the texts on the faade are written in the Latin language. Consequently,
the outer design of the museum did not reflect the collections exhibited inside.
Dr. Mohamed Saleh, the ex-director of the Egyptian Museum, states that the
government did not give the opportunity to Egyptian designers to participate in designing
museums although Egypt has many outstanding designers. Thus, the design of the
museum is Neo-classical and the exterior reflects not one Egyptian contribution.190 As
Egyptologist Francesco Tiradritti has observed,
Dourgnon's two-story edifice was constructed entirely in reinforced concrete, a

material whose potentials were then just beginning to be realized. The building is
a rectangle with an area of 14,330 square yards. The visitor enters the museum
through a handsome porch in the center of the main facade. A well-proportioned
archway is flanked by two Ionic columns and decorated with a head of the
goddess Isis. Set into the wall on either side are two high-relief female figures
representing Upper and Lower Egypt (the Nile Valley and the delta). Likewise
adorning the facade are marble panels inscribed with the names of prominent
Egyptologists and other individuals who contributed to the preservation of Egypt's
antiquities. In front of the museum is an impressive sculpture garden with a
central pool of papyrus. At one end of this garden, an elegant Neoclassical
hemicycle with a life-size bronze statue of Mariette (wearing a fez; he was
dubbed pasha in 1879) honors the Egyptologist's memory.191
The construction of the new museum in Qasr El Nile was associated with other
initiatives by the Egyptian Antiquities Services. In 1900, it began a magazine that
published the brief reports that the European excavators would present when they would
190
Abd El-Halim Nur El Din, Matahef Al Athar Fi Misr we Al Watan Al AArabi:Dirassa Fi Aalm
El Matahef (Al Qahira: Al Aqsa Press, 2009), p. 10.
191
Edward Brovarski, "The Egyptian Museum at 100," World & I, vol. 17, no. 11 (November,
2002): 82, available MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost, accessed April, 2011.
74
finish their work. Today the Annals du Service des antiquits de l' gypte is considered
the principal reference in the field of Egyptology.192
9. The Main entrance of the Egyptian Museum and the core exhibition193
192
Mina Badi Abd El Malek, The French Institute for Eastern Archaeology in Cairo, Rakkoti:
Adwaa al El-Derassat Al-Qibtia, vol. 6, I (January 2009): 31.
Source: photographed by the author on June 2011.
193
75
10. A part of the core exhibition in the Egyptian Museum194
The Egyptian Museum exhibits the collections from the pre-dynastic till the end of the
Pharaonic period, including the treasures of King Tutankhamen, displaying them in
chronological order. The Egyptian museum is the largest museum of its kind in the world
and it possesses enormous numbers of unique pieces. Its collections represent one certain
culture in particular: Pharaonicalthough some Greco-Roman artifacts are exhibited to
complete the chronological order. 195
194
195
Nur El Din, Matahef, p. 247; Gamal Mokhtar, The Egyptian Museum Cairo in Ten Years
1965-1975: An Exhibition Held in the Museum in 1976, in Fourth Periodical Exhibition (Cairo: Egyptian
Museum, 1976), p. 3; Reid, Whose Pharaohs? pp. 1-2.
76
11. Greco-Roman Collections in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo196
196
77
Although the construction of the new museum was Mariettes idea, he did not live
long enough to manage it. Gaston Maspero held the post of the chief of the Antiquities
Services at the time when the new Egyptian Museum was completed, and he eventually
became the director. During Masperos first administration, the museum exhibited around
36,000 objects in a chronological order. However, there was no evidence that the objects
were numerated or recorded.
12. A part of the Egyptian Museum Exhibition197
Some British citizens became more involved with the new Museum and with the
Antiquities Service. In1899 new British inspectors were appointed to work in the
archaeological sites. Maspero's friends recommended Howard Carter, a young
experienced artist with excavating training to have the post of inspector.198 Another
inspector was Percy Newberry, a graduate of Oxford University with considerable
excavating experience. Carter was among the students of Flinders Petrie who sought
work in Egypt. A number of foreign students were educated and trained under Flinders

197
198
T. G. H. James, Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun (London: I. B. Tauris and
Company, 2001), p. 78.
78
Petries guidance, among them distinguished scholars such as J. E. Quibell, Howard
Carter, James Quibell, Arthur Weigall, Lord Carnarvon, and others who later were
working in the field from 1920-1970.199
13. Statues, stelae, and blocks scattered in the Egyptian Museum exhibition200
During the twentieth century, the Egyptian government controlled certain
archaeological sites such as the Valley of Kings in Luxor. The excavations at Luxor were
supervised by the senior inspector of Luxor who was usually European and the finds from
the excavations were sent to the Cairo Museum at the Egyptian governments expense.201
Although the policy of the Egyptian government was to keep the rarest objects in the
199
Letters to the Editor, Ancient Egypt: Sir Flinders Petries Work, The Times, Wednesday, 27
May 1931, p. 8.

200
201
Mohram Kamal, The English Excavators in Egypt, Al Hilal Magazine (February, 1941), p. 5
(Arabic original, my translation).
79
Cairo Museum, the selling of many precious items persisted. Both Maspero and De
Morgan did not effectively control the buying and selling of antiquities by collectors and
museum curators. Competition to acquire Egyptian antiquities continued among
European Egyptologists who were in the charge of excavation in the different
archaeological sites, which caused hatred between the English and the French on one
hand and the French and other nationalities on the other.202
The competition of archaeologists in the field led scholars such as Arthur Weigall
to object to the selling policy that foreign Egyptologists and Egyptian dealers would
enforce through the sale room in the Cairo museum.203 Weigall did not object to the
actual selling of antiquities: in fact he suggested that the sale of antiquities by the Cairo
Museum should be vastly extended and that the work should be put on business lines.204
Weigall wanted to prevent the plundering of Egyptian antiquities by foreign curators
from Egyptian dealers. However, he wanted to make [their205] surplus stock of
important [Egyptian] antiquities accessible to the public all over the world by selling
historic or artistic objects exclusively to public museums or large collections, and selling
only unimportant objects to private collectors or tourists.206 Weigall advocated the
202
Fayza Haikal, Egypts Past Regenerated by Its Own People, in Consuming Ancient Egypt, ed.
Sally MacDonald and Michael Rice (London: UCL, 2003), p. 124.
203
Weigall, Tutankhamen and Other Essays, p. 27.
204
Arthur Weigall, Formal Proposal to the Advisory Department of Public Works, letter dated
31 July 1909, AW Archive; in Weigall, Tutankhamen and Other Essays, p. 33
205
In his own words, Weigall said our surplus stock, so he talks about the excavation finds as
theirs because they were the people who excavated them.
206
Weigall, Formal Proposal, p. 34.
80
selling of antiquities through legal professional channels to public museums all over the
world in order to protect the Egyptian antiquities and to provide them a secure and safe
place. Selling Egyptian antiquities was essential, according to Weigall, to relieve the
Cairo Museum of its surplus stock which takes up much room and is badly looked after
owing to the vast size of the collection.207 Weigalls proposal affirmed the foreigners
opinion that the Egyptians were unqualified and unprepared to manage their antiquities.
Instead of assisting the Egyptians to construct new museums and to train a reasonable
number of Egyptians to manage and preserve their cultural heritage, Europeans preferred
to enrich their own public museums and keep the Cairo museums as storehouses.
To facilitate the export of the Egyptian antiquities, French directors of the Cairo
Museum did not allow the Egyptian curators to learn about or get access to their
antiquities. Hence, the European director of Cairos Egyptian museum ordered guards to
eject Egyptians found copying hieroglyphic text.208 Ahmed Kamal (1881-1923) was the
only Egyptian who was working in the museum. However, his job was limited to
classifying artifacts and transferring the collections to the new museum. Maspero had his
own management policy that would serve both his personal and national missions, and he
had some artifacts boxed and stored in a locked room that was only shown to a few select
people.209 In the Egyptian Museum that was controlled by Western archaeologists,
Ahmed Kamal was striving to break down the barriers that kept Egyptians out of
207
Weigall, Formal Proposal, p. 34.
208
Anthropology News, American Anthropological Association, vol. 44, nos. 2-9 (2003): 10.
209
Cam McGrath, The Egyptian Museum Opens Its Vaults, Middle East, no. 331 (February,
2003): 62, available EBSCO host Military & Government Collection, accessed April 2011.
81
archaeology.210 The museum had several European senior curators who were responsible
for researching and studying the Egyptian antiquities, usually for their own ends.
However, there are no surviving records that document the exact number of these
curators.
According to Arthur Weigall, in 1923, the staff at Cairo Museum [was] too
small and too hard-worked to deal with the rapidly increasing mass of antiquities, and
ruinous confusion grows ever more confused.211 The chief curator was responsible for
checking the finds of the excavations in order to determine what needed to stay in the
museum and what could be sent abroad. However, although the Cairo Museum was built
to control the plundering of the important Egyptian antiquities by foreign expeditions and
although Maspero and his successors hired inspectors in the excavation fields to be sure
that all finds were sent to the Cairo Museum, inspection was not regular or common and
it could not be doubted that many important antiquities passed through the hands of
dealers without the knowledge of the Cairo Museum.212
When Mariette had suggested the construction of the Cairo Museum, he had
planned to use the museum for his ambitions in the world of Egyptology. He had decided
that the antiquities for export from Egypt were to be shown to the authorities at the
Cairo Museum and passed or confiscated with compensation.213 The museum was the
210
Muhammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar, Ahmad Kamal Al-Athari Al-Awwal fi Misr, MTM 12
(1964-1965): 43-57 esp. 45.
211
Arthur Weigall, Tutankhamen and Other Essays, p. 33.
212
James, Carter, p. 177.
213
82
central administration that managed and supervised all the excavation works in Egypt.
Maspero formulated what was called partagethe division of collection between the
excavators and the Cairo Museum.214 However, this system was never implemented until
the directorship of Pierre Lacau. Later on, Howard Carter proposed to work in El-
Amarna, an archaeological site located in Upper Egypt in the new governorate of El-
Minyia, and asked Murdoch Macdonald (1866-1957), Under-Secretary of State in the
Ministry of Public Works in Egypt to take partage from his excavation.215 Carter tried to
get Macdonalds permission to circumvent the authority of Pierre Lacau (1873-1963).
However, Lacau opposed Carters proposal and expressed his worries saying: what if all
excavators did the same? Lacau added that the Antiquities Service and the Cairo
Museum would grant partage to scientific institutions but not to private individuals.216
The Egyptian Museum was a storehouse that would receive thousands of objects
to be cleared through the museum and sold to famous museums in the west. It remained
as a storehouse providing a home for thousands of Pharaonic artifacts.217 Many of the
collections that belonged to the Cairo Museum remained unidentified until recent times.
According to Dr. Zahi Hawass (1947-), the minister of Archaeology,
Over the past hundred years, the basement of Cairo Museum has been, for most
people, a mysterious maze of dark, narrow corridors. For many decades objects
excavated by both Egyptian and foreign missions at sites all over Egypt were
214
215
216
217
Kuppinger, Globalization, p. 361.
83
brought to the Egyptian Museum and stored in the basement. Thousands of

artifacts ended up here, and over 80% were never registered or documented.218
The Egyptian Museum played a major role in helping Europeans to control
Egypt's antiquities. The actual management of the museum focused on the preparing of
objects to be shipped abroad. The museum exhibits remained the same for many years.
The museum basement was used to store excavated finds in closed boxes: most of them
were not even registered and no one of the museum curators knew the location of the
objects.219 This was despite the fact that according to the French School of Egyptology,
which managed the Antiquities Service and Cairo Museum until the second half of the
twentieth century, all finds must be reported and all excavations must be licensed.220
The museum contains a rich library that was founded in 1903 during the
directorship of Maspero. Maspero acquired thousands of books for the library and hired
as librarian Mr. Louis Ducros (1905-1924).221 Ducros worked hard to arrange the books
and to prepare the index cards for the catalogue with the assistance of three Egyptians:
Mr. Yunan Labib Rizk (1933-2008), Hakim Abou Seiff, and Ahmed Abou Zeid. In
addition to many manuscripts and rare documents, the library contains books on topics
218
Wafaa El Sadeek, Sabah Abdel Razek, Terence DuQuesne, Zahi Hawass, and Mohammed
Abdel Fatah, Anubis, Upwawet, and Other Deities: Personal Worship and Official Religion in Ancient
Egypt: Previously Unseen Treasures from the Salakhana Trove, Asyut, with Collateral Objects from the
Galleries of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, and Elsewhere: Catalogue of the Exhibition at the Egyptian
Museum of Cairo, March 2007 (Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities, 2007), p. 1.
219
Zahi Hawass and Sandra Vannini, Inside the Egyptian Museum with Zahi Hawass (Cairo:
American University Press, 2010), p. 15.
220
John Henry Merryman, Imperialism, Art, and Restitution (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 2006), p. 141.
221
Dia Abou-Ghazi, The Library of the Egyptian Museum, Annals du Service des antiquits de
l Egypte, no. 32 (Cairo: General Organization for Government Printing Offices, 1988), p. 1.
84
from the Egyptian pharaohs to philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and others. Maspero
succeeded in enlarging the library by utilizing the upper parts of the walls to add a second
floor. Such enlargement gave a considerable place for the near future.222 Leon Barry
succeeded Ducros for several months, followed by Emile Joseph Galtier (1864-1908) and
Henri Munier (1908-1925), a French citizen who became the librarian. Library
development slowed. Work on the catalogue stopped. Then World War II blocked many
channels, and after the war was over no immediate efforts were made to resume the usual
activities. When Dr. Abd El Mohsen El Khachab (1927-1961) was assigned
responsibility for the Library in 1948, in addition to his work as a curator in the Museum,
he tried to revive the periodicals exchange and re-arrange Case AD that contained the
offprints.223 The library, like the museum itself, needed more attention.
4.4. The Greco-Roman Museum:
Although the Egyptian Museum initially had some Greco-Roman displays, that
period was not its central focus. A Greco-Roman Museum was needed to house materials
from Greek and Roman Egypt which were being discovered in Alexandria and other
Greco-Roman sites.224 The idea of establishing the museum in Alexandria was
crystallized in about 1891 to protect Greco-Roman monuments scattered in sites and in
222
Abou-Ghazi, Library of the Egyptian Museum, p. 3.
223
Abou-Ghazi, Library of the Egyptian Museum, p. 4.
224
Nur El Din, Matahef , p. 253.
85
the hands of individuals such as John Antoniadis.225 Giuseppe Botti (1853-1903), an
Italian archaeologist who came to Alexandria in 1884 as the head of Italian school and
the British Consul, Sir Charles Cookson (1835-1906) played a key role in founding the
Greco-Roman Museum.226 The first museum, founded in 1892, consisted of only five
rooms described by Fjerstad as an apartment of Shari Rosetha.227 Due to the need to
house an increasing number of collections, the Municipality of Alexandria decided to
establish the current museum.228
225
Sir John Antoniadis built in 1860 a house inspired by the Chateau de Versailles which is
located in the heart of a green area inhabited since ancient times. Antoniadis died in 1895 leaving rich
Greco-Roman collections that became the masterpieces of the Greco-Roman Museum.
226
Mervat Seif El-Din, The Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria, Past, Present, and Future,
Bibliotheca Alexandrina Alex Med Newsletter, 20 (August-Oct., 2010): 7, available from
http://www.bibalex.org/alexmed/Attachments/Publications/Files/newsletter issue 20.pdf, accessed March
2010.
227
The correct name as it appears in Jill Kamils writing is Assad Bassili Pasha.
228
Egyptian Antiquities Organization, Greco-Roman Museum: Alexandria 1895, 3rd edition
(Egyptian Antiquities Organization Press, 1987), p. 2 (Arabic original, my translation).
86
14. The floor plan of the museum by Evaristo Breccia229
In 1895, Khedive Abbas Helmy II (1874-1944) inaugurated the new building,
which was directly behind the Alexandrian Municipality.230 As a result of the increasing
activities and archaeological discoveries, the Municipality of Alexandria increased the
number of galleries to twenty seven.231 Unlike the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, the Greco-
Roman Museums architectural style came to reflect the Alexandrian milieu and the
collections inside the museum.232 The design of the museum was neo-classical.
Source: Catalog of the Greco Roman Museum 1965.

229
230
Mervat Seif El-Din, Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria," p. 7.
231
Egyptian Antiquities Organization, Greco-Roman Museum: Alexandria 1895, p. 2.
232
87
15. The Faade of the Greco-Roman Museum233
The Greco-Roman Museum sits in an expansive garden of rare plants.234 It was
managed by Italian directors until 1982: Giuseppe Botti (1892-1903), Evaristo Breccia
(1903-1931), and Achille Adriani (1931-1982).235 It is the oldest museum in the city of
Alexandria and the most representative of its civilization during the Greco-Roman
Period.236 Its unique collections date from the beginning of the third century BC to the
seventh century AD. It started as a simple repository of artifacts, so some sort of support
Source: Catalog of the Greco Roman Museum 1965.

233
234
Fjerstad, The Evolution of Museology in Egypt, p. 26.
235
236
Ahmed Abd El Fattah Youssef, Alexandria, the City of Cultural and Scientific Museums, in
the Light of her Long History, Supreme Council of Antiquities, Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum, vol. 3
(American University in Cairo Press, 2008): 11-15.
88
organization was necessary to coordinate research, fund excavations, and increase public
awareness by integrating the museum into the life of the city.
In 1893, a Socit darcheologie dAlexandrie was founded which would play an
important role in the Museum of Alexandria. The Society supported lectures and tours; it
began publishing a bulletin with articles in French, Italian, English, and German.237 The
first catalogue of the museum was prepared and published by Giuseppe Botti. Later on
Evaristo Breccia made new arrangement to the exhibition and published the museums
second catalogue. As the Greco-Roman museum was sponsored by professionals from
different fields, it can be argued that in its first years the Greco-Roman Museum met the
contemporary standards of the European Museums. Egyptians and Copts showed no
interest in the Greco-Roman period or museum because of their lack of Latin and Greek
languages.
4.5. The Coptic Museum:
Although the Coptic Museum was constructed after the Museum of Islamic
(Arab) Art, it is discussed here after the Greco-Roman Museum because Greco-Roman
Egypt led to Coptic Egypt. The European Egyptologists had directed all their intention to
the study of Pharaonic period and neglected a very important era of Egyptian history, the
Coptic period. A Copt called Marcus Samaika thought it would be important to exhibit
the Coptic collections which were stored in the Egyptian Museum and to assemble other
Coptic materials. Between 1908 and 1910, he founded the Coptic Museum in order to
237
89
promote the recognition of Coptic art and history as a parallel to exhibitions of Ancient
Egyptian and Muslim art.238 The Coptic community funded the museum. Samaika
devoted his life to the study of Coptic antiquities and he succeeded in displaying an
important era of Egyptian history.239
He assembled immense collections that reflected different ethnic influences. He
also designed a good label and other interpretive materials that contained the data
necessary for the study of the history of Christianity in Egypt:
Few people outside of Egypt realize the devoted spirit and the tireless labor with
which he worked, year after year, raising funds, traveling by desert and mountain
and river to the remotest churches, noting their points of interest, rousing the
priests to a knowledge and appreciation of their treasures, and removing with the
authority of the Patriarch objects of art or antiquity which were perishing from
ignorant neglect.240
238
A. J. Butler, The Coptic Museum, The Times, Saturday, 7 March 1931, p. 8.
239
Ministry of Culture & Egyptian Antiquities Organization, Coptic Museum (Alexandria:
Egyptian Antiquities Documentation Center Press, 1984), p. 1.
240
Butler, Coptic Museum, p. 8.
90
16. A plan of the old and new wings of the Coptic Museum241
Yassa Abdel Massih worked with Samaika and together began to prepare a
volume in the set of Coptic and Arabic manuscripts. Samaika made a short guide of the
museum which was reprinted during the directorship of Mr. Mounir Basta. It is well
known that the Catalogue generale of the Egyptian Museum was prepared by French
Egyptologists in the French language. However, the general catalog of the Coptic
museum was made by Egyptians.
Source: Catalog of the Coptic Museum, 1980.

241
91
17. The Coptic Museum, Hall 6, with capitals from the Monastery of Saint Jeremias at
Saqqara.242
Unlike the Greco-Roman and Egyptian Museums, the collections of the Coptic
Museum are generally arranged according to their medium: the first floor includes carved
stone, frescoes, and woodwork; the second floor contains textiles, manuscripts, icons, and
metal work. The museum includes a department of Coptic manuscripts. It also has a
library that now contains 5300 books and more that 1500 Coptic, Greek, and Arabic
manuscripts. Dr. Soad Maher and Heshmat Messiha published translations of such
manuscripts. In 1939 the museum came under the authority of the Ministry of Education
(later it was under the Supreme Council of Antiquities) and, as part of that shift, it
received new collections of the Christian period, transferred over from the Egyptian
Museum. Thus, it was necessary to increase the museums space. In 1944, new wing was
Source: Catalog of the Coptic Museum, 1980.

242
92
opened. In 1966, the old wing was so damaged that the museums administration had to
close it. The director of the museum wrote to the state to request the restoration of the
museum. Hence, from 1983-1984 the building was renewed; between 1986 and 1988 its
foundations were strengthened.
Yet, until the end of the twentieth century, the study of Coptic monuments was rarely
undertaken. Both the scholars of Egyptology and those of the Byzantine archaeology
tended to neglect this material.
The assembling of diverse Coptic antiquities in the museum promoted Coptic
research.243 The museum had very distinguished scholars in the field of Coptology such
as Dr. Soad Maher and Heshmat Messiha. During the directorship of Dr. Pahor Labib
(1905-1994), the study of Coptology began to flourish, and Egyptologists have been
encouraged to pursue Coptic studies.
243
Ibrahim Kamel, Coptic Funerary Stelae, Catalogue general des antiquits du Muse Coptie
(Cairo: L'organisation typtienne gnrale du livre, 1987), p. 5.
93
18. The courtyard of the Coptic Museum244
4.6. The Museum of Islamic (Arab) Art
The last of the major museums discussed here in order of the chronological
progression of their cultural eras is the Museum of Islamic (Arab) Art. Ismail Pasha
founded the collection of antiquities, monuments, and libraries in Ahmed Maher Square
(Bab el-Khalq or Bab el-Kharq). It was a great building and was divided into two parts:
the Eastern part was the Museum of Islamic Art, the Western part contained a public
Source: Shehata Eisa Ibrahim, al-Qahra (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1960), p. 310.
244
94
library Dar al-Kotob.245 The museum was conceived in 1869 to preserve Islamic
antiquities. The Islamic collections were temporarily exhibited in the Eastern Iwan of the
Mosque of al-Hakim-bi-Amr Allah.
In 1881, Ismail Pasha signed a decree which established the Museum of Islamic
(Arab) Art. The collections were transferred to the new building and were perfectly
exhibited to reflect the message that the objects convey. It is a unique museum that
fascinated western tourists. At its official opening on 28 December 1903, it was
proclaimed the greatest Islamic Museum in the World. In the beginning, it housed more
than 7028 objects that narrate the development of Islamic civilization during different
periods. Thus, the Museum of Islamic Art is considered a scientific institute in which
scholars could study various stages of Egyptian civilization.
The museums exhibits were changed in 1952.246 Different models of Islamic art
were exhibited in separate halls, focusing on Egyptian art. There were other halls which
exhibited the collections according to their chronological order. In 1963, the staff added
an exhibition hall devoted to Ayyubid art. According to the catalogue of the museum, in
1979, the collections were increased to 780000 items, thanks to the museums
excavations in al-Fustat, the capital of Egypt during the time of Amr ibn al-Aas (573-
664). Collections of coins, medals, different types of scales were exhibited in private
halls. In addition, the museum published a considerable number of researches, including
books on masterpieces of the museum's collections.
245
Ibrahim, al-Qahra, pp. 310-311.
246
The information about the Museum of Islamic Art was obtained from Mohamed Mustafa, The
Short Catalogue of the Museum of Islamic Art (Cairo: Al-Haya al-Misriya al-Amma lil-Kitab, 1978), and
Jonathan Bloom and Sheila Blair, The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 49.
95
4.7. Political Issues Involved in the Development of Egyptian Museology
The Egyptian Museum and the Greco-Roman Museum were managed for many
years by foreign directors: French directors controlled the Egyptian Museum until 1952;
Italians dominated the Greco-Roman Museum until 1982. Europeans' domination of the
Egyptian museums hindered the progress of the museums' personnel until today. European
curators dominated the field of museology, as well as the processes by which the items
discovered were studied and displayed. Egyptians did little more than act as facilitators
Ahmed Kamal was the first Egyptian who received an education in Egyptology. After his
graduation, the French director of the Egyptian Museum rejected Ahmed Kamal's
appointment in the museum. Only in 1891, during the directorship of Eugne Grbaut
(1886-92), was Ahmed Kamal officially hired as an assistant curator in the Egyptian
Museum. In theory, he held a position in the museum, but in practice he had never been
engaged in the professional work. When De Morgan became the director of the Egyptian
Museum, he never spoke to Ahmed Kamal or assigned him any task. According to an
article in Ruz al-Yusuf, foreigners determined to monopolize Egyptian antiquities, so
they pushed the students of Brugschs school to work in different fields. Ahmed Bey
Nagiub and Mohammed Effendi Ismat worked as teachers and Ibrahim Effendi Nagiub
taught calligraphy. Unfortunately, Europeans drove Egyptians out of their field without
remembering their names.247
247
"Ahmad Kamal and the Lost Generation of Egyptian Egyptologists, Ruz al-Yusuf Magazine,
21 March 1936.
96
Yet Ahmed Kamal determined to struggle against the Europeans' domination of
the field. He tried to encourage his fellow citizens to study and work in archaeology. In
the same time, he introduced several publications in order to egyptianize the field of
Egyptology and to make it accessible to the general public. In 1910, He persuaded
Ahmed Pasha Heshmat, then the Minister of Education, to found the department of
archaeological studies in the Royal College of Education. Seven students were graduated
in 1912: Selim Hassan, Ahmed Abd El Wahab, Mahmoud Hamza, Riad Gindy Malty,
Ahmed Badri, Ramses Shafae, and Mahmoud Fahim.248 But Ahmed Kamal had not been
so successful in his drive to ensure that graduates from this faculty could work in their
field, notably in the Egyptian Museum.249
Despite his failure to place Egyptian students in the Egyptian Museum, Ahmed
Kamal continued to encourage Egyptian merchants, businessmen, and others to work in
excavations. Dia Abu Ghazi, in the Annals du Service des antiquits de lEgypte, states
that Ahmed Kamal encouraged Sayed Pasha Khashaba to work in the field of
archaeology. Abu Ghazi adds that Khashaba was one of the devoted Egyptians who left
his impact on the field of Egyptology even though he was not an archaeologist. Sayed
Pasha Khashaba was a rich tradesman from the city of Assuit who could obtain
permission from Maspero and the committee of the Egyptian archaeology to dig near
Assuit in the sites of Mir and Deir el-Gabraoui. Sayed Pasha continued in his excavation
248
Al-Hilal Newspaper, 1 November 1923, p. 139 (my translation).
249
Yunan Labib Rizk, A Tale of Theft and Squander, Al-Ahram Newspaper [Cairo] no. 461
(December, 1999): 5.
97
from 1910 to 1915.250 The archaeological finds of some native men were either donated
or sold to Egyptian museums.
Foreign expeditions continued to excavate, accompanied by Egyptian inspectors
who were responsible for buying supplies and expediting but were unaware of the
mechanics of scientific excavation. The German archaeologist Richard Lepsius brought
together the treasures now held at the Egyptian Museum in Berlin, although his primary
brief was orderly classification.251 Lepsius was not the only German who used his
mission to remove antiquities. In 1913, Ludwig Burckhardt, the director of the German
Archaeological Institute in Cairo who was active in digging at the library of Tell el
Amarna, transferred to Germany the beautifully colored bust of Queen Nefertiti, the wife
of the pharaoh Akhenaton.252 Although the bust was removed in 1913, the Egyptian
government did not know about the transaction until 1923, which reveals that the
European Egyptologists possessed the upper hand in the field of Egyptology. The
removal of the bust of Nefertiti caused a worldwide Egyptological scandal which made
Queen Nefertiti one of the most famous women from ancient Egypt. Egypt lost one of the
greatest treasures in the world, but this loss had indeed raised interest in Egypt's ancient
history. However, Egypt does have the right to ask for repatriation of the bust as it was
illegally transferred when there was a law governing the excavation work. It is well
known that the foreign excavators or expeditions would receive a part of this
250
Abou-Ghazi, Journey of the Egyptian Museum, p. 3.
251
Jeanette Greenfield, The Return of Cultural Treasures (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2007), p. 98.
252
Greenfield, Return of Cultural Treasures, p. 98.
98
archaeological findings but it should not be removed before the Egyptian authoritys
permission.253 Zahi Hawass, the secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities
has repeatedly requested the return of the bust of Nefertiti from the Neumann Museum in
Berlin. The International Council of Museums (ICOM) 2006 Code of Ethics, Article 6.2,
explicitly encourages dialogue and partnership between museums and source nations:
Museums should be prepared to initiate dialogues for the return of cultural

property to a country or people of origin. This should be undertaken in an
impartial manner, based on scientific, professional and humanitarian principles as
well as applicable local, national and international legislation, in preference to
action at a governmental or political level.
However, the Neumann Museum has refused and German Culture Minister Bernd
Neumann has said that his countrys procurement of the bust was lawful and that Egypt
had no grounds to demand its return.254
John Henry Merryman asserts the ignorance of the Egyptian authority that had
neither been informed about the transaction nor agreed to give the Germans this piece as
a part of their legitimate share of the finds of Tell el-Amarna.255 The illegal transaction
253
The decree of November 17, 1891, addresses the conditions under which permits for
excavations are granted. Article 1 provides that excavations by private individuals require permits from
the director general of museums and excavations, Article 2 pronounces that excavation finds belong to the
state, Article 3, however, states that in consideration of the expenses made by the excavators, the
government shall cede a part of the antiquities found. Article 4 and 5 set out the method by which that
division of finds is accomplished. In essence, Article 4 requires that the Antiquities Service and the
excavator shall partition the objects in two shares in equal value. If the two parties cannot agree on a
selection of the shares, they are to be selected by lot. Important for the Bust of Nefertiti case are the
provisions of Article 5, which reserves to the Antiquities Services the right to re-purchase any piece of the
share allocated to the excavator. See Merryman, Imperialism, Art, and Restitution, p. 142.
254
Mahmoud Kassem, Egypt Demands Return of Nefertiti Bust from Germany (January, 2011),
available http://www.elginism.com/20110218/3588/, accessed February, 2011.
255
Merryman, Imperialism, Art, and Restitution, p. 118.
99
and the loss of important objects continued because European explorers dominated the field
of Egyptian archaeology and used the Egyptian Museum to legitimize their transactions.
Foreign excavation missions working in Egypt during that time were acting as
antiquities traders. They succeeded in transporting many Egyptian artifacts to their own
countries, creating a great ancient Egyptian collection in the Louvre, the British Museum
and the Berlin Museum, among others.256 Moreover, foreigners sold Egyptian antiquities
on the international market. Therefore, nationalists along with Ahmed Kamal worked
hard to educate Egyptians in the field so that they would be able to prevent the export of
Egyptian antiquities. Few students graduated from the department of archaeological
studies from 1912 to 1920. One of those who did was the famous Egyptologist Selim
Hassan. If Ahmed Kamal Pasha was the father of Egyptian archeologists, Selim Hassan
stood in the vanguard of the second generation of graduates of the Egyptian faculty of
antiquities.257 Selim Hassan could not have a job in the Egyptian Museum, so he worked
as a school teacher for ten years.
Even when Egypt had a well educated Egyptian in Egyptology, Selim Hassan,
the French did not accept his nomination to the office of Antiquities Services and they
said that "Selim Hassan was quite intolerable, upsetting everything, a complete
ignoramus and, in short, was proving absolutely perdition to the antiquities
department."258 Thereafter, the British High Commissioner appointed French-nominated
256
"New Law on the Way," in Al-Ahram Newspaper, 27 October-2 November 2005, no. 766.
257
Rizk, Al-Ahram newspaper, p. 6.
258
M.E. Yapp, Politics and Diplomacy in Egypt: The Diaries of Sir Miles Lampson, 1935-1937
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 816.
100
Etienne Drioton (1889-1961). When Lampson was questioned by the Foreign Office
about not having appointed Selim Hassan, he said because "no Egyptian was capable of
replacing Pierre Lacau.259 At that time, the French and British united together to limit
the role of Egyptians in both the Antiquities Services and the Egyptian Museum. Pierre
Jogruet, director of the French Institute, agreed that Egyptians did not have the skills to
direct Egypts Antiquities Services and thought it wrong to flatter their Vanity.260 Thus,
from the nineteenth until the middle of the twentieth century, European Egyptologists
denied the study of Egyptology to Egyptians and did not allow them to manage their
institutions.261 Even George Andrew Reisner (1867-1942) had earlier reported that
Selim Hassan was inexperienced and that he had done his excavating with the assistance
of workmen trained by European expeditions and with the advice of Western
archaeologists, including himself.262
4.8. Conclusion
As scholars associate the development of Egyptian museums with colonization,
they often ignore the contribution of the native Egyptologists themselves and focus
instead on the work of European Egyptologists. Rifa'a Raf' al-Tahtawi was the first one
whose work and writing was instrumental in sparking indigenous interest in Egypt's
ancient heritage. Al-Tahtawi with the support of Mohamed Ali, the ruler of Egypt,
259
Goode, Negotiating for the Past, p. 120.
260
261
Mark Bradley, Classics and Imperialism in the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2010), p. 175.
262
101
founded the first Antiquities Services of Egypt and the first open museum in Abakiyya to
stop the plundering of antiquities. Unfortunately, Egyptian excavation was subject to the
pressure and influence of Western explorers and diplomats. French in particular sent its
citizens to fill the collections of the Louvre Museum. August Mariette and Gaston
Maspero became the most influential figures in the field of Egyptology. Mariette founded
the Antiquities Services and Boulaq Museum, giving him control over the archaeological
sites of Egypt. Mariette, who had originally been sent to Egypt to collect Coptic
materials, supervised many important excavations during his management of the museum
of Boulaq. When the Boulaq Museum was flooded, the collections were transferred to
Ismail's Pasha's palace at Giza. Mariette suggested the idea of the new Egyptian Museum
in Qasr el Nile (El-Tahrir square) and started the construction, but he died before its
inauguration on 15 November 1902. The Egyptian Museum was a storehouse that made
the collections accessible to foreign students and scholars to study and research. In order
to maintain their control over the Egyptian antiquities, French directors did not permit the
hiring of Egyptians and even denied to them the study of ancient Egypt. When the
khedive founded the school of Egyptology directed by Heinrich Karl Brugsch to educate
Egyptians, the French director closed it. However, the dyanmics of Egyptian museology
would begin to change with the rise of Egyptian nationalism.
102
CHAPTER V
MUSEUM MANAGEMENT AND THE POLITICS OF NATIONALISM
Museums are used as tools of mass communication for political and social ends
during peace and war. They can be influenced by political events and they can be
influential. Modern museums in Egypt were created by Europeans who dominated
politically and culturally through a long tradition of scholarly classification and
stereotyping. This chapter will provide a political background of Egypt from the first
decade of the twentieth century to the middle of the same century, a time when Egyptian
nationalists were struggling to build an independent nation. Nationalists sought both
cultural and political independence. Politics and wars influenced the management of the
Egyptian museums that were dominated by the westerners. In this chapter, I examine how
changes in the Egyptian political order affected the museum system that had been
established during the colonial era.
5.1. The Triumph of Egyptian Nationalism
Prior to World War I, Egypt was officially ruled by the khedive, advised by a
council of ministers.263 The family of Mohamed Ali Pasha ruled. Education was
encouraged among Egyptians and the founding of educational and cultural institutions
increased. Ismail Pasha founded Dar el-Kotob to be a reference for students and scholars
and established the Museum of Islamic Art. National movements arose to gain more
263
Priscilla Mary Roberts, "World War I: A Student Encyclopedia in the Encyclopedia of World
War I: A Political, Social, and Military History (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005), p. 898.
103
freedom. The British in turn continued to repress the Egyptian public, arresting Egyptian
popular leaders such as Saad Zaghloul, Ismail Sidqi, and Mohamed Mahmoud and
deporting them to Malta.264 Consequently, the majority of Egyptians did support a
revolution. The 1919 revolution was the first major revolution in Egyptian modern
history against the British presence in Egypt. Although some scholars consider the 1881
Urabi Revolt as the first revolution against the British, I argue depending on the available
records that the first revolution was the one in 1919: unlike the one in 1881-1882,
revolutionary people of all denominations and backgrounds, whether they were workers,
farmers, or merchants, took to the streets throughout the country. National unity
crystallized when the Revolution chose the cross and the crescent for a symbol. Women
were for the first time among the protestors.
264
Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot, Egypts Liberal Experiment, 1922-1936 (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1977), p. 51.
104
The uprising continued and Egyptians insisted that the British should leave Egypt.
With continuous unrest, the British sent a diplomatic mission headed by Lord Alfred
Milner (1854-1925) to negotiate with the Egyptian politicians to regularize the British
position in Egypt.265 In the cabinet papers, English authorities conclude that Lord
Milner seems to have been successful in securing the assent of Egyptian nationalism to
the proposition that we must take precautions for securing military position in Egypt.266
Egypt did not gain complete independence until 1952.
The policy of the British and French in Egypt led to the founding of different
national parties such as El Watani (the nationalist party), which was formed by Mahmoud
Sami Pasha, a politician, and colonels Ahmed Urabi and Abdel-el-al.267 El Wafd (the
delegation) began to emerge seeking Egyptian independence from both Ottoman and
British domination. However, when World War I began, Britain declared Egypt a British
protectorate, made Hussein Kamel sultan, and banned all nationalist activities.268 Tension
increased between the nationalists and British leaders. During that time, Sultan Hussein
265
The National Archive (TNA), Cabinet Office Papers, "Memorandum, by the President, Board
of Education," Document is the Property of His Britannic Majesty's Government, no. 34, Confidential, 21 st
April, 1920 available http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline, accessed July 2010.
266
Ibid.
267
Charles Royle, The Egyptian Campaign, 1882 to 1885 and the Events Which Led to Them, vol.
1 (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1886), p. 30.
268
Malak Badrawi, Political Violence in Egypt, 1910-1924: Secret Societies, Plots and
Assassinations, (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 117.
105
Kamel and General John Maxwell, commander of the British occupying forces in Egypt,
combined to form a highly competent team to administer Egyptian domestic affairs.269
During World War I, Egyptian resources, lands, and even citizens were under
British control. Troops were concentrated in several parts of Egypt, such as Alexandria,
Mesa, Ismailia, and El Kantara. There was also a camp around the pyramid area called
Mena camp.270 Although Egyptians had hoped that the British would withdraw their
troops as soon as the war ended, troops remained in Egypt during the reign of king Fuad
(1917-1936). During this period, a group of gentlemanly capitalists emerged whose
activities helped to promote expansionist forces of investment, commerce, and migration
throughout the world.271 Since they created an international trade system centered in
London, it was advantageous for the British to remain in Egypt, even against the
Egyptians' desire.272 An Egyptian delegation composed of nationalists such as Sad
Zaghloul, Ali Sharawi, Abd al-Aziz Fahmi, Ahmed Lutfi al-Sayyid, Abd al-Latif al-
Makabbati Muhammad Ali Alluba, Hamad al-Basil, and Sinut Hanna, and others, most
of whom had belonged to the Umma Party, asked for permission to go to London to raise
269
Roberts, World War I: A Student Encyclopedia, p. 899.
270
Michael J Mortlock, The Egyptian Expeditionary Force in World War I: A History of the
British-Led Campaigns in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., Publishers,
2010), p. 9.
P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688-2000 (London: Longman, 2002), p.

271
55.
272
John A. DeNovo, American Interests and Policies in the Middle East, 1900-1939 (Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1968), p. 368.
106
the Egyptian question and get it settled.273 The nationalists stated their desire to Britains
high commissioner, Sir Reginald Wingate. Their request was refused. Later, Saad
Zaghloul requested permission to present the Egyptian case at the Paris Peace
Conference, but the British authority denied his request. The British authority said that
Saad Zaghloul did not represent all Egyptians and therefore did not have the right to
speak for them.274 In response his followers set up a committee in September 1918 to
gather contributions and circulate petitions, authorizing the formation of a Wafd, or
delegation, to voice its demands for independence at the Paris Peace Conference. After
the 1919 revolution the British were forced to allow the Egyptians to attend the Paris
Peace Conference.275 However, Zaghlouls delegation failed to secure Egypts
independence. Later on, after an official request made by Prime Minister Adli Pasha
Yakan and Hussein Rushdi, Yakan was chosen to form a government precisely in order
to negotiate with the British over questions related to eventual independence.276
Although Egyptian nationalists continued in their attempts to secure Egypts
independence, they could not achieve much success. Egypt remained under British
government control even though many indigenous prime ministers were appointed,
including Hussein Rushdi (1914-1919), Muhammad Said Pasha (1919), Youssef Wahba
273
Charles William Richard Long, British Pro-consuls in Egypt, 1914-1929: The Challenge of
Nationalism (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 72.
274
Botman, Egypt from Independence to Revolution, 1919-1952, p. 26.
275
Tareq Y. Ismail, Jacqueline S Ismail, and Kamel Abu Jaber, Politics and Government in the
Middle East and North Africa (Miami: Florida International University Press, 1991), p. 322.
276
Yunan Labib, Constitutional Growing Pains, Al-Ahram Weekly online, no. 470 (February-
March, 2000), available http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/470/chrncls.htm, accessed June 2010.
107
Pasha (1919-1920), Muhammad Tawfiq Nasim Pasha (1920-1921), Adli Yakan Pasha
(1921-1922), Abdel Khaliq Sarwat Pasha (1922), Muhammad Tawfiq Nasim Pasha
(1922-1923), Yahiya Ibrahim Pasha (1923-1924), Saad Zaghloul Pasha (1924), Ismail
Sidqi Pasha (1946), Mustafa El-Nahhas Pasha (1950-1952), Ali Maher Pasha (1952), and
others. Some of these prime ministers resigned when the British authority did not allow
Egyptians to manage their affairs and run the country for the benefit of Egyptian citizens.
For example, Prime Minister Saad Zaghloul submitted his resignation when the British
government compelled him to suppress the freedom of nationalists in Egypt and to
impose more restrictions on the Egyptians.
Although the British government unilaterally recognized Egypt's sovereign
independence in 1922, it reserved control over four matters until agreements concerning
them could be negotiated: the security of communications of the British Empire in Egypt;
the defense of Egypt against all foreign aggressors or interference, direct or indirect; the
protection of foreign interests and of minorities in Egypt; and control over the Sudan.277
Sultan Ahmad Fuad became King Fuad I, and his son Faruq was named as his heir. On
January 1924, the first constitutional ministry was founded in Egypt. From 1924 to 1936,
Egyptian nationalists continued in their movement against British occupation. When
King Faruq ascended the throne on April 1936, negotiations resumed with the British for
277
Botman, Egypt from Independence to Revolution, 1919-1952, p. 30.
108
a treaty to give Egypt independence. Miles Lampson, British high commissioner, entered
in negotiation with the Egyptian Prime Minister, Mustafa Nahhas.278
Lampson traveled with the Egyptian delegation to London to present the Egyptian
case requesting independence and membership in the League of Nations. The Egyptian
delegation received assurances that the treaty would be ratified. Upon his return to Egypt,
Lampson was warmly greeted by a group of Egyptians who were waiting at the train
station.279 On August 26, a draft treaty that came to be known as the Anglo-Egyptian
Treaty of 1936 was signed.280 The treaty provided for an Anglo-Egyptian military and
defense alliance that allowed Britain to maintain a military force of 10,000 men in the
Suez Canal Zone. In addition, Britain was left in virtual control of the Sudan. Real power
remained in British hands. Egyptian nationalists, the Wafd party in particular, continued
to seek complete Egyptian control of Sudan. Egyptians accepted the treaty as they believe
it would guarantee Egypt control over its judiciary and its security forces for the first time
since 1882, but it did not give full independence, and the result was a new wave of anti-
Wafdist and anti-British demonstrations.
During World War II, Egypt became vital to Britain's defense. A half million
troops were stationed there, and the British government needed Egypt's support or at least
its compliance in British military and political policies during the war. However, Egypt
278
Sir Miles in Cairo: Egyptian Hope, The Times, Wednesday, 1 July 1936, p. 16, no. 47415, col.
C; Steven Morewood, The British Defence of Egypt, 1935-1940: Conflict and Crisis in the Eastern
Mediterranean, (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 88.
279
Sir Lampsons Return to Cairo: An Egyptian Welcome, The Times, Thursday, 5 November
1936, p. 16, no. 47524, col. B.
280
Ismail, Ismail, and Abu Jaber, Politics and Government in the Middle East and North Africa, p.
323.
109
considered the war a European conflict and did not want to be involved. Most Egyptians
supported Germany, not because they preferred the Nazi ideology but because they
considered Britain their enemy. The British tried to prevent an Egyptian-German alliance.
The Wafd leaders came to power by convincing the British that they would not lead an
anti-British rebellion during the war. At times the British doubted the loyalty of both
Prime Minister Ali Maher and King Faruq and therefore decided to entrust the Egyptian
government to the Wafd.
On February 2, 1942, when the German army was advancing toward Egypt under
the leadership of General Erwin Rommel, Miles Lampson, the British ambassador in
Egypt, ordered the king to ask Mustafa Nahhas pasha, the Wafdist leader, to form a
government. The incident clearly demonstrated that real power in Egypt was in British
hands and that the king and the political parties existed only so long as Britain was
prepared to tolerate them. The Wafd leaders consequently started to lose public support
because of their political alliance with the British. Furthermore, in 1943, the Wafdist
leader, Makram Ubayed published a book that revealed Mustafa Nahhas corrupt dealings
over the years, scandals that hurt the Wafd's public reputation. After the Wafd
government fell in 1944, the party boycotted the election of 1945. By the end of World
War II, the Wafd had disintegrated into several competing groups. A government of
Liberal Constitutionalists took over from the Wafd, but other political parties gained
public support such as the Muslim Brotherhood and Young Egypt.
The year 1945 was a time of critical changes, not only in Egypt but also in
Britain. A Labor Party government with anti-imperialist ideology was elected in Britain,
110
which gave a hope to the Egyptians that Britain would change its policy toward Egypt.
Meanwhile, after World War II, the world saw the beginning of a new kind of global war,
the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States in which Egypt was
involved against its will. Both sides viewed the Middle East as a vital element in their
competition. On the other hand, British conservatives stressed the importance of the Suez
Canal for their security. During that time, Mahmoud El-Nuqrashi was the Prime Minister
of Egypt and was seen by the Egyptians as a faithful politician.
El-Nuqrashi demanded that the British government renegotiate the 1936 treaty
and evacuate British troops from Egypt. The British government refused his request, and
riots between Egyptian and British forces spread in both Cairo and Alexandria.281 Ismail
Sidqi was invited to hold the office of the Prime Minister for the second time and to form
the government. Sidqi resumed negotiations with the British. Clement Atlee, the British
Labor Party Prime Minister, authorized removal of British troops from Egyptian cities
and bases in September 1949. The British withdrew their troops to the Suez Canal Zone
when negotiations over the issue of Sudan failed. Britain decided to support Sudans
independence to maintain its investments there, but Egyptian nationalists insisted on the
unity of the Nile Valley. Sidqi resigned on December 1946 and El-Nuqrashi formed the
government and as a Prime Minister presented the issue of Sudan in the new United
Nations. In the meantime, the Egyptian Brotherhood called for strikes against the British
and newspapers called for a guerrilla war.282
281
Ismail, Ismail, and Abu Jaber, Politics and Government in the Middle East and North Africa, p.
323.
282
Derek Hopwood, Egypt, Politics and Society, 1945-1990 (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 27.
111
In 1948 David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel.283
This event increased anger against British domination and imperialism, not only in Egypt
but also in other Arab countries. Thus, in September 1947, the League of Arab States
decided to resist by force the United Nations plan in Palestine.284 The Arab States
refused to divide Palestine into Arab and Jewish states. When Israel declared its
independence in 1948, Egypt and the Arab States prepared their armies and entered
Palestine to save the country for the Arabs against what they considered Zionist hostility.
However, the Arabs were defeated by Israel. The 1948 war is still remembered in Egypt
as the Egyptian army was poorly prepared and had no plan to coordinate with the forces
of other Arab states. The Egyptian army performed badly, despite some heroic individual
acts of resistance. After the war, the Egyptian nationalists became more opposed to the
king and the government because they blamed them for issuing inferior equipment to the
military and for treacherously abandoning the army.
Gamal Abdel Nasser was a military officer who commanded an army unit in
Palestine and was wounded during the war. He and his colleagues were distressed by the
inefficiency and lack of preparation of the army. In the battle for the Negev Desert in
October 1948, Nasser and his unit were trapped at Fallujah, near Beersheba.285 The unit
survived and eventually counterattacked. Nasser saw this event as a symbol of his
283
Jamie Stokes, Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East (New York: Facts on
File, 2009), p. 328.
284
Hopwood, Egypt, Politics and Society, 1945-1990, p. 28.
285
Hopwood, Egypt, Politics and Society, 1945-1990, p. 36.
112
country's determination to free Egypt; therefore, he used the memory of the event to
organize a secret group inside the army called the Free Officers.286 After the war against
Israel, the Free Officers began to plan for a revolutionary overthrow of the government.
In 1949 nine of the Free Officers formed the Committee of the Free Officers' Movement;
in 1950 Nasser was elected chairman. Although during this period, Egypt achieved
independence, a new period of imperialism started.
Imperialism through the trade, cultural exchange, and the movement of peoples
had been ongoing since the nineteenth century. The expansion of imperialists was
associated with the growth of world trade after 1815 and with the increasing flow of
capital to Europe and the United States.287 The new policy of Britain was, as Callagher
and Robinson state, "trade with informal control if possible." 288 The period from the end
of the nineteenth century until the recent times was an age of economic imperialism and
this did not end when Nasser declared Egypt independent.
5.2. Museum Policies Change
The struggle against colonial government directly affected Egyptian museums. It
was not a lack of interest that kept Egyptians from studying Egyptology and made
Europeans the majority of archaeologists studying ancient Egypt. Rather, French and
286
Robert St. John, The Boss: The Story of Gamal Abdel Nasser (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960),
p. 4.
Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, p. 46.

287
Callagher and Robinson, Imperialism of Free Trade, p. 13.

288
113
British Egyptologists seem to have taken pains deliberately to exclude Egyptians from the
profession.289 Nationalists such as Ahmed Najeb, Ali Mubarak, Mustafa Kamel, and
others wanted to secure Egypts control over its heritage. Mustafa Kamel in particular, a
very famous national journalist and lawyer, spent all his short life struggling for Egypts
independence. He founded the National Party in 1907 and was its first president. Through
the National Party, Mustafa Kamel not only called for Egypts independence but also for
educational opportunities. He promoted the establishment of the League of the Egyptian
Public in which poor students could get educational opportunities like their rich
counterparts. Mustafa Kamel states the following in his letter to his friend Mohamed
Farid:
It is known that Imperialists did not make available the opportunity for education
to outstanding students from the poor. By providing an opportunity of learning for
these students, they would achieve progress and prosperity for Egypt. It is known
that Egypt has a lot of buried treasures, which if they were to be excavated, would
enlighten the entire world. These treasures are located among the dwellings of the
poor. I call on all Egyptians to help found universities and colleges. It is my
pleasure if I can put a stone in this university through the assistance of the patriots
who dedicated their lives to the progress and prosperity of Egypt.290
The Egyptian University, founded in 1908, was known at first as Fuad University. It was
a private university with Prince Ahmed Fuad as its first rector. Nationalist Ahmed Lutfi
al-Sayyid was the university rector for almost twenty years. He struggled during that time
to maintain university autonomy in the face of pressures from an autocratic king, the
289
L. L. Wynn, Pyramids & Nightclubs: A Travel Ethnography of Arab and Western Imaginations
of Egypt, from King Tut and a Colony of Atlantis to Rumors of Sex Orgies, Urban Legends about a
Marauding Prince, and Blonde Belly Dancers (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007), p. 49.
290
Ibrahim Mustafa Al Walily, Mafakher Al Ajyal fi Siar Aazem El Rijal (Cairo: Al Mahmoudia
Al Tugaria Press, 1934), p. 84 (my translation).
114
British colonial authorities, religious conservatives from Al-Azhar, and various political
parties.291
Cairo University had a great impact on Egyptians attitude towards their heritage.
Peoples were unaware of the significance of their past to the understanding of their
present and their future. As Najib Mahfuz articulates Egyptians were struggling for
equilibrium between the contradictory pulls of pride in Islam or in ancient Egypt. Their
dilemma was compounded by their awareness of the attitude of foreigners towards their
national heritage and their Islamic identity.292 Al-Tahtawi and Ali Mubaraks writings
reveal a powerful cluster of concepts and themes coupling ancient and modern Egypt. 293
The dissemination of Egyptological history into Egyptian state schools created a new
generation of intellectuals who appreciated their national heritage.
Egyptian intellectuals started to write about Pharaonic Egypt and ancient
narratives inspired novelists such as Tawfiq al Hakim. While Egyptians were taking the
first steps toward recognizing their ancient history and antiquities, Europeans were
focusing on collecting and they dominated the publication of new excavations.294 Dr.
Gamal Moktar, one of the outstanding Egyptian Egyptologists, said that even though
291
Donald Malcolm Reid, Cairo University and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 1.
292
Najib Mahfuz, Midaq Alley, The Thief and the Dogs, Miramar (New York: Quality Paperback
Book Club, 1989), p. 296.
293
Elliott Colla, Conflicted Antiquities: Egyptology, Egyptomania, Egyptian Modernity (Raleigh,
NC: Duke University Press, 2007), p. 125.
294
Loay Mahmoud Said, Kamal and Youssef: Archaeologists from the Beautiful Times (Cairo:
Supreme Council of Antiquities, 2002), p. 150.
115
Europeans initiated the field of museology, they retained the fruits of the excavations and
they did not give Egyptians the opportunity to work with them. Dr. Abd Al Aziz Saleh, a
famous Egyptian historian and archaeologist, states in an unpublished conference: The
Europeans objected to the work of Egyptians in archaeology [and in museums], because
they were afraid of the Egyptians involvement in the field of Egyptology because if the
Egyptians became aware of the value of their antiquities, they would prevent the
transferring of these treasures to Europe.295
Politics of imperialism could be clearly traced in the cultural, educational, and
economic sectors in Egypt. Although few Egyptians could escape European control and
get higher education, they were struggling to work in their country. Distinguished
Egyptians such as the physician and scientist Ali Mustafa Musharafa (1898-1950), who
was considered the Einstein of the east, and whom American Radio in 1947 identified as
one of the seven scientists in the world who knew the secrets of the atom, was an
example of imperialistic control. Even though Musharafa was credited abroad for being a
genius, he could not have the job he deserved in the Egyptian university, because
prestigious jobs at the University were given to British scientists who were less skilled
than Ali Mustafa Musharafa. However, nationalists continued to encourage Egyptians to
get educated in order to obtain their independence.
Sad Zaghloul, one of the founders of Fouad I University, encouraged Egyptians
to Egyptianize their education system. He fought against French and British colonization
of Egypt and successfully led the 1919 Egyptian popular uprising. The revolution had a
295
El Muqtataf, November 1923, p. 173.
116
great impact on Egyptian education. Education grew rapidly among the middle classes
and the University of Fouad I became a center of enlightenment for Egyptians. The
establishment of the National Party, el Wafd, and the Union Party accelerated political
change in Egypt. The 1919 revolution created a nationalist organization that championed
lower class groups, women, and youth.296
1920 witnessed the creation of Egypt as a nation. Egyptian nationalists became
convinced that control over Egyptian antiquities was part of national self-=determination.
A new history was written that incorporated ancient and modern Egypt, in contrast to the
European perspective in which Egyptian history became uninteresting after the end of
New Kingdom. Although Egyptian intellectuals stressed the importance of ancient Egypt
in their writings, they treated Egyptian history as a coherent and continuous body starting
in ancient Egypt and culminating in a new Egyptian state. Ahmed Lutfi al Sayyid wrote,
our nation today does not exist independently from the nation of our past. The nation is
a single unbroken, unbreakable whole. Shafiq Ghurbal, a professor in the Higher
Teachers College, called increased study of Egyptian Civilization the gateway to a
modern Egyptian nation.297 Like Mustafa Kamel, Ghurbal saw education as a tool to
achieve Egypts independence and development. He therefore encouraged education for
all Egyptian citizens and criticized the prevalent attitude which maintained that
296
Goldschmidt, Re-envisioning Egypt 1919-1952, p. 20.
297
Anthony Gorman, Historians, State, and Politics in Twentieth Century Egypt: Contesting the
Nation, (London: Routledge, 2003), p.113.
117
womens education should be restricted to the daughters of the rich andstressed that
elementary schooling should provide the same education for girls as for boys.298
Nationalists division at that time also hindered the independence of the field of
Egyptology. Ahmed Kamal was struggling alone to take the post of curator to be able to
Egyptianize the field of museum science. In 1922, Ahmed Kamal discussed with Yahiya
Pasha Ibrahim, the Minister of Education his idea of founding a school of Egyptology
with four years duration to teach students the science of Egyptology.299 Tawfiq Pasha
Rifaa at, Ibrahims successor as a Minister of Education hired Ahmed Kamal as a
teacher of hieroglyphic language, Dr. Georgi Sobhi as a teacher of Coptic language, Dr.
Al-Aanani a teacher of Hebrew, and one teacher of the French Institute to teach Greek
and Latin languages.300 Unfortunately, Ahmed Kamal died on the day of his appointment
as director and teacher in the College of Archaeology.301 When Ahmed Kamal died,
Egyptians found themselves with no Egyptologists of their own who could speak with
scholarly authority. The nationalists sometimes found Pierre Lacau, who succeeded
Maspero as director-general of the Antiquities Service, an unexpected ally.302
Nevertheless, the situation had been changed after 1922.
298
Yunan Labib Rizk, Educations Growing Pains, Al-Ahram Weekly online, no. 523, March
2001, available http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2001/523/chrncls.htm, accessed April 2010.
299
Tawfiq Habib, Al-Hilal Newspaper, 1 November 1923, pp. 140-141.
300
Habib, Al-Hilal Newspaper, pp. 140-141.
301
Habib, Al-Hilal Newspaper, pp. 140-141.
302
James Jankowski and Israel Gershoni, Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1997), p. 134
118
According to Abd El Aziz Saleh, in 1922 Selim Hassan was able to obtain a post
as assistant curator in the Egyptian Museum, a success that was in large measure the
product of Britain's recognition of Egyptian independence earlier that year and the
consequent increase in the employment of Egyptian nationals in government departments
that had long been European preserves.303 When Selim Hassan was appointed an
assistant curator at the Egyptian Museum, he accompanied Ahmed Kamal in his tour in
Europe against the wishes of the French-run Egyptian Antiquity Authority to visit the
museums there. Yunan Labib Rizk states the following:
The first [goal] was to describe and catalogue the ancient Egyptian acquisitions in
these museums. The second was to photograph those unique items that have no
parallel in the Egyptian museum and to turn these photographs into slides that
could be projected before Egyptian audiences upon his return to Egypt. His third
objective was "to inform European scientists specializing in Egyptian antiquities
that Egypt, too, has a corps of similar scientists engaged in the study of the history
and artifacts of their ancestors and that these scientists will persist in their
endeavors regardless of the difficulties they encounter.304
The former statement alludes to the difficulties Egyptian Egyptologists would have to
face during the 20th century. Ahmad Kamal, Sami Gabra, Shafiq Ghurbal, Mohamed
Hamza, Ahmed Najib, and Selim Hassan devoted their lives to Egyptianize the fields of
Egyptology and museum science. They produced several histories, hieroglyphic studies,
and two guidebooks. The guidebooks tried to convince Egyptians not to leave sight-
seeing entirely to foreigners.305
303
304
305
Donald Malcolm Reid, Indigenous Egyptology: The Decolonization of a Profession? Journal
of the American Oriental Society, vol. 105, no. 2 (April June 1985): 236, available
http://www.jstor.org/stable/601703, accessed July, 2009.
119
Such native Egyptologists worked hard depending on their interest in archaeology and
with their own efforts to understand and stand against the Europeans who dominated the
field of Egyptology.
Nationalist influence on collecting policy was soon tested. An accident led the
British Egyptologist Howard Carter (1874-1939) to a great discovery that he had never
expected. While Egyptian workers were digging in 4 November 1922, they discovered
the entrance to an unknown tomb buried under the debris accumulated by a century of
intense digging and exploration.306 It was the tomb of the young King Tutankhamen.
Carter was delighted to have made such a great discovery, but soon this almost-
untouched tomb was heavily politicized within Egypt in a way that affected
archaeological excavations for decades afterward. The tomb also served to strengthen the
pharaonic component of Egyptian nationalism.307
Howard Carter excavated Tutankhamen and tried to take partage through the
authority of the Cairo Museum, but Ahmed Kamal who was working in the museum as a
translator of Masperos catalogue opposed this auction. Ahmed Kamal was not Carter's
only opponent. Other Egyptians had started to appreciate Egyptian antiquities and
resisted sending their antiquities out of the country. Howard Carter wrote the following
letter, which was published in the Times in February 1924:
Owing to the impossible restrictions and discourtesies on the part of the Public
Works Department and its Antiquity Service all my collaborators in protest have
refused to work any further upon the scientific investigations of the discovery of
306
Colla, Conflicted Antiquities, p. 172.
307
Wynn, Pyramids & Nightclubs, p. 60.
120
the tomb of Tutankhamen. I am therefore obliged to make known to the public

that the tomb will be closed and no further work can be carried out.308
Several attempts were made by Howard Carter, working through political and diplomatic
channels, until finally the Egyptian Government allowed him to re-open the tomb. The
Times, 14 January 1925, announced:
This morning Mr. Howard Carter exchanged letters embodying the terms of a new
agreement as to future operations in Tutankhamen tomb with Mahmoud Bey
Sidky, the Minister of Public Works. The definite concession which will cover the
present and next digging seasons, that is to say until October, 1926, will not be
signed until Mr. Carter has been able to obtain and hand to the Egyptian
Government a document confirming the final abandonment by Almina, Countess
of Carnarvon, and the executors of the late Earl, of all claims, but the present
agreement provides for Mr. Carters immediate resumption of research work in
the tomb. The chief terms of the new agreement are that the ownership of all
objects found, vests in the Egyptian Government which has reserved to itself
absolute discretion to give to Mr. Carter for scientific purposes such duplicates as
it may select where their separation from the rest will not affect the scientific
value of the collection. Publicity, except scientific matter, must be made through
the Egyptian government, and the tomb must be open every Tuesday to visitors,
who must obtain special permits from the Government. The tomb will be
officially re-opened and taken over by Mr. Carter some time towards the end of
this month.309
Consequently, the nationalists succeeded in securing the contents of the tomb that are
housed today in the Egyptian Museum.
Nationalists intensified their protests and pressured the British Government to
grant Egypt independence. However, the British continued to control Egypt and used
308
Howard Carter, in Breasted, Pioneer to the Past, p. 366.
309
Mr. Carters Concession (from our own correspondent), Tutankhamens Tomb to be Re-
opened, The Times, Wednesday, 14 January 1925, p. 13, no. 43859, col. E.
121
their military to oppress the public. Hence, nationalist Ahmed Yahiya Pasha and others
addressed the following petition to the Sultan of Egypt:
The undersigned notables and merchants of Alexandria have the honor again to
protest very strongly against the acts of the British military authorities, who have
robbed personal liberty from Egypt, and once more to call the attention of Your
Highness to the various dangers resulting from these acts to all the principal
interests of the countryWhat a strange return in the twentieth century, to try to
enslave a nation like ours.310
Looking for their independence, nationalists looked back to their great ancient history
and therefore to museums, because they perceived museums as institutions within which
a significant part of national education takes place. Moreover, nationalists, novelists, and
movie actors used museums to teach and to inspire citizens about the greatness of their
ancient nation so that they would be enthusiastic in building a new nation.311 Egyptians
successfully pressured the British to declare Egypts independence, and on 28 February
1922, the British Governments Declaration to Egypt proclaimed that the British
Protectorate over Egypt is terminated and Egypt is declared to be an independent
sovereign State.312 However, as has been noted, there were some reservations, among
which was the protection of foreign interests in Egypt. Foreign interests included
Egyptian antiquities. The trustees of the British Museum continued to encourage the
collecting of Egyptian antiquities and financed individuals and institutes to dig in
Egyptian archaeological sites.
310
The National Archive (TNA): Cabinet Office Papers (CAB) JUST 1/25, available from
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline, accessed on November 2011.
311
312
Muhammad Khalil, The Arab States and the Arab League: A Documentary Record Vol. I:
Constitutional Developments (Beirut: Khayats, 1962), p. 459.
122
Another contest over foreign influence came from the United States. In 1924,
James Henry Breasted (1867-1935), the first American Egyptologist, who was in Egypt
to oversee field work of the University of Chicagos Oriental Institute, convinced Mr.
John. D. Rockefeller, the founder of the philanthropic Rockefeller Foundation, to finance
a new museum in Cairo. Mr. Rockefeller and the trustees of his foundation were seeking
new fields of human endeavor which they could safely support. Mr. Rockefeller agreed to
implement the project under one condition: the architectural design of the museum should
be assigned to his architect Welles Bosworth. George E. Vincent, then a president of the
Rockefeller Foundation, later visited Egypt and met Breasted in the Cairo Museum to
investigate the project. Vincent was fascinated by the tremendous antiquities the museum
exhibited and shocked by the damage that he noticed in the building. Breasted tried his
best to persuade the trustees of the Rockefeller Foundations of the importance of such a
great project. On January 1925, he sent a letter to his son Charles that included the
following;
The proposed museum building promises to be a superb thing. It will be almost

900 feet long; one very tall story in height; and in style a restrained and beautiful
adaptation of ancient Egyptian, with great colonnaded halls surrounding four
lovely courts. I showed Bosworths drawings to Allenby who expressed cordial
interest and promised to forward the entire proposal to the British Foreign Office
with his approval and support. We foresaw two difficulties: the clause in the
Anglo-French treaty whereby the French hold the director-generalship of
antiquities in Egypt, and the question of demolishing the Kasr an-Nil Barracks.
He advised my visiting to London to confer directly with the Foreign Office on
these points.313
313
Breasted, Pioneer to the Past, p. 379.
123
Breasted was convinced that the new project would help him accomplish his excavations
and enrich his institute. He and his son, Charles went to London to negotiate with the
Foreign Office. Mr. Rockefeller assured Breasted that he would support his case and
enclosed a letter to His Majesty. The American Ambassador to St. James, Alanson B.
Houghton, was also instructed to do everything in his power to further the project.
At that time Sir George Lloyd replaced Lord Allenby as High Commissioner for
Egypt and Sudan. Breasted and his son discussed the Cairo Museum project with Lloyd
who found the project a very good opportunity for Egypt, but he was worried about the
evacuation of Kasr en-Nil Barracks. The location was eventually approved by the Foreign
Office, but it would need to have King Fuads acceptance. The project was to be under
the control of a board of three trustees consisting of James Breasted as chairman and V.
Everit Macy and Raymond Fosdick as members. The proposal included the construction
of an international research center that would subsume the old building of the Cairo
Museum into the new institution and would cost ten million dollars, which Rockefeller
would give as a personal gift to the Egyptian people.314 He granted the full funding for
the project while retaining the management of the museum for 30 years. The British
stated a desire to participate the new museum and research institute. Breasted, with the
projects trustees, was to go to Egypt to present the American proposal. Mr. Rockefeller
gave to Breasted a letter to the King of Egypt, which included the following:
The present transition period in the national life of Egypt has necessarily created
many new responsibilities which are to be met by the Egyptian people for the first
time. Among these there is perhaps none which has aroused wider interest and
sympathy among the other peoples of the world than the responsibility for Egypts
314
Abt, The Breasted-Rockefeller Egyptian Museum Project, p. 553-563.
124
marvelous heritage from the past. Because of my profound interest in this matter I
should count it a privilege to make a gift of ten million dollars to be primarily
devoted first, to the erection of a new and more commodious building for the
Cairo Museum and an additional building for archaeological research; and
second, to the maintenance of these buildings and collections, with special
reference to their educational value and their usefulness as a great treasury of
materials for scientific research. In proffering this gift to the Egyptian people and
to science, I venture to hope that the program of cooperation which it would
permit may prove acceptable to Your Majesty and to the Egyptian
Government.315
19. Watercolor by Welles Bosworth of the proposed museum and research center
to be
built in Cairo with the financial support of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1925.316
Breasted prepared a printed copy of the project and gave it to Ahmed Bey Hassanein, the
first secretary of Egypts first legation in Washington to present to King Fouad. However,
because of the French bombardment of Damascus and the revolt in Syria, the British
315
Source: Breasted, Pioneer to the Past, p. 383.

316
125
would not be able to evacuate Kasr en-Nil and Lord Lloyd refused to give up the
Barracks. In the meantime, according to Breasteds writing, King Fuad saw the project
as visionary and impossible [he] said that the sum proposed for the building was not
enough; boasted of Egyptian wealth, and remarked on American readiness to interfere in
Egyptian affairs as illustrated by ex-President Theodore Roosevelts speech at the
Egyptian University.317
Breasted pursued the negotiations with the Egyptians but he achieved no success.
Moreover, Breasted, following Lord Lloyds advice, did not inform the French of the
American project. When Mr. Lacau learned about it, he and his French and even English
friends opposed this American project which would bring the antiquities of Egypt under
American control. The King too gave his final disapproval to the project that would
entail the virtual sale of Egypts ancient monuments to America.318
The Breasted /Rockefeller project shows how both the English and French on one
hand and the Americans and other nationalities on the other hand were competing to
manage either the existing Egyptian Museum or the proposed new project. Since the
British occupation of Egypt in 1882, there was a fierce competition between the English
and the French for the use or exploitation of Egyptian antiquities. The Anglo-French
1904 and 1907 Entente Cordiale agreement (see appendix 1) guaranteed certain French
cultural prerogatives in Egypt such as the right to maintain schools and to nominate the
director general of Egyptian Antiquities: by the time of the Entente Cordiale, the director
317
318
126
generals duties had expanded to encompass supervision of the Cairo Museum and
approval of archaeological excavation permits. If American interests got more power
over Egyptian antiquities, French influence would be diminished.
Breasted tried to execute the Rockefeller project, and to gain support he
suggested having a committee of two members from Great Britain, two from Egypt, and
two from France in the new museums governance. When Vincent, the President of the
Rockefeller Foundation, was in Egypt, there was a negotiation between Howard Carter
and the Antiquities Service regarding Carters share of the discovery of the tomb of
Tutankhamen. Breasted used this controversy to gain American and British support for
the Egyptian Museum project as Breasted hoped to use this project to ensure the
continuance of American scientific control over Egyptian antiquities.319 Breasted used all
his power to convince his Americans, the English, and the King of Egypt while he
avoided contacting the French.
Breasted wrote to a friend and fellow member of the National Academy of
Sciences seeking his support to set a plan to protect the administration of the antiquities
in Egypt from ignorant native control. Breasted asserts that the modern Egyptian
Nationalists did not want liberty or independence, but merely "easy post and fat
salaries."320 This was the opinion of Breasted and many of his fellow Europeans and
Americans about the Egyptians. Unfortunately, this view still persists among some
319
320
127
foreign Egyptologists and museum directors, which impedes the return of Egyptian
antiquities from abroad.
5.3. El-Wafd and the Beginning of the Nationalization of Egyptology:
James F. Goode, in his publication; Negotiating the Past: Archaeology
Nationalism, and Diplomacy in the Middle East, 1919-1941, documents how nationalists
during the period 1920-1952 pressured the French directors of antiquities in Cairo to
tighten restrictions over the division of antiquities, even to museums. However, the
Egyptian Museum continued to act as a legitimate authority for sending Egyptian
antiquities abroad. What led to increasing tension among nationalists was the discovery
of the tomb of Tutankhamen. When Zaghlouls government tried to impose restrictions
on Carters continuing excavation, it caused conflicts among nationalists, foreign
Egyptologists, and diplomats. The case of Tutankhamens tomb led nationalists to
establish the Egyptology program in Fouad I University in 1925. Seven Egyptian students
were graduated from the Egyptology program in 1928. Mahmoud Ali Hamza (1890-
1976) was appointed as an assistant curator of the Egyptian Museum.321 Despite the
efforts of nationalists to establish private and state schools of Egyptology, to control
excavations, and to maintain the authority over Cairo Museum, European continued in
their collecting policy and in their management of the Egyptian Museum.
The acquisition of Egyptian antiquities by European museums became a national
mission in order to enrich their collections in Europe. Despite the European intention, the
321
Mamdouh Eldamaty and Heba Samy, The Egyptian Directors of the Cairo Museum 1941-
1991, Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum, vol. 1 (2004): 7.
128
exhibiting of the Egyptian collections abroad encouraged millions of tourists to visit
Egypt every year. This benefited Egypt economically and scientifically. So many tourists
visit Egypt every year that tourism has become an important source of income for Egypt.
The rediscovery of ancient Egypt and the establishment of the science of Egyptology
associated with the French expedition to Egypt reached its peak during the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.322 Europeans drew the attention of native Egyptians to the value of
their cultural heritage; therefore, Egyptians started to independently study their ancient
history, assisted by some Europeans. Yet such native Egyptologists were usually not
allowed to hold any important position or control over their field. Thus, the field of
Egyptology was dominated by Europeans.
With al-Wafd Party in power headed by Sad Zaghloul, the nationalist movement
was very strong. Nationalists, although they did not know much about their national
heritage, decided to control the foreign excavators activities in Egyptian archaeological
sites. At the same time Egypt gained a limited independence from the British. However,
European excavators ignored the feeling and power of nationalists. One possible way to
resolve the conflicts was to appeal to international authority.
In 1930, Egypt desired to become a member in the League of Nations, but the
British government objected. The British justified their objections saying so long as
[Egypt] was not a member she could not bring us before an international court under the
optional clause, but when [Egypt] became a member [It] might bring the matter of
322
Jason Thompson, Sir Gardner Wilkinson and his Circle (Austin: University of Texas Press,
1992), p. xi.
129
Sudan before The Hague Court, and could also take us to the Council of the League.323
The League of Nations was the first step towards the establishment of the United Nations,
sponsor of UNESCO. Its main mission was maintaining peace and prosperity to all
human beings as well as preserving the culture of all nations. Since one of the British
government concerns was the Egyptian antiquities, Egypts admission was denied. Only
in 1936 was Egypt allowed to enter the League of Nations. As a member of the League of
Nations, it would have had the right to control and manage its cultural heritage both in
the field and museums because the membership would enable Egyptian diplomacy to
have a role in the international arena. In a letter to the Times, on January 1930, Sir
Flinders Petrie wrote:
No better example could be given of the kind of trouble which the League of
Nations should be competent to heal through its organization for intellectual
cooperation when we endeavored to meet the evils brought about by political
rivalry and its sequel, armaments, the admirable mind of France supplied us with
the neat solutionthe organization of peace; it would appear that the evils caused
by the rivalry of learning might be cured by a similar formulathe organization
of research. France, whether impersonated in the administration of Egyptian
antiquities or in the Paris Government, can hardly remain unsympathetic to this
suggestion, since it was on her initiative, backed by the gift of a substantial yearly
sum, that the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation was created in Paris. Is it too
much to ask that this matter of Egyptological research should be lifted on to the
international plane on which it should have been placed long ago? The question
might be put with advantage before the commission of intellectual cooperation,
whose chairman is at present no less competent a person than Professor Gilbert
Murray.324
323
The National Archive (TNA), Cabinet Office Papers (CAB) JUST 4/36 C 4 "Memorandum by
the Chairman of the Committee of Imperial Defense", 5 February 1936, available
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline, accessed April 2010.
324
The Times, January 1930, p. 7, no. 38210, col. C.
130
The letter of Flinders Petrie shows how Egypts membership in the League of Nations
could help the Egyptians to call for the protection of their heritage on the international
level without asking for permission from their colonizers.
The beginning of the thirties was marked by the Egyptian renaissance in science
and literature. Islamic and Arab revivalism appeared in Egypt through Islamist scholars
such as Hassan al-Bana, a moderate Islamist whose teaching encouraged Egyptian
students to study different languages and cultures, and Egyptian novelist Najib Mahfouz
whose novels were based on ancient Egyptian traditions.
Egyptian Egyptologists had a minor role in the Egyptian Museum from 1930 to
1940 as some of Ahmed Kamals students were hired by the museum. Thus, despite the
fact that Europeans disregarded the involvement of Egyptian Egyptologists in the fields
of Egyptology and museums, some progress was made. British Egyptologist P. E.
Newberry and Austro-German Egyptologist, Hermann Junker welcomed Selim Hassan,
one of Ahmed Kamals students to study in the Egyptian University. Nationalists tried to
appoint Selim Hassan as the director general of Antiquities after the retirement of Pierre
Lacau, but their attempts met no success because the government of Mustafa al-Nahas
Pasha paid no attention to the problems associated with the Antiquities Services or the
Egyptian Museum.325 Selim Hassan was appointed as a deputy director of the Egyptian
Museum.
Some Egyptologists consider the 1930s and 1940s the golden ages for Egyptian
Egyptologists; However, I believe that the golden age of the Egyptian Egyptologists
325
Jankowski & Gershoni, Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East, p. 141.
131
started in 1941 when the Egyptian Museum was managed by an Egyptian director,
Mahmoud Ali Hamza (1890-1976). For nearly four decades the Egyptian Museum had
been managed by Europeans. During the directorship of Mahmoud Hamza, Egyptian
curators were hired to work alongside the foreign curators.
In the same time, Egypt was under British control, so the nationalist movement
continued calling for complete independence and the departure of the British from Egypt.
This desire for independence affected universities and museums. In 1946, the Egyptian
trade unions and the students of the Egyptian Universities, of Al-Azhar, of the Higher
Institutes, of the private and secondary schools, resolved to make 21 February 1946, the
Day of Evacuation, a day of strike by all bodies and groups of the people.326 Students did
not like British involvement in their lives. They wanted independent education. For
instance, Europeans headed the Egyptian Universitys Egyptology Department and
dominated the Egyptian Museum. Egyptian curators started working independently after
gaining their education in the institutes of Egyptology in Europe. Mostafa Amer (1953-
1956) Abbas Bayoumi (1956-1957), Mohram Kamal (1957-1959), Maurice Raphael
(1959-1966), Victor Antoun Girgis (1966-1969), Mohamed Hassan Abdel Rahman
(1969-1971), Henry Riad Ghabur (1971-1973), Abdel Kader Selim (1973-1978), and
Mohamed Ahmed Mohsen (1979-1982) were the first Egyptian curators in the Egyptian
Museum. However, things were not smooth with such educated individuals as the
Europeans and Americans still controlled their work, using the political power they had
over the Egyptian rulers. Despite the fact that Americans see themselves as anti-
326
Ahmed Abdalla, The Student Movement and National Politics in Egypt, 1923-1973 (Cairo:
American University in Cairo Press, 2008), p. 66.
132
imperialistic, the years after the Civil War show clear evidence of Americans expanding
their economic, political, military, and cultural control over developing countries such as
Egypt. The American power over Egypt was through the financial aids that Egypt
received.
On October 1951, students intensified their activities and there were at least
fifteen strikes. Thirty-nine student committees were founded in Cairo in December of the
same year. A student congress issued a National Charter calling for the recruitment of the
people to an armed struggle.327 Women too were a part of these movements as two
distinguished professors, Latifa Muhammad Salim and Amal Kamel Bayumi al-Subki,
stressed the role of women in Egyptian society. However, women were not a part of the
Egyptian Museums team work until the last quarter of the twentieth century. Also, only
one director of the Egyptian Museum has been a woman, Wafaa El-Sadeek (2004-2010).
Egyptians continued in their protests to force the British to evacuate Egypt. Their
activities intensified after the war against Israel in 1948. Egyptians could not trust leaders
who, according to nationalists, had betrayed the Egyptian military and caused its defeat.
Thus, the Free Officers decided to take control of Egypt and successfully seized power on
July 23 1952 and exiled King Faruq. Finally, Egypt became independent. Mohamed
Nagiub, a nationalist military officer was the first president of the Arab Republic of
Egypt. However, some historians disregard his short presidency and start with Gamal
Abdel Nasser who was a most influential figure among the Free Officers. Nasser
proclaimed the main goals of the 1952 revolution the achievement of political
327
Abdalla, Student Movement and National Politics, p. 78.
133
independence, the promotion of economic development, the independence of the
educational system, and more importantly the creation of the League of Arab Nations. 328
It would take Nassers 1952 revolution to achieve two goals that had eluded the
generation of 1919full independence and national control of museums and
archaeology.329 The Egyptian Museum had been managed by an Egyptian director since
1941, but it remained under the control of the French directors of the Antiquities
Services. The last French director of the Antiquities Service went out with monarchy in
1952.330
5.4. The Triumph of Nasser
Although Gamal Abdel Nassers period brought independence to the field of
Egyptology, political and economic problems prevented new developments at the
Egyptian Museum. Nasser reshaped the government and declared the constitution of
1956. The Ministry of Public Affairs was the high authority over both the Antiquities
Services and the Egyptian Museum; however, Abdel Nasser initiated the Ministry of
Culture that was responsible for managing archaeological affairs in all sectors. Dr.
Tharwat (or Sarwat) Okasha held the office of the Minister of Culture for many years.
Okasha encouraged archaeological expeditions from England, France, the United States
328
Alan Warwick Palmer, Who's Who in World Politics: From 1860 to the Present Day (London:
Routledge, 1996), p. 263.
329
330
Reid, Indigenous Egyptology, p. 233.
134
of America, Belgium, Spain, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, and Germany to excavate in
Egypt under the supervision of the Egyptian Antiquities Organization.331 Okasha gave
permission to some foreign organizations to use modern technology to study Egyptian
antiquities332and allowed Foreign Egyptologists to access the collections in the Egyptian
Museum for study and research.
Okasha established the Fund for Antiquities and Museums that financed the
construction of new museums and the development of archaeological sites. However, the
Egyptian Museum remained as it was since its construction by French. Native
Egyptologists managed the Egyptian Museum. Although Mohamed Hassan Abdel
Rahman, director of Egyptian Museum from 1965-67, had studied museology in France,
he was not able to develop the Egyptian Museum in terms of exhibition and
documentation. The basement of the museum remained untouched. Sabah Abd El Razeq,
a senior curator at Cairo Museum states that many of the museum collections had never
been registered and thousands remained in closed boxed for decades. Abd El Razeq adds
I myself have many rare coffins in the basement that had never been registered.333
On March 1963, the Under-Secretary of the Ministry of Culture and the
Supervisor on Archaeological Affairs offered a proposal to develop the Egyptian
Museum. The project included the use of scientific methods to modernize museum
displays, to raise the level of service in museums, and to improve the building by
331
Tharwat Okasha, Muzakirati Fi al Syasa Wa alThaqafa, vol. 3 (Cairo: Dar el Shiroq, 1988), p.
800.
332
Okasha, Muzakirati Fi al Syasa Wa alThaqafa, p. 800.
333
Sabah Abd El Razeq, An Oral Discussion, in Cairo Museum (January 2010).
135
upgrading light systems, restoring floors, repairing roofs, and providing air conditioning,
all of which would protect the collections on display and help visitors enjoy the
museum.334 Unfortunately, because of budgetary problems, the project did not proceed.335
At the same time, Dr. Tharwat Okasha asked UNESCO to send experts to provide
advice to Egyptian museologists on how to improve the Egyptian Museum. The team
arrived during September and October 1968. It was headed by an international expert on
Museums, Henry George Rivire, and it also included architect Franco Albini who had
designed the Grand Museum of Egyptian Antiquities in Cairo. On January 1969,
UNESCOs experts presented their report on the development of the Egyptian
Museum.336 They suggested the allocation of the wonderful pieces of antiquities to the
west side of the museums upper floor and to arrange the exhibits in chronological order,
starting from the Predynastic Period until the end of the Pharaonic Era. The display
would include the collection of Tutankhamun. It was to use modern methods of
exhibition. The experts meant to offer the average visitor the opportunity to see the first
floor from the upper floor and to gain an overview of the most beautiful exhibits in the
Egyptian Museum.
The exhibit on the first floor, which was overloaded with collections, needed to be
reorganized. Some collections needed to be transferred to separate rooms to be available
for scholars and students to study and investigate.337 The Committee also recommended
334
Okasha, Muzakirati Fi al Syasa Wa al Thaqafa, p. 804.
335
336
337
136
the establishment of a small room on the right corner of the main entrance so that visitors
could learn where and how to go to visit the museum.338 Finally, the committee advised
the museum director to build a lecture hall in the museums garden for a hundred and
fifty people, a place where the museums curators could give lectures to educate the
museums visitors using a colorful slide show and documentary films.339 Unfortunately,
Dr. Okasha left the Ministry of Culture before the starting of such a great project.
During the period 1958-1962 the Antiquities Services was supervised by Dr.
Anwar Shukri, a distinguished Egyptian Egyptologist, as well as by Dr. Jamal Mokhtar,
undersecretary of the Ministry of Culture for the archaeological sector; Shukri later
became the first president of the Egyptian Antiquities Organization. There were many
Egyptian Egyptologists whose work was remarkable in both the excavation and museum
fields. However, most of the projects that were designed from 1958-1970 to develop the
museums in Egypt were halted by financial or political considerations and never
undertaken. Regrettably, Egyptian political leaders at that time were not interested in
archaeological and museum affairs, unlike the Europeans who considered museums an
integral part of politics.
5.5. Monuments Laws Intended to Protect Egyptian Antiquities
In order to understand Egypts approach to the protection of cultural artifacts, it is
essential to examine the historical background of the first protection decrees.
338
339
137
The Greeks became the first people whose government established an ancient monument
law when in 1834 they declared as ancient monuments the properties of the state.340 In
1835, Greece prohibited the transportation of antiquities abroad. Although France,
England, and Germany are the descendants of the Greek cultural tradition, they were the
people who practiced the illegal exploitation of the antiquities in the Middle East.
Englands first law on historical monuments was later. The Monument Protection Act
published in England in 1882 included sixty-eight articles regarding the protection of old
artifacts. The law went through different stages of alterations and developments until
1953. In France, the development of such laws was different. After the French
Revolution, the government founded the Commission des Monuments. Later on with
the increased interest towards the old artifacts, and the movement of museology that was
associated with the French expansion to Egypt, many important Egyptian antiquities were
brought to France. After the opening of the Louvre Museum that contained masterpieces
of art, the call for monument protection law was started. The French legitimized their
collecting policy in Egypt, but in 1840, they founded their own monument law that put
restrictions on the possession of French antiquities. In 1887 France issued a law by which
an old artifact was protected if it was registered.341 Thus, classification and
documentation were the tools through which monuments can be protected. The first law
established in Germany was on July 16th 1902. According to this law, the artifact was to
be accurately defined.
340
Brown, Care of Ancient Monuments, p. 18.
341
The French protective laws of 1887 are called officially Monuments historiques, yet in the
title of Act itself they are called Monuments et objets d art ayant un intrt historique et artistique. For
further information see CUP Archive, The Care of Ancient Monuments, p. 20, available
http://books.google.com/books?id=Wgg4AAAAIAAJ, accessed November 2010.
138
While monument protection laws were applied in European countries towards the
middle of the nineteenth century, the foreign consuls stood against the Egyptian
protection laws which were being legislated at around the same time. Al-Tahtawi who
lived in Europe between 1826 and 1831 worked hard to protect the Egyptian Antiquities.
He convinced Mohamed Ali to issue a decree to control the plundering of antiquities. On
August 15th 1835, the decree specified that antiquities were to be sent to al-Tahtawi,
director of the School of Languages in Ezbekiyeh. The decree also came to control the
activities of French, British, and American consuls in Egyptian archaeological sites.
However, French Consul General Jean-Franois Mimaut and American Consul George R.
Gliddon dismissed the decree and continued in their collecting policy.342
As the rulers of Egypt were not Egyptians, they did not care to preserve the
antiquities and instead they used them to maintain their political ties. Because of this the
nationalists took the idea of monument regulation into consideration. Only after the 1952
revolution was the first Egyptian law declared. In 1953, President Gamal Abdel Nasser
issued law no. 529 that organized the work of Antiquities Services in a way aimed to
protect Egyptian Antiquities.343 Law no. 192 in 1955 and law no. 27 in 1970 optimized
the 1953 law for protection of Egyptian antiquities.344 In 1971, President Gamal Abdel
Nasser issued decree no. 2828 which established the Egyptian Antiquities Authority as
342
Reid, Whose Pharaohs? p. 55-56.
343
Ministry of Culture, the Supreme Council of Antiquities, Al Qanun Raqm 117 Le Sanaa 1983
Al Moaadal bi Al Qanun Raqm 3 Le Sanaa 2010 wa Al Qanun Raqm 61 Le Sanaa 2010 bi Esdar Qanun
Himayia Al Athar we La ihatoh Al Tanfizia (Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities, 2010), p. 3.
344
Ministry of Culture, the Supreme Council of Antiquities, Al Qanun Raqm 117 Le Sanaa 1983,
p. 3.
139
the single authority for archaeological exploration, excavation, and preservation. The
Egyptian Antiquities Authority was intended to define methods and ways of handling,
utilizing, preserving and protecting antiquities and archaeological sites.345 Even after
issuing the 1971 decree, according to Mohamed Hassanein Haikal, the famous Egyptian
politician and writer, President Anwar El Sadat was to give antique artifacts to different
presidents of foreign countries.346 Even the decree of 1971 was not enough to protect the
Egyptian Antiquities.
The Egyptian Government declared law no. 117 In 1983 that came to define how
to manage the antiquities in museum and archaeological sites, including exploration,
excavation, discovery, restoration, maintenance, and optimum placing for showing. 347
However, by 1983 many important Egyptian antiquities had already been transferred to
foreign countries. With the continuous development of archaeological sites and the
intensity of excavation activities, Egypt continues to develop the law that guarantee the
protection of Egypts cultural heritage. In 1991, law no. 12 was issued to amend articles
of law no. 117 of 1983. Presidential decree no. 82 was issued to nullify the Egyptian
Antiquities Authority and replace it with the Supreme Council of Antiquities.348 It is
clear that the government gave the Egyptian Antiquities Authority or the Supreme
345
Mosaad Radwan Abdel Hammed, Effective Management of the Egyptian Antiquities, paper
presented at the annual meeting for Korean Association for Public Administration and Asian Public
Administration Forum, University of Incheon, Songdo Campus, October 22nd-24th 2009, pp. 1-26, esp. 2,
available www.kapa21.or.kr/data/data_download.php?did=3963, accessed May 2011.
346
Joan Offerman-Zuckerberg, Politics and Psychology: Contemporary Psychodynamic
Perspectives (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), p. 13.
347
Abdel Hammed, Effective Management of the Egyptian Antiquities, p. 2.
348
Abdel Hammed, Effective Management of the Egyptian Antiquities, p. 2.
140
Council of Antiquities high authority so that its personnel can manage and protect the
antiquities.
141
CHAPTER VI
THE MODERNIZING UNESCO AGENDA IN EGYPT
Hiroshi Daifuku, a former UNESCO Program Director in Cultural Heritage, states
that UNESCO's programs on behalf of museums and monuments were challenging
examples of innovation, ingenuity, and teamwork that inspired international recognition
of the importance of museums and of UNESCO's groundbreaking efforts in the field.
UNESCO serves as an agency for the dissemination and sharing of information and
knowledge and seeks to help member states build their human and institutional capacities
in diverse fields.349
UNESCO has played an important role in the preservation of the worlds cultural
heritage. It helped Egypt found the Nubian Museum in Aswan and the National Museum
of Egyptian Civilization in Cairo. It also proposed a renovation project for the Egyptian
Museum and the Museum of Islamic Art, but these projects have never been
implemented. This chapter offers a historical background of UNESCO and examines its
development and its contributions to the development of Egyptian museums. It raises the
following questions: Have UNESCO efforts facilitated or hindered the ability of
Egyptian museologists to take control over their cultural heritage? Have they been cost
effective? Are there ways that Egyptian museum management could be improved to
better reflect the national attitude and needs? Or to better integrate Egyptian museums
349
UNESCO, "Education for All: Ensuring Universal Access to Education and to Information and
Communication Technologies," Vienna Informational Model United Nations 7-11 August 2005 (Paris:
UNESCO, 2005), pp. 1-15 esp. 4, available from http://afa.at/vimun/2005UNESCO-Paper.pdf, accessed on
January 2010.
142
into the wider world of museology? This chapter will examine the contribution of
UNESCO to Egyptian museums in order to answer these questions.
UNESCO began when a standing Conference of Allied Ministers of Education
met in London in 1942 to consider post-war educational reconstruction and the possibility
of establishing an inter-governmental organization in the educational field as part of the
effort to replace the League of Nations.350 At the end of 1942, professionals and
politicians gathered in the Conference of Dumbarton Oaks to present proposals for the
establishment of the United Nations.351 Representatives from China and Latin American
countries later met in the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San
Francisco, seeking to participate in the founding.352 Because of the efforts of intellectuals
and politicians from all over the world, thirty-nine countries were able to establish an
educational, scientific, and cultural organization.
Forty-four countries representatives met in London after the war to found a
successor for cultural cooperation, UNESCO. Letters with the word UNESCO were put
together by this conference of delegates, which wrote a constitution for UNESCO that
was subsequently sent to various governments for approval.353 The founders wrote the
following words:
350
Paul J. Kapteyn, International Organization and Integration: Annotated Basic Documents and
Descriptive Directory of International Organizations and Arrangements (Leiden: Brill, 1982), p. ix.
351
UNESCO, A Chronology of UNESCO: 1945-1987, p. 20.
352
UNESCO, A Chronology of UNESCO: 1945-1987, p. 20.
353
Howard E. Wilson, The Developing UNESCO, The Phi Delta Kappan, vol. 28, no. 3
(November 1946), p. 109, available, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20331422, accessed June 2010.
143
since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the
defenses of peace must be constructed;the wide diffusion of culture, and the
education of humanity for justice and liberty and peace are indispensible to the
dignity of man and constitute a sacred duty which all the nations must fulfill in a
spirit of mutual assistance and concern354
There is no doubt that postwar French foreign policy played a pivotal role in the
creation, cultural expansion, and operation of UNESCO.355 The League of Nations
Institut international de coopration intellectuelle (IICI) had been based in Paris and
reflected French interests.356 Its successor, UNESCO is an inter-governmental
organization, as it must be in order to have the status of a specialized agency within the
United Nations framework.357 The first session of the General Conference met from
November 19th to December 10th 1946 with the participation of twenty countries:
Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt,
France, Greece, India, Lebanon, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Saudi Arabia, South
Africa, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States.358 The contracting parties
involved in the establishment of UNESCO considered that the abandonment of
democratic ideas had caused the World War, the destruction of civilization, the outburst
354
Andrea Marie Morrison and Barbara J. Mann, International Government Information and
Country Information: A Subject Guide (Westport, CN: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004), p. 230.
355
Pendergast, UNESCO and French Cultural Relations 1945-1970, p. 453.
356
Pendergast, UNESCO and French Cultural Relations 1945-1970, p. 455.
357
Wilson, The Developing UNESCO, p. 111.
358
UNESCO 1945-1995: A Fact Sheet, p. 1. This document is edited by the UNESCO Archives
and Micrography Section, August 1995, available
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001011/101118eo.pdf, accessed November 2010.
144
of violent ideologies, and the promotion of racial inequality.359 They therefore
proclaimed the duty of the United Nations to ensure the spread of democracy and the
principles of freedom and equality which are the basis of the organizations charter.
UNESCO works to develop and enhance the lives of individuals, and preserve the
cultural heritage of developing countries. Egypt is one of the member states that
UNESCO helps to develop through education and proper training of individuals in
different fields of science and literature.
Since the foundation of UNESCO, its General Conference has been the primary
decision-making body. It meets every two years in order to determine or update the
policies of the organization and the projects it may finance and supervise.
Representatives of all member states have seats in the General Conference. Every
member country votes to approve UNESCOs programs and budget (see Appendix 2).360
It is also the right of all member states to elect the Director-General of UNESCO, who
holds the office for four years.361
UNESCO produced many publications that rapidly gained worldwide
recognition.362 These resulted from collaborations among professionals from many
359
Nations Unies pour l'ducation, la science et la culture, Confrence des Nation Unies: en vue de
la cration, dune Organisation pour leducation, la science et la culture, tenue a londres du lier au 16
novembre 1945 a lInstitute of Civil Engineers (London: Frederick, Ltd, 1945), p. 11.
360
"The Budgets," UNESCO Charter, article IX, section 2.
361
"The General Conference," UNESCO Charter, article IV, section 8 (a); UNESCO 1945-1995:
A Fact Sheet, p. 3.
362
J. C. Aggarwal and S. P. Agrawal, Documentation Encyclopaedia of UNESCO and Education
(New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, 1991), p. 26.
145
institutions, publishers, and printers from all around the world.363 Preservation of
monuments is an important part of UNESCO's mission.364 On September 1964, UNESCO
launched an international campaign to stimulate efforts by public authorities and learned
societies for the preservation and the presentation of monuments.365 To assist in
preserving monuments in danger, UNESCO publishes technical papers on their
preservation. Since 1948 it has published the quarterly Museum International, which "is
a major forum for the exchange of scientific and technical information concerning
museums and cultural heritage at an international level. It provides a unique space which
enables readers and contributors to partake of cultural diversity through heritage around
the world.366
The establishment of UNESCO encouraged the formation of other international
organizations. The International Council of Museums was organized at a meeting held at
the Louvre Museum in Paris on November 16-20, 1946, just before the first meeting of
the General Conference of UNESCO. Fifty-three countries organized the International
Council of Museums. The first members of this organization announced that the purpose
of ICOM is to provide an appropriate organization to further international co-operation
363
"Purposes and Function," UNESCO Charter, article I, section 2 (c); Aggarwal & Agrawal,
Documentation Encyclopaedia of UNESCO, p. 26.
364
Purposes and Function: Maintain, Increase, and Diffuse Knowledge," UNESCO Charter, article
I, section 2 (c).
365
Ren Maheu, The Preservation of Monuments for Posterity is One of the Duties of Mankind,
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (7 September, 1964), pp. 1-6, esp. 4,
available from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001853/185374eb.pdf, accessed November 2011.
366
Museum International, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
available from http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-
RL_ID=2356&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, accessed November 2011.
146
among museums and to be the coordinating and representative international body
furthering museum interests. ICOM is a non-government organization that provides
support to museums and museum professions through consultants, conferences, training
courses, intensive workshops, and other activities.
ICOM sets standards for museums in design, management and collections organization.
The ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums was endorsed in 1986 and updated in 2004 and
2006. It is a reference in the global museum community. It establishes minimum
standards for professional practices and achievements for museums and their employees.
By joining ICOM, each member is committed to respecting this code.367
The first session of the General Conference of UNESCO was held in Paris from
19 November to 10 December 1946 with the participation of representatives from 30
governments entitled to vote.368 UNESCO was determined to contribute to peace and
human development in an era of globalization through education, sciences, culture, and
communication.369 Egypt was a member in UNESCO from its foundation, and has been
represented by Mr.Shafik Ghorbal Bey (1946-1951), Mohammed Awad (1954-1962),
Sarwat Okasha (1962-1970), Abdel Wahab El-Borolossy (1970-1976), Chams El Din El-
Wakil (1976-1980), Mohammed Fathallah El-Khatib (1985-1989), Ahmed Fathi Sorour

367
Brief History of the Organization of the International Council of Museums, in ICOM News,
(October 1st 1948), p. 1, Brief History of the Organization of the International Council of Museums, in
ICOM News, p. 1, ICOM Code of Ethics (http://icom.museum/who-we-are/the-organisation/icom-
missions.html).
368
The Organizations history, UNESCO Building Peace in the Minds of Men and Women,
available from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/about-us/who-we-are/history/, accessed November
2011.
369
UNESCO, Education for All: Ensuring Universal Access to Education and to Information and
Communication Technologies, in Vienna International Model United Nations (August 2005), available
http://afa.at/vimun/2005UNESCO-Paper.pdf, accessed January 2010, p. 4.
147
(1989-2001), and Mohamed El Zahaby (2001-2013) (see Appendix 3). Since its
foundation, UNESCO has contributed technical and training support to the museums in
Egypt.
Before the first convention of UNESCO, the world was in unrest which required
diplomatic conferences to reestablish relationships and friendships across borders,
industries, and professional domains.370 Education is the tool by which UNESCO wants
to change and develop the world.371 In order to advance education, the sciences, culture,
and communication, UNESCO seeks to play five different roles: a laboratory of ideas, a
clearing house, a standard setter, a capacity-builder in member states, and a catalyst for
international cooperation.372 UNESCOs aim is to bring the peoples closer together
through culture and exchange of their spiritual heritage.373 In this respect, museums play
an important role as places where people can gain and exchange knowledge. UNESCO
therefore supports the development of museums, especially in developing countries.
6.1. UNESCO and the Preservation of the Monuments of Nubia
UNESCO's role in Egypt started in the second half of the twentieth century when
the Egyptian and Sudanese governments appealed to UNESCO to rescue the Nubian
heritage.
370
William P. Bottom, Essence of Conflict: Cognitive Illusions, War Guilt, and the Origins of
Appeasement, available citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.129.4549, accessed May
2011, p. 4.
371
"Purposes and Function," UNESCO Charter, article I, sections 1.
372
UNESCO, Education for All, p. 5.
373
George Salles, UNESCOs Tenth Anniversary: A Review of its Work for Museums, Sites, and
Monuments, Museum [UNESCO], vol. 9, no. 3 (1956), p. 133.
148
President Gamal Abdel Nasser would celebrate this cooperation:
I am happy to send my greetings to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization at the time when it is launching an international appeal to
save the monuments of Nubia we sincerely hope that this spirit of international
co-operation will prevail after the completion of the project, and that
archaeologists will find other fields for fruitful research in the Nile Valley. We
shall indeed be only too happy if the Valley of the Nile continues to be the
meeting place of archaeologists and men of science, just as in the past it was the
shrine of a great culture whose glorious vestiges are still defying time on these
ancient river-banks. It may be that in a not too-distant future, the brotherhood of
mankind will everywhere become the characteristic of this century, and that a
spirit of goodness and truth will dominate and lead humanity towards peace,
happiness and a conscience at rest.374
Nubian monuments were in danger due to continuous flooding in the Aswan
region. The area of Nubia includes rare temples and tombs that document the history of
an important era of Egyptian history. Archaeological missions started investigating in
Nubia in the 1890s. When Egypt gained independence in 1954, it established a committee
to investigate how to save archaeological sites threatened by the proposed new dam. 375
Since the days of the pharaohs, the Nile has flooded every year, depositing a layer of rich,
fertile silt washed downriver from Ethiopia. But one year, the floods might be low,
resulting in weak soil that produced few crops and the next year, they might be high,
destroying buildings, homes, roads, and washing away important land features of the
land.
374
Statement of President Gamal Abdel Nasser issued on March 16 th, 1961, on the safeguarding of
sites and monuments of Nubia (Cairo: United Arab Republic, Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, 1961),
p. 2.
375
United Arab Republic, Ministry of Culture and National Guidance Egyptian Region, Measures
Taken by the Government of the United Arab Republic for the Preservation of the Monuments and Sites of
Nubia, Paper presented on the Occasion of the UNESCO General Conference (November 14 th December
13th, 1960) (Cairo: Socit Orientale de Publicit Press, 1960), p. 2.
149
The British began construction of the first Aswan dam in 1899 and completed the
project in 1902. A gravity dam, it was 1,900 meters long and 54 meters high. The initial
design was inadequate and the height of the dam was raised in two phases, 1907-1912
and 1929-1933.376 Because flooding still continued, the Egyptian government decided to
build a second dam, rather than raise the old one for a third time. The planning of the
Aswan High Dam started in 1952 after the Free Officers Revolution, but Egypt could not
afford to build it. The Egyptian government therefore approached the World Bank for the
necessary financing.377 During the period from 1953 to 1955, debates were going on
among potential financers. One of the most significant took place in the U.S. Congress,
which did not agree to finance the High Dam. The Soviet Union then adopted the High
Dam project. The dam had both advantages and disadvantages, and one of the
disadvantages was the submerging of the Nubian monuments. Therefore, UNESCO sent
a mission of outstanding archaeologists to examine the Nubian sites.
The mission concluded in a long report on the Nubian sites that international
cooperation was needed to document and save them. Only three international institutes
offered to contribute: the German Archaeological Institute, the University of Milan, and
the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology.378 The technical and financial support of
these three institutions was not nearly enough to handle such a great project. Thus, the
376
Ibid.
377
Mohamed Hassanein Haikal, The Cairo Documents: The Inside Story of Nasser And His
Relationship with World Leaders, Rebels, and Statesmen (Garden City, New York: Doubleday &
Company, 1973), p. 58.
378
UAR Ministry of Culture, Measures Taken, p. 2.
150
Antiquities Service decided to allocate every year the sum of L. E. 10,000 in its budget
for the purpose of conducting further systematic exploration in Nubia.379
It was determined by the Antiquities Service that further work was needed by
1955. The Egyptian Government responded by establishing in Cairo the Documentation
and Study Center for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt.380
UNESCO decided to provide, for a limited time, technical assistance in the form of
experts and equipment.381 Every monument in Nubia located in an area of over 300
square kilometers needed to be recorded quickly.382 Although the Center documented a
reasonable number of Nubian monuments, it was running out of time.
Further assistance was required. On April 6th 1959, the Ministry of Culture of
Egypt, headed at that time by Dr. Tharwat Okasha and backed by the Egyptian
government, appealed to UNESCO for the scientific, technical, and financial assistance
that would allow Egypt to preserve, within the required time, the Nubian heritage.383 Five
experts were sent to examine Nubian sites in response to the appeal of the Egyptian
government. After finishing their visit, they sent their report to the Director-General of
UNESCO. They sought UNESCOs support and its appeal to the world in order to save
379
UAR, Ministry of Culture, Measures Taken, p. 3.
380
381
Salles, UNESCOs Tenth Anniversary, p. 135.
382
Salles, UNESCOs Tenth Anniversary, p. 135.
383
151
the Nubian monuments that stand as witnesses of several thousand years of various
civilizationsprehistoric, Pharaonic, Meroitic, Greco-Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic.384
Consequently, the Director-General of UNESCO asked nations and institutions all
over the world to help save Nubian monuments in Egypt and Sudan. The job of the
Director-General was not an easy one as some of the UNESCO member states were
considering decreasing their contributions. For example, at the Ninth General Conference
of UNESCO, held in New Delhi on 5 November 1956, the United Kingdom suggested
that its membership in UNESCO was a waste of money and concluded that it would not
be able to increase the budget (which was about $10 millions a year) as the Director-
General requested.385 Yet, once the British learned that the Russians would agree to an
increase in the yearly budget, they decided that it would be politically impracticable to
fight an increase.386
UNESCO receives thousands of suggestions for projects. Thus, it was not easy for
the Director-General of UNESCO to convince the Executive Board and the General
Conference to make one giant investment in the Nubian project. In the Executive Board
of UNESCO on 10-15 April 1947, both the English and the French delegates advised the
council to study ambitious projects cautiously before approving them as the universality
384
385
The National Archive (TNA): Cabinet Office Papers (CAB), "Memorandum by the Secretary
of State for Commonwealth Relations and the Minister of Education, UNESCO; Ninth General
Conference (July 1956) available
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/cabinetofficepapers, accessed November 2010.
386
The National Archive (TNA): Cabinet Office Papers (CAB), "Memorandum by the Secretary
of State for Commonwealth Relations and the Minister of Education, UNESCO; Ninth General
Conference (July 1956) available
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/cabinetofficepapers, accessed November 2010.
152
of the organization would not be guaranteed if its funds were invested only in a handful
of giant projects.387 Thus unless Egypt would take further action its appeal was to be
rejected. The Egyptian government had to make a dramatic contribution towards the
salvation of the Nubian monuments in order to emphasize the seriousness of its
intentions.388 Egypt announced that it would award expeditions participating in Nubian
excavations a 50% share of finds, with the exception of unique artifacts, and also
volunteered to contribute one third of the costs.389
Being enthusiastic about the salvation of the Nubian monuments, the Director-
General persuaded the representatives of the member states at the General Conference, in
spite of the objection of the American delegate whose alternative priority was African
education.390 The Director-General includes in his statement, May the peoples of the
world unite to ensure that the Nile, in becoming a greater source of fertility and power,
does not bury beneath its waters marvels which we of today have inherited from
generations long since vanished.391 UNESCO created an executive committee to manage
and supervise the Nubian campaign. Over sixty expeditions joined the rescue operation,
387
Ministre des affaires trangres. Commission des archives diplomatiques, Documents
diplomatiques franais: 1947, vol. 2 (1 July 31 December, vol. 9), p. 246.
388
Sarwat Okasha, Rameses Recrowned: The International Campaign to Preserve the Monuments
of Nubia, 1959-1968, in Offerings to the Discerning Eye: An Egyptological Medley in Honor of Jack A.
Josephson, ed. Sue D Auria and Jack A. Josephson (Leiden: Brill, 2010), p. 227.
389
Okasha, Rameses Recrowned, p. 228.
390
Okasha, Rameses Recrowned, p. 232.
391
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which ultimately excavated and recorded hundreds of sites, recovered of thousands of
objects, and salvaged and relocated a number of temples to higher ground.392
The quantities of material recovered from tombs, temples, and settlements
encouraged UNESCO to plan a new museum to preserve and exhibit the collections that
represented the Nubian civilization and Egyptian civilization from the same period.393
Amadou-Mahtar MBow, the Director-General of UNESCO, was authorized in the
General Conference convened on September-October 1980 in Belgrade to request the
technical and financial assistance of Member States, the Associate Members, as well as
public and private institutions and foundations, with a view to establishing the Nubia
Museum in Aswan and the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization in Egypt.394 As a
result of the Director-Generals appeal, an agreement was signed between UNESCO and
the government of the Arab Republic of Egypt to establish the museums mentioned
above. It was considered proper at the time to keep the Nubian collections as close as
possible to their principal places of origins. The Nubia Museumthe exterior designed
by the late Egyptian architect Mahmoud al-Hakim, the interior displays by the Mexican
392
Ferrari, "Proceeding 4th International Congress," p. 224.
393
Angelo Ferrari, Proceedings of the 4th International Congress on Science and Technology for
the Safeguard of Cultural Heritage in the Mediterranean Basin, vol. II, session B, 6-8 December (Cairo:
Italian Institute of Culture, 2009), p. 224.
394
UNESCO, Appeal of the Director-General for the International Campaign for the
Establishment of a Nubian Museum in Aswan and of a National Museum of Egyptian Civilization in Cairo
(Cairo, March 3rd 1980), p. 3.
154
architect Pedro Vasquez Ramirez--opened its doors twelve years later in November
1997.395
UNESCO had played a pivotal role in salvaging the Nubian heritage and later on
in building the Nubia Museum and eventually the National Museum of Egyptian
Civilization that is scheduled to open in 2015. UNESCO delegates realized, as they
worked to save the Nubian monuments, that they would also need to protect other places
and collections all over the world. Tharwat Okasha, the former minister of culture, stated,
UNESCO became a part of the thinking of contemporary humankind and a symbol of
co-operative work for the benefit of all human beings.396 UNESCO could not afford to
support several projects the scale of the Nubian campaign, but at least it could work to
prevent the illicit trade in antiquities. Several international conferences were held that
stressed and respected nations rights to their cultural heritage. The 1970s UNESCO
convention attempted to create an international agreement that bound its signatories to
recognize the cultural property export restrictions of other nations. Finally, over a number
of years the 1970 UNESCO Convention was signed and approved by a large number of
states.397 The Convention set recommended standards to protect the cultural heritage,
which member states were asked to adopt. UNESCO recommends that each artifact be
395
Ferrari, "Proceedings of the 4th International Congress, p. 224.
396
Al-Ahram Newspaper, October 1970, p. 29.
397
Irini Stamatoudi, Cultural Property Law and Restitution: A Commentary to International
Conventions and European Union Law (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2011), p. 211.
155
preserved in its original or surviving environment in which people, their principles,
beliefs, and ethics have an important role to play.398
The Convention stresses the importance of cultural property, which constitutes
one of the main elements of civilization and national culture. At the same time, the
Convention considers the interchange of cultural property among nations for scientific,
cultural, and educational purposes. The interchanging of cultural property increases the
peoples' knowledge, enriches their cultural life, and motivates mutual respect and
appreciation among nations. It concludes with a very important article that criticizes the
illicit import, export, and transfer of ownership of cultural property and considers this act
as an obstacle to UNESCO's mission that focuses on creating understanding between
nations. The convention emphasizes the importance of cultural institutions such as
museums, libraries, and archives. Such institutions should ensure that their collections are
built up in accordance with universally recognized moral principles (see Appendix 4).
The Convention assists Egypt in protecting its national heritage.
6.2. The 1980 UNESCO Project to Renovate the Egyptian Museum
The Egyptian Antiquities Organization (EAO) sent a request to UNESCO/ICOM
on December 1982 to assist EAO and the Egyptian government in renovating the
Egyptian Museum. Collections had been inadequately exhibited since the French
management of the museum; the architectural and engineering designs needed attention.
The ICOM Consultants investigated the museum's condition and met with the museums
398
Stamatoudi, Cultural Property Law and Restitution, p. 211.
156
staffs. They prepared a detailed report and analysis of its needs. They concluded that the
initial steps to be taken were concrete changes in the managerial and administrative
systems. Even before making any physical changes to the building, they proposed a
strong training program to prepare the museum staff members for their newly defined
positions. ICOMs members wanted the staff members to be the core of any permanent
change.399 These consultants examined closely the problems of the Egyptian Museum,
which still persist today, and concluded that it lacked a management structure that could
deal with the Museum as a unit rather than as a number of independent departments.
ICOM proposed a technical assistance program in which it would provide equipment for
the architectural and exhibit designs while the Egyptian Antiquities Organization (EAO)
would be responsible for the budget.400 In addition, ICOM would provide the necessary
staff training program and consultation for the documentation and conservation
centres.401 Although at the same time UNESCO was proceeding with the implementation
of two museum projects (Nubia Museum and the National Museum of Egyptian
Civilization), the renovation of the Egyptian Museum was considered a great opportunity
to ICOM because of the museum's long history and valuable collections.
The Technical Assistance Advisory Group (TAAG) consisted of a coordinator
and three specialists who were responsible for the renovation of architecture, exhibition
399
ICOM, Egyptian Museum: Museum Organization and Financing Analysis (Paris: Maison de l
UNESCO / Cairo: Egyptian Antiquities Organization, 1982): pp 1-49, esp. 1.
400
ICOM, Egyptian Museum: Museum Organization, p. 11.
401
157
design, conservation, and management as well as training.402 TAAG was founded to
ensure the following procedures:
A. Coordination of the technical assistance and training programs, including the

choice of required specialists, their engagement and coordination of their
missions.
B. General technical assistance to the chosen architects and designers, the
museum staff and the EAO.
C. Preparation of the basic actions and documents for technical assistance and
training, i.e. the:
1. training program;
2. strategy for protection and movement of the objects during
construction;
3. strategy for the provision of interim staff facilities (including an interim
conservation laboratory);
4. security measures for immediate implementation.
D. Core teaching for special courses to the museum staff on museology,
management, conservation.403
ICOM with the cooperation of EAO set plans to reorganize the organizational and
staff structure of the museum. Although correspondence between ICOM and the EAO
continued, the project was never implemented. The Egyptian Museum never received the
attention it needs, even though--as Dr. Zahi Hawass, the ex- Minister of Archaeological
Affairs, repeatedly states--Egyptian museumscan no longer be simply warehouses for
storage with outdated displays. The museums in Egypt need the attention of Egyptian
museologists. Egypt has promising museums, but unfortunately the intensive care and
concern of the Ministry of Archaeological Affairs are directed to excavations.
6.3. UNESCO and the Coptic Museum:
402
403
158
As stated in a previous chapter, the Coptic Museum is the only major museum
that was founded, financed, and managed by Egyptians in the early twentieth century. Its
main mission is the collecting, exhibiting, and conserving of the remains of Coptic
culture. Although Coptic studies did not receive the attention they deserved on the
international level, UNESCO played a pivotal role in preserving irreplaceable documents.
UNESCO with the cooperation of foreign and Egyptian coptologists published the papyri
that are considered the greatest treasure of the Coptic Museum, the Gnostic papyri, found
at Nag Hammadi a small town in Upper Egypt, that are known as the Nag Hammadi
codices.404 In the beginning, an international committee that consisted of Jean Doresse of
France, Sami Gabra of Egypt, C. A. Meier of Switzerland, Mourad Kamel of Egypt,
Theodore C. Peterson of the United States of America, Henri Charles Puech of France,
Gilles Quispel of the Netherlands, Georgy Sobhy of Egypt, and Walter C. Till of Austria
was invited by Pahor Labib to examine the codices and the possibility of their
publication.405 It approved the publication plans for Codex II and Codex III.406 However,
since the committee possessed limited financial support, it was difficult to approve
further publications. Thus, the committee, renamed the International Committee for the
404
John Wintour Baldwin Barns, Gerald M. Browne and John C. Shelton, Nag Hammadi Codices:
Greek and Coptic Papyri from the Cartonnage of the Covers (Leiden: Brill, 1981), p. 1, explains that They
are manuscripts that contained an immensely valuable collection of Coptic religious writing, many of
which had been previously quite unknown, and which for the most part strongly reflect Gnostic teachings.
In addition, they contained the fragments of Greek and Coptic papyri.
405
Maslahat al-Athar, The Facsimile Edition of the Nag Hammadi Codices, vol. 15 (Leiden: Brill,
1984), p. 11.
406
Maslahat al-Athar, Facsimile Edition, p. 12.
159
Study and Publication of the Gnostic Papyri of the Coptic Museum, decided to request
the support of UNESCO.407
Rene Maheu, Director-General of UNESCO, and Tharwat Okasha, Minister of
Culture and National Orientation of the United Arab Republic, met to arrange
UNESCOs involvement in the publication.408 Furthermore, N. Bammate, head of the
section of Human Sciences of UNESCO, met with Puech and Antoine Guillaumont on
May 1962 to discuss the plan for financing the publication of the Nag Hammadi
codices.409 UNESCO financial and technical support assisted in saving very important
manuscripts that drew attention to early Christianity in Egypt and helped to develop
Coptic Studies. The codices also enhance the prestige of the Coptic Museum.
6.4. UNESCO and the Museum of Islamic Art
In 1980, Dr. Shehata Adam, the President of the Egyptian Antiquities
Organization, requested help from UNESCO and ICOM advisory services in the
reorganization of the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. As previously stated, prior to 1980
the Museum and the National Library were located in the same building. It became
necessary to remove the National Library from the Museum building due to the
increasing number of Islamic collections that needed space to be preserved and exhibited.
The President of EAO signed a contract with the UNESCO and ICOM to begin the
407
408
409
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renovation work for the Museum. The renovation began in November 1980 and finished
on 15 May 1981. The experts consisted of Project Coordinator Patrick O Byrne,
Architect/Museologist; Said Zulficar, Resident Project Manager; Omar el-Hakim, S. E.
A., an architect specializing in Islamic architecture and in conservation; and Leila Arar,
an architect from Cairo.
The team spent several months in the Museum working with Museum Director
Dr. Abdel Raouf Youssef and with the Museums scientific and administrative team.
According to the report prepared by Patrick O Byrne, the budget allocated for the study
did not allow the development and presentation of a detailed reorganization program for
the Museum. Thus, the team presented three general solutions for the organization of the
Museum which they believed were the most appropriate. The team also provided a
preliminary estimate of the renovation cost. After examining the numbers of Museum
visitors and the available space for the Museums exhibitions, the experts identified the
following needs:
A. Increasing the collection to include objects now in the reserves due to lack of
space.
B. Creating a more dynamic image in the eyes of the public by presenting the
most important objects to provide a visual education by either an historical
chronological visit, or by an educational visit which could include period
rooms to the extent that the collections allow, grouping the objects to show
different aspects of cultural and living patterns, communal arts, interior design
and material, social life, public and religious architecture, construction
techniques and materials, evolution or stability of art form, etc.
C. Facilitating the understanding of the objects by the non-specialized public and
the research by specialists other than scientific museum personnel by
constructing study galleries of objects grouped by material or techniques
(ceramics, textiles, carpets, etc.) and by organizing the reserves to ease
consultations on demand.
D. Modernizing means of study, research, conservation and presentation of
objects to current museological standards.
161
E. Offering supplementary services to meet the needs of those who wish, for
professional reasons, to use the collections for reproduction purposes
(artisanal jewelry, leatherwork, etc. or semi-industrial, i.e. ceramics,
plasterwork, weavings).
F. Putting a museum promotion policy into practice by developing
supplementary activities to the permanent collections, i.e. by providing a
special reception to students and their teachers and the general public by an
introduction preceding the museum visit, a sort of general orientation about
Islamic artistic creation.
G. Improving working conditions for all those associated with the museum.410
The proposed plan of UNESCO was never implemented and the Museum was closed for
almost fifteen years until it was reopened in 2010.
6.5. UNESCO Museology Programs
According to UNESCOs agreement with the Egyptian government, UNESCO is
responsible for providing technical support such as equipment for conservation services
and training programs for personnel led by experts and consultants from the International
Committee of Museums and UNESCO. Professionals from Europe and the United States
of America gave short training courses to the staff of the Nubia Museum. Nicky Ladkin,
who became assistant director for Operations and Vice Chair of the Museum Science
Program at the Museum of Texas Tech University, Piet J. M. Pouw, director of
Museology Department at Reinwardt Academy, the Amsterdam School of the Arts, Gary
Edson, executive director of the Museum of Texas Tech and the Museum Science
Program, and others. Nicky Ladkin offered a short course on preventive conservation of
the museum objects. Because of the limited time set for the course, there was no time for
410
Patrick O Byrne, Report Prepared for the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization, United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural organization (Paris: UNESCO, 1981), pp. 1-110 esp. 35-36, available from
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0004/000462/046218eb.pdf, accessed on November 2011.
162
practical training. Ladkin discussed preservation problems associated with dust,
humidity, pets, etc. and explained how museum curators could prevent damage before
asking the assistance of a conservator. Pamphlets and brochures were provided to show
what are the appropriate tools and cabinets for exhibiting and preserving collection.
Samples of the materials that should be used to prevent the deterioration of the museums
collections were provided. In theory, the short course was useful, but it was difficult to
implement the methods taught either in the Nubia Museum or the other museums in
Egypt because of the lack of funds. Museums in Egypt cannot afford tissue papers,
gloves, controlled environments, etc.
Gary Edson provided a short workshop on museology on June 11th 1998. The
workshop was held in the Nubia Museum. He offered short courses which were designed
with comprehensive learning models in order to introduce museology with a focus on
museum administration, community development, cultural diversity, and education and
communication. He used explanatory methods such as video and tours in the museum in
order to achieve the main goal of the workshop. He provided a packet that included much
of the material that was used during the workshop.411 There is no doubt that ICOM and
UNESCOs experts do their best to offer training programs as precise as they can to the
Egyptian personnel working at museums. However, several factors reduced the
effectiveness of UNESCOs efforts.
First, ICOM and UNESCOs experts design their courses according to the western
view and based on western museum models that have increasingly come to be seen as
411
Gary Edson, ICOM Museology Workshop, at the Nubia Museum (June 6 through June 11,
1998), Aswan, Egypt.
163
irrelevant and as impossibly expensive.412 The Egyptian Museum is an outstanding
example of the problems that Egyptian curators suffer. Several curators in the Egyptian
Museum received training courses from experts of ICOM or UNESCO and most of them
traveled abroad to serve as interns in the great museums. Museum training programs are
designed to help museum personnel be innovative in their museums, but in Egypt this is
almost impossible.
Second, the focus of the museums in Egypt is collections-based, which make
them storehouses and limits the role of curators to guardianship of the collections in their
custody. Although a very important feature of the majority of museums today is the
extent to which they become visitor-centered, museums in Egypt remain object-centered.
This is the main problem that is not easy to change because of the bureaucratic system in
Egypt and the financial restrictions that hinder the progress of the museum profession.
Third, unlike western museums, Egyptian museums, because of the economic
problem, never host visiting exhibits, for example from Africa, Asia, the United States of
America, or Canada. Cultural exchange through collections would have a great impact on
the Egyptian public and on museum personnel, because the object is interpreter, a
language is spoken that everyone can understand, and this universal language is that of
knowledge.413
412
Kenneth Hudson, The Museum Refuses to Stand Still, chapter 5 in Museum Studies: An
Anthropology of Contexts, ed. Bettina Messias Carbonell (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004), p. 91.
413
Salles, UNESCOs Tenth Anniversary: A Review of its Work for Museums, Sites, and
Monuments, p. 135.
164
Fourth, the main museums in Egypt were established by foreign rulers in colonial
times who did not consider the Egyptian nature in wondering, observing, and reading.
The Egyptian visitor does not prefer to spend time reading several sentences. In the
Egyptian Museum, the labels associated with the objects were designed by French
curators and include technical expressions and details that the general visitor cannot
understand. Todays curators are not able to change the labels because they contain
descriptions linked to the record books in their custody.
Thus, continuous training programs through UNESCO do not positively affect the
management of the Egyptian museums or enhance museum professions. Museum
professionals are facing numerous challenges day after day, some of which reflect the
impact of a western museum legacy on Egyptian museums. In an outstanding example
such as the Nubia Museum, the museum was built according to international standards
and its staff received high training courses, but curators face governmental rules which
contradict what they have learned. Furthermore, foreign museologists are often chosen to
develop new projects or design new exhibits. It is worth mentioning that the number of
museums in Egypt has increased enormously. They are nevertheless still old-style
museums: they exist, they have buildings, they have collections and the staff to look after
them, but they are inadequately financed and their visitors, usually not numerous, come
to look, to wonder, and to admire at what is set before them.414
Thus, UNESCO needs to more effectively assist in developing the field of
museum studies in Egypt through the recognition of this science as a curriculum. The
414
Hudson, The Museum Refuses to Stand Still, p. 85.
165
museums in Egypt and their professions will remain colonized without the development
of an institute of museology in Egypt. Suggestions will be offered in the conclusion
about how UNESCO can better direct its support.
166
CHAPTER VII
EGYPTIAN MUSEUM PERSONNEL LOOK AT EGYPTIAN MUSEOLOGY
7.1. Questionnaire and Responses
In order to determine the role of Egyptians in the field of Egyptology and museum
science, it may be useful to conduct a survey of some outstanding Egyptologists who
played and still are playing important roles in the field. Although none of the individuals
interviewed worked directly under the old Antiquities Service under European
Egyptologists supervision, some had worked or studied with members of the older
generation who had. Certain criteria were imposed for inclusion, which resulted in a
sample of twenty-nine potential participants. Those who qualified for the sample were
staff members, professors of Egyptology, or employees of the Supreme Council of
Antiquities. This selection ensured they had had close relationships with older
generations of Egyptologists. The survey participants were selected from the Egyptian
Museum, the Nubia Museum, the Luxor Museum, the Aswan Museum, and the Supreme
Council of Antiquities.
A survey questionnaire was used as the main data gathering instrument for this
study. It consisted of eight questions designed to examine opinions regarding the
management of Egyptian heritage and museums under the Europeans, and later under
native Egyptians. Most of the respondents depended on their own memory in answering
the questionnaire. Others depended on their readings and direct interactions.
167
I tried to consult the living memories and the experiences of older Egyptian
Egyptologists. Some of these people can tell stories that could help historians re-
contextualize the history of Egyptology and museum science. Everyone has a story to tell
about momentous historical events they experienced. Of course there are historical
records and books, but documents regarding the history of museums cannot give us all
the information we need as they were written and shaped according to the political points
of view that controlled their time. Often they focus on famous people and big events, and
tend to miss ordinary people talking about everyday things. They also neglect people on
the boundaries. I consider myself fortunate to be able to interview some outstanding
Egyptologists, and I thank all the Egyptologists who gave me this opportunity.415
Question one: The fields of Egyptology and museology have been primarily shaped
and influenced by foreigners; why were the native Egyptians never encouraged or
allowed to participate in the scientific endeavors?
All respondents thought that the Europeans did not allow the Egyptians to
participate in the field. However, some of them felt this was normal as the field was new
and needed more development before teaching native students.
Question two: What was the role of Egyptian Egyptologists in managing their
heritage and their museums during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?
Respondents said that management of Egyptian museums, except for the Coptic
museum, was mainly by European Egyptologists. However, some respondents confirmed
that the museums were managed by native Egyptians since the middle of the twentieth
century, while a few of them had no idea when Egyptian Egyptologists took authority
415
The interviews and the responses were conducted in the Arabic language. I translated all the
responses except the response of Dr. Mohamed Saleh, who responded to my questionnaire in English.
168
over their museums.
Question three: Did the Egyptian Egyptologists play any role in selecting the
museums collections?
Most answers here were negative. Respondents commented that at first Egyptians
were not allowed to access the collections. Some stated that Egyptians needed more time
to appreciate their antiquities before they could fully understand and study them.
Question four: How important were factors such as the architectural style, the
nature of the collections selected, and the role of the Egyptian curators in designing
the museums?
Almost all the respondents believed that the architectural style did not fit the
collections.
Question five: Did the public participate in or affect the museums management
policy? For example, did people interact directly with museum professionals, or did
they participate through galleries and libraries?
The majority of respondents stated that the public never participated in or affected
the collections management policy for museums. Few respondents thought that any
members of population, such as journalists, participated in the museums policies and
activities.
Question six: It is very important to have museum personnel trained in order to

raise the involvement of people in museum activities: what kind of training do
museum personnel need in order to be able to manage the museum and deal with
the public?
The most common suggestion was for museum studies to be available for curators
before they begin their work. Other educational and social studies should be provided to
help deal with the public.
169
Question seven: Are there any indications of a curriculum or a set course of study
that a student of archaeology/museum studies had to complete before gaining
recognition as a curator in a museum?
Most interviewees stated that students would receive a set of courses in
archaeology, however, museum studies is not a curriculum currently offered in Egypt.
Question eight: What credentials qualified students to interpret the museum

collections? And how do these compare to the credentials and curricula of
contemporary scholars?
All respondents generalized that students were not required to have specific
classes or a diploma in order to be qualified to interpret collections. However, diplomas
or short courses are available in the new museums such as the Nubia Museum, the
National Museum of Egyptian Civilization, and the Grand Museum.
After finishing my interview of the contemporary generation of Egyptologists, I
interviewed some members of the oldest generation of native Egyptologists who had
devoted all their lives to their work in the field of Egyptology.
7.2. Interview: Tharwat Okasha, Egyptologist (1921-)
One of the outstanding pioneers of archaeology, Dr. Tharwat Okasha, was one of
the Free Officers in 1952, the minister of culture from 1962 to 1970, the executive
member of UNESCO, and the vice president of Egypt. I called Dr. Okasha while he was
on a vacation on the North Coast. Dr. Okasha was sick and his doctor had advised him to
go to the North Coast where the climate was better. When I called Dr. Okasha, he asked
me about my name, my position, and my dissertations topic; however, he talked with me
for almost fifteen minutes on general issues and promised me that as soon as he got
170
better, he would talk with me and answer my questions. I waited and could not write this
chapter for almost four months, and when I called Dr. Okasha again he told me that I
could depend on his diaries that would include almost everything about his work and
opinions. It may be helpful to introduce Okasha through his diaries as they include
information that will assist me in analyzing the questionnaire. Okashas diaries show how
politics and archaeology are interrelated. Politics played a pivotal role in archaeology;
particularly concerning Egyptian antiquities.416
Dr. Okasha held the office of the Egyptian Ambassador in Rome where he visited
several houses of culture and museums. He was fascinated by the well prepared and
organized museums in Rome. On his first visit to Egypt, he discussed with the president
Gamal Abdel Nasser what he had observed in Rome and told the president that he would
like to have the opportunity to develop the museums in Egypt and to construct new ones.
The president encouraged him and assigned him the office of minister of culture. Dr.
Okasha went on tour to explore the museums and archaeological sites in all Egypt. After
a long discussion with his assistants and consultants, He decided to design a quick plan to
preserve the cultural heritage of Egypt and construct new museums in Egypt.
As Dr. Okasha mentioned in his diaries; when I held the office of the minister of
culture, I was faced by a very important question that needed an immediate answer;
should we (ministry of culture) continue in the excavation policy? Or should we first
consider developing a plan? Before answering the two questions we have to consider that
if we were to continue in the excavation policy, every day we would acquire new
416
K. Kris Hirst, When Archaeology and Politics Mix 10 January 2004, available from
http://archaeology.about.com/b/2004/01/10/when-archaeology-and-politics-mix.htm, accessed May 2011.
171
antiquities that would need museums, storage facilities, good methods of exhibition, and
preservation as well as a commitment to scientific research and publishing. This intensive
work would require financial support and a reasonable number of archaeologists to
maintain and conserve the artifacts. Okasha adds we had to think seriously about
improving the archaeological sites and assigning well trained guardians to them. In
addition, the monuments were scattered in primitive storage which were causing their
rapid deterioration. However, we were not being able to give all our attention to the care
of antiquities. Okasha was thinking to reduce the number of excavation projects of the
foreign archaeological expeditions working in Egypt; however, he admitted that for
political reasons, it was impossible to curtail the admission of foreign archaeological
expeditions coming to Egypt.
With this difficult situation, Okasha and the committee that assisted him decided
to execute two policies; first, the conservation, care, preservation, documentation, and
scientific publishing of the antiquities. Second, the government was to continue in
encouraging the foreign expeditions work in the Egyptian sites. Okasha succeeded in
accomplishing many of the works he planned, but he was not able to enhance as much as
he wished the publics awareness of its cultural heritage.
Later on I was able to contact Dr. Okasha again, by telephone, and asked him to
briefly respond to my questionnaire. I asked him:
The fields of Egyptology and museology have been primarily shaped and influenced
by foreigners; why were the native Egyptians never encouraged or allowed to
participate in the scientific endeavors?
Dr. Okasha said that in the beginning, when the field was still developing, it was
172
difficult to encourage Egyptians to participate. However, later on, some Europeans tried
to educate Egyptians but others regard it as a waste of time.
What was the role of Egyptian Egyptologists in managing their heritage and their
museums during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?
Until 1941, the Egyptian museums, except the Coptic Museum, were managed by
Europeans. However, there were some Egyptians such as Ahmed Kamal, Mahmoud
Hamza, Abbass Bayoumi, Moharram Kamal, and Abdel Kader Selim who worked as
assistant curators without any official role.
Did the Egyptian Egyptologists play any role in selecting the museums collections?
Only the French director and his foreign assistants were in charge of selecting the
museums collections and designing exhibitions.
How important were factors such as the architectural style, the nature of the
collections selected, and the role of the Egyptian curators in designing the
museums?
In my opinion, we cannot construct any museum without considering three
factors; the exterior and interior design of the museum, the objects to be displayed, and
the text associated with the objects. They are the keys to understand the meaning of the
museum. The role of the curators is essential in designing and creating the text.
Did the public participate in or affect the museums management policy? For
example, did people interact directly with the museum professionals, or did they
participate through galleries and libraries?
The main problem I had when I was minister of culture is how to raise awareness
of our cultural heritage among the public. Because raising popular awareness is
extremely important to the field. However, I failed in accomplishing this difficult
mission. Until today, the Egyptian people have neither a role in the museums
173
management policy nor in galleries.
It is very important to have museum personnel trained in order to raise the

involvement of people in museum activities: what kind of training do museum
personnel need in order to be able to manage the museum and deal with the public?
The museum personnel need to have specific training courses on museology
(museum science), in social sciences, and in psychology.
Are there any indications of a curriculum or a set course of study that a student of
archaeology/museum studies had to complete before gaining recognition as a
curator in a museum?
The study of archaeology as a set course of study was started in 1925. The faculty
of literature established an institute of archaeology which soon became a department of
archaeology in the faculty of literature, Cairo University.
7.3. Interview: Tuhfah Handusah, Egyptologist (1933-)
My second interviewee was Dr. Tuhfah Handusah. Egyptian Egyptologists call
Dr. Handusah the mother of archaeologists because she has been working in the world
of Egyptology for fifty five years. Dr. Handusah is still teaching the ancient Egyptian
language (hieroglyphic) in the Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University. I met Dr.
Handusah in the Supreme Council of Antiquities where we met to discuss the history of
the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization. At first, Dr. Handusah was very hesitant.
Although Dr. Handusah taught me for four years in the Faculty of Archaeology and she
supervises the selecting of the collections of the National Museum of Egyptian
Civilization, she asks me several questions before she agrees to answer my questions.
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Dr. Tuhfah: the Europeans claimed that they came to Egypt to help the Egyptians
to preserve their cultural heritage; therefore, it was normal to keep the Egyptians out of
their field and reject their access to their antiquities. I think Europeans hesitated to
educate Egyptians, because if Egyptians would have received the proper education to
participate in scientific endeavors, they would have understood more and would have
appreciated the value of their heritage.
museum during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?
Egyptians could not have any role in managing their museums. The only
archaeologist/Egyptologist was Ahmed Kamal Pasha who remained as assistant curator
until his death. During the twentieth century, the number of Egyptian Egyptologists
increased and they were recognized by Europeans.
No. the role of Egyptians was the collecting of artifacts according to the
Europeans recommendations, and some of them (like Ahmed Kamal) Ali Mubarak
helped Europeans classify the collections.
museums?
Architectural style was very important as the Europeans were careful to make it
different from the ancient Egyptian style and Greek style, so they enforced the neo-
classical style. Yes, for instance when the Greco-Roman museum was built, it was
decided to exhibit in it the collections that represent the Greco-Roman civilization, so the
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building came to show the Greco-Roman architectural features. The same factors should
have been considered in designing the Egyptian Museum in Qasr El Nile, but I do not
think that they were. Unfortunately, the role of Egyptian curators was not considered as
the Europeans did not want them to work in museums or to know the value of their
antiquities as they were afraid that the Egyptians may prevent them from having the
antiquities sent to Europe.
example, did people interact directly with the museum professionals or did they
The Egyptian public remains until today separated from museum management
policy, if the Egyptian museums have this policy (I doubt it). I think members of the
public really need to be get engaged more in the policy and understand the value and the
importance of their participation.

Museum personnel need to have training courses in museum art, exhibition,
education, and management. They also need to get out of their tower and be engaged
more with the public. They need to teach the public how to deal with the museums, the
antiquities, and the different activities associated with museums.
No. All the museum curators get hired in museums without having any specific
study or training, so they did not meet the challenges they face during their work in the
museums.
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What credentials qualified students to interpret the museum collections? And how
do these compare to the credentials and curricula of contemporary scholars?
Students cannot have any credentials and are not allowed to interpret the
museums collections, because it is the task of the museum professionals.
7.4. Interview: Soaad Abdel Al aal, Egyptologist (1955-)
My third interviewer was Dr. Soaad Abd Al aal, an Egyptologist, the head of the
Pharaonic department in the Faculty of Archaeology.
During that time, the field of Egyptology was just beginning and still under
development, and we have to admit that as a scientific curriculum the field was initiated
by Europeans. Therefore they tended to dominate the field and did not allow the
participation of Egyptians.
I do not think that there were Egyptians working in the field during the
nineteenth century except Ahmed Kamal. But during the twentieth century, we can
mention Egyptologists such as Mohamed Hamza, and others who could have a minor role
in the field. However, compared to Europeans, the number of Egyptians was very small.
The Egyptians could not select the collections of museums in general.
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museums?
I cannot state the importance of the architectural styles. You need to ask a
designer or museologist. The Egyptians had no role in designing their museums.
I do not think so

It should be special studies in the field of museology after finishing work in the
faculty of archaeology. This study should teach students the methods of museum
exhibition and social studies
Students get a bachelors degree in Egyptology, and then they start working either
in museums as curators or in the archaeological sites as inspectors.
What credentials do qualified students need to interpret the museum collections?

And how do these compare to the credentials and curricula of contemporary
scholars?
Nothing. The curators start interpreting the museum collections under the
supervision of the senior curators.
7.5. Interview: Ali Al Asfar, Egyptologist and Inspector (1953-)
Mr. Ali Al Asfar, the former supervisor of the archaeological group in the
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National Museum of Civilization and the director of the Pyramids site.
During the nineteenth century, there were no Egyptians in the field of archaeology
However, in the twentieth century, there were some individuals such as Ahmed Kamal,
Mohamed Hamza, and Selim Hassan who struggled to have a role in managing their
museums.
There is nothing in the nineteenth century. But in the middle of the twentieth
century, in particular 1952, the Egyptians themselves started managing their museums
and archaeological sites.
Since the Egyptians did not have the qualifications in the fields of archaeology
and museology, they were isolated and so they were not involved in the objects
selection.
museums?
Of course, the architectural style was very important as it has to express the
Egyptian culture; however, the Europeans enforced their own style that distinguished
their colonization. Until 1952, the Egyptian curators did not have an actual role.

involvement of people in museum activities; what kind of training do museum
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I cannot have an exact answer to this question; however, as I heard from my
professors and some personnel who worked with Europeans, there was no actual training
for the Egyptians. Later on some Egyptians traveled to study the science of Egyptology
such as Abd el Mohsen Bakir and others.
The public had no role in the collections policy of museums, not in the past and
not today.
Yes. A bachelors degree of archaeology.
What credentials do qualified students need to interpret the museum collections?

And how do these compare to the credentials and curricula of contemporary
scholars?
There are no credentials qualified students need to interpret museum collections,
because the Egyptian Egyptologists use the Europeans interpretation and documentation
systems. I therefore think Egypt needs an independent recording and documentation
school that has its own style.
7.6. Interview: Mai Trad, an Egyptologist (1929-)
Mai Trad is the oldest curator in the Egyptian Museum. She devoted all her life to
the work of archaeology. The Egyptian Museum is like her home. Mai Trad is from a rich
Lebanese family that settled in Egypt in the eighteenth century. She was educated in
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French schools. Until finishing her high school, she had not received any education in
archaeology, Egyptology, or museum science. She then joined the Cairo University
faculty of literature. As Mai indicates, the Faculty of Archaeology did not exist as an
independent unit during the 1970s, but was an archaeological section in the faculty of
literature. When I asked Mai, she was very conservative and told me no I cannot say
anything because the things I know are secrets, which may offend people who have
died. Since Mai refused to respond to the questions in order and she prefers to narrate
some stories that she still remembers, I will include her short speech.
Mai says, Do you imagine that during the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries it was normal to deal in Egyptian antiquities by buying and selling in the street.
Yes I (Mai) still remember one incident that happened to me; I (Mai) was invited to
attend a sale in an old palace that was located in Garden City Street. A friend of mine told
me that genuine antiquities would be exhibited in the sale. The antiquities were exhibited
in the basement and it was easy for me (Mai) to buy an excellent ancient piece for only
forty Egyptian pounds. I (Mai) did not buy anything but now I wish I had bought several
pieces to donate them to the Egyptian museum. However, I (Mai) was determined to tell
the director of the Egyptian Museum at that time. I (Mai) was surprised when the director
warned me (Mai) not to buy the antiquities, because it is illegal. I (Mai) told the director
all people buy antiquities available everywhere and no one could prevent them because
there is no law to control the trade of antiquities. However, the director told me (Mai) that
the Egyptian government is preparing a law. The law that the manager told me about did
not appear until 1983.
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I asked Mai if she thought that the management during the Europeans dominance
was better than these days? She said that the good thing that would happen during that
time is selecting the curator according to his qualifications and after an interview. After
interviewing the curators, special courses in hieroglyphics would be taught to them.
Unfortunately, this does not happen during these days. This affects badly the
management of museums because the new generations (not all) consider their work in the
museum a job to earn money from.
7.7. Interview: Mohamed Saleh, Egyptologist (1936-)
Dr. Mohamed Saleh is an outstanding archaeologist and is known as the best
director the Egyptian museum ever had. He worked as a lecturer and visiting professor in
Egyptian universities, the American University in Cairo, and Heidelberg University in
Germany. He was the director of the Egyptian Museum from 1981-1998. 2008 he began
working as a professor of ancient history and civilization in the Faculty of Women, Ein
Shams University. He is a consultant in Egyptology at the Center for Documentation of
Cultural and Natural Heritage (CULTNAT). I met Dr. Mohamed Saleh when he was
giving a lecture in Egyptology in the garden of the Egyptian Museum. After the lecture, I
asked to have an interview with him. He asked me about the topic of my dissertation and
encouraged me and appreciated my efforts to highlight the Egyptian Egyptologists
opinion.
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The first Egyptian Museum was located in the Ezbakkiah Garden and was
managed by the Egyptian Refaa El Tahtawi. Later on the museum moved to the Citadel
of Saladin, but the collection was donated to Austria. When Mariette came to Egypt in
1855, he chose to locate the Museum at a site at the shore of the Nile in Boulaq. The
place was not good at all and when the Nile flood was high, the museum was filled with
water and many artifacts were harmed or lost (Please read the introduction of the
Museums official catalogue). Then the artifacts were transferred to Giza (the palace of
Khedive Ismail) and later to their present location which was perfect in that time. The
place was chosen by Egyptian authorities not far from the nice quarters and the hotels in
the center of Cairo, where foreign tourists and visitors used to stay and the center was not
crowded at all. But the museum was designed by M. Dourgnon. The Museum of Islamic
Art in Cairo was perfectly located in the center of the city. The location of the Greco-
Roman Museum at Alexandria was a perfect location too and was chosen to be in the
center near the district of the consulates and the merchants centers and far from the shore
of the Sea.
The role of the Egyptians at the beginning was only collecting the artifacts and
displaying them. Later on, foreign archaeologists were in charge of bringing most of the
artifacts to the museums and Egyptians did not participate in this matter except only after
1952 when the museum personnel became Egyptians.
Did Egyptian Egyptologists play any role in selecting the museums collections?
People who managed the museums were a mixture of mostly foreigners and a few
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Egyptians.
museums?
In my opinion, the first great museums in Egypt (in Cairo and in Alexandria) were
perfectly designed with the idea of not selecting an ancient Egyptian style or a Greek or
Roman style. The neo-classical style chosen for the Egyptian Museum in Cairo fit
perfectly with the classic artifacts without competing with the ancient Egyptian genuine
styles of temples. The Coptic museum however was a palace of Semika Pasha, a rich
Copt who donated the building to be a Coptic Museum. The Museum of Islamic art was
built according to an Islamic architectural style and fit well (near Islamic Cairo).
Unfortunately, Egyptian archaeologists did not have any proper training in
designing museums until now. However, there are a few free-lance architects who work
in designing museums (Hussein el Shabouri from Alexandria and the late Gamal Bakry
and Dalila el Kerdany from Cairo). They own private design firms.
When I was Director of the Egyptian Museum, I got some help in design for the
people working in the Egyptian Museum from the Smithsonian Institute in Washington
DC and two well-known designers gave courses in design for a few weeks in Cairo.
Architects Salah Maraei and Mahmoud Mabrouk helped in the work of the Nubia
Museum and the Luxor Museum and some other projects.
The public did participate in museum decision-making policy. Some of the public
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figures (journalists, architects, scientists, artists, and professors of archaeology or
conservation) participate on the boards of directors of the big museums and help in taking
decisions.
Concerned people (scientists, researchers, and students of archaeology, conservation,
tourist guides, and artifacts) could interact directly with museum personnel and through
galleries and libraries as well. We still want museum personnel to be trained to raise the
involvement of people in museum activities. We worked hard to facilitate an interactive
relationship between the Egyptian people and museum management. The target is to let
the people love museums and visit with their children for education and entertainment.
Although there is a one-year course in museum studies after the BA, it depends
upon the person himself and whether or not he wants to earn this diploma. This is a very
useful course which is chosen voluntarily by students. There are also some few training
courses for museum curators and archaeologists at the SCA, but not enough. One can
work as an assistant curator in any museum and then can gain experience while working.
We try to involve university students to work as volunteers during the summer time (in
guiding Egyptian visitors) to let them feel at home and at the same time have some
training.
What credentials qualify students to interpret the museum collections? And how do
these compare to the credentials and curricula of contemporary scholars?
The credentials that qualify students to interpret the museum collections need a
process and it will take time. This needs training, mastering at least the English and
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Arabic languages, using computers and some programs (Windows, Photoshop etc.), and
much learning. Students should love the place where they intend to work. The SCA
intends to send young archaeologists and conservators to be trained abroad to meet the
challenges of working in a museum. Some museum personnel must accompany
exhibitions abroad and this can be a part of their training and qualifications. It is very
difficult to expect that fresh graduate students will have good credentials and will have
completed the curricula appropriate to museum work. This is because those who are
going to work in museums are not qualified enough, but they go directly to work in
museums and then get a long process of training with senior curators.
7.8. Interview: Abd El Halim Nur El Din, Egyptologist (1943-)
Dr. Abd El Halim Nur El Din is a professor of Egyptology, Cairo University and
Director of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina Calligraphy Center.
I do not think that museology is shaped by foreigners. According to the historical
records, the museum of Alexandria was the first museum in the ancient world. This
museum, although built by the Ptolemaic dynasty, was developed and influenced by the
ancient Egyptian temples. Moreover, in the eleventh century the Fatimid Caliph al-
Mustansir bi-Allah founded the first museum in the modern times. The museum included
all the features of our recent museums. Europe did not know the museum until the
sixteenth or seventeenth centuries after the Renaissance.
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The role of the Egyptian Egyptologists began in 1922 and later.
Although some Egyptians had interest in the ancient Egyptian history through
their knowledge of the work of Muslim Egyptologists, they could not have an important
role in selecting the museums collections. Rifaa el-Tahtawi and Ahmed Kamal were the
first native Egyptologists. However, Ahmed Kamal Pasha struggled with European
Egyptologists during his work in the Egyptian Museum.
museums?
For example, when Khedive Abbass Helmi II decided to construct the Egyptian
Museum in Tahrir Square, the French designer Marcel Dourgnon was chosen to design
the museum. The French designer applied the neo-classical style in architecture which
fits with the quantity, size, and type of the antiquities. It was also designed to
accommodate the chronological order of the Egyptian civilization. The only Egyptian
curator at that time was Ahmed Kamal who helped in the collections classification and
transportation.
Maybe some elite interacted with museum professionals, but I do not believe that
they had a remarkable role or affected the management of museums.
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involvement of people in museum activities; what kind of training do museum

The museum personnel should have at least a bachelors degree in Egyptology or
museology. They have to have teaching experience in order to deal with the public. The
museum curator should love the antiquities in his/her custody. I also prefer the curator
with strong personality and a high technical sense so that he will be able to design the
display and the label attached to the collections on display.
There is a short course in the faculty of archaeology that teaches the art of
museums, but this is not enough as the curator needs several theoretical and practical
courses to be prepared to manage the museums.
What credentials qualified students to interpret the museum collections? And how
do these compare to the credentials and curricula of contemporary scholars?
There are no credentials.
7.9. Interview: Rageh Zaher Mohamed, Curator (1964-)
Dr.Rageh Zaher Mohamed is a senior curator at Nubia museum. Dr. Rageh
graduated from the Faculty of Archaeology, Department of Islamic Culture in 1985.
The two fields were initiated by Europeans during the eighteenth century and
underwent development during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Thus, the
Europeans did not allow or encourage the native Egyptians to participate.
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No, until the second half of the twentieth century, the Egyptian Egyptologists had
no role in managing their museum.
If they did not have any role in managing the museums, they would not have any
role in selecting the museums collections.
museums?
I believe before building any museum, three factors should be considered; the
design of the museums building, the collections (Islamic, Pharaonic, or modern), finally
the curators who would have the upper hand.
example did people interact directly with the museum professionals, or did they
It is a difficult question and needs a diplomatic answer. The public did not
participate or affect the museums management policy in the past or the present.

What we lack in Egypt is training in museum work. Thus, most of the curators in
the Egyptian museums do not have acceptable standards of curatorship. Yet dealing with
the public is a very easy task for most of the curators because of their Egyptian nature.
curator in museum?
189
They have to be graduated from the faculty of archaeology.
I do not believe that the students require any diploma in order to be able to
interpret the museum collections. Even when they start working, some of them ask the
assistance of senior curators in understanding the methods of interpretation while others
do not care at all.
I asked an additional question to Dr. Rageh, because he is a specialist in Islamic history
and civilization.
What do you know about Ribat Athar El Nabi?
The Relics of the Prophet is a collection of personal effects belonging to the
Prophet, peace be upon him, retained by Egypt in the Ribat Athar El Nabi south of Cairo.
The belongings remained in this mosque until the Ottoman conquest in 1517, when the
Ottoman Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultan Al- Qansouh Ghouri and killed
him at the Battle of Marj Dabeq, and imprisoned Mutawakkil III, Caliph of the
Muslims, and took to Istanbul all the Relics of the Prophet. However, contemporary
Arab and Egyptian researchers ascertained that the Relics of the Prophet remained in
Egypt and were transferred first to the Mosque of Saida Zainab then the Mosque of
Qunsuh El Ghori until finally settled in El Hussein Mosque. Such scholars said that the
tradition of the Relics of the Prophet in Egypt began as it were with bany Abraham, in
Yanbu, who was a relative of the Prophet. Bany Abraham said that
"they received inheritance from their parents and grandparents, successive
generations extend to the time of the Prophet Mohamed.

190
Do you think Ribat Athar el Nabi may convey the idea of the museum? If yes please
explain
Ribat Athar el Nabi is the first museum where it had an important collection
of relics of the Prophet and was visited by Egyptians. So it had the idea of the museum.
7.10. Interview: Sanaa Ali, Egyptologist (1959-)
Sanaa Ali is the director of Luxor museum. Mrs. Sanaa graduated from the
Faculty of Archaeology and later she got her masters degree in Egyptology. Mrs. Ali is
managing one of the main and richest museums in Egypt. She participated in different
international courses in museology and she tries to enforce museological standards in
Luxor Museum. However, she faces difficulties as the museums in Egypt do not follow
the ICOM and UNESCO management standards.
It is true that the Europeans did not encourage native Egyptians to participate in
scientific endeavors, but I think that native Egyptians also were hesitant to contribute. I
do remember through my reading and oral discussion with my professors that Ahmed
Kamal Pasha, the first native Egyptologist, tried to encourage his fellow citizens to study
Egyptology but his efforts were not successful enough.
There was no role in the nineteenth century, but during the second half of the
twentieth century the situation changed after a reasonable number of native Egyptologists
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had graduated from the department of archaeology.
No, the management in both the archaeological sites and the museums was
French; therefore, the role of Egyptians was not obvious or they were assigned superficial
jobs.
museums?
I do not believe that the Egyptian curators had any role in designing the museums.
The architectural style and the nature of the collections are two interconnected elements
that the designer should consider before designing a new museum.
Our main problem in the Egyptian museums is the lack of public awareness
regarding the value of the museums collections. At the same time, the archaeologists do
not encourage the public to participate in the galleries. However, students and scholars
can have limited access to libraries.

There are no designed training programs that qualify curators to manage their
museums. The training that the students receive is in archaeology. It is sad that although
we have many museums that have been constructed in every city in Egypt, we do not
have the prepared curators or collection management policies that the museum personnel
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should follow. I do not believe that curators have any problem dealing with the public.
There are set courses in the faculty of archaeology that prepare students to work
in the archaeological sites and in the digging work, but there is no curriculum that
prepares students to work in museums. We hope to have a curriculum of museum studies
soon.
As a director of the Luxor Museum, I requested training in museum interpretation
for the students, but I did not receive any support.
7.11. Analysis
The information gathered from interviewing some native Egyptologists is
important for this present research. The aim of the interview is to evaluate the challenges
the native Egyptologists would have to face during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. Of course, the survey respondents here can only testify about the twentieth and
twenty-first centuries. Eight questions were given related to the role of native
Egyptologists in their museums management, collection policies, and design during
imperialism. Questions also investigate the training museum personnel receive and the
credentials that qualify them to be able to interpret the museums collections. One
important thing I noticed during my discussion with the interviewees is that most of them
hesitated to freely talk; therefore, their responses were very short.
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Thus, if during the nineteenth century, attempts by Ali Mubarak and Ahmed
Kamal to train Egyptians in ancient history were denied and schools were closed, in the
twentieth century Europeans were still continuing to suppress native Egyptologists. This
mainly happened because Western Egyptologists could hardly imagine Egyptians as
potential colleagues.417 All the interviewees stated that European Egyptologists limited
the role of Egyptologists to just collecting and arranging the artifacts and never allowed
them to participate in decisions or scientific work.
The policy of the Europeans was determined since their coming to Egypt. Mai
Trads responses suggest that imperialists planned to control Egyptian minds through
education. In order to monopolize the Egyptian antiquities, Europeans did not encourage
native Egyptians to study the field of Egyptology and they limited the students
information to European history. Even when the native Egyptologists had the chance to
gain an education in Brugschs school of Egyptology Mariette and his successors stood
against it to keep indigenous people away from their own history. Moreover, it was not
allowed for Egyptians who graduated from Brugschs school to copy hieroglyphic
inscriptions or to get hired in the Egyptian Museum.418 Ahmed Kamal wrote to explain
what Mariette and his successors did:
With foreigners wanting to monopolize Egyptian antiquities, the former students

of the school of hieroglyphics had to enter teaching like Ahmed Bey Nagiub and
Mahmoud Effendi Ismat or teaching calligraphy like Ibrahim Effendi Nagiub
All these Egyptian passed like shadows. Unfortunately, they were Egyptians.419
417
Jankowski and Gershoni, Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Middle East, p. 130.
418
419
Ahmad Kamal and the Lost Generation of Egyptian Egyptologists, Ruz al-Yusuf Magazine,
21 March 1936, pp. 125-126.
194
European opposition to the academic progress of native Egyptologists persisted
for a long time. Howard Carter, when he excavated the tomb of Tutankhamen, insisted on
taking his share of the artifacts found in this tomb because he claimed that Egyptians
would not understand the scientific value of such collections nor they would be able to
preserve them.420 Herbert Winlock of the Metropolitan Museum of Art held similar views
and accused Egyptians of being incapable in scientific matters because of their innate
propensity to twist facts.421
Hence, only European excavators and curators were to acquire objects for the
Egyptian Museum, design exhibits, and analyze the monuments excavated in the field
and stored in the Egyptian Museums collections. The respondents asserted that the
Egyptian Egyptologists did not have any right to select the museums collections. If
Egyptian scholars such as Ahmed Kamal had been given proper access to the Egyptian
antiquities within academic or institutional framework, it was impossible to say what
influential contributions to the understanding of Egyptology might have happened.422
Imperialists attempted to maintain intellectual control over Egyptians so that they could
dominate the fields of Egyptology and museums. Imperialism insisted on controlling
even architectural aspects of museums. However, according to our interviewees, since
1941, the Egyptian Museum was managed by Egyptians. The efforts of Ahmed Kamal,
Selim Hassan, and others succeeded in encouraging several students who became both
420
421
422
Bradley, Classics and Imperialism in the British Empire, p. 175.
195
special types of scholars and outstanding Egyptologists.423
Since the Egyptian curators could not have any role in managing their museums
or participating in scientific endeavors, as the respondents assert, the public had no role in
the collections management policy. Thus, offering training courses to curators and
designers would have been essential if the Europeans were really trying to educate and
civilize Egyptians as they claimed. However, for European imperialists, the study and
collecting of Egyptian antiquities was a sign of European greatness. Keeping Egyptian
Egyptologists out of the field of Egyptology affected the public and its knowledge of its
heritage.
The Egyptian public did not have enough information about the value of Egyptian
antiquities. Public contact with the museum or with archaeological sites existed only
among a few members of the elite. Others might consider going to the museum to seek
entertainment or to wander in the museums garden. All respondents did believe that
Egyptian Egyptologists need to encourage community involvement in museum
management and activities. However, in order to communicate with the community, all
respondents believe that the museum personnel need training programs in museology,
teaching, and, some of them add, psychology.
In responding to question seven, some interviewees went further to say that the
field of Egyptology is still dominated by foreigners. To support their argument, they say
that when we look in books, theses, and articles, we find the majority of references come
from foreign authors. They add that nationalists have to challenge the Western
423
Supreme Council of Egyptian Antiquities, Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum, vol. 1 (2004):7.
196
imperialists' interpretations of Egyptian collections through the volume and number of
their own publications. The respondents give two clear examples: 1) the interpretation
system founded by Europeans is still used in the Egyptian museums, and 2) the
registration system Egyptian Museum uses is still today in French.
In conclusion, the research findings show that the majority of respondents thought
that museums in Egypt and their staffs need more work to meet international standards.
Contemporary generations responses with regard to foreigners domination in the
Egyptology and museum studies were astonishing. I believe this in part because of
diplomatic relations and sometimes it depends mainly on the decision of the high
authority of the Egyptian antiquities. Unfortunately, organizations like UNESCO, when
they offer financial or technical support to Egypt give preferences to the foreign experts
in designing exhibits and in training courses. Even though there are qualified personnel in
Egypt, they do not have the opportunity to participate in UNESCOs museum programs.
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CHAPTER VIII
CONCLUSION
Egyptian museums have not received the attention they deserve from both foreign
and Egyptian scholars. Although Europeans claim their superiority in the field of
museology, they failed to emphasize local interests when they founded the museums in
Egypt. Both imperialism and nationalism affected museum development in Egypt in
different ways. Those few researchers, who did contribute to the study of the museums in
Egypt, emphasized the role of foreign scholars in developing Egyptian museums during
the nineteenth and twentieth century while slighting the contribution of native
Egyptologists. This study claims that Egyptians contributed to both the field of
Egyptology and museology. It attempts to view museum development from an Egyptian
perspective. Moreover, native Egyptologists would have developed their own museology
further if they had been encouraged to work in the field. In order to accomplish this
research, it is necessary to consult Egyptians working within museums.
I have endeavored in this dissertation to illustrate a cultural process regarding
museums. Modern museology in Egypt is associated with Napoleons expedition, yes, but
earlier transitions occurred during the pharaonic, Christian, and Islamic periods that had a
great impact on modern museology. Excavation and preservation of antiquities has been
part of Egyptian culture since ancient times. An ancient stela from the reign of Thutmose
IV called the dream stela records that Thutmose IV (1419-1386 BC) excavated the
Sphinx, which was buried under tremendous amounts of sand and then he applied
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conservation and restoration works to the body of the Sphinx. The inscription indicates
that preservation of antiquities has been carried on since pharaonic times. Throughout the
pharaonic dynasties, priests were preserving, classifying, and documenting their rare
treasures and books, which they exhibited in pharaonic temples. Egyptian traditions of
preservation led to the construction of the first real museum. Around the 3rd century BC,
the ancient museum of Alexandria was founded. Unfortunately, it was later destroyed and
most of its rare treasures disappeared. However, the collecting and storing of objects
persisted because a sense of the past is always part of human nature. The ultimate in this
storing activity would be places such as private palaces, monasteries, mosques, libraries,
archives, and finally museums.
As I have sought to explain how museums existed in Egypt more than two
thousand years before western civilization again had comparable institutions, I have also
attempted to explicate the development of museums in modern Egypt, in particular the
Egyptian Museum. Europeans developed the field of museology as a science, but
Egyptians are still working to adapt it to their own needs. Though several museums were
constructed in Egypt during the last years of the nineteenth century and the beginning of
the twentieth century, Egyptian museums are still storehouses. They lack the necessary
resources that allow their personnel to manage their museums according to professional
standards. This study considers several factors that affected the development of museums
in Egypt. Imperialists battled over Egyptian museums. The politics of imperialism and
nationalism played an important role in hindering their development.
199
French Egyptologists tried to control Egyptian antiquities because they claimed to
be the first decoders of the hieroglyphic language and the authors of the first
encyclopedia devoted to Egypt, the eighteenth century Description de l'gypte. Its
publication made Egypt known throughout the world. The British, on the other hand,
desired to control and make use of all Egypts resources. The French and British had a
history of rivalry, and they were at the brink of war around 1890 when both were striving
to take over Africa. Before the two clashed, both the British and French recognized that
their competition served only to help their mutual rival Germany. Consequently, the
Anglo-French Entente of 1904 was concluded by which the French agreed to cease
obstructing British policy in Egypt and the British gave guarantees for the maintenance of
certain French cultural prerogatives in Egypt such as the right to maintain schools and to
nominate the director general of Egyptian Antiquities.
As a result of this agreement, the French controlled Egyptian antiquities until
1952. Auguste Mariette, Gaston Maspero, and others controlled the antiquities and
limited the publishing of any new discoveries. Mariette constructed the Museum of
Boulaq and arranged for the founding of the Egyptian Museum in Qasr El Nil (Currently
Al-Tahrir Square). Museums in Egypt allowed the French to have the ultimate power
over the Egyptian antiquities. In building their nation, the French used the imagery of the
past and the fruits of archaeology to create a narrative of the greatness of their modern
empire.
The Egyptian Museum was designed according to the colonial system (Greco-
Roman style) and came to reflect Western ideologies by isolating Egyptian history within
200
the urban fabric of Egypt itself. When the museum opened in 1902, the British had
control over the state schools that educated Egyptians (there were only three state
secondary schools in the whole country, while there were four museums). The British
policy, supported by the French directors of the Egyptian Museum, opposed hiring
Egyptians in significant positions in the museums. I have demonstrated that the display of
the Egyptian museum came to reflect the colonizers policy in focusing on national
mission rather than enhancing the professionalism of the colonized. Instead the museum
served as a place for forcing Egyptians to keep their voice down and to have to follow
European methods of managing and controlling.
The Egyptian Museum served as a storage place where archaeological finds could
be cleaned and examined. Mariette and Maspero managed excavations throughout Egypt
and gave permissions to foreign expeditions to work in Egypts archaeological sites.
However, they would reserve the important sites for themselves. In managing the
museum and the archaeological sites, the French asserted that they were capable of
recreating the cultures of their colonized. Publishing was the responsibility of the
Europeans, who kept the natives away because they were simple and incapable of
handling scientific research. The Europeans used the Egyptian Museum to enhance their
power.
Nationalists attained considerable power in the 1919 revolution. Saad Zaghloul,
the leader of El-Wafd, demanded complete independence for Egypt. The period from
1919 to 1936 was marked by crucial changes in the museums. Egyptian curators such as
Selim Hassan were hired in the Egyptian Museum. The El-Wafd government could have
201
the upper hand in Egyptian affairs and so prevented Howard Carter from taking the
Tutankhamen treasures out of Egypt. In 1924 the Royal College began to offer courses in
Egyptology. In 1931 the Egyptian government recognized the importance of the Coptic
Museum, which had been founded by Marcus Samaika and managed by the Coptic
Church, by attaching it to the state.
On August 1936, Egypt and London signed the Anglo-Egyptian treaty into law.
According to the treaty, Egypt obtained a conditional independence. Egypt was allowed
to enter the League of Nations, which announced to the world that it was for the first time
in centuries an independent country. Egypt soon established embassies and sent its own
ambassadors around the world. Gradually the Egyptian government acquired power over
its antiquities and museums.
Following the 1952 Revolution in Egypt, the new leaders took control over the
Antiquities Services. It is not surprising that nationalists intensified the excavation
activities to challenge the colonizers long dominance. In doing so, the nationalists too
used the museums as storage areas for their finds and prevented modernization. I wonder
why we have to continue in excavation activities while we are unable to afford secure and
safe environments for the collections we already have. Unfortunately, the nationalists
were imitating their colonizers in order to display their power and to emphasize the end
of colonial rule in Egypt. The museum was used as a tool to support a nationalist agenda.
Addition resources for museums might have been acquired from private
associations and non-governmental organizations. UNESCO made efforts to enhance
museums in Egypt. Its member states made huge investments to salvage Nubian
202
monuments and to establish the Nubia Museum and the National Museum of Egyptian
Civilization. Although sacrifices were made, such as giving four Nubian temples to
Europe and the United States of America, Egypt succeeded with the support of
UNESCOs efforts to save more than eighteen temples and several tombs in the Nubian
region. Such efforts spread out over a long period of time, were aided by technical
support that UNESCO provided to the Nubia Museum and the National Museum of
Egyptian Civilization. Furthermore, UNESCO offered training programs and some
graduate study for Egyptian curators. Egyptian curators were sent to Europe and the
United States of America to get training and education in museology. However, in most
cases, experts from UNESCO (who are always Europeans or Americans) were sent to
Egypt to provide short training courses and workshops for both the staffs of the Nubia
Museum and the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization.
203
Even though UNESCO sent several Egyptians to graduate studies in museology,
the graduation of or return of people who were educated in museology cannot
automatically bring European museological teaching to Egypt, because in Egypt the
discipline of museology is not recognized. Furthermore, no educational or economic
support was given to the Egyptian museologists to develop museology. On the other
hand, UNESCO did not try to send or utilize the Egyptian museologists in different
training courses and workshops like their European and American counterparts. Thus,
even after training and education, Egyptian museologists found themselves supervised by
European and American experts.
Of course, Egyptian scholars and institutions are indebted to UNESCO for aid in
salvaging the Nubian cultural heritage and for technical and training support for the
Nubia Museum and the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization. However, in my
opinion, UNESCO needs to follow up the technical and training supports it provides to
developing countries like Egypt. From my experience when I was in the Nubia Museum,
UNESCO approved the Nubia Museum as a center for museology, documentation,
preservation, and conservation of archaeological remains for Africa and the Middle East.
UNESCO started sending equipment to the proposed center and provided training courses
and workshops through ICOM experts to museologists of Africa and Middle East. The
proposed center was to help preserve archaeological remains at risk in Upper Egypt,
Africa, and even some countries in the Middle East.
UNESCOs officer, Anna Paolini, was keen to accomplish such a great project but
she received a new position and moved from the Cairo office. A new representative of
204
UNESCO was appointed and was in charge following the completion of the Nubia
Museum. However, the proposed center for preservation never became a reality. The new
UNESCO officer, with the cooperation of some political figures of Egypts old regime,
transferred the equipment of this center to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization,
which is located in Cairo in Lower Egypt where several centers of documentation and
conservation were already located, whereas the Nubia Museums center would have
served more than eight governorates in Upper Egypt that lacked such an important center.
I narrate this personal experience for two reasons; first, political circumstances and
undeclared agendas can control and exploit Egyptian antiquities. Second, besides the
technical and training support that UNESCO offers, it needs to found a follow up
department with trusted personnel to make sure UNESCOs proposed projects are going
very well until the final phase of completion.
I believe that to effectively apply its technical and training supports UNESCO
might have to consider the founding of a center for museum studies in Egypt. Since
Egyptian Universities have no museum studies or faculty or staff to teach this new
discipline, UNESCO needs to connect this program to one of the founding European or
American Universities of museology. The courses would be taught by the Western
museologists along with the few Egyptian museologists who have received graduate
studies from Western Universities. Establishing a museum studies program in Egypt
would certainly affect positively the development of Egyptian museums and would assist
Egyptian museologists who are struggling between the Western models of museums and
their national museums. Having museological studies with practical training in Egyptian
205
museums, Egyptian curators would be able to develop their museums according to their
culture and with their available funding.
By interviewing Egyptian Egyptologists, I realized that the lack of museological
consciousness might be among the obstacles to the advancement of museums in Egypt.
This lack of museological consciousness can be traced in Egyptian Egyptologists
confirmation that museology is a European invention which is not taught as a formal
curriculum in Egypt. It can be also traced in Egyptian museological writing. Until today,
Egyptian Egyptologists writing is not strictly scientific since it is based on general
descriptions of museums collections; it focuses solely on Egyptology and ignores
museology. The European efforts too did not affect the Egyptian Egyptologists writing
because these efforts were intended to advance European scholars and to develop their
projects and museums.
On the other hand, Egyptian authority needs to have its part in developing the
museums. With the revolution of January 25th and the creation of a New Egypt,
Egyptians should develop their own new directions in museum policy that would allow
museums to generate financial resources out of their own assets and devote those
resources toward museum improvements. One way that should be attempted would be to
develop a sound policy that would maximize traveling exhibits and devote the profits to
enhancing museum personnel, who would accompany such exhibitions, and to
developing the museum system. Although the Supreme Council of Antiquities has
initiated such policy and some exhibits have already gone on tour, the policy needs to be
revised and effectively developed in order to afford both protection for the antiquities and
206
good profits. Long term exhibits would be possible in conjunction with trusted
organizations like universities or museums that have a good history in preserving and
protecting antiquities. Egyptian authorities should make certain that exhibitions would
not be used for inappropriate commercial or advertising purposes.
To sum up, museology in modern Egypt is imported from the West. Museology
played an important role in Egypts independence process. The foundation of museology
in Egypt was established in the nineteenth century by Europeans. Yet, even with the
establishment of the school of Egyptology, such studies did not become part of the
political and educational system. UNESCO had a central role in the process; nevertheless,
UNESCOs support did not help develop Egyptian museums in terms of management,
exhibition, and preservation. Instead, the imperialistic legacy remains ever present in the
documentation system, exhibition design, and interpretation of collections in Egyptian
museums. The Supreme Council of Antiquities has not yet freed itself from the colonial
legacy that hindered Egyptian progress in the field of museology.
207
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APPENDIX 1
The Entente Cordiale Agreement
Article 1.His Britannic Majestys Government declares that they have no

intention of altering the political status of Egypt.
The Government of the French Republic, for their part, declare that they will not
obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country by asking that a limit of time
be fixed for the British occupation or in any other manner.
Article 2.The Government of the French Republic declare that they have no
intention of altering the political status of Morocco.
His Britannic Majestys Government, for their part, recognize that it appertains to
France for this purpose, provided that such action shall leave intact the rights
which Great Britain, in virtue of treaties, conventions, and usage, enjoys in
Morocco, including the right of coasting trade between the ports of Morocco,
enjoyed by British vessels since 1901.
Article 3.His Britannic Majestys Government, for their part, will respect the
rights which France, in virtue of treaties, conventions, and usage, enjoys in Egypt,
including the right of coasting trade between Egyptian ports accorded to French
vessels.
Article 4.The two Governments, being equally attached to the principle of
commercial liberty both in Egypt and Morocco, declare that they will not, in those
countries, countenance any inequality either in the imposition of customs duties or
other taxes, or of railway transport charges.
The trade of both nations with Morocco and with Egypt shall enjoy the same
treatment in transit through the French and British possessions in Africa. An
agreement between the two Governments shall settle the conditions of such transit
and shall determine the points of entry.
This mutual engagement shall be binding for a period of thirty years. Unless this
stipulation is expressly denounced at least one year in advance, the period shall be
extended for five years at a time.
Nevertheless, the Government of the French Republic reserve to themselves in
Morocco, and His Britannic Majestys Government reserve to themselves in
Egypt, the right to see that the concessions for roads, railways, ports, etc. are only
granted on such conditions as will maintain intact the authority of the State over
these great undertakings of public interest.
Article 9.The two Governments agree to afford to one another their diplomatic
support, in order to obtain the execution of the clauses of the present Declaration
regarding Egypt and Morocco.
Secret Articles
Article 1.In the event of either Government finding themselves constrained, by
the force of circumstances, to modify their policy in respect to Egypt or Morocco,
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the engagements which they have undertaken towards each other by articles 4, 6,
and 7 of Declaration of to-days date would remain intact.
Article 2.His Britannic Majestys Government have no present intention of
proposing to the Powers any changes in the system of the Capitulations, or in the
judicial organization of Egypt.
In the event of their considering it desirable to introduce Egypt reforms tending to
assimilate the Egyptian legislative system to that in force in other civilized
Countries, the Government of the French Republic will not refuse to entertain any
such proposals, on the understanding that His Britannic Majestys Government
will agree to entertain the suggestions that the Government of the French
Republic may have to make to them with a view of introducing similar reforms in
Morocco.
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APPENDIX 2
UNESCO Charter
Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization
The Constitution of UNESCO, signed on 16 November 1945, came into force on 4

November 1946 after ratification by twenty countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China,
Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, France, Greece, India, Lebanon,
Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, United Kingdom,
United States.
Adopted in London on 16 November 1945 and amended by the General Conference at its
2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 12th, 15th, 17th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 24th, 25th,
26th, 27th, 28th, 29th and 31st sessions.
The Governments of the States Parties to this Constitution on behalf of their peoples
declare:
That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of
peace must be constructed;
That ignorance of each others ways and lives has been a common cause, throughout the
history of mankind, of that suspicion and mistrust between the peoples of the world
through which their differences have all too often broken into war;
That the great and terrible war which has now ended was a war made possible by the
denial of the democratic principles of the dignity, equality and mutual respect of men,
and by the propagation, in their place, through ignorance and prejudice, of the doctrine of
the inequality of men and races;
That the wide diffusion of culture, and the education of humanity for justice and liberty
and peace are indispensable to the dignity of man and constitute a sacred duty which all
the nations must fulfill in a spirit of mutual assistance and concern;
That a peace based exclusively upon the political and economic arrangements of
governments would not be a peace which could secure the unanimous, lasting and sincere
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support of the peoples of the world, and that the peace must therefore be founded, if it is
not to fail, upon the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind.
For these reasons, the States Parties to this Constitution, believing in full and equal
opportunities for education for all, in the unrestricted pursuit of objective truth, and in the
free exchange of ideas and knowledge, are agreed and determined to develop and to
increase the means of communication between their peoples and to employ these means
for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each
others lives;
In consequence whereof they do hereby create the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization for the purpose of advancing, through the educational and
scientific and cultural relations of the peoples of the world, the objectives of international
peace and of the common welfare of mankind for which the United Nations Organization
was established and which its Charter proclaims.
Article I
Purposes and functions
1. The purpose of the Organization is to contribute to peace and security by promoting

collaboration among the nations through education, science and culture in order to further
universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental
freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race,
sex, language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations.
2. To realize this purpose the Organization will:
(a) Collaborate in the work of advancing the mutual knowledge and understanding of
peoples, through all means of mass communication and to that end recommend such
international agreements as may be necessary to promote the free flow of ideas by word
and image;
(b) Give fresh impulse to popular education and to the spread of culture:
By collaborating with Members, at their request, in the development of educational

activities;
By instituting collaboration among the nations to advance the ideal of equality of

educational opportunity without regard to race, sex or any distinctions, economic or
social;
By suggesting educational methods best suited to prepare the children of the world for the
responsibilities of freedom;
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(c) Maintain, increase and diffuse knowledge:
By assuring the conservation and protection of the worlds inheritance of books, works of
art and monuments of history and science, and recommending to the nations concerned
the necessary international conventions;
By encouraging cooperation among the nations in all branches of intellectual activity,

including the international exchange of persons active in the fields of education, science
and culture and the exchange of publications, objects of artistic and scientific interest and
other materials of information;
By initiating methods of international cooperation calculated to give the people of all

countries access to the printed and published materials produced by any of them.
3. With a view to preserving the independence, integrity and fruitful diversity of the
cultures and educational systems of the States Members of the Organization, the
Organization is prohibited from intervening in matters which are essentially within their
domestic jurisdiction.
Article II
Membership
1. Membership of the United Nations Organization shall carry with it the right to
membership of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
2. Subject to the conditions of the Agreement between this Organization and the United
Nations Organization, approved pursuant to Article X of this Constitution, states not
members of the United Nations Organization may be admitted to membership of the
Organization, upon recommendation of the Executive Board, by a two-thirds majority
vote of the General Conference.
3. Territories or groups of territories which are not responsible for the conduct of their
international relations may be admitted as Associate Members by the General Conference
by a two-thirds majority of Members present and voting, upon application made on
behalf of such territory or group of territories by the Member or other authority having
responsibility for their international relations. The nature and extent of the rights and
obligations of Associate Members shall be determined by the General Conference.
4. Members of the Organization which are suspended from the exercise of the rights and
privileges of membership of the United Nations Organization shall, upon the request of
the latter, be suspended from the rights and privileges of this Organization.
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5. Members of the Organization which are expelled from the United Nations
Organization shall automatically cease to be Members of this Organization.
6. Any Member State or Associate Member of the Organization may withdraw from the
Organization by notice addressed to the Director-General. Such notice shall take effect on
31 December of the year following that during which the notice was given. No such
withdrawal shall affect the financial obligations owed to the Organization on the date the
withdrawal takes effect. Notice of withdrawal by an Associate Member shall be given on
its behalf by the Member State or other authority having responsibility for its
international relations.
7. Each Member State is entitled to appoint a Permanent Delegate to the Organization.
8. The Permanent Delegate of the Member State shall present his credentials to the
Director-General of the Organization, and shall officially assume his duties from the day
of presentation of his credentials.
Article III
Organs
The Organization shall include a General Conference, an Executive Board and a

Secretariat.
Article IV
The General Conference
A. Composition
1. The General Conference shall consist of the representatives of the States Members of
the Organization. The Government of each Member State shall appoint not more than
five delegates, who shall be selected after consultation with the National Commission, if
established, or with educational, scientific and cultural bodies.
B. Functions
2. The General Conference shall determine the policies and the main lines of work of the
Organization. It shall take decisions on programs submitted to it by the Executive Board.
3. The General Conference shall, when it deems desirable and in accordance with the
regulations to be made by it, summon international conferences of states on education,
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the sciences and humanities or the dissemination of knowledge; non-governmental

conferences on the same subjects may be summoned by the General Conference or by the
Executive Board in accordance with such regulations.
4. The General Conference shall, in adopting proposals for submission to the Member
States, distinguish between recommendations and international conventions submitted for
their approval. In the former case a majority vote shall suffice; in the latter case a two-
thirds majority shall be required. Each of the Member States shall submit
recommendations or conventions to its competent authorities within a period of one year
from the close of the session of the General Conference at which they were adopted.
5. Subject to the provisions of Article V, paragraph 6 (c), the General Conference shall
advise the United Nations Organization on the educational, scientific and cultural aspects
of matters of concern to the latter, in accordance with the terms and procedure agreed
upon between the appropriate authorities of the two Organizations.
6. The General Conference shall receive and consider the reports sent to the Organization
by Member States on the action taken upon the recommendations and conventions
referred to in paragraph 4 above or, if it so decides, analytical summaries of these reports.
7. The General Conference shall elect the members of the Executive Board and, on the
recommendation of the Board, shall appoint the Director-General.
C. Voting
8. (a) Each Member State shall have one vote in the General Conference. Decisions shall
be made by a simple majority except in cases in which a two-thirds majority is required
by the provisions of this Constitution, or the Rules of Procedure of the General
Conference. A majority shall be a majority of the Members present and voting.
(b) A Member State shall have no vote in the General Conference if the total amount of
contributions due from it exceeds the total amount of contributions payable by it for the
current year and the immediately preceding calendar year.
(c) The General Conference may nevertheless permit such a Member State to vote, if it is
satisfied that failure to pay is due to conditions beyond the control of the Member State.
D. Procedure
9. (a) The General Conference shall meet in ordinary session every two years. It may
meet in extraordinary session if it decides to do so itself or if summoned by the Executive
Board, or on the demand of at least one third of the Member States.
(b) At each session the location of its next ordinary session shall be designated by the
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General Conference. The location of an extraordinary session shall be decided by the

General Conference if the session is summoned by it, or otherwise by the Executive
Board.
10. The General Conference shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall at each
session elect a President and other officers.
11. The General Conference shall set up special and technical committees and such other
subsidiary organs as may be necessary for its purposes.
12. The General Conference shall cause arrangements to be made for public access to
meetings, subject to such regulations as it shall prescribe.
E. Observers
13. The General Conference, on the recommendation of the Executive Board and by a
two-thirds majority may, subject to its rules of procedure, invite as observers at specified
sessions of the Conference or of its commissions representatives of international
organizations, such as those referred to in Article XI, paragraph 4.
14. When consultative arrangements have been approved by the Executive Board for
such international non-governmental or semi-governmental organizations in the manner
provided in Article XI, paragraph 4, those organizations shall be invited to send observers
to sessions of the General Conference and its commissions.
Article V
Executive Board
A. Composition
1. (a) The Executive Board shall be elected by the General Conference and it shall consist
of fifty-eight Member States. The President of the General Conference shall sit ex officio
in an advisory capacity on the Executive Board.
(b) Elected States Members of the Executive Board are hereinafter referred to as
Members of the Executive Board.
2. (a) Each Member of the Executive Board shall appoint one representative. It may also
appoint alternates.
(b) In selecting its representative on the Executive Board, the Member of the Executive
Board shall endeavor to appoint a person qualified in one or more of the fields of
competence of UNESCO and with the necessary experience and capacity to fulfill the
240
administrative and executive duties of the Board. Bearing in mind the importance of
continuity, each representative shall be appointed for the duration of the term of the
Member of the Executive Board, unless exceptional circumstances warrant his
replacement. The alternates appointed by each Member of the Executive Board shall act
in the absence of its representative in all his functions.
3. In electing Members to the Executive Board, the General Conference shall have regard
to the diversity of cultures and a balanced geographical distribution.
4. (a) Members of the Executive Board shall serve from the close of the session of the
General Conference which elected them until the close of the second ordinary session of
the General Conference following their election. The General Conference shall, at each of
its ordinary sessions, elect the number of Members of the Executive Board required to fill
vacancies occurring at the end of the session.
(b) Members of the Executive Board are eligible for re-election. Re-elected Members of
the Executive Board shall endeavor to change their representatives on the Board.
5. In the event of the withdrawal from the Organization of a Member of the Executive
Board, its term of office shall be terminated on the date when the withdrawal becomes
effective.
B. Functions
6. (a) The Executive Board shall prepare the agenda for the General Conference. It shall
examine the programme of work for the Organization and corresponding budget
estimates submitted to it by the Director-General in accordance with paragraph 3 of
Article VI and shall submit them with such recommendations as it considers desirable to
the General Conference.
(b) The Executive Board, acting under the authority of the General Conference, shall be
responsible for the execution of the programme adopted by the Conference. In
accordance with the decisions of the General Conference and having regard to
circumstances arising between two ordinary sessions, the Executive Board shall take all
necessary measures to ensure the effective and rational execution of the programme by
the Director-General.
(c) Between ordinary sessions of the General Conference, the Board may discharge the
functions of adviser to the United Nations, set forth in Article IV, paragraph 5, whenever
the problem upon which advice is sought has already been dealt with in principle by the
Conference, or when the solution is implicit in decisions of the Conference.
7. The Executive Board shall recommend to the General Conference the admission of
new Members to the Organization.
241
8. Subject to decisions of the General Conference, the Executive Board shall adopt its
own rules of procedure. It shall elect its officers from among its Members.
9. The Executive Board shall meet in regular session at least four times during a
biennium and may meet in special session if convoked by the Chairman on his initiative
or upon the request of six Members of the Executive Board.
10. The Chairman of the Executive Board shall present, on behalf of the Board, to the
General Conference at each ordinary session, with or without comments, the reports on
the activities of the Organization which the Director-General is required to prepare in
accordance with the provisions of Article VI.3 (b).
11. The Executive Board shall make all necessary arrangements to consult the
representatives of international organizations or qualified persons concerned with
questions within its competence.
12. Between sessions of the General Conference, the Executive Board may request
advisory opinions from the International Court of Justice on legal questions arising within
the field of the Organizations activities.
13. The Executive Board shall also exercise the powers delegated to it by the General
Conference on behalf of the Conference as a whole.
Article VI
Secretariat
1. The Secretariat shall consist of a Director-General and such staff as may be required.
2. The Director-General shall be nominated by the Executive Board and appointed by the
General Conference for a period of four years, under such conditions as the Conference
may approve. The Director-General may be appointed for a further term of four years but
shall not be eligible for reappointment for a subsequent term. The Director-General shall
be the chief administrative officer of the Organization.
3. (a) The Director-General, or a deputy designated by him, shall participate, without the
right to vote, in all meetings of the General Conference, of the Executive Board, and of
the Committees of the Organization. He shall formulate proposals for appropriate action
by the Conference and the Board, and shall prepare for submission to the Board a draft
programme of work for the Organization with corresponding budget estimates.
(b) The Director-General shall prepare and communicate to Member States and to the
Executive Board periodical reports on the activities of the Organization. The General
242
Conference shall determine the periods to be covered by these reports.
4. The Director-General shall appoint the staff of the Secretariat in accordance with staff
regulations to be approved by the General Conference. Subject to the paramount
consideration of securing the highest standards of integrity, efficiency and technical
competence, appointment to the staff shall be on as wide a geographical basis as possible.
5. The responsibilities of the Director-General and of the staff shall be exclusively

international in character. In the discharge of their duties they shall not seek or receive
instructions from any government or from any authority external to the Organization.
They shall refrain from any action which might prejudice their positions as international
officials. Each State Member of the Organization undertakes to respect the international
character of the responsibilities of the Director-General and the staff, and not to seek to
influence them in the discharge of their duties.
6. Nothing in this Article shall preclude the Organization from entering into special
arrangements within the United Nations Organization for common services and staff and
for the interchange of personnel.
Article VII
National cooperating bodies
1. Each Member State shall make such arrangements as suit its particular conditions for
the purpose of associating its principal bodies interested in educational, scientific and
cultural matters with the work of the Organization, preferably by the formation of a
National Commission broadly representative of the government and such bodies.
2. National Commissions or National Cooperating Bodies, where they exist, shall act in
an advisory capacity to their respective delegations to the General Conference, to the
representatives and alternates of their countries on the Executive Board and to their
Governments in matters relating to the Organization and shall function as agencies of
liaison in all matters of interest to it.
3. The Organization may, on the request of a Member State, delegate, either temporarily,
a member of its Secretariat to serve on the National Commission of that state, in order to
assist in the development of its work.
Article VIII
Reports by Member States
Each Member State shall submit to the Organization, at such times and in such manner as
shall be determined by the General Conference, reports on the laws, regulations and
243
statistics relating to its educational, scientific and cultural institutions and activities, and
on the action taken upon the recommendations and conventions referred to in Article IV,
paragraph 4.
Article IX
Budget
1. The budget shall be administered by the Organization.
2. The General Conference shall approve and give final effect to the budget and to the
apportionment of financial responsibility among the States Members of the Organization
subject to such arrangement with the United Nations as may be provided in the agreement
to be entered into pursuant to Article X.
3. The Director-General may accept voluntary contributions, gifts, bequests and

subventions directly from governments, public and private institutions, associations and
private persons, subject to the conditions specified in the Financial Regulations.
Article X
Relations with the United Nations Organization
This Organization shall be brought into relation with the United Nations Organization, as
soon as practicable, as one of the specialized agencies referred to in Article 57 of the
Charter of the United Nations. This relationship shall be effected through an agreement
with the United Nations Organization under Article 63 of the Charter, which agreement
shall be subject to the approval of the General Conference of this Organization. The
agreement shall provide for effective cooperation between the two Organizations in the
pursuit of their common purposes, and at the same time shall recognize the autonomy of
this Organization, within the fields of its competence as defined in this Constitution. Such
agreement may, among other matters, provide for the approval and financing of the
budget of the Organization by the General Assembly of the United Nations.
Article XI
Relations with other specialized international organizations and agencies
1. This Organization may cooperate with other specialized intergovernmental

organizations and agencies whose interests and activities are related to its purposes. To
this end the Director- General, acting under the general authority of the Executive Board,
may establish effective working relationships with such organizations and agencies and
establish such joint committees as may be necessary to assure effective cooperation. Any
formal arrangements entered into with such organizations or agencies shall be subject to
244
the approval of the Executive Board.
2. Whenever the General Conference of this Organization and the competent authorities
of any other specialized intergovernmental organizations or agencies whose purpose and
functions lie within the competence of this Organization deem it desirable to effect a
transfer of their resources and activities to this Organization, the Director-General,
subject to the approval of the Conference, may enter into mutually acceptable
arrangements for this purpose.
3. This Organization may make appropriate arrangements with other intergovernmental

organizations for reciprocal representation at meetings.
4. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization may make
suitable arrangements for consultation and cooperation with non-governmental
international organizations concerned with matters within its competence, and may invite
them to undertake specific tasks. Such cooperation may also include appropriate
participation by representatives of such organizations on advisory committees set up by
the General Conference.
Article XII
Legal status of the Organization
The provisions of Articles 104 and 105 of the Charter of the United Nations Organization
concerning the legal status of that Organization, its privileges and immunities, shall apply
in the same way to this Organization.
Article XIII
Amendments
1. Proposals for amendments to this Constitution shall become effective upon receiving
the approval of the General Conference by a two-thirds majority; provided, however, that
those amendments which involve fundamental alterations in the aims of the Organization
or new obligations for the Member States shall require subsequent acceptance on the part
of two thirds of the Member States before they come into force. The draft texts of
proposed amendments shall be communicated by the Director-General to the Member
States at least six months in advance of their consideration by the General Conference.
2. The General Conference shall have power to adopt by two-thirds majority rules of
procedure for carrying out the provisions of this Article.
Article XIV
245
Interpretation
1. The English and French texts of this Constitution shall be regarded as equally
authoritative.
2. Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation of this Constitution shall be

referred for determination to the International Court of Justice or to an arbitral tribunal, as
the General Conference may determine under its Rules of Procedure.
Article XV
Entry into force
1. This Constitution shall be subject to acceptance. The instrument of acceptance shall be

deposited with the Government of the United Kingdom.
2. This Constitution shall remain open for signature in the archives of the Government of
the United Kingdom. Signature may take place either before or after the deposit of the
instrument of acceptance. No acceptance shall be valid unless preceded or followed by
signature. However, a state that has withdrawn from the Organization shall simply
deposit a new instrument of acceptance in order to resume membership.
3. This Constitution shall come into force when it has been accepted by twenty of its
signatories. Subsequent acceptances shall take effect immediately.
4. The Government of the United Kingdom will inform all Members of the United
Nations and the Director-General of the receipt of all instruments of acceptance and of
the date on which the Constitution comes into force in accordance with the preceding
paragraph.
In faith whereof, the undersigned, duly authorized to that effect, have signed this
Constitution in the English and French languages, both texts being equally authentic.
Done in London the sixteenth day of November, one thousand nine hundred and forty-
five, in a single copy, in the English and French languages, of which certified copies will
be communicated by the Government of the United Kingdom to the Governments of all
the Members of the United Nations.
246
APPENDIX 3
Egypt members of the UNESCO Executive Board
Representation in the Executive Board

The 1991 amendment modified Article V of the Constitution, regarding the status of
members of the Board. From the 27th session of the General Conference (1993), the
Executive Board consists of Member States rather than of persons (26 C/Resolution
19.3).
Title Name Years Sessions
Member Mr. Shafiq Ghorbal Bey 1946-1951 1-26
Member Mr. Mohammed Awad 1954-1962 40-63
Chairperson Mr. Mohammed Awad 1960-1962 58-63
Member Mr Sarwat Okasha 1962-1970 64-85
Member Mr. Abdel Wahab El-Borolossy 1970-1976 86-100
Member Mr. Chams Eldine El-Wakil 1976-1980 101-110
Chairperson Mr. Chams Eldine El-Wakil 1978-1980 106-110
Mr. Mohammed Fathallah El-

Member 1985-1989 123-132
Khatib
Member Mr. Ahmed Fathi Sorour 1989-1993 133-142
Representative Mr. Ahmed Fathi Sorour 1993-2001 143-162
Representative Mr. Mohamed El-Zahaby 2001-2013 163-192
247
APPENDIX 4
Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing

the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property 1970
Paris, 14 November 1970.
The General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, meeting in Paris from 12 October to 14 November 1970, at its sixteenth
session,
Recalling the importance of the provisions contained in the Declaration of the Principles
of International Cultural Co-operation, adopted by the General Conference at its
fourteenth session,
Considering that the interchange of cultural property among nations for scientific,
cultural and educational purposes increases the knowledge of the civilization of Man,
enriches the cultural life of all peoples and inspires mutual respect and appreciation
among nations,
Considering that cultural property constitutes one of the basic elements of civilization
and national culture, and that its true value can be appreciated only in relation to the
fullest possible information regarding is origin, history and traditional setting,
Considering that it is incumbent upon every State to protect the cultural property
existing within its territory against the dangers of theft, clandestine excavation, and illicit
export,
Considering that, to avert these dangers, it is essential for every State to become
increasingly alive to the moral obligations to respect its own cultural heritage and that of
all nations,
Considering that, as cultural institutions, museums, libraries and archives should ensure
that their collections are built up in accordance with universally recognized moral
principles,
Considering that the illicit import, export and transfer of ownership of cultural property
is an obstacle to that understanding between nations which it is part of UNESCOs
mission to promote by recommending to interested States, international conventions to
this end,
Considering that the protection of cultural heritage can be effective only if organized
248
both nationally and internationally among States working in close co-operation,
Considering that the UNESCO General Conference adopted a Recommendation to this

effect in 1964,
Having before it further proposals on the means of prohibiting and preventing the illicit
import, export and transfer of ownership of cultural property, a question which is on the
agenda for the session as item 19,
Having decided, at its fifteenth session, that this question should be made the subject of
an international convention,
Adopts this Convention on the fourteenth day of November 1970.
Article 1
For the purposes of this Convention, the term `cultural property' means property which,
on religious or secular grounds, is specifically designated by each State as being of
importance for archaeology, prehistory, history, literature, art or science and which
belongs to the following categories:
(a) Rare collections and specimens of fauna, flora, minerals and anatomy, and objects of
paleontological interest;
(b) property relating to history, including the history of science and technology and
military and social history, to the life of national leaders, thinkers, scientists and artist and
to events of national importance;
(c) products of archaeological excavations (including regular and clandestine) or of

archaeological discoveries ;
(d) elements of artistic or historical monuments or archaeological sites which have been
dismembered;
(e) antiquities more than one hundred years old, such as inscriptions, coins and engraved
seals;
(f) objects of ethnological interest;
(g) property of artistic interest, such as:
(i) pictures, paintings and drawings produced entirely by hand on any support and in any
material (excluding industrial designs and manu-factured articles decorated by hand);
249
(ii) original works of statuary art and sculpture in any material;
(iii) original engravings, prints and lithographs ;
(iv) original artistic assemblages and montages in any material;
(h) rare manuscripts and incunabula, old books, documents and publications of special
interest (historical, artistic, scientific, literary, etc.) singly or in collections ;
(i) postage, revenue and similar stamps, singly or in collections;
(j) archives, including sound, photographic and cinematographic archives;
(k) articles of furniture more than one hundred years old and old musical instruments.
Article 2
1. The States Parties to this Convention recognize that the illicit import, export and
transfer of ownership of cultural property is one of the main causes of the
impoverishment of the cultural heritage of the countries of origin of such property and
that international co-operation constitutes one of the most efficient means of protecting
each country's cultural property against all the dangers resulting there from.
2. To this end, the States Parties undertake to oppose such practices with the means at
their disposal, and particularly by removing their causes, putting a stop to current
practices, and by helping to make the necessary reparations.
Article 3
The import, export or transfer of ownership of cultural property effected contrary to the
provisions adopted under this Convention by the States Parties thereto, shall be illicit.
Article 4
The States Parties to this Convention recognize that for the purpose of the Convention
property which belongs to the following categories forms part of the cultural heritage of
each State:
(a) Cultural property created by the individual or collective genius of nationals of the
State concerned, and cultural property of importance to the State concerned created
within the territory of that State by foreign nationals or stateless persons resident within
such territory;
250
(b) cultural property found within the national territory;
(c) cultural property acquired by archaeological, ethnological or natural science missions,

with the consent of the competent authorities of the country of origin of such property;
(d) cultural property which has been the subject of a freely agreed exchange;
(e) cultural property received as a gift or purchased legally with the consent of the
competent authorities of the country of origin of such property.
Article 5
To ensure the protection of their cultural property against illicit import, export and
transfer of ownership, the States Parties to this Convention undertake, as appropriate for
each country, to set up within their territories one or more national services, where such
services do not already exist, for the protection of the cultural heritage, with a qualified
staff sufficient in number for the effective carrying out of the following functions:
(a) contributing to the formation of draft laws and regulations designed to secure the
protection of the cultural heritage and particularly prevention of the illicit import, export
and transfer of ownership of important cultural property;
(b) establishing and keeping up to date, on the basis of a national inventory of protected
property, a list of important public and private cultural property whose export would
constitute an appreciable impoverishment of the national cultural heritage;
(c) promoting the development or the establishment of scientific and technical institutions
(museums, libraries, archives, laboratories, workshops . . . ) required to ensure the
preservation and presentation of cultural property;
(d) organizing the supervision of archaeological excavations, ensuring the preservation in

situ of certain cultural property, and protecting certain areas reserved for future
archaeological research;
(e) establishing, for the benefit of those concerned (curators, collectors, antique dealers,
etc.) rules in conformity with the ethical principles set forth in this Convention; and
taking steps to ensure the observance of those rules;
(f) taking educational measures to stimulate and develop respect for the cultural heritage
of all States, and spreading knowledge of the provisions of this Convention;
(g) seeing that appropriate publicity is given to the disappearance of any items of cultural
property.
251
Article 6
The States Parties to this Convention undertake:
(a) To introduce an appropriate certificate in which the exporting State would specify that
the export of the cultural property in question is authorized. The certificate should
accompany all items of cultural property exported in accordance with the regulations ;
(b) to prohibit the exportation of cultural property from their territory unless accompanied
by the above-mentioned export certificate;
(c) to publicize this prohibition by appropriate means, particularly among persons likely
to export or import cultural property.
Article 7
(a) To take the necessary measures, consistent with national legislation, to prevent
museums and similar institutions within their territories from acquiring cultural property
originating in another State Party which has been illegally exported after entry into force
of this Convention, in the States concerned. Whenever possible, to inform a State of
origin Party to this Convention of an offer of such cultural property illegally removed
from that State after the entry into force of this Convention in both States;
(b) (i) to prohibit the import of cultural property stolen from a museum or a religious or
secular public monument or similar institution in another State Party to this Convention
after the entry into force of this Convention for the States concerned, provided that such
property is documented as appertaining to the inventory of that institution;
(ii) at the request of the State Party of origin, to take appropriate steps to recover and
return any such cultural property imported after the entry into force of this Convention in
both States concerned, provided, however, that the requesting State shall pay just
compensation to an innocent purchaser or to a person who has valid title to that property.
Requests for recovery and return shall be made through diplomatic offices. The
requesting Party shall furnish, at its expense, the documentation and other evidence
necessary to establish its claim for recovery and return. The Parties shall impose no
customs duties or other charges upon cultural property returned pursuant to this Article.
All expenses incident to the return and delivery of the cultural property shall be borne by
the requesting Party.
Article 8
The States Parties to this Convention undertake to impose penalties or admin-istrative
252
sanctions on any person responsible for infringing the prohibitions referred to under
Articles 6(b) and 7(b) above.
Article 9
Any State Party to this Convention whose cultural patrimony is in jeopardy from pillage
of archaeological or ethnological materials may call upon other States Parties who are
affected. The States Parties to this Convention undertake, in these circumstances, to
participate in a concerted international effort to determine and to carry out the necessary
concrete measures, including the control of exports and imports and international
commerce in the specific materials concerned. Pending agreement each State concerned
shall take provisional measures to the extent feasible to prevent irremediable injury to the
cultural heritage of the requesting State.
Article 10
(a) To restrict by education, information and vigilance, movement of cultural property

illegally removed from any State Party to this Convention and, as appropriate for each
country, oblige antique dealers, subject to penal or administrative sanctions, to maintain a
register recording the origin of each item of cultural property, names and addresses of the
supplier, description and price of each item sold and to inform the purchaser of the
cultural property of the export prohibition to which such property may be subject;
(b) to endeavor by educational means to create and develop in the public mind a
realization of the value of cultural property and the threat to the cultural heritage created
by theft, clandestine excavations and illicit exports.
Article 11
The export and transfer of ownership of cultural property under compulsion arising
directly or indirectly from the occupation of a country by a foreign power shall be
regarded as illicit.
Article 12
The States Parties to this Convention shall respect the cultural heritage within the
territories for the international relations of which they are responsible, and shall take all
appropriate measures to prohibit and prevent the illicit import, export and transfer of
ownership of cultural property in such territories.
Article 13
253
The States Parties to this Convention also undertake, consistent with the laws of each
State:
(a) to prevent by all appropriate means transfers of ownership of cultural property likely
to promote the illicit import or export of such property;
(b) to ensure that their competent services co-operate in facilitating the earliest possible
restitution of illicitly exported cultural property to its rightful owner;
(c) to admit actions for recovery of lost or stolen items of cultural property brought by or
on behalf of the rightful owners ;
(d) to recognize the indefeasible right of each State Party to this Convention to classify
and declare certain cultural property as inalienable which should therefore ipso facto not
be exported, and to facilitate recovery of such property by the State concerned in cases
where it has been exported.
Article 14
In order to prevent illicit export and to meet the obligations arising from the
implementation of this Convention, each State Party to the Convention should, as far as it
is able, provide the national services responsible for the protection of its cultural heritage
with an adequate budget and, if necessary, should set up a fund for this purpose.
Article 15
Nothing in this Convention shall prevent States Parties thereto from concluding special
agreements among themselves or from continuing to implement agreements already
concluded regarding the restitution of cultural property removed, whatever the reason,
from its territory of origin, before the entry into force of this Convention for the States
concerned.
Article 16
The States Parties to this Convention shall in their periodic reports submitted to the
General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization on dates and in a manner to be determined by it, give information on the
legislative and administrative provisions which they have adopted and other action which
they have taken for the application of this Convention, together with details of the
experience acquired in this field.
Article 17
1. The States Parties to this Convention may call on the technical assistance of the United
254
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, particularly as regards:
(a) Information and education;
(b) consultation and expert advice;
(c) co-ordination and good offices.
2. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization may, on its own
initiative conduct research and publish studies on matters relevant to the illicit movement
of cultural property.
3. To this end, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization may
also call on the co-operation of any competent non-governmental organization.
4. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization may, on its own
initiative, make proposals to States Parties to this Convention for its implementation.
5. At the request of at least two States Parties to this Convention which are engaged in a
dispute over its implementation, UNESCO may extend its good offices to reach a
settlement between them.
Article 18
This Convention is drawn up in English, French, Russian and Spanish, the four texts
being equally authoritative.
Article 19
1. This Convention shall be subject to ratification or acceptance by States members of the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in accordance with
their respective constitutional procedures.
2. The instruments of ratification or acceptance shall be deposited with the Director-

General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Article 20
1. This Convention shall be open to accession by all States not members of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization which are invited to accede to
it by the Executive Board of the Organization.
2. Accession shall be effected by the deposit of an instrument of accession with the

Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
255
Organization.
Article 21
This Convention shall enter into force three months after the date of the deposit of the
third instrument of ratification, acceptance or accession, but only with respect to those
States which have deposited their respective instruments on or before that date. It shall
enter into force with respect to any other State three months after the deposit of its
instrument of ratification, acceptance or accession.
Article 22
The States Parties to this Convention recognize that the Convention is applicable not only
to their metropolitan territories but also to all territories for the international relations of
which they are responsible; they undertake to consult, if necessary, the governments or
other competent authorities of these territories on or before ratification, acceptance or
accession with a view to securing the application of the Convention to those territories,
and to notify the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
cultural Organization of the territories to which it is applied, the notification to take effect
three months after the date of its receipt.
Article 23
1. Each State Party to this Convention may denounce the Convention on its own behalf or
on behalf of any territory for whose international relations it is responsible.
2. The denunciation shall be notified by an instrument in writing, deposited with the

Organization.
3. The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the receipt of the instrument of
denunciation.
Article 24
The Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization shall inform the States members of the Organization, the States not
members of the Organization which are referred to in Article 20, as well as the United
Nations, of the deposit of all the instruments of ratification, acceptance and accession
provided for in Articles 19 and 20, and of the notifications and denunciations provided
for in Articles 22 and 23 respectively.
Article 25
256
1. This Convention may be revised by the General Conference of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Any such revision shall, however, bind
only the States which shall become Parties to the revising convention.
2. If the General Conference should adopt a new convention revising this Convention in
whole or in part, then, unless the new convention otherwise provides, this Convention
shall cease to be open to ratification, acceptance or accession, as from the date on which
the new revising convention enters into force.
Article 26
In conformity with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations, this Convention
shall be registered with the Secretariat of the United Nations at the request of the
Organization.
Done in Paris this seventeenth day of November 1970, in two authentic copies bearing
the signature of the President of the sixteenth session of the General Conference and of
the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, which shall be deposited in the archives of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization, and certified true copies of which shall be delivered
to all the States referred to in Articles 19 and 20 as well as to the United Nations.
257

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL MUSEUMS IN

EGYPT DURING THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES:

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

Dr. John Howe

Peggy Gordon Miller

respect during the completion of the project.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS viii-ix

2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSEOLOGY 14-32

2.1. Museum Science as a Discipline 14-18

2.2. Museological Thought up to 1900 18-24

2.3. The Professionalization of Museology from 1900-1934 24-26

2.4. Museology from 1934 to 1976 26-28

2.5. The Foundation of ICOFOM in 1977 as a Turning Point of Museology 28-32

3. THE TRADITION OF CULTURAL PRESERVATION IN EGYPT 33-59

3.1. The Original Museum in Alexandria 33-37

3.2. Later Egyptian Traditions of Cultural Preservation 37-42

3.3. Napoleon Brings Europe to Egypt 42-45

3.4. Egyptology in the Early Nineteenth Century 45-54

3.4. Problems Posed by Increasing European Domination 54-59

4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSEUMS IN MODERN EGYPT 60-102

4.1. Al-Tahtawi and the First Open Museum in Egypt 61-64

4.2. French Contributions to the Development of Museums in Egypt 64-71

4.3. The Egyptian Museum 72-85

4.4. The Greco-Roman Museum 85-89

4.5. The Coptic Museum 89-94

4.6. The Museum of Islamic (Arab) Art 94-95

4.7. Political Issues Involved in the Development of Egyptian Museology 96-101

4.8. Conclusion 101-102

5. MUSEUM MANAGEMENT AND THE POLITICS OF NATIONALISM 103-141

5.1. The Triumph of Egyptian Nationalism 103-113

5.2. Museum Policies Change 113-128

5.3. El-Wafd and the Beginning of the Nationalization of Egyptology 128-134

5.4. The Triumph of Nasser 134-137

5.5. Monuments Laws Intended to Protect Egyptian Antiquities 137-141

6. THE MODERNIZING UNESCO AGENDA IN EGYPT 142-166

6.1. UNESCO and the Preservation of the Monuments of Nubia 148-156

6.3. UNESCO and the Coptic Museum 158-160

6.4. UNESCO and the Museum of Islamic Art 160-162

6.5. UNESCO Museology Programs 162-166

7. EGYPTIAN MUSEUM PERSONNEL LOOK AT EGYPTIAN MUSEOLOGY

7.1. Questionnaire and Responses 167-170

7.2. Interview: Tharwat Okasha, Egyptologist (1921-) 170-174

7.3. Interview: Tuhfah Handusah, Egyptologist (1933-) 174-177

7.4. Interview: Soaad Abdel Al aal, Egyptologist (1955-) 177-178

7.5. Interview: Ali Al Asfar, Egyptologist and Inspector (1953-) 178-180

7.6. Interview: Mai Trad, Egyptologist (1929-) 180-182

7.7. Interview: Mohamed Saleh, Egyptologist (1936-) 182-186

7.8. Interview: Abd El Halim Nur El Din, Egyptologist (1943-) 186-188

7.9. Interview: Rageh Zaher Mohamed, Curator (1964-) 188-191

7.10. Interview: Sanaa Ali, Egyptologist (1959-) 191-193

7.11. Analyses 193-197

Appendix 1: The Entente Cordiale Agreement 233-234

Appendix 2: The UNESCO Constitution and Charter 235-246

Appendix 3: Egyptian Members of the UNESCO Executive Board 247

Appendix 4: Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing

development of archaeological and historical museums in Egypt in a broad contextual

international organizations such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO). It studies the development of the first Egyptian

museums. It analyzes the challenges faced by Egyptian museums today in an independent