Storage
and
Flow
of
Powders
‐
2


CH
2040
–
Mechanical
Opera>ons

Basavaraj
M.
Gurappa

Department
of
chemical
engineering

IIT‐Madras

 Storage
of
solids
–
design
philosophy

Flowability
and
Arching:



The
 phrase
 "good
 flow
 behavior”
 means
 that
 a
 powder
 or
 bulk
 solid

flows
easily.



Par>culate
 solids
 are
 "poorly
 flowing"
 if
 they
 experience
 flow


obstruc>ons
–
called
arches.




 Storage
of
solids
–
design
philosophy

Powders
 generate
 strength
 under
 the
 ac>on
 of
 compac>ng
 stresses
 –

greater
the
compac>ng
stresses,
greater
the
strength
developed


Free
flowing
solids
such
as
dry
coarse
sand
do
not
develop
strength
as

the
result
of
compac>ng
stresses
and
will
always
flow


 Storage
of
solids
–
design
philosophy

compressive
strength
or
unconfined
yield
strength
σC


Figure
shows
a
hollow
cylinder
with
fric>onless
walls,
filled
with
a
fine‐
grained,
 cohesive
 bulk
 solid.
 Let
 the
 bulk
 solid
 be
 consolidated
 by
 the

consolida>on
 stress
 σ1.
 Subsequently
 the
 hollow
 cylinder
 is
 removed

and
 the
 cylindrical
 bulk
 solid
 specimen
 is
 loaded
 with
 an
 increasing

ver>cal
 compressive
 stress
 un>l
 the
 specimen
 breaks
 (fails).
 The
 stress

causing
 failure
 is
 called
 compressive
 strength
 or
 unconfined
 yield

strength
σC

 Storage
of
solids
–
design
philosophy

Flow‐no
flow
criteria:



Gravity
flow
of
a
solid
in
a
channel
will
take
place
provided
the
strength

developed
 by
 the
 solids
 under
 the
 ac>on
 of
 consolida>ng
 pressures
 is

insufficient
to
support
an
obstruc>on
to
flow.


An
 arch
 occurs
 when
 the
 strength


developed
 by
 the
 solids
 is
 greater

than
 stresses
 ac>ng
 within
 the

surface
of
the
arch

 Storage
of
solids
–
design
philosophy


The
hopper
flow
factor
ff:



The
hopper
flow
factor,
ff,
relates
the
stresses
developed
in
a
par>culate

solid
with
the
compac>ng
stress
ac>ng
in
a
par>cular
hopper.



Compacting stress in the hopper

σ
ff = C =
σD Stress developed in the powder

A
 high
 value
 of
 ff
 means
 low
 flowablity
 since
 high
 σC
 means
 greater

compac>on,
and
a
low
value
of
σD
means
more
chance
of
arch
foaming.


The
hopper
flow
factor
depends
on
–
the
nature
of
solids,
the
nature
of

the
wall
material,
and
the
slope
of
the
hopper
wall.




 Storage
of
solids
–
design
philosophy


Unconfined
yield
stress,
σy:



Suppose
 the
 yield
 stress
 (i.e.
 the
 stress
 which
 causes
 flow)
 of
 the

powder
in
the
exposed
surface
of
the
arch
is
σy.
The
stress
σy
is
known
as

the
 unconfined
 yield
 stress
 of
 the
 powder.
 Then
 if
 the
 stresses

developed
 in
 the
 powder
 forming
 the
 arch
 is
 greater
 than
 the

unconfined
yield
stress
of
the
powder
arch,
flow
will
occur.
That
is


For flow σ D > σ y

σC
For flow > σy
ff
 Storage
of
solids
–
design
philosophy


Powder
flow
funcBon:



The
unconfined
yield
stress
σy
of
the
solids
varies
with
compac>ng
stress

(σC),

i.e.

σ y = fn(σ C )

Powder
 flow
 func>on
 is
 a


func>on
 only
 of
 the
 powder

proper>es

 Storage
of
solids
–
design
philosophy

CriBcal
condiBons
for
flow:


σC
The
cri>cal
condi>on
for
flow
is

 = σy
ff
This
may
be
plo[ed
on
the
same
axes
as
the
powder
flow

func>on
 (unconfined
 yield
 stress,
 σy
 and
 compac>ng

stress,
σC
)
in
order
to
reveal
the
condi>ons
under
which

flow
will
occur
for
this
powder
in
the
hopper.
The
limi>ng

condi>on
gives
a
straight
line
of
slope
1/ff
.
Figure
shows

such
a
plot.
Where
the
powder
has
a
yield
stress
greater

than
 σC/ff,
 no
 flow
 occurs
 [powder
 flow
 func>on
 (a)].

Where
the
powder
has
a
yield
stress
less
than
σC/ff
flow

occurs
 [powder
 flow
 func>on
 (c)].
 For
 powder
 flow

func>on
 (b)
 there
 is
 a
 cri>cal
 condi>on,
 where

unconfined
yield
stress,
σy,
is
equal
to
stress
developed
in

the
 powder,
 σC/ff.
 This
 gives
 rise
 to
 a
 cri>cal
 value
 of

stress,
 σcrit,
 which
 is
 the
 cri>cal
 stress
 developed
 in
 the

surface
of
the
arch:



If
actual
stress
developed
<
σCrit
)

‐
no
flow


If
actual
stress
developed
>
σCrit
)
‐
flow


 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

Mohr’s
circle
‐
O[o
Mohr
(1835
‐
1918):
Is
a
graphical
method
to
look
at

stress
state
and
rota>on
of
a
stress
state
to
a
new
direc>on
(i.e.
stress

transforma>on).
 It
 is
 not
 a
 derived
 theory
 or
 set
 of
 equa>ons,
 but
 a

method
 to
 visualize
 what
 the
 stresses
 look
 like
 in
 a
 material.
 We
 can

visualize
how
stresses
change
when
we
rotate
the
sample.





Center
 ‐
 Average
 of


the
normal
stresses






Using
Mohr’s
approach
‐
stress
states
of
a
material
can
be
represented

in
the
form
of
a
circle.


h[ps://ecourses.ou.edu/cgi‐bin/display_lectures.cgi?course=me&ch_numb=07&status=disp_lect

 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

Circle
 represents
 any
 stress
 state
 that
 we
 may
 want
 to
 rotate
 this

element.
New
set
of
stresses
lie
on
the
circumference
of
the
circle.



Maximum
shear
stresses



Maximum

principal
stresses



Maximum
shear
stresses


h[ps://ecourses.ou.edu/cgi‐bin/display_lectures.cgi?course=me&ch_numb=07&status=disp_lect

 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

ApplicaBon
of
Mohr’s
circle
to
the
analysis
of
yield
Locus:



Each
point
on
a
yield
locus
represents
at
point
on
a
par>cular
Mohr’s
circle
for
which

failure
or
yield
of
the
powder
occurs.



A
yield
locus
is
then
tangent
to
all
the
Mohr’s
circles
represen>ng
stress
systems
under

which
the
powder
will
fail
(flow).

Mohr’s
 circles
 (a)
 and
 (b)
 represent

stress
 systems
 under
 which
 the

powder
 would
 fail.
 In
 circle
 (c)
 the

stresses
 are
 insufficient
 to
 cause
 flow.

Circle
 (d)
 is
 not
 relevant
 since
 the

system
 under
 considera>on
 cannot

support
stress
combina>ons
above
the

yield
 locus.
 It
 is
 therefore
 Mohr’s

circles
which
are
tangen>al
to
yield
loci

that
are
important
for
analysis.

 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

DeterminaBon
of
σy
and
σC:



Smaller
Mohr’s
circle
represents
condi>ons
at
the
free
surface
of
the
arch:
this

free
surface
is
a
plane
in
which
there
is
zero
shear
and
zero
normal
stress
and

so
 the
 Mohr’s
 circle
 which
 represents
 flow
 (failure)
 under
 these
 condi>ons

must
pass
through
the
origin
of
the
shear
stress
versus
normal
stress
plot.
This

Mohr’s
circle
gives
the
(major
principal)
unconfined
yield
stress,
and
this
is
the

value
of
σy.



Larger
Mohr’s
circle
is
tangent
to
the
yield
locus
at
its
end
point
and
therefore

represents
 condi>ons
 for
 cri>cal
 failure.
 The
 major
 principal
 stress
 from
 this

Mohr’s
circle
is
taken
as
value
of
compac>ng
stress,
σC.


 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

DeterminaBon
of
δ
from
Shear
Cell
tests

For
an
element
of
powder
flowing
in
a
hopper:


σ 1 1 + sin δ
= = constant

σ 2 1 − sin δ

Where
 σ1
 and
 σ2
 are
 major
 and
 minor
 principal
 stress
 ac>ng
 on
 an
 element

respec>vely.
 Above
 rela>on
 proved
 to
 be
 correct
 through
 large
 number
 of

experiments.
 In
 above
 rela>on,
 δ
 is
 the
 effec>ve
 angle
 of
 internal
 fric>on
 of

the
solids



Note:
 When
 a
 material
 is
 stressed,
 there
 exist
 three
 mutually
 perpendicular

planes
 on
 which
 shear
 stresses
 are
 zero.
 These
 planes
 are
 called
 principle

planes
 and
 the
 stresses
 ac>ng
 on
 each
 of
 these
 planes
 are
 called
 principal

stresses.
 The
 largest
 of
 the
 three
 stresses
 is
 called
 the
 major
 principal
 stress

and
the
smallest
is
called
the
minor
principal
stress.


 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

DeterminaBon
of
δ
from
Shear
Cell
tests

σ 1 1 + sin δ
For
an
element
of
powder
flowing
in
a
hopper:

 = = constant

σ 2 1 − sin δ

In
terms
of
the
Mohr’s
stress
circle
this
means
that
Mohr’s
circles
for
the

cri>cal
 failure
 are
 all
 tangent
 to
 a
 straight
 line
 through
 the
 origin,
 the

slope
of
the
line
being
tanδ.
This
straight
line
is
called
the
effec>ve
yield

locus
of
the
powder.
By
drawing
in
this
line,
δ
can
be
determined.
Note

that
δ
is
not
a
real
physical
angle
within
the
powder;
it
is
the
tangent
of

the
ra>o
of
shear
stress
to
normal
stress.

 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

DeterminaBon
of
δ
from
Shear
Cell
tests


For
a
free‐flowing
solid,
which
does
not
gain
strength
under
compac>on,

there
is
only
one
yield
locus
and
this
locus
coincides
with
the
effec>ve

yield
locus


 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

The
kinemaBc
Angle
of
fricBon
between
powder
and
hopper
wall
ΦW:


The
kinema>c
angle
of
fric>on
between
powder
and
hopper
wall
is
otherwise
known

as
the
angle
of
wall
fric>on,
ΦW
This
gives
us
the
rela>onship
between
normal
stress

ac>ng
 between
 powder
 and
 wall
 and
 the
 shear
 stress
 under
 flow
 condi>ons.
 To

determine
ΦW
it
is
necessary
to
first
construct
the
wall
yield
locus
from
shear
cell
tests.

The
wall
yield
locus
is
determined
by
shearing
the
powder
against
a
sample
of
the
wall

material
under
various
normal
loads.
The
apparatus
used
is
shown
in
following
Figure:

 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

The
kinemaBc
Angle
of
fricBon
between
powder
and
hopper
wall
ΦW:


A
typical
wall
yield
locus
is
‐


The
kinema>c
angle
of
wall
fric>on
is
given
by
the
gradient
of
the
wall

yield
locus:

Shear
stress
at
the
wall

tan
ΦW=

Normal
stress
at
the
wall

 Analysis
of
shear
cell
test
results
–
Mohr’s
circle

DeterminaBon
of
the
Hopper
Flow
Factor
ff:


The
 hopper
 flow
 factor,
 ff,
 is
 a
 func>on
 of
 δ,
 Φw,
 and
 θ
 and
 can
 be

calculated
from
first
principles
–
discussed
so
far.
However,
Jenike
(1964)

obtained
 values
 for
 a
 conical
 hopper
 and
 for
 a
 wedge‐shaped
 hopper

with
a
slot
outlet
for
values
of
δ
of
30°
,
40°
,
50°,
60°
and
70°.



 Suppose
 that
 shear
 cell
 tests
 have
 given


us
 δ
 and
 Φw
 equal
 to
 30°
 and
 19°
 ,

respec>vely,
 then
 entering
 the
 chart
 for

conical
 hoppers
 with
 effec>ve
 angle
 of

fric>on
 δ
 =
 30°
 ,
 we
 find
 that
 the
 limi>ng

value
of
wall
slope,
θ,
to
ensure
mass
flow

is
30.5°
(point
X).
In
prac>ce
it
is
usual
to

allow
a
safety
margin
of
3°
,
and
so,
in
this

case
 the
 semi‐included
 angle
 of
 the

conical
 hopper
 θ
 would
 be
 chosen
 as

27:5°
,
giving
a
hopper
flow
factor,
ff
=
1:8

 
Hopper
flow
factor
values
for
conical
channels,
δ

=
30°

 Discharge
aids


A
range
of
devices
designed
to
facilitate
flow
of
powders
from
silos
and

hoppers
are
commercially
available.
These
are
known
as
discharge
aids

or
 silo
 ac>vators.
 These
 should
 not,
 however,
 be
 employed
 as
 an

alterna>ve
to
good
hopper
design.



Discharge
 aids
 may
 be
 used
 where
 proper
 design
 recommends
 an

unacceptably
 large
 hopper
 outlet
 incompa>ble
 with
 the
 device

immediately
downstream.
In
this
case
the
hopper
should
be
designed
to

deliver
uninterrupted
mass
flow
to
the
inlet
of
the
discharge
aid,
i.e.
the

slope
of
the
hopper
wall
and
inlet
dimensions
of
the
discharge
aid
are

those
calculated
according
to
the
procedure
outlined.