Cmiique Iitom: the Seri language

Cmiique Iitom: the Seri language

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 Preface
The language and the people

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10 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1.3 The sociolinguistic situation

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x, xepe com cöimqueelajc.
ut sea def.hz 3.io:3.sbj:return\pl
After four days, if it had not died, they returned it to the sea.bb )LORV 

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§1.3.1.1 Word order 21

 … [ yeen cap ] ipocaat x, ...

[3.poss:]face def.vt 3.sbj:irr.dep:yank ut
… if it yanks its head, …bb &<+,

 Siip cop [ iionam quij ] iyaaihjö.

young_man def;vt 3.poss:hat def;cm 3.sbj;rlyo:make_red
The young man painted his hat red.bb &<+,

 [ Icoos ] ihmiimzo.
inf.intr:sing 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to sing.

 [ Hant miisaquim ] ihmiimzo.

land 2.poss:[pon:]brush 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want you to sweep the floor/ground.bb &<+,

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 [ [ [ Hast ] ano ]PP ctam ]

San_Esteban_Island [3.poss:]in/from male
man from San Esteban Island

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 Taapl xox, ihyoohit.

rlt:cold although 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:eat
Although it was cold, I ate it.bb &<+,

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 Siifp ca teeme.
irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
S/he said/says that s/he/it will arrive.bb &<+,

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 [ cocazni° com ] ilít quij

Crotalus_spp. def;hz 3.poss:head def;cm
the rattlesnake’s headbb &<+,

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22 Chapter 1: Introduction

 hast hax
stone arrow_point
stone arrow pointbb &<+,

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 [ seaatoj tanticat ] pac

goat:pl md:aw:pl indf;pl
some of the goatsbb &<+,

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 Cmaam tiquij cocazni° quih anxö imiixim.

female md:cm Crotalus_spp. def;fl intns 3.sbj:rlmi:fear
That woman is really afraid of rattlesnakes.

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the dog

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 [ ctam canoaa hoyaat quih queexl ] quih

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the man who bought our boat

 [ María quih trooqui eexl ] quij

María def;fl vehicle [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:buy def;cm
the vehicle that María bought

 [ cocsar tanticat canoaa heeque an iihca ] com

Mexican md:aw:pl boat small [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]sit\pl def.hz
the small boat that the non-Indian Mexicans were traveling inbb &<+,

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§1.3.1.3 Non-tensed language 23

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Thenbb +DVWB&DF¸OD 

E hast cap itaho x,

stone/mountain def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:see ut
the mountain witnessed itbb +DVWB&DF¸OD 

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rlt.cry ut
it criedbb +DVWB&DF¸OD 

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   3.poss:spirit def;hz otherwise/apart land rlt:lie ut
it was sadbb +DVWB&DF¸OD 

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land def;fl 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand dcl
it was therebb +DVWB&DF¸OD 

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Whenever I want to eat,bb $YHVB

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sea def;hz 3.poss:surface 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:travel ut
I travel above the surface of the sea,bb $YHVB

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I cast a shadow over the fish,bb $YHVB

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it dies,bb $YHVB

H ihmiihit.
1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:eat
I eat it.bb $YHVB

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24 Chapter 1: Introduction

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3.sbj:rlyo:make_red
S/he painted it red.

 +LSRFDPSR 
D ˻ Hehe án˼ z ano mota, toc cömiiha
   plant [3.poss:]area indf;sg [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move there 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move
iti,
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[sbj.nmlz:]eq twd:rlt:move:pl
they (others) were coming there,bb +LSRFDPSR

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3.io:rlt:shoot\pl:impf ds
they were shooting him,bb +LSRFDPSR

G tooxquim, tooxquim,
rlt:unsp.obj:throw/shoot rlt:unsp.obj:throw/shoot
he was throwing (rocks, etc.), he was throwing,bb +LSRFDPSR

H toc cömoma.
there 3.io:twd:rlmi:move
he was coming.bb +LSRFDPSR

 Comcaii quih him ihazt ixoomzo …

old_woman def;fl 1s.do:inf.tr:tattoo 3.sbj:em:want
The old woman wanted to tattoo me …bb &<+,

 He hin yomaxpx.
1.pro 1s.do:rlyo:neg:mad_at
S/he wasn’t mad at me.bb &<+,

 ¡Ihpoocta!
  1s.do.im:[im:]look_at
Look at me!bb &<+,

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i

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§1.3.1.5 Subject – Object – Indirect Object 25

 ¡Ox cmah!
thus im:neg:do
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Tiix ctam  immátiscal iha.
dem.dt.sg male    sbj.nmlz:neg:braggart;impf dcl
He isn’t a braggart.bb &<+,

 3URQRXQ 'HYHUEDO QRXQ 0RGDO

He Hezitmisoj quij ano moca ha.
1.pro Hermosillo def;cm [3.poss:]in/from twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
I have come from Hermosillo.bb &<+,

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1.3.2 Stylistic typology

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 D … toc cöquiij iha xo cöimiimjc.

there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sit dcl but 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:deliver
… he was sitting there,bb +RPEUHB%DUULOB

E Cöitamjc ma, itoocta, …

3.io.3.sbj:rlt:deliver ds 3.sbj:rlt:look_at
but she took [the food] to him. She took it to him, he looked at it, …

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26 Chapter 1: Introduction

 ˻ Ziix quiisax˼ himimiixim zo ˻ haquix imiih˼ iha.

   thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit 1s.do:sbj.nmlz:neg:fear indf;sg    somewhere sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl
The person who doesn’t fear me doesn’t exist.
/HVV OLWHUDOO\ Everyone is afraid of me.bb /DJDUWLMDB

 ˻ Ziix quiisax˼ pootax ta quiho zo ˻ haquix imiih˼ iha,

   thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit irr.dep:go ds sbj.nmlz:tr:see indf;sg    somewhere sbj.nmlz:be.fl dcl
˻ hant quixoaa˼ quij.
  land sbj.nmlz:plan_to_fight def;cm
The person who has seen a ghost shrimp go on the land doesn’t exist.
/HVV OLWHUDOO\ No one has ever seen a ghost shrimp travelling on the land.bb (6 KDQWBTXL[RDDB

 … xicacaziil ˻ cmaa quiih˼ hizi quiinim hizcom tazo ipi zo

child\pl    now sbj.nmlz:be.fl 1p.do:sbj.nmlz:tr:mix_with px:cm one del indf;sg
quiho zo haquix imiih iha.
sbj.nmlz:tr:see indf;sg somewhere sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl
… the one who has seen it of the children of our generation doesn’t exist.
/HVV OLWHUDOO\ No present-day child has ever seen one.bb (6 ODP]B

 … ziix z ipoohit hant z iti imiih iha.

thing indf;sg 3.sbj:irr.dep:eat land indf;sg 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl
… the thing that he would eat didn’t exist.
/HVV OLWHUDOO\ ... he didn’t have anything to eat.bb *LJDQWHB+XHUIDQRB 

 He hooxi zo toc cöimiih iha.

1.pro 1.poss:obj_nmlz:finish indf;sg there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl
What I have made doesn’t exist.
/HVV OLWHUDOO\ I have never made one.bb &<+,

 Ziix cmeque zo quicápota zo toc cöimiij iha.

thing sbj.nmlz:warm indf;sg sbj.nmlz:have_jacket indf;sg there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:sit dcl
There wasn’t anyone who was wearing a warm thing.
/HVV OLWHUDOO\ No one was wearing a warm jacket.bb 9LDMHB7LEXURQB

 Ziix cmatj zo hapoosyoj, ziix zo hapoiitoj, toc

thing sbj.nmlz:hot indf;sg 1p.sbj:irr.dep:drink\pl thing indf;sg 1p.sbj:irr.dep:eat\pl there
cöhimoii ha.
3.io:1.poss:[pon:]neg:be.fl\pl dcl
We were not there having drunk anything warm or having eaten anything.
/HVV OLWHUDOO\ We had not drunk anything hot nor eaten anything.bb 9LDMHB7LEXURQB

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1.3.3 Construction typology

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 Ihpyopazt.
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§1.3.3 Construction typology 27

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 [ Haptco miimalim quih ] inyahaatxo.

already 2.poss:[pon:]observe\impf def;fl 2s.sbj:rlyo:aug:many
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eroded_area/cave indf;sg [3.poss:]in 1.poss:body/being 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:hide
I hid in a cave.bb &<+,

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 'L᯲HUHQW VXEMHFW PDUNLQJ UHDOLV

28 Chapter 1: Introduction

D 'HSHQGHQW UHDOLV
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˻ ano hmeemjöc˼.
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(and) I peeled them.bb &<+,

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1.3.4 Morphological typology

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 ¡Miizj hoocta! miti hpsozám xo tax.

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 hant z iti
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§1.3.4 Morphological typology 29

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1s.sbj.intr:rlt:play soil 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:make_mounded 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:sit
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horse def;vt [3.poss:]face def;vt 3.sbj:irr.dep:yank ut
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30 Chapter 1: Introduction

 D atcz E atcal F átcalcoj

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her younger sister her younger sisters their younger sisters (of female)
RU their younger sister (of female)

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 D √taamt sandal, shoe

E √itaamt have sandals, shoes

 D √tcmajeem younger sister’s husband

E √itcmajeem have as brother-in-law (her younger sister’s husband)

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§1.3.4 Morphological typology 31

 D c-oos RQH SUH᯳[ the one who sings

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32 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.3.5 Lexicon and word classes

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§1.3.5 Lexicon and word classes 33

 D cmaam caaspoj cop

female sbj.nmlz:write def;vt
the woman who is writing / who wrote

E cmaam cacösxaj cop

female sbj.nmlz:tall/long def;vt
the woman who is tall / the tall woman

 D cmaam imaaspoj cop

female sbj.nmlz:neg:write def;vt
the woman who is not writing / who did not write

E cmaam imacösxaj cop

female sbj.nmlz:neg:tall/long def;vt
the woman who is not tall

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 D √cazit E √ocazit
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34 Chapter 1: Introduction

 D √acat LQWUDQVLWLYH E √acaacat WUDQVLWLYH

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§1.3.6 Phonological typology 35

raspy or hollow sound √ifahzx make a short sobbing sound to indicate unhappiness √iifz make snapping noise
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36 Chapter 1: Introduction

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dog def;vt fish def;hz already 3.sbj:rlyo:eat
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E Zixcám com haxz° cop iyooho.

fish def;hz dog def;vt 3.sbj:rlyo:see
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already 3.sbj:rlyo:eat
S/he/it already ate it.

7KH YHUE PD\ RFFXU ZLWK ]HUR RQH WZR RU WKUHH DUJXPHQWV VHH FKDSWHU  DV ZHOO DV WKH VHFWLRQV WKDW IROORZ
LQ WKLV FKDSWHU DQG DGMXQFWV VHH i 7KH VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE LQ D DQG  H[SHFWV D VXEMHFW WKDW LV DQ
DJHQW DQG D GLUHFW REMHFW WKDW LV D SDWLHQW
7KH EDVLF FODXVH PD\ DOVR KDYH SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO SKUDVH ZLWK D PRGDO HOHPHQW VHH i LQVWHDG RI D W\SLFDO
YHUE SKUDVH DV VKRZQ LQ  7KH SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO SKUDVH LV xepe ziic

 Ac quij xepe ziic iha.

Aythya_valisineria def;cm sea bird dcl
The canvasback is a sea bird.bb (6 ac

2I FRXUVH WKH VXEMHFW RI VXFK D FODXVH PD\ DOVR EH QRQRYHUW DV LQ 

 ¿Xepe ziic ya?

  sea bird qm
Is it a sea bird?

37
38 Chapter 2: Constituent order in the clause

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HPEHGGHG FODXVHV DV GLVFXVVHG LQ ii 1RPLQDO SKUDVHV PD\ DSSHDU LQ RWKHU SRVLWLRQV WKDQ WKH EDVLF RQHV
LQGLFDWHG LQ ᯳JXUH  6LPSOH YDULDWLRQV DUH GLVFXVVHG EULH᯴\ LQ i 6RPH RI WKHVH DOWHUQDWH SRVLWLRQV DUH EHVW
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2.1 Subjects
,Q WKH DEVHQFH RI D VLPSOH DGMXQFW VHH i EDVLF ZRUG RUGHU SODFHV DQ RYHUW VXEMHFW ᯳UVW LQ WKH FODXVH ,W
WKHUHIRUH SUHFHGHV WKH YHUE SKUDVH DV LQ  RU WKH SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO DV LQ  DERYH

 Maal quih yaanpx.

2.poss:spouse def;fl rlyo:go_home
Your spouse has gone home.

 Maal quih taanpx, hant yoom.

2.poss:spouse def;fl rlt:go_home land rlyo:lie
Your spouse went home and lay down.

 Maal quih taanpx ma, iicto coi max íiqui

2.poss:spouse def;fl rlt:go_home ds 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with\pl def;pl even even

imiiht.
3.sbj:rlmi:see\pl
Your spouse went home, even her children saw her.

7KH ZRUG RUGHU LV WKH VDPH ZKHWKHU WKH VHQWHQFH LV D VWDWHPHQW DV LQ H[DPSOHV  DERYH RU ZKHWKHU LW LV D
\HVQR TXHVWLRQ DV LQ 

 ¿Maal quih taanpx?

  2.poss:spouse def;fl rlt:go_home
Did your spouse go home?

2.2 Direct objects

9HUEV VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU XS WR WZR V\QWDFWLF DUJXPHQWV RWKHU WKDQ WKH VXEMHFW ,Q WKH XQPDUNHG ZRUG RUGHU GLUHFW
REMHFWV RFFXU EHWZHHQ WKH VXEMHFW DQG WKH YHUE 7KLV LV LOOXVWUDWHG LQ PDLQ FODXVHV LQ  DERYH IRU VWDWHPHQWV DV
ZHOO DV LQ  IRU \HVQR TXHVWLRQV

 ¿Hataai° quih hast quij itaaplim?

  cloth def;fl stone def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:cover_(passively)
Is the cloth covering the stone?

7KH VDPH RUGHU LV IRXQG LQ GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV DV LQ 


8QWLO WKDW WLPH DQ DSSURSULDWH VWUDWHJ\ LV WR ZRUN ZLWKRXW VXFK D VWUXFWXUH 2Q WKH RUGHU RI WKH YDULRXV QRPLQDO SKUDVHV
VHH &XOLFRYHU -DFNHQGR᯲  ZKHUH LW LV DUJXHG WKDW LW LV SRVVLEOH WR DSSHDO VLPSO\ WR OLQHDU RUGHU ZLWK DUJXPHQWV
SUHIHUDEO\ RFFXUULQJ LQ D SDUWLFXODU RUGHU EXW ZLWK WKDW SUHIHUHQFH EHLQJ ංGHIHDVLEOHඃ E\ RWKHU IDFWRUV

&RQWHQW TXHVWLRQV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i :RUG RUGHU LV OHVV ᯴H[LEOH LQ TXHVWLRQV VHH FKDSWHU 

6HH FKDSWHU  IRU D GLVFXVVLRQ RI FRPSOLFDWLRQV WKDW DULVH ZKHQ WKH VHPDQWLF DUJXPHQWV GR QRW PDWFK WKH V\QWDFWLF
DUJXPHQWV
§2.3 Indirect objects 39

 Manuel quih itrooqui quij itacaatax, …

Manuel def;fl 3.poss:vehicle def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:cause_go
0DQXHO ZDV GULYLQJ KLV YHKLFOH ඌbb &<+,

 Hapxa ticom oot cop itaho, …

Sylvilagus_sp. md:hz Canis_latrans def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:see
That rabbit saw the coyote, …bb &RQHMRB&R\RWHBD

([DPSOH  VKRZV WKLV RUGHU IRU D GLUHFW REMHFW WKDW LV WKH DGGUHVVHH

 … quisil quij ctam oyacj quij ox itai,

sbj.nmlz:small def;cm male [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:call_sibling def;cm thus 3.sbj:rlt:tell

yoque: …
rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
… the younger one said to his (older) brother, it is said: … bb 'RVB+HUPDQRVB

$QG ᯳QDOO\ H[DPSOH  VKRZV WKLV RUGHU LQ D FODXVH WKDW KDV D GHYHUEDO QRXQ DV WKH PDLQ SUHGLFDWH VHH i

 Ziic tiquih hax quih mos quisi ha, …

bird md:fl fresh_water def;fl also sbj.nmlz:tr:drink dcl
That bird drinks water also, …bb (6 DFDDPBFFDDBD

2.3 Indirect objects

,QGLUHFW REMHFWV FRPPRQO\ SUHFHGH GLUHFW REMHFWV ([DPSOHV  KDYH FDXVDWLYH YHUEV IRU ZKLFK WKH V\Q
WDFWLF SURSHUWLHV DUH ZHOO NQRZQ WKH FDXVHH LV WKH LQGLUHFW REMHFW DQG WKH SDWLHQW RI WKH DFWLRQ LV WKH GLUHFW REMHFW
VHH i 7KHVH H[DPSOHV DUH QRW FRQVLGHUHG WR EH DPELJXRXV ,Q VRPH FDVHV WKH ODFN RI DPELJXLW\ LV
XQGRXEWHGO\ GXH WR SUDJPDWLFV RU VXEWOH FOXHV LQ WKH FKRLFH RI YRFDEXODU\ EXW LQ VRPH FDVHV DW OHDVW LW LV QRW
7KH LQGLUHFW REMHFW GHWHUPLQHV LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ WKLV LV co-cö-

 ¿Hataai° quih hast quij contaaplim?

  cloth def;fl stone def;cm 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:cause_cover
Did you make the cloth cover the stone?

 Juan cop Pedro quih hipi ihipon cop cöiyaqueecotol.

Juan def;vt Pedro def;fl intns 3.poss:pon:hv:voice def;vt 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_listen
Juani made Pedroj hear his*i,j voice.

 ¿˻ Eenim cosi˼ com hataai° quih consaaipj haa ya?

   metal thorn def;hz cloth def;fl 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:cause_traverse aux qm
Are you going to put the needle into (cause the needle to pass through) the cloth?bb &<+,

([DPSOHV RI LQGLUHFW REMHFWV WKDW DUH UHFLSLHQWV RU DGGUHVVHHV WKDW GHPRQVWUDWH WKH VDPH RUGHU LQGLUHFW REMHFW
SUHFHGLQJ GLUHFW REMHFW LQFOXGH 

 Juan quih asaac quih caamiz cöiyaamx.

Juan def;fl 3.poss:son.me def;fl shirt 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:say+io
Juan promised a shirt to his son.

 María quih Juan quih tom coi cöiyeesxö.

María def;fl Juan def;fl money def;pl 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:hide+io
Mary hid the money from Juan.

7KH DGGUHVVHH LV WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH YHUE √ai tell VHH i

7KH H[DPSOHV KHUH DOO KDYH WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW REMHFWV )LUVW DQG VHFRQG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW REMHFWV DUH LQGLFDWHG RQO\ ZLWK
LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE VHH i DQG WKHUHIRUH WKRVH H[DPSOHV ZRXOG QRW EH UHOHYDQW WR WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI ZRUG RUGHU
40 Chapter 2: Constituent order in the clause

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(XURSHDQ ODQJXDJHV 7KH GHULYHG LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV √apii taste like DQG √asii smell like VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU DQ REMHFW
RI FRPSDULVRQ VHH i WKDW LV WKHVH YHUEV PXVW KDYH DQ REMHFW RI WKLV W\SH 7KLV QRPLQDO PD\ EH HLWKHU
DQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW RU LW PD\ EH D QRPLQDO WKDW GRHV QRW GHWHUPLQH LQ᯴HFWLRQ VHH i 7KH GL᯲HUHQFH LQ V\QWD[
FRUUHVSRQGV WR D GL᯲HUHQFH LQ VHPDQWLFV DV ZHOO 7KH IRUPHU UH᯴HFWV D PRUH DWWHQXDWHG UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ
WKH VXEMHFW DQG WKH REMHFW RI FRPSDULVRQൺHLWKHU OHVV REYLRXV RU UH᯴HFWLQJ VRPH FKRLFH 7KUHH H[DPSOHV ZLWK
REMHFWV RI FRPSDULVRQ SUHVHQWHG DV LQGLUHFW REMHFWV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Hax hoosi hizcap panaal ih cömapii.

fresh_water 1.poss:obj.nmlz:drink px\pl:vt honey foc 3.io:rlmi:taste_like
This water that I am drinking tastes a bit like honey.bb &<+,

 ¿Zó hamcaaxat ya cötasii?

  which? smoke qm 3.io:rlt:smell_like
What smoke does it smell like?bb &<+,

 Icaaisx quih cöcasii ha.

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:clean def;fl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:smell_like dcl
It smells a bit like soap.bb &<+,

7KH H[SUHVVLRQV PHDQLQJ have the form ofൺWKH YHUEV RI ZKLFK YDU\ GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH SUR᯳OH RI WKH LWHP VHH
iൺVXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU DQ REMHFW RI FRPSDULVRQ WKDW GHWHUPLQHV LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ

 Zixcám caanj hapáh com ˻hant cocom˼ iha.

fish Mycteroperca_jordani sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;hz  land 3.io:sbj.nmlz:lie dcl
It has the shape of the fish called “caanj” (Gulf grouper).bb (6 RRWBLFDDQMB

2.4 Cross-referenced oblique objects

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EH XVHG DSSURSULDWHO\ 7KHVH QRPLQDOV GHWHUPLQH SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE $ IHZ H[DPSOHV RI YHUEV WKDW
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YHUEV LV SUHVHQWHG LQ FKDSWHU 
7KH H[DPSOHV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ DUH GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH SUHYLRXV RQHV LQ DQ LPSRUWDQW ZD\ WKH\ DOO
FRQWDLQ D QRPLQDOൺDQ REOLTXH REMHFWൺWKDW SUHVHQWV DQ DGGLWLRQDO SLHFH RI LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW WKH VLWXDWLRQ ,Q
HDFK RI WKH H[DPSOHV WKH YHUE KDV WKH VDPH EDVLF PHDQLQJ DQG LV SHUIHFWO\ JUDPPDWLFDO LI WKH REOLTXH REMHFW DQG
LWV FURVVUHIHUHQFLQJ PRUSKRORJ\ i DUH UHPRYHG 7KLV ංRSWLRQDOLW\ඃ LV WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW FULWHULRQ IRU
GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ WKHVH QRPLQDOV IURP LQGLUHFW REMHFWV DOWKRXJK WKH LQ᯴HFWLRQDO PRUSKRORJ\ LV LGHQWLFDO
2EOLTXH REMHFWV KDYH D ZLGH YDULHW\ RI VHPDQWLF UROHV LQFOXGLQJ PHDQV DQG LQVWUXPHQW UHDVRQ DQG FDXVH QDPH
GHVWLQDWLRQ ORFDWLRQ JRDO VRXUFH PDQQHU H[FKDQJH LWHP WRSLF REMHFW RI DFWLYLW\ DQG REMHFW RI FRPSDULVRQ
%HQHIDFWLYH LV QRW RQH RI WKHVH DQG WKHUH LV JHQHUDOO\ QR ZD\ WR H[SUHVV D VLPSOH EHQHIDFWLYH LQ WKH ODQJXDJH
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SURSULDWH PRUSKRORJ\ co- cö- GUDZQ IURP WKH LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ SDUDGLJP 7KH DEVHQFH RI ᯳UVW DQG
VHFRQG SHUVRQ H[DPSOHV IRU PRVW RI WKHVH VKRXOG QRW EH DOORZHG WR REVFXUH WKH IDFW WKDW WKHVH DUH H[DPSOHV RI
DJUHHPHQWW\SH LQ᯴HFWLRQ DQG QRW VLPSO\ ංUHJLVWUDWLRQඃ RI WKH SUHVHQFH RI DQ REOLTXH REMHFW
8QOLNH LQ PDQ\ RWKHU PRUH IDPLOLDU ODQJXDJHV WKHVH QRWLRQV DUH H[SUHVVHG LQ 6HUL XVXDOO\ LQ RQO\ WKLV NLQG
RI V\QWDFWLF FRQ᯳JXUDWLRQ )RU H[DPSOH WKHUH LV QR DGSRVLWLRQ WKDW PD\ DOWHUQDWLYHO\ H[SUHVV WKH QRWLRQ RI
LQVWUXPHQWDOLW\ 7KHUH DUH QR SDUDSKUDVHV RU QHDU SDUDSKUDVHV WKDW RQH FDQ SUHVHQW IRU WKHVH VHQWHQFHV
7KH H[DPSOHV EHORZ GRFXPHQW ERWK WKH W\SH RI REOLTXH REMHFW DQG DOVR LWV UHODWLYH RUGHU LQ WKH FODXVH ,W
LV VLJQL᯳FDQW WR QRWH WKDW WKHVH REOLTXH REMHFWV VRPHWLPHV RFFXU FORVHU WR WKH YHUE WKDQ GRHV WKH GLUHFW REMHFW
7KXV ZKLOH LW VHHPV WR EH WKH XQPDUNHG ORFDWLRQ IRU DQ LQVWUXPHQW IRU H[DPSOH WR SUHFHGH WKH GLUHFW REMHFW
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§2.4.1 Means and Instrument 41

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DPELJXRXV H[DPSOHV LV D᯲HFWHG E\ WKH DUWLFOH WKDW LV SUHVHQW WKH DUWLFOH com def;hz PD\ LPSO\ WKDW RQH LWHP LV
SURQH DQG WKHUHIRUH LV EHLQJ DFWHG RQ 7KLV IDFW UHLQIRUFHV WKH GHIDXOW RUGHU LQVWUXPHQW SUHFHGHV GLUHFW REMHFW
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ LQ WKH FDVH RI  VLQFH WKH DUWLFOH com LV DSSURSULDWH IRU D VWLFN WKDW LV O\LQJ GRZQ EXW QRW IRU RQH
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2.4.1 Means and Instrument

7KH PHDQV RU LQVWUXPHQW LV SUHVHQWHG DV DQ REOLTXH REMHFW 6WUDLJKWIRUZDUG LQVWUXPHQWV DUH VKRZQ LQ 

 ˻ Eenm haacni˼ h oo cöitáh, imiicö.

   metal bow foc del 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:do 3.sbj:rlmi:kill
S/he did it with a rifle, s/he killed it.

 Paala zo cöcaticpan iha.

shovel indf;sg 3.io:sbj.nmlz:work dcl
S/he is working with a shovel.

([DPSOH  KDV DQ REOLTXH REMHFW WKDW LV D OHVV SURWRW\SLFDO LQVWUXPHQW SHUKDSV WKH PHDQV RU WKH FRQGXLW DQG
 KDV DQ REOLTXH REMHFW WKDW LV PXFK OHVV SURWRW\SLFDOO\ LQVWUXPHQWDO

 Hahoot hac ah contita, cömiizquim.

 abs:entrance def;loc foc 3.io:aw:rlt:move 3.io:rlmi:enter
S/he entered by the door. bb &<+,

 Hinaail com hax tmasol oo ma, coopol quih cömoospoj.

1.poss:skin def;hz intns rlt:yellow del ds sbj.nmlz:black def;fl 3.io:rlmi:spotted
My skin is very yellow and spotted with black.bb /DJDUWLMDV 

([DPSOHV  VKRZ WKH LQVWUXPHQW LQ D SRVLWLRQ EHIRUH WKH GLUHFW REMHFW 6HH i IRU RWKHU SRVLWLRQV LQ
ZKLFK LW RFFXUV

 José quih ˻ eenm icaatj˼ quij hast quij cöimaafc.

José def;fl    metal 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:pound_flat def;cm stone def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
José pounded the rock with the hammer.

 Cmaam quij hast quij hehe com cöimaafajquim.

female def;cm stone def;cm plant/stick def;hz 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound\impf
The woman is pounding the stick with the stone.

 Icocozyax yaai cop icaaspoj com

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:saw;impf 3.poss:side def;vt 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:write def;hz

cohsahita aha.
3.io:1s.sbj.tr:cause_sharp aux:dcl
I am going to sharpen this pencil with the scissor blade.bb &<+,


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VSHDNHUV LI WKH DUWLFOH com LV XVHG ZLWK WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU hammer ZKLFK RWKHU VSHDNHUV GLVDOORZ WKH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ ZRXOG
EH WKDW WKH KDPPHU LV WKH REMHFW EHLQJ SRXQGHG VLQFH WKDW DUWLFOH ZRXOG LPSO\ IRU WKHP WKDW WKH KDPPHU LV O\LQJ RQ WKH
WDEOH RU VRPHZKHUH DQG WKXV LV QRW EHLQJ XVHG DV WKH LQVWUXPHQW
42 Chapter 2: Constituent order in the clause

2.4.2 Reason and Cause

7KH REOLTXH REMHFW PD\ LQGLFDWH WKH UHDVRQ RU WKH FDXVH DV LQ 

 Ihaapl cop cöyaxyat.

3.poss:pon:cold def;vt 3.io:rlyo:die\pl
They died from the cold (weather).bb 2᯲HUHG

 Zaah quij cocmatj iha.

sun def;cm 3.io:sbj.nmlz:hot dcl
It (e.g., pail of water) is hot because of the sun.

2.4.3 Name
7KH YHUE √ataasitot give name to (someone) PD\ WDNH DQ REOLTXH REMHFW WKDW LV WKH QDPH WKDW LV JLYHQ DV LQ 

 Pedro quij cmaam yaazi íi zo toc cötiij ma, Juana hac

Pedro def;cm female [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry first indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit ds Juana def;loc
cöimataasitot.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:aug:[hv:]name
Pedro named his first daughter Juana.

2.4.4 Destination, Goal and Recipient

$ GHVWLQDWLRQ RU JRDO LQ D FODXVH ZLWK D PRWLRQ YHUE LV H[SUHVVHG ZLWK DQ REOLTXH REMHFW 7KH GHVWLQDWLRQ PD\ EH
DQ REMHFW RU D SHUVRQ DV VKRZQ E\ H[DPSOHV  ZLWK WKH YHUE √afp arrive

 Cmaam tintica haat quij cötafp, ...

female md:aw Jatropha_cuneata def;cm 3.io:rlt:arrive
The woman went over to the limberbush, …bb &<+,D

 Me hpmiifp.
2.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:arrive
I have arrived to you (sg.).
,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (I have arrived to you (pl.).)

7KH GHVWLQDWLRQ PD\ EH D ORFDWLRQ DV ZHOO DV D SHUVRQ DV VKRZQ E\  ZLWK WKH YHUEV nt- √a go FRPSRVHG
RI WKH DQGDWLYH SUH᯳[ nt- DQG D VLPSOH URRW RI PRWLRQ DQG √iin go

 Caahit quih hant zo contita x, ...

sbj.nmlz:cause_eat def;fl land indf;sg 3.io:aw:rlt:move ut
When a fisherman goes to his fishing spot, …bb &<+,

 Hoox he moya.
intns 1.io:twd:rlyo:move
S/he/it came straight toward me/us.

 ¡Hant iti mihiih hac cöhiin!

  land/place 3.poss:on 2.poss:pon:be.fl/live def;loc 3.io:im:go
Go home!bb 177 0N 

7KLV H[DPSOH FDQQRW PHDQ …to you (pl.) GHVSLWH WKH IDFW WKDW WKH SUH᯳[ me LV LQ LWVHOI W\SLFDOO\ YDJXH IRU QXPEHU EHFDXVH
ZLWK WKLV SDUWLFXODU YHUE D SOXUDO JRDO PXVW EH UHSUHVHQWHG ZLWK DQ LQ᯴HFWHG 3 Mino hpmiifp. I have arrived to you (pl.) 6HH
i 7KH PRUSKHPH me KHUH LV D WUXH SUH᯳[ WKDW LV ZULWWHQ DV D VHSDUDWH ZRUG PXFK OLNH 6SDQLVK FOLWLF SURQRXQV 6HH
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§2.4.5 Location or Situation 43

 ¡Juan quij cöhitooij!

  Juan def;cm 3.io:im:go\pl
Go (pl.) to Juan!bb 177 /N 

 Ihiij hac cötiin, …

3.poss:pon:sit def;loc 3.io:rlt:go
S/he returned to the place where s/he had been sitting, …bb $SRVWDGRU 

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 … hant hac cöiymiimlajc.

land def;loc 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:deliver\pl
… they brought him to the place.bb 177 0N 

 Cmoqueepe com ˻ ziix hapsx caaitim˼ quij cöimiimlajc,

sbj.nmlz:sick def;hz    thing ? sbj.nmlz:[tr:]do:impf def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:deliver\pl

isaai taa ma.

3.poss:irr.ind:make rlt:aux ds
They took the sick person to the doctor for treatment.bb &<+,

 ¡Zixcám zo he camjc!
  fish indf;sg 1.io:im:deliver
Bring me a fish!

2.4.5 Location or Situation

$ JHQHUDO ORFDWLRQ LQ D FODXVH ZLWK D VWDWLYH YHUE VXFK DV √ahca be located √iij be seated √ap be standing RU
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 Hamác zo cohpscmiij aha.

fire indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:sit aux:dcl
I’m not going to sit by a fire.

 ˻ Iistox theemloj˼ toc cötoii ma,

 3.poss:spirit:pl rlt:stink\pl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl ds
They were there angry,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Heezitim Betánia quij Jerusalén quij hantaxàl xah cöquiij iha.

town Bethany def;cm Jerusalem def;cm near<mod> ? 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
Bethany is near Jerusalem.bb 177 -Q 

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 ˻ Hehe án˼ com contita x, …

   plant [3.poss:]area def;hz 3.io:aw:rlt:move ut
… he went around in the countryside, …bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

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iti dem;dt;pl 3.poss;on UHIHUULQJ WR WKH RFFDVLRQ

/RFDWLRQ ZLWK RWKHU YHUEV LV QRW JHQHUDOO\ SRVVLEOH WKLV ZD\ 6HH IRU H[DPSOH *Socaaix hac cöcaticpan iha She is
working in Punta Chueca $ 3 LV UHTXLUHG IRU WKLV VLWXDWLRQ

7KLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ FDQ EH XVHG RQO\ ZLWK DQ LQDQLPDWH REMHFW $OWKRXJK RQH FDQ SHUVRQLI\ WKH ᯳UH DQG VD\ ං,ൿP QRW JRLQJ
WR VLW QHDU \RXඃ LI WKH UHIHUHQW LV D SHUVRQ D UHODWLRQDO QRXQ mihiin place near you LQ WKLV FDVH PXVW EH XVHG 6HH i
44 Chapter 2: Constituent order in the clause

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, hant ihmaa° z iiqui tiin, taax iti

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds land other indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlt:go dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on

Leví Alfeo quih yaazi quij cöimiiho.

Levi Alphaeus def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:see
Then he went somewhere else, and on that occasion he saw Levi, son of Alphaeus.bb 177 0N 

:KHUHDV WLPH DGMXQFWV XVXDOO\ RFFXU DV VLPSOH DGMXQFWV ZLWKRXW FURVVUHIHUHQFLQJ PRUSKRORJ\ RQ WKH YHUE
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 1RWLFH WKH SUH᯳[ co- RQ WKH YHUE coccaa

 Zaah quih coox cah caaytaj coi coccaa ha.

sun def;fl all def;fl:foc horse:pl def;pl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]look_for dcl
S/he comes every day to look for the horses.bb $/,0

2.4.6 Source
:LWK FHUWDLQ YHUEV WKH REOLTXH REMHFW PD\ LQGLFDWH WKH SHUVRQ IURP ZKRP VRPHWKLQJ LV REWDLQHG DV VKRZQ LQ


 Juan quih hita eenim zo cöiyocooz.

Juan def;fl 1.poss:mother metal/knife indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:steal
Juan stole a knife from my mother.

 Juan quih eenim zo he iyocooz.

Juan def;fl metal/knife indf;sg 1.io:3.sbj:rlyo:steal
Juan stole a knife from me/us.

2.4.7 Object of comparison

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 ¡Hohra cootax!
  Equus_asinus 3.io:[im:]go
Go like a donkey!

 ¡Me xopanzx!
  2.io:em:run
S/he runs like you!

 Ziix zo contcmaaixaj iho.

thing indf;sg 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:neg:strong dcl
You aren’t strong with respect to anything.

 …, tahac oo compacta.
md:loc del 3.io:rlmi:be_in_appearance
… he was like that.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

,Q H[DPSOHV  WKH REOLTXH REMHFW UHSUHVHQWV WKH SRVVHVVRU RI WKH LWHP DFWXDOO\ EHLQJ FRPSDUHG

 Me hpyaaco.
2.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:have_house
I have a house like yours.

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§2.4.8 Exchange item 45

 Juan quih Pedro quih cöxaaco.

Juan def;fl Pedro def;fl 3.io:em:have_house
Juan has a house like Pedro’s.

2.4.8 Exchange item

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 ¿Caamiz zo cöitexl?
  shirt indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:take
Did s/he trade it for a shirt?
RU Did s/he trade a shirt for it?

 Xapij cooil hapáh quih toc cötoii

Phragmites_australis sbj.nmlz:green/blue sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;fl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl
ma x, taax ah cötpexl, teeme, tacoi.
ds ut dem;dt;pl foc 3.io:rlt:pass:take rlt:say md:pl
What is called green reed was there and it was traded for them, s/he said.bb +DVWB4XLWD

2.4.9 Topic of discussion, etc.

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 ¿Áz cössol quee ya?

  what? 3.io:irr.ind:argue sbj.nmlz:aux qm
What is s/he going to argue about?

 Ziix zo cöiyozaxö.
thing indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:discuss
S/he spoke to him about something.bb &<+,

 Comcaii tiquij mosnipol cöcoos iha.

old_woman md:cm Dermochelys_coriacea 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sing dcl
That old woman has power of the leatherback sea turtle.

 Ctam ticop iiqui me yas.

male md:vt 3.poss:toward 2.io:rlyo:sing
That man sang about you.

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DQG LQGLUHFW REMHFWREOLTXH DJUHHPHQW RQ WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ DV LQ 

 ˻ ziix hapx coom˼ cöicoos

   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:sing
song about the whalebb &<+,

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 ... cohptás, ...

3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlt:err
… I was mistaken about him/her/it, …bb &<+,
46 Chapter 2: Constituent order in the clause

2.4.10 Object of activity

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 Tiix mos zamt quih cöcaticpan iha.

dem;dt;sg also Callinectes_bellicosus def;fl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:work dcl
S/he also works with crabs (for a living).

2.4.11 Special expressions

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 ¿˻ Mos itacl oo˼ cösonaaaij quee ya?

   also 3.poss:surface del 3.io:irr.ind:return sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Will she return again?

 Imaaitom quih xox itaai ma x, ˻ mos itacl oo˼ cöxooitom.

sbj.nmlz:neg:speak def;fl even 3.sbj:rlt:make/cause ds ut    also 3.poss:surface del 3.io:em:speak
He even makes the mute speak again.bb 177 0N 

$Q H[SUHVVLRQ WR LQGLFDWH D JUHDW GHJUHH RI VRPHWKLQJ LV iisax quihiih quihcah 3.poss:spirit sbj.nmlz:stay_
behind def;fl  def;fl:foc 7KLV H[SUHVVLRQ DOVR UHTXLUHV LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE 6HH
H[DPSOHV 

 Minl coi ˻ iisax quihiih cah˼ zixcám

2.poss:hand/arm/finger\pl def;pl    3.poss:spirit sbj.nmlz:remain_behind def;fl:foc fish

cöxasii.
3.io:em:smell_like
Your hands really smell like fish. [compare with (74)]

 Hax cop ˻ iisax quihiih cah˼ cöcaapl iha.

fresh_water def;vt    3.poss:spirit sbj.nmlz:remain_behind def;fl:foc 3.io:sbj.nmlz:cold dcl
The water is really cold.bb $/,0 

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 Hiisax quih coox com cohtamsisiin, …

3.poss:spirit def;fl all def;hz 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:love
I love him with all my heart, ...bb 177 0W 

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 Haxaaza tintica yamtxö cöcatax iha.

abs:arrow md:aw [3.poss:]pon.intr:straight 3.io:sbj.nmlz:go dcl
The arrow is going straight ahead.bb &<+,
§2.5 Other subcategorized nominals 47

2.5 Other subcategorized nominals

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 D 6XEMHFW  2WKHU DUJXPHQW  'LUHFW 2EMHFW  9HUE SKUDVH

Zixquisiil cop ziix ipxasi quih haxz° cop iyoee.
child def;vt thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl dog def;vt 3.sbj:rlyo:give_food
The child gave the dog meat.

E 6XEMHFW  'LUHFW 2EMHFW  2WKHU DUJXPHQW  9HUE SKUDVH

Zixquisiil cop haxz° cop ziix ipxasi quih iyoee.
child def;vt dog def;vt thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl 3.sbj:rlyo:give_food
The child gave the dog meat.

 D 6XEMHFW  2WKHU DUJXPHQW  'LUHFW 2EMHFW  9HUE 3KUDVH

Quihehe quij haaco zo cmaam ticop iiye.
sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;cm abs;house indf;sg female md:vt 3.sbj:rlyo:give_gift
The governor gave that woman a house.

E 6XEMHFW  'LUHFW 2EMHFW  2WKHU DUJXPHQW  9HUE 3KUDVH

Quihehe quij cmaam ticop haaco z iiye.
sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;cm female md:vt abs;house indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:give_gift
The governor gave that woman a house.

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 ¡Minl coi zixcám xasii!

  2.poss:hand/arm\pl def;pl fish em:smell_like
Your hands smell like fish!bb 2᯲HUHG

 Xapoo ipxasi quih hap ipxasi quih

Zalophus_californicus 3.poss:flesh def;fl Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:flesh def;fl
imapii ha.
sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:taste_like dcl
Sea lion meat does not taste like mule deer meat. bb &<+,

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RFFXUV DIWHU WKH VXEMHFW DV VKRZQ LQ 

 D ˻ Hehe an icaaij˼ quij hax quih

   plant/wood [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water def;cm fresh_water def;fl
cpoct iha.
sbj.nmlz:full dcl
The water drum is full of water.
48 Chapter 2: Constituent order in the clause

E Haaco cop hamcaaxat quih impoct.

abs;house def;vt smoke def;fl rlmi:full
The house filled with smoke.

2.6 Minor variation in word order

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 'LUHFW REMHFW SUHFHGHV VXEMHFW

Tootjöc quij ˻ zaxt quisil˼ quih itcommactim iho.
fruit_of_Cylindropuntia_fulgida def;cm    ? sbj.nmlz:small def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:neg:touch dcl
A child doesn’t (shouldn’t) touch a cholla cactus fruit.bb &RQVHMRVBFKR\DB

 'LUHFW REMHFW SUHFHGHV LQGLUHFW REMHFW

D Juan quih caamiz tiquih asaac quih cöiyaamx.
Juan def;fl shirt md:fl 3.poss:son.me def;fl 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:say+io
Juan promised that shirt to his son.

E Ihyaazi, ¡˻ hanzajipj quiipa˼ hipcop mamaz

1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry     pan sbj.nmlz:hv:tail px:vt 2.poss:paternal_grandmother

cohqueetx!
3.io:im:return
My son/daughter, take this frying pan back to your (paternal) grandmother. bb &<+,

F María quih tom coi Juan quih cöiyeesxö.

María def;fl money def;pl Juan def;fl 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:hide+io
María hid the money from Juan. (compare with (18) above)

 'LUHFW REMHFW SUHFHGHV REOLTXH REMHFW

D Hasahcapjö cop mos iif com cöitníp x, imiisi.
Lophocereus_schottii def;vt also 3.poss:nose def;hz 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:hit ut 3.sbj:rlmi:drink
It stabs the senita cactus with its beak and drinks it.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDDB

E Hast quij hehe zo cohyoáxazim.

stone def;cm plant/stick indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:beat.hz\impf
I beat the stone with a stick.

F José quih inol cop ˻ eenm icaatj˼ quih

José def;fl 3.poss:finger def;vt  v metal 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:pound_flat def;fl
cöimaafc.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
Joséi hit hisi finger with the hammer. bb &<+,

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§2.7 Adjuncts 49

G Xapoo hooxi quih pazaatoj ihanaxz zo

Zalophus_californicus 1.poss:obj.nmlz:finish def;fl shoe:pl 3.poss:pon:pass:rub indf;sg
cohsnaxz aha.
3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:rub aux:dcl
I am going to apply shoe wax to the sea lion that I carved.bb &<+,

H Coyote Iguana quij Lola Casanova quij am quij cöitcazit,

Coyote Iguana def;cm Lola Casanova def;cm 3.poss:father.fe def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:grab
caay z iti itcaaix, hant z iiqui iyoqueetx.
horse indf;sg 3.poss:on 3.poss:rlt:put.cm land indf;sg 3.poss:toward 3.sbj:rlyo:take
Coyote Iguana abducted Lola Casanova from her father, put her on a horse, and took her somewhere.bb
2᯲HUHG

2.7 Adjuncts
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ZKHUH WKH HYHQW QRPLQDO LV XQGHUVFRUHG

 Hant tahac iti ihiij quih iiztox yoopxa.

land md:loc 3.poss:on 3.poss:pon:sit def;fl moon/month\pl rlyo:three
He was there for three months.bb 177 $F 

 Hita quih imoqueepe quih ixaap inzooxöc.

1.poss:mother def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]sick def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]spend_night rlmi:four
My mother was sick for four days.

 Hameen tahac ziix quih iic cöhiqueepe quih zaah quih

family md:loc thing def;fl 3.poss:toward 3.io:1.poss:pon:? def;fl sun/day def;fl

miitxo.
rlmi:many/much
I have helped that family for a long time.bb &<+,

 Haa himazcam quih zaah quih miitxo.

there 1.poss:[pon:]neg:arrive\pl def;fl sun/day def;fl rlmi:many/much
We didn’t arrive there for many days.bb &<+,


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GLUHFW REMHFW DQG WKH SRVVHVVRU RI WKH REOLTXH REMHFW

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7KLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ KDV LQWHUHVWLQJ GHWDLOV 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU hour LV QRW XVHG ZLWK LW IRU H[DPSOH 2QH VD\V LQVWHDG WKH
HTXLYDOHQW RI Three hours passed, … XVLQJ D GL᯲HUHQW H[SUHVVLRQ HQWLUHO\ $OVR QRWH WKDW ZLWK WKH YHUE IRU much many LQ
 DQG  WKH VLQJXODU QRXQ zaah day LV XVHG ZKLOH ZLWK WKH QXPEHU YHUEV WKH SOXUDO QRXQ ixaap days OLWHUDOO\ overnights
3.poss:[pon:]spend_night LV XVHG DV LQ 
50 Chapter 2: Constituent order in the clause

2.7.1 Simple adjuncts

6LPSOH DGMXQFWV DUH WKRVH DGMXQFWV WKDW DSSHDU ZLWK QR 3 OLQNLQJ WKHP WR WKH YHUE 7KHUH DSSHDU WR EH WKUHH
W\SHV QRPLQDO SKUDVHV LQGLFDWLQJ WLPH QRPLQDO SKUDVHV LQGLFDWLQJ SODFH DQG VWDJHVHWWLQJ SKUDVHV KHDGHG E\
GHYHUEDO QRXQV

2.7.1.1. Time adjuncts. 0DQ\ RI WKH VLPSOH DGMXQFWV DUH H[SUHVVLRQV RI WLPH 6RPH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ


 D moxima (quih) yesterday yesterday (def;fl)

E moxima quih ipac moxima day before yesterday yesterday def;fl 3.poss:back yester-
day
F moxhamt (quih) last year last_year (def;fl)
G zaah hipcop/hipcap today sun/day px:vt
H zaah ipac hac cöcaap cop the next day sun/day 3.poss:back def;loc 3.io:
sbj.nmlz:stand def:vt
I zaah tacoyolca during those days sun/day md;vt.pl
J ihamoc quih last night 3.poss:[pon:]become_night def;fl
K ihamoc hipcop tonight 3.poss:[pon:]become_night px:vt

7KHVH DGMXQFWV PRVW FRPPRQO\ DSSHDU FODXVHLQLWLDOO\ DQG WKH\ DUH TXLWH IUHHO\ DGGHG WR DQ\ FODXVH 6HH H[DPSOHV


 Moxima ctam hiyal quih colx maahit.

yesterday male 1.poss:spouse def;fl high rlmi:fish
Yesterday my husband went fishing far out to sea.bb &<+,

 Moxhamt hant tsiijim ma, ...

last_year land rlt:move ds
When there was an earthquake last year, ….bb &<+,D

 Ihamoc quih comcaii tintica hast z itatni, ...

3.poss:[pon:]become_night def;fl old_woman md:aw stone indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:make_contact
Last night the woman tripped on a rock ….bb &<+,D

0DQ\ RWKHU H[SUHVVLRQV RI WLPH LQFOXGLQJ WKRVH PHDQLQJ tomorrow tonight DQG this afternoon DUH LGLRPV DQGRU DUH
FODXVDO LQ QDWXUH VHH FKDSWHU  <HW RWKHU H[SUHVVLRQV RI WLPH UHTXLUH D YHUE RI VRPH VRUW WR DFFRPSDQ\ WKH YHUE 2QH
H[DPSOH

L Ixaap czooxolcam ˻ iti tòofin˼ ma, ...

3.poss:[pon:]spend_night sbj.nmlz:eight    3.poss:on rlt:pass ds
Eight days later, …bb 177 /N 


7KLV H[SUHVVLRQ PD\ RFFXU ZLWK RU ZLWKRXW WKH GHWHUPLQHU quih

7KLV H[SUHVVLRQ PD\ RFFXU ZLWK RU ZLWKRXW WKH GHWHUPLQHU quih

7KLV SKUDVH LV XVHG LQ H[DPSOH L

L … zaah tacoyolca ˻ mos itacl oo˼ ˻ xiica quiistox˼ quih tatxo,

sun/day md:vt\pl    also 3.poss:surface del    thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl rlt:much/many
ptiti toii, toc cömoii.
rcp:3poss.on rlt:stand\pl there 3.io:rlmi:stand\pl
… once again in those days many people had gathered together.bb 177 0N 


7KLV LV QRW WKH PRVW FRPPRQ ZD\ WR H[SUHVV last night 7KH FRPSOHWHO\ YHUEDO H[SUHVVLRQ thamoc ma ඌ rlt-
become_night when it was night …, LQ WKH GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV IRUP LV KHDUG PRUH IUHTXHQWO\
§2.7.1.2 Location adjuncts 51

 Zaah hipcap haxöl pac ihpanamj ta, hasiiitoj aha.

sun/day px:vt Leukoma_grata indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:hurry ds 1p.sbj:irr.ind:eat\pl aux:dcl
Today, if I quickly collect some clams, we will eat them.bb &<+,

([DPSOH  XVHV D SKUDVH KHDGHG E\ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ DV D VLPSOH DGMXQFW RI WLPH

 He hicmiiquet cah, ˻ hant ihyomaamac˼.

1.pro 1.poss:[pon:]be_person def;fl:foc    land 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:?
I have never cooked century plant.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ In my life I have not cooked century plant. bb &<+,

7KH ZRUG cmaax now VRPHWLPHV ZLWK WKH PHDQLQJ then KDV GLVWULEXWLRQDO SURSHUWLHV VLPLODU WR WKHVH VLPSOH
DGMXQFWV LQ WKDW LW FRPPRQO\ RFFXUV VHQWHQFHLQLWLDOO\ DV LQ 

 Cmaax himcac iti coii ha.

now dt:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:be.fl\pl dcl
Now they are there.bb +( 

 Cmaax Hataamati hapx miip.

now/then (name_of_mountain) outside rlmi:stand
Then [the mountain] Hataamati came into view.bb &<+,

2.7.1.2. Location adjuncts. ,Q VRPH NLQGV RI FODXVHV LQFOXGLQJ WKH VWDWLYH FODXVHV LQ  D VLPSOH DGMXQFW
PD\ UHIHU WR D ORFDWLRQ 7KHVH DGMXQFWV DUH XQGHUOLQHG LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV

 Hant tahac hax quih catxo ha.

land md:loc fresh_water def;fl sbj.nmlz:much dcl
There is a lot of water in that place.bb 177 -Q 

 Xnapofc inoohcö quij hai quih xooixaj.

(name) 3.poss:[pon:]concave def;cm wind def;fl em:strong
The wind is strong at Xnapofc Bay.

 Socaaix hac xocozim.

Punta_Chueca def;loc em:hot.(weather)
It’s very hot in Punta Chueca.

+RZHYHU VXFK DGMXQFWV FDQQRW EH DGGHG WR MXVW DQ\ FODXVH DV XQJUDPPDWLFDO H[DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH

 * Socaaix hac caticpan iha.

Punta_Chueca def;loc sbj.nmlz:work dcl
(S/he is working in Punta Chueca.)

 * ¿Socaaix hac tiih?

  Punta_Chueca def;loc rlt:be.fl
(Does s/he reside in Punta Chueca?)

2.7.1.3. Stage-setting adjuncts. $ SKUDVH KHDGHG E\ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ PD\ SUHFHGH D ᯳QLWH FODXVHൺRIWHQ LQ
VHQWHQFHLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQൺWR VHW WKH VWDJH IRU WKH UHVW RI WKH VHQWHQFH ([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKLV ZLWK
SKUDVHV WKDW HQG LQ D IRFXV DGYHUE

 +LSRFDPSR 

7KHVH ZRXOG KDYH WR EH H[SUHVVHG XVLQJ D 3 6HH i

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52 Chapter 2: Constituent order in the clause

D Toc cömiiha cah,

there 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move def;fl;foc
He was coming there,bb +LSRFDPSR

E Hajháx hant taax ano toofin,

Tecomate land dem;dt;pl [3.poss:]in rlt:pass
Tecomate — he was passing through that place,bb +LSRFDPSR

 ˻ Xiica quiistox˼ coi iitxo cah, …

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl 3.poss:[pon:]much/many def;fl:foc
There were so many people, …bb 177 0N 

 Ihyaticpan quih ano cömiiha caha, ˻ psaac

1.poss:pon.intr:work def;fl [3.poss:]in/from 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move def;fl:foc    hunger

cöhimoxi˼ ha.
3.io:1.poss:[pon:]neg:die dcl
Since the time I have worked, I have not been hungry.bb &<+,

([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKH XVH RI VXFK D GHYHUEDO QRXQ SKUDVH WKDW GRHV QRW KDYH WKLV IRFXV DGYHUE

 Taax ah oo cötpacta ma, hoox cöiiha hizac max, hant

dem;dt;pl foc del 3.io:rlt:be_in_appearance ds intns 3.io:3.poss:pon:beLUUHJ px:loc even land

tahac Hant Haait Quih It Iihca hapáh iha.

md:loc land abs:blood def;fl 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]be_located sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl dcl
For that reason, to this very day that place is called Field of Blood.bb 177 0W 

 Taax oo cöihapacta hac, ...

dem;dt;pl del 3.io:3.poss:pon:do def;loc
Having done that, …bb 177 0N 

2.7.2 P-linked adjuncts

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7KH 3 PXVW EH LQ SUHYHUEDO SRVLWLRQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW PD\ EHൻDQG RIWHQ LVൻLQ FODXVHLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ $V WKLV
WRSLF LV GLVFXVVHG LQ PXFK PRUH GHWDLO LQ i RQO\ D IHZ H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ KHUH

 Ctam tintica canoaa com ano siij taa ityaai, hant yahjiit.
male md:aw boat def;hz [3.poss:]in irr.ind:sit rlt:aux 3.sbj:rlt:travel_to land rlyo:fall
As the man was about to get into the boat, he fell.bb &<+,

 Iteen hac haait quih ano moma.

3.poss;mouth def;loc abs;blood def;fl [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlmi:move
Blood came from his/her/its mouth.
L Tiimotoj, toc cötoii ma, toc cöiyaii cah, toc
rlt:gamble\pl there 3.io:rlt:be.fl\pl ds there 3.io:3.poss:pon.intr:be.fl\pl def;fl:foc there
cöiyaii cah, tpezi, yoque.
3.io:3.poss:pon:be.fl\pl def;fl:foc rlt:pass:defeat rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
They were there gambling, they were there a long time, he was defeated, it is said.bb $SRVWDGRUB
§2.7.2 P-linked adjuncts 53

 ... hizac iti yiij.

px:loc 3.poss:on rlyo:sit
... it was here.bb +LSRFDPSR

 Hant iti hihiih zo ˻ ziix hapahit˼ z iti

land 3.poss:on 1.poss:pon:be.fl/live indf;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat indf;sg 3.poss:on
tmiih, …
rlt:not_be.fl
There isn’t any food in the place in which I live …bb %XUJRVB 
 3
The common complex sentence

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3.1 Dependent verb forms and independent verb forms

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3.sbj:rlmi:pull_out
S/he pulls/pulled it out.

E Iyoopox. 5HDOLV \R SUH᯳[ yo- i

3.sbj:rlyo:pull_out
S/he pulls/pulled it out.

F ¡Ixoopox! (PSKDWLF UHDOLV SUH᯳[ xo- i

  3.sbj:em:pull_out
S/he pulls/pulled it out!

54
§3.1 Dependent verb forms and independent verb forms 55

G ¡Mojet                   xah zo         tomhaa! 6XEMXQFWLYH ,UUHDOLV SUH᯳[ tm-bi

bOvis_canadensisbbb?          indf;sg  sbj;eq
May it be a bighorn sheep!

H ¡Saptajc! ,QGHSHQGHQW ,UUHDOLV SUH᯳[ si-bi

  irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:pull_out\pl
Let’s pull it out!

$Q LQGHSHQGHQW FODXVH PD\ DOVR KDYH DQ LPSHUDWLYH YHUE DV LQ 

 ,QGHSHQGHQW LPSHUDWLYH ,PSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ c- RI VHYHUDO i

¡Capox!
  im:pull_out
Pull it out!

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GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV po-

 D * Ipoopox. 'HSHQGHQW ,UUHDOLV SUH᯳[ po- i

    3.sbj:irr.dep:pull_out
(S/he will pull it out.)

E Ipoopox,                  ...
3.sbj:irr.dep:pull_out
When s/he pulls it out (in the future), …

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 Ziix caziim z ipooho ho.

thing sbj.nmlz:pleasant indf;sg 3.sbj:irr_dep:see dcl
Maybe s/he has found something pretty.

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 D ¿Itapox? 5HDOLVt DV LQWHUURJDWLYH

  3.sbj:rlt:pull_out
Did/does s/he pull it out?

E ¿Itcmapox? 5HDOLVt ZLWK QHJDWLYH DV LQWHUURJDWLYH

  3.sbj:rlt:neg:pull_out
Did/does s/he not pull it out?


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56 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

 Itcmapox                     iho. 5HDOLVt ZLWK QHJDWLYH DQG PRGDO

3.sbj:rlt:neg:pull_out      dcl   
S/he didn’t pull it out.

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 D * Itapox iho.
3.sbj:rlt:pull_out dcl
(S/he pulls/pulled it out.)

E * Itapox.
3.sbj:rlt:pull_out
(S/he pulls/pulled it out.)

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3.sbj:rlt:pull_out
When s/he pulls/pulled it out, …

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3.io:im:permit  Leukoma_grata   3.sbj:irr.ind:dig_up
Let him/her dig up multicolored clams.

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3.sbj:irr.ind:pull_out aux:dcl
S/he will pull it out.
RU S/he should pull it out.

E ¿Isiipox haa ya?

  3.sbj:irr.ind:pull_out aux qm
Will s/he pull it out?
RU Should s/he pull it out?

F * Isiipox.
(S/he will pull it out.)

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S/he is pulling it out.

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§3.2 Juxtaposed independent clauses 57

E * Quipox.
(S/he is pulling it out.)

F ¿Quipox ya?
   sbj.nmlz:tr:pull_out qm
Is s/he pulling it out?

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irr.ind:pull_out   sbj.nmlz:aux:dcl
S/he will pull it out.

E * Siipox.
  irr.ind:pull_out
(S/he will pull it out.)

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3.2 Juxtaposed independent clauses

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* Cmiique cmaam quij mooha, hant z iiqui miin.
(Seri)_person female def;cm rlmi:cry land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlmi:go
(The Seri woman cried (and) left.)

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 'HSHQGHQW ,QGHSHQGHQW
Cmiique cmaam quij tooha, hant z iiqui miin.
(Seri)_person female def;cm rlt:cry land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlmi:go
The Seri woman cried (and) left.

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 Cmiique cmaam quij mooha yax, hant z iiqui miin.

(Seri)_person female def;cm rlmi:cry since land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlmi:go
Because the Seri woman had cried, she left.
58 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

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 Cmiique cmaam quij ziix hapi oaactim quih an

(Seri)_person female def;cm thing intns [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:use def;fl [3.poss:]in
imiiquim; ziix quih ihmaa° quih mos cöimasiijim.
3.sbj:rlmi:put_items thing def;fl other def;fl also 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:perform
The Seri woman put her things in it; she also did other things with it [a certain kind of basket].bb(6
OLLWUR

 ˻ Zaxt quisil˼ quih xepe iteel cöquiih quij, hacaaiz

   ? sbj.nmlz:small def;fl sea 3.poss:edge 3.io:subj.nmlz:be.(fl) def;cm abs:fishing_spear

heeque quih mos imacaalim; tist heecto coi mos

small def;fl also 3.sbj:rlmi:play_with harpoon_point:pl small\pl def;pl also
imacaalim.
3.sbj:rlmi:play_with
The seaside child played with small boats; he played with small fishing spears; and he also played with
small harpoons.bb (6 RROBLWDFB

 Cmiique caii quij isiihit taa x, imamaai x; imiiznij x.

(Seri)_person grown def;cm 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat rlt:aux ut 3.sbj:rlmi:roast or 3.sbj:rlmi:stew or
To eat it, an adult cooks it with fire on top of it, or she stews it.bb (6 VDWRMB

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WZHHQ WKH LPSHUDWLYHV LV YHU\ VOLJKW 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 «¡Asjoj! ¡Asjoj!» ox xah yee.

[im;]paddle\pl [im;]paddle\pl thus ? rlyo:say
“Paddle! Paddle!”, he said.bb 0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[SB

 «¡Cahit! ¡Cahit!» xah hin yooh.

   im:eat im:eat ? 1s.do:rlyo:do/say/put.fl
“Eat it! Eat it!,” she told me.bb 7RSHWHB

 ¡Hant hac cmaaix! ¡Hant hac cmaaix!

  land def;loc im:neg:abandon land def;loc im:neg:abandon
Don’t leave this place! Don’t leave this place!bb 7RSHWHB

 ¡Mohat! ¡Hizac iti cazcam!

  twd:im:move:pl px:loc 3.poss:on im:arrive\pl
Come! Come here!

3.3 Clauses with explicit subordinators and coordinators

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§3.4 Clause chaining 59

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 ,QGHSHQGHQW  6XERUGLQDWRU ,QGHSHQGHQW

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 ,QGHSHQGHQW  6XERUGLQDWRU 

˻ An iquitzil˼ pac me hyaamx tax, cmaax
   [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:trunk indf;pl 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:say+io sbrd now
ihmiimjc.
1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:deliver
I promised you pants and now I have brought them.bb &<+,

 ,QGHSHQGHQW >'HYHUEDO QRXQ SOXV PRGDO@  6XERUGLQDWRU ,QGHSHQGHQW >UHDOLVyo@

Canoaa ticom imozaainim iha yax, xepe iyexl.
boat md:hz sbj.nmlz:neg:anchored dcl since sea 3.sbj:rlyo:take
Since the boat was not anchored, the sea carried it out.bb &<+,

/LNHZLVH FODXVHV KHDGHG E\ LQGHSHQGHQW YHUE IRUPV PD\ EH FRPELQHG LQWR RQH VHQWHQFH ZLWK WKH FRRUGLQDWRU
xo but EHWZHHQ WKHP VHH i 7KLV LV VKRZQ VFKHPDWLFDOO\ LQ  DQG LOOXVWUDWHG LQ 

 ,QGHSHQGHQW ൺ &RRUGLQDWRU ൺ ,QGHSHQGHQW

 Misil xo maziim.
rlmi:small but rlmi:pleasant
It is small but it is pretty.bb &<+,

3.4 Clause chaining

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 'HSHQGHQWQ ,QGHSHQGHQW

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IRU D GLVFXVVLRQ RI VLPLODU IDFWV LQ 0LVXPDOSDQ ODQJXDJHV RI &HQWUDO $PHULFD

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60 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

)LJXUH bb&KDLQHG FODXVH VWUXFWXUH

S

Sn S

dependent independent

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 'HSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV

Caay cap yeen cap ipocaat x, ˻ anxö masaai˼ haa hi.
horse def;vt [3.poss:]face def;vt 3.sbj:irr.dep:yank ut    intns 2s.do:irr.ind:make [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
If the horse yanks its head, it will injure you.bb &<+,

 'HSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV

..., hant an iihom hac saziit.
land [3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:lie def;loc 1.em.sbj.tr.irr.ind:go_to\pl
..., let’s go where he is.bb 177 -Q 

([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK UHDOLV FODXVHV

 'HSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt LQGHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVmi IRUP

Sahmees caacöl pac he itámlajc ma, ˻ ano
Citrus_x_sinensis sbj.nmlz:big\pl indf;pl 1s.io:3.sbj:rlt:deliver\pl ds    [3.poss:]in
hmeemjöc˼.
1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:peel
They brought me some oranges, and I peeled them.bb &<+,

 'HSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt GHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt GHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt LQGHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVmi IRUP

Hast quij iti hptozám, cohtmihzx, hant ihptahjiit
stone def;cm 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:unsp.obj:put.vt 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:slip land 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:fall
ma, hitoaa cop miictim.
ds 1.poss:foot/leg/toe def;vt rlmi:be_cut
I stepped on a rock, slipped on it, fell down, and cut my foot.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ ... and my foot was cut.bb &<+,

 'HSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt GHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt GHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt LQGHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVmi IRUP

˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, cmaax taax iti tiij, ˻ hapx taailx˼ ma
   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds now dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on rlt:sit outside rlt:release\impf ds

x, imooctam, comcaac coi.

ut 3.sbj:rlmi:look_at\pl (Seri)_person\pl def;pl
Then, sitting there, she demonstrated her magical powers, and the people watched her.bb (6
FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKRBZ

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E\ DQ LQGHSHQGHQW YHUE IRUP DQG HQG WKH VHQWHQFH DV GHSLFWHG LQ  7KLV FDVH LV GLVFXVVHG LQ i
§3.4.1 Mood concord 61

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so, while, as HWF 7KHUH GRHV VHHP WR EH D JHQHUDO SULQFLSOH LQ RSHUDWLRQ D GHSHQGHQW FODXVH H[SUHVVHV DQ LGHD
WKDW LV WHPSRUDOO\ RU ORJLFDOO\ SUHFHGHQW WR WKDW RI WKH FODXVH WKDW IROORZV RU ZKLFK GRPLQDWHV LW V\QWDFWLFDOO\ 7KLV
SULQFLSOH DOVR UHODWHV WR WKH IDFW WKDW SXUSRVH FODXVHV W\SLFDOO\ IROORZ WKH PDLQ FODXVH VHH i

3.4.1 Mood concord

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62 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

Realis examples

 'HSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt GHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt GHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt  5HDOLVyo IRUP

˻ Haaco ano hapaspoj cöicacoaat˼ cop ano
   abs;house [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:pass:write 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:cause_know def;vt [3.poss:]in
tiij, itaasi quih itaaspoj itcmaxi ma, Pedro quih
rlt:sit 3.poss:name def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:write 3.sbj:rlt:neg:finish ds Pedro def;fl
iyacospoj.
3.sbj:rlyo:help_write
S/he was in school and couldn’t write her/his name, so Pedro helped her/him write it.bb &<+,

 'HSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt LQGHSHQGHQW 5HDOLVmi IRUP

Hahoot hac ah contita, cömiizquim.
 abs:entrance def;loc foc 3.io:aw:rlt:move 3.io:rlmi:enter
S/he entered by the door. bb &<+,

 'HSHQGHQW 5HDOLVt LQGHSHQGHQW (PSKDWLF 5HDOLV

He hptahahásaquim ma x, ihxoqueepe.
1.pro 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:pass:comb_hair_of ds ut 1s.sbj.tr:em:like
I like it when my hair is combed. bb &<+,

Irrealis examples

 'HSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LPSHUDWLYH

Cöhihiim hac ano cöipitaai ta, ¡hacaalim!
3.io:1.poss:pon:sleep def;loc [3.poss:]in 3.io:3.sbj:irr.dep:? ds   im:play_with
While I sleep, play with it!bb &<+,

 'HSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV

Popóc x, anxö hant sahjiit aha.
irr.dep:fall ut intns land irr.ind:fall aux:dcl
If it falls, it will fall hard.

 'HSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV

Ziix ipxasi quih miizj paaizi, ¡saaitoj!
thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl well irr.dep:1.em.sbj.tr:make\pl   irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:eat\pl
Let’s preserve the meat and [later] eat it!bb DGDSWHG IURP &<+,

 'HSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV

Anxö pohamoc ta, siifp caha.
intns irr.dep:become_night ds irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he is going to arrive very late at night.bb &<+,

 'HSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LPSHUDWLYH

¡Haxz° ctam cop poozoj oo ta, he camjc!
  dog male def;vt irr.dep:alone del ds 1.io:im:deliver
Bring me only the MALE dog! bb &<+,


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§3.4.2 Purpose Clauses 63

3.4.2 Purpose Clauses

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SUH᯳[ si- ZLWKRXW DQ\ RI WKH PRGDOV VKRZQ LQ  6HH H[DPSOH 

 Cöhahipet, zixcám com isiihit.

3.io:im:permit fish def;hz 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat
Let him/her eat the fish.

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DFFRPSDQLHG E\ WKH XQVWUHVVHG UHDOLV DX[LOLDU\ YHUE taa WKHUHE\ VDWLVI\LQJ WKH UHTXLUHPHQWV RI PRRG FRQFRUG
7KLV LV VKRZQ LQ H[DPSOHV 

 Cmoqueepe com ˻ ziix hapsx caaitim˼ quij cöimiimlajc,

sbj.nmlz:sick def;hz    thing ? sbj.nmlz:[tr:]do:impf def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:deliver\pl

isaai taa ma.

3.poss:irr.ind:make rlt:aux ds
They took the sick person to the doctor for treatment.bb &<+,

 Hintaac quih ool ipxasi coi

1.poss:mother’s_younger_sister def;fl Stenocereus_thurberi 3.poss:flesh def;pl

iyoocöim, ˻ hocö ine˼ pac isaai taa.

3.sbj:rlyo:grind_to_make_tar    pine 3.poss:mucus indf;pl 3.sbj:irr.ind:make rlt:aux
My aunt was grinding organ pipe cactus pulp to make tar.bb &<+,

 Cöiyahipet, zixcám com isiihit taa ma.

3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:permit fish def;hz 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat rlt:aux ds
S/he let him/her eat the fish.

 Quiimla ha, hai cah contisa taa ma.

sbj.nmlz:[tr:]open\pl dcl wind def;fl:foc 3.io:aw:irr.ind:move rlt:aux ds
[The windows] are open to let air in.

 Hita quih cafee ooztoj quij hapx itaca,

1.poss:mother def;fl coffee [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:cook_in_water def;cm outside 3.sbj:rlt:put.lq/lng

iyoozaj, isahaapl taa.

3.sbj:rlyo:do_back_and_forth 3.sbj:irr.ind:make_cold rlt:aux
My mother poured the coffee back and forth to cool it down. bb &<+,

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WKH LUUHDOLV DX[LOLDU\ pi i DV LQ H[DPSOH 

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RIWHQ XVHG ZKHQ VXFK FRUHIHUHQFH H[LVWV

L Satoj zo me hpoomjc, me hsacohot aha.

Modiolus_capax indf;sg 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:deliver 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_see aux:dcl
I will bring a mussel to show it to you.

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LL Siimet coaatjö tazo hisoj cohsahipit aha, cöhisiihit hac.

bread sbj.nmlz:sweet one 1.poss:body/self 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:permit aux:dcl 1.poss:irr.ind:eat def;loc
I will permit myself to eat ONE sweet roll.

([DPSOHV OLNH  DQG  VKRZ WKDW VRPHWLPHV VXFK H[DPSOHV DUH ᯳QH
64 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

 Cöisahipet aha, zixcám com isiihit pi ta x.

3.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:permit aux:dcl fish def;hz 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat irr.dep;aux ds ut
S/he will let him/her eat the fish.

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 Hapapjc zo hsexl pi, hiz comhima

sbj.nmlz:pass:string indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy irr.dep;aux px 3.io:twd:1.poss:[pon:]neg:move

ha.
dcl
I didn’t come here to buy beads.

3.5 Deverbal nouns as the heads of dependent clauses

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 D Toc contiiha iti,

there 3.io:aw:pon:move 3.poss:on
While he was going there,bb &RQ3XP

E zaaj pac toc cötahca ma, cötafp ma,

indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:be_located ds 3.io:rlt:arrive ds
he came to a cave there,bb &RQ3XP

F hapxa pac ano toii, toc cöcoii ha.

Sylvilagus_sp. indf;pl 3.poss:in rlt:stand;pl there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand;pl dcl
(and) there were some cottontail rabbits in it.bb &RQ3XP

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, haa ntiihat iti,

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds there aw:rlt:3.poss:pon:go:pl 3.poss:on
Then while they were going there,bb &RQ3XP

 Toc cöihiihtolca iti x, zo hant sahjiit haa hi.

there 3.io:3.poss:pon:be.fl\pl\impf 3.poss:on ut indf;sg land irr.ind:fall aux dcl
They are there, one is going to fall.

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 Toc cöhihiihtolca iti, canoaa ano hiihca quih

there 3.io:1.poss:pon:be.fl\pl\impf 3.poss:on boat [3.poss:]in/from 1.poss:[pon:]sit\pl def;fl
yotápolquim.
rlyo:broken
While we were there, the boat that we were in broke up.bb 2᯲HUHG

0\ DWWHPSWV WR HOLFLW D VHQWHQFH GLUHFWO\ FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR I will buy it to eat it ZHUH XQVXFFHVVIXO , FRQVLVWHQWO\ FRXOG
RQO\ JHW Ihpitalhaa, ihsiihit aha I will buy it 'HSHQGHQW ,UUHDOLV, I will eat it

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QRW EHHQ VWXGLHG 6HH Yaza ano, … [3.poss:]pon.intr:speak\pl [3.poss:]in While they were speaking, … 177 /N 
§3.6 Excursus about the Different Subject markers and the word x 65

 Cói hihiim iti, …

still 1.poss:pon:sleep 3.poss:on
While I was still sleeping, …

 Haa nthiihat iti ...

there aw:1.poss:pon:move:pl 3.poss:on
While we were going there, … bb &<+,

 Ziix ipxasi hizcoi cói immiipla iti, hsatázata aha.

thing 3.poss:flesh px:pl still 3.poss:[pon:]neg:bad 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cut_into_strips aux:dcl
Before this meat spoils, I will cut it into strips.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ While this meat has not yet spoiled, I will cut it into strips.bb &<+,

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 xo hascám com iti cöiihca hac, Tahejöc quij

but abs:reed_boat def;hz 3.poss:on 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]sit\pl def;loc Tiburon.Island def;cm
itaaaxoj,
3.sbj:rlt:abandon\pl
but seated on a reed boat, they left Tiburon Island,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Hax ihyaahazxim cah, hant ihmaa° z iiqui iquiin

intns 1.poss:pon.intr:sneeze:impf def;fl:foc land other indf;sg 3.poss:toward inf.intr:go

ihyomamzo.
1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:want
Because I am sneezing, I don’t want to go anywhere.bb &<+,

 He hicmiiquet cah, ˻ hant ihyomaamac˼.

1.pro 1.poss:[pon:]be_person def;fl:foc    land 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:?
I have never cooked century plant.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ In my life I have not cooked century plant. bb &<+,

$ UHSHWLWLRQ RI VXFK D FODXVH PD\ LQGLFDWH D ORQJHU SHULRG RI WLPH RYHU ZKLFK WKH HYHQW RFFXUUHG DV LQ  DQG


 ..., haa ntiiha, haa ntiiha cah, ...

there aw:3.poss:pon:move there aw:3.poss:pon:move def;fl:foc
..., he traveled for a long time, ...bb $SRVWDGRUB

 ..., toc cöiyaii, toc cöiyaii cah, ...

there 3.io:3.poss:pon.intr:stand\pl there 3.io:3.poss:pon.intr:stand\pl def;fl:foc
..., they were there for a long time, …bb $SRVWDGRUB

3.6 Excursus about the Different Subject markers and the word x
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66 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

3.6.1 The Different Subject markers

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ma

 ..., hant ihptahjiit ma, hitoaa cop miictim.

land 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:fall ds 1.poss:foot/leg/toe def;vt rlmi:be_cut
… I fell down, and cut my foot.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ My foot got cut.bb &<+,

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'6 PDUNHU ta XQGHU WKH VDPH FRQGLWLRQV

 Anxö pohamoc ta, siifp caha.

intns irr.dep:become_night ds irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he is going to arrive very late at night.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ When it is very late at night, s/he will arrive.bb &<+,

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 Siifp caha, anxö pohamoc ta.

irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl intns irr.dep:become_night ds
S/he is going to arrive very late at night.

 ˻ Hehe an icaaij˼ com

   plant/wood [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water def;hz
ihapooin quij cöiyacaapis, hasaaiti áno
3.poss:pon:pass:cause_closed def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:shut_tightly petroleum_oil [3.poss:]in

caap cop [ anxö himo tpazjc ma. ]VP

sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt intns elsewhere rlt:dispersed ds
S/he closed the screw-in opening of the barrel, a lot of gasoline having spilled out.bb &<+,

 Trooqui quij hant iyootyajc, iquiisaxim itcmá

vehicle def;cm land 3.sbj:rlyo:stretch_out\pl inf.intr:voc:spirit:impf 3.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able
ma.
ds
They towed the truck because it couldn’t start.bb &<+,

 Siimet quih imiye, isiihit taa ma.

bread def;fl 3.sbj:rlmi:give_food 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat rlt:aux ds
S/he gave him/her the bread to eat.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ S/he gave him/her the bread so that s/he would eat it.

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§3.6.1 The Different Subject markers 67

 Zixcám com imiixquim, haxz° cop isiihit taa ma.

fish def;hz 3.sbj:rlmi:put.hz dog def;vt 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat rlt:aux ds
S/he threw a fish for the dog to eat. bb 0 0RVHU 

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 Yoofp (*ma) xo hyomaho.

rlyo:arrive      ds but 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:see
S/he arrived, but I didn’t see him/her.

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 Itaht, mójocam.
3.sbj:rlt:see\pl rlmi:flee\pl
When theyi saw them, theyi fled.

 Cmaam quij itaxi, izquipót coi imazeee.

female def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:finish inferior_material def;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:make_coil_filler
When the womani finishes it, shei makes coil-filler from the inferior quality splint material. bb LPSURYHG
IURP &DQDVWDB

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 María quih yoofp, soos taa (*ma).

María def;fl rlyo:arrive irr.ind:sing rlt:aux      ds
María arrived in order to sing.

 Minaail com impoqueejc (*ma) x, taax oo iti hataap

2.poss:skin def;hz 2s.sbj:irr.ind:cause_be_wet      ds ut dem;dt;pl del 3.poss:on abs:mucus

cömiisa aha.
3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:be aux:dcl
If you wet your skin, you will catch a cold.

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 'HSHQGHQW  'HSHQGHQW  'HSHQGHQW ma 'HSHQGHQW  'HSHQGHQW  'HSHQGHQW ma 'HSHQGHQW 

,QGHSHQGHQW

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HQWLDO ZLWK WKH VXEMHFW RI itaht LQ FODXVH E '6 PDUNLQJ LV UHTXLUHG %XW VLQFH WKH VXEMHFW RI itaht LV FRUHIHUHQWLDO
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68 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

 D Ctam himcap eenim z itcooz ma,

male dt:vt metal/knife indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:steal ds
That man stole a knife;

E itaht (*ma)
3.sbj:rlt:see\pl      ds
they saw him,

F cöiyacoaaxoj.
3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:remove\pl
(and) took it away from him.bb &<+,

([DPSOH  GHPRQVWUDWHV WKDW WKH TXHVWLRQ RI FRUHIHUHQFH RI WKH VXEMHFWV LV GHWHUPLQHG IURP RQH FODXVH WR
WKH QH[W JHQHUDOO\ LW LV QRW SHUWLQHQW WKDW WKH VXEMHFW RI FODXVH D LV QRW FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH VXEMHFW RI FODXVH
F &ODXVH D LV FRPSDUHG ZLWK FODXVH E DQG FODXVH E ZLWK FODXVH F

 D Canoaa z an hatahca (*ma),

boat indf;sg [3.poss:]in 1p.sbj:rlt:sit\pl      ds
When we were in the boat,

E ziix coaafp pac ano ˻ hant cöhatpamlcam˼ ma,

Mugil_sp. indf;pl [3.poss:]in    land 3.io:1p.sbj:rlt:connected\pl\impf ds
we came across a school of mullet,

F yaafipolca.
rlyo:bounce_upwards\pl\impf
and they were jumping.

7KH VOLJKWO\ ORQJHU H[DPSOHV LQ  DQG  LOOXVWUDWH WKH VDPH SRLQW

 D Ctam ticop hap tintica itcaiit (*ma),

male md:vt Odocoileus_hemionus md:aw 3.sbj:rlt:shoot      ds
The man shot the mule deer

E yaazj com iti itatni (*ma),

[3.poss:]ankle_nerve def;hz 3.poss:on 3.sbj:rlt:make_contact      ds
and hit it in ankle,

F itaactim ma,
3.sbj:rlt:cause_be_cut ds
cutting the nerve [tendon?],

G miizj icapanzx iyomá.

well inf.intr:run 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
(and) [the deer] couldn’t run.bb &<+,

 D Ctam ticop tmozime,

male md:vt rlt:drunk
That man was drunk

E cmiique ihmaa° ticop isníp xah taa tamoz ma,

(Seri)_person other md:vt 3.sbj.irr.ind:hit ? rlt:aux rlt:think ds
and tried to hit the other man,
§3.6.1 The Different Subject markers 69

F tapoti ma,
rlt:duck_a_blow ds
who ducked down,

G haaco quih ihapooin cop itníp ma,

abs;house def;fl 3.poss:pon:pass:cause_closed def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:hit ds
so the drunk man hit the door of the house instead,

H yanopj quij yopete.

[3.poss:]fist/hoof def;cm rlyo:swollen
and his fist is swollen.bb &<+,

([DPSOHV  KDYH GLVMRLQW UHIHUHQFH RYHUWO\ PDUNHG &RPSDUH  WR  DERYH

 Itaht ma, mójocam.

3.sbj:rlt:see\pl ds rlmi:flee\pl
When theyi saw them, theyj fled.bb 0 0RVHU 

 Impoofp ta, tmaticpan. Haptco yaticpan.

2s.sbj:irr.dep:arrive ds sbjv:work already rlyo:work
S/he could have started working at the time of your arrival. [But in fact] S/he’s already working. bb
2᯲HUHG

 Minl quih pozatx ta x, insooha aha.

2.poss:hand/arm/finger def;fl irr.dep:have_glochids ds ut 2s.sbj:irr.ind:cry aux:dcl
If your fingers get thorns in them, you will cry.bb &RQVHMRVBFKR\DB

 Tommeque ma, hyomasi.

rlt:neg:warm ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:drink
Since it wasn’t warm, I didn’t drink it.

 Taax iti tap ma, yax quij an itatni ma,

dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on rlt:stand ds [3.poss:]belly def;cm [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlt:make_contact ds
icaatax itcmá, tahac iti tap ma, cöhamiizcam.
inf.intr:go 3.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able md:loc 3.poss:on rlt:stand ds 3.io:1p.sbj:rlmi:arrive\pl
It (a horse) was standing there, he (one of our group) shot it in the belly, it (the horse) wasn’t able to
walk, it stood there, we went to it.bb 9LDMHB7LEXURQB 0 0RVHU 

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 'RVB+HUPDQRV 
D Ziix cameepit timoca, ziix caacoj timoca haa mota,
thing sbj.nmlz:strange md:twd thing sbj.nmlz:big md:twd there twd:rlt:move
That strange thing [giant] — that big thing came,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

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7KH LQVWDQFH RI '6 LQ L LV DEVHQW RQ WKH RULJLQDO UHFRUGLQJ EXW HUURQHRXVO\ VR DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH FRQVXOWDQWV IRU WKLV
JUDPPDU 7KH ZRUG yoque LV DFWXDOO\ PLVVLQJ LQ S LQ WKH RULJLQDO UHFRUGLQJ EXW DIWHU D SDXVH D QHZ VHQWHQFH VWDUWV 6HH
i IRU WKH XVH RI yoque DV DQ HYLGHQWLDO PDUNHU
70 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

E comcaac coi quino tafp ma,

(Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.poss:in rlt:arrive ds
he arrived among the Seris,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

F — cöpamiiit hax paa ta,

3.io:irr.dep:ask_about intns irr.dep:aux ds
perhaps he asked about her,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

G cmaam quij cöpamiiit hax paa ta,

female def;cm 3.io:irr.dep:ask_about intns irr.dep:aux ds
perhaps he asked about the woman [who had been his wife]bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

H ൺ ctam ical quij, —

male sbj.nmlz;tr:accompany def;cm
— the man who was now her spouse —bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

I cmaax yaacni zo toc cotom ma,

now [3.poss:]bow indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:lie ds
a bow of his was lying there,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

J itexl, cöitahizj,
3.sbj:rlt:buy 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:tie_up
he [new spouse] grabbed it, he strung it,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

K ziix timoca ihaai zo haa siihca xah taa tamoz,

thing md:twd 3.poss:pon:make indf;sg there irr.ind:be_located crd rlt:aux rlt:think
he thought he would do something,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

L ziix xah z iicp cösiipe taa tamoz,

thing crd indf;sg 3.poss:side 3.io:irr.ind:good rlt:aux rlt:think
he thought he would do something useful,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

M tsiilim, hant tiihtim [ma],

rlt:move\impf land rlt:be.fl:impf ds
he got ready, he was going around,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

N iiqui tojoz itexl,

3.poss:toward rlt:flee 3.sbj:rlt:take/buy
he [giant] suddenly grabbed him,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

O izcapxla hac an itaxquim ma,

3.poss:armpit def;loc [3.poss:]in/from 3.sbj:rlt:put_(long) ds
he put him in his armpit,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

P inol cop iiqui totofz ma,

3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt 3.poss:toward rlt:squeeze_in ds
his arm squeezed in on him,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

Q cöipatj° hac iti cöitcazx,

his/her.side def;loc 3.poss:on 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:make_split_open
he split open his side,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV
§3.6.1.1 Relevance of the complement clause 71

R hant xah him itácatx ma,

land crd away 3.sbj:rlt:release ds
he threw him down,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

S hacx tmiih,
apart rlt:not_exist
he [new spouse] died,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

T toc cotom, [yoque].

there 3.io:rlt:lie rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
there he was, it is said.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

$ FUXFLDOO\ LPSRUWDQW LVVXH RI FRXUVH LV ZKDW FRQVWLWXWHV D FKDQJH RI VXEMHFW 7KLV LV WDNHQ XS LQ i

3.6.1.1. Relevance of the complement clause. :KHQ D GHSHQGHQW FODXVH SUHFHGHV D FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH RI D
YHUE OLNH √amzo want WKH VDPH RU GL᯲HUHQW VXEMHFW TXHVWLRQ LV GHFLGHG E\ ORRNLQJ DW WKH VXEMHFW qua SRVVHVVRU
RI WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH DQG QRW WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE √amzo 7KLV LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV 

 Siimet pac ihpaaitim ta, miihit ihmiimzo.

bread indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:make:impf ds 2.poss:[pon:]eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
If I make bread, I want you to eat it.

 Haa mpoofp (*ta), ziix zo miihit ihmiimzo.

there 2s.sbj:irr.dep:arrive    ds thing indf;sg 2.poss:[pon:]eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
If you arrive there, I want you to eat something.

:KHQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH LV DQ LQ᯳QLWLYH LW LV LUUHOHYDQW ZKHWKHU RQH ORRNV DW LW RU WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH KLJKHU
YHUE ZKRVH VXEMHFW FRQWUROV LW DV VKRZQ LQ 

 Haa hpoofp ta, icapazt ihmiimzo.

there 1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:arrive ds inf.intr:pass:tattoo 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
If I arrive there, I want to be tattooed.

 Haa hpoofp (*ta), ziix z ihaahit ihmiimzo.

there 1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:arrive    ds thing indf;sg inf.tr:eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
If I arrive there, I want to eat something.

3.6.2 Parallel event clauses and background information

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'6 PDUNLQJ GRHV QRW RFFXU ZKHQ WKH FODXVH LV SUHVHQWHG DV EHLQJ DQ HYHQW SDUDOOHO WR DQRWKHU FODXVH LQ ZKLFK
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JRRG H[DPSOH LV JLYHQ LQ  $OO WKUHH DQLPDOV DUH SUHVHQWHG DV SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ SDUDOOHO DFWLRQV 2EYLRXVO\ WKH
VXEMHFW RI HDFK FODXVH LV GLVWLQFW EXW '6 LV QRW SUHVHQWൺDQG QRW DOORZHG

 (6 +DSMB
D Hap quih haa ntita (*ma),
Odocoileus_hemionus def;fl there aw:rlt:move        ds
The mule deer was going there [in the sky],

E mojet quih haa ntita (*ma),

Ovis_canadensis def;fl there aw:rlt:move      ds
the bighorn sheep was going there,

7KH XQH[SUHVVHG DJHQW LV WKH UHOHYDQW VXEMHFW LQ WKLV H[DPSOH VHH i
72 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

F haamoja quih mos toc contima.

Antilocapra_americana def;fl also there 3.io:aw:rlmi:move
and the antelope also was going there.

7KUHH PRUH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 'RV +HUPDQRV 

D Ticop z itaazi,
md:vt indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:carry
That one took one [of the brothers],bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

E ihmaa ticop mos z itaazi ma,

other md:vt also indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:carry ds
the other took one [of the brothers],bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Miist zo toc cötiij (*ma), haxz° mos zo toc cötiij, yoque.

cat indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit      ds dog also indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
There once was a cat and a dog.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ There was a cat, there was also a dog, it is said.

 Haxz° heeque zo ˻ ziix canaao˼ heeque zo cötiih (*ma),

dog small/young indf;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:meow small/young indf;sg 3.io:rlt:be.fl      ds
˻ hehe zamij˼ com án hac ano moii.
plant/wood palm_tree def;hz [3.poss:]area def;loc [3.poss:]in rlmi:stand\pl
A puppy and a kitten are in the box.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ A puppy, a kitten is with it, they are in a box.

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 &RQVHMRVB&DQDVWD 
D ˻ Iisax theemt˼, ittii,
   3.poss:spirit rlt:stink 3.sbj:rlt:feel
He was angry, he felt it,

E hasaj zo toc cötap ma, tiix oo ˻ ixtamta

flat_basket indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand ds dem;dt;sg del    3.poss:[pon:]abundant
yaai˼ iiha ha.
[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:make/do only dcl
he easily grabbed a basket that was there.

F ˻ Iti tinol˼, eenim zo toc cötap ma, cöittaxazim,

   3.poss:on rlt:hv:hand metal/knife indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand ds 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:hit.hz:impf
...

He grabbed it and hit it with a knife that was there, …bb &RQVHMRVBFDQDVWDB

 *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ 

$QRWKHU H[DPSOH LV IRXQG LQ H
§3.6.3 The word x 73

D Cötafp, itexl, hant itáh,

3.io:rlt:arrive 3.sbj:rlt:take land 3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl
He arrived to it [the meat that was on a drying rack], he grabbed it, he took it down,bb *L
JDQWHB&RPHORQ

E hehe zo toc cotom ma, itaai, heete cöitáh, ...

plant/stick indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:lie ds 3.sbj:rlt:make tip 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl
he put it on the end of a stick that was there, ...bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

2QH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU suddenlyൻEXLOW DURXQG WKH YHUE √eme depletedൻLV YDULDEO\ RU RSWLRQDOO\ PDUNHG IRU '6
6HH H[DPSOH 

 Hoo xah teme (ma), hant yahjiit.

? atten rlt:depleted ds land rlyo:fall
All of a sudden, s/he/it fell down.

3.6.3 The word x

7KH ZRUG x KDV DQ XQFOHDU PHDQLQJ DOWKRXJK LW LV H[WUHPHO\ FRPPRQ DQG JRRG ZULWHUV DUH FDUHIXO WR LQFOXGH RU
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7KLV LV WKH YHU\ ODVW ZRUG WKDW PD\ DSSHDU LQ DQ\ ᯳QLWH GHSHQGHQW FODXVH H[FHSW IRU ULJKWGLVORFDWHG QRPLQDOV
i ,W IROORZV WKH '6 PDUNHU LI RQH LV SUHVHQW DV WKH H[DPSOHV EHORZ LOOXVWUDWH
7KLV ZRUG RIWHQ LQGLFDWHV VRPHWKLQJ OLNH XQVSHFL᯳HG WLPH DQG IUHTXHQWO\ VHHPV WR FKDQJH WKH PHDQLQJ IURP
when ZKHQ x LV DEVHQW WR whenever ZKHQ x LV SUHVHQW LQ WKH FDVH RI UHDOLV FODXVHV DV LQ H[DPSOH 

 He hptahahásaquim ma x, ihxoqueepe.
1.pro 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:pass:comb_hair_of ds ut 1s.sbj.tr:em:like
I like it when my hair is combed. bb &<+,

/LNHZLVH LW RIWHQ VHHPV WR FKDQJH WKH PHDQLQJ IURP when ZKHQ x LV DEVHQW WR if ZKHQ x LV SUHVHQW LQ WKH
FDVH RI LUUHDOLV FODXVHV DOWKRXJK WKDW PD\ QRW DOZD\V EH LQGLFDWHG H[SOLFLWO\ LQ WKH WUDQVODWLRQ DV LQ H[DPSOHV
 ([DPSOH  LQYROYHV D SRVWSRVHG GHSHQGHQW FODXVH VHH i

 Minaail com impoqueejc x, ˻ hataap cömiisa˼ aha.

2.poss:skin def;hz 2s.sbj:irr.ind:cause_be_wet ut    abs:mucus 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:be aux:dcl
If you wet your skin, you will catch a cold.

 Hamatj somcooxi aha, hapete quij pahcoxl x.

thirst irr.ind:neg:unsp.sbj:die aux:dcl abs:mother def;cm irr.dep:pass:tend ut
One won’t get thirsty if one stays with one’s mother.bb &<+,

 Ziix ipxasi cmiipla zo hpoohit ta x, ˻ hiiqui saa˼ aha.

thing 3.poss:flesh sbj.nmlz:bad indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:eat ds ut    1.poss:toward irr.ind:? aux:dcl
If I eat rotten meat, it will do me harm. bb &<+,

([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKH ZRUG x DW WKH HQG RI GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV ZKHUH WKH PHDQLQJ LV PRUH XQFOHDU
EXW VHHPV WR ᯳W ZLWK WKH LGHD RI D QRQVSHFL᯳F WLPH

 ˻ Zaxt quisil˼ quij itaast sahcapzx taa ma x, mooha, ˻ hacx

   ? sbj.nmlz:small def;cm 3.poss:tooth irr.ind:pass:pull_out rlt:aux ds ut rlmi:cry  apart

smiih˼ ca xah tamoz x.

irr.ind:not_be.fl sbj.nmlz:aux crd rlt:think ut
The child cried when his tooth was about to be pulled out, because he thought he was going to die.bb
&<+,

7KLV PRUSKHPH ZDV ZULWWHQ DV D VX᯵[ IRU PDQ\ \HDUV GHVSLWH REYLRXVO\ QRW EHLQJ SDUW RI WKH PRUSKRORJ\ RI DQ\
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74 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

 ˻ Ziix canaao˼ ticom tiim, hax yoneeej oo, tahaapl x.

   thing sbj.nmlz:meow md:hz rlt:sleep intns rlyo:curled_up del rlt:feel_cold ut
The cat was cold and slept all curled up.bb &<+,

 Siimet coaatjö quih hyoqueepe, htahit x.

bread sbj.nmlz:sweet def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:like 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:eat ut
I like to eat sweet rolls.bb &<+,

,W LV RIWHQ WKH FDVH WKDW LI RQH GHSHQGHQW FODXVH KDV WKH ZRUG x PRVW RU DOO RI WKH GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV LQ WKDW
VHQWHQFH DOVR KDYH LW 6HH H[DPSOH 

 Hap com tooxi ma x, ano caafajquim

Odocoileus_hemionus def;hz rlt:die ds ut [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pound.impf
hapáh quij hant zo cötiij x, isct xah imoz
sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm land indf;sg 3.io:rlt:sit ut 3.poss:lung crd 3.poss:heart

xah, taax ah imexl.

crd dem;dt;pl foc 3.sbj:rlmi:take
When(ever) a mule deer is killed, the person who is called "ano caafajquim" takes the lungs and heart.bb
&<+,

3.7 Postposed dependent clauses

,W LV QRW XQFRPPRQ IRU RQH GHSHQGHQW FODXVHൺDQG RFFDVLRQDOO\ PRUH WKDQ RQHൺWR IROORZ WKH LQGHSHQGHQW
FODXVH VHH ᯳JXUH  DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV  $V ZDV SRLQWHG RXW DQG LOOXVWUDWHG DW WKH HQG RI
i WKLV RUGHU RI FODXVHV LV W\SLFDO IRU SXUSRVH FODXVHV 7KH LQWRQDWLRQ FRQWRXU RQ VXFK D SRVWSRVHG GHSHQGHQW
FODXVH WHQGV WR EHJLQ RQ D ORZHU OHYHO

)LJXUH bb3RVWSRVHG GHSHQGHQW FODXVH

S

[...] S S

independent dependent

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FDVHV LW LV WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH PDLQ FODXVH WR ZKLFK WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH SRVWSRVHG FODXVH LV FRPSDUHG IRU FDOFXODWLQJ
'6 PDUNLQJ ([DPSOHV  KDYH '6 PDUNLQJ RQ WKHP EHFDXVH WKH SUHFHGLQJ FODXVH WKH PDLQ FODXVH
KDV D GL᯲HUHQW VXEMHFW

 Haa hpyomafp, comcaac quih tatxo ma.

there 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:arrive (Seri)_person\pl def;fl rlt:much/many ds
I didn’t arrive there (at the party) because there were lots of people. bb $/,0 

 ˻ Ziix hai hax hapx cöquica˼ quij toii

   thing wind fresh_water outside 3.io:sbj.nmlz:tr:put.lq/lng def;cm toward_somewhere_else
spot caha, hai zo mpaait ta x.
irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl wind indf;sg twd:irr.dep:arrive ds ut
The windmill is going to turn if the wind blows.bb &<+,
§3.7 Postposed dependent clauses 75

 Siifp caha, anxö pohamoc ta.

irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl intns irr.dep:become_night ds
S/he is going to arrive very late at night.

 Hax ihmaa° cah itixö ma x, toc cöcaahca ha,

intns other def;fl:foc 3.sbj:rlt:jump_over ds ut there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be_located dcl

iizax quij toc cötiij ma x.

moon/month def;cm there 3.io:rlt:sit ds ut
They were jumping over the moon one by one.bb 6DOWDUB/XQDB

([DPSOHV  GR QRW KDYH '6 PDUNLQJ RQ WKHP EHFDXVH WKH SUHFHGLQJ FODXVH WKH PDLQ FODXVH RU WKH
RQO\ UHOHYDQW FODXVH KDV D FRUHIHUHQWLDO VXEMHFW

 Moxima hpmopím, hap inaail pac

yesterday 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:unsp.sbj:make_sandals Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:skin indf;pl
ihtacoxl.
1s.sbj.tr:rlt:tend
I made sandals yesterday since I had deerskin.bb &<+,

 Tom quih anxö iyizi, Méjico hac ano tiih.

money def;fl intns 3.sbj:rlyo:defeat/earn Mexico def;loc [3.poss:]in rlt:be.fl
S/hei earned a lot of money when s/hei lived in Mexico.

 Comcaac coi cötiin, yoque, hascám z iti tiij.

people_(Seri) def;pl 3.io:rlt:go rlyo:unsp.sbj:say abs:reed_boat indf;sg 3.poss:on rlt:sit
He returned to the people, it is said, in a reed boat.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

([DPSOH  VKRZV WKDW WKH UHOHYDQW FODXVH WR FRPSDUH WKH SRVWSRVHG FODXVH WR FDQQRW DOZD\V EH WKH PDLQ
FODXVH '6 PDUNLQJ QHYHU RFFXUV RQ WKH FODXVH LPPHGLDWHO\ SUHFHGLQJ yoque VLQFH yoque LV D YHUE RI VSHDNLQJ
ZLWK LQGLUHFW GLVFRXUVH FRPSOHPHQWV VHH i 6R WKH SRVWSRVHG FODXVH GRHV QRW FRPH IURP WKDW SRVLWLRQ 7KH
SRVWSRVHG FODXVH LQ WKLV H[DPSOH FDQQRW KDYH EHHQ VLPSO\ WUDQVSRVHG IURP MXVW EHIRUH ihít tactim HLWKHU VLQFH
LI WKDW ZHUH WKH FDVH WKHUH VKRXOG EH '6 PDUNLQJ RQ WKH YHUE tcooo ,W LV SRVVLEOH KRZHYHU WKDW WKH FODXVH KDV
EHHQ SRVWSRVHG IURP WKH SRVLWLRQ MXVW EHIRUH cmaax

 … cmaax xiica quih cmam xah ziix quih spahit ca

now thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:edible_form crd thing def;fl irr.ind:pass:eat sbj.nmlz:aux
ihít tactim, yoque, Bariil quij coox itahit ma.
3.poss:place_behind rlt:cut rlyo:unsp.sbj:say Barrel def;cm all/completely 3.sbj:rlt:eat ds
… all of the food that had been prepared to be eaten was gone, it is said, because Barrel had eaten all
of it.bb +RPEUHB%DUULOB

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 Siimet ˻ hant cafeaa˼ z itaho, hans iyocaao, icoohit

bread    land sbj.nmlz:? indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:see just 3.sbj:rlt:chew inf.intr:unsp.obj:eat
iimzo cah.
3.poss:[pon:]want def;fl:foc
S/he saw a piece of day-old bread and chewed it, because s/he wanted to eat so badly.bb &<+,
76 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

3.8 Semantic relationships of chained clauses

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LQGLFDWRU RI WKHVH UHODWLRQVKLSV LV SURYLGHG $ IHZ VLPSOH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ KHUH 6RPH H[DPSOHV RI VLPXOWD
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3.8.1 Realis examples

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 6HTXHQWLDO HYHQWV

Tooxi, mheemt.
rlt:die rlmi:stink
After it died it stank. bb 0 0RVHU 

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 6LPXOWDQHRXV HYHQWV

Tapca ma, hpyiim.
rlt:rain ds 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:sleep
While it rained I slept.bb 0 0RVHU 

 6LPXOWDQHRXV HYHQWV

Tapca ma x, ihpyiim.
rlt:rain ds ut 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:sleep
I sleep when it rains.

 6LPXOWDQHRXV HYHQWV

Toos  à, tii ntiya.
rlt:sing ? dem;dt;sg aw:rlyo:move
S/he was going along singing.

 6LPXOWDQHRXV HYHQWV

Toos  à, hant z iiqui yiin.
rlt:sing ? land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlyo:go
S/he was still singing when s/he left.

 6LPXOWDQHRXV HYHQWV

Tosípàxoj, tii ntiya.
rlt:whistle<?> dem;dt;sg aw:rlyo:move
S/he was going along whistling.

 6LPXOWDQHRXV HYHQWV

Tàsíím, tii ntiya.
rlt:laugh<?> dem;dt;sg aw:rlyo:move
S/he was going along laughing.

 6LPXOWDQHRXV HYHQWV

Haxz° hizquih tiifnij, titoj, miixax.
dog px:fl rlt:hv:nostril rlt:hv:eye\pl rlmi:hv:snout
A dog has a nose, eyes, and a snout.bb +(  PRGL᯳HG &<+,
§3.8.2 Irrealis examples 77

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Ixaap tapxa ma, yoozcam.
3.poss:[pon:]spend_night rlt:three ds rlyo:arrive\pl
They arrived in three days. bb 0 0RVHU 

 5HDVRQ
Tommeque ma, hyomasi.
rlt:neg:warm ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:drink
Since it wasn’t warm, I didn’t drink it.

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DV LQ H[DPSOH 

 ... — taax cmiique hizquih «yas ano toos» xah

dem;dt;pl (Seri)_person px;pl;fl [3.poss:]pon\sing [3.poss:]in rlt:sing atten

mpah — ...
rlmi:pass:do/say/put.fl
... — that is called a person “who repeats a song” [failing to sing a different song each time at a fiesta]
— ...bb ;DYLHU 0RUHQRൿV HVVD\ DERXW 3HGUR 0«QGH]

3.8.2 Irrealis examples

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HYHQWV

 6HTXHQWLDO HYHQWV

Taax hapafitlam hapoox, cmaax hasaaitoj aha.
dem;dt;pl 1p.sbj:irr.dep:pull\pl 1p.sbj:irr.dep:finish now 1p.sbj:irr.ind:eat\pl aux:dcl
When we finish pulling them in, then we will go fishing.bb )LVKLQJB&RQYHUVDWLRQB

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Pas  à, tii ntisa caha.
irr.dep;sing ? dem;dt;sg aw:irr.ind:move sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he will go away singing.

 6LPXOWDQHRXV HYHQWV

Pas à hant z iiqui siin caha.
irr.dep;sing ? land indf;sg 3.poss:toward irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he will still be singing when she leaves.

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Ixaap poopxa ta, ¿me cösitooij quee ya?
3.poss:[pon:]spend_night irr.dep:three ds bb2.pro 3.io:irr.ind:go\pl sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Are you (pl.) going to leave three days from now?

7KLV LV WUDQVODWHG They arrived three days ago LQ 0 0RVHU  7KLV WUDQVODWLRQ ZDV UHMHFWHG E\ P\ FRQVXOWDQWV
78 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

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 3URWDVLV
Impoohit x, insmoqueepe aha.
2s.sbj:irr.dep:eat ut 2s.sbj:irr.ind:sick aux:dcl
If you eat it, you will get sick.

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…, itac zo mpomaactim, hast zo consconjiit
3.poss:bone indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.dep:neg:cause_be_cut stone indf;sg 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:hit

aha.
aux:dcl
…, you shouldn’t cut its trunk, and you shouldn’t hit it with a stone.

3.9 Sentence-linking devices

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   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds ut
Then, ...bb 9HU\ FRPPRQO\ KHDUG DQG ZULWWHQ

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, taax ano cöititaai ma, …

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds dem;dt;pl [3.poss:]in 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:? ds
Then, at that very moment, …bb 9LHQWRB1RUWHB

 Taax ah aa itáh ma, …

dem;dt;pl foc del 3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds
For that reason, … bb 9HU\ FRPPRQO\ KHDUG DQG ZULWWHQ

 Taax ah oo cötpacta ma, …

dem;dt;pl foc del 3.io:rlt:be_in_appearance ds
For that reason, ...

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 Ox oo mpacta xo, …

thus del rlmi:be_in_appearance but
However, ...bb 9HU\ FRPPRQO\ KHDUG DQG ZULWWHQ

 Taax oo compacta tax, …

dem;dt;pl del 3.io:rlmi:be_in_appearance sbrd
Since it’s like that, …bb (6 FDDVTXLPBD

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§3.9 Sentence-linking devices 79

 Hantx cömiiha hac, …

at_base 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move def;loc
In the old days, …bb (6 DFDDPBFDD D

 *LJDQWH &RPHORQ DE

D Hantx cömiiha,
at_base 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move
taax Tahejöc himquij comcaac quih iti toii,
dem;dt;pl Tiburon_Island dt:cm (Seri)_person\pl def;fl 3.poss:on rlt:stand\pl
It happened a long time ago, the Seri people were on Tiburon Island,bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQBD

E toc cötoii ma,

there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl ds
they were there,bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQBE

 D Ox cöiiha hac, …

thus 3.io:3.poss:pon:beLUUHJ def;loc
Nowadays, ...

E Cmaax ox cöiiha hizac, …

now thus 3.io:3.poss:pon:beLUUHJ px:loc
Nowadays, …

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 Zaah ipac hac cöcaap cop iti, …

sun/day 3.poss:back def;loc 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt 3.poss:on
On the next day, …

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dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on María def;fl 3.io:rlyo:arrive
At that moment (or, under those circumstances) María arrived.

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L Taax iti María cop cöyoofp.

dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on María def;vt 3.io:rlyo:arrive
At that moment (or, under those circumstances) s/he arrived to María.

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LL Taax cöiiha, taax iti, …

dem:dt:pl 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]beLUUHJ dem:dt:pl 3.poss:on
At that moment, …
80 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

 Taax iti, María quih hant z iiqui cöyiin.

dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on María def;fl land indf;sg 3.poss:toward 3.io:rlyo:return
At that moment (or, under those circumstances) María left.

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D xo hascám com iti cöiihca hac, Tahejöc quij
but abs:reed_boat def;hz 3.poss:on 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]sit\pl def;loc Tiburon.Island def;cm
itaaaxoj,
3.sbj:rlt:abandon\pl
but seated on a reed boat, they left Tiburon Island,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

E Hant Ihiin ticom, tiix contitat, yoque.

Baja_California md:hz dem;dt;sg 3.io:aw:rlt:move:pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
they headed toward Baja California.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

F Hant Ihiin com contitat,

Baja_California def;hz 3.io:aw:rlt:move:pl
They headed toward Baja California,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

G xepe caacoj tintica itaait,

sea sbj.nmlz:big md:aw 3.sbj:rlt:travel
they traveled on the ocean,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

H haa ntiihat iti, haxoj com cömiizcam.

there aw:3.poss:pon:go:pl 3.poss:on shore_seen_from_water def;hz 3.io.rlmi.arrive\pl
during their travels, they came to shore.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

I Haxoj com cötazcam, haxoj tooiti,

shore_seen_from_water def;hz 3.io:rlt:arrive;pl shore_seen_from_water
Coming to shore, they landed, …bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 $SRVWDGRU 

D Tiix
dem;dt;sg

zaah himquij ˻ iicp ityai˼ , tiimotoj toc cötoii, yoque.

sun dt;cm    3.poss:side 3.sbj:rlt:? rlt:gamble\pl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
That one [Cöset] was opposing the sun, they were there gambling, it is said.

E Tiimotoj toc cötoii, toc cöiyaii, toc

rlt:gamble\pl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl there 3.io:3.poss:pon.intr:stand\pl there

cöiyaii cah, tpezi, yoque, Cöset

3.io:3.poss:pon.intr:stand\pl def;fl:foc rlt:pass:defeat rlyo:unsp.sbj:say Cöset

hapáh quij.
sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm
They were there gambling, they were there a long time, and Cöset was defeated, it is said.

F Tpezi ma, tatax, yoque.

rlt:pass:defeat ds rlt:go rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
He was defeated and he left, it is said.
§3.10 Sentence-initial position 81

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thing thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]make md:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit def;cm Sylvilagus_sp.
hapáh ] quij itataamalca, yoque.
sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:aug:hv:horn(s)/antlers rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
The being that made the things [the Creator] who was there, put antlers on the cotton-tail, it is said.bb
&RQ$VW

E Tahtaamalca ma,
rlt:pass:aug:hv:horn(s)/antlers ds
Antlers were put on him,bb &RQ$VW

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Ctam hipcop moxima tahoiitoj, ...
male px:vt yesterday rlt:hunt_in_middle_of_day
This man went hunting in the middle of the day yesterday … bb &<+,D

 'LUHFW REMHFW SUHFHGLQJ VXEMHFW

Eenim zo Juan quih hita cöiyocooz.
metal/knife indf;sg Juan def;fl 1.poss:mother 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:steal
Juan stole a knife from my mother.bb 2᯲HUHG

 2EOLTXH REMHFW SUHFHGLQJ VXEMHFW

˻ Hehe cpooin˼ zo ˻ ziix yacoso caaixaj˼ cop
   plant sbj.nmlz:closed indf;sg thing [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry_on_back sbj.nmlz:strong def;vt
cötafp …
3.io:rlt:arrive
The donkey arrived at a forest …bb RULJLQDO UHFRUGLQJ RI 7UDPSRVR

 2EOLTXH REMHFW SUHFHGLQJ VXEMHFW

…, seeten quih he cösaticpan xah taa camjöc iha.
Pinnidae def;fl 1.pro 3.io:irr.ind:work ? rlt:aux sbj.nmlz:think\pl dcl
…, (then) we intended to work with pen shells.bb )LVKLQJB

 2EOLTXH REMHFW SUHFHGLQJ VXEMHFW

Cotopis quij José quih hast quij cöimaafc.
Turbo_fluctuosus def;cm José def;fl stone def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
José hit the stone with the turban snail.
$OVR José hit the turban snail with the stone.
82 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

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 Comcaac ctamcö coi haptco antá xah miizcam.

(Seri)_person\pl male\pl def;pl already some_of_them ? rlmi:arrive\pl
Some Seri men already arrived. bb &<+,

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 ˻ Hantx cömiiha˼, taax, Tahejöc himquij comcaac quih

   at_base 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move dem;dt;pl Tiburon_Island dt:cm (Seri)_person\pl def;fl
iti toii, ...
3.poss:on rlt:stand\pl
A long time ago the Seri people were on Tiburon Island, …bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 Iteen hac haait quih ano moma.

3.poss:mouth def;loc abs;blood def;fl [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlmi:move
Blood came from his mouth.

 Hant iti hihiih zo ˻ ziix hapahit˼ z iti

land 3.poss:on 1.poss:pon:be.fl/live indf;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat indf;sg 3.poss:on
tmiih, …
rlt:not_be.fl
There isn’t any food in the place in which I live …bb %XUJRVB

 Hateeya com hax quih ano caap iha. Cpoct iha.
bottle def;hz fresh_water def;fl [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:stand dcl sbj.nmlz:full dcl
The bottle has water in it. It is full.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ The water is in the bottle. It is full.bb +( 

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 Hast quij José quih cotopis quij cöimaafc.

stone def;cm José def;fl Turbo_fluctuosus def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
José hit the stone with the turban snail.
$OVR José hit the turban snail with the stone.

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 * Hast quij cotopis quij José quih cöimaafc.

stone def;cm Turbo_fluctuosus def;cm José def;fl 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
(José pounded … with …)

 * Cotopis quij hast quij José quih cöimaafc.

Turbo_fluctuosus def;cm stone def;cm José def;fl 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
(José pounded … with …)

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3.11 Dangling nominal phrase

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Subject / Agent

 Cmiique cmaam tintica — haat hanoohcö quij hizac oo

(Seri)_person female md:aw Jatropha_cuneata sbj.nmlz:pass:make_convex def;cm px:loc del
iti tiij ma, imiiix.
3.poss:on rlt:sit ds 3.sbj.rlmi:leave_behind
The woman left the basket here.bb $/,0 

 Xiica hizcoi — loomz cah tihiiha ma, imiimlajc.

thing\pl px:pl baby_mussel(s) def;fl:foc rlt:pure ds 3.sbj:rlmi:deliver\pl
These people have brought just BABY MUSSELS.bb (= ORRP] 

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, Jesús quij — zixquisiil zo toc cötap ma,
   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds Jesus def;cm child indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand ds

itexl, imozít hac an inzám.

3.sbj:rlt:take 3.poss:middle def;loc [3.poss:]in 3.sbj.rlmi:put.vt
Then Jesus took a child who was there and put him/her in their midst.bb 177 0W 

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L ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, Anás quij — Jesús tintica cói tahfaiilquim oo ma, toc
   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds def;cm md:aw still rlt:pass:tie_up;impf del ds there
contita ma, Caifás … quij cöimaaix.
3.io:aw:rlt:move ds def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:cause_go_away_from
Then Annas sent Jesus, still tied up, to Caiaphas the High Priest.bb 177 -Q  
84 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

 Haxz° ticap — ctam ticap ipaai ta x, ziix itac z

dog md:vt male md:vt 3.sbj:irr.dep:make ds ut thing 3.poss:bone indf;sg
isiihit aha.
3.sbj:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
That dog will eat the bone, the man causing it.

 … comcaac cmajiic xah ctamcö xah coi ― canoaa com

(Seri)_person\pl female\pl crd male\pl crd def;pl boat def;hz

haxoj toom ma x, cötazcam x, …

shore_seen_from_water rlt:lie ds ut 3.io:rlt:arrive;pl ut
… the men and the women arrived to the boat when it arrived to shore, … bb (QFLFORBORRP] 

Subject / Patient

 Eenim cop — hinl itimla ma, hant yaait.

metal/knife def;vt 1.poss:arm/hand/finger\pl 3.sbj:rlt:open\pl ds land rlyo:arrive
When my hand opened, the knife fell.bb &<+,

 Hipi ziix comsisiin Lásaro com — zaah xah zo toc cötap, hax
intns thing sbj.nmlz:pitiful def;hz sun/day ? indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand intns

taa ma, hacx immiih.

rlt:aux ds apart rlmi:not_be.fl
One day the poor man Lazarus died, … bb 177 /N 

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b
Direct Object / Patient

 — xpasiiticl quih, cmiique quih ˻ hehe án˼ quih ano

Ammospermaphilus_harrisii def;fl (Seri)_person def;fl    plant [3.poss:]area def;fl [3.poss:]in
tiih x, itaho x, ...
rlt:be.fl ut 3.sbj:rlt:see ut
— when a person is in the countryside and sees an antelope squirrel, …bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

Indirect Object / Recipient

 Haxz° ticap — ctam ticap ipaai x, ziix itac zo

dog md:vt male md:vt 3.sbj:irr.dep:make ut thing 3.poss:bone indf;sg
cöisaahit aha.
3.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:cause_eat aux:dcl
That man will feed the bone to the dog.

3.12 Right dislocation

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Subject / Agent

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§3.12 Right dislocation 85

 …, imooctam, comcaac coi.

3.sbj:rlmi:look_at\pl (Seri)_person\pl def;pl
…, they watched her — the people.bb (6 FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKRB

 D Ox tee itaxi,

thus rlt:say 3.sbj:rlt:finish
When he finished saying that,bb &RQ3XP

E mos ox tee, yoque, hapxa com:

also thus rlt:say rlyo:unsp.sbj:say Sylvilagus_sp. def;hz
Rabbit also said (to the rabbits in the cave):bb &RQ3XP

 Ano siizcam aha, ˻ zixcám cacöla˼ xah, caanlca xah.

[3.poss:]in irr.ind:arrive\pl aux:dcl    Totoaba_macdonaldi crd Mycteroperca_jordani\pl crd
They—totoabas and Gulf groupers—will arrive among them (other fish).bb )LVKLQJB

 ¿Toos?, Juan quih.

  rlt:sing Juan def;fl
Did Juan sing?

(DFK RI WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  KDV D ULJKWGLVORFDWHG VXEMHFW DV SDWLHQW

b
Subject / Patient

 ¡Yoo! Yiim, miiquet quih.

  hey! rlyo:sleep 2.poss:obj.nmlz:be_pregnant_with def;fl
Your child finally fell asleep.bb &<+,

 Cmaax ox impacta ha, comcaac ˻ cmaa quiih˼ com.

now thus sbj.nmlz:neg:be_in_appearance dcl (Seri)_person\pl    now sbj.nmlz:be.fl def;hz
They aren’t like that nowadays—people alive today.bb &<+,

 Án hac xaail, ziix ticom.

[3.poss:]area def;loc em:spacious thing md:hz
Its interior is spacious—that thing [boat]. bb $/,0 

([DPSOHV  KDYH ULJKWGLVORFDWHG GLUHFW REMHFWV RQH DV SDWLHQW DQG RQH DV DGGUHVVHH
b
Direct object

 Manuel quih itrooqui quij itacaatax, hehe hant haníp z

Manuel def;fl 3.poss:vehicle def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:cause_go plant/stick land sbj.nmlz:pass:hit indf;sg
iti cöitcazx, coox ˻ an iyahojöz˼,
3.poss:on 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:make_split_open all/completely     [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlyo:make_mounded

trooqui quij.
vehicle def;cm
Manuel was driving his truck, hit a post and scraped it—the truck.bb &<+,

 D ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, comcaii zo toc cotom,

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds old_woman indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:lie
Then an old woman was there,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

7KH DUWLFOH quih LQ WKLV SRVLWLRQ LV EDUHO\ SURQRXQFHG DV D [k] 6HH i
86 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

E ox itai, yoque, xiica tacoi:

thus 3.sbj:rlt:tell rlyo:unsp.sbj:say thing\pl md:pl
thus she told those people, it is said:bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

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b
Oblique object

 Tiix ˻ imoz he yaaitot˼, cöhihixt hac.

dem;dt;sg    3.poss:heart 1.io:rlyo:cause_arrive 3.io:1.poss:pon:small\pl def;loc
S/he reminded me about our childhood. bb &<+,

 Cosi quih ˻ iihax coha˼ ha, cöiizquim hac.

thorn def;fl    3.poss:with 3.io:sbj.nmlz:beLUUHJ dcl 3.io:3.poss:enter def;loc
It was like a thorn in the way in which it entered.bb &<+,

Simple adjunct

 Haptco mos caticpan iha, zaah hipcop.

already also sbj.nmlz:work dcl sun/day px:vt
They are already working again—today.

 Haapa quih inyaait, moxima.

northwest_wind def;fl twd:rlyo:arrive yesterday
The northwest wind came up yesterday.bb &<+,

Complement of P

 Meaacalca coi haptco áno hyooquim, trooqui quij.

2.poss:clothing def;pl already [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj:rlyo:put_items vehicle def;cm
I already put your clothes into the car.

 ˻ Zixcám coospoj˼ quih, caanlca quih, ˻ zixcám caacöl˼ cötiih,

   Epinephelus_analogus def;fl Mycteroperca_jordani\pl def;fl Stereolepis_gigas\pl 3.io:rlt:be.fl
iti moii, xatj quij.
3.poss:on rlmi:stand\pl reef def;cm
Spotted cabrilla, Gulf groupers and giant sea bass were in the fishing spot.

Possessor/subject of deverbal noun

 Taax yacaalim iha, ˻ zaxt quisil˼ xepe iteel cöquiih quij.
dem;dt;pl [3.poss:]play_with dcl    ? sbj.nmlz:small sea 3.poss:edge 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be.(fl) def;cm
Those were the toys of the seaside child.bb (6 RROBLWDF 

 It iihom oo quisil iha, satoj tacom.

3.poss:on 3.poss:pon:lie del sbj.nmlz:small dcl Modiolus_capax dt\pl:hz
The place where those mussels are is small.bb (6 VDWRM KDVDLLWDM 

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6HH DOVR WKLV H[DPSOH IURP WKH 177

L … ox imii, cmaam tahac iti caap cap, Jesús quij.

thus 3.sbj:rlmi:tell female md:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt def;cm
… thus she said to him, the woman standing there, Jesus.bb 177 0W 
§3.12 Right dislocation 87

Two nominals (subject, direct object)

 … ihiyaxi cötoii x, imaaizi, comcaac coi, imám

3.poss:3.pon:? 3.io.rlt:stand\pl ut 3.sbj:rlmi:make\pl (Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.poss:fruit

tacom.
dt\pl:hz
… they camp there and collect it—the Seris, that fruit.bb (6 RRO 

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 Himoz quij cohpseepit aha — ox mee, ˻ ziix coosyat˼ quih.

1.poss:heart def;cm 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:? aux:dcl thus rlmi:say    thing sbj:nmlz:? def;fl
“I will bet my heart,” said the giant.bb &<+,

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to it, as far as it is concerned IROORZV WKH SRVWSRVHG QRPLQDO WKDW LV WKH REMHFW WR ZKLFK WKH VXEMHFW LV FRPSDUHG
DV LQ H[DPSOH 

 Cocazni° com, tiix cacaatol iha, haquiimet com ˻ iiqui

Crotalus_spp. def;hz dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl lizard def;hz    3.poss:toward

cöihiin hac˼.
3.io:3.poss:pon:touch def;loc
A rattlesnake is more dangerous than a lizard. bb &<+,

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 * Yoozcam, comcaac pac.

rlyo:arrive\pl (Seri)_person\pl indf;pl
(Some Seris arrived.)

 * Yoofp, ctam zo.

rlyo:arrive male indf;sg
(A man arrived.)

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 haa ntiya, Heeesam Yapóticol hapáh

there aw:rlyo:move Hippocampus_ingens [3.poss:]pon:evade\impf sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl
hac.
def;loc
he went there—(the place) called “Where Seahorse Evaded”.bb +LSRFDPSR

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UHIHUHQWLDO SKUDVH

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REOLTXH REMHFW
88 Chapter 3: The common complex sentence

 Ox impacta; taax iti Cöquimaxp hapáh quih

thus rlmi:be_in_appearance dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;fl

ìti hacx cöyomiih, ziix quisil quih.

3.poss:on apart 3.io:rlyo:not_be.fl thing sbj.nmlz:small def;fl
That’s how the one named Cöquimaxp died—the little one. bb 0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[SB

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 ... mos ihmaa° quih ititaamt, yoque, eenim quih.

also other def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:hv:sandals rlyo:unsp.sbj:say metal def;fl
..., he put on others (as sandals), it is said—of metal.bb $SRVWDGRU 

3.13 Situational construction

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IROORZLQJ SKUDVHV DOWKRXJK WKH YHUE PD\ EH LQ D PRRG RWKHU WKDQ WKDW VKRZQ LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV toc cötiij there
3.io:rlt:sit toc cötap there 3.io:rlt:stand toc cotom there 3.io:rlt:lie toc cötoii there 3.io:rlt:be.(fl\pl 7KLV
FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV 

 ... coleequi iteetol toc cötap, yoque.

upwards 3.sbj:rlt:push there 3.io:rlt:stand rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
… he was standing there pushing upwards [on the roof of the cave], it is said.bb &RQHMRB&R\RWHB

 ˻ Iistox theemloj˼ toc cötoii ma,

 3.poss:spirit:pl rlt:stink\pl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl ds
They were there angry,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Hant z iti tiij, tooizj toc cötiij ma, ˻ ziix hast
land indf;sg 3.poss:on rlt:sit rlt:unsp.obj:grind there 3.io:rlt:sit ds thing stone
iizx ano coom˼ com mos cmiique quih thaa x, toc
3.poss:[pon]:torn [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz also (Seri)_person def;fl rlt:eq ut there

cöquiij iha.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
She was sitting in a place, she was grinding [fruit], the chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus) also was a
person.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD 

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Null elements and fused heads

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4.1 Null arguments

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 Cöimaafc.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
S/he pounded him/her/it with it/them.

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 Miizcam.
rlmi:arrive\pl
They arrived.

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 Cmajiic coi miizcam.

female\pl def;pl rlmi:arrive\pl
The women arrived.

 * Cmaam cop miizcam.

female def;vt rlmi:arrive\pl
(The women arrived.) (The woman arrived.)

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89
90 Chapter 4: Null elements and fused heads

 Cmaam cop miifp.

female def;vt rlmi:arrive
The woman arrived.

 * Cmajiic coi miifp.

female\pl def;pl rlmi:arrive
(The women arrived.) (The woman arrived.)

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 José quij cöimaafc.

José def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
a. S/he hit José with it/them.
b. José hit it/her/him with it/them.

 Hast zo cöimaafc.
stone indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
a. S/he hit a stone with it.
b. S/he hit it/him/her with a stone.

 José quij hast zo cöimaafc.

José def;cm stone indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
a. José hit a stone with it.
b. José hit it/her/him with a stone.
c. S/he hit José with a stone.

 Ctamcö coi cöimaafc.

male\pl def;pl 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
a. S/he hit the men with it.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (The men hit him/her/it/them with it.)

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 José quih ˻ eenm icaatj˼ quij hast quij cöimaafc.

José def;fl    metal 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:pound_flat def;cm stone def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
José pounded the rock with the hammer.

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dem;px;sg this one i 7KH UHVXOWV DUH MXGJHG JUDPPDWLFDO EXW WKH VHQWHQFHV DUH OHVV FRPPRQ LQ QRUPDO
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§4.2 Null possessor 91

 D Tiix tiix tiix cöimaafc.

dem;dt;sg dem;dt;sg dem;dt;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
That one pounded that one with that one.

E Tiix hipiix hipiix cöimaafc.

dem;dt;sg dem;px;sg dem;px;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
That one pounded this one with this one.

F Hipiix tiix tiix cöimaafc.

dem;px;sg dem;dt;sg dem;dt;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
This one pounded that one with that one.

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RQH WR EH H[SUHVVHG DV D QRPLQDO SKUDVH RU D SURQRXQ ,W LV OHVV FRPPRQ IRU PRUH WKDQ RQH DUJXPHQW WR EH
RYHUWO\ H[SUHVVHG LQ D FODXVH $ IHZ H[DPSOHV RI ZHOOIRUPHG VHQWHQFHV ZLWK RYHUW GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV LQ
VRPH IXQFWLRQV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 He tiix ihsexl aha.

1.pro dem;dt;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:buy aux:dcl
I will buy THAT ONE.

 María quih tiix isexl aha.

María def;fl dem;dt;sg 3.sbj:irr.ind:buy aux:dcl
María will/should buy THAT ONE.

 Me tiix immamsisiin.
2.pro dem;dt;sg 2s.sbj:rlmi:love
YOU love HIM.

 Tiix taax czaxö poho ― ox mooza.

dem;dt;sg dem;dt;pl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]discuss doubt thus rlmi:speak\pl
“Maybe he’s talking about THAT,” they said. bb 177 0W 

4.2 Null possessor

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SRVVHVVHG QRXQ VHH i
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LW LV LQFOXGHG IRU FRQWUDVWLYH IRFXV VHH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ i DQG i ([DPSOH  LV D VHQWHQFH ZLWKRXW
FRQWUDVWLYH IRFXV RQ DQ\ QRPLQDO

 Hicoome quih hicaamiz quih iyaasj.

1.poss:younger_sister.me def;fl 1.poss:shirt def;fl 3.sbj:rlyo:spread_out_to_dry
My younger sister spread out my shirt to dry.bb &<+,

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SRVVHVVRU LV PRVW FRPPRQO\ H[SOLFLW DV D QRPLQDO SKUDVH XQOHVV LW LV YHU\ FOHDU IURP WKH FRQWH[W )RU WKDW UHDVRQ
VLPSOH SKUDVHV WKDW UHIHU WR D OHDI D ᯴RZHU RU PHDW ᯴HVKൺSDUWV RI D ZKROHൺW\SLFDOO\ KDYH VRPHWKLQJ RYHUW LQ
WKH SRVVHVVRU SRVLWLRQ DV VKRZQ E\ H[DPSOHV 

 Hehe istj hipcom coosot iha.

plant 3.poss:leaf px:hz sbj:narrow dcl
This leaf (lit., this plant’s leaf) is narrow.bb $/,0 
92 Chapter 4: Null elements and fused heads

 Hehe yapxöt hipquij hehe yapxöt quisil iha.

plant [3.poss:]pon.intr:bloom px:cm plant [3.poss:]pon.intr:bloom sbj.nmlz:small dcl
This flower (lit., this plant’s blossom) is a small flower.bb $/,0  

 Ziix ipxasi hipquih caaitic iha.

thing 3.poss:flesh px:fl sbj.nmlz:soft dcl
This meat (lit., this thing’s flesh) is soft.bb +(  

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ZLWK WKH SRVVHVVRU RI WKH LPPHGLDWHO\ IROORZLQJ QRPLQDO SKUDVH &RQVLGHU H[DPSOHV 

 [ Juan quij ] [ ata quij ] iihax caaitom iha.

Juan def;cm 3.poss:mother def;cm 3.poss:with sbj.nmlz:speak dcl
a. Juani is speaking with hisi mother.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Juani is speaking with hisj /her mother.)
c. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (S/he is speaking with Juan’s mother.)

 [ Quisiil° ˻ anxö haa˼ cop ] [ ai quij ] cötafp, …

child    intns [sbj.nmlz:]eq def;vt 3.poss:father.me def;cm 3.io:rlt:arrive
a. The injured boyi came to hisi father, …
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (The injured boyi came to hisj father, …)
c. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (S/he came to the injured boy’s father, …)

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S/he is speaking with Juan’s mother ZLWK D QXOO VXEMHFW DQG VHQWHQFH  VKRXOG DOVR KDYH WKH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
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FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR WKLV XQDWWHVWHG UHDGLQJ RI  LV UHSUHVHQWHG VWUXFWXUDOO\ LQ 

 [ Ø ]DP [ [ Juan quij ]DP ata quij ]DP [ iihax caaitom iha. ]
Juan def;cm 3.poss:mother def;cm 3.poss:with sbj.nmlz:speak dcl

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RU WKH DUWLFOH quih PXVW EH XVHG DIWHU Juan LQVWHDG RI quij DV LQ  WR GHPRQVWUDWH WKH IDFW WKDW LW LV HPEHGGHG
DV SRVVHVVRU

 Tiix Juan quij ata quij iihax caaitom iha.

dem;dt;sg Juan def;cm 3.poss:mother def;cm 3.poss:with sbj.nmlz:speak dcl
That one is talking with Juan’s mother.

 Juan quih ata quij iihax caaitom iha.

Juan def;fl 3.poss:mother def;cm 3.poss:with sbj.nmlz:speak dcl
S/he is talking with Juan’s mother.

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SRVVHVVRU DUH WDNHQ DV FRUHIHUHQWLDO

 [ Juan quij ]DP [ [ Ø ]DP ata quij ]DP [ iihax caaitom iha. ]

7KH VXEMHFW DQG SRVVHVVRU DUH WDNHQ DV FRUHIHUHQWLDO HYHQ LI WKH VXEMHFW LV ULJKW GLVORFDWHG

 Ata quij iihax caaitom iha, Juan quij.

3.poss:mother def;cm 3.poss:with sbj.nmlz:speak dcl Juan def;cm
Juani is talking with hisi,*j mother.

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WLSV WKH EDODQFH LQ IDYRU RI RQH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RYHU DQRWKHU LQ WKLV FDVH DW OHDVW
§4.3 Nominals with fused heads 93

,Q RUGHU WR REWDLQ WKH UHDGLQJ Juani is speaking with hisj mother D SURQRXQ VXFK DV tiix that one PXVW DSSHDU LQ
WKH SRVVHVVRU SRVLWLRQ

 Juan quij tiix ata quij iihax caaitom iha.

Juan def;cm dem;dt;sg 3.poss:mother def;cm 3.poss:with sbj.nmlz:speak dcl
Juani is talking with hisj /her mother.

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√iiquet be pregnant with WKH XVH RI D QRXQ ZLWK D PDVFXOLQH UHIHUHQW DV SRVVHVVRU LV QRW SRVVLEOH WKXV SUHFOXGLQJ
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LV VR XQXVXDO

 Juan quij iiquet com hant cöquiiis iha.

Juan def;cm 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;hz land 3.io:sbj.nmlz:tr:? dcl
Juan is taking care of her daughter.
,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Juan is taking care of his child.)

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H[FHSW XQGHU YHU\ VSHFLDO FRQGLWLRQV

 '3D > > šE @ '3SRVV @ bbbbbbbbbbbbD E

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 Pedro cap [ [ Ø ] inol cap ] iyipjc.

Pedro def;vt 3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt 3.sbj:rlyo:grab
Pedro took his/her hand.

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 Iti iyooquim.
3.poss:on 3.sbj:rlyo:put_items
S/he put them on it.

7KHVH IDFWV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ GHWDLO LQ FKDSWHU 

4.3 Nominals with fused heads

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WR WKH DUJXPHQWV RI WKH YHUE WKHUH DUH PDQ\ FDVHV RI QRPLQDOV LQ ZKLFK WKH PRGL᯳HUV RI WKH KHDG DSSHDU EXW
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IRU WZR VLPSOH H[DPSOHV GHVFULEHG LQ GHWDLO EHORZ LQ ᯳JXUHV 


2QH FRQVXOWDQW VXJJHVWHG WKDW LW ZRXOG ORRN PRUH UHDVRQDEOH LI WKHUH ZHUH D FRPPD DIWHU Juan quij

7KLV SUHVHQWDWLRQ IROORZV WKH SURSRVDO RI +XGGOHVWRQ 3XOOXP  IRU (QJOLVK ං)XVHGKHDG 13V DUH WKRVH
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94 Chapter 4: Null elements and fused heads

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DP

NP D

N Dem

hipcom

)LJXUH bb$GMHFWLYH DV IXVHG KHDG H[DPSOH 

DP

DP Adv

NP

N AP

tazo ipi

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i DQG WKH LQWHQVL᯳HU hapi a hipi i 7KH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV GR QRW IXVH ZLWK WKH KHDG KRZHYHU QRU
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 * [ Quij ] ihscmexl aha.

def;cm 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:neg:buy aux:dcl
(I won’t buy the one.)

 * [ Hateeya ] ano hpsoosi aha.

glass [3.poss:]in/from 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj:drink aux:dcl
(I will drink from the glass one.)

)XUWKHUPRUH WKH GLUHFW HTXLYDOHQWV WR the one on the table DQG the ones in the sea GR QRW H[LVW 7KHVH ODFXQDH
GR QRW VHHP WR IROORZ IURP DQ\ RWKHU IDFW VLQFH 33V GR LQ IDFW PRGLI\ QRPLQDOV VHH i 7KH FRPSDUDEOH
JUDPPDWLFDO H[SUHVVLRQV DUH the one that is sitting/standing/lying on the table DQG the ones living in the sea
§4.3.1 Fusion of indefinite articles with head 95

4.3.1 Fusion of indefinite articles with head

7KH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV zo DQG pac i PD\ EH ERWK WKH GHWHUPLQHU DQG WKH KHDG RI WKH QRPLQDO SKUDVH LQ
D IXVHG KHDG FRQVWUXFWLRQ ,Q D PRUH WUDGLWLRQDO SUHVHQWDWLRQ WKH\ ZRXOG EH FRQVLGHUHG SURQRXQV DV ZHOO DV
LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV
([DPSOHV RI zo DV D IXVHG KHDG DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Zo toc cotom ma, itipjc,

indf;sgthere 3.io:rlt:lie ds 3.sbj:rlt:grab
[Puma] captured one of them,bb &RQ3XP

 Zo cöitámlajc ma, …
indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:transport\pl ds
They brought him one, …bb 177 0N  

 Zo hyonyaa.
indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:own
I don’t have any. bb 2YHUKHDUG

 Z iyonyaa.
indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:own
S/he doesn’t have any. bb 2YHUKHDUG

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PD\ PHDQ some (of a group of individuals) DV LQ 

 … xapoo coi ano ntita, pac itácotim, …

Zalophus_californicus def;pl [3.poss:]in aw:rlt:move indf;pl 3.sbj:rlt:kill/impf
… he went among the sea lions, he killed some …bb &<+,E 

,W PD\ DOVR PHDQ some (of a mass entity) DV LQ  ZKHUH LW FRXOG EH UHIHUULQJ WR PLON IRU H[DPSOH

 Pac he camjc.
indf;pl 1.io:im:transport
Bring some to me! [ambiguous]bb 2YHUKHDUG 

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4.3.2 Fusion of demonstrative adjectives with head

7KH GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV i DOVR PD\ EH IXVHG ZLWK WKH KHDG RI WKH QRPLQDO SKUDVH ,Q D PRUH WUDGLWLRQDO
SUHVHQWDWLRQ WKH\ ZRXOG EH FRQVLGHUHG SURQRXQV DV ZHOO DV DGMHFWLYHV 7KH GHPRQVWUDWLYHV DV IXVHG KHDGV KDYH
SULPDULO\ H[RSKRULF XVHV DV LOOXVWUDWHG LQ 

 D ¿Hipcom haa ya x?
  px:hz [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm or
Is it this one?bb &<+,

E ¿Himcom haa ya x?
  dt:hz [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm or
Or is it that one?bb &<+,

 Ticom ihyoqueepe.
md:hz 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:like
I like that one.bb &<+,

7KH FDWHJRULHV XVHG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ ZHUH RI WKLV WUDGLWLRQDO W\SH
96 Chapter 4: Null elements and fused heads

 Tiquij he hoyacj iha.

md:cm 1.pro 1.poss:obj.nmlz:call_sibling dcl
That one is my brother/sister.bb &<+,

 ¡¿Ticop haa ya nsexl teee?!

    md:vt [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm 2s.sbj:irr.ind:take/buy rhet
You aren’t going to buy that one, are you?!bb &<+,

 ¡Mohat! ¡Hizac iti cazcam!

  twd:im:move:pl   px:loc 3.poss:on im:arrive\pl
Come (pl.)! Come (pl.) here!

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WLPHV XVHG DQDSKRULFDOO\ DV LQ 

 D Ticop z itaazi,
md:vt indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:carry
That one took one [of the brothers],bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

E ihmaa ticop mos z itaazi ma,

other md:vt also indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:carry ds
the other took one [of the brothers],bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

4.3.3 Fusion of adjective with head

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 RI FKDSWHU  PD\ IXVH ZLWK WKH KHDG ihmaa° other DQG tazo one ([DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Ihmaa° zo haa tiij ma, …

other indf;sg there rlt:sit ds
Another one was there, …bb 177 0W  

 Tazo ipi haa poop, ...

one del there irr.dep:stand
Not one is there, …bb 177 -Q 

,Q  WKH ᯳UVW QRPLQDO KDV D IXVHG KHDG WKDW LV DGMHFWLYH UHODWHG WR WKH VWDWLYH SUHGLFDWH PHDQLQJ mature

 … [ caii quij ] [ quixt coi ] cöihooctam hac …

mature def;cm sbj.nmlz:small\pl def;pl 3.io:3.poss:pon:look_at:pl def;loc
… how the younger ones viewed the elder …bb 6LHWHB)LORV  

4.3.4 Fusion of deverbal noun with head

$ GHYHUEDO QRXQ UHSUHVHQWLQJ WKH YHUE RI D UHODWLYH FODXVH PD\ IXVH ZLWK WKH KHDG RI D QRPLQDO SKUDVH )RU D
JHQHUDO GHVFULSWLRQ RI UHODWLYH FODXVHV PRGLI\LQJ RYHUW KHDGV VHH i 7KLV LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV 

 [ czaxö cop ]
sbj.nmlz:[tr:]:discuss def;vt
the one who is/was talking to him/her/them

 [ caacoj cop ]
sbj.nmlz:big def;vt
the big one
§4.3.5 Fusion of the intensifier hapi with head 97

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma x˼, [ ccaa tintica ] itamjc x,

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds ut sbj.nmlz:[tr:]look_for md:aw 3.sbj:rlt:deliver ut

hax cop an itaquim x, ...

fresh_water def;vt [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlt:put_items ut
Then the one who looks for it brings it, puts them in water, …bb (6 DQBLFRRTXLP  

 [ Cooil quij ] insexl haa ya?

sbj.nmlz:blue/green def;cm 2s.sbj:irr.ind:buy [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
Will you buy the blue one?

4.3.5 Fusion of the intensifier hapi with head

2I WKH YDULRXV DGYHUEV WKDW PD\ PRGLI\ D QRPLQDO SKUDVH VHH FKDSWHU  RQO\ WKH LQWHQVL᯳HU hapi GLDOHFWDO
YDULDQW hipi PD\ IXVH ZLWK WKH KHDG 7KH UHIHUHQW PXVW EH GHGXFHG IURP WKH FRQWH[W RI FRXUVH LW PD\ EH ᯳UVW
RU VHFRQG SHUVRQ RQO\ LI WKH QRPLQDO ZLWK hapi LV FURVVUHIHUHQFHG RQ D YHUE RU QRXQ ZLWK ᯳UVW RU VHFRQG SHUVRQ
LQ᯴HFWLRQ 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Hapi siitax caha.

intns irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/HE will go.
,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (I/you will go.)

 ¡Hapi toc cösiij!

  intns there 3.io:irr.gind:sit
Leave it ALONE there!bb &<+,

 Hapi nsiitom aha.

intns 2s.sbj:irr.ind:speak aux:dcl
YOU should speak.

 Hapi masooza aha.

intns 2p.sbj:irr.ind:speak\pl aux:dcl
YOU (pl.) should speak!

 hapi ito quij

intns 3.poss:eye def;cm
HIS/HER eye

 hapi mito quij

intns 2.poss:eye def;cm
YOUR eye

4.4 Null pronouns and overt nominal coreference

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SURQRXQVൺIROORZLQJ LW 7KLV LV WUXH IRU VLPSOH VHQWHQFHV i DV ZHOO DV IRU PXOWLFODXVDO VHQWHQFHV i

4.4.1 Monoclausal situations

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98 Chapter 4: Null elements and fused heads

 Juan quij [ Ø itaamt coi ] iyooho.

Juan def;cm 3.poss:sandal(s) def;pl 3.sbj:rlyo:see
Juani found hisi sandals.

 [ Ø Itaamt coi ] iyooho, Juan quij.

3.poss:sandal def;pl 3.sbj:rlyo:see Juan def;cm
Juani found hisi sandals.

 [ Ø Ata quij ] hant z iiqui miin, Juan quij.

3.poss:mother def;cm land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlmi:go Juan def;cm
Juan’s mother went somewhere.

 [ Ø Ata quij ] coop iha, Juan quij.

3.poss:mother def;cm sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj:sew_basket dcl Juan def;cm
Juan’s mother is making a basket.

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VKRZQ LQ 

 [ Ø Ata quij ] Juan quij iyooho.

3.poss:mother def;cm Juan def;cm 3.sbj:rlyo:see
His/her mother saw Juan.
,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Juani ’s mother saw himi .)

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IDFWV DUH QRW SUHVHQWHG KHUH

4.4.2 Multiclausal situations

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 ..., Pedro cop inol cop itipjc, Ø imafitot.

Pedro def;vt 3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:grab 3.sbj:rlmi:cause_stand_up
..., Pedro took her hand, he helped her stand up.bb 177 $F  

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UHDGLQJ D

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WKLV OLWHUDF\ ERRNOHW ZLWK VWHSE\VWHS H[SODQDWLRQV

L Itaxi, cmaam quij izquipót coi imazeee.

3.sbj:rlt:finish female def;cm inferior_material def;pl 3.sbj.rlmi:make_coil_filler
When shei finishes it, the womani makes coil-filler from the inferior quality splint material.bb &DQDVWD 

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VHQWHQFH
§4.4.2 Multiclausal situations 99

 ?* Øi Inol cop itipjc, Pedroi cop imafitot.

3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt 3.sbj.rlt:grab Pedro def;vt 3.sbj:rlmi:cause_stand_up
a. 3UREOHPDWLF UHDGLQJ Taking his/her hand, Pedro helped him/her stand up.
b. 0RUH SRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ Taking his hand, s/he helped Pedro stand up.

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DQWHFHGHQW SUHFHGHV WKH QXOO SURQRXQ EXW YHU\ XQQDWXUDO RU XQJUDPPDWLFDO ZKHQ WKH DQWHFHGHQW IROORZV WKH QXOO
SURQRXQ

 Juani quih tafp, Øi zixcám z iyoohit.

Juan def;fl rlt:arrive fish indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:eat
Juan arrived and ate a fish.

 ?* Øi Tafp, Juani quih zixcám z iyoohit.

rlt:arrive Juan def;fl fish indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:eat
After arriving, Juan ate a fish.

 Cói Juani quih ˻ hacx ipi tommiih˼, Øi oeen coi

still Juan def;fl    apart del rlt:neg:not_be.fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry_items def;pl
iquiisax quih quiipe quih oo cöiyooh.
3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:spirit def;fl sbj.nmlz:good def;fl del 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:do/say/put.fl
Before dying, Juan blessed his children.

 ? Cói Øi ˻ hacx ipi tommiih˼, Juan quih oeen coi

still    apart del rlt:neg:not_be.fl Juan def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry_items def;pl
iquiisax quih quiipe quih oo cöiyooh.
3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:spirit def;fl sbj.nmlz:good def;fl del 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:do/say/put.fl
Problematic reading: Before dying, Juan blessed his children.

 Ctami ticap taaitom, Øi ox mee: …

male md:vt rlt:speak thus rlmi:say
That man spoke and said: …bb 177 0N  

 ? Øi Taaitom, ctami ticop ox mee: ...

rlt:speak male md:vt thus rlmi:say
Speaking, that man said: …

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RI $HVRSൿV IDEOH

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, zaah quij cmatj iha yax, itcmitai,

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds sun def;cm sbj.nmlz:hot dcl since 3.sbj:rlt:neg:measure
ctam tintica ˻ ziix isoj hant izám˼ quih cöihaafzx hac
male md:aw thing 3.poss:body land 3.poss:[pon:]put.vt def;fl 3.io:3.poss:pon:fast def;loc
iti cöimiipox.
3.poss:on 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:take_out
Then, since the sun was hot, [the man] was no match for him, [and] the man quickly removed his
overcoat.bb 9LHQWRB1RUWHB

7KH DGYHUE cói PD\ DOVR RFFXU QDWXUDOO\ DIWHU WKH SKUDVH Juan quih

5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD SRLQWHG RXW D YHU\ IHOLFLWRXV UHDGLQJ IRU WKLV H[DPSOH WKDW LQ IDFW DYRLGV WKH V\QWDFWLF SUREOHP
Before dying, s/he blessed Juan’s children.

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100 Chapter 4: Null elements and fused heads

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 D 'HSHQGHQW ൺ ,QGHSHQGHQW
Juani quih hascám z iti tiij, Øi heme yoofp.
Juan def;fl abs:reed_craft indf;sg 3.poss:on rlt:sit abs:camp rlyo:arrive
Juan arrived at camp in a balsa.

E ,QGHSHQGHQW ൺ 'HSHQGHQW
Juani quih heme yoofp, Øi hascám z iti tiij.

F 'HSHQGHQW ൺ ,QGHSHQGHQW
Øi Hascám z iti tiij, Juani quih heme yoofp.

G ,QGHSHQGHQW ൺ 'HSHQGHQW
?* Øi Heme yoofp, Juani quih hascám z iti tiij.

4.5 Coreference between null pronouns

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REMHFW RI WKH FODXVH ZLWK imiitoj

 Øi Taax iti toii, Øi xiica tacom imiitoj.

dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on rlt:stand\pl thing\pl dt\pl:hz 3.sbj:rlmi:eat\pl
Theyi were there and theyi ate that stuff.bb 0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[SB

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 Ø Anxö toohit xox, Ø xiteejöc.

intns rlt:unsp.sbj:eat although em:thin
Although s/he eats a lot, s/he is thin.bb &<+,Q

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HQG RI WKH VHQWHQFH Heme yoofp, hascám z iti tiij, Juan quih.

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§4.5 Coreference between null pronouns 101

 Ø Misil xo Ø maziim.
rlmi:small but rlmi:pleasant
It is small but it is pretty.bb &<+,Q

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EXW QRWKLQJ LQ WKH JUDPPDU UHTXLUHV WKLV

 ˻ an iquitzil˼ pac me hyaamx tax, cmaax Ø

   [3.poss]:in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:trunk indf;pl 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:say+io sbrd now
ihmiimjc.
1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:deliver
I promised you pants and now I have brought them.bb &<+,

 Juan quih poofp ta x, ¡Ø hax cöhaas!

Juan def;fl irr.dep:arrive ds ut fresh_water 3.io:im:cause_drink
If Juan comes, give him/her water to drink!

 Ihptaalim, hamt ihtahojöz, [ Ø iti ] hpyiij.

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:play soil 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:make_mounded 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:sit
When I was playing, I made a hill in the sand and sat on it.bb &<+,
 5
The verb phrase

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 BBBBB'3 6XEMHFW BBBBB bbbbbB9HUE 3KUDVHB

Iifa quih tacösxaj, …
3.poss:peninsula def;fl rlt:tall/long
The peninsula is long, …bb 0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[SB

 bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbB'3'LUHFW 2EMHFW B bbbB9HUE 3KUDVHB

˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, xepe timoca imaait.
  thus  rlt:be_in_appearance ds sea md:twd 3.sbj:rlmi:pass_by\pl
Then they were crossing the sea.bb 0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[SB

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Xapoo coi anxö itacötoj, itahasjoj, toc
Zalophus_californicus def;pl intns 3.sbj:rlt:kill\pl 3.sbj:rlt:transport_in_vehicle\pl there
cömomat.
3.io:twd:rlmi:move:pl
They had killed lots of sea lions, they were transporting them (in their reed watercrafts), there they came.bb
0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[SB

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 …, ˻ hoox anxö toii hant cöhascomjcooil˼ aha.

   intns intns elsewhere land 3.io:1p.sbj:irr.ind:fall\pl aux:dcl
…, we will not exaggerate (overdo it).bb 177  &RU 

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102
§5.1 Adverbs 103

5.1 Adverbs
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 D [ Cmaam tiquij ]DP [ cocazni° quih ]DP [ anxö iyiixim. ]VP

female md:cm bbCrotalus_spp. def;fl   intns 3.sbj:rlyo:fear
That woman is really afraid of rattlesnakes.

E * Anxö cmaam tiquij cocazni° quih iyiixim.

F * Cmaam tiquij anxö cocazni° quih iyiixim.

G * Cmaam tiquij cocazni° quih iyiixim anxö.

 D Cmoqueept com anxö itahiipet ma, …

sbj.nmlz:sick:pl def;hz intns 3.sbj:rlt:cause_good ds
Because he had healed so many sick people,… bb 177 0N 

E Anxö cmoqueept com itahiipet ma, …

(*Because he had healed so many sick people, ...)
$FFHSWDEOH RQ UHDGLQJ Because he had healed people who were so sick ...

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104 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

F * Cmoqueept com itahiipet anxö ma, …

 D Hast quij anxö imaafc.

stone def;cm intns 3.sbj:rlmi:pound
S/he hit it hard with the stone.
RU S/he hit the stone hard with it.

E * Anxö hast quij imaafc.

F * Hast quij imaafc anxö.

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 D …, xiica tacoi halx imiiix;

thing\pl md:pl atten 3.sbj.rlmi:leave_behind
... he went away from them for a little while; bb 177 /N 

E * …, halx xiica tacoi imiiix.

F * …, xiica tacoi imiiix halx.

 D ˻ Iisax iizc˼ com hax mooxp oo.

   3.poss:spirit 3.poss:front def;hz intns rlmi:white del
Its breast is very white.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD 

E * Hax iisax iizc com mooxp oo.

F * Iisax iizc com mooxp oo hax.

G * Iisax iizc com mooxp hax oo.

 D …, cocsar quih miizj him xaaipot.

Mexican def;fl well 1s.do:em:pay
…, the non-Indian Mexican paid me well. bb &<+,

E * Cocsar quih him xaaipot miizj.

F * Miizj cocsar quih him xaaipot.

 D …, ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ coi ˻ mos áno˼ teenzil, ...

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;pl    also [3.poss:]in rlt:unsp.obj:yell_at\pl
... the people shouted even more, ... bb 177 0N 

E * …, ˻ mos áno˼ xiica quih quiistox coi teenzil, …

F * …, xiica quih quiistox coi teenzil ˻ mos áno˼, …

 D Comcaac coi ox mooza.

(Seri)_person\pl def;pl thus rlmi:speak\pl
Thus say the Seris.

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§5.2 Reflexive pronouns 105

E * Comcaac coi mooza ox.

F * Ox comcaac coi mooza.

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 D Hap ticap cooc cohtatni hi.

Odocoileus_hemionus md:vt almost 3.io:1s.sbj:rlt:make_pointed_contact_with dcl
I ALMOST got that mule deer with my shot.bb &<+,

E * Hap ticap cohtatni hi cooc.

F * Hap ticap cohtatni cooc ihi.

 Cooc hap ticap cohtatni hi.

almost Odocoileus_hemionus md;vt 3.io-1s.sbj.tr:rlt:make_contact dcl
I almost shot that MULE DEER. FRQWUDVWLYH IRFXV RQ WKH DQLPDO

5.2 Reflexive pronouns

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 D Juan quih isoj iyamsisiin.

Juan def;fl 3.poss:body/self 3.sbj:rlyo:love
Juan loves himself.

E * Isoj Juan quih iyamsisiin.

F * Juan quih iyamsisiin isoj.

 D Hisoj ihyaactim.
1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:cause_be_cut
I cut myself.

E * Ihyaactim, hisoj.

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 D Juan quih anxö isoj iyamsisiin.

Juan def;fl intns 3.poss:body/self 3.sbj:rlyo:love
Juan loves himself a lot.

E * Juan quih isoj anxö iyamsisiin.

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106 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

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 ¿Anxö misoj intaactim?

  intns 2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:rlt:cause_be_cut
Did you cut yourself a lot?

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 …, isoj itahiix, …
3.poss:self 3.sbj:rlt:cause_be_inflated
… it inflated itself …bb &<+, 

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 ¿Zixcám ticom misoj consaahal haa ya?

 fish md:hz 2.poss:body/self 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:deliver aux qm
Are you going to take that fish with you?

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 Cói misoj ipi mpomazt ta, ...

still 2.poss:body/self del 2s.sbj:irr.dep:neg:tattoo ds
While you still haven’t tattooed yourself, .... (= Before you tattoo yourself, ...)

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5.3 Reciprocal marker

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 D Comcaac tacoi pti cnooptoj iha.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl rcp sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit\pl dcl
Those Seris were hitting each other (once in a while).

E * Comcaac tacoi cnooptoj iha, pti.

F * Comcaac tacoi cnooptoj pti ha.

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§5.4 Locative nouns 107

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 Ctamcö tacoi hizi yonooptolca.            [ʔiʃijoˈnooptoɬka]

male\pl md:pl 1p.do:rlyo:hit\pl\impf
Those men were hitting us.

 Ctamcö tacoi pti iyonooptolca.           [ptijoˈnooptoɬka]

male\pl md:pl rcp 3.bj:rlyo:hit\pl\impf
Those men were hitting each other.

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 D Cói pti iponnípatim ipi ta, ....

still rcp 3.sbj:irr.ind:neg:hit\impf del ds
While they still haven’t hit each other, ....

E * Cói pti ipi iponnípatim ta, ....

5.4 Locative nouns

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7DEOH bb/RFDWLYH QRXQV LQ WKH 93

hant land, ground, earth

hapx place outside
haxoj shore (as seen from the sea)
heme home, camp abs:camp
zaaj eroded area, cave >gulch RU dry lake bed LQ LGLRPV PHDQLQJ descend@

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SKRQHWLFDOO\ 6HH i

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go hunting DQG heecot √aamx countryside say+io promise secretly 7KLV QRXQ DOVR RFFXUV ZLWKRXW DQ DUWLFOH DV DQ REOLTXH
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108 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

 hant com iti toom, toc comom.

land def;hz 3.poss:on rlt:lie there 3.io:rlmi:lie
they existed on the earth.bb &RQ3XP

 Hapx hac ano miij.

outside def;loc [3.poss:]in rlmi:sit
She is sitting outside.bb &<+,

 haa ntiihat iti, haxoj com cömiizcam.

there aw:3.poss:pon:go:pl 3.poss:on shore_seen_from_water def;hz 3.io.rlmi.arrive\pl
during their travels, they came to shore.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 …, heme hac an itamjc, …

abs:camp def;loc [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlt:deliver
..., s/he brought it to the camp, …

 Hoopatj timoca xepe ano zaaj hac ano cöitjeaatim

wave md:twd sea [3.poss:]in eroded_area/cave def;loc [3.poss:]in 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:make_fall\impf
ma, hanso yiipojquim.
ds just rlyo:make_pounding_sound\impf
When the wave hit the sea cave, it made a pounding sound.bb &<+,

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 D Cmaam tintica hant yahjiit.

female md:aw land rlyo:fall
The woman fell down.

E * Hant cmaam tintica yahjiit.

F * Cmaam tintica yahjiit hant.

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 D Zixcám coi anxö hapx imiicmolca, …

fish def;pl intns outside 3.sbj:rlmi:put_items\pl:impf
They had pulled out many fish, … bb 177 /N 

E * Hapx zixcám coi anxö imiicmolca, …

F * Zixcám coi anxö imiicmolca hapx, …

 D …, canoaataj coi haxoj itácmolca, …

boat:pl def;pl shore_seen_from_water 3.sbj:rlt:put.hz\pl:impf
…, they pulled the boats up on the beach, … bb 177 /N 
§5.5 Various other VP-internal nouns 109

E * …, haxoj canoaataj coi itácmolca, …

F * …, canoaataj coi itácmolca haxoj, …

 D Comcaac coi heme miizcam.

(Seri)_person\pl def;pl abs:camp rlmi:arrive\pl
The Seris arrived at camp.

E * Comcaac coi miizcam heme.

F * Heme comcaac coi miizcam.

 D Comcaac coi iiqui ˻ zaaj yopaailx˼.

(Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.poss:toward    eroded_area rlyo:arrive\pl
The Seris went in (to the gulch or dry lake bed).

E * Comcaac coi iiqui yopaailx zaaj.

F * Zaaj comcaac coi iiqui yopaailx.

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 Cói ˻ hant ipi pomahjiit˼ ta, ....

still    land del irr.ind:neg:fall ds
While it still has not fallen, ....

5.5 Various other VP-internal nouns

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5.5.1 Cross-referenced nouns

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 He hoox miizj hitoj cohmiiho, ...

1.pro intns well 1.poss:eye:pl 3.io.1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:see
I saw it with my own eyes, ...bb 177  3H  

 Miizj ˻ misxeen cohcaa˼.

well    2.poss:abdomen 3.io:im:look_for
Think about it well!


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110 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

5.5.2 Possessed nouns of idiomatic expressions

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anxö

 (He) anxö ˻ hiistox hant yopaailx˼.

1.pro intns    1.poss:spirit\pl land rlyo:arrive\pl
We are very happy.

7KH VDPH LV WUXH RI WKH QRXQV imoz his/her heart DQG himoz my heart LQ  DQG  UHVSHFWLYHO\ DQG hiihjoj
my limbs LQ 

 ..., quihehe caacoj quij [ anxö ˻ imoz immeet˼ ].

sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod sbj.nmlz:big def;cm intns    3.poss:heart rlmi:?
..., the king became very sad.bb 177 0N  

 ..., taax iti [ anxö ˻ himoz cösmeet˼ áa aha ].

dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on intns    1.poss:heart 3.io:irr.ind:? true aux:dcl
..., I would have been very sad.bb 177 3KS  LPSURYHG 

 [ Anxö ˻ hiihjoj xöaxyat˼ ]VP .

  intns    1.poss:limb\pl em:die:pl
I got very tired.

7KH XVH RI hant oozitoj LQ  LV GL᯲HUHQW LQ WKDW WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ LV QRW WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE DOWKRXJK LW
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WKRVH LQ i

 Ctam hipquij ˻ xiica quiistox˼ com anxö ˻ hant oozitoj imaai.

male px:cm    thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;hz intns land ? 3.sbj.rlmi:make/do
This man is really bothering the people.bb 177 $F  

7KH DGYHUE cói still ZKLFK W\SLFDOO\ RFFXUV ZLWK WKH SRVWSRVLWLRQDO GHOLPLWLQJ DGYHUE ipi VHH i SXWV
WKH GHOLPLWHU ipi EHWZHHQ WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ DQG WKH YHUE DV LQ  7KLV SURYLGHV DGGLWLRQDO HYLGHQFH IRU WKH
QRQSUH᯳[ VWDWXV RI WKHVH QRXQV

 Cói iistox ipi hant pompaailx ta, ...

still 3.poss:spirit:pl del land irr.dep:neg:arrive\pl ds
While they are still not happy, ....

5.5.3 Other special nouns

7KH 93LQWHUQDO ZRUGV VKRZQ LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ DUH QRW FURVVUHIHUHQFHG RQ WKH YHUE XQOLNH WKRVH LQ i DQG
WKH\ DUH QRW SRVVHVVHG QRXQV LQ LGLRPV XQOLNH WKRVH LQ i 2QH PLJKW ZRQGHU ZKHWKHU VRPH RI WKHP DUH
QRXQV DW DOO 5HJDUGOHVV RI KRZ WKH\ DUH FDWHJRUL]HG RU JORVVHG KRZHYHU WKH\ DUH LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH DQG QHHG
WR EH DFFRXQWHG IRU 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Esaú quij [ anxö ˻ psaac tooxi˼, ]VP toc cötiij, ...

Esau def;cm intns    hunger rlt:die there 3.io:rlt:sit
Esau was there very hungry, ...bb 177 +E  

7KH VRXUFH RI WKLV SKUDVH hant oozitoj LV QRW NQRZQ QRU LWV PHDQLQJ LQ LVRODWLRQ 7KHUH LV D UHODWHG SKUDVH hant haazitoj
WKDW PHDQV bothersome ,W ORRNV OLNH D SRVVHVVHG GHYHUEDO YHUE IRUP DQG IRU WKDW UHDVRQ LW LV LQFOXGHG LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ
§5.5.3 Other special nouns 111

 [ ¡Anxö ˻ hamatj ihpxöaxi˼! ]VP

  intns    thirst 1s.sbj.intr:em:die
I’m really thirsty.

 Pedro quih [ anxö Yooz imatolec. ]VP 

Pedro def;fl intns God 3.sbj:rlmi:ask_for_help
Peter prayed a long time.

7KH H[DPSOHV ZLWK WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU pray DV LQ  DUH LQWHUHVWLQJ EHFDXVH WKH\ LQFOXGH D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE
DQG DQ LQGLVSXWDEOH QRXQ Yooz God )XUWKHUPRUH WKLV QRXQ ZLWKRXW D GHWHUPLQHU LQ WKLV XVDJH LV IXQFWLRQLQJ
DV WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH YHUE √atolec ask for help (YLGHQFH RI WKLV LV SURYLGHG E\ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ
VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ SUH᯳[ i XVHG LQ WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ PXVW EH WKH transitive RQH h- H[DPSOHV DWWHPSWLQJ
WR XVH WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK hp- ZHUH FDWHJRULFDOO\ UHMHFWHG VHH 

 D He anxö Yooz ihyatólejquim.

1.pro intns God 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:ask_for_help\impf
I pray many times.

E * He anxö Yooz ihpyatólejquim.

1.pro intns God 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:ask_for_help\impf
(I pray many times.)

,Q WKH H[SUHVVLRQV IRU teach DQG lack WKH SKUDVH ziix quih thing def;fl LV QRW UHIHUHQWLDO DQG VRPHWLPHV RFFXUV
LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH VLQFH LW IROORZV anxö 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Jesús quij ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ com anxö ziix quih

Jesus def;cm    thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;hz intns thing def;fl
cöimacoaat.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:cause_to_know
a. Jesus taught the people many things.
b. Jesus taught many people.

 Anxö ziix quih iicp me sahcaail aha.

intns thing def;fl 3.poss:side 2.io:irr.ind:lack aux:dcl
You will lack a lot.

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LV XVHG ZLWKRXW D GHWHUPLQHU ,Q H[DPSOH  LW LV UHOHYDQW WKDW LW IROORZV WKH 3 ano 7KH LPSRUWDQFH RI WKLV
IDFW LV PDGH FOHDU LQ i

7KH VHQWHQFH PHDQV pray many times LI LW KDV WKH LPSHUIHFWLYH YHUE VWHP i WKH YHUE ZRXOG EH imatólejquim LQ
WKDW FDVH

7KHUH LV VRPH YDULDELOLW\ RQ WKLV 7KH IROORZLQJ LV DFFHSWDEOH WR DW OHDVW VRPH FRQVXOWDQWV Ziix quih anxö imacoaat
S/he taught them many things LQ ZKLFK ziix quih SUHFHGHV anxö DQG WKHUH LV QR REOLTXH REMHFW FURVVUHIHUHQFLQJ PRUSKRORJ\
)RU DW OHDVW VRPH VSHDNHUV WKLV H[DPSOH LV QRW DPELJXRXV LW RQO\ PHDQV many things DQG QRW many people 7KH SKUDVH
ziix quih LV JUDPPDWLFDOO\ WKH REOLTXH REMHFW WKDW LV FURVVUHIHUHQFHG RQ WKH YHUE LQ  :KHQ QR DGGUHVVHH LV SUHVHQW WKH
FODXVH LV LQWUDQVLWLYH DV LQGLFDWHG E\ ODFN RI 3.sbj PDUNLQJ i LQ WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOH Pedro quij ziix quih anxö
cömacoaat Pedro taught many things $JDLQ IRU VRPH VSHDNHUV WKH ODWWHU KDV D JUDPPDWLFDO YDULDQW Pedro quij anxö ziix
quih cömacoaat

7KH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV WUDQVLWLYH E\ WKH WHVWV VKRZQ LQ DSSHQGL[ & 1RWH WKDW LQ  WKH DOORPRUSK h- DQG QRW hp- VHH
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112 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

 Haxoj hatazcam ma, hast ancoj z ano

shore_seen_from_water 1p.sbj:rlt:arrive\pl ds stone/mountain [3.poss:]area:pl indf;sg [3.poss:]in
hamác ihtitlim ma, hast coi tmatj, ttapzil, hanso
fire 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:kindle ds stone/mountain def;pl rlt:hot rlt:disintegrate\pl just
yosíptalca.
rlyo:throw_sparks\impf\mult
We went to the beach and made a fire on the rocks, and when the rocks got hot, they shattered and threw
off sparks.bb &<+,

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NHHS WKHVH ZRUGV WRJHWKHU LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH H[FHSW WKDW WKH GHOLPLWLQJ DGYHUE oo PD\ IROORZ WKH QRXQ DQ
DGYHUE OLNH anxö SUHFHGHV WKH FRPELQDWLRQ QHLWKHU WKH QRXQ QRU WKH 3 FDQ EH PRYHG WR DQRWKHU SRVLWLRQ 6HH
H[DPSOHV 

 D Anxö ˻ hax ano hmiiquim˼.

intns    fresh_water [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:put_items
I washed lots of items.

E * Hax anxö ano hmiiquim.

F * Hax ano anxö ihmiiquim.

G * Anxö ano hmiiquim, hax.

 D ¿Me cói ˻ hax oo ano coaah˼ ya?

  2.pro still    fresh_water del [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj:do/say/put.fl qm
Are you still washing clothes?

E * ¿Me hax cói ano coaah oo ya?

F * ¿Me hax oo cói ano coaah ya?

G * ¿Me hax ano cói coaah oo ya?

H * ¿Me hax oo ano cói coaah ya?

I * ¿Me cói ano coaah oo ya, hax?

J * ¿Me cói ano coaah ya, hax oo?

5.6 Locative pronouns and adverbs

6HYHUDO ORFDWLYH ZRUGV DSSHDU LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH WKHVH DUH OLVWHG LQ WDEOH  7ZR RI WKHVHൺtoc there DQG hiz
hereൺGHWHUPLQH LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE VHH i DV VKRZQ LQ  IRU WKDW UHDVRQ
WKH\ DUH FODVVL᯳HG DV SURQRXQV %XW DOO RI WKHVH ORFDWLYH ZRUGV DUH ᯳[HG LQ WKHLU SRVLWLRQ LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH

7DEOH bb/RFDWLYH SURQRXQV DQG DGYHUEV LQ WKH 93

colx high, far out (on sea)

haa there
hacx apart
haquix somewhere
himo elsewhere
§5.6 Locative pronouns and adverbs 113

hiz here
toc there

 D Cyaa quih hiz cötmiij iho.

sbj.nmlz:[tr:]own def;fl here 3.io:rlt:neg:sit dcl
The owner isn’t here.bb &<+,

E * Hiz cyaa quih cötmiij iho.

F * Cyaa quih cötmiij iho hiz.

G * Cyaa quih cötmiij hiz iho.

 D ..., ˻ xiica canaaotaj˼ pac toc contitat, ...

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:meow\pl some there 3.io:aw:rlt:move:pl
... some cats were going there, ...bb &<+,

E * …, toc ˻ xiica canaaotaj˼ pac contitat, …

F * …, ˻ xiica canaaotaj˼ pac contitat toc, …

2WKHUV RI WKHVH ORFDWLYH ZRUGV DUH SHUKDSV DGYHUEV DW OHDVW WKHUH LV QR FOHDU HYLGHQFH WKDW WKH\ DUH QRXQV
7KH\ GR QRW GHWHUPLQH DQ\ FURVVUHIHUHQFLQJ PRUSKRORJ\ RQ WKH YHUE 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 D Moxima ctam hiyal quih [ colx maahit. ]VP

yesterday male 1.poss:spouse def;fl  high rlmi:fish
Yesterday my husband went fishing far out on the sea.

E * Moxima colx ctam hiyal quih maahit.

F * Moxima ctam hiyal quih maahit colx.

 D Canoaa zo haa moca ha.

boat indf;sg there twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
There comes a boat. bb &<+,

E * Haa canoaa zo moca ha.

F * Canoaa zo moca haa ha.

G * Canoaa zo moca ha haa.

 D …, ˻ xiica quiistox˼ com [ anxö haquix poom, ]VP ...

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;hz bintns somewhere irr.dep:lie
…, there will be many people, … bb 177 /N 

E * …, haquix xiica quih quiistox com anxö poom, …

F * …, xiica quih quiistox com anxö poom haquix, …

G * …, xiica quih quiistox com haquix anxö poom, …

,Q VRPH FDVHV WKHVH ZRUGV IRUP SDUW RI LGLRPV RU UDWKHU ᯳[HG H[SUHVVLRQV VHH FKDSWHU  DV LQ 
114 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

 D ˻ Hehe an icaaij˼ com

   plant/wood [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water def;hz
ihapooin quij cöiyacaapis, hasaaiti áno
3.poss:pon:pass:cause_closed def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:shut_tightly petroleum_oil [3.poss:]in

caap cop [ anxö himo tpazjc ma. ]VP

sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt intns elsewhere rlt:dispersed ds
S/he closed the screw-in opening of the barrel, a lot of gasoline having spilled out.bb &<+,

E * …, himo hasaaiti áno caap cop anxö tpazjc ma.

F * …, hasaaiti áno caap cop anxö tpazjc ma himo.

G * …, hasaaiti áno caap cop himo anxö tpazjc ma.

 D ¡Hapaspoj° hipquih [ ˻ miizj hacx cah˼! ]VP

  paper px:fl    well apart im:do/say/put.fl
Put this book away (in a safe place)!

E * ¡Hacx hapaspoj° hipquih miizj cah!

F * ¡Hapaspoj° hipquih miizj cah hacx!

 [ Anxö colx yiisax. ]VP

intns high rlyo:hv:spirit/breath
S/he breathed deeply.

 [ Anxö ˻ hacx ixamiihitim˼. ]VP

intns     apart 3.sbj:em:cause_not_be.fl\impf
S/he killed many.

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WKH GHOLPLWHU ipi EHWZHHQ WKH ORFDWLYH DGYHUE DQG WKH YHUE DV LQ  7KLV SURYLGHV DGGLWLRQDO HYLGHQFH IRU WKH
QRQSUH᯳[ VWDWXV RI DGYHUEV OLNH hacx

 Cói ˻ hacx ipi pommiihtoj˼ ta, ...

still    apart del irr.dep:neg:not_be.fl\pl ds
When they have not yet died, ...

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 D Cói ma hpomaho ipi ta, ...

still 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:neg:see del ds
While I still have not seen you, ...

E * Cói ma ipi hpomaho ta, ...

§5.7 Ps 115

5.7 Ps
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 Cmaacoj quih caay catol z itexl, heme hac an

old_man def;fl horse sbj.nmlz:afraid\wild indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:take/buy abs:camp def;loc [3.poss:]in
itamjc, ixaap quih quipxa taax oo iti toofin
3.sbj:rlt:deliver 3.poss:[pon:]spend_night def;fl sbj.nmlz:few dem;dt;pl del 3.poss:on rlt:pass

ma, haquix iyayeenot.

ds somewhere 3.sbj:rlyo:cause:hv:face
My father bought a wild horse and brought it home and had tamed it after a few days.bb &<+,

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FRPSOHPHQW

 D [ Hitrooqui quij ] ˻ hasaaiti coozlil˼ quih ano

1.poss:vehicle def;cm    petroleum_oil sbj.nmlz:slippery def;fl [3.poss:]in
hsahaama aha.
1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_trickle aux:dcl
I am going to put oil in my car.bb &<+,

E * Hitrooqui quij ano hasaaiti coozlil quih hsahaama ha.

)XUWKHUPRUH LW LV VKRZQ LQ i WKDW WKH 3V PXVW IROORZ DGYHUEV OLNH anxö 7KHUHIRUH , FRPH WR WKH FRQ
FOXVLRQ WKDW WKH 3 LV LQ WKH 93 UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH SRVLWLRQ RI LWV FRPSOHPHQW 7KLV DQDO\VLV LV FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK
WKH FODLP PDGH LQ FKDSWHU  WKDW EDVLF FODXVH VWUXFWXUH LV D VHULHV RI QRPLQDO SKUDVHV IROORZHG E\ D YHUE SKUDVH
DV GHSLFWHG LQ ᯳JXUH  LQ WKDW FKDSWHU

5.8 Relative order

1RZ WKDW WKH YDULRXV W\SHV RI ZRUGV WKDW RFFXU LQ WKH 93 KDYH EHHQ SUHVHQWHG LW LV SRVVLEOH WR FRQVLGHU KRZ
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WKH RUGHU RI 3V ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV DQG WKH UHFLSURFDO PDUNHU 7KHUHIRUH WKH FRPELQDWLRQV
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LQGLFDWHV WKH SDUW RI WKH VWUXFWXUH LQ ZKLFK WKHUH LV VRPH YDULDELOLW\

)LJXUH bb2UGHU RI SUHYHUEDO HOHPHQWV LQ WKH 93


7KH V\QWD[ RI 3V LV GLVFXVVHG LQ PRUH GHWDLO LQ FKDSWHU 

7KH RQO\ H[FHSWLRQV WR WKLV DUH WKH SRVWSRVLWLRQDO SKUDVHV RFFXUULQJ DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI D VHQWHQFH DQG SURYLGLQJ D JHQHUDO
FRQWH[W VHH i

6HH QRWH  LQ WKLV FKDSWHU ZKHUH WKH SKUDVH ziix quih thing def;fl KDV VRPH VSHFLDO YDULDELOLW\ DV ZHOO IRU VRPH VSHDNHUV
116 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

VP

AdvP V'
anxö

P-element V'
ano

Reflexive / Reciprocal V'

isoj / pti

Other V

5.8.1 Adverbs with respect to other words in the VP

7KH LQWHQVLI\LQJ DGYHUE anxö RFFXUV EHIRUH DOO RWKHU ZRUGV LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH H[FHSW DQ DGYHUE WKDW PRGL᯳HV
LW DQG QR DOWHUQDWLYH RUGHUV DUH SRVVLEOH 5HFDOO WKDW , DP QRW SRVLWLQJ D 93 QRGH XQGHU ZKLFK WKH GLUHFW REMHFW
13 RFFXUV 6HH WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI FKDSWHU  7KH IDFW WKDW anxö IROORZV GLUHFW REMHFW QRPLQDOV VHH i EXW
SUHFHGHV UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV DV VKRZQ EHORZ VKDUSO\ GLVWLQJXLVKHV WKH V\QWD[ RI RUGLQDU\ QRPLQDO SKUDVHV IURP
WKDW RI UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV

5.8.1.1. Before reflexive pronouns. ([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKH UHODWLYH RUGHU RI 93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV DQG
UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV

 D Hax anxö hisoj hihaactim cah, hihaait ˻ himo

intns intns 1.poss:body/self 1.poss:pon:cause_be_cut def;fl:foc 1.poss:blood    elsewhere

cpazjc˼ tanticat tcooo ˻ haait xap˼ quih yohaa.

sbj.nmlz:? md;aw;pl rlt:all   abs;blood ? def;fl rlyo:eq
When I cut myself severely, blood came out and clotted.bb &<+,

E * Hisoj hax anxö hihaactim cah, …

 D ¿Anxö misoj intaactim?

  intns 2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:rlt:cause_be_cut
Did you cut yourself a lot?

E * ¿Misoj anxö intaactim?

5.8.1.2. Before the reciprocal marker. ([DPSOH  LOOXVWUDWHV WKH UHODWLYH RUGHU RI 93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV DQG WKH
UHFLSURFDO PDUNHU

 D Anxö pti camsisiijc iha.

intns rcp sbj.nmlz:love:pl dcl
They love each other a lot.

,Q i RQH YHU\ VSHFLDO H[FHSWLRQ LV QRWHG
§5.8.1.3 Before locative nouns 117

E * Pti anxö camsisiijc iha.

5.8.1.3. Before locative nouns. ([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWHV WKH UHODWLYH RUGHU RI 93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV DQG ORFDWLYH
QRXQV

 D Popóc x, anxö hant sahjiit aha.

irr.dep:fall ut intns land irr.ind:fall aux:dcl
If it falls, it will fall hard.bb &<+,

E * …, hant anxö sahjiit haa hi.

b

5.8.1.4. Before other VP-internal nouns. ([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKH UHODWLYH RUGHU RI 93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV
DQG RWKHU 93LQWHUQDO QRXQV

 D He (xiica hizcoi) anxö hitoj cohmiiho.

1.pro thing\pl px:pl intns 1.poss:eye:pl 3.io.1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:see
I have seen (these things) a lot with my own eyes.

E * He xiica hizcoi hitoj anxö cohmiiho.

F * He anxö xiica hizcoi hitoj cohmiiho.

 D ¡Anxö ˻ hamatj ihpxöaxi˼!

  intns    thirst 1s.sbj.intr:em:die
I’m really thirsty!

E * ¡Hamatj anxö ihpxöaxi!

 D He anxö Yooz ihyatólejquim.

1.pro intns God 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:ask_for_help\impf
I pray many times.

E * He Yooz anxö ihyatólejquim.

 D Anxö ˻ iistox hant tpaailx˼, ...

intns      3.poss:spirit:pl land rlt:arrive\pl
They were very happy, … bb 177 /N 

E * Iistox anxö hant tpaailx, …

 D Me hipi anxö ˻ miisax hant paait˼ x, toc consiij aha.

2.pro intns intns    2.poss:spirit land irr.dep:arrive ut there 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:sit aux:dcl
You will be very happy. bb 177 /N 

E * Me hipi miisax anxö hant paait x, …

5.8.1.5. Before locative pronouns and adverbs. $QG ᯳QDOO\ H[DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKH UHODWLYH RUGHU RI
93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV DQG ORFDWLYH SURQRXQV DQG DGYHUEV

 D ˻ Xiica quih quiistox˼ quih anxö toc cöcoii ha.

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl intns there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand;pl dcl
There are many people there.
118 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

E * ˻ Xiica quih quiistox˼ quih toc anxö cöcoii ha.

 D ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ com anxö haquix poom, ...

   thing/pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;hz intns somewhere irr.dep:lie
…, there will be many people, …

E * …, ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ com haquix anxö poom, …

5.8.1.6. Another fact about reflexive pronouns. 7KH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV DUH GLVWLQJXLVKHG IURP RUGLQDU\ SRV
VHVVHG QRXQV LQ DQRWKHU ZD\ WKDW LV QRZ SRVVLEOH WR GHPRQVWUDWH ,I RQH ZLVKHV WR LQWHQVLI\ WKH SHUVRQ RI WKH
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hapi LV DQ DGYHUE WKDW IROORZV WKH QRPLQDO SKUDVH RU SURQRXQ WKDW LW PRGL᯳HV RU IXVHV ZLWK D QXOO KHDG i
DQG VLQFH WKH QRPLQDO SKUDVH PXVW EH RXWVLGH RI WKH YHUE SKUDVH D NH\ SRLQW LQ FKDSWHU  WKH ZRUG hapi PXVW
precede anxö LW FDQQRW RFFXU EHWZHHQ anxö DQG WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ 6HH H[DPSOH 

 D [ Hapi ] anxö hisoj ihyaactim.

intns intns 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:cause_be_cut
I cut myself a lot.

E * Anxö [ hapi ] isoj ihyaactim.

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hapi LV LQ IDFW PRGLI\LQJ WKH QXOO VXEMHFW QRPLQDO DQG QRW WKH SRVVHVVRU DW DOO )RU WKDW UHDVRQ LW PXVW EH H[WHUQDO
WR WKH YHUE SKUDVH 6HFRQG LW LV SRVVLEOH WKDW WKH LQWHQVL᯳HU LV PRGLI\LQJ WKH SRVVHVVRU RI WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ
EXW WKLV QRPLQDO PXVW EH H[SUHVVHG RXWVLGH RI WKH YHUE SKUDVH :KDW LV QRW SRVVLEOH LV WKDW WKH LQWHQVL᯳HU hapi
EH PRGLI\LQJ WKH SRVVHVVRU RI D VLPSOH QRXQ SKUDVH WKDW LV LQ GLUHFW REMHFW SRVLWLRQ

5.8.2 Reflexive pronouns and the reciprocal marker with respect to other words in the VP
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JHQHUDO DGYHUEV LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH 7KLV VHFWLRQ SUHVHQWV GDWD UHJDUGLQJ WKH UHODWLYH SRVLWLRQV RI WKH UH᯴H[LYH
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GLVFXVVHG LQ i
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WKH RUGHU LV ᯴H[LEOH 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU save rescue LV hapx hant √ácatx DQG D UH᯴H[LYH VLWXDWLRQ DSSHDUV LQ
D ZLWK WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ WR WKH IDU OHIW RI WKH YHUE SKUDVH 1HYHUWKHOHVV WZR DOWHUQDWH ZRUG RUGHUV ZHUH
SUHVHQWHG VHH EF DQG WKHVH ZHUH UHDGLO\ MXGJHG DV DFFHSWDEOH DQG V\QRQ\PRXV

 D Misoj ˻ hapx hant cácatx˼ , ...

2.poss:body/self    outside land im:release
Save yourself, … bb 177 /N 

E Hapx misoj hant cácatx, …

F Hapx hant misoj cácatx, …

5.8.3 Locative nouns, pronouns and adverbs with respect to other words in the VP
0RVW RI WKH ORFDWLYH QRXQV ORFDWLYH SURQRXQV DQG ORFDWLYH DGYHUEV GR QRW FRRFFXU SUREDEO\ IRU VHPDQWLF
UHDVRQV 7KH ORFDWLRQ QRXQ hant land KRZHYHU GRHV FRRFFXU ZLWK RWKHUV DQG VRPH RI WKH SURGXFWLYH FRPEL
QDWLRQV DUH LOOXVWUDWHG LQ  7KH ORFDWLYH DGYHUEV JHQHUDOO\ RFFXU before hant

 ˻ Hapx hant ihpsooca˼ aha.

   outside land 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj:put.lq/lng aux:dcl
I’m going to take out (objects, like to move).
§5.8.4 Ps with respect to other words in the VP 119

 D ˻ Hapx hant tooit˼, ...

   outside land rlt:arrive
S/he went outside, …
RU S/he escaped, ...

E * Hant hapx tooit, …

 D Hacx hant yahjiit oo.

apart land rlyo:fall del
S/he fell down, got up, and fell down various times. bb 2᯲HUHG

E * Hant hacx yahjiit oo.

 D Pyeest caacoj zo haquix hant tiij ma, ...

fiesta sbj.nmlz:big indf;sg somewhere land rlt:sit ds
There was a big party, …

E * … hant haquix tiij …

7KH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ iisax SOXUDO iistox DOVR SUHFHGHV WKH QRXQ hant LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU happy ZKLFK LV
√VVsax hant √ooit spirit land arrive VHH i DV LOOXVWUDWHG LQ 

 D ˻ Iistox hant spaailx˼ caha.

   3.poss:spirit:pl land irr.ind:arrive\pl aux:dcl
They will be happy.

E * Hant iistox spaailx caha.

7ZR ORFDWLRQ DGYHUEV FRRFFXU LQ H[DPSOH  WKH DGYHUE himo elsewhere LV UHJXODUO\ XVHG ZLWK WKH YHUE
√pazjc WR PHDQ spill out 3HUKDSV LW LV QRW VXUSULVLQJ WKDW WKH RUGHU RI WKHVH WZR DGYHUEV LV ᯳[HG

 D Hacx ˻ himo yopazjc˼ oo.

apart    elsewhere rlyo:dispersed del
It flows over in different directions. bb 2᯲HUHG

E * Himo hacx yopazjc oo.

5.8.4 Ps with respect to other words in the VP

:KLOH PRVW RI WKH LWHPV LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH RFFXU LQ ᯳[HG SRVLWLRQV UHODWLYH WR HDFK RWKHU WKH 3V LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH
GLVSOD\ VRPH ᯴H[LELOLW\ RI SRVLWLRQ ZKLOH DW WKH VDPH WLPH UHPDLQLQJ LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH

5.8.4.1. With respect to adverbs. 7KH DGYHUE anxö SUHFHGHV D 3 LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH LW LV XQJUDPPDWLFDO IRU LW
WR IROORZ WKH 3 DV VKRZQ LQ 

 D Moxima hant quij anxö iti hpyootax xo hiihjoj yomooxyat.

yesterday land def;cm intns 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:go but 1.poss:extremity\pl rlyo:die\pl
I walked a lot yesterday but I did not get tired.bb &<+,

E * Moxima hant quij iti anxö ihpyootax xo, …

 D Anxö iti yazám.

intns 3.poss:on rlyo:take_step
S/he stepped on it hard (or a lot).
120 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

E * Iti anxö yazám.

 D ... haso quih zixcám com anxö ano toii ma x, ...

net def;fl fish def;hz intns [3.poss:]in rlt:stand\pl ds ut
…, there were many fish in the net, … bb 177 0W 

E * … ano anxö toii …

 D ... taax anxö ˻ iiqui catni˼.

dem;dt;pl intns    3.poss:toward im:make_contact
Urge them much about that… bb 177 7LW 

E * … taax iiqui anxö catni.

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LGLRP anxö √haa intns beLUUHJ  injured RU LWV UHODWHG H[SUHVVLRQ anxö √aai intns make injure LV LQYROYHG ,Q
H[SUHVVLRQV ZLWK WKHVH LGLRPV WKH DGYHUE anxö PXVW EH LQ LPPHGLDWH SUHYHUEDO SRVLWLRQ DV VKRZQ LQ 

 D …, ilít quij it ˻ anxö itaaizilca˼, ...

3.poss:head def;cm 3.poss:on    intns 3.sbj:rlt:make/do\pl\impf
… they injured him on the head, … bb 177 0N 

E * …, ilít quij anxö iti itaaizilca, …

5.8.4.2. With respect to reflexive pronouns and the reciprocal marker. 5H᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV DQG 3V DUH HDVLO\
UHYHUVHG LQ ZRUG RUGHU ZLWK QR FKDQJH LQ PHDQLQJ 7KHUH VHHPV WR EH D VOLJKW SUHIHUHQFH RI WKH RUGHU LQ
VRPH FDVHV LQ ZKLFK WKH 3 DSSHDUV ᯳UVW DQG LQ  ᯴XHQW \RXQJ VSHDNHUV HGLWHG SUHYLRXV ZRUN WR UH᯴HFW WKLV
SUHIHUHQFH 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 D Zaaj z an hisoj ihyisxö.

cave indf;sg [3.poss:]in 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:hide
I hid [myself] in a cave.bb &<+,

E Zaaj zo hisoj ano hyisxö.

I hid in a cave.

 D ..., hapaj zo htaho, hsnaaij taa ma, yahipxat quih

octopus indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:see 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:grab rlt:aux ds [3.poss:]ink def;fl
an isoj itisxö, hant z iiqui yiin.
[3.poss:]in 3.poss:body 3.sbj:rlt:hide land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlyo:go
..., I saw an octopus and was about to grab it when it hid itself in its ink and escaped.bb &<+,

E … yahipxat quih isoj an itisxö, hant z iiqui yiin.

…, it hid itself in its ink and escaped.

 D He penisiliina quih ˻ ano hisoj cohsiih˼ aha.

1.pro penicillin def;fl    [3.poss:]in 1.poss:body/self 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux:dcl
I will inject myself with penicillin.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ I will put the penicillin into myself.

E He penisiliina quih hisoj ano cohsiih aha.

7KH VDPH LV WUXH ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKH RUGHU RI WKH UHFLSURFDO PDUNHU DQG D 3 DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ 

7KH i WKDW VRPHWLPHV RFFXUV EHIRUH ᯳UVW DQG VHFRQG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW PDUNHUV LV VLPSO\ HSHQWKHWLF IRU SKRQRORJLFDO UHDVRQV
VHH i
§5.8.4.3 With respect to locative nouns, locative adverbs and other VP-internal nouns 121

 D Hapi ˻ ano pti hayooyolca˼.

intns    [3.poss:]in rcp 1p.sbj:rlyo:put.fl\pl\impf
We injected each other.

E Hapi ˻ pti ano hayooyolca˼.

5.8.4.3. With respect to locative nouns, locative adverbs and other VP-internal nouns. 7KH ORFDWLYH QRXQV
SUHVHQWHG LQ i REOLJDWRULO\ IROORZ WKH 3V DV VKRZQ LQ b

 D An hant iyooxquim.
[3.poss:]in land 3.sbj:rlyo:put.hz
S/he put it down into it carefully.

E * Hant an iyooxquim.

 D ¡Satoj hipcom hax cmatj hizcap an hant caxquim!

  Modiolus_capax px:hz fresh_water sbj.nmlz:hot px\pl:vt [3.poss:]in land im:put.hz
Put this mussel into this hot water carefully!

E * ¡Satoj hipcom hax cmatj hizcap hant an caxquim!

 D An hant mahjiit.
[3.poss:]in land rlmi:fall
It fell down into it.

E * Hant an(o) mahjiit.

 Canoaa z an hatahca, ˻ xiica coaafp˼ pac ano

boat indf;sg [3.poss:]in 1p.sbj:rlt:sit\pl    thing\pl sbj.nmlz:jump_upwards indf;pl [3.poss:]in

hant cöhatpamlcam ma, yaafipolca.

land 3.io:1p.sbj:rlt:connected\pl\impf ds rlyo:jump_upwards\pl\impf
When were in the boat, we came across a school of mullet (Mugil sp.) that were jumping.bb &<+,

 ˻ Eenm haacni˼ ihyaazi com ihtqueejc ma, haxz° zo toc

   metal abs;bow 1s.poss:obj.nmlz:carry def;hz 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:fire ds dog indf;sg there

contita ma, it hant yaait, ˻ eenm haxaaza˼ tintica.

3.io:aw:rlt:go ds 3.poss:on land rlyo:arrive metal abs:arrow md:aw
I shot the rifle and a bullet hit a dog that was going along there.bb &<+,

 D Hant tahac iti haxoj hayoozcam.

land md:loc 3.poss:on shore_seen_from_water 1p.sbj:rlyo:arrive\pl
We beached at that place.

E * Hant tahac haxoj iti hayoozcam.

 D …, iiqui ˻ zaaj hampaailx˼.

3.poss:toward    eroded_area 1p.sbj:rlmi:arrive\pl
…, we entered it [gulch]. bb 7RSHWHB

7KH 3 ano LV REOLJDWRULO\ WUXQFDWHG WR an ZKHQ LW SUHFHGHV D YRZHO i :KHQ LW SUHFHGHV D JORWWDO VWRS IROORZHG
E\ D YRZHO WKLV WUXQFDWLRQ LV FRPPRQ EXW XVXDOO\ RSWLRQDO ,Q WKLV SDUWLFXODU H[DPSOH KRZHYHU WKH FRQVXOWDQWV SUHIHUUHG an

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU put (long item) inside LQ D LV ano √axquim DQG IRU put (long item) down LV hant √axquim 7KH
FRPELQDWLRQ RI ano DQG hant LV ZKDW JLYHV WKH LGHD RI GRLQJ LW FDUHIXOO\ DQG LW LV QRW UHOHYDQW ZKHWKHU WKH SXWWLQJ LV RQWR D
KDUG VXUIDFH OLNH WKH ODQG RU LQWR ZDWHU DV H[DPSOH D VKRZV
122 Chapter 5: The verb phrase

E * …, zaaj iiqui hampaailx.

 Comcaac coi iiqui ˻ zaaj yopaailx˼.

(Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.poss:toward    eroded_area rlyo:arrive\pl
The people went in (to the gulch or dry lake bed).

7KH ORFDWLYH DGYHUEV SUHVHQWHG LQ i DOVR IROORZ WKH 3V ([DPSOHV  DUH QRW JUDPPDWLFDO ZLWK
WKH RUGHU RI WKH 3 DQG DGYHUE UHYHUVHG

 D He ˻ hehe án˼ com ano ˻ hacx cpaailx˼ iha.

1.pro    plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in apart sbj.nmlz:fall\pl dcl
We got lost in the countryside.bb &<+,

E * He hehe án com hacx ano cpaailx iha.

 D ˻ Hasaaiti coozlil˼ quih hicaamiz quih iti ˻ himo tpazjc˼,

   petroleum_oil sbj.nmlz:slippery def;fl 1.poss:shirt def;fl 3.poss:on  elsewhere rlt:dispersed
coox iyotopl.
all/completely 3.sbj:rlyo:stain
Motor oil got spilled on my shirt and stained it.bb &<+,

E * Hasaaiti coozlil quih hicaamiz quih himo iti tpazjc, …

 D Anxö thamoc ma, ˻ ziix paaij ano coom˼ zo htaho,

intns rlt:become_night ds    thing driftwood [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:see
˻ iti hptojast˼, ihtacö, hapx hac an ˻ himo
3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:? 1s.sbj.tr:kill outside def;loc [3.poss:]in elsewhere

hyoocatx˼.
1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:release
Late at night I saw a scorpion, stepped on it, killed it and threw it outside.bb &<+,

E * … hapx hac himo ano hyoocatx.

 ¡Hasaaiti coozlil quitaj hizcop ˻ hant xnoois˼ tiquij

  petroleum_oil sbj.nmlz:slippery sbj.nmlz:burn px:vt    land bZostera_marina_seeds md:cm
ano himo cazjc!
[3.poss:]in elsewhere im:pile_up
Throw this used motor oil into the garbage!bb &<+,

7KH QRXQV SUHVHQWHG LQ i VR IDU DV HYLGHQFH FDQ EH IRXQG DOVR IROORZ WKH 3V DQG FDQQRW SUHFHGH WKHP
6HH H[DPSOHV 

 D Haxoj hatazcam ma, hast ancoj z

shore_seen_from_water 1p.sbj:rlt:arrive\pl ds stone/mountain [3.poss:]area:pl indf;sg
ano hamác ihtitlim ma, hast coi tmatj,
[3.poss:]in fire 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:kindle ds stone/mountain def;pl rlt:hot
ttapzil, hanso yosíptalca.
rlt:disintegrate\pl just rlyo:throw_sparks\impf\mult
We went to the beach and made a fire on the rocks, and when the rocks got hot, they shattered and
threw off sparks.bb &<+,
§5.8.4.3 With respect to locative nouns, locative adverbs and other VP-internal nouns 123

E * …, hast ancoj zo hamác ano htitlim ma, …

 D Mahyaai himcac iti hamác cömootni.

opposite_coast dt:loc 3.poss:on fire 3.io:rlmi:unsp.obj:make_pointed_contact_with
On the opposite coast s/he made a smoke signal.bb &<+,

E * Mahyaai himcac hamác iti cömootni.


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EHIRUH WKH 93

L … hast ancoj zo hamác z ano htitlim ma, …

stone [3.poss:]area:pl indf;sg fire indf;sg 3.poss:in 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:kindle ds
… I made a fire on the rocks, …
 6
Questions

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6.1 Yes-no questions

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 * ¿Hax quih iiqui mpam / yopám / xopám?

   water def;fl 3.poss:toward/with rlmi:pass:swallow rlyo:pass:swallow em:pass:swallow
(It is swallowed with water?)

 * ¿Haxz° cop zixcám ya imiihit / iyoohit / ixoohit?

   dog def;vt fish qm 3.sbj:rlmi:eat 3.sbj:rlyo:eat 3.sbj:em:eat
(The dog is/was eating fish?)

 * ¿María quih Hezitmisoj quij contiya?

   María def;fl Hermosillo def;cm 3.io:aw:rlyo:move
(María went to Hermosillo?)

 * ¿María quih siitax caha?

   María def;fl irr.ind:go aux.sbj.nmlz:dcl
(María is going to go?)

 * ¿Hast iha?
   stone dcl
(It’s a stone?)

 * ¿He?
bb1.pro
(Me?)

 * ¿Siitax caha?
bbirr.ind:go aux.sbj.nmlz:dcl
(S/he will go?)

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124
§6.1 Yes-no questions 125

 D ¿Me caticpan ya?

bb2.pro sbj.nmlz:work qm
Are you working?

E * ¿Me caticpan?

 D ¿Tiix hast ya?

bbdem;dt;sg stone qm
Is that stone?

E * ¿Tiix hast?

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 ¿María Carmen?
¿María Carmen? [Is she here?, etc.]

 ¿Mata?
bb2.poss:mother
Your mother? [Is she here?, etc.]

 ¿Trooqui cheel?
   vehicle sbj.nmlz:red
The red car? [Is it here?, etc.]

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 ¿Hax quih haa ya iiqui tpam?

   fresh_water def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq qm toward rlt:pass:swallow
Is it swallowed with water? bb &<+,

 ¿Haxz° cop zixcám ya itahit?

bbbdog def;vt fish qm 3.sbj:rlt:eat
Is/was the dog eating fish?

 ¿Juan quih zixcám quih itahit x, itcmahit x?

   Juan def;fl fish def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:eat or 3.sbj:rlt:neg:eat or
Did Juan eat the fish or didn’t he eat it? [The fish isn’t present.]

 ¿Moxima Juan quih zixcám ya itahit?

   yesterday Juan def;fl fish qm 3.sbj:rlt:eat
Did Juan eat fish yesterday?

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RU RWKHU PRGDO i DV LQ 

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126 Chapter 6: Questions

 ¿Hast ya?
   stone qm
Is/was it a stone?

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 ¿Ctam, tiix hateiictim zo ctaai ya?

  male dem;dt;sg piece_of_cloth indf;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]wear_kilt qm
Does that man wear a kilt? bb &<+,

 ¿María quih casiimet ya?

   María def;fl sbj.nmlz:make_bread qm
Is María making bread?

 ¿Juan quih zixcám quih quihit ya?

   Juan def;fl fish def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:eat qm
Is Juan eating fish?

 ¿Juan quih zixcám com oohit ya x?

   Juan def;fl fish def;hz [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat qm or

¿Imahit ya x?
  3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]neg:eat qm or

Did Juan eat the fish or didn’t he eat it? [A covered fish is there.]

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bb2.pro qm
(Is it you?)

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bbdem;dt;sg qm
(Is it that one?)

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bb2.pro [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
Is it you? bb 2YHUKHDUG

 ¿Tii haa ya?

bbdem;dt;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
Is it that one?

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 D ¿Juan quih zixcám com quihit ya?

   Juan def;fl fish def;hz sbj.nmlz:tr:eat qm
Is Juan eating the FISH? (contrastive)

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§6.2 Content questions 127

E ¿Zixcám com quihit ya, Juan quih?

Is Juan eating the FISH? (contrastive)

F * Zixcám com Juan quih quihit ya?

(Is Juan eating the FISH?) [intended reading]

G * ¿Juan quih quihit ya, zixcám com?

(Is Juan eating the FISH?) [intended reading]

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 ¿Ihpsoos haa ya?

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Shall I sing? bb &<+,

 ¿Me siitax quee ya?

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Are you going to go? bb &<+,

6.2 Content questions

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quíih who? whom? whose?

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háqui (hac) what place? where?
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zó which?
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zímjöc when?

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 D ¿Quíih Pedro quih siizt quee ya?

  who? Pedro def;fl irr.ind:tattoo sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Who will tattoo Pedro?

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128 Chapter 6: Questions

E * ¿Quíih ya Pedro quih siizt quee ya?

(Who will tattoo Pedro?)

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6.2.1 Content questions in finite realis clauses

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 ¿Quíih toos? (pyeest quij ano cömiizcam hac).

   who? rlt:sing   fiesta def;cm [3.poss:]in 3.io:2.poss:[pon]:arrive\pl def;loc
Who (of you) sang (having gone to the party)?

 ¿Quíih haquix intita, tatax?

  who? somewhere aw:rlt:move rlt:go
Who (of you) went?

 ¿Quíih Caborca hac ano mota?

  who? Caborca def;loc [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move
Who (of you) came from Caborca?

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 ¿Quíih ya tazcam?
  who? qm rlt:arrive\pl
Who arrived (pl.)?

 ¿Quíih ya haquix intita, tatax?

  who? qm somewhere aw:rlt:move rlt:go
Who went? [more open question]

 ¿Quíih ya toos? (Rosa xah Julia xah).

  who? qm rlt:sing  Rosa crd  Julia crd
Who sang/is singing? (Rosa or Julia?) [not present]

 ¿Quíih ya ˻ miicp cötap˼?

  who? qm    2.poss:place_next_to 3.io:rlt:stand
Who is standing next to you?

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§6.2.1.1 Questions with quíih who? 129

 ¿Quíih ya ˻ miicp tap˼?

  who? qm    2.poss:place_next_to rlt:stand
Who is supporting (rooting for) you?

 D ¿Quíih ya Caborca hac ano mota?

  who? qm Caborca def;loc [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move
Who came from Caborca? [more open question]

E * ¿Caborca hac quíih ya ano mota?

F * ¿Caborca hac ano quíih ya mota?

G * ¿Quíih ya ano mota, Caborca hac?

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 ¿Quíih ya ntaho?
  who? qm 2s.sbj:rlt:see
Whom did you see? [typical open question]

 ¿Quíih intaho?
  who? 2.sbj:rlt:see
Who (of a known group) did you see?

 ¿Quíih ya itaho?
  who? qm 3.sbj:rlt:see
a. Whom did s/he see? [open question]
b. 2U Who saw him/her/it/them?

 ¿Quíih ya ntacoxl?
  who? qm 2s.sbj:rlt:tend
Whom are you with?

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Subject questioned
([DPSOHV  VKRZ WKH XVH RI WKH ZRUG quíih who? WR TXHVWLRQ WKH VXEMHFW RI D ᯳QLWH FODXVH ,W LV LPSRUWDQW
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 ¿Quíih ya Pedro quih itaho?

  who? qm Pedro def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:see
a. Who saw Pedro? [open question]
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Whom did Pedro see?)

 ¿Quíih ya Pedro quih itazt?

  who? qm Pedro def;fl 3.sbj.rlt:tattoo
a. Who tattooed Pedro? [open question]
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Whom did Pedro tattoo?)
130 Chapter 6: Questions

 ¿Quíih ya ˻ ziix cxatlc˼ miti itaaom?

  who? qm    thing sbj.nmlz:thin 2.poss:on 3.sbj:rlt:beg
Who asked you for tortillas?

 ¿Quíih ya sahmees coi z itahit?

  who? qm Citrus_x_sinensis def;pl indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:eat
Who ate one of the oranges?

 ¿Quíih ya quíih áz cöitacohot?

  who? qm who? what? 3.io:3sbj:rlt:cause_see
Who showed what to whom?

 ¿Quíih ya ˻ eenim caacoj˼ quih itacoxl?

  who? qm    metal/knife sbj.nmlz:big def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:tend
Who has the machete? [normal question]

 ¿Thamoc ma, quíih ya ma tacoxaj?

  rlt:become_night ds who? qm 2s.do:rlt:tend\pl
Who (pl.) visited you last night?

 ¿Ihamoc quih quíih ya ma tacoxl?

  3.poss:[pon:]become_night def;fl who? qm 2s.do:rlt:tend
Who was visiting you last night?

 D ¿Quíih ya canoaa com itaai?

  who? qm boat def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:make
Who is making the boat? [open question]

E * ¿Canoaa com quíih ya itaai?

([DPSOH  GHPRQVWUDWHV WKH XVH RI WKH ZRUG quíih who? WR TXHVWLRQ WKH VXEMHFW RI D ᯳QLWH DV ZHOO DV D
QRQ᯳QLWH FODXVH WKDW KDV WKH TXHVWLRQ PRGDO DIWHU WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ

 ¿Mai quih quíih itacoxaj haa coii ya?

  2.poss:father.me def;fl who? 3.sbj:rlt:tend\pl there sbj.nmlz:stand\pl qm
Who are there visiting your father?
Direct object questioned
([DPSOHV  VKRZ WKH XVH RI WKH ZRUG quíih who? WR TXHVWLRQ WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI D ᯳QLWH FODXVH ,W LV
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 ¿Juan quih quíih ya itacoxl?

  Juan def;fl who? qm 3.sbj:rlt:tend
a. Who was Juan tending?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Who was tending Juan?)

 ¿Pedro quih quíih ya itaho?

  Pedro def;fl who? qm 3.sbj:rlt:see
a. Whom did Pedro see? [open question]
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Who saw Pedro?)

 ¿Pedro quih quíih ya itazt?

  Pedro def;fl who? qm 3.sbj.rlt:tattoo
a. Whom did Pedro tattoo? [open question]
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Who tattooed Pedro?)
§6.2.1.1 Questions with quíih who? 131

 ¿Ihamoc quih quíih ya ntacoxl?

  3.poss:[pon:]become_night def;fl who? qm 2s.sbj:rlt:tend
Who were you visiting last night?

 # ˻ Eenim caacoj˼ quih ¿quíih ya itacoxl?

   metal/knife sbj.nmlz:big def;fl who? qm 3.sbj:rlt:tend
a. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Who is tending the machete?)
b. 3RVVLEOH EXW LPSUREDEOH UHDGLQJ Who is the machete tending?

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 ¿Mai quih quíih itacoxl, haa quiij ya?

  2.poss:father.me def;fl who? 3.sbj:rlt:tend there sbj.nmlz:sit qm
a. Who is your father with?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Who is with your father?)
Indirect object questioned
([DPSOHV  VKRZ WKH XVH RI WKH ZRUG quíih who? WR TXHVWLRQ WKH LQGLUHFW REMHFW RI D ᯳QLWH FODXVH

 ¿Juan quih quíih ya cöitacohot, zixcám com?

  Juan def;fl who? qm 3.io:3sbj:rlt:cause_see fish def;hz
a. To whom did Juan show the fish? [open question]
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Who showed the fish to Juan?)

 ¿Quíih ya cöitacohot, zixcám com?

  who? qm 3.io:3sbj:rlt:cause_see fish def;hz
a. To whom did s/he show the fish? [open question]
b. 2U Who showed the fish to him/her?

 ¿Quíih cöitacohot, zixcám com?

  who? 3.io:3sbj:rlt:cause_see fish def;hz
a. To which did s/he show the fish?
b. 2U Which showed the fish to him/her?
General issues with quíih
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 ¿Quíih itaho?
  who? 3.sbj:rlt:see
a. Which (of a known group) did s/he see?
b. 2U Which one saw him/her/it/them?

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 ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ com hapx cöiihom hac ¿quíih (ya) itaho?
   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz outside 3.io:3.poss:pon:lie def;loc   who? qm 3.sbj:rlt:see
a. Who saw the whale surface? [open question with ya, restricted set without ya]
b. 2U Whom did the whale see when it surfaced?
132 Chapter 6: Questions

 Pedro quih Hezitmisoj quij ano cöiifp hac ¿quíih (ya)

Pedro def;fl Hermosillo def;cm [3.poss:]in 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]arrive def;loc   who? qm
itaho?
3.sbj:rlt:see
a. Whom did Pedro see when he was in Hermosillo? [open question with ya, restricted set without ya]
b. 2U Who saw Pedro when he was in Hermosillo?

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 ¿Quíih Rosa quih itaho?

  who? Rosa def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:see
a. Which (of a known group) saw Rosa?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Which did Rosa see?)

 ¿Quíih Pedro quih itazt?

  who? Pedro def;fl 3.sbj.rlt:tattoo
a. Which (of a known group) tattooed Pedro?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Which did Pedro tattoo?)

 ¿Quíih ˻ eenim caacoj˼ quih itacoxl?

  who?    metal/knife sbj.nmlz:big def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:tend
Who (of a known group) has the machete?

 ¿Quíih canoaa com itaai?

  who? boat def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:make
Who (of known group) is making the boat?

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 ¿Rosa quih quíih itaho?

  Rosa def;fl who? 3.sbj:rlt:see
a. Which one did Rosa see?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Which one (of a known group) saw Rosa?)

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WKDQ LQ WKH SUHFHGLQJ H[DPSOHV quíih LV LQWHUSUHWHG DV UHIHUULQJ WR WKH subject 7KLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV DSSURSULDWH
IRU QRQDJHQWLYH YHUEV OLNH √aho see DQG √acoxl tend 6HH 

 ¿Rosa quih, quíih itaho?

  Rosa def;fl who? 3.sbj:rlt:see
Which one (of a known group) saw Rosa?

 ˻ Eenim caacoj˼ quih, ¿quíih itacoxl?

   metal/knife sbj.nmlz:big def;fl    who? 3.sbj:rlt:tend
Which one has the machete?bb $/,0 

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DV LQ 

 ¿Pedro quih, quíih itazt?

   Pedro def;fl who? 3.sbj.rlt:tattoo
a. Which one tattooed Pedro? (rising intonation on itazt)
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Which one did Pedro tattoo?)

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§6.2.1.2 Questions with áz what? 133

Possessor questioned
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¿Quíih ata ya tmoqueepe?
  who? 3.poss:mother qm rlt:sick
Whose mother is sick?

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¿Quíih ya ata quih tmoqueepe?
  who? qm 3.poss:mother def;fl rlt:sick
Whose mother is sick?
The question word quíih with an auxiliary
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 ¿Quíih haa ya tmoqueepe?

  who? aux qm rlt:sick
Who is it that is sick?

 ¿Quíih haxehe ya xepe iteel tintica itaao?

   who? intns qm sea 3.poss:edge md:aw 3.sbj:rlt:pass
Who on earth is that walking along the shore?

 ¿Ihamoc quih quíih haa ya ma tacoxl?

   3.poss:[pon:]become_night def;fl who? aux qm 2s.do:rlt:tend
Last night who visited you?

 ¿Ihamoc quih quíih haa ya ntacoxl?

   3.poss:[pon:]become_night def;fl who? aux qm 2s.sbj:rlt:tend
Whom did you visit last night?

 ¿Ihamoc quih quíih haa ya itacoxl?

 3.poss:[pon:]become_night def;fl who? aux qm 3.sbj:rlt:tend
a. Whom did s/he visit last night?
b. 2U Who visited him/her last night?

6.2.1.2. Questions with áz what?. 7KH TXHVWLRQ ZRUG áz LV W\SLFDOO\ XVHG IRU QRQKXPDQ HQWLWLHV ZKHWKHU
LQDQLPDWH RU DQLPDWH VXEMHFW RU QRQVXEMHFW DV LQ  ,W RFFDVLRQDOO\ DOVR LV XVHG IRU KXPDQV $ FRXSOH
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 ¿Áz ya haa hant tahjiit?

   what? qm there land rlt:fall
What fell?

 ¿Áz ya ma tap?
   what? qm 2s.do:rlt:bite
What (e.g., insect) bit you?

 ¿Áz ya án cötazquim?
   what? qm [3.poss:]area 3.io:rlt:enter
What did s/he/it enter?
134 Chapter 6: Questions

 ¿Áz ya ntahit?
  what? qm 2s.sbj:rlt:eat
What did you eat?

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LQLWLDOO\ DV DQ LQWHUURJDWLYH VXEMHFW

 D ¿Áz ya Luis quih itacö?

  what? qm Luis def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:kill
a. What killed Luis?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (What did Luis kill?)

E * ¿Áz Luis quih itacö?

(What did Luis kill?) (What killed Luis?)

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who? DV WKH WUDQVODWLRQV RI  VKRZ

 D ¿Luis quih áz ya itacö?

  Luis def;fl what? qm 3.sbj:rlt:kill
a. What did Luis kill? [typical question]
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (What killed Luis?)

E ¿Luis quih áz itacö?

  Luis def;fl what? 3.sbj:rlt:kill
What did Luis kill? [It is presumed that the answer is “nothing”.]

 D ¿Luis quih áz ya itamjc?

  Luis def;fl what? qm 3.sbj:rlt:deliver
What did Luis bring? [typical question]

E ¿Luis quih áz itamjc?

  Luis def;fl what? 3.sbj:rlt:deliver
What did Luis bring? [It is presumed that the answer is “nothing”.]

F * ¿Áz ya Luis quih itamjc?

  what? qm Luis def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:deliver
(What did Luis bring?)

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 D ¿Pedro quih María quih áz ya cöitacohot?

   Pedro def;fl María def;fl what? qm 3.io:3sbj:rlt:cause_see
What did Pedro show María?

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L ¿Zó ˻ ziix ccam˼ ya toc cötiih, Luis quih itacö?

  what?    thing sbj.nmlz:alive qm there 3.io:rlt:be.fl Luis def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:kill
a. What animal killed Luis?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (What animal did Luis kill?)
§6.2.1.3 Questions with háqui which one? 135

E ¿Pedro quih áz ya María quih cöitacohot?

F ¿Áz ya Pedro quih María quih cöitacohot?

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VKRZQ LQ 

 Intisil, haquix immiih tax, ¿áz quih haa ya ntahit?

2s.sbj:rlt:small somewhere rlmi:not_be.fl sbrd   what? def;fl aux qm 2s.sbj:rlt:eat
When you were a kid, what was it that you ate?

 ¿Áz haxehe ya itaho?

   what? intns qm 3.sbj:rlt:see
What on earth did she find? [Indicates some surprise.]

 ¿Áz haxehe ya haa hant tahjiit?

   what? intns qm there land rlt:fall
What on earth fell?

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RQ WKH DUWLFOH WKDW RFFXUV ZLWK LW :LWK WKH ORFDWLYH DUWLFOH hac i RU ZLWK QR DUWLFOH LQ D FODXVH ZLWK D
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 D ¿Cmaax Juan quih háqui tiih?

   now Juan def;fl where? rlt:be.fl
Where is Juan now?

E * ¿Cmaax Juan quih háqui hac tiih?

def;loc

F * ¿Cmaax Juan quih háqui hac cötiih?

3.io:rlt:be.fl

G * ¿Cmaax háqui Juan quih tiih?

H * ¿Cmaax háqui hac Juan quih tiih?

I * ¿Cmaax háqui hac Juan quih cötiih?

J ¿Juan quih cmaax háqui xah tiih?

 D ¿Me háqui ntiih?

 2.pro where? 2s.sbj:rlt:be.fl
Where were/are you?

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SDVW ,W PD\ DOVR EH QRWHG WKDW WKH VHTXHQFH quih haa KHUH LV SURQRXQFHG YHU\ TXLFNO\ HVVHQWLDOO\ DV LI LW ZHUH chaa [kʔaa]
EXW LW LV QRW WKH VXEMHFW QRPLQDOL]HG IRUP chaa RI WKH HTXDWLYH URRW √haa 7KDW ZRUG LV XVHG LQ D TXHVWLRQ VXFK DV ¿Áz chaa
ya ntasi? What was it made of that you drank?

([DPSOH L RI D UKHWRULFDO TXHVWLRQ ZKLFK KDV háqui hac FURVVUHIHUHQFHG RQ WKH YHUE ZDV SURYLGHG

L ¡¿Cmaax Juan quih háqui hac cötiih, ziix zo thaa?!

    now Juan def;fl which? def;loc 3.io:rlt:be.fl thing indf;sg rlt:eq
Juan will never be an official again!
136 Chapter 6: Questions

E * ¿Me háqui contiih?

2.pro where? 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:be.fl

F * ¿Háqui me ntiih?

 D ¿Zaah quij háqui hac ano tiij?

   sun def;cm where? def;loc [3.poss:]in rlt:sit
Where is the sun?

E ¿Háqui hac zaah quij ano tiij?

F * ¿Háqui hac zaah quij ano cötiij?

3.io:rlt:sit

G * ¿Háqui zaah quij ano tiij?

H * Zaah quij háqui ano tiij?

 ¿Háqui tiih?
 where? rlt:be.fl
Where is it?

 ¿Háqui hac ano tiih?

 where? def;loc [3.poss:]in rlt:be.fl
Where is it?

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 ¿Mai háqui hac contita, án cöcazquim ya?

   2.poss:father.me where? def;loc 3.io:aw:rlt:move [3.poss:]area 3.io:sbj.nmlz:enter qm
Where did your father come in?

 ¿Mai háqui hac contita, hapx cöcaap ya?

   2.poss:father.me where? def;loc 3.io:aw:rlt:move outside 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand qm
Where did your father come out?

 ¿Me háqui hac ano ntafp?

 2.pro where? def;loc [3.poss:]in 2s.sbj:rlt:arrive
Where did you go to?

 ¿Me háqui hac ano mmita, ntafp?

   2.pro where? def;loc [3.poss:]in/from twd:2s.sbj:rlt:move 2s.sbj:rlt:arrive
Where did you come from?

 ¿Me háqui hac an icaafp intamzo?

   2.pro where? def;loc [3.poss:]in inf.intr:arrive 2s.sbj:rlt:want
Where do you want to go?

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L ¿Me zó hant ano mota hant hizac iti caafp ya?

2.pro which? land [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move land px:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:arrive qm
§6.2.1.3 Questions with háqui which one? 137

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 D * ¿Me háqui soos quee ya?

   2.pro where? irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux qm
(Where will you sing?)

E ¿Me háqui hac ano soos quee ya?

   2.pro where? def;loc [3.poss:]in irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Where will you sing?

 ¿Me háqui hac ano saahit quee ya?

   2.pro where? def;loc [3.poss:]in irr.ind:fish sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Where are you going to go fishing?

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 Hast zo toc cötiih, ¿háqui tiih?

stone indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:be.fl   where? rlt:be.fl
Where is the rock that was there?

 ¿Moxima Juan quih háqui tiih?

   yesterday Juan def;fl where? rlt:be.fl
Where was Juan yesterday?

 ¿Háqui htah?

   where? 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:do/say/put.fl
Where did I put it?

 ¿˻ Ziix hapámasoj caacöl˼ quih Juan quih háqui hac

    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:twist_for_cord\pl sbj.nmlz:big\pl def;fl Juan def;fl where? def;loc
an itáh?
[3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl
Where did Juan put the rope?

 D ¿Hamcanoiin quih háqui tiih?

   pan def;fl where? rlt:be.fl
Where is the pan?

E * ¿Háqui hamcanoiin quih tiih?

 D ¿Iime hac háqui hac ano tahca?

   3.poss:home def;loc where? def;loc [3.poss:]in rlt:be_located
Where is his/her/its home?

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L ¿Me háqui hac contìpa soos quee ya?

  2.pro where? def;loc 3.io:aw:irr.dep:move irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Where will you sing?
138 Chapter 6: Questions

E * ¿Háqui hac iime hac ano tahca?

 ¿Zixquisiil ctam quih háqui hac ano tiij, hant tiij?
   child male def;fl where? def;loc [3.poss:]in rlt:sit land rlt:sit
Where is the boy sitting?

7KLV TXHVWLRQ ZRUG ZLWK hac PD\ EH XVHG LQ D FOHIWOLNH FRQVWUXFWLRQ DV LQ 

 ¿Háqui hac haa ya, Juan quih hap z an itacö?

   where? def;loc aux qm Juan def;fl Odocoileus_hemionus indf;sg [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlt:kill
Where was it that Juan killed a mule deer?

 ¿Háqui hac haa ya ano hptap ma, hin ntaho?

   where? def;loc aux qm [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:stand ds 1s.do:2s.sbj:rlt:see
Where was it that I was and you saw me?

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WKH YDULRXV SRVLWLRQDO DUWLFOHV i DV VKRZQ LQ 

 D ¿Háqui cop tooha?

   where? def;vt rlt:cry
Which one is crying?

E ¿Háqui cop haa ya tooha?

   where? def;vt aux qm rlt:cry
Which one is it that is crying?

 ¿Háqui quij ˻ hant xnoois˼ coi scaaix quee ya?

   where? def;cm    land Zostera_marina_seeds def;pl irr.ind:put.cm sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Which (person) is going to take the trash?

 ¿Háqui com saazi quee ya?

   where? def;hz irr.ind:carry sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Which one (e.g., of the rifles) is s/he going to take?

 ¿Háqui tintica cohsiitni haa ya?

   where? md:aw 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:make_contact aux qm
Which one (e.g., of the horses) shall I shoot?

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 ¿Zímjöc (ya) mizaah cötafp?

  when? qm 2.poss:sun/day 3.io:rlt:arrive
When was your birthday? bb &<+,

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L ¿Háqui com isaazi haa ya?

  where? def;hz 3.sbj:irr.ind:carry aux qm
Which one (e.g. of the rifles) is s/he going to take?
§6.2.1.5 Questions with zó which? 139

 ¿Zímjöc (ya) cosi z iti hant tiij ma, ntaho?

   when? qm thorn indf;sg 3.poss:on land rlt:sit ds 2s.sbj:rlt:see
When did you see him/her sit on a thorn?

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D ?* ¿Zímjöc ya Juan quih zixcám z itacö?
  when? qm Juan def;fl fish indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:kill
(When did Juan catch a fish?)

E ?* ¿Juan quih, zímjöc ya zixcám z itacö?

F * ¿Juan quih zixcám zo zímjöc ya itacö?

 FRPSDUH JUDPPDWLFDO D EHORZ

D ?* ¿Zímjöc ya Juan quih zixcám hipcom itacö?
  when? qm Juan def;fl fish px:hz 3.sbj:rlt:kill
(When did Juan catch this fish?)

E ?* ¿Juan quih, zímjöc ya zixcám hipcom itacö?

F * ¿Juan quih zixcám hipcom zímjöc ya itacö?

 FRPSDUH JUDPPDWLFDO D EHORZ

D ?* ¿Zímjöc ya Juan quih inol cop itaafc?
  when? qm Juan def;fl 3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:pound
(When did Juan hit his finger?)

E ?* ¿Juan quih, zímjöc ya inol cop itaafc?

F * ¿Juan quih inol cop zímjöc ya itaafc?

 * ¿Zímjöc (ya) cosi z iti tiij?

  when? qm thorn indf;sg 3.poss:on rlt:sit
(When did s/he sit on a thorn?)

 FRPSDUH JUDPPDWLFDO  EHORZ

* ¿Zímjöc ya íti tiij?
  when? qm 3.poss:on rlt:sit
(When did s/he sit on it?)

 FRPSDUH JUDPPDWLFDO  EHORZ

D ?* ¿Zímjöc ya ˻ ziix paaij ano coom˼ com iti tiij?
  when? qm    thing driftwood [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz 3.poss:on rlt:sit
When did s/he sit on the scorpion?

E ?* ˻ Ziix paaij ano coom˼ com, ¿zímjöc ya iti tiij?

b

6.2.1.5. Questions with zó which?. 7KH LQWHUURJDWLYH GHWHUPLQHU zó which? KHDGV D GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVH ZLWK D
OH[LFDO KHDG WKDW LV EHLQJ TXHVWLRQHG 7KLV GHWHUPLQHU LV XQXVXDO V\QWDFWLFDOO\ LQ WKDW LW RFFXUV SKUDVHLQLWLDOO\
UDWKHU WKDQ ᯳QDOO\ OLNH RWKHU GHWHUPLQHUV FKDSWHU  6HH H[DPSOHV 
140 Chapter 6: Questions

 D ¿Zó trooqui ya ano tiij, tafp, Juan quih?

   which? vehicle qm [3.poss:]in rlt:sit rlt:arrive Juan def;fl
What vehicle did Juan arrive in?

E ¿Juan quih zó trooqui ya ano tiij, tafp?

F ¿Zó trooqui ya Juan quih ano tiij, tafp?

 ¿Zó cmiique ya toos?

   which? (Seri)_person qm rlt:sing
What person is singing?

 ¿Zó Pedro ya toos?

   which? Pedro qm rlt:sing
Which Peter is singing?

 D ¿Zó hant matqueept?

   which? land 2p.sbj:rlt:like:pl
What place do you (pl.) prefer?

E * ¿Hant zó matqueept?
(What place do you (pl.) prefer?)

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 ¿Zó ctam ya?

   which? male qm
Which man?

 ¿Zó comcaac ya?

   which? (Seri)_person\pl qm
Which people?

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WKDW LV PRVW FRPPRQO\ XVHG WR TXHVWLRQ WKH DGMXQFW RI DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVH FRQWDLQLQJ D YHUE RI VSHDNLQJ DV
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cost DV LQ  RU ZKHWKHU LW LV LQWUDQVLWLYH EHFDXVH RI WKH SDVVLYH YRLFH DV LQ 

 ¿Zó ntee?

   how? 2s.sbj:rlt:say
What did you say?

 ¿Zó ntimoz?

   how? 2s.sbj:rlt:think
What do you think?

 ¿Zó tyaai?

   how? rlt:be_worth
How much does it cost?

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L ¿Hant zo matqueept?
land/place indf;sg 2p.sbj:rlt:like:pl
Do you (pl.) prefer any particular place?
§6.2.2 Content questions in non-finite realis clauses 141

 ¿Zó tpai?

   how? rlt:pass:tell
What is it called?

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 D ¿Me zó matooza?

   2.pro how? 2s.sbj:rlt:say\pl
What are you (pl.) saying? bb 177 0W 

E * ¿Zó me matooza?

 D ¿Ctamcö himcoi zó tooza?

  male:pl dt:pl how? rlt:say\pl
What are those men saying?

E * ¿Zó ctamcö himcoi tooza?

 D ¿Caamiz himquih zó tyaai?

  shirt dt:fl how? rlt:be_worth
How much does that shirt cost?

E * ¿Zó caamiz himquih tyaai?

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 ¿Rosa quih xiica ipxasi coi zá itapacta?

   Rosa def;fl thing\pl 3.poss:flesh def;pl how? 3.sbj:rlt:cause_be_in_appearance
How did Rosa do (e.g., cut) the meat?

 ¿Zá ipacta ntamzo?

   how? 3.poss:[pon:]be_in_appearance 2s.sbj:rlt:want
How do you want it to be?

 ¿Zá icoos intamzo?

   how? inf.intr:sing 2s.sbj:rlt:want
How do you want to sing?

 ¿Zó yas intamzo?

   how? [3.poss:]pon.intr:sing 2s.sbj:rlt:want
How do you want him/her to sing? (e.g., high or low)

6.2.2 Content questions in non-finite realis clauses

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RQO\ SRVVLEOH EXW SUHIHUUHG RU UHTXLUHG 7KH H[DPSOHV LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ SUHVHQW D UDQJH RI IDFWV 6LQFH WKH TXHVWLRQ
PRGDO LV UHTXLUHG ZLWK WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ LW LV QRW SRVVLEOH IRU WKH TXHVWLRQ PRGDO WR RFFXU GLUHFWO\ IROORZLQJ WKH
TXHVWLRQ ZRUG :RUG RUGHU VWULFWO\ IROORZV WKH GHIDXOW RUGHU PHQWLRQHG LQ FKDSWHU  ZKHUH 6LPSOH $GMXQFW !
6XEMHFW ! ,QGLUHFW2EOLTXH 2EMHFW ! 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ! 2WKHU $GMXQFWV H[FHSW IRU WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI IURQWLQJ i
DQG ULJKW GLVORFDWLRQ i

6.2.2.1. Questions with subject-oriented deverbal nouns. 4XHVWLRQV PDGH ZLWK VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO
QRXQV i PD\ LQTXLUH DERXW WKH DEVROXWLYH VXEMHFW VXEMHFW RI LQWUDQVLWLYH DUJXPHQW DV LQ 
142 Chapter 6: Questions

Subject (of intransitive) is questioned

 ¿Áz cahcaail ya?
  what? sbj.nmlz:remain_behind/lack qm
What is lacking?

 ¿Quíih coos ya?

  who? sbj.nmlz:sing qm
Which one is singing?
Direct object is questioned
 ¿Me áz casiijim ya?
  2.pro what? sbj.nmlz:[tr:]do qm
What are you doing?
Time is questioned
,W PD\ DOVR LQTXLUH DERXW DQ DGMXQFW RU REOLTXH REMHFW DV LQ 

 D ¿(Canoaa com) zímjöc xepe iti coom ya?

      boat def;hz when? sea 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:lie qm
When was it (the boat) launched?

E * (Canoaa com) xepe zímjöc iti coom ya?

 ¿Ctam, tiix zímjöc isoj caafc ya?

  male dem;dt;sg when? 3.poss:body/self sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pound qm
When did that man hit himself? [as with hammer]

 D ¿Ctam, tiix zímjöc inol cop caafc ya?

  male dem;dt;sg when? 3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pound qm
When did that man hit his finger?

E * Zímjöc ctam, tiix inol cop caafc ya?

 D ¿Zímjöc Juan quih inol cop caafc ya?

   when? Juan def;fl 3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pound qm
When did Juan hit his finger?

E ¿Juan quih zímjöc inol cop caafc ya?

F * ¿Juan quih inol cop zímjöc caafc ya?

 ˻ Ziix quih cöcacoaat˼, ¿me zímjöc hant hizac iti caafp ya?
   thing def;fl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:cause_know    2.pro when? land px:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:arrive qm
Teacher, when did you arrive to this place? bb 177 -Q 

Measurement of quantity is questioned

 D ¿Me zó hant cayaxi ya?
  2.pro how? land/year sbj.nmlz:measure qm
How old are you?

7KH JHQHUDO TXHVWLRQ Who is singing? PXVW XVH D ᯳QLWH YHUE ¿Quíih ya toos?

7KLV LV JUDPPDWLFDO LI WKH me LV DQDO\]HG DV WKH REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW SUH᯳[ i UDWKHU WKDQ WKH LQGHSHQGHQW
SURQRXQ ,W ZRXOG PHDQ What is s/he doing to you?

7KH FDXVDWLYH IRUP cayaxi LV XVHG ZLWK WKH H[SUHVVLRQV IRU DJH DPRQJ RWKHUV 2Q WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ VHH i
§6.2.2.2 Questions with direct object-oriented deverbal nouns 143

E ¿Me hant zó cayaxi ya?

 Ísolca quih ¿zó cyaxi ya?

3.poss:body\pl def;fl how? sbj.nmlz:? qm
How many people were there? bb &<+,

 Háxaca° quih¿ zó cyaxi ya ntyaa?

dog\pl def;fl how? sbj.nmlz:? qm 2s.sbj:rlt:own
How many dogs do you own?
Location is questioned
 ¿Zó hant ano quiih ya?
   which? land [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:be.fl qm
Where does s/he live?
Ergative cannot be questioned
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7KLV LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ 

 D * ¿Quíih siimet quih quihit ya?

  who? bread def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:eat qm
(Who is eating / ate the bread?)

E * ¿Siimet quih quíih quihit ya?

 * ¿Áz him quip ya?

  what? 1s.do:sbj.nmlz:tr:bite qm
(What (e.g., insect) is biting me?)

6.2.2.2. Questions with direct object-oriented deverbal nouns. :LWK GLUHFW REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQV
i WKH TXHVWLRQ ZRUG quíih PXVW GLUHFWO\ SUHFHGH WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ LI QRW SUHVHQWHG LQ DQ HDUOLHU FODXVH
DV LQ  EHFDXVH LW LV DOZD\V LQWHUSUHWHG DV WKH VXEMHFWSRVVHVVRU RI WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ 7KLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV D
FRPPRQ ZD\ WR TXHVWLRQ DQ HUJDWLYH VXEMHFW DQG RIWHQ WKH RQO\ ZD\ WR IHOLFLWRXVO\ TXHVWLRQ WKH WLPH RI D WUDQVLWLYH
FODXVH 7KH GLUHFW REMHFW LV QRW TXHVWLRQHG ZLWK WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG RI FRXUVH WKH DEVROXWLYH VXEMHFW FDQQRW EH
TXHVWLRQHG ZLWK WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ VLQFH WKH REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ LV SRVVLEOH RQO\ ZLWK WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV
6HH H[DPSOHV 
Questions with ergative who? and explicit object
 D ¿Canoaa com quíih yaai ya?
   boat def;hz who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:make qm
Who is making the boat?bb &<+,

E ¿Quíih yaai ya?, canoaa com.

F * Quíih canoaa com yaai ya?

 Juan quih quíih ocoho ya?

Juan def;fl who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see/find qm
a. Who found Juan?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Whom did Juan find?)

 D Canoaa com ¿quíih ocoho ya?

boat def;hz   who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see/find qm
Who saw/found the boat?
144 Chapter 6: Questions

E ¿Quíih ocoho ya?, canoaa com.

F * ¿Quíih canoaa com ocoho ya?

 D ˻ Ziix hacacj˼ hipquij, ¿quíih ooxi ya?

   thing sbj.nmlz:pass:chip_at px:cm   who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:finish qm
Who made this carving?

E ¿Quíih ooxi ya?, ˻ ziix hacacj˼ hipquij.

 D Siimet coaatjö, tiix ¿quíih oohit ya?

bread sbj.nmlz:sweet dem;dt;sg   who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat qm
Who ate that sweet bread?

E ¿Quíih oohit ya?, siimet coaatjö, tiix.

 Pedro quih ¿quíih oozt ya?

Pedro def;fl   who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:tattoo qm
a. Who tattooed Pedro?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Whom did Pedro tattoo?)

 Zixcám com, ¿quíih cöiyacohot ya?

fish def;hz   who? 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_see qm
Who showed him/her the fish?

 ¿Pedro quih quíih ocoho ya?

   Pedro def;fl who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see qm
[Context: We are looking for Pedro.] Who saw Pedro?

 ¿Siimet quih quíih oohit ya?

   bread def;fl who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat qm
Who ate the bread?

 ¿˻ Eenim caacoj˼ quih quíih yacoxl ya?

      metal/knife sbj.nmlz:big def;fl who? [3.poss]:obj.nmlz:tend qm
Who has the machete?
Questions with ergative who? and implicit object
 ¿Quíih ocoho ya?
   who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see/find qm
a. Who saw/found it/him/her?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Whom did s/he find?)

 ¿Quíih oaah ya?

   who? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:do/say/put.fl qm
Who did it?
Questions with ergative who? presented in an earlier clause
 ¿Quíih toc cötiih, yaai ya?
   who? there 3.io:rlt:be.fl [3.poss]:obj.nmlz:make qm
Who is making it? [more doubt]

 ¿Áz / Quíih toc cötiih, ocoho ya?

   what? who? there 3.io:rlt:be.fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see qm
Who found it/him/her? [more doubt]
§6.2.2.2 Questions with direct object-oriented deverbal nouns 145

 ¿Áz toc cötiih, hoox tomcmiiquet, oaah ya?

   what? there 3.io:rlt:be.fl intns rlt:neg:be_person [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:do/say/put.fl qm
Who did that terrible thing? [taken as referring to a person as agent]
Questions with ergative what?
 ¿Áz oop ya?
   what? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:bite_as_insect qm
What bit him/her?

Questions with when

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 D ¿Juan quih inol cop zímjöc yaafc ya?

   Juan def;fl 3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt when? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:pound qm
When did Juan hit his finger?

E *? ¿Juan quih zímjöc inol cop yaafc ya?

F * ¿Zímjöc Juan quih inol cop yaafc ya?

G ¿Juan quih zímjöc yaafc ya, inol cop?

 D ¿Juan quih zixcám quih zímjöc ooicö ya?

   Juan def;fl fish def;fl when? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:kill qm
When did Juan catch a fish?

E * ¿Juan quih, zímjöc zixcám quih ooicö ya?

F * ¿Zímjöc Juan quih zixcám quih ooicö ya?

G ¿Juan quih zímjöc ooicö ya, zixcám quih?

 D ¿Juan quih zímjöc ooicö ya? zixcám hipcom

   Juan def;fl when? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:kill qm fish px:hz
When did Juan catch this fish?

E ¿Juan quih zixcám hipcom zímjöc ooicö ya?

F * ¿Zímjöc Juan quih zixcám hipcom ooicö ya?

 ¿Luis quih mosnipol quij zímjöc ooicö ya?

   Luis def;fl Dermochelys_coriacea def;cm when? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:kill qm
When did Luis kill the leatherback turtle?

 D «Azoj canoj tiquij, ¿zímjöc hamiime com iti tiij ma,
    star sbj.nmlz:burn md:cm   when? sky def;hz 3.poss:on rlt:sit ds

mocoht ya?» ox imii.

2.poss:obj.nmlz:see\pl qm thus 3.sbj:rlmi:tell
“When did they see the star in the sky,” he asked them. bb 177 0W 
146 Chapter 6: Questions

E * «Azoj canoj tiquij, ¿hamiime com zímjöc iti tiij ma, mocohtya?» ox imii.

F * «Azoj canoj tiquij, ¿hamiime com iti zímjöc tiij ma, mocohtya?» ox imii.

 D ¿Juan quih hap quih háqui hac an ooicö ya?

   Juan def;fl Odocoileus_hemionus def;fl where? def;loc [3.poss:]in [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:kill qm
Where did Juan kill the mule deer?

E * ¿Háqui hac Juan quih hap quih an ooicö ya?

6.2.2.3. Questions formed with proposition/oblique oriented deverbal nouns. 7KH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH
RULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ i LV XVHG ZKHQ TXHVWLRQLQJ WKH WLPH RI D UHDOLV LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVH &RPSDUH
 ZLWK WKH XQJUDPPDWLFDO RU YHU\ PDUJLQDO H[DPSOHV VKRZQ LQ  DERYH

 ˻ Ziix paaij ano coom˼ com, ¿zímjöc iti ihiij ya?
   thing driftwood [3.poss:in] sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz   when? 3.poss:on 3.poss:pon:sit qm
When did s/he sit on the scorpion?

 ¿Zímjö iti ihiij ya?

 when? 3.poss:on 3.poss:pon:sit qm
When did s/he sit on it?

6.2.2.4. Other realis content questions. 7KH ZRUG quíih who? PD\ TXHVWLRQ D SRVVHVVRU DV LQ 

 ¿Quíih icaamiz ya?

   who? 3.poss:shirt qm
Whose shirt is it?

 ¿Quíih inol ya contiin?

   who? 3.poss:hand/arm/finger qm 3.io:rlt:touch
Whose hand did you touch?

:KHQ quíih who? SUHFHGHV WKH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ yaa i LW LV IROORZLQJ WKH SDWWHUQ H[SHFWHG IRU
TXHVWLRQLQJ HUJDWLYH VXEMHFWV i XVLQJ DQ REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ WKH HW\PRORJLFDO VRXUFH RI yaa
7KLV LV VKRZQ LQ 

 ¿Trooqui tiquij quíih yaa° ya?

   vehicle md:cm who? [3.poss:obj.nmlz:]own qm
Whose car is that?

 ¿Trooqui ziix quih isoj cocjiit quih quíih yaa°

   vehicle thing def;fl 3.poss:body/self 3.io:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit def;fl who? [3.poss:obj.nmlz:]own
ya?
qm
Whose car was it that crashed?
RU Whose was the car that crashed?

 D Haat hanoohcö, tiix ¿quíih yaa° ya?

Jatropha_cuneata sbj.nmlz:pass:make_convex dem;dt;sg   who? [3.poss:obj.nmlz:]own qm
That basket [not present], whose is it?
§6.2.3 Content questions in irrealis clauses 147

E * ¿Quíih haat hanoohcö yaa ya?

F * ¿Quíih haat hanoohcö, tiix yaa ya?

G ¿Quíih yaa ya, haat hanoohcö, tiix?

7KH PHDQLQJ why? LV FRPPRQO\ H[SUHVVHG E\ WKH FODXVH zó tpacta ma how? rlt:be_in_appearance ds RU
VRPHWKLQJ VLPLODU DGMXVWHG IRU PRRG DQG SHUVRQ IRU RWKHU FRQWH[WV 6HH 

 ¿˻ Zó tpacta ma˼ zixcám com intahit?

      how? rlt:be_in_appearance ds fish def;hz 2s.sbj:rlt:eat
Why did you eat the fish?

$Q DOWHUQDWLYH ZD\ WR DVN why? EXW LQ D QRQQHXWUDO ZD\ VLQFH LW LPSOLHV WKH ODFN RI D JRRG UHDVRQ XVHV WKH
FODXVH áz iij cota ma what otherwise/apart 3.io:rlt:beLUUHJ ds

 ¿Me áz iij coha ya ntooha?

  2.pro what? otherwise/apart 3.io:[sbj.nmlz:]beLUUHJ qm 2s.sbj:rlt:cry
Why are you crying? [There is not a good reason.]bb 177 -Q 

7KH PHDQLQJ how? in what manner? LV H[SUHVVHG E\ WKH FODXVH zó √apacta OLWHUDOO\ how did s/he do it?
LQ᯴HFWHG IRU WKH DSSURSULDWH SHUVRQ DQG PRRG 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ¿Zixcám com zó ntapacta ntahit?

 fish def;hz how?/which? 2s.sbj:rlt:cause_be_in_appearance 2s.sbj:rlt:eat
How did you prepare the fish that you ate?

 ¿Zixcám com zó mpapacta nsiihit haa ya?

 fish def;hz how?/which? 2s.sbj:irr.dep:cause_be_in_appearance 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat aux qm
How will you prepare the fish that you will eat?

7KH HTXLYDOHQW RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQV how many? DQG how much?ൻ¿zó cyaxi ya?ൻLV HPEHGGHG LQ WKH QRXQ
SKUDVH ,W FDQ EH PRGL᯳HG ZLWK WKH DWWHQXDWRU xah i 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 ¿Comcaac quih zó cyaxi ya pyeest quij ano tazcam?

   (Seri)_person\pl def;fl how? sbj.nmlz:? qm fiesta def;cm [3.poss:]in rlt:arrive\pl
How many people went to the party? [exact number expected]

 ¿Comcaac quih zó xah cyaxi ya pyeest quij ano tazcam? 

   (Seri)_person\pl def;fl how? atten sbj.nmlz:? qm fiesta def;cm [3.poss:]in rlt:arrive\pl
Approximately how many people went to the party?

6.2.3 Content questions in irrealis clauses

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VXEMHFWVൻLV WKH FKRLFH RI DX[LOLDU\ LQ WKHVH TXHVWLRQV haa IRU ᯳QLWH YHUEV DQG quee IRU GHYHUEDO QRXQV 7KH
H[DPSOHV LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ DUH RUJDQL]HG E\ WKH JUDPPDWLFDO UROH RI WKH TXHVWLRQHG HOHPHQW DQG WKHQ WKH ᯳QLWHQHVV
RI WKH YHUE RI WKH FODXVH LQ ZKLFK LW RFFXUV

6.2.3.1. Related to subjects.


7R PDNH LW DEVROXWHO\ VSHFL᯳F DERXW UHTXHVWLQJ H[DFW LQIRUPDWLRQ WKH ZRUG isoj 3.poss:body/self FDQ EH LQVHUWHG DIWHU
cyaxi
148 Chapter 6: Questions

Absolutive subject (finite verb)

 ¿Quíih saticpan haa ya?
   who? irr.ind:work aux qm
Who is going to work?
Ergative subject (finite verb)
 D ¿Pedro quih quíih isiizt haa ya?
   Pedro def;fl who? 3.sbj:irr.ind:tattoo aux qm
a. Who will tattoo Pedro?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Whom will Pedro tattoo?)

E ¿Quíih Pedro quih isiizt haa ya?

 Hap hipcom ¿quíih inaail quih cöisacópoxot haa ya?

Odocoileus_hemionus px:hz   who? 3.poss:skin def;fl 3.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:remove_skin aux qm
Who is going to remove the skin of this mule deer?

 D ¿Siimet hipquij quíih isiihit haa ya?

   bread px:cm who? 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat aux qm
Who will eat this bread?

E ¿Quíih siimet hipquij isiihit haa ya?

Ergative subject (deverbal noun)
 ¿Quíih Pedro quih siizt quee ya?
   who? Pedro def;fl irr.ind:tattoo sbj.nmlz:aux qm
a. Who will tattoo Pedro? [more insistent]
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Whom will Pedro tattoo?)
Quantity of absolutive subject (deverbal noun)
 ¿Comcaac quih zó cyaxi saaitoj quee ya?
   (Seri)_person\pl def;fl how? sbj.nmlz:? irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:eat\pl sbj.nmlz:aux qm
How many people will go fishing?

 ¿Me zó zixcám siihit quee ya?

   2.pro how?/which? fish irr.ind:eat sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Which fish will you eat?

6.2.3.2. Related to direct objects. b

bb
Direct object (finite verb)

 ¿Áz insiihit haa ya?

   what? 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat aux qm
What will you eat?

Direct object (deverbal noun)

 ¿Pedro quih quíih siizt quee ya?

   Pedro def;fl who? irr.ind:tattoo sbj.nmlz:aux qm
a. Whom will Pedro tattoo?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Who will tattoo Pedro?)

Determiner of direct object (finite verb)

§6.2.3.3 Related to obliques 149

 ¿Zó zixcám insiihit haa ya?

   which? fish 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat aux qm
Which fish will you eat?

Determiner of direct object (deverbal noun)

 ¿Me zó zixcám siihit quee ya?

   2.pro which? fish irr.ind:eat sbj.nmlz:aux qm
What fish will you eat?

 ¿Me zó ˻ ziix hapahit˼ siihit quee ya?

   2.pro which?    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat irr.ind:eat sbj.nmlz:aux qm
What food are you going to eat?

6.2.3.3. Related to obliques.

Time adjunct (finite verb)
 D ¿Hasaj quih zímjöc insahiti haa ya?
  flat_basket def;fl when? 2s.sbj:irr.ind:begin aux qm
When are you going to begin the basket? bb &<+,

E ¿Zímjöc hasaj quih insahiti haa ya?

 ¿Zímjöc impanaaaij, insiifp haa ya?

   when? 2s.sbj:irr.dep:return 2s.sbj:irr.ind:arrive aux qm
When are you going to come back?
Time adjunct (deverbal noun)
 D ¿Zímjöc me siifp quee ya?
   when? 2.pro irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux qm
When will you arrive?

E ¿Me zímjöc siifp quee ya?

 D ¿Me zímjöc hasaj quih sahiti quee ya?

   2.pro when? flat_basket def;fl irr.ind:begin sbj.nmlz:aux qm
When are you going to begin to make a basket?

E ¿Zímjöc me hasaj quih sahiti quee ya?

F * ¿Me hasaj quih zímjöc sahiti quee ya?

 ¿Cmaacoj quih zímjöc siifp quee ya?

  old_man def;fl when? irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux qm
When is [my] old man [father or husband] going to arrive? bb &<+,

 ¿Me zímjöc seeten quih cösaticpan quee ya?

   2.pro when? Pinnidae def;fl 3.io:irr.ind:work sbj.nmlz:aux qm
When will you go to get pen shells?
150 Chapter 6: Questions

6.3 Rhetorical questions

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 Pedro quih soos caha. ¡¿Zó soos quee ya?!

Pedro def;fl irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl    how? irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Pedro is going to sing, but who knows how!

 ¡¿Tiix hehe zo haa ya?!

      dem;dt;sg plant indf;sg there qm
You call that a plant?

 ¡¿Tiix ˻ ziix hapahit˼ zo haa ya?!

      dem;dt;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat indf;sg there qm
You call that food?

 ¡¿Xiica hizcoi haa ya ˻ ziix hapahit˼ zo thaa?!

       thing\pl px:pl [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat indf;sg rlt:eq
These are supposed to be food?!

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 ¡¿Haxz° a ya?! ¡¿Hoox icocooz itaa?!

    dog rhet qm      intns inf.intr:unsp.obj:rob 3.sbj:rlt:know
˻ Ziix canaao˼ cah icocooz imiya.
   thing sbj.nmlz:meow def;fl:foc inf.intr:unsp.obj:rob 3.sbj.rlmi:know

Dogs aren’t the ones that typically steal but rather cats.

6.4 A special kind of indirect question

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 Quíih sahmees coi z itahit, ―.

who? Citrus_x_sinensis def;pl indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:eat
I wonder who (of those present) is going to eat one of the oranges.

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§6.4 A special kind of indirect question 151

 Pedro quih quíih itazt, ―.

Pedro def;fl who? 3.sbj.rlt:tattoo
a. I wonder who (present) will tattoo Pedro.
b. 2U I wonder whom Pedro will tattoo.

 D Canoaa com quíih itaai, ―.

boat def;hz who? 3.sbj:rlt:make
I wonder who will make the boat.

E Quíih canoaa com itaai, ―.

 Quíih ya canoaa com itaai, ―.

who? qm boat def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:make
I wonder who is going to finish making the boat.

 Quíih hant itásaquim, ―.

who? land 3.sbj:rlt:brush
I wonder who will sweep.

 Siimet quih quíih itahit, ―.

bread def;fl who? 3.sbj:rlt:eat
I wonder who will be the one who will eat the bread.
 7
Verbal idioms

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7.1 Noun in the VP

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 D hamatj √ooxi
thirst  die
= be thirsty

E ¡Anxö ˻ hamatj ihpxöaxi˼!

  intns    thirst 1s.sbj.intr:em:die
I’m really thirsty!

 D hant √aacatx
land  cause_release
= have a baby (intransitive)

E María quih ˻ hant yaacatx˼.

María def;fl    land rlyo:cause_release
Mary had a baby.

 D hant √afeaa
land  ?
= spend the night until dawn, be day-old (leftover, like food)

E ¿Pyeest quij ano coii coi cmaax ˻ hant safeaacol˼ quee ya?
   party def;cm [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:stand\pl def;pl now    land irr.ind:? sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Are the people who are at the fiesta going to stay the whole night, until dawn?

 D hant √atox
land  extend
= drag, tow

E Trooqui quij ˻ hant iyootyajc˼, ...

vehicle def;cm    land 3.sbj:rlyo:stretch_out\pl
They towed the truck, … bb &<+,

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152
§7.1 Noun in the VP 153

 D hánt √fìi
land  ?
= be next morning

E ˻ Hánt pofìi˼ ta, ...

   land irr.dep:? ds
Tomorrow morning, …

 D hant co- √aheectim

land 3.io-  aug:travel
= transport

E Imám coi ˻ hant cohsaheectim˼ aha.

3.poss:fruit def;pl    land 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:aug:travel aux:dcl
I’m going to transport the cactus fruit.

 D hant co- √aiis

land 3.io-  ?
= watch over

E ¿Miizj ˻ hant cöitaiis˼?

  well    land 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:?
Is s/he watching over it/him/her?

 D hant co- √iij / √oom / √ap

land 3.io-  sit  lie  stand
= have form of [choice of verb depends on profile of item]

E Zixcám caanj hapáh com ˻ hant cocom˼ iha.

fish Mycteroperca_jordani sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;hz    land 3.io:sbj.nmlz:lie dcl
It has the shape of the fish called “caanj” (Gulf grouper). bb (6 RRWBLFDDQM 

 D hant co- √pam

land 3.io-  connected
= come across

E ... ziix coaafp pac ano ˻ hant cöhatpamlcam˼ ma   …

Mugil_sp. indf;pl [3.poss:]in    land 3.io:1p.sbj:rlt:connected\pl\impf ds
… we came across a school of mullet, …

 D ihít √actim
3.poss:place_behind  be_cut
= be all gone; end

E ... ˻ ihít tactim˼, yoque.

 3.poss:place_behind rlt:be_cut rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
… it was all gone, it is said.bb +RPEUHB%DUULOB

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154 Chapter 7: Verbal idioms

 D iiha √apii
?  have_flavor_of
= be fat

E ¿Me zímjöc ˻ iiha capii˼ ya?

  2.pro when?  ? sbj.nmlz:have_flavor_of qm
When did you get fat?

 D imiipla √aLUUHJ
3.poss:[pon:]bad  [sbj.nmlz:]beLUUHJ
= decease, die [human]

E Tiix ˻ imiipla haa˼ ha.

dem;dt;sg    3.poss:[pon:]bad [sbj.nmlz:]beLUUHJ dcl
S/he has passed away (deceased).

F ¿Tiix áz ˻ imiipla coha˼ ya?

  dem;dt;sg what?    3.poss:[pon:]bad 3.io:sbj.nmlz:beLUUHJ qm
What did s/he die from?

 D imoz he / me / co- √aaitot

3.poss:heart 1.io 2.io 3.io-  cause_arrive
= remind

E Tiix ˻ imoz he yaaitot˼, cöhihixt hac.

dem;dt;sg    3.poss:heart 1.io:rlyo:cause_arrive 3.io:1.poss:pon:small\pl def;loc
S/he reminded me about our childhood. bb &<+,

 D ixtamt √aai
3.poss:[pon:]abundant  make/do
= do easily, do when opportunity arises

E Méjico hac ˻ ixtamt hihaai˼ coox cah x

Mexico def;loc    3.poss:[pon:]abundant 1.poss:pon:make all/completely def;fl:foc ut
ihpmiitax.
1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:go
I went to Mexico City whenever I had an opportunity. bb &<+,

 D psaac √ooxi
hunger  die
= hungry

E ..., Esaú quij anxö ˻ psaac tooxi˼ toc cötiij, ...

Esau def;cm intns    hunger rlt:die there 3.io:rlt:sit
..., Esau was there and very hungry, …bb 177 +E 

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§7.2 Possessed noun in the VP 155

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 D hapaspoj° co- √acoaat

paper 3.io  cause_know
= teach (as in formal schooling)

E ¿˻ Hapaspoj° me tacoaat˼?
      paper 3.io;2.do:rlt:cause_know
Is s/he teaching you (e.g., in school)?

F ¿˻ Hapaspoj° cötacoaat˼?
      paper 3.io:rlt:cause_know
Is s/he teaching (e.g., in school)?

G ¿˻ Hapaspoj° cötahcoaat˼?
      paper 3.io:rlt:pass:cause_know
Is s/he studying (lit., being taught) in school?

7.2 Possessed noun in the VP

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 D √sxeen √aCa
  abdomen  know
= be intelligent, wise

E Tiix ˻ isxeen itcmaa˼ ho.

dem;dt;sg    3.poss:abdomen 3.sbj:rlt:neg:know dcl
He wasn’t wise. bb +RPEUHB%DUULOB

 D √VVcp √ap
  place_next_to  stand
= support, root for

E ¿Quíih ya ˻ miicp tap˼?

  who? qm    2.poss:place_next_to rlt:stand
Who is supporting (rooting for) you?

 D √VVhjoj √ooxyat
  limb\pl  die\pl
= get tired from walking

E ... xo ˻ hiihjoj yomooxyat˼.

but    1.poss:limb\pl rlyo:die\pl
… but I didn’t get tired. bb &<+,
156 Chapter 7: Verbal idioms

 D √VVsax hant √ooit SOXUDO √aailx

  spirit land  arrive
= be happy

E (He) ˻ hiistox hant yopaailx˼.

 1.pro    1.poss:spirit:pl land rlyo:arrive\pl
We are very happy.

 D √VVsax √heemt
  spirit  stink
= be angry

E ˻ Iistox theemloj˼ toc cötoii, ...

   3.poss:spirit:pl rlt:stink\pl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl
They were there angry, …bb 'RVB+HUPDQRVB

 D √Vmoz co- √ooit

  heart 3.io-  arrive
= remember

E ... ˻ mimoz cöyomooit˼.

   2.poss:heart 3.io:rlyo:neg:arrive
…you don’t remember. bb &<+,

 D √Vmoz √aaj
  heart  ?
= worry

E ˻ Mimoz smaaj˼ aha.

   2.poss:heart irr.ind:neg:? aux:dcl
You shouldn’t worry! bb &<+,

 D √Vmoz √meet
  heart  ?
= be sad

E ¿˻ Mimoz tmeet˼?
      2.poss:heart rlt:?
Are you sad? bb &<+,

 D √Vmoz √eepit
  heart  ?
= be stingy

E ¿˻ Mimoz teepit˼?
    2.poss:heart rlt:?
Are you stingy?

 D √Vpos co- √pazlax

 throat 3.io ?\impf
= choke on (something liquid or powdery)

E Cafee hoosi cop ˻ hipos cöyopazlax˼.

coffee 1.poss:obj.nmlz:drink def;vt    1.poss:throat 3.io:rlyo:?\impf
I choked on the coffee that I had drunk.
§7.3 P in the VP 157

 D √Vsoj co- √apxazl

 body 3.io-  put_on_top_of
= embrace, hug

E ˻ Misoj me yapxazl˼.
   2.poss:body/being 3.io;2.do:rlyo:put_on_top_of
S/he hugged you. bb &<+,

7.3 P in the VP
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 D áno √atápolquim
[3.poss:]in  cause_broken
= interrupt

E Ctam, tiix ˻ áno hizi matápolquim˼,

male dem;dt;sg    [3.poss:]in 1p.do:rlmi:cause_broken
That man interrupted us.

 D áno √oopox
[3.poss:]in/from  unsp.obj:pull_out
= molt, shed skin [snake, crab, etc.]

E Cocazni° com ˻ áno moopox˼.

Crotalus_spp. def;hz    [3.poss:]in/from rlmi:unsp.obj:pull_out
A rattlesnake sheds.

 D áno √imoz
[3.poss:]in/from  hv:heart
= turn upside down

E Trooqui tintica ˻ áno yimoz˼.

vehicle md:aw    [3.poss:]in/from rlyo:hv:heart
The car turned over.

 D X ano √itaai
[3.poss:]in  ?
= happen simultaneously as X

E Cöhihiim hac ˻ ano cöipitaai˼ ta, ...

3.io:1.poss:pon:sleep def;loc    [3.poss:]in 3.io:3.sbj:irr.dep:? ds
While I sleep, …

 D áno √eemoz
[3.poss:]in/from  ? WUDQVLWLYH YHUE
= peel

E Sahmees quij ˻ án iyeemoz˼.

Citrus_x_sinensis def;cm    [3.poss:]in/from 3.sbj:rlyo:?
He peeled the orange.
158 Chapter 7: Verbal idioms

 D íti √ahca
3.poss:on  be_located
= be possible

E Ctam ticop ˻ íti imahca˼ ha, haa cöisiifp hac.

male md:vt    3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:neg:be_located dcl there 3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:arrive def;loc
There’s not a chance that that man will arrive there.

 D áno √ooit
[3.poss:]in  arrive
= be afternoon

E ˻ Áno paait˼ ta, ...

   [3.poss:]in irr.dep:arrive ds
In the afternoon, …

 D áno √azquim
[3.poss:]in  enter
= set [sun]

E Zaah quij ˻ áno siizquim˼ taa ...

sun def;cm    [3.poss:]in irr.ind:enter rlt:aux
The sun was about to set, … bb &<+,

 D íiqui √aaitom
3.poss:toward  speak
= go to the authorities

E ¡˻ Íiqui caaitom˼!
    3.poss:toward im-speak
Go to the authorities!

 D íiqui √ojoz
3.poss:toward  flee
= suddenly

E ... ˻ íiqui tojoz˼ itexl, ...

   3.poss:toward rlt:flee 3.sbj:rlt:take/buy
… suddenly he grabbed him, …bb 'RVB+HUPDQRVB

 D íti he / me / co- √acócamot

3.poss:on 1.io 2.io 3.io-  help_put_things
= dress (someone)

E Eaacalca cpaaisx coi ˻ íti cöiyacócamot˼.

3.poss:clothing sbj.nmlz:clean def;pl    3.poss:on 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:help_put_things
S/he dressed him/her with clean clothes.

F Meaacalca cpaaisx coi ˻ íti me iyacócamot˼.

2.poss:clothing sbj.nmlz:clean def;pl    3.poss:on 2.io:3.sbj:rlyo:help_put_things
S/he dressed you with clean clothes.

 D íti co- √ahojoz

3.poss:on 3.io-  cause_flee
= do excessively with respect to
§7.3 P in the VP 159

E Hamazaj zo htaai, ihtamihj, ihyatápolquim,

abs:clay_pot indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:make 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:cause_smooth 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:cause_broken

cöixatcaj hac ˻ íti cohtahojoz˼.

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]thin def;loc    3.poss:on 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:cause_flee
I was polishing the pot that I made and broke it, because I overdid it in making it thin.

F Cömiihit hac ˻ íti conyahojoz˼.

3.io:2.poss:[pon:]eat def;loc    3.poss:on 3.io:2s.sbj:rlyo:cause_flee
You have eaten too much.

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 D √VVhax co- √a
 with  3.io- beLUUHJ
= be like

E Cosi quih ˻ iihax coha˼ ha, cöiizquim hac.

thorn def;fl    3.poss:with 3.io:sbj.nmlz:beLUUHJ dcl 3.io:3.poss:enter def;loc
It was like a thorn in the way in which it entered.bb &<+,

 D √VVhax / √VVcot √aai

 with with\pl make/do
= help

E ¡˻ Hiihax haai˼!
    1.poss:with im:make/do
Help me!

F ¡˻ Hiicot haai˼!
    1.poss:with\pl im:make/do
Help us!

 D √VVqui √aa
 toward ?
= harm (food, to a person)

E ..., ˻ hiiqui saa˼ aha.

   1.poss:toward irr.ind:? aux:dcl
…, it will harm me. bb &<+,

 D √VVqui √aai
 toward make/do
= sprinkle

E Hantíp quih ziix ipxasi quih ˻ iiqui iyaai˼.

salt def;fl thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl bb3.poss:toward    3.sbj:rlyo:make/do
S/he sprinkled salt on the meat. bb &<+,

 D √VVqui √atolec
 toward ask_for_help
= curse [the construction is intransitive]

E ˻ Míiqui yatolec˼.
   2.poss:toward rlyo:ask_for_help
S/he cursed you.
160 Chapter 7: Verbal idioms

F ˻ Íiqui hpsatolec˼ aha.

   3.poss:toward 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:ask_for_help aux:dcl
I will curse him/her.

7.4 Adverb in the VP

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 D anxö √a
intns  beLUUHJ
= be injured

E Juan quih ˻ anxö haa˼ ha.

Juan def;fl    intns [sbj.nmlz:]beLUUHJ dcl
Juan is injured.

 D anxö √aai
intns  make/do
= injure

E Caay cop Juan quih ˻ anxö iyaai˼.

horse def;vt Juan def;fl    intns 3.sbj:rlyo:make/do
The horse injured Juan.

 D caaha √aCa
know  ?
D get ready E be alert

E ˻ Caaha masiyaj˼ aha, ...

   ? 2p.sbj:irr.ind:know:pl aux:dcl
Be alert, … bb &<+,

 D cmaa √iih
now  be.fl
= new

E ˻ Xiica coquéhelam˼ hizcoi ˻ cmaa quiih˼ iha.

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:bounce\pl px:pl    now sbj.nmlz:be.fl dcl
These balls are new.

 D ... xah ... haa √ahca

? there  be_located
= be (apparently)

E Isiha xah quih ˻ haa yoohca˼, canoaa com.

3.poss:irr.ind:fast ? def;fl    there rlyo:be_located boat def;hz
Apparently the boat is going to be fast.

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§7.4 Adverb in the VP 161

 D haai √ipi
?  ?
= easy

E Moosni quih cöhisiicö hac ˻ iiqui he ihiin

Chelonia_mydas def;fl 3.io:1.poss:irr.ind:kill def;loc    3.poss:toward 1.pro 3.poss:place_near
hac˼ ˻ haai quipi˼ ha.
def;loc ? sbj.nmlz:? dcl
It is easy for me to kill turtles (I’m an expert). bb &<+,

 D haai √mipi
?  ?
= difficult

E Taax ˻ haai cmipi˼ ha.

dem;dt;pl    ? sbj.nmlz:? dcl
That is difficult.

 D haai √ahipi
?  cause_?
= do easily

E ¿˻ Haai ntahipe˼?
      ? 2s.sbj:rlt:cause_?
a. Can you do it?
b. 2U Do you know how to do it?bb &<+,

 haaix -m-√a
? neg-beLUUHJ
= be serious, gentle, prudent

 D hacx √miih
apart  not_be.fl
= die

E ˻ Hacx yomiih˼.
 apart rlyo:not_be.fl
S/he died.

 D hacx √amiihit
apart  cause_not_be.fl
= kill

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162 Chapter 7: Verbal idioms

E Anxö ˻ hacx ixamiihitim˼.

intns    apart 3.sbj:em:cause_not_be.fl\impf
S/he killed many.

 hacx √ooit
apart  arrive
D get lost [person] E spent [money]

 D hantx mo- √a
at_base twd  move
= be from the ancestral past

E ˻ hantx cömiiha˼ hac

   at_base 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move def;loc
in the old days

F ˻ hantx mocat˼ coi

   at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move:pl def;pl
the ancestors

 D hapx √aailx
outside  release\impf
= demonstrate magical powers

E 6HH H[DPSOH  LQ FKDSWHU 

 D hapx √ap
outside  stand
= D be born E defecate

E zixquisiil cmaa ˻ hapx caap˼

child now    outside sbj.nmlz:stand
newborn baby

 D himo √pazjc
elsewhere  dispersed
= spill out

E Hasaaiti cop ˻ himo yopazjc˼.

petroleum_oil def;vt    elsewhere rlyo:dispersed
The gasoline spilled out.

 D hoo xah √eme

? atten  depleted
= shortly later, soon

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§7.5 Reflexive pronoun in the VP 163

E ˻ Hoo xah teme˼ (ma), ˻ hant yahjiit˼.

bbb" atten rlt:depleted ds    land rlyo-fall
Shortly later, s/he/it fell down.

 D iicp co- √iipe

toward 3.io-  good
= useful

E Eenim hipcop ˻ iicp cöquiipe˼ ha.

metal/knife px:vt    3.poss:side 3.io:sbj.nmlz:good dcl
This knife is useful.

 D iicp he / me / co- √aaitom

toward 1.io 2.io 3.io-  speak
= defend (verbally)

E He ˻ iicp me hpyooitom˼.
1.pro    toward 2.io:1s.sbj:rlyo:speak
I defended you (verbally).

 D iicp √aanim
toward  cause_covered
= forget

E ¿˻ Iicp intaanim˼?
    toward 2s.sbj:rlt:cause_covered
Did you forget?

 D miizj √aai
well  make
= take care of

E ˻ Miizj insaai˼ aha.

   well 2s.sbj:irr.ind:make/do aux:dcl
You should take care of it.

 D miizj √oocta
well  look_at
= be careful, pay attention

E ¡˻ Miizj hoocta˼!
    well im:look_at
a. Be careful!
b. 2U Pay attention!

7.5 Reflexive pronoun in the VP

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 D √Vsoj √axi
 body/self  finish
= get oneself ready
164 Chapter 7: Verbal idioms

E ˻ Hísolca hayoox˼.
    1.poss:body/self;pl 1p.sbj:rlyo:finish\pl
We got ready.

 D √Vsoj √anzaait
  body/self   careful_with
= be patient, calm, not impulsive

E ˻ Hísolca hayanzaaitj˼.
   1.poss:body/self;pl 1p.sbj:rlyo:careful_with:pl
We were patient.

F ˻ Misoj insanzaait˼ aha.

   2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:irr.ind:careful_with aux:dcl
You should be patient.

G ˻ Quisoj sahnzaait˼ aha.

   unsp.sbj:3.poss:body/self irr.ind:pass:careful_with aux:dcl
One should be patient.

 D ox √Vsoj √ah
thus  body/self  do/say/put.fl
= have custom

E ˻ Ox hísolca hamii˼.

   thus 1.poss:body/self;pl 1p.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
We had that custom.

 D √Vsoj √queepe
 body/self  like
= be proud of oneself

E ˻ Hísolca hatqueept˼, hamiilx.

   1.poss:body/self;pl 1p.sbj:rlt:like\pl 1p.sbj:rlmi:go\pl
We were proud and went. bb 2᯲HUHG

 D miizj √Vsoj √oocta ~ √Vsoj miizj √oocta

well  body/self  look_at  body/self well  look_at
= behave

E ˻ Miizj misoj insoocta˼ aha.

   well 2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:irr.ind:look_at aux:dcl
You should behave.

F ˻ Misoj miizj insoocta˼ aha.

   2.poss:body/self well 2s.sbj:irr.ind:look_at aux:dcl
You should behave.

G ˻ Quisoj miizj spacta˼ aha.

   unsp.sbj:3.poss:body/self well irr.ind:pass:look_at aux:dcl
One should behave.

H ˻ Miizj quisoj spacta˼ aha.

   well unsp.sbj:3.poss:body/self irr.ind:pass:look_at aux:dcl
One should behave.
§7.6 Idioms with pleonastic co- 3.io 165

 D √Vsoj hacx co- √aaitim

 body/self apart 3.io-  make:impf
= challenge with a brag

E Ctam ticop taaixaj, teete, ˻ isoj hacx cöiyaaitim˼.

male md:vt rlt:strong rlt:say    3.poss:body/self apart 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:make:impf
That man bragged that he was strong (and so was inviting a fight).

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 D √Vsoj √aazj
 body/self  string_up/tow
= buy on time, buy on credit

E √Vsoj √amizj
 body/self  clean_by_removing
= have too much pride in oneself

F √Vsoj √cooz
 body/self  rob
= do secretly

G √Vsoj √Cimoz
 body/self  think
= pretend

H √Vsoj co- √iixim

 body/self 3.io-  fear
= avoid (contact with someone)

7.6 Idioms with pleonastic co- 3.io

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 D co- √atni
3.io  have_pointed_contact_with
= shoot, spear, sting (as stingray)

E Tosni zo cöitatni, ...

Pelecanus_occidentalis indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:have_pointed_contact_with
S/he shot and killed a pelican, …bb &<+,

 D co- √iij
3.io-  sit
= shrivel up, shrink, be lame

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166 Chapter 7: Verbal idioms

E Inol cap cöquiij iha.

3.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
His/her/its arm is shriveled up. bb &<+,

 D co- √iimj
3.io-  translucent
= have an abrupt termination (like cliff at sea)

E Ctooml com ˻ yeen iicp˼ quij hax cöyiimj oo.

Nematistius_pectoralis def;hz    [3.poss:]face 3.poss:side def;cm intns 3.io:rlyo:translucent del
The front end of the roosterfish ends in a sharp angle.

 D co- √aactim
3.io-  cause_be_cut
D shut off (faucet, electricity, electronic device) Ebcalculate or guess in game of chance

E ˻ Ziix an icoos˼ quij cohsaactim haa hi.

   thing [3.poss:]in inf.intr:sing def;cm 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_be_cut [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
I am going to turn off the tape recorder. bb &<+,

F ˻ Hapaspoj iquiimot˼ quih cohsaactim aha.

   sbj.nmlz:pass:write 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:gamble def;fl 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_be_cut aux:dcl
I am going to guess the card. bb &<+,

 D co- √oohcö
3.io-  vertical_and_right_side_up
= go to sea, ascend

E Moxima cöhatoohjoj, ˻ ziix hapx coom˼ zo hayooht.

yesterday 3.io:1p.sbj:rlt:vertical\pl    thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie indf;sg 1pl.sbj:rlyo:see\pl
Yesterday we went out on the sea and saw a whale. bb &<+,

7.7 Other verbal idioms

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 D X √VVsax √acapat
 spirit  make_fly
make X’s spirit fly = kill X [uncommonly used now]

E Moxhamt cmiique, tiix ˻ iquiisax z imacapat˼.

last_year (Seri)_person dem;dt;sg    3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:spirit indf;sg 3.sbj:rlmi:cause_fly
Last year that person killed someone. bb &<+,

 D hant com co- √inej

land def;hz 3.io-  empty
= wiped out, destroyed, exterminated

E ˻ Zixcám cacöla˼ caacöl quih ˻ hant com cöminej˼.

   Totoaba_macdonaldi sbj.nmlz:big\pl def;fl   land def;hz 3.io:rlmi:empty
The large totoabas have disappeared. bb &<+,
§7.7 Other verbal idioms 167

 X hant com co- √ahinej

land def;hz 3.io-  cause_be_empty
= wipe out (destroy) X, exterminate X

 D oot cola X √caai

Canis_latrans high  hang_up
= X be detained [archaic]

E ˻ Oot cola hin tcaai˼ ma, hant z iiqui hptcmiin iho.

   Canis_latrans high 1s.do:rlt:hang_up ds land indf;sg toward 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:neg:go dcl
Since I was detained, I didn’t go.

 D X hax ano √ah

water [3.poss:]in  do/say/put.fl
= wash X (where X = clothing)

E Hoficj quih ˻ hax ano htah˼ ma,

1.poss:obj.nmlz:wear_shirt def;fl    fresh_water [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds

maanpx.
rlmi:return
I washed my shirt/blouse and it shrank.bb &<+,

 D hax ano √aalim

fresh_water  [3.poss:]in play
= bathe, take a bath

E ˻ Hax ano hpyaalim˼.

   fresh_water [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:play
I took a bath.

 D √VVsax com iij hant √oom

  spirit def;hz otherwise/apart land lie
= sad

E 6HH H[DPSOH G LQ FKDSWHU 

 8
The nominal phrase

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 Cmiique zo ˻ hacx immiih˼ iha.

(Seri)_person indf;sg    apart rlmi:not_be.fl dcl
Nobody had died. bb *LJDQWH &RPHOµQ 

 ..., ziix z itcmahit, ...

thing indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:neg:eat
… she hadn’t eaten anything, … bb +RPEUH %DUULO 

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dog indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:own
I don’t own a dog. bb $/,0 

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168
Chapter 8: The nominal phrase 169

 ˻ Ziix coosyat˼ heeque quij ctam, yoque.

   thing sbj.nmlz:? small/young def;cm male rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
The young giant was a male, it is said. bb *LJDQWHB+XHUIDQRB

 Xapoo quih imiitoj. Cocazni° quih imiiitoj.

Zalophus_californicus def;fl rlmi:eat\pl Crotalus_spp. def;fl rlmi:eat\pl
They ate sea lions. They ate rattlesnakes. bb +DVWB4XLWD 

 xo hascám com iti cöiihca hac, Tahejöc quij

but abs:reed_boat def;hz 3.poss:on 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]sit\pl def;loc Tiburon.Island def;cm
itaaaxoj,
3.sbj:rlt:abandon\pl
but seated on a reed boat, they left Tiburon Island,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Alberto Suárez quih he ˻ iti hmiiha˼ ctam quih chaa ha.

Alberto Suárez def;fl 1.pro    3.poss:on  twd:1.poss:move male def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
Alberto Suárez is my father.

DP using an indefinite article

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([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKHVH WKUHH XVHV UHVSHFWLYHO\

 Cmiique ctam zo toc cötiih, ...

(Seri)_person male indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:be.fl
There was a Seri man, … (referring to a specific person) bb &RQVHMRVBSHUUR

 Caasquim zo popaho x, ...

flounder_fish indf;sg irr.dep:pass:see ut
If a flounder is found, … bb (6 FDDVTXLP

 Tiix cmiique ha xo cmiique áa z imhaa ha.

dem;dt;sg (Seri)_person dcl but (Seri)_person true indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
He was a Seri, but he wasn't a real Seri person.bb +LSRFDPSR

NP without an article

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 ˻ Eenm haacni˼ h oo cöitáh, imiicö.

   metal abs:bow foc del 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:do 3.sbj:rlmi:kill
S/he did it with a rifle, s/he killed it.
170 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 Hipiix stacj iha.

dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula dcl
This is a rock oyster.

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8.1 The determiner phrase

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DP

NP D

[DP [NP ... ] Determiner ] ]

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3OXUDO pac coi coi coi coi

&HUWDLQ PRWLRQEDVHG GHPRQVWUDWLYHV i DUH DOVR XVHG ZLWKRXW VWUHVV DV DUWLFOHV

Common noun

 hast quij
stone def;cm
the stone

 xepe com
sea def;hz
the sea

Body part noun


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§8.1 The determiner phrase 171

 minol com
2.poss:arm/hand/finger def;hz
your arm

 istj com
3.poss:leaf def;hz
its leaf

Kinship term

 mata quij
2.poss:mother def;cm
your mother

 hiict quij
1.poss:maternal_grandmother def;cm
my maternal grandmother

Other possessed noun

 miionam quij
2.poss:hat def;cm
your hat

 mipazaatoj coi
2.poss:shoe\pl def;pl
your shoes

Relational noun

 mitacl hac
2.poss:place_above def;loc
the place above you

 hiicp hac
1.poss:place_next_to def;loc
the place next to me

Deverbal noun

 cöhihiim hac
3.io:1.poss:pon:sleep def;loc
where I sleep, etc.

 an ihitj quih
[3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:hv:trunk def;fl
his/her pants
172 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

Name

 Cöquimaxp quij
3.io:sbj.nmlz:light_pink def;hz
(a person’s nickname)

 Pedro quij
Pedro def;hz
Pedro

 Tahejöc quij
Tiburon_Island def;hz
Tiburon Island

 Saps hac
Saps def;loc
(a place name)

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 cmaam quij
female def;cm
the woman

 ctam zo
male indf;sg
a man

 hax pac
fresh_water indf;pl
some water

 haxz° ticop
dog md:vt
that dog

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 * Moosni zo.
Chelonia_mydas indf;sg
(A sea turtle.)

 * Háxaca° pac.
dog\pl indf;pl
(Some dogs.)

 * Quihehe quij.
sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;cm
(The governor.)

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§8.1.1 Phrase-internal determiners 173

 ¡Cameepit iha! * Ziic cooil zo.

  sbj.nmlz:strange dcl bird sbj.nmlz:blue/green indf;sg
How strange! (A blue bird!)

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 * Zaap quij
Geococcyx_californianus def;cm
(The Roadrunner)

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 Zaap quij iicp hac

Geococcyx_californianus def;cm 3.poss:place_next_to def;loc
About the Roadrunner

 Hapxa quih Xazoj quih Cöihaasitim hac

Sylvilagus_sp. def;fl Puma_concolor def;fl 3.io:3.poss:pon:deceive def;loc
How Rabbit Fooled Puma

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 Xoop Cacöla Quih Inoohcö hac

Bursera_microphylla sbj.nmlz:tall/long\pl def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]concave def;loc
Campo Egipto

8.1.1 Phrase-internal determiners

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 ziic tiquij iiselca quih itacl tintica

bird md:cm 3.poss:wing\pl def;fl 3.poss:surface md:aw
the top of that bird’s wingsbb (6 DFDDPBFFDD D

 Pedro quih yaaco cop

Pedro def;fl 3.poss:house def;vt
Pedro’s house

 quihehe quih iitom hac

sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;fl 3.poss:pon:speak def;loc
the governor’s message

 quisiil° cop ata quih

child def;vt 3.poss:mother def;fl
the child’s mother

([DPSOH  ZRXOG EH GLDJUDPPHG DV LQ ᯳JXUH 


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174 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

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DP

NP D

DP N

NP D

DP N

NP D

ziic tiquij iiselca quih itacl tintica

bird that its wings the their surface the

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 hant quih tazo cop

land/year def;fl one def;vt
one year

 Zaah quih ihmaa° quih cötafp ma x, ...

sun/day def;fl other def;fl 3.io:rlt:arrive ds ut
Day after day, …bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

 … zaah quih coox cah …

sun/day def;fl all def;fl:foc
… every day …bb &<+,

8.1.2 Generic interpretation

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§8.1.2 Generic interpretation 175

An example with a plural DP with generic interpretation

 Xazlc coi, taax xiica ccamotam cacaatol iha.

Puma_concolor\pl def;pl dem;dt;pl sbj.nmlz:alive:pl sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl
PUMAS are dangerous animals.

Examples with singular DPs with generic interpretation

 ¿Xazoj cop ziix imiipla caiitim ya?

  Puma_concolor def;vt thing 3.poss:[pon:]bad sbj.nmlz:do qm
Are pumas dangerous? bb 2᯲HUHG

 ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ com yamác quih colx ixanaaaij.

   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz 3.poss:blow_of_whale def;fl high 3.sbj:em:make_return
A whale makes its spout go very high. bb &<+,

 Ctam cneeen quij haquejöc coi cöisiimjc hac,

male sbj.nmlz:hunchbacked def;cm abs:firewood def;pl 3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:deliver def;loc
taax ˻ haai cmipi˼ ha.
dem;dt;pl    ? sbj.nmlz:? dcl
It’s difficult for a hunchbacked man to bring firewood. bb &<+,

 Moosni quih cöhisiicö hac iiqui he ihiin hac ˻ haai

Chelonia_mydas def;fl 3.io:1.poss:irr.ind:kill def;loc toward 1.io:3.poss:pon:touch def;loc    ?
xommipe˼.
em:neg:?
It is not hard for me to kill sea turtles. bb &<+,

 Cmozime quij ziix quih cöipátajquim hac, taax

sbj.nmlz:drunk def;cm thing def;fl 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]pass:insult def;loc dem;dt;pl

cacaatol iha.
sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl
It is dangerous to say offensive things to a drunk man. bb &<+,

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 Xazoj quih, tiix ˻ ziix ccam˼ cacaatol iha.

Puma_concolor def;fl dem;dt;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:alive sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl
THE PUMA is a dangerous animal.

 Ac quij, tiix xiime cah imiihit.

Aythya_valisineria def;cm dem;dt;sg Clupeidae def;fl:foc 3.sbj:rlmi:eat
The canvasback eats sardines. bb (6 DF 

 Tojquítajc quih, tiix ihipon cop hoox yosoop.

Bubo_virginiana def;fl dem;dt;sg 3.poss:pon:hv:voice def;vt intns rlyo:thick/low_timbre
A great horned owl’s voice is low. bb &<+,

 Cocazni° com, tiix cacaatol iha, haquiimet com ˻ iiqui

Crotalus_spp. def;hz dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl lizard def;hz    3.poss:toward

cöihiin hac˼.
3.io:3.poss:pon:touch def;loc
A rattlesnake is more dangerous than a lizard. bb &<+,
176 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

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Examples with article in possessor phrase

 Hap quih casoopolca cap itaamalca quih hoox insooploj,

Odocoileus_hemionus def;fl spike_horn def;vt 3.poss:horn(s)/antlers def;fl intns rlmi:thick:pl
…

The antlers of a spike horn mule deer are very thick …. bb &<+,

 Zixquisiil ˻ cmaa hapx caap˼ quih inaail com xina.

child    now outside sbj.nmlz:stand def;fl 3.poss:skin def;hz em:hv:fur
A newborn baby’s skin is fuzzy. bb &<+,

 ˻ Ziix imiipla haa˼ com itaasi hac ziix

   thing 3.poss:[pon:]bad [sbj.nmlz:]:beLUUHJ def;hz 3.poss:name def;loc thing
hapeexem iha.
sbj.nmlz:pass:respect_by_not_saying dcl
The name of a deceased person is honored by not saying it. bb &<+,

Examples without article in possessor phrase

 ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ ilít quij caacoj iha.

   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie 3.poss:head def;cm sbj.nmlz:big dcl
A whale’s head is large. bb &<+,

$Q LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LV QRW JHQHUDOO\ XVHG LQ WKLV FRQWH[W PRUH GHWDLOV DUH JLYHQ LQ i

 * ˻ ziix hapx coom˼ z ilít quij

   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie indf;sg 3.poss:head def.cm
(a whale’s head, the head of a whale)

7KH GHPRQVWUDWLYH hizquih i LV DOVR XVHG WR H[SOLFLWO\ LQGLFDWH JHQHULF LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ ZLWK D VLQJXODU
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 Haxz° hizquih tiifnij, titoj, miixax.

dog px:fl rlt:hv:nostril rlt:hv:eye\pl rlmi:hv:snout
A dog has a nose, eyes, and a snout. bb &<+,

 Zixquisiil ˻ cmaa hapx caap˼ hizquih inaail com xina.

child    now outside sbj.nmlz:stand px.pl:fl 3.poss:skin def;hz em:hv:fur
A newborn baby’s skin is fuzzy. bb &<+, PRGL᯳HG

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 Yooz quij ziicalc com hant cöquiiis iha.

God def;cm bird:pl def;hz land 3.io:sbj.nmlz:tr:? dcl
God takes care of the birds. bb 177 0W 

 xiica ccamotam com

thing\pl sbj.nmlz:alive\pl def;hz
animals (in general)
§8.2 The noun phrase 177

 xiica quiistox com

thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;hz
people (in general)

8.2 The noun phrase

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 D [ ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ ] ilít quij caacoj iha.

   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie 3.poss:head def;cm sbj.nmlz:big dcl
A whale’s head is large. bb &<+,

E * [ ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ z ] ilít quij caacoj iha.

   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie indf;sg 3.poss:head def;cm sbj.nmlz:big dcl
(A whale’s head is large.)

 [ ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ quih ] ilít quij caacoj iha, [ hacat ] ilít
   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie def;fl 3.poss:head def;cm sbj.nmlz:big dcl  shark 3.poss:head

quij ˻ iiqui cöihiin hac˼.

def;cm toward 3.io:3.poss:pon:touch def;loc
A whale’s head is large in comparison to a shark’s head.

 D [ Heen ] ilít zo hyooho.

cow 3.poss:head indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw a cow’s head.

E * [ Heen quih ] ilít zo hyooho.

cow def;fl 3.poss:head indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
(I saw a cow’s head.)

F * [ Heen z ] ilít quij / zo hyooho.

cow indf;sg 3.poss:head def;cm indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
(I saw a cow’s head.)

 ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ (z) ilit zo thaa x, caacoj iha.

   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie indf;sg 3.poss:head indf;sg rlt:eq ut sbj.nmlz:big dcl
If it is the head of a whale, it is big. bb 2᯲HUHG

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L ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ z ilít zo tazoj, caacoj a ya, …

 thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie indf;sg 3.poss:head indf;sg rlt:alone sbj.nmlz:big rhet qm
Not only the head of a whale is big, …bb 2᯲HUHG
178 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 Comcaac hantx mocat coi satoj itaaizi, …

(Seri)_person\pl at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move:pl def;pl Modiolus_capax 3.sbj:rlt:make\pl
The Seri ancestors did (prepared, ate) mussels, …bb (6 ORRP] D

 …, satoj caacoj oo tompaho ma x, …

Modiolus_capax sbj.nmlz:big del rlt:neg:pass:see ds ut
When big mussels weren’t found, …bb (6 ORRP] D

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 Hant hac iti haxoj tafp,

land def;loc 3.poss:on shore_seen_from_water rlt:arrive
He arrived at shore,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 heme miizcam
camp rlmi:arrive\pl
they arrived at campbb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

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 * Xazlc cacaatol iha.

Puma_concolor\pl sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl
(Pumas are dangerous.)

8.2.1 Modifiers
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 mooj poosj
cotton cord
cotton string, cotton cord

 eenim haaonam
metal abs:hat
helmet

 hast hax
stone arrow_point
stone arrow point

 haasman haaonam
woven_mat abs:hat
palm hat

 imám hamaax
3.poss:fruit sbj.nmlz:pass:make_alcoholic_beverage
cactus fruit wine

 xnoois haaztoj
Zostera_marina_seeds porridge
eelgrass seed porridge
§8.2.1 Modifiers 179

 caztaz haaztoj
wheat porridge
wheat porridge

 hapxöl istj haaonam

corn 3.poss:leaf abs:hat
a kind of hat made of corn leaves

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NP

NP N

NP N

hapxól istj haaonam

corn 3.POSS:leaf ABS:hat

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 cmiique Roberto quih

(Seri)_person Roberto def;fl
Seri Roberto

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 Tahejöc comcaac coi

Tiburon_Island (Seri)_person\pl def;pl
the Tiburon Island Seris

 Hant Ihiini comcaac coi

Baja_California (Seri)_person\pl def;pl
the Baja California Seris

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QDPH IRU sea lion Hant Ihiin iic ccah

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180 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 [ coaaxyat quih iiqui ] haaho tintica

place_of_spirits_of_dead def;fl 3.poss:toward road md:aw
the road to the place of the spirits of the dead bb &RQVHMRVBVROB

 [ Ejipto hac ano ] ctam zo

Egypt def;loc [3.poss:]in male indf;sg
an Egyptian (man) bb 177 $F 

 [ xepe ano ] zaaj hac

sea [3.poss:]in eroded_area/cave def;loc
the sea cave bb &<+,

8.3 The possessor phrase

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Possessor of body part

 [ Cocazni° com ] ilít quij cactim iha xo ...

Crotalus_spp. def;hz 3.poss:head def;cm sbj.nmlz:be_cut dcl but
The rattlesnake’s head was cut but … bb &<+,

 «Xazoj ilit zo toc cöyiij tax,

  Puma_concolor 3.poss:head indf;sg there 3.io:rlyo:sit sbrd
“There is a puma's head there,bb &RQ3XP

Part-whole

 [ hast cop ] iyat hac

stone/mountain def;vt 3.poss:tip/place_on_top_of def;loc
the mountain top bb &<+,

 [ xepe com ] ipot com

sea def;hz 3.poss:bottom def;hz
the bottom of the sea

 Xepe com itacl tintica ah iti miihtolca.

sea def;hz 3.poss:surface md:aw foc 3.poss:on rlmi:be.fl\pl\impf
They go on the surface of the sea. bb &<+,

Possessor of kinship term

 [ zacaam cap ]DP ata cap

young_woman def;vt 3.poss:mother def;vt
the young woman’s mother bb 177 0N 

 …, [ Abraám quij ]DP ai com ˻ hacx immiih˼.

Abram def;cm 3.poss:father.me def;hz    apart rlmi:not_be.fl
..., Abraham’s father died. bb 177 $F 
§8.3 The possessor phrase 181

Personal item

 [ zixquisiil ctam ticop ]DP yaaco cop

child male md:vt [3.poss]:house def;vt
that boy’s house

 [ Ctam cahtxima quij ]DP yaaco cop caacoj iha.

male sbj.nmlz:rich def;cm [3.poss]:house def;vt sbj.nmlz:big dcl
A rich man’s house is always large.

Deverbal noun

 [ cmaam tiquij ] ˻ an ihiliti˼ quih

female md:cm    [3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:hv:hair def;fl
that woman’s scarf

 [ Inyaazi quih ] ˻ an ihitj˼ quih hax ano

2.poss:obj.nmlz:carry def;fl    [3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:hv:trunk def;fl fresh_water [3.poss:]in
hmiih.
1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
I washed your child’s pants.

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 D * Juan quih trooqui quij

Juan def;fl vehicle def;cm
(Juan’s vehicle)

E * Juan quih haaonam quij

Juan def;fl abs:hat def;cm
(Juan’s hat)

F * Juan quih haaco cop

Juan def;fl abs;house def;vt
(Juan’s house)

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Juan def;fl 3.poss:vehicle def;cm
Juan’s vehicle

E Juan quih trooqui yaa° quij

Juan def;fl vehicle [3.poss:obj.nmlz:]own def;cm
Juan’s vehicle

F * Juan quih itrooqui yaa quij

Juan def;fl 3.poss:vehicle [3.poss:obj.nmlz:]own def;cm
(Juan’s vehicle)

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182 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

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 D [ Juan quih ] iionam quij

Juan def;fl 3.poss:hat def;cm
Juan’s hat

E [ Juan quih ] iionam quij

Juan def;fl 3.poss:hat def;cm
Juan’s house

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 Juan quih haaonam yaa° quij

Juan def;fl abs:hat his/hers def;cm
Juan’s hat

8.4 The relative clause

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§8.4 The relative clause 183

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 Hapxa coocj ihyooho.

Sylvilagus_sp. sbj.nmlz:two 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw two cotton-tail rabbits.

 Juan quih coocj coi hyooho.

Juan def;fl sbj.nmlz:two def;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw the two Juans.bb 0DUOHWW D

 zaah ccooo cop

sun/day sbj.nmlz:entire def;vt
the whole daybb 7RSHWHB

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 He hihaaitloj quih coaatjö ox hamooctam.

1.pro 1.poss:blood:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:sweet thus 1p.sbj:rlmi:look_at:pl
That’s how those of us who are diabetics look at it.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ That is how we whose blood is sweet look at it

 He cacöla hant hac án cöicoizct

1.pro sbj.nmlz:tall/long\pl land def;loc [3.poss:]interior 3.io:inf.intr:enter\pl

hascmaaj aha.
1p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:know:pl aux:dcl
We who are tall won’t be able to enter it.

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 * [ Tiix coos ] (cop) he hita chaa ha.

dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:sing def;vt 1.pro 1.poss:mother sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
(That one that is singing is my mother.)

 * [ Taax hap quicötoj ] (coi) ox mimjöc.

dem;dt;pl Odocoileus_hemionus sbj.nmlz:kill\pl def;pl thus rlmi:think\pl
(That’s how those who are expert mule deer hunters think.)

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184 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

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 ..., [ comcaac [ Socaaix ano motat ] he caazcam ]

(Seri)_person\pl Punta_Chueca [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move:pl 1.io:sbj.nmlz:arrive\pl

coi ...
def;pl
… the people who came from Punta Chueca and arrived to me …
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ … The people who, after they came from Punta Chueca, arrived to me …bb &<+,

 [ ˻ Ziix quiisax˼ [ pootax ta ] quiho ] zo haquix

   thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit irr.dep:go ds sbj.nmlz:tr:see indf;sg somewhere

imiih iha, hant quixoaa quij

sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl ghost_shrimp def;cm
The person who has seen a ghost shrimp go on the land doesn’t exist. (No one has ever seen a ghost
shrimp travelling on the land.) bb (6 KDQWBTXL[RDD 

 ..., cmiique ital tahac contica tintica ˻ hacx

(Seri)_person 3.sbj:rlt:accompany md:loc 3.io:aw:sbj.nmlz:move md:aw    apart
itamiihtaj˼, ...
3.sbj:rlt:cause_not_exist\pl
… they had killed the person who had accompanied him,…bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

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 [ Caaytaj quih coopl ] coi caacöl iha.

horse:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:black\pl def;pl sbj.nmlz:big\pl dcl
The BLACK horses are big.

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8.4.1 Subject relatives

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§8.4.1 Subject relatives 185

Subject of a transitive clause

 [ Ctam [ canoaa hoyaat quih / com ] queexl ] quih háqui

male boat 1.poss:obj.nmlz:own:pl def;fl def;hz sbj.nmlz:[tr:]buy def;fl where?

tiih?
rlt:be.fl
Where is the man who bought our boat?
>:LWK WKH DUWLFOH quih WKH ERDW LV QRW SUHVHQW ZLWK WKH DUWLFOH com WKH ERDW LV SUHVHQW@

 [ ¿Ctam [ canoaa hoyaat quih ] imexl ] quih háqui tiih?

  male boat 1.poss:obj.nmlz:own:pl def;fl 3.sbj:rlmi:take def;fl where? rlt:be.fl
Where is the man who didn’t buy our boat?

 [ Cmaam miisj quih sexl ca ] quih hiz cötmiij iho.

female 2.poss:basket def;fl irr.ind:take/buy sbj.nmlz:aux def;fl px 3.io:rlt:neg:sit dcl
The woman who will buy your basket isn’t here.

 [ Comcaac ctamcö quih sixoaaj ca ] coi ...

(Seri)_person\pl male\pl def;fl irr.ind:plan_to_fight sbj.nmlz:aux def;pl
The Seri men who would fight …bb (= $]RMB&DQRMB,PDWD[ D

 [ Ziix xiica quih caai tahac iti quiij quij hapxa
thing thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]make md:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit def;cm Sylvilagus_sp.
hapáh ] quij itataamalca, yoque.
sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:aug:hv:horn(s)/antlers rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
The being that made the things [the Creator] who was there, put antlers on the cotton-tail, it is said.bb
&RQ$VW

 [ Cmaam ˻ zaxt quisil˼ cmoqueepe quih caazi / quiho ]

female       ?  sbj.nmlz:small sbj.nmlz:sick def;fl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]carry sbj.nmlz:tr:see

quih / quij imoz caaj iha.

def;fl def;cm 3.poss:heart sbj.nmlz:? dcl
The mother of a sick child is always worried.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ The woman who is carrying/seeing a sick child, …
>:LWK WKH DUWLFOH quih WKH ZRPDQ LV QRW SUHVHQW ZLWK WKH DUWLFOH quij WKH ZRPDQ LV SUHVHQW@

 [ Cmaam miisj quih sexl ca ] quih hiz cötmiij iho.

female 2.poss:basket def;fl irr.ind:take/buy sbj.nmlz:aux def;fl px 3.io:rlt:neg:sit dcl
The woman who will buy your basket isn’t here.

Subject of a passive clause

 [ ¿Canoaa moxima hatalhaa ] quih háqui tiih?

   boat yesterday sbj.nmlz:[pass:]buy def;fl where? rlt:be.fl
Where is the boat that was bought yesterday?

 [ ¿Canoaa moxima imahatalhaa ] quih háqui tiih?

   boat yesterday sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:buy def;fl where? rlt:be.fl
Where is the boat that was not bought yesterday?

 Xiica tacoi [ [ ˻ ziix ccam˼ ] impaho ] z itaht, ...

thing\pl md:pl    thing sbj.nmlz:alive sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:see indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:see\pl
They saw an unrecognized animal, … bb &<+,
186 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 [ ziix quih hapahit quih cacaaixaj ]

thing def;fl sbj.nmlz:pass:eat def;fl sbj.nmlz:make_strong
something to eat that gives strength bb &<+,

 [ Ziix spahit ca quisil ipi ] impaho ha.

thing irr.ind:pass:eat sbj.nmlz:aux sbj.nmlz:small del sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:see dcl
There isn’t anything to eat. bb &<+,

Subject of an intransitive clause

 [ haaco caacoj caziim cmaa quiih ] zo

abs;house sbj.nmlz:big sbj.nmlz:pleasant now sbj.nmlz:be.fl indf;sg
a big new beautiful house bb &<+,

 [ Xazlc quih ctamcö quih caacöl quih ] htácotim,

Puma_concolor\pl def;fl male\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:big\pl def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:kill:impf
I have killed big male pumasbb &RQ3XP

 ... [ ˻ ziix quiisax˼ xepe quih iteel com iti caap ] cop
   thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit sea def;fl 3.poss:edge def;hz 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt

...

… the person that is on the seashore …bb 6LHWHB)LORV 

b
Subject of a predicate nominal
b
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DPi

S D

DPi NP

NP

N N

haxz ctam ticop

dog male MD:VT

7KH SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDOV DUH VLQJOH XQGHUVFRUHG LQ H[DPSOHV 

 [ Haxz° ctam ] ticop hin yocatxla.

dog male md:vt 1s.do:rlyo:bite_(like_dog)
That male dog bit me.
§8.4.1 Subject relatives 187

 [ cmiique ctam ] zo

(Seri)_person male indf;sg
a Seri man

 [ hap cmaam ] zo

Odocoileus_hemionus female indf;sg
a female mule deer

 ... cmaam zo toc cötiij, [ ziix cmiique caii ctam aal ]
female indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit thing (Seri)_person grown/older male 3.poss:spouse
quij, tiix ah Bariil impáh.
def;cm dem;dt;sg foc Barrel rlmi:pass:do/say/put.fl
… there was a woman whose [now deceased] spouse was called Barrel.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ ... there was a woman, the thing who was an adult who was male who was her spouse
was called Barrel.bb +RPEUHB%DUULOB

 [ He cmajiic ] hascmalx aha.

1.pro female\pl 1p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:go\pl aux:dcl
We women will not go.

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PHDQLQJ ZKHQ WKH\ PRGLI\ QRPLQDOV DV LQ 

 [ ˻ eenm haacni˼ cmaacoj ]

   metal abs;bow old_man
trusty old rifle bb &<+,

 [ eenim comcaii ]

metal/knife old_woman
favorite knife bb &<+,

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 [ hant quih iti icmiiquet isoj áa ] hac

land def;fl 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]be_person 3.poss:body true def;loc
his own home area bb 177 0W 

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 Hipiix [ stacj isoj áa ] ha.

dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula 3.poss:body true dcl
This is the real rock oyster.

 [ Ctam isoj ] iha.

male 3.poss:body dcl

He is a real man. bb 2᯲HUHG

 [ Ctamcö ísolca ] ha.

male:pl 3.poss:body\pl dcl
They are real men.


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2QH SHUVRQ FODLPHG WKDW WKLV FRXOG EH SDUDSKUDVHG DV quictamo fierce $QRWKHU FRQVXOWDQW GLVDJUHHG DQG VDLG LW ZRXOG
PHDQ WKH SHUVRQ LV VRPHRQH ZKR FDQ GR ZHOO ZKDWHYHU KH GRHV
188 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

8.4.2 Primary and secondary object relatives

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 [ Icaapjöquij° hoeenec ] cah tapxölim ma, ...

sea_pounding_stick 1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry\pl def;fl:foc rlt:broken ds
The pole that we brought broke, … bb &<+,

 [ cafee moosi ] cap

coffee 2.poss:obj.nmlz:drink def;vt
the coffee that you drink bb &<+,

 [ María quih cafee oosi ] cap cmatj iha.

María def;fl coffee [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:drink def;vt sbj.nmlz:hot dcl
The coffee that María is drinking/drank is/was hot. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Ziix icocooz quiya ha, [ ctam moxima quih canoaa quih
thing inf.intr:unsp.obj:rob sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl male yesterday def;fl boat def;fl

miiye ] quih.
2.poss:obj.nmlz:give_gift def;fl
The man that you gave the boat to yesterday is a robber.

 [ Canoaa ma hiiye ] com cooxp iha.

boat 2s.do:1.poss:obj.nmlz:give_gift def;hz sbj.nmlz:white dcl
The boat I gave you is/was white.

 [ Moxima quih canoaa ma hiiye ] quih cooxp iha.

yesterday def;fl boat 2s.do:1.poss:obj.nmlz:give_gift def;fl sbj.nmlz:white dcl
The boat that I gave you yesterday is white.

 D [ Canoaa Juan quih ma iiye ] com quiha ha.

boat Juan def;fl 2s.do:3.sbj:rlyo:give_gift def;hz sbj.nmlz:fast dcl
The boat that Juan gave you is very fast. (

E [ Juan quih canoaa ma iiye ] com quiha ha.

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 [ Cafee nsiisi ha ] cop coaatjö iha.

coffee 2s.sbj:irr.ind:drink aux def;vt sbj.nmlz:sweet dcl
The coffee that you will drink is sweet.

 [ imám quih hant cohsaheectim ha ] coi

3.poss:fruit def;fl land 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:aug:travel aux def;pl
the fruit that I am going to transport bb &<+,

 ... xo [ ziix isiitoj ha ihmaa° ] z itcmaht iho.

but thing 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat\pl aux another indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:neg:see\pl dcl
… but they can’t find anything to eat. bb 177 0W 

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IURQWHG LQ ᯳QLWH FODXVHV DV LQ  VHH i

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§8.4.3.1 Indirect objects and oblique objects 189

 [ Cafee María quih oosi ] cap cmatj iha.

coffee María def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:drink def;vt sbj.nmlz:hot dcl
The coffee that María is drinking/drank is/was hot. bb 2᯲HUHG

%XW WKH KHDG FDQQRW EH VHSDUDWHG IURP WKH UHODWLYH FODXVH VHH 

 D * [ Cafee cap ] cmatj iha, [ María quih oosi ].

E * [ María quih oosi ] cmatj iha, [ cafee cap ].

F * [ Cafee cap ] [ María quih oosi ] cmatj iha.

G * [ María quih oosi ] [ cafee cap ] cmatj iha.

(The coffee that María is drinking/drank is/was hot.)

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 [ Canoaa ctam cop hihacohot ] com quiha ha.

boat male def;vt 1.poss:obj.nmlz:cause_see def;hz sbj.nmlz:fast dcl
The boat that I showed to the man is fast.

 * Cmaam quih miisj quih sexl ca ] quih hiz cötmiij iho.
(The woman who will buy your basket isn’t here.)

8.4.3 Indirect objects, oblique objects and objects of Ps

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yeen oo caap* [3.poss:]face del sbj.nmlz:stand first

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iiqui iipxa 3.poss:toward 3.poss:[pon:]three third
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iiqui yaaitom 3.poss:toward [3.poss:]pon.intr:three fifth
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iiqui tomcoj cöihiih 3.poss:toward ? 3.io:3.poss:pon:be.fl seventh
iiqui izooxolcam 3.poss:toward 3.poss:[pon:]eight eighth
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iiqui ihanl 3.poss:toward 3.poss:[pon:]ten tenth

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H[SUHVVLRQ XVLQJ VRPH FRQWH[WXDOO\DSSURSULDWH YHUE ZLWK WKH DGYHUE íi VHH i

8.4.3.1. Indirect objects and oblique objects.


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190 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 D zaah it ˻ hapx mihiip˼ cop

sun/day 3.poss:on    outside 2.poss:pon:stand def;vt
the day on which you were born

E zaah iti micmiiquet cop

sun/day 3.poss:on 2.poss:[pon:]be_person def;vt
the day on which you were born

F zaah iti mihisil cop

sun/day 3.poss:on 2.poss:pon:small def;vt
the day on which you were born

 D [ eenim ziix ipxasi quih miizix ] cop

metal/knife thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl 2.poss:[pon:]saw def;vt
the knife with which you cut the meat

E [ ziix ipxasi quih eenim miizix ] cop

thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl metal/knife 2.poss:[pon:]saw def;vt

 [ Ctam canoaa quih cohyacohot ] quih he hoyacj iha.

male boat def;fl 3.io:1.poss:pon:cause_see def;fl 1.pro 1.poss:obj.nmlz:call_sibling dcl
The man that I showed the boat to is my brother.

 [ eenim inyazix ] cop

metal/knife 2.poss:pon.intr:unsp.obj:saw def;vt
the knife that you are/were cutting with

 [ eenim misiizix ha ] cop

metal/knife 2.poss:irr.ind:cut aux def;vt
the knife that you will cut it with

 ... [ isiilx ] hac iti miizcam.

3.poss:irr.ind:go\pl def;loc 3.poss:on rlmi:arrive\pl
… they arrived to the place from where they would go.bb (6 $]RMB&DQRMB,PDWD[ F

8.4.3.2. Objects of P. ([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKH UHODWLYL]DWLRQ RI WKH VHPDQWLF REMHFW RI D 3 $V LQ
VLPSOH VHQWHQFHV WKH REMHFW RI WKH 3 PD\ EH IURQWHG VHH FKDSWHU 

 [ xiica iicot hihiij ] coi

thing\pl 3.poss:place_between 1.poss:pon:sit def;pl
the people whom I was with

 D [ Juan quih comcaac (qu)iicot ihiij ] coi

Juan def;fl (Seri)_person\pl 3.poss:place_between 3.poss:pon:sit def;pl
the people that Juan was with

E [ comcaac Juan quih (qu)iicot ihiij ] coi

(Seri)_person\pl Juan def;fl 3.poss:place_between 3.poss:pon:sit def;pl

 [ hant iti haxoj hiizcam ] hac

land 3.poss:on shore_seen_from_water 1.poss:[pon:]arrive\pl def;loc
the place where we beached

 D [ ctamcö coi hant iti haxoj iizcam ] hac

male\pl def;pl land 3.poss:on shore_seen_from_water 3.poss:[pon:]arrive\pl def;loc
the place where the men beached
§8.4.4 Possessor relatives 191

E [ hant ctamcö coi iti haxoj iizcam ] hac

land male\pl def;pl 3.poss:on shore_seen_from_water 3.poss:[pon:]arrive\pl def;loc

 D [ he canoaa ano hiihca ] com

1.pro boat [3.poss:]in 1.poss:[pon:]sit\pl def;hz
the boat that we are/were in
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E [ canoaa he ano hiihca ] com

boat 1.pro [3.poss:]in 1.poss:[pon:]sit\pl def;hz

F * canoaa ano he hiihca com

 [ canoaa ano hiihca ] com

boat [3.poss:]in 1.poss:[pon:]sit\pl def;hz
the boat that we are/were in
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 [ he canoaa ano hisiihca ha ] com

1.pro boat [3.poss:]in 1.poss:irr.ind:sit\pl dcl def;hz
the boat that we will be in

 [ cafee ˻ xiica an icaai˼ ipi an impaii

coffee    thing\pl  [3.poss:]in  3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:make del [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]neg:pass:make
] quih
def;fl
coffee without sugar
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ coffee in which sugar has not been put

 [ hant an isquiih ha ]

land [3.poss:]in 3.poss:irr.ind:unsp.sbj:be.fl dcl
place where one will live bb 177 -Q 

8.4.4 Possessor relatives

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[ cmaam iiquet quih ˻ hacx cmiih˼ ] quih
female 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;fl    apart sbj.nmlz:not_be.fl def;fl
the woman whose child died

 ZH IRXQG WKH FKLOG REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ

[ Cmaam iiquet quih hocoht ] quih ˻ iisax
female 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;fl 1.poss:obj.nmlz:see\pl def;fl    3.poss:spirit

hant yaait˼.
land rlyo:arrive
The woman whose child we found is happy.
192 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 \RX ZHUH FXWWLQJ ZLWK WKH NQLIH REOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ
[ Cmaam eenim quih ziix ipxasi quih miizix ] quij iisax
female metal/knife def;fl thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl 2.poss:[pon:]saw def;cm 3.poss:spirit

hant yaait.
land rlyo:arrive
The woman whose knife you were cutting the meat with is happy.

 \RX SXW ᯳UHZRRG LQWR WKH FDU REOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ
[ cmaam itrooqui quih haquejöc ano miiquim ] quij
female 3.poss:vehicle def;fl abs:firewood [3.poss:]in 2.poss:[pon:]put_items def;cm
the woman into whose car you put firewood

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Ø cmaam iiquet quih hocoht quih

1p woman her child the that we saw the

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 D [ cmaam Pedro quih ata ] quij

female Pedro def;fl 3.poss:mother def;cm
Pedro’s mother, the woman who is Pedro’s mother

E [ Pedro quih cmaam ata ] quij

Pedro def;fl female 3.poss:mother def;cm

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§8.4.5 The definite article in relative clauses 193

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cmaam Pedro quih ata quih

woman the his mother the

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DPi

S D

DPi DP NP

NP D NP DPi N

N N

Pedro quih cmaam Ø ata quih

the woman his mother the

8.4.5 The definite article in relative clauses

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 [ Canoaa quih quisil com, ] tiix ihsexl aha.

boat def;fl sbj.nmlz:small def;hz dem;dt;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:buy aux:dcl
I will buy the SMALL boat.
194 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

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S D

DP VP

NP D VNom

canoaa quih quisil com

boat the small the

 [ Caaytaj quih coopl ] coi caacöl iha.

horse:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:black\pl def;pl sbj.nmlz:big\pl dcl
The BLACK horses are big.

 [ ˻ xiica quiistox˼ quih ihmaa° ] com

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl other def;hz
the other people

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 [ Xazlc quih ctamcö quih caacöl quih ] htácotim,

Puma_concolor\pl def;fl male\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:big\pl def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:kill:impf
I have killed big male pumasbb &RQ3XP

 [ ziix quih imám ˻ hehe án˼ com ano quiih quih
thing def;fl 3.poss:fruit    plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:be.fl def;fl
quihic quih caacöl quih catxo ] coi
sbj.nmlz:hv:seed def;fl sbj.nmlz:big\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:much/many def;pl
thing whose fruit in the countryside has many big seeds bb +DVWB4XLWD

 ... [ xepe quih cxatlc quih cmeque ] com, ...

sea def;fl sbj.nmlz:thin def;fl sbj.nmlz:warm def;hz
… the shallow and warm sea … bb (6 $ORBTXLF¸V 

 [ Haxz° quih quisil xah caacoj quih hant quih iti caap ]
dog def;fl sbj.nmlz:small crd sbj.nmlz:big def;fl land def;fl 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand

cop ziix z iij cöpomaiitim ta x, ...

def;vt thing indf;sg otherwise/apart 3.io:irr.dep:neg:do ds ut
If there is a small or big dog somewhere that isn’t doing anything wrong, …bb &RQVHMRVBSHUURB
§8.4.5 The definite article in relative clauses 195
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DP

S D

DP AP

S D A

DP VP

NP D VNom

xiica quih quiistox quih ihmaa com

things the living the other the

 [ [ Hap quih caacöl ] quih quiipe ] tacoi itamjc

Odocoileus_hemionus def;fl sbj.nmlz:big\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:good md:pl 3.sbj:rlt:deliver

xox, ...
although
Although he brought those big good mule deer, …bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

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 D * Hap coi caacöl coi quiipe tacoi …

E * Hap tacoi caacöl quih quiipe quih …

F * Hap quih caacöl coi quiipe tacoi …

G * Hap quih caacöl tacoi quiipe quih …

H HWF

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 D haxz° ctam quih ocoho cop

dog male def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see def;vt
the dog that the man saw
196 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

E ctam quih haxz° ocoho cop

male def;fl dog [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see def;vt
the dog that the man saw

F Ø haxz° ocoho cop

dog [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see def;vt
the dog that he saw

G * haxz° quih ctam quih ocoho cop

H * ctam quih haxz° quih ocoho cop

I * Ø haxz° quih ocoho cop

 D ctam haxz° quih ocoho cop

male dog def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see def;vt
the man that the dog saw

E haxz° quih ctam ocoho cop

dog def;fl male [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see def;vt
the man that the dog saw

F Ø ctam ocoho cop

male [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see def;vt
the man that it saw

G * haxz° quih ctam quih ocoho cop

H * ctam quih haxz° quih ocoho cop

I * ctam quih Ø ocoho cop

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 [ Haxz° [ ziic [ zixcám siimet quih quihit ] quih quicö ] quih
dog bird fish bread def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:eat def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:kill def;fl

cöcaaitim ] cop yaacö.

3.io:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]chase def;vt rlyo:unsp.obj:bark_at
The dog that chased the bird that killed the fish that ate the bread barked.

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 [ Zixcám com [ siimet caaitic ] oohit ] quih mooxp.

fish def;hz bread sbj.nmlz:soft [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat def;fl rlmi:white
The soft bread that the fish ate was white.

 * [ Ziic quij [ zixcám com siimet oohit ] ooicö ] quih

bird def;cm fish def;hz bread [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:kill def;fl

mooxp.
rlmi:white
(The bread that the fish ate that the bird killed was white.)
§8.4.6 Headless relatives 197

 * Ziic quij [ zixcám siimet quih quihit ] ooicö com caacoj
bird def;cm fish bread def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:eat [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat def;hz sbj.nmlz:big
iha.
decl
(The fish that ate the bread that the bird killed was big.)

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 ... [ cmiique zo ziix z imoz cöiihca z ]

(Seri)_person indf;sg thing indf;sg 3.poss:heart 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]be_located indf;sg
imaa ha.
sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:know dcl
… he had never known anyone who hoarded.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

 ..., [ ziix zo cöiyasíyalam zo ] haquix imiih iha.

thing indf;sg 3.io:3.poss:pon:use\pl\impf indf;sg somewhere sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl
… there was nothing else [no other shell] that they used as much. bb ;WLLS 

8.4.6 Headless relatives

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 ..., [ cyaa ] zo toc cötiij, ...

sbj.nmlz:[tr:]own indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit
… an owner was there, … bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ B

 hipi [ caaitom íi ]

intns sbj.nmlz:speak first
the first one to speak

 [ Zixcám quih quihit ] tiquij, tiix he hoyacj iha.

fish def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:eat md:cm dem;dt;sg 1.pro 1.poss:obj.nmlz:call_sibling dcl
THE ONE WHO IS EATING THE FISH is my sibling.

 [ Cfit ] cop he hoyacj iha.

sbj.nmlz:stand_up def;vt 1.pro 1.poss:obj.nmlz:call_sibling dcl
The one who is standing is my sister/brother.

 [ Hant coom ] com he hoyacj iha.

land sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz 1.pro 1.poss:obj.nmlz:call_sibling dcl
The one who is lying down is my sister/brother.

 ... [ ano quiij quij ] ˻ hacx yomiih˼.

[3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:sit def;cm    apart rlyo:neg:be.fl
… the one that was inside it [the car] died. bb &<+,

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LW PD\ DOVR EH XVHG IRU D SHUVRQ ZKR KDV QHYHU EHHQ VHDWHG
198 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 [ Hant quiij ] quij quihehe quih haa ha.

land sbj.nmlz:sit def;cm sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
The one who is sitting down is the governor.

 [ Quisiil° ctam quih cacoxl ] quij he hiyal iha.

child male def;fl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]tend def;cm 1.pro 1.poss:spouse dcl
The one who is taking care of the boy is my spouse.

 [ Imitaamt ] ticop, tiix he hyaazi ha.

sbj.nmlz:neg:hv:sandals md:vt dem;dt;sg 1.pro 1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry dcl
The barefoot one is my child.

 Heeesam timoca, tiix ˻ hantx moca˼ isoj iha.

Hippocampus_ingens md:twd dem;dt;sg    at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move true dcl
He (seahorse) was a true ancestor.bb +LSRFDPSR

 [ Coos ] quij toc cötiij x, [ cooit ] cop mos toc

sbj.nmlz:sing def;cm there 3.io:rlt:sit ut sbj.nmlz:arrive def;vt also there

cömiip.
3.io:rlmi:stand
There was a singer there, there also was a dancer.bb 6LHWHB)LORV 

 [ [ Ziix cmiique caii cmaam ipca cöcoos quij ]

thing (Seri)_person grown/older female rain 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sing def;cm
cöcazcam ] tamocat ox tooza, yoque.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:arrive\pl md:twd thus rlt:speak\pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
That’s what those who went to the “rain seer” woman said.bb (6 FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKRB

 [ Icaatax quimzo ] zo haa piij x, isoj isataaho

inf.intr:go sbj.nmlz:tr:want indf;sg there irr.dep:sit ut 3.poss:body 3.sbj:irr.ind:make_ready

aha.
aux:dcl
Whoever wants to go should get ready.

8.5 The partitive construction

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 [ [ Haxöl quih ] antá xah ] hiime.

Leukoma_grata def;fl some_of_them atten 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:give
I gave her/him some (Leukoma grata) clams. bb &<+,

 [ Antá xah ] miizcam.

some_of_them atten rlmi:arrive\pl
Some arrived.

 [ Hax antá xah ] miizcam.

intns some_of_them atten rlmi:arrive\pl
Quite a few arrived.
§8.5 The partitive construction 199

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(Seri)_person\pl male\pl def;pl already some_of_them ? rlmi:arrive\pl
Some Seri men already arrived. bb &<+,

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 [ [ Cmiique caacoj ] àpa zo ] nsiiho aha.

(Seri)_person sbj.nmlz:big enormous_quantity indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:see aux:dcl
You will see an enormous quantity of big people. bb &<+,

 [ [ Haxz° ] àpa zo ] hmiiho.

dog enormous_quantity indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:see
I saw an enormous quantity of dogs.

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DPi

NP D

DPi N

NP D

seaatoj tanticat pac

goats the (pl.) some

 [ [ Seaatoj tanticat ] pac ] queelcam iha.

goat:pl md;aw;pl indf;pl sbj.nmlz:old;pl dcl
Some of the goats are old. bb &<+,

 ... [ [ ˻ xiica coosyatoj˼ cmajiic coi ] zo ] haa, yoque.

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:sing\pl\? female\pl def;pl indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
… she was one of the female giants, it is said.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD E

 [ [ Xiica Hast ano coii, Cofteecöl iti

thing\pl San_Esteban_Island [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:be_fl\pl San_Esteban_Island 3.poss:on
coii coi ] zo ] haa ha.
sbj.nmlz:stand\pl def;pl indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
He was one of the San Esteban people. bb &<+,

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200 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 ... [ [ xicaquiziil iicot ihyaalim coi ] zo ] toc

child\pl 3.poss:place_between/with 1.poss:pon.intr:play def;pl indf;sg there
cötap,
3.io:rlt:stand
… one of the children with whom I was playing was there, … bb &<+,

 [ [ ˻ ziix ccam˼ ticom ihaait cap ] pac ]

   thing sbj.nmlz:alive md:hz 3.poss:blood def;vt indf;pl
some of that animal’s blood bb 177 +E 

 ... [ [ sahmees yatoiilcam tacoi ] pac ]

Citrus_x_sinensis [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:distribute;pl md:pl indf;pl

ma hsacooomot aha.
2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:request_for aux:dcl
… I will ask for some of those oranges (that they are distributing) for you.bb &<+,

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 [ [ Zacaam hapáh quih ] zo ] haa, yoque,

young_woman sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;fl indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
ziix tiix.
thing dem;dt;sg
She was a young woman. bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

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 He [ [ taax ] zo ] haa ha.

1.pro dem;dt;pl indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
I am one of them.

 [ [ Taax ] pac ] yoozcam.

dem;dt;pl indf;pl rlyo:arrive\pl
Some of them arrived.

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 [ [ ¿Me ] pac ] matalx? (*talx)

  2.pro indf;pl 2p.sbj:rlt:go\pl
Did some of you go?

 [ [ Me ] pac ] mataainim x, Hezitmisoj quij hax ano /

2.pro indf;pl 2p.sbj:rlt:mix_in ut Hermosillo def;cm fresh_water [3.poss:]in

áno mimazcam oo, cömayoii.

[3.poss:]in 2.poss:[pon:]neg:arrive\pl del 3.io:2p.sbj:rlyo:?\pl
Some of you didn’t arrive to Hermosillo.  bb 2᯲HUHG 

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 [ [ ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ coi ] coox ]

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;pl all
all of the people

 [ [ xiica oeen coi ] coox oo ]

thing\pl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry_items def;pl all del
everything that s/he was carrying

 [ [ Xicaquiziil com ] tazo ipi ] haquix piih, ...

child\pl def;hz one del somewhere irr.dep:be.fl
If even one of these children … bb 177 0W 

 [ [ He ] tazo ipi ] imatax iha.

1.pro one del sbj.nmlz:neg:go dcl
Not one of us went.

 [ [ Me ] tazo ipi zo ] mayomatax.

2.pro one del indf;sg 2p.sbj:rlyo:neg:go
Not one of you went.

 [ [ xiica tacoi ] coocj ]

thing\pl md:pl sbj.nmlz:two
two of them bb 177 0N 

 [ [ Xiica cmajiic chanl tacoi ] cooitom ] ...

thing\pl female\pl sbj.nmlz:ten md:pl sbj.nmlz:five
Five of those ten women ... bb 177 0W 

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 [ [ (Me) ] coocj ] masiilx aha.

2.pro sbj.nmlz:two 2p.sbj:irr.ind:go\pl aux:dcl
a. Two of you should go.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (You two should go.)

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 [ [ (He) ] tazo ipi zo ] hayomatax.

1.pro one del indf;sg 1p.sbj:rlyo:neg:go
Not one of us went.
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 [ [ (He) ] zo ] hayootax.

1.pro indf;sg 1p.sbj:rlyo:go
One of us went.

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202 Chapter 8: The nominal phrase

 [ [ He ] coox oo ] hizi quíh iha.

1.pro all del 1p.do:sbj.nmlz:do/say/put.fl dcl
He did it to all of us.bb 177 5R 

 ... taax [ [ he ] coox oo ] ˻ hiicot cöiyaai˼ ha.

dem;dt;pl 1.pro all del bbb1.poss:with 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]make/do dcl
… he has blessed all of us with them. bb 177 -Q 

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SUHFHGHG E\ RQH RI WKH IROORZLQJ SKUDVHV iij càap otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:stand iij còom otherwise/apart
sbj.nmlz:lie iij quìij otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:sit

 [ Xiica czooxöc tacoi ] iij càap tazo cap ...

thing\pl sbj.nmlz:four md:pl ] otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:stand one def;vt
Each one of the four creatures ... bb 177 5Y 

 [ xiica ihic coi ] iij quìij tazo quij

thing\pl 3.poss:seed def;pl otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:sit one def;cm
each of the seeds bb 177 0N 

 [ Zixcám coi ] iij còom tazo ˻ hacx cmiih˼ iha.

fish def;pl otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:lie one    apart bsbj.nmlz:not_be.fl dcl
Each one of the fish died.

 [ Zixcám coi ] iij còom tazo com cmoqueepe ha.

fish def;pl otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:lie one def;hz sbj.nmlz:sick dcl
Each one of the fish is sick.

 [ Zixcám coi ] iij còom tazo cah ˻ hacx cmiih˼ iha.
fish def;pl otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:lie one def;fl:foc    apart bsbj.nmlz:not_be.fl dcl
Each one of the fish died (one by one).

7KH H[DPSOHV LQ  VKRZ WKDW WKH SDUWLWLYH H[SUHVVLRQ PHDQLQJ each one UHTXLUHV VLQJXODU DJUHHPHQW

 D Iij coom cah cmoqueepe ha.

otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:lie def;fl:foc sbj.nmlz:sick dcl
Each one is sick.

E Iij còom tazo cah cmoqueepe ha.

one
Each one is sick.

F * Iij coom cah cmoqueept iha.

sbj.nmlz:sick:pl dcl
(Each one is sick.)

G * Iij còom tazo cah cmoqueept iha.

sbj.nmlz:sick:pl dcl
(Each one is sick.)


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Relational clause structure

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9.1 Syntax relating to subjects

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9.1.1 Different Subject marking

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 &RUHIHUHQFH $JHQW ൹ $JHQW

Ziix z itahit, hant z iiqui yiin.
thing indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:eat place indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlyo:go
S/he ate something and left.

 &RUHIHUHQFH ([SHULHQFHU ൹ $JHQW ൹ $JHQW

D xazoj cop itii,
Puma_concolor def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:hear
and when Puma heard itbb &RQ3XP

E ziix ticom itácatx,

thing md:hz 3.sbj:rlt:release
he released that animal (Rabbit)bb &RQ3XP

F hapx iiqui tpanzx, yoque.

outside 3.poss:toward rlt:run rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
and he (Puma) ran away.bb &RQ3XP

6RPH RI WKHVH IDFWV KDYH EHHQ GLVFXVVHG LQ GHWDLO LQ 0DUOHWW E 0DUOHWW D DQG )DUUHOO 0DUOHWW 3HUOPXWWHU


203
204 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

 &RUHIHUHQFH $JHQW ൹ 3DWLHQW

Ziix z itahit, ˻ hacx yomiih˼.
thing indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:eat    apart rlyo:not_be.fl
S/he ate something and died.

 &RUHIHUHQFH ([SHULHQFHU ൹ $JHQW

Comcaac coi itaht, mójocam.
(Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.sbj:rlt:see\pl rlmi:flee\pl
a. When the Serisi saw them, theyi,*j fled.
b. 2U When theyi saw the Seris, theyi,*j fled.

 &RUHIHUHQFH 3DWLHQW ൹ $JHQW

˻ Hacx ipi tommiih˼, ziix z iyozaxö.
   apart del rlt:neg:not_be.fl thing indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:discuss
Before s/hei died, s/hei said something.

 &RUHIHUHQFH 3DWLHQW ൹ 3DWLHQW

Tmoqueepe, ˻ hacx yomiih˼.
rlt:sick    apart rlyo:not_be.fl
S/he was sick and died.

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VLPSOH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 /DFN RI FRUHIHUHQFH $JHQW ൹ 3DWLHQW

Cöitatni ma, yaxi.
3.io:3.sbj:rlt:make_pointed_contact_with ds rlyo:die
S/he shot it and it died.

 /DFN RI FRUHIHUHQFH ([SHULHQFHU ൹ $JHQW

Comcaac coi itaht ma, mójocam.
(Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.sbj:rlt:see\pl ds rlmi:flee\pl
a. When the Serisi saw them, they*i,j fled.
b. $OVR When theyi saw the Seris, they*i,j fled.

 /DFN RI FRUHIHUHQFH 3DWLHQW ൹ $JHQW

Tmooxi ipi ma, ilít quij iyaactim.
rlt:neg:die still ds 3.poss:head def;cm 3.sbj:rlyo:cause_be_cut
Before it died, s/he cut off its head.

 /DFN RI FRUHIHUHQFH 3DWLHQW ൹ 3DWLHQW

Hai quih taaixaj ma, xepe com xohoopatj.
wind def;sg rlt:strong ds sea def;sg em:wavy
The wind was strong and the sea was rough.

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URORJLFDO YHUEV WKHQ WKH WUDQVLWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH FODXVH ZLWK WKH PHWHRURORJLFDO YHUE DQG D FODXVH ZLWKRXW RQH LV
DOZD\V PDUNHG ZLWK '6 6HH H[DPSOHV 

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H[DPSOH

L María quih—tcozim ma, xepe ano yaalim.

§9.1.1.2 Possessors 205

 Pomapca ta x, xepe com iiqui hpsiin aha.

irr.dep:neg:rain ds ut sea def;hz 3.poss:toward 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go aux:dcl
If it doesn’t rain, I will go out on the sea (to go fishing).

 Tcozim ma, María quih xepe ano yaalim.

rlt:hot.(weather) ds María def;fl sea [3.poss:]in rlyo:play
Since it was hot, María went swimming in the sea.

 Tapca ma, cmaam quij yiijc.

rlt:rain ds female def;cm rlyo:wet
It rained and the woman got wet.

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PDUNLQJ RFFXUV WZLFH DV H[SHFWHG

 ˻ Hehe án˼ com ano poquiihtim ta x, poopca ta x,

   plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in irr.dep:unsp.sbj;be.fl:impf ds ut irr.dep:rain ds ut
squiijc aha.
irr.ind:unsp.sbj:wet aux:dcl
If one is out in the countryside when it rains, one will get wet.

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QRW &RQVLGHU WKH SDLUV LQ 

 D Poopca ta x, saapl caha.

irr.dep:rain ds ut irr.ind:cold sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
If it rains, it will be cold.

E Poopca x, saapl caha.

If it rains, it will be cold.

 D Pomapca ta x, scozim caha.

irr.dep:neg:rain ds ut irr.ind:hot.(weather) sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
If it doesn’t rain, it will be hot (weather).

E Pomapca x, scozim caha.

If it doesn’t rain, it will be hot (weather).

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DV GLVMRLQW UHIHUHQFH 6HH H[DPSOH 

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IROORZHG E\ D GHVFULSWLYH YHUE

L Poopca x, siixaj caha.

irr.dep:rain ut irr.ind:hard sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
If it rains, it will rain hard.
206 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

 Hast quij iti hptozám, cohtmihzx, hant ihptahjiit

stone def;cm 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:unsp.obj:put.vt 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:slip land 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:fall
ma, hitoaa cop miictim.
ds 1.poss:foot/leg/toe def;vt rlmi:be_cut
I stepped on a rock, slipped on it, fell down, and cut my foot.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ ... and my foot was cut.bb &<+,

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 Oot zo toc cötiih ma, he hapi htaai (*ma),

Canis_latrans indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:be.fl ds 1.pro intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:make/do       ds
hoicö iihi.
1.poss:obj.nmlz:kill past
I killed a coyote myself.

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RI ZKLFK KDYH GHYHUEDO QRXQV

 ..., itaaizi x, heme itámlajc x, oiitoj iha.

3.sbj:rlt:make\pl ut abs:camp 3.sbj:rlt:deliver\pl ut [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat\pl dcl
..., they did it, they brought them to camp, they ate them.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 Hipi itacáp, oeen iha.

intns 3.sbj:rlt:lift_heavy_item [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry_items dcl
He himself picked it up, (and) he brought them.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

9.1.1.3. Overlapping reference. :KHQ FRUHIHUHQWLDOLW\ EHWZHHQ WKH WZR VXEMHFWV RYHUODSV EXW LV QRW H[DFW '6
PDUNLQJ LV JHQHUDOO\ UHTXLUHG 6HH H[DPSOH 

 He ha cohptaasitim ma, toii nthamat»

1.pro foc 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlt:deceive ds toward_somewhere_else aw:1p.sbj:rlmi:go:pl
I was the one that did the fooling.” bb &RQ3XP

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HYHQWV 2QH H[DPSOH LV JLYHQ LQ 

 Haxz° heeque zo ˻ ziix canaao˼ heeque zo cötiih (*ma),

dog small/young indf;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:meow small/young indf;sg 3.io:rlt:be.fl     ds
˻ hehe zamij˼ com án hac ano moii.
plant/wood palm_tree def;hz [3.poss:]area def;loc [3.poss:]in rlmi:stand\pl
A puppy and a kitten are in the box.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ A puppy is with a cat, they are in the box.

9.1.1.4. Idioms. '6 PDUNLQJ IRU VHQWHQFHV ZLWK VRPH LGLRPV EXW QRW DOO LV QRW GHWHUPLQHG EDVHG RQ JUDPPDW
LFDO VXEMHFW EXW UDWKHU RQ VRPH VHPDQWLF QRWLRQ 1RWH WKH ODFN RI '6 PDUNLQJ LQ H[DPSOHV 

 [ൿV VSLULW GHVFHQGV [ LV KDSS\

Ihptoop (*ma) x, ˻ hiisax hant mooit˼.
1s.sbj.intr:rlt:unsp.obj:sew_basket     ds ut    1.poss:spirit land rlmi:arrive
When I am basket-sewing, I am happy.
§9.1.1.5 Passive clauses 207

 [ൿV OLPEV GLH [ LV WLUHG IURP SK\VLFDO DFWLYLW\

Impopanzx (*ma) x, ˻ miihjoj sooxyat˼ aha.
2s.sbj:irr.dep;run     ds ut    2.poss:limb\pl irr.ind:die\pl aux:dcl
If you run, you will get tired.

 [ൿV OLPEV JR DZD\ [ LV XSVHW

Pancho quih ziix z itcmacö (*ma), hans ˻ iihjoj intíyatoj˼.
Pancho def;fl thing indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:neg:kill     ds just    3.limb\pl aw:rlyo:move:pl\impf
Pancho didn’t catch anything and he was upset.

 [ൿV KHDUW " WR \ [ UHPHPEHUV \

Hasaaiti cap ˻ himoz cötooit˼ (*ma), ihyexl.
petroleum_oil def;vt    1.poss:heart 3.io:rlt:arrive     ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:take
I remembered the gas and took it.

 [ൿV VWUHQJWK LV JRQH [ LV WLUHG RXW

˻ Iixaj quih tinej˼ (*ma), hanso cooxi ha.
   3.poss:[pon:]strong def;fl rlt:empty     ds just sbj.nmlz:die.(animal) dcl
When it’s tired out, it just dies.

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VLRQV LQ 

 [ൿV " JRHV [ KDV GHVLUH WR GR VRPHWKLQJ

˻ Hiisax com tatax˼ ma, xaa hpmotj.
   1.poss:spirit def;hz rlt:go ds soon 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:arise
I wanted to and soon I got up.

 EODFNQHVV FRYHUV [ [ IDLQWV RU [ IHHOV IDLQW

Hehe htacotim, hinzeet quij iti httaxz ma, tactim ma,
plant/stick 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:kill:impf 1.poss:heel def;cm 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:hit.hz ds rlt:cut ds
htaho ma, ˻ yapol hin yaanim˼.
1s.sbj.tr:rlt:see ds    [3.poss:]pon.intr:black 1s.do:rlyo:cause_covered
I was cutting firewood when I hit myself in the heel, it was cut, and when I saw it, I almost fainted.

 EODFNQHVV FRYHUV [ [ IDLQWV RU [ IHHOV IDLQW

˻ Yapol hin taanim˼ ma, hant hayom.
   [3.poss:]pon.intr:black 1s.do:rlt:cause_covered ds land 1s.sbj:rlyo:lie
I felt faint and lay down.

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LW UHODWHV WR WKH VXUIDFH VXEMHFW LV IRXQG ZKHQ RQH RI WKH FODXVHV LQ TXHVWLRQ LV SDVVLYH ,Q SDVVLYH FODXVHV VHH
i WKH JUDPPDWLFDO VXEMHFW DV FRPPRQO\ FRQFHLYHG LV not WKH QRPLQDO WKDW LV UHOHYDQW IRU WKH SXUSRVH RI
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 Hap com tooxi ma x, yopahit.

Odocoileus_hemionus def;hz rlt:die ds ut rlyo:pass:eat
a. Whenever a mule deeri died, iti was eaten.
b. 2U When a mule deeri dies, iti is eaten.
208 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

 He hptahahásaquim ma x, ihxoqueepe.
1.pro 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:pass:comb_hair_of ds ut 1s.sbj.tr:em:like
I like it when my hair is combed. bb &<+,

 Zixcám zo poxtamt ta, tompaho ho.

fish indf;sg irr.dep:abundant ds rlt:neg:pass:see dcl
Not many fish were/are seen.

 Hasitj iti tpaxquim ma x, toc comom.

sbj.nmlz:[pass:]tie_sticks_for_cradleboard 3.poss:on rlt:pass:put.hz ds ut there 3.io:rlmi:lie
He was put on the cradleboard, there he was.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 ..., tacsx ma x, hahótitol iha.

rlt:wake_up ds ut sbj.nmlz:[pass:]make_arise dcl
... when s/he wakes up, s/he is picked up.

 ..., cmaax mos isoj quij tpaho ma, ˻ ziix ina cooxp˼ z itacö, ...
now also 3.poss:body def;cm rlt:pass:see ds    Lepus_alleni indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:kill
..., then when he was seen again, he had killed an antelope jackrabbit, ...bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 Tpezi ma, tatax, yoque.

rlt:pass:defeat ds rlt:go rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
He was defeated and he went, it is said. bb $SRVWDGRUB

:KHQ D SDVVLYH FODXVH LV SUHVHQWHG ZLWK DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVH WKDW KDV DQ XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW WKDW LV FRQVWUXHG
DV FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH DJHQW RI WKH SDVVLYH FODXVH '6 PDUNLQJ GRHV QRW RFFXU 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Taax popasi (*ta) x, ˻ hacx scamiih˼ aha.

dem;dt;pl irr.dep:pass:drink     ds ut    apart irr.ind:unsp.sbj:not_be.fl aux:dcl
If one drinks that, one will die.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ If that is drunk, one will die.

 ˻ Psaac pocooxi˼ (*ta) x, ˻ ziix hapahit˼ zo sahcaa aha.

   hunger irr.dep:unsp.sbj:die     ds ut thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat indf;sg irr.ind:pass:look_for aux:dcl
If one is hungry, one should look for food.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ If one is hungry, food should be looked for.

 Heecot poquiih (*ta) x, ˻ ziix ccam˼ zo popaho x,

countryside irr.dep:unsp.sbj:be.fl/live      ds ut    thing sbj.nmlz:alive indf;sg irr.dep:pass:see ut
siic aha.
irr.ind:be_killed aux:dcl
An animal is killed if one sees it while in the countryside. bb &<+,

([DPSOH  ZDV IRXQG LQ ZKLFK WKH DJHQW RI WKH SDVVLYH FODXVH LV XQGHUVWRRG DV FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH RYHUW
VXEMHFW RI WKH RWKHU FODXVH '6 PDUNLQJ GRHV QRW RFFXU LQ WKLV H[DPSOH , ZDV XQDEOH WR FRQVWUXFW DFFHSWDEOH
H[DPSOHV VLPLODU WR WKLV RQH KRZHYHU

 ..., tpaaatim, ziix zo toc cötap, ...

rlt:pass:call:impf thing indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand
... (the birds) were summoned, someone was standing there, ...
>7KH PDQ VWDQGLQJ WKHUH ZDV XVLQJ D EXOOURDUHU WR FDOO WKH ELUGV@bb $SRVWDGRU 
§9.1.1.5 Passive clauses 209

([DPSOHV FDQ EH IRXQG VXFK DV WKRVH LQ  DQG  LQ ZKLFK WKH LPSOLHG DJHQW RI WKH SDVVLYH FODXVH FDQQRW
EH DVVXPHG WR EH H[DFWO\ FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH LPSOLFLW RU H[SUHVVHG DJHQW RI DQRWKHU FODXVH LQ VXFK VLWXDWLRQV
'6 PDUNLQJ RFFXUV

 Taax ˻ hehe án˼ com ano calx quih itaht x, anxö

dem;dt;pl    plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:go\pl def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:see\pl ut intns

itaaizi, itámlajc ma x, yopahit.

3.sbj:rlt:make\pl 3.sbj:rlt:deliver\pl ds ut rlyo:pass:eat
When those who were in the inland area saw them, they collected a lot of them, they brought them, and
they were eaten.bb (6 -RHHQH 

 Tal cah ˻ xiica cxatlc˼ tpaiitim ma x, itaaitoj,

coal/charcoal def;fl:foc    thing\pl sbj.nmlz:thin rlt:pass:make\impf ds ut 3.sbj:rlt:eat\pl
yoque.
rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
Charcoal tortillas were made and they ate them, it is said.

Tahsiimet ma x, mos itaaitoj, yoque.

rlt:pass:make_bread ds ut also 3.sbj:rlt:eat\pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
Bread was made and they ate it also.

:KHQ both FODXVHV DUH SDVVLYH DQG ZKHQ WKH LPSOLHG DJHQWV DUH XQGHUVWRRG DV EHLQJ FRUHIHUHQWLDO '6 PDUNLQJ
GRHV QRW RFFXU HYHQ WKRXJK WKH JUDPPDWLFDO VXEMHFWV WKRVH UHOHYDQW IRU VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ DUH REYLRXVO\ GL᯲HUHQW
7KH JUDPPDWLFDO VXEMHFWV DUH XQGHUVFRUHG LQ H[DPSOHV  QRWH WKDW QR '6 PDUNLQJ RFFXUV

 Icozaplim quih cói tompaii ipi x, ihic coi

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj.unsp.obj:sew def;fl still rlt:neg:pass:make del ut 3.poss:seed def;pl

cöhacooix iha.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:[pass:]remove dcl
Before thread is made, the seeds are removed [from the cotton]. bb +( 

 Haat quih pahcaa x, heepol quih mos sahcaa

Jatropha_cuneata def;fl irr.dep:pass:look_for ut Krameria_grayi def;fl also irr.ind:pass:look_for
aha.
aux:dcl
When limberbush is looked for, white ratany should also be looked for.

7KH FRQGLWLRQV IRU 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW PDUNLQJ WKHUHIRUH FDQQRW EH GHVFULEHG SUHFLVHO\ LQ WHUPV RI WUDGLWLRQDO
JUDPPDWLFDO VXEMHFW DW VXUIDFH VWUXFWXUH QRU LQ WHUPV RI VHPDQWLF UROHV VXFK DV DJHQWH[SHULHQFHUDFWRU 7KH
QRWLRQ WKDW VHHPV UHOHYDQW WR PRVW RI WKH IDFWV VR IDU WKH H[FHSWLRQV EHLQJ WKH H[DPSOHV ZLWK LGLRPDWLF H[SUHV
VLRQV LV WKDW RI ORJLFDOGHHS VXEMHFWൺWKH VXEMHFW RI WKH FODXVH LI WKHUH ZHUH QR SDVVLYL]DWLRQ
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GHVFULEHG LQ WKH IROORZLQJ VHFWLRQ DOVR SRLQW WR WKH QHHG RI DQ DSSURSULDWH QRWLRQ RI VXEMHFW RWKHU WKDQ VXUIDFH
RU GHHS VXEMHFW


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FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH H[SUHVVHG VXEMHFW RI WKH RWKHU FODXVH VZLWFKUHIHUHQFH PDUNLQJ LV XVHG

6HH WKH YDULRXV ZD\V LQ ZKLFK WKH 8QDFFXVDWLYH +\SRWKHVLV 3HUOPXWWHU  KDV EHHQ DGRSWHG E\ YDULRXV WKHRULHV
210 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

9.1.2 Times construction

6HQWHQFHV H[SUHVVLQJ WKH QXPEHU RI RFFXUUHQFHV RI DQ HYHQW DUH ELFODXVDO LQ VWUXFWXUH WKH QXPEHU RI WLPHV WKH
HYHQW KDSSHQHG LV WKH PDLQ YHUE DQG WKH HYHQW FODXVHൺZKLFK LV HYLGHQWO\ WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH QXPEHU YHUEൺLV
KHDGHG E\ D SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ 7KH VLPSOH H[DPSOH LQ  LOOXVWUDWHV WKLV

 bbbb(YHQW bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb1XPEHU
[ Hipazt ] moocj.
1.poss:[pon:]pass:tattoo rlmi:two
I was tattooed twice.

7KH H[DPSOH LQ  LV W\SLFDO LQ WKH ELFODXVDO VWUXFWXUH EXW YHU\ DW\SLFDO LQ LWV VLPSOLFLW\ 6RPH VSHDNHUV DOORZ
LW LQ WKLV FDVH EHFDXVH RI WKH SDVVLYH YHUE EXW LW LV QRW WKH SUHIHUHQFH RI DOO 8VXDOO\ WKH QXPEHU YHUE LV LQ᯴HFWHG
IRU WKH VDPH SHUVRQ DV WKH SRVVHVVRU VXEMHFW RI WKH HYHQW FODXVH DV VKRZQ LQ 

 bbbb(YHQW bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb1XPEHU
[ Ma hiizt ] ihpmaacj.
2s.do:1.poss:[pon:]tattoo 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:times;two
I tattooed you twice.

([DPSOH  DOVR VKRZV RQH RWKHU LPSRUWDQW GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ LW DQG WKH OHVV FRPPRQ VLPSOH  WKH
QXPEHU YHUE KDV H[WUD PRUSKRORJ\ VHH i IRU GHWDLOV 7KHUH LV QR REYLRXV JORVV IRU WKLV PRUSKHPH DQG QR
JRRG OLWHUDO WUDQVODWLRQ RI D YHUE OLNH ihpmaacj EHFDXVH LW LV QRW XVHG LQ LVRODWLRQ QHYHUWKHOHVV WKH JORVV times LV
XVHG KHUH DOWKRXJK WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LWVHOI JLYHV WKDW PHDQLQJ $V LV PDGH FOHDU EHORZ LW LV DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE
LQ DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQൺLW FDQQRW EH WUDQVODWHG I caused it to be two
([DPSOHV  IXUWKHU LOOXVWUDWH WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG VKRZ D ELW RI WKH UDQJH RI SUHGLFDWHV LQ WKH HYHQW
FODXVHൻDJHQWLYH QRQDJHQWLYH PHWHRURORJLFDO DFWLYH DQG SDVVLYH

 ˻ Xiica hapamyam˼ quih iij cooxalca coocj

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:[pass:]swallow:impf def;fl otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:sit\pl sbj.nmlz:two
miimyam impaapxa ta, zaah cop siime aha.
2.poss:[pon:]swallow\impf 2s.sbj:irr.dep:times:three ds sun/day def;vt irr.ind:depleted aux:dcl
Take two pills three times a day. bb &<+,

 [ Zeeme cop hihoocta ] hpmaacj.

sunset def;vt 1.poss:pon:look_at 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:times;two
I looked at the sunset twice.

 [ ¿Hacx mimiih ] intazooxöc?

  apart 2.poss:[pon:]not_be.fl 2s.sbj:rlt:times:four
Did you faint four times?

 Moxima quih [ hiiqui iipca ] maapxa.

yesterday def;fl 1.poss:toward 3.poss:[pon:]rain rlmi:times;three
It rained three times yesterday.

:KHQ WKH KLJKHU YHUE LV EDVHG RQ WKH URRW √atxo many, much WKH DUWLFOH quih LV W\SLFDOO\ XVHG ZLWK WKH HYHQW
FODXVH DV LQ 

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OHWW E 7KH <XPDQ ODQJXDJH 0RMDYH KDV D VWULNLQJO\ VLPLODU NLQG RI FRQVWUXFWLRQ 0XQUR E 7KH PRUSKRORJLFDO
IDFWV RI 6HUL VXSSRUW D GL᯲HUHQW DQDO\VLV IRU WKHVH IDFWV WKDQ WKH RQH JLYHQ IRU 0RMDYH

5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD SUHIHUV WKLV H[DPSOH WR KDYH WKH YHUE maacj rlmi:times:two

1XPEHU YHUEV KDYH XS WR ᯳YH GLVWLQFW XVHV DQG DW OHDVW WZR RI WKHP DUH DOZD\V GL᯲HUHQW LQ IRUP 7KHVH ᯳YH XVHV DQG
IRUPV DUH FRQWUDVWHG H[SOLFLWO\ LQ i
§9.1.2.1 The subject of the number verb 211

 Hant oo hptap, Xpanoháx ano hiifp quih

land del 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:stand Puerto_Libertad [3.poss:]in 1.poss:[pon:]arrive def;fl
hpmahaatxo.
1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:times:much/many
I have often gone to Puerto Libertad on foot. bb &<+,

 [ Luisa quih haat quih icazni quih ] mahaatxo.

Luisa def;fl Jatropha_cuneata def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]bite def;fl rlmi:times:many
Luisa has bitten limberbush (basket material) many times.

 [ Hipazt quih ] hpmahaatxo.

1.poss:[pon:]pass:tattoo def;fl 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:times:much/many
I was tattooed many times.

 ... [ hacx imiih quih ] tahaatxo ma, ...

apart 3.poss:[pon:]not_be.fl def;fl rlt:times:many ds
... he died many times, ...bb $SRVWDGRU 

7KH FRQVWUXFWLRQ GHVFULEHG DERYH ZKLFK WHOOV KRZ PDQ\ WLPHV DQ HYHQW KDSSHQHG FRQWUDVWV ZLWK WKH VLPSOHU
FRQVWUXFWLRQ LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV  ZKLFK RQO\ LQGLFDWHV DPRXQW RI WLPH DQG WKH UHVXOWLQJ SURGXFW
GHVFULEHG E\ WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQൻEXW QRW WKH QXPEHU RI WLPHV WKDW WKH HYHQW RFFXUUHG 7KH PDLQ YHUE LQ WKHVH
H[DPSOHV LV WKH VLPSOH YHUE

 Ihyaaspoj quih yootxo.

1.poss:pon.intr:write def;fl rlyo:much/many
I wrote a great deal.

 Hayatóosiploj quih yootxo.

1p.poss:pon.intr:write\pl def;fl rlyo:much/many
We wrote a great deal.

9.1.2.1. The subject of the number verb. ,Q WKH WLPHV FRQVWUXFWLRQ H[FHSW XQGHU VSHFL᯳F FRQGLWLRQV GLVFXVVHG
EHORZ WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH HYHQW FODXVH LV DOVR WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH QXPEHU YHUE 7KLV FODLP LV VXSSRUWHG E\ VHYHUDO
IDFWV
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PRVW HDVLO\ ZKHQ WKH VXEMHFW LV ᯳UVW RU VHFRQG SHUVRQ VLQFH WKH PRUSKRORJ\ IRU WKHVH SHUVRQV LV H[SOLFLW 7KH
VXEMHFW SHUVRQ RI WKH QXPEHU YHUE LV DOVR H[SOLFLW ZKHQ WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV HPEHGGHG DV WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH
YHUE √amzo want WKH QXPEHU SUHGLFDWH DSSHDUV DV D GHYHUEDO QRXQ VHH i DV H[SHFWHG 6HH H[DPSOH 

 [ Mihaactim ] inyaazoj oo hmiimzo.

  2.poss:pon:cause_be_cut 2.poss:pon.intr:times;alone del 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want you to cut it once.

6HFRQG WKH QXPEHU YHUE DJUHHV LQ QXPEHU ZLWK WKH VXEMHFW VHH i ,Q  WKH YHUE KDV WKH VWHP
√ahaatxoj IRU SOXUDO VXEMHFWV UDWKHU WKDQ √ahaatxo IRU VLQJXODU VXEMHFWV ,Q  WKH VWHP LV √aacalcam IRU
SOXUDO VXEMHFWV UDWKHU WKDQ √aacj IRU VLQJXODU VXEMHFWV

 [ ˻ Psaac hayaxyat˼ quih ] hamahaatxoj.

   hunger 1p.poss:pon.intr:die\pl def;fl 1p.sbj:rlmi:times:many:pl
We were often hungry.

7KLV LV D W\SH RI FRS\ UDLVLQJ LQ IDFW , XVH WKH WHUP ංUDLVLQJඃ KHUH LQ D GHVFULSWLYH VHQVH VLQFH RQH QHHG QRW SURSRVH QRU
DFFHSW D GHULYDWLRQDO DFFRXQW RI WKHVH IDFWV
212 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

 [ Hant hihajcooil ] hamaacalcam.

land 1.poss:pon:fall\pl 1p.sbj.rlmi:times;two\pl
We fell down twice.

7KLUG WKH QXPEHU YHUE LV DQ LQ᯳QLWLYH ZKHQ LW LV FRQWUROOHG E\ WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE √amzo want VHH i
VHH H[DPSOH 

 [ [ Ma hiizt ] icaacj ] ihmiimzo.

2s.do:1.poss:[pon:]tattoo inf.intr:times;two 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to tattoo you twice.

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SHUVRQ DQG ᯳UVW SHUVRQ SOXUDO VXEMHFWV 6HH 

 [ ¡Mihexl ] aacj!
  2.poss:pon:take [im;]times;two
Grab twice!

 [ ¡Hihexaj ] scaacalcam!
  1.poss:pon:take\pl irr.ind:1.em.sbj.intr:times;two\pl
Let’s grab twice!

([FHSW LQ WKH DW\SLFDO H[DPSOH  ZKLFK KDV QRW EHHQ GLVFXVVHG LQ GHWDLO \HW WKH QXPEHU SUHGLFDWH DQG WKH
HYHQW FODXVH KDYH WKH VDPH VXEMHFW 7KH QXPEHU SUHGLFDWH FDQQRW KDYH D VXEMHFW WKDW LV GLVWLQFW IURP WKH HYHQW
FODXVH VXEMHFW VXFK DV EHLQJ FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RU WKH SRVVHVVRU RI VRPH DUJXPHQW LQ WKH HYHQW
FODXVH 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 * Ma hiizt inyaacj.
2s.do:1.poss:[pon:]tattoo 2.poss:pon:times;two
(I tattooed you twice.)

 D Hii quih yaazxl quih yahaatxo.

1.poss:father.me def;fl [3.poss:]pon.intr:cough def;fl rlyo:times:many
My father has coughed many times.

E * Hii quih yaazxl quih hpyahaatxo.

1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:times:many
(My father has coughed many times.)

 D Hitrooqui quij imiipala yaapxa.

1.poss:vehicle def;cm 3.poss:pon:bad\impf rlyo:times;three
My car has broken down three times.

E * Hitrooqui quih imiipala hpyaapxa.

1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:times;three
(My car has broken down three times.)

$Q ංH[WHQWඃ FRQVWUXFWLRQ VLPLODUO\ HPEHGGHG GRHV QRW UHVXOW LQ DQ LQ᯳QLWLYH 7KH DSSURSULDWH GHYHUEDO QRXQ PXVW EH
XVHG LQVWHDG RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH EHFDXVH WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE LQGLFDWLQJ WKH OHQJWK RI WLPH LV WKH HPEHGGHG FODXVH DQG LV
WKHUHIRUH QRW FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH VXEMHFW RI √amzo want

L ¿Hant himcac iti mihiih quih ixaap izooxöc intamzo?

   land dt:loc 3.poss:on 2.poss:pon:be.fl def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]spend_night 3.poss:[pon:]four 2s.sbj:rlt:want
Do you want to stay there for four days?
§9.1.2.2 An intransitive construction 213

7KH VDPH LV WUXH LI WKH HYHQW FODXVH FRQWDLQV DQ LGLRP RI WKH W\SH GLVFXVVHG LQ i VXFK DV x’s spirit lands
IRU happy 7KH OLWHUDO VXEMHFW RI WKH LGLRP LV WKH QRPLQDO FURVVUHIHUHQFHG RQ WKH PDLQ FODXVH YHUE 7KHUHIRUH
WKH QXPEHU YHUEV LQ  DQG  DUH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ XQPDUNHG DQG QRW IRU VHFRQG SHUVRQ

 ¿˻ Miisax hant yaait˼ quih tahaatxo?

      2.poss:spirit land [3.poss:]pon.intr:arrive def;fl rlt:times:many
Have you been happy many times?

 ˻ Miisax hant yaait˼ quih tahaatxo ma, ma hmiiho.

      2.poss:spirit land [3.poss:]pon.intr:arrive def;fl rlt:times:many ds 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:see
I have seen you happy many times.

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DJHQW RI WKH YHUE √asi drink WKRXJK XQH[SUHVVHG DQG XQH[SUHVVLEOH LQ WKH HPEHGGHG SDVVLYH FODXVH LV WKH VXEMHFW
RI WKH QXPEHU YHUE 7KH PRUSKRORJ\ ca- KHUH ZLWK LWV DOORPRUSK c- LQGLFDWHV WKLV IDFW VHH i 7KH ᯳QDO
LQGHSHQGHQW FODXVH KDV WKLV VDPH VXEMHFW

 Sooda coopol quih ipasi quih pocahaatxo x,

soda_pop sbj.nmlz:black def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]pass:drink def;fl irr.dep:unsp.sbj:times:many ut
˻ hacx scamiih˼ aha.
   apart irr.ind:unsp.sbj:not_be.fl aux:dcl
If Coke is drunk often, one will die.

9.1.2.2. An intransitive construction. 7KH HYHQW FODXVH LV QRW VXSHU᯳FLDOO\ WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH QXPEHU YHUE
7KXV WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LQ  UHSHDWHG DV  EHORZ FDQQRW EH DQDO\]HG VRPHWKLQJ OLNH I twiced my tattooing
of you %\ DOO RI WKH DYDLODEOH WHVWV VHH DSSHQGL[ & WKH PDLQ FODXVH LV LQWUDQVLWLYH 1RWLFH IRU H[DPSOH WKH
LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ RFFXUV LQ  WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH
LQ᯳QLWLYH SUH᯳[ LQ  DERYH WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH VHFRQG SHUVRQ LPSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ LQ  DERYH
DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH QRPLQDOL]HU LQ  WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH ᯳UVW
SHUVRQ VLQJXODU UHVWULFWLYH SUH᯳[ LQ  WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ LQ  LQVWHDG RI SDVVLYH
PRUSKRORJ\ DQG WKH ODFN RI WKH 3.sbj PDUNHU RQ WKH YHUE mahaatxo LQ  DERYH

 [ Ma hiizt ] ihpmaacj.
2s.do:1.poss:[pon:]tattoo 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:times\two
I tattooed you twice.

 [ Mihexl ] inyaacj ihmiimzo.

2.poss:pon:take 2.poss:pon.intr:times\two 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want you to grab twice.

 [ Méjico hac ano hatiifp ] quih imcahaatxo.

Mexico def;loc [3.poss:]in 1.em.poss:[pon:]arrive def;fl rlmi:1.em.sbj.intr:times:many
As for me, I have been to Mexico City many times.

 [ An icaafp quih ] pocahaatxo ...

[3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:arrive def;fl irr.dep:unsp.sbj:times:many
If one arrives there often, ...

9.1.2.3. Passive complements. 6RPH VSHDNHUV GLVSUHIHU WKH XVH RI WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK WKH times PRUSKRORJ\
DQG WKH VXEMHFW FRS\LQJ ZKHQ WKH HYHQW FODXVH LV SDVVLYH 7KH DW\SLFDOO\ VLPSOH FRQVWUXFWLRQ SUHVHQWHG LQ 
UHSHDWHG DV D LV SUHIHUUHG RYHU E ,Q IDFW E LV VLPSO\ XQDFFHSWDEOH WR VRPH VSHDNHUV

5DLVLQJ GRHV RFFXU LQ WKH H[DPSOH L ZKLFK KDV D QRPLQDOL]HG FODXVH ZLWK WKH IRFDO GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ

L Ziix zo cöhimahit, taax tatxo x, haa caahca ha.

thing indf;sg 3.io:1.poss:[pon:]neg:eat dem;dt;pl rlt:much/many ut there sbj.nmlz:be_located dcl
There were many times that I didn’t eat anything.
214 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

 D [ Hipazt ] moocj.
  1.poss:[pon:]pass:tattoo rlmi:two
I was tattooed twice.

E 2. [ Hipazt ] ihpmaacj.

  1.poss:[pon:]pass:tattoo 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:times\two
I was tattooed twice.

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 Haxz° himcop him icatxla quih pahaatxo (*ta) x, sooxi aha.

dog dt:vt 1s.do:3.poss:[pon:]bite def;fl irr.dep:times:many     ds ut irr.ind:die aux:dcl
If that dog bites me often, it will die.

9.2 Syntax relating to direct objects

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 Ziix ˻ hacx cmiih˼ zo hayooht xo ítajc coi oo

thing    apart sbj.nmlz:not_be.fl indf;sg 1pl.sbj:rlyo:see\pl but 3.poss:bone\pl def;pl del
hayooht iiha.
1pl.sbj:rlyo:see\pl only
a. We found a dead person, but only THE BONES.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Only WE saw the bones.)bb &<+,

 Ítajc coi oo hascmaht iiha ha. Ipxasi coi mos

3.poss:bone\pl def;pl del 1p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:see\pl only dcl 3.poss:flesh def;pl also

hasiiht aha.
1p.sbj:irr.ind:see\pl aux:dcl
We won’t just see bones. We’ll see FLESH also. bb &<+,

 Hap yaao tazo hamiiht iiha.

Odocoileus_hemionus [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:[unsp.obj:]pass_by one 1p.sbj:rlmi:see\pl only
We saw one MULE DEER’S TRACKS and nothing else. bb &<+,

 ˻ Ziix hapx coom˼ com hamiiht iiha.

   thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz 1p.sbj:rlmi:see\pl only
a. We saw only the whale.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (*Only WE saw the whale.)
§9.2.2 Personal and impersonal passives 215

9.2.2 Personal and impersonal passives

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 D Ihpyopazt.
1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:tattoo
I was tattooed.

E ¿Ihptahcazni?
  1s.sbj.intr:rlt:pass:bite
Was I bitten?

F Inyompezi.
2s.sbj.rlyo:neg:pass:defeat
You weren’t defeated.

G ¿Ctam quih tahcazni?

  male def;fl rlt:pass:bite
Was the man bitten?

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 Hizi yahcazja.
1p.do:rlyo:pass:bite\impf
We were bitten.

 Hazi yahfaiilquim.
1p.do:rlyo:pass:tie_up:impf+mult
We were tied up.

 Hazi yopaho.
1p.do:rlyo:pass:see
We were seen.

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ZDV UHFRUGHG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ XQIRUWXQDWHO\ √failquim impf XVHG IRU W\LQJ XS PXOWLSOH REMHFWV RQFH √faiilquim
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216 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

 ¿˻ Zó tpacta ma˼ mazi tpázitim?

       how? rlt:be_in_appearance ds 2p.do:rlt:pass:tattoo:impf
Why were you tattooed?

 Itooit coi tahfaiilquim, ...

3.poss:foot/leg\pl def;pl rlt:pass:tie_up:impf
His/her/its feet had been tied up, ...

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 Hap com tooxi ma x, yopahit.

Odocoileus_hemionus def;hz rlt:die ds ut rlyo:pass:eat
a. Whenever a mule deeri died, iti was eaten.
b. 2U When a mule deeri dies, iti is eaten. bb 8QSXEOLVKHG WH[W 0DUOHWW D

 Tpezi ma, tatax, yoque.

rlt:pass:defeat ds rlt:go rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
He was defeated and he went, it is said. bb $SRVWDGRUB

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 Haat quih pahcaa x, heepol quih mos

Jatropha_cuneata def;fl irr.dep:pass:look_for ut Krameria_grayi def;fl also
sahcaa aha.
irr.ind:pass:look_for aux:dcl
Whenever limberbush is looked for, white ratany should also be looked for.bb 0DUOHWW D

 Icozaplim quih cói tompaii ipi x, ihic coi

3.poss:pon:unsp.sbj.unsp.obj:sew def;fl still rlt:neg:pass:make del ut 3.poss:seed def;pl

cöhacooix iha.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:[pass:]remove dcl
Before thread is made, the seeds are removed [from the cotton]. bb +( 

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§9.2.2 Personal and impersonal passives 217

 D Ihpyahmiiit. E Hizi yahmiiitim.

1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:ask 1p.do:rlyo:pass:ask:impf
I was asked. We were asked.

 D Ihpyahzaxö. E Hizi yahzaxö.

1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:discuss 1p.do:rlyo:pass:discuss
I was talked to. We were talked to.

 D Ihpyahamsisiin. E Hizi yahamsisiin.

1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:love 1p.do:rlyo:pass:love
I was loved. We were loved.

 D Ihpyahnifz. E Hizi yahnífajquim.

1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:kick 1p.do:rlyo:pass:kick:impf
I was kicked. We were kicked.

 D Ihpyahfain. E Hizi yahfaiilquim.

1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:tie_up 1p.do:rlyo:pass:tie_up:impf
I was tied up. We were tied up.

 D Hizi yahcazja. E * Hayahcazjoj.

1p.do:rlyo:pass:bite\impf     1p.sbj:rlyo:pass:bite\pl
We were bitten. (We were bitten.)

F * Hizi yahcazjoj.
    1p.do:rlyo:pass:bite\pl
(We were bitten.)

 D Mazi yahcazja. E * Mayahcazjoj.

2p.do:rlyo:pass:bite\impf     2p.sbj:rlyo:pass:bite\pl
You (pl.) were bitten. (You (pl.) were bitten.)

F * Mazi yahcazjoj.
    2p.do:rlyo:pass:bite\pl
(You (pl.) were bitten.)

 D Yahcazja. E * Yahcazjoj.
rlyo:pass:bite\impf      rlyo:pass:bite\pl
They were bitten. (They were bitten.)

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 D Icahcazja hayoomcaj.
inf.intr:pass:bite\impf 1p.sbj:rlyo:want\pl
We wanted to be bitten.

E Icahcazjoj hayoomcaj.
inf.intr:pass:bite\pl 1p.sbj:rlyo:want\pl
We wanted to be bitten.

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218 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

 D ctamcö hacazja coi

male\pl sbj.nmlz:[pass:]bite\impf def;pl
the men who were bitten

E ctamcö hacazjoj coi

male\pl sbj.nmlz:[pass:]bite\pl def;pl
the men who were bitten

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 D hásatoj hapesxö coi

stone:pl sbj.nmlz:pass:hide def;pl
stones that were hidden

E * hásatoj hapéslajc coi

stone:pl sbj.nmlz:pass:hide\pl def;pl
(stones that were hidden)

 D Icahfaiilquim hayomamcaj.

inf.intr:pass:tie_up:impf+mult 1p.sbj.rlyo:neg:want\pl
We don’t want to be tied up.

E * Icahfaiilcam hayomamcaj.
inf.intr:pass:tie_up:pl 1p.sbj.rlyo:neg:want\pl
(We don’t want to be tied up.)

 Icahfaiilquim hayomaaj.

inf.intr:pass:tie_up:impf+mult 1p.sbj:rlyo:neg:know:pl
We can’t be tied up.

 ctamcö hafaiilquim coi

male\pl sbj.nmlz:[pass:]tie_up:impf+mult def;pl
the men who are/were tied up

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 D * ¿Hehe himcom contahaxz?

  plant/stick dt:hz 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:pass:hit.hz
(Were you hit with that stick?)

E ¿Hehe himcom me tahaxz?

  plant/stick dt:hz 3.io+2.do:rlt:pass:hit.hz
Were you hit with that stick?

 D * ¿Áz ya cohptpazt?

  what? qm 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlt:pass:tattoo
(What was I tattooed with?)

E ¿Áz ya he tpazt?
  what? qm 3.io+1.do:rlt:pass:tattoo
What was I tattooed with?
§9.2.2 Personal and impersonal passives 219

 D * ¿Tal quih haa ya contpazt?

  coal/charcoal def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:pass:tattoo
(Were you tattooed with charcoal?)

E ¿Tal quih haa ya me tpazt?

  coal/charcoal def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm 3.io+2.do:rlt:pass:tattoo
Were you tattooed with charcoal?

 D * Xepe com contihpyahaazi.

sea def;hz 3.io:aw:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:carry
(I was taken to the sea.)

E Xepe com intheyahaazi.

aw:3.io+1.do:rlyo:pass:carry
(I was taken to the sea.)

F Xepe com contheyahaazi.

3.io:aw:1.do:rlyo:pass:carry
I was taken to the sea.

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 Iyopehe.
3.sbj:rlyo:pass:give_gift
S/he was given it.

 Ctamcö coi iyopéhetim.

male\pl def;pl 3.sbj:rlyo:pass:give_gift:impf
The men were given it.

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 D Hizi smahmiiitim aha.

1p.do:irr.ind:neg:pass:ask:impf aux:dcl
We will not be asked.

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L ¿Hipi hisoj hipcop hita ma iite?

   own 1.poss:body/being px:vt 1.poss:mother 2s.do:rlt:give
Did my mother give me to you?bb 0DUOHWW E QRWH 
220 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

E * Hizi scmahmiiitim aha.

(We will not be asked.)

 D Mazi smahcazja aha.

2p.do:irr.ind:neg:pass:bite\impf aux:dcl
You will not be bitten.

E * Mazi scmahcazja aha.

(You will not be bitten.)

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 D Eenim hipcop me smahníp aha.

metal/knife px:vt 3.io+2.do:irr.ind:neg:pass:hit aux:dcl
You will not be stabbed with this knife.

E * ... me scmahníp ...

(... you will not be stabbed with it ...)

 D Tal zo he sompazt aha.

coal/charcoal indf;sg 3.io+1.do:irr.ind:neg:pass:tattoo aux:dcl
I will not be tattooed with charcoal.

E * ... he scompazt ...

(... I will not be tattooed with it ...)

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hasahtximj aha.
1p.sbj:irr.ind:rich:pl aux:dcl
If we are photographed often, we will be rich.

E Hizi ipaspoj quih cöpahaatxo ta x, ...

1p.do:3.poss:[pon:]pass:write def;fl 3.io:irr.dep:times:much/many ds ut
If we are photographed often, ...

F Hizi ipaspoj quih cöhapahaatxoj x, ...

1p.do:3.poss:[pon:]pass:write def;fl 3.io:1p.sbj:irr.dep:times:much/many ut
If we are photographed often, ...


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9.2.3 Transitivity in general

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E * Taax yaacöt coi caacoj iha.

  sbj.nmlz:big
(Their houses are big.)

 D Háxaca° coi quiipcoj iha.      

dog\pl def;pl sbj.nmlz:hv:tail:pl dcl
Dogs have tails. bb $/,0B

E * Háxaca° coi quiip iha.

  sbj.nmlz:hv:tail
(Dogs have tails.)

 D Háxaca coi cpancojc iha.      

dog\pl def;pl sbj.nmlz:run\pl dcl
The dogs are running.

E * Háxaca coi cpanzx iha.      

  sbj.nmlz:run
(The dogs are running.)

 D Cmajiic himcoi cacöla iha.      

female\pl dt:pl sbj.nmlz:tall/long\pl dcl
Those women are tall.

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222 Chapter 9: Relational clause structure

E * Cmajiic himcoi cacösxaj iha.

sbj.nmlz:tall/long
(Those women are tall.)

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 Sahmees hizcoi xöaatjö / xöaatzil.

Citrus_x_sinensis px:pl em:sweet em:sweet\pl
These oranges are sweet.

 Siimet hizcoi xiipe / xiipt.

bread px:pl em:good em:good:pl
These rolls are good.

 Ool imám hizcoi quicös iha.

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These organpipe cactus fruits are thorny.

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 Hiisilca coi tacöla, hiipajö cop íyataj coi hax iiqui
1.poss:wing\pl def;pl rlt:long\pl 1.poss:tail def;vt 3.poss:tip:pl def;pl fresh_water 3.poss:toward

oo mítajij.
del rlmi:sharp\pl
My wings are long, and the tips of my tail are pointed.bb $YHVB

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 D santaar cop

soldier def;vt
the soldier

E santaar coi
soldier def;pl
the soldiers (a dozen or fewer)

F santaaroj coi
soldier:pl def;pl
the soldiers (numerous)

G * santaaroj cop
soldier:pl def;vt
(the soldiers)
§9.3 Plurality 223

 D Santaar hizcoi cmaacöl quih quihiiha hi hiz cömoii.

soldier px:pl old_man\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:pure foc here 3.io:rlmi:be.fl\pl
These soldiers are all OLD MEN.

E Santaaroj hizcoi cmaacöl quihiiha hiz cömoii.

soldier:pl px:pl old_man\pl sbj.nmlz:pure here 3.io:rlmi:be.fl\pl
These soldiers are ALL old men.

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 D Santaar quih capxa coi hant z iiqui yitooij.

soldier def;fl sbj.nmlz:three def;pl land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlyo:go\pl
The three soldiers went somewhere.

E * Santaaroj quih capxa coi hant z iiqui yitooij.

soldierpl def;fl sbj.nmlz:three def;pl land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlyo:go\pl
(The three soldiers went somewhere.)

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* Háxaca° quih cpanzx iha.
dog\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:run dcl
(The dogs are running.)

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* Haxz° coi cpancojc iha.
dog def;pl sbj.nmlz:run\pl dcl
(The dogs are running.)

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* Haxz° coi cpanzx iha.
dog def;pl sbj.nmlz:run dcl
(The dogs are running.)

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* Háxaca° coi cpanzx iha.
dog\pl def;pl sbj.nmlz:run dcl
(The dogs are running.)

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 Yooz quij ziicalc com hant cöquiiis iha.

God def;cm bird:pl def;hz land 3.io:sbj.nmlz:tr:? dcl
God takes care of the birds. bb 177 0W 

 ... ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ com ˻ áno sozamlcam˼ aha.

   thing\pl  def;fl  sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;hz [3.poss:]in irr.ind:unsp.obj:put_vt\pl aux:dcl
... people will step on it. bb 177 0W 

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The predicative clause

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metal/knife dcl
a. It is a knife.
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metal def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
a. It is made of metal.
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dem;dt;sg gold def;fl rlt:eq
… [the ring] was made of gold, …bb $SRVWDGRUB

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Ctam hipquij cmiique ha.
male px:cm (Seri)_person dcl
This man is a Seri.
224
§10.1 Verbless clauses 225

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 ____ Cmiique ha, ctam hipquij.

(Seri)_person dcl male px:cm
He is a Seri, this man.

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 * Cmiique, (tiix) ctam hipquij _____ iha.

(Seri)_person dem;dt;sg male px:cm dcl
(This man is a Seri.)

 * Cmiique, (tiix) he ____ ha.

(Seri)_person dem;dt;sg 1.pro dcl
(I am a Seri.)

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 Ac quij xepe ziic iha.

Aythya_valisineria def;cm sea bird dcl
The canvasback is a sea bird.bb (6 DF

 Heeesam timoca, tiix ˻ hantx moca˼ isoj iha.

Hippocampus_ingens md:twd dem;dt;sg    at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move true dcl
He (seahorse) was a true ancestor.bb +LSRFDPSR

 ˻ Ziix cooha˼ cap, tiix ˻ ziix ccam˼ hant quicaayot iha.

      thing  sbj.nmlz:cry def;vt dem;dt;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:alive land sbj.nmlz:go_on_four_feet dcl
A cow is a quadruped animal.bb ,PSURYHG IURP +( 

 ˻ Itleen oo moaah˼ íi quih ctam ya?

     3.poss:palm del 2.poss:obj.nmlz:do/say/put.fl first def;fl male qm
Was your (now deceased) firstborn child a male?bb &<+,

 Hasaj iihi.
flat_basket past
It was a flat basket.
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 He ˻ ziix quiisax˼ hap quícotim isoj iihi.

1.pro    thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit Odocoileus_hemionus sbj.nmlz:tr:kill:impf real past
I used to be a expert mule deer hunter.bb $GDSWHG IURP DQ RYHUKHDUG FODLP

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226 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

10.1.1 Restrictions on the complement

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 Hipiix hast iha.

dem;px;sg stone dcl
This is a stone.

 ¿Hipiix haxöl ya?

bbdem;px;sg Leukoma_grata qm
Is this one an “haxöl”?

 Tiix cmaam iha.

dem;dt;sg female dcl
She (or, That one) is a woman.bb +(

 Ø Zacaam iha.
young_woman dcl
She is a young woman.

 Juan quih ctam cacösxaj iha.

Juan def;fl male sbj.nmlz:tall/long dcl
Juan is a tall man.

 Hita quih cmaam quiipe ha.

1.poss:mother def;fl female sbj.nmlz:good dcl
My mother is a good woman.

 Hizcoi cmajiic iha.

px:pl female\pl dcl
These are females (or, women).

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 * Ctam hipquij cmiique zo ha.

male px:cm (Seri)_person indf;sg dcl
(This man is a Seri.)

 * Hipiix hast zo ha.

dem;px;sg stone indf;sg dcl
(This is a stone.)

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 * Hipiix hast quij iha.

dem;px;sg stone def;cm dcl
(This is the stone.)
§10.1.1 Restrictions on the complement 227

 * Tiix cmaam quij iha.

dem;dt;sg female def;cm dcl
(She (or, That one) is the woman.)

 * Quihehe quih Pedro Mendoza quih ha.

sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;fl Pedro Mendoza def;fl dcl
(The governor (leader) is Pedro Mendoza.)

 * He Pedro Mendoza ha.

1.pro Pedro Mendoza dcl
(I’m Pedro Mendoza.)

 * Hant himcac Tahejöc iha.

land dt:loc Tiburon_Island dcl
(That land is Tiburon Island.)

 * Tiix iha.
dem;dt;sg dcl
(It is that one.)

 * ¿Me ya?
  2.pro qm
(Is it you?)

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 He Manuel hapáh quij yaazi ha.

1.pro Manuel sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry dcl
I am Manuel’s daughter / son.bb $/,0 

 Alberto Suárez quih he ˻ iti hmiiha˼ ctam iha.

Alberto Suárez def;fl 1.pro    3.poss:on  twd:1.poss:move male dcl
Alberto Suárez is my father.

 ¿Cmaam himcop me mata ya?

bbfemale dt:vt 2.pro 2.poss:mother qm
Is that one your mother?

 Haxz° cmaam himcac ano caap cop aal iha.

dog female dt:loc [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt 3.poss:spouse dcl
It is the mate of that (female) dog over there.bb &<+,

 Pedro Mendoza quih quihehe ha.

Pedro Mendoza def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod dcl
Pedro Mendoza is (the) governor.

 Moxima quih “lunes” iihi.

yesterday def;fl Monday past
Yesterday was Monday.bb +(

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228 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

 ¿Me zó cmiique ya?

  2.pro which? (Seri)_person qm
a. Which Seri person are you?
b. 2U Who are you?bb 2YHUKHDUG

 ¿He zó haquiimet ya?

  1.pro which? small_lizard qm
Which lizard am I?bb /DJDUWLMDV PXOWLSOH H[DPSOHV

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 ¿Me quíih ya?

bb2.pro who? qm
Who are you?

 ¿Tiix quíih ya?

bbdem;dt;sg who? qm
Who is s/he (or, that one)?

10.2 The modals

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ha '(&/$5$7,9( dcl) iihi past poho doubt
ya ,17(552*$7,9( qm) siihi future

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ංVSHFLDOඃ PRGDO poho WR H[SUHVV GRXEW LV QRW XQFRPPRQ DQG LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOH 

 Hizcoi cmajiic poho.

px:pl female\pl doubt
These may be females (or, women.)

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6HH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKHVH EDVLF PRGDOV LQ i 6HH DOVR QRWH  LQ FKDSWHU 
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WKH VWHP √icaayot

 ˻ Ziix cooha˼ cap, tiix ˻ ziix ccam˼ hant quicaayot iha.

   thing  sbj.nmlz:cry def;vt dem;dt;sg thing sbj.nmlz:alive land sbj.nmlz:go_on_four_feet dcl
A cow is a quadruped animal.bb ,PSURYHG IURP +( 

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TXHVWLRQHG $ VHQWHQFH XVLQJ WKH PRGDOV ha iihi RU poho PXVW EH FRQVWUXHG DV D VWDWHPHQW 4XHVWLRQ LQWRQDWLRQ
LWVHOI FDQQRW PDNH TXHVWLRQV IURP WKHVH VHQWHQFHV VHH FKDSWHU  6HH H[DPSOHV 

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§10.2.1 Time 229

 * ¿Cmaam iha?
  female dcl
(Is/Was it a female?)

 * ¿Cmaam iihi?
  female past
(Was it a female?)

 * ¿Cmaam poho?
  female doubt
(Maybe it is/was a female?)

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VHOIGLUHFWHG TXHVWLRQ DV LQ  6HH i

 ¿Zó haxz° siihi?

  which? dog future
What dog would that be?bb &<+,

 ¿Haan siihi?
  Chione_fluctifraga future
Would it be a Smooth Pacific venus clam?

10.2.1 Time
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 6XEMHFW 3UHGLFDWH
Ø Cmaam iha.
female dcl
a. It is/was a female/woman.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (It will be a female/woman.)

 ¿Ø Cmaam ya?
female qm
a. Is/Was it a female/woman?
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Will it be a female/woman?)

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 Hipiix stacj iha.

dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula dcl
This is a rock oyster.

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 Ø Cmaam iihi.
female past
It was a female / woman.

 Ø Ctam quiipe isoj iihi.

male sbj.nmlz:good 3.poss:body/self past
He was a very good man.bb 2YHUKHDUG
230 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

 Ø Ctam quiipe siihi.

male sbj.nmlz:good future
I wonder if he is a good man.

10.2.2 Omission and non-omission of the modal

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 ?* Hipiix stacj.
dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula
(This is a rock oyster.)

 * ¿Hipiix stacj?
  dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula
(Is this is a rock oyster?)

 ?* Stacj.
Crassostrea_palmula
(It is a rock oyster.)

 * ¿Stacj?
  Crassostrea_palmula
(Is it a rock oyster?)

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 Hitrooqui quij quisil (iha), mos imaaixaj iha.

1.poss:vehicle def;cm sbj.nmlz:small dcl also sbj.nmlz:neg:strong dcl
My car is small, and it isn’t strong.

 Caay ihyaa° cop imooxp (iha), mos imoopol iha. Quimaaxat

horse mine def;vt sbj.nmlz:neg:white dcl also sbj.nmlz:neg:black dcl sbj.nmlz:gray_brown
iha.
dcl
My horse is neither white nor black. It is gray.bb $/,0 

 Iimox Impafc hapáh quij, tiix ziix

Spondylus_calcifer sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:pound sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm dem;dt;sg thing
impezi (ha), ziix imahtai ha.
sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:defeat dcl thing sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:overcome dcl
The one called Iimox Impafc was invincible and insuperable.bb (6 ,LPR[B,PSDIF 

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 D Hitrooqui quij quisil iha xo caaixaj iha.

1.poss:vehicle def;cm sbj.nmlz:small dcl but sbj.nmlz:strong dcl
My car is small but it is strong.
§10.2.2 Omission and non-omission of the modal 231

E * Hitrooqui quij quisil ___ xo caaixaj iha.

1.poss:vehicle def;cm sbj.nmlz:small but sbj.nmlz:strong dcl
(My car is small but it is strong.)

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 D * Stacj iha, iyomahit.

Crassostrea_palmula dcl 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:eat
(Although it was a rock oyster, s/he didn’t eat it.)

E * Stacj, iyomahit.
Crassostrea_palmula 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:eat
(Although it was a rock oyster, s/he didn’t eat it.)

 D * Stacj iha, ihsiihit aha.

Crassostrea_palmula dcl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
(If it is a rock oyster, I’ll eat it.)

E * Stacj, ihsiihit aha.

Crassostrea_palmula 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
(If it is a rock oyster, I’ll eat it.)

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i 7KH PRGDO LV UHTXLUHG LQ WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ 6HH H[DPSOH 

 D Siimet quih quiipe ha yax, imiihit.

bread def;fl sbj.nmlz:good dcl since 3.sbj:rlmi:eat
Since the bread was good, s/he ate it.

E * Siimet quih quiipe yax, imiihit.

bread def;fl sbj.nmlz:good since 3.sbj:rlmi:eat
(Since the bread was good, s/he ate it.)

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ZKHQ WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV HPEHGGHG LQ WKLV VLWXDWLRQ

 — Me ˻ quihehe caacoj˼ poho — ox imii.

2.pro    sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod sbj.nmlz:big doubt thus 3.sbj:rlmi:tell
“Maybe you are a king,” he said to him.bb 177 -Q 

 D — Ø Stacj iha — ox imii.

Crassostrea_palmula dcl thus 3.sbj:rlmi:tell
“It is a rock oyster,” s/he told him.

E * — Ø Stacj — ox imii.
Crassostrea_palmula thus 3.sbj:rlmi:tell
(“It is a rock oyster,” s/he told him.)

([DPSOH D LV JUDPPDWLFDO ZLWK D GL᯲HUHQW LQWRQDWLRQ SDWWHUQ KDYLQJ WKH UHDGLQJ It was a rock oyster. S/he didn’t eat
it.

([DPSOH D LV JUDPPDWLFDO ZLWK D GL᯲HUHQW LQWRQDWLRQ SDWWHUQ KDYLQJ WKH UHDGLQJ It is a rock oyster. I will eat it.
232 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

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 * Haxölinaail hipquij stacj iihi, him mii.

shelled_mollusk px:cm Crassostrea_palmula past 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
(They told me that this mollusk is/was a rock oyster.)

 D Hipiix stacj ___ , hax maaimoz.

dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula intns rlmi:1s.sbj.em.tr:think
This is a rock oyster, I think.

E * Hipiix stacj iha, hax maaimoz.

dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula dcl intns rlmi:1s.sbj.em.tr:think
(This is a rock oyster, I think.)

 * Haxölinaail hipquij stacj iha, him mii.

shelled_mollusk px:cm Crassostrea_palmula dcl 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
(They told me that this mollusk is a rock oyster.)

7KH H[FHSWLRQ LV WKDW WKH VSHFLDO PRGDO poho doubt FDQ EH SUHVHQW DV LQ 

 Haxölinaail hipquij stacj poho, him mii.

shelled_mollusk px:cm Crassostrea_palmula doubt 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
They told me that this mollusk (shell) is perhaps (that of) a rock oyster.

([DPSOHV  VKRZ JUDPPDWLFDO HPEHGGHG SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO FRQVWUXFWLRQV ZLWKRXW D PRGDO 7KH QXOO
VXEMHFW LV UHSUHVHQWHG H[SOLFLWO\ LQ 

 Pedro quih ctam quiipe ___ , imiih.

Pedro def;fl male sbj.nmlz:good 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
S/he told him/her/them that Pedro is a good man.

 Ctam ticop cocsar ___ , teemyo.

male md:vt Mexican rlmi:say\pl
They say that that man is a non-Indian Mexican.

 …, Ø hapi iiquet ___ , hax tahii hax maa.

intns 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with intns rlt:pass:feel intns rlmi:be
… (and) he was as if he were her own child.bb 177 $F 

 ˻ Ziix coosyat˼ heeque quij ctam ___ , yoque.

   thing  sbj.nmlz:? small/young def;cm male rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
The young giant was a male, it is said.bb *LJDQWHB+XHUIDQRB

 ˻ azlc canl˼ quih capxa coi ˻ xiica ccamotam˼ ___ ,

   star\pl sbj.nmlz:burn\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:three def;pl    thing\pl sbj.nmlz:alive\pl
yoque.
rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
The three stars were animals, it is said.bb (6 +DSMB

7KH HPEHGGHG VHQWHQFH LV LQWHUSUHWHG QHFHVVDULO\ DV D VWDWHPHQW DV VKRZQ LQ 

§10.3 Copular construction 233

 Haxölinaail hipquij stacj ___ , him miih.

shelled_mollusk px:cm Crassostrea_palmula 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
a. S/he told me that this mollusk (shell) is (that of) a rock oyster.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (S/he asked me if this shell is (that of) a rock oyster.)

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 Haxz° ctam (*iha) ticop hin yocatxla.

dog male bbbdcl md:vt 1s.do:rlyo:bite_(like_dog)
That male dog bit me.

 He cmajiic (*iha) hascmalx aha.

1.pro female\pl bbbbdcl 1p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:go\pl aux:dcl
We women will not go.

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 trooqui hyaa° quij

vehicle mine def;cm
my vehicle

10.3 Copular construction

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˻ Hehe icám˼ com ah seenel quih yohaa.
   plant 3.poss:[pon:]alive def;hz foc butterfly def;fl rlyo:eq
The caterpillar becomes a butterfly.bb &<+,

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i 6HH H[DPSOH 


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L * Taax cmajiic (*iha) smalx aha.

dem;dt;pl female\pl   dcl irr.ind:neg:go\pl aux:dcl
(Those who are women (or those the women) will not go.)
234 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

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Subject Complement Copula

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Hipiix hiif quij haa ha.
dem;px;sg 1.poss:nose def;cm [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
This is my nose.bb +( 

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 Cmiique zo pohaa, cmiique zo pomhaa, …

(Seri)_person indf;sg irr.dep:eq (Seri)_person indf;sg irr.dep:neg:eq
Whether s/he is a Seri or s/he is not a Seri, …

 Tiix cmiique ha xo cmiique áa z imhaa ha.

dem;dt;sg (Seri)_person dcl but (Seri)_person true indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
He was a Seri, but he wasn't a real Seri person.bb +LSRFDPSR

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 Juan quij, tiix ziix zo cöcacoaat z imhaa ha.

Juan def;cm dem;dt;sg thing indf;sg 3.io:sbj.nmlz:cause_know:pl indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
Juan is not a/the teacher. bb PRGL᯳HG IURP $/,0 

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 María quij ziix zo shaa caha.

María def;cm thing indf;sg irr.ind:eq sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
María will be an official/officer.

 Ctam quij, tiix ˻ ziix hast iizx ano coom˼ com

male def;cm dem;dt;sg thing stone 3.poss:[pon:]torn [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz
imhaa.
sbj.nmlz:neg:eq
THE MAN became the northern chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus).bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD 

&RPSDUH DOVR JUDPPDWLFDO H[DPSOH L

L Juan quij, tiix ziix quih cöcacoaat quih imhaa ha.

Juan def;cm dem;dt;sg thing def;fl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:cause_know:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
Juan is not the teacher.


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7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU officer/official, person of authority LV ziix zo chaa thing indf;sgsbj.nmlz:eq who is a thing
§10.3.1 Ascriptive function 235

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 Ziix quih cöquihiihat quih pohaa ta x, hasiyaj aha.

thing def;fl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:true def;fl irr.dep:eq ds ut 1p.sbj:irr.ind:know:pl aux:dcl
If it’s the truth, we will know it.bb 177 0W 

 …, ˻ ziix hast iizx ano coom˼ com mos cmiique quih

bbbthing stone 3.poss:[pon:]torn [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz also (Seri)_person def;fl
thaa x, …
rlt:eq ut
…, the northern chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus) also was a person, ...bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD 

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 He mos Lola hapáh quij ˻ iyat cöcoocapoj˼ coi, he

1.pro also Lola sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm    3.poss:tip 3.io:sbj.nmlz:grow\pl def;pl 1.pro

zo haa ha.
indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
I also am one of the descendants of Lola (Casanova).bb &<+,

 [ [ Xiica Hast ano coii, Cofteecöl iti

thing\pl San_Esteban_Island [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:be_fl\pl San_Esteban_Island 3.poss:on
coii coi ] zo ] haa ha.
sbj.nmlz:stand\pl def;pl indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
He was one of the San Esteban people. bb &<+,

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i DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOH 

 He Pedro González, tii haa ha.

1.pro Pedro González dem;dt;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
I am Pedro González.

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DUH DFWXDOO\ TXLWH OLPLWHG DV H[SODLQHG EHORZ

10.3.1 Ascriptive function

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H[DPSOH LQ UHVSRQVH WR D TXHVWLRQ VXFK DV  RQH PD\ DQVZHU ZLWK  ZKLFK LV D YHUEOHVV SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO
H[SUHVVLRQ DV GHVFULEHG LQ i DERYH

 Cotx — ¿Áz haxehe ya?

Encelia_farinosa   what? intns qm
“Cotx” — What is it?

 Tiix hehe ha.

dem;dt;sg plant dcl
It is a plant.
236 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

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VWDQGDEOH EXW DUH FRQVLGHUHG XQJUDPPDWLFDO

 * Tiix hehe zo haa ha.

dem;dt;sg plant indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
(It is a plant.)

 * Pedro quih ctam quiipe zo haa, imiih.

Pedro def;fl male sbj.nmlz:good indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
(S/he told him/her/them that Pedro is a good man.)

 * Ziix cameepit zo haa, yoque.

thing sbj.nmlz:strange indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
(It is said that it was a strange thing.)

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EHGGHG LI WKHUH LV GRXEW LQYROYHG DV LQ 

 Hipiix stacj zo haa, hax maaimoz.

dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq intns rlmi:1s.sbj.em:think
This is a rock oyster, I think.

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PRGDO ya DQG D SDUWLFXODU LQWRQDWLRQ DV LQ 

 ¡¿Tiix hehe zo haa ya?!

    dem;dt;sg plant indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
It’s a plant?! (It’s not a plant!)

 ¡¿Tiix ˻ ziix hapahit˼ zo haa ya?!

    dem;dt;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
That’s food?! (It’s not food!)

10.3.2 Specifying function

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LQ  E\ D GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVH DV LQ  RU E\ D SURQRXQ DV LQ 

 Quihehe quih Pedro Mendoza quih haa ha.

sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;fl Pedro Mendoza def;fl [sbj.nmlz]:eq dcl
The governor (leader) is Pedro Mendoza.

 Ziix hipxahcop haa poho, ox tee yoque.

thing px;?;vt [sbj.nmlz:]eq doubt thus rlt:say rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
Might this be him, she asked.bb &<+,

 Hipiix hita quih haa ha.

dem;px;sg 1.poss:mother def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
This is my mother.

 Alberto Suárez quih he ˻ iti hmiiha˼ ctam quih chaa ha.
Alberto Suárez def;fl 1.pro    3.poss:on  twd:1.poss:move male def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
Alberto Suárez is my father.
§10.3.3 Embedded examples 237

 Hizaax ˻ iti hmiihat˼ quih haa ha.

dem;px;pl     3.poss:on  twd:1.poss:move:pl def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
These are my parents.

 ¿Tiix haa ya?

  dem;dt;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
Is it that one?bb 2YHUKHDUG

 Tiix haa ha.

dem;dt;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
It is that one.bb 2YHUKHDUG

 ¿Me haa ya?

  2.pro [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
Is it you?bb 2YHUKHDUG 

10.3.3 Embedded examples

7KH FRSXODU FRQVWUXFWLRQ PD\ EH HPEHGGHG DV H[DPSOHV  VKRZ

 Tiix haa, hax maaimoz.

dem;dt;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq intns rlmi:1s.em.sbj.tr:think
That’s him/her, I think.bb &<+,

 …, me tiix haa, teemyo.

2.pro dem;dt;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq rlmi:say\pl
…, they say that you are he.bb 177 0W 

 …, me tiix haa poho x, teemyo.

2.pro dem;dt;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq doubt ut rlmi:say\pl
…, they say that maybe you are he.bb 177 0W 

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 KDV ctam DV KHDG

 [ Ø Hateeya quih chaa quij ] ano hpsoosi

bottle def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq def;cm [3.poss:]in/from 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj:drink
aha.
aux:dcl
I am going to drink from the glass one (cup).bb &<+,

 [ Ctam fariseo quih chaa cap ] tfit oo, toc cötap, …
male Pharisee def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq def;vt rlt:stand_up del there 3.io:rlt:stand
The (man who was the) Pharisee stood there, … bb 177 /N 

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YHUEOHVV FRQVWUXFWLRQ i


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+HUUHUD
238 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

10.3.4 The distribution of chaa and haa

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IRUPV RI WKH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ RI WKH RWKHUZLVH UHJXODU FRSXODU YHUE √haa 7KH\ DUH QRW VLPSOH
YDULDWLRQV RQH RI WKH RWKHU WKH\ FDQQRW EH IUHHO\ LQWHUFKDQJHG 7KH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LUUHJXODU IRUP haa ZKLFK LV
D EDUH VWHP LV PXFK PRUH FRPPRQ 7KH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ UHJXODU IRUP chaa RFFXUV RQO\ IROORZLQJ D UHVWULFWHG
VHW RI FRQVWUXFWLRQV
7KH FRPSOHPHQW RI chaa PD\ EH JHQHULF DV H[SUHVVHG LQ  ZLWK WKH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH quih

 Cmiique ˻ haaix ima˼ quij cmiique áa quih chaa ha.

(Seri)_person    ? sbj.nmlz:neg:beLUUHJ def;cm (Seri)_person true def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
A serious person is a good person.bb &<+,

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DQ\ RI WKHP VHHPV WR H[LVW LW LV DOVR WUXH WKDW WKH GHWHUPLQHU quih LV IDU DQG DZD\ PXFK PRUH FRPPRQ WKDQ
WKH RWKHUV :KHQ DQRWKHU DUWLFOH LV XVHG WKH SUHIHUHQFH LV WR XVH WKH IRUP haa RI WKH FRSXOD 6HH H[DPSOHV


 ˻ Itj iixquim˼ com ziix inaail quih chaa ha.

   3.poss:lower_trunk 3.poss:[pon:]put.hz def;hz thing 3.poss:skin def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
His belt was made of leather.bb 177 0N 

 Haptco cmiique caii quih chaa ha.

already (Seri)_person grown/older def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
He is already an adult.bb 177 -Q 

 D Hant himquij Tahejöc quij haa ha.

land dt:cm Tiburon_Island def;cm [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
That land is Tiburon Island.

E ?* Hant himquij Tahejöc quij chaa ha.

land dt:cm Tiburon_Island def;cm sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
(That land is Tiburon Island.)

8QOLNH WKH IRUP haa VHH YDULRXV H[DPSOHV DERYH WKH IRUP chaa FDQQRW XVXDOO\ RFFXU ZLWK DQ LQGH᯳QLWH '3
QRU ZLWK D SURQRXQ LQ WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ DV VKRZQ LQ 

 * Hipiix stacj zo chaa, hax maaimoz.

dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula indf;sg sbj.nmlz:eq intns rlmi:1s.sbj.em:think
(This is a rock oyster, I think.)

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chaa KDV QHLWKHU D YHU\ VWURQJ YHODU VWRS QRU D YHU\ VWURQJ JORWWDO VWRS LQ QRUPDO VSHHFK

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§10.4 Clauses with deverbal nouns 239

 * Tiix chaa ha.

dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
(It is that one.)

 * ¿Me chaa ya?

  2.pro sbj.nmlz:eq qm
(Is it you?)

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H[SUHVVLRQ DOWKRXJK WKH SUHIHUUHG IRUP LV haa VHH H[DPSOHV  DERYH )RU VRPH VSHDNHUV WKHVH DUH OHVV
DFFHSWDEOH RU KDYH D GL᯲HUHQW PHDQLQJ become UDWKHU WKDQ be

 FRPSDUH ZLWK  DERYH

He mos Lola hapáh quij ˻ iyat cöcoocapoj˼ coi, he
1.pro also Lola sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm    3.poss:tip 3.io:sbj.nmlz:grow;pl def;pl 1.pro

zo chaa ha.
indf;sg sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
I also am one of the descendants of Lola (Casanova).

 Taax santaaroj coi pac chaa ha.

dem;dt;pl soldier:pl def;pl indf;pl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
They (now) are some of the soldiers (but weren’t before).

 Taax cmaax santaaroj coi pac chaa ha.

dem;dt;pl now soldier:pl def;pl indf;pl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
They became soldiers.bb 2᯲HUHG

7KH IRUP chaa DOVR RFFXUV ZLWK DQ LQGH᯳QLWH QRPLQDO LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ziix zo √haa be someone of rank or
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chaa LV D soldier with rank VXFK DV D FRPPDQGHU

10.4 Clauses with deverbal nouns

&ODXVHV ZLWK GHYHUEDO QRXQV LQVWHDG RI ᯳QLWH YHUEV DUH YHU\ FRPPRQ 7KHLU V\QWD[ UHVHPEOHV WKH VWUXFWXUH RI
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VHFWLRQVൻZLWKRXW DQDO\]LQJ WKH VWUXFWXUH LQ WKH ODWWHU VHH i 6HH DOVR WKH VHFWLRQV DERXW GHYHUEDO QRXQV
LQ FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV i 6LQFH WKHUH DUH WKUHH PDMRU W\SHV RI GHYHUEDO QRXQV LQ 6HUL WKH\ DUH SUHVHQWHG
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PD\ EH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU QHJDWLRQ ZKLFK LV SDUW RI WKH YHUE PRUSKRORJ\ VHH i DQG WKRVH EDVHG RQ WUDQVLWLYH
YHUEV PD\ EH SDVVLYH VHH i

10.4.1 Subject-oriented deverbal nouns

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VXEMHFW LI WKDW VXEMHFW LV ᯳UVW RU VHFRQG SHUVRQ VLQFH VXEMHFW SHUVRQ LV QRW PDUNHG RQ VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO
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7KLV LV WKH IRUP XVHG DV WKH HQWU\ ZRUG IRU WKH YHUEV LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ DV LW ZDV LQ ( 0RVHU 0 0RVHU

240 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

7KH QXPEHU RI WKH VXEMHFW LV H[SUHVVHG E\ WKH IRUP RI WKH YHUE VWHP i VLQFH SHUVRQDO SURQRXQV GR QRW
LQGLFDWH QXPEHU 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 He coos iha.

1.pro sbj.nmlz:sing dcl
I am singing.

 He coosi ha.

1.pro sbj.nmlz:sing\pl dcl
We are singing.

 Me coos iha.

2.pro sbj.nmlz:sing dcl
You (sg.) are singing.

 Me coosi ha.

2.pro sbj.nmlz:sing dcl
You (pl.) are singing.

 Tiix coos iha.

dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:sing dcl
That one is singing.

 Taax coosi ha.

dem;dt;pl sbj.nmlz:sing\pl dcl
Those are singing.

 Coos iha.

sbj.nmlz:sing dcl
a. S/he/it is singing.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJV (I am singing. You are singing.)

 Coosi ha.

sbj.nmlz:sing\pl dcl
a. They are singing.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJV (We are singing. You are singing.)

10.4.1.1. Deverbal nouns based on stative verbs. 7KH FODXVH PD\ EH KHDGHG E\ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ EDVHG RQ D
VWDWLYH YHUE DV LQ H[DPSOHV 

 Hanso quisil iha.

just sbj.nmlz:small dcl
It is just small.

 He hooxi zo toc cöimiih iha.

1.pro 1.poss:obj.nmlz:finish indf;sg there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl
I have never made one.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ The one I have made does not exist.bb &<+,

 ¿Zímjöc xepe iti coom ya?

bbwhen? sea 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:lie qm
When was it [the boat] launched?
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ When was it on the sea?bb 2YHUKHDUG

 Tiix quiteejöc iha.

dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:skinny dcl
S/he is/was thin. bb $/,0 
§10.4.1.2 Deverbal nouns based on intransitive verbs (agentive and non-agentive) 241

 Tiix cacösxaj iha.

dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:tall/long dcl
S/he/it is/was tall/long.

 Tiix cacösxaj, hax maaimoz.

dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:tall/long intns rlmi:1s.sbj.em:think
S/he/it is/was tall/long, I think.

 Zaaj hahoot hac caail iha.

cave abs:entrance def;loc sbj.nmlz:wide/spacious dcl
The cave entrance is wide. [corrected]bb &<+,

 ˻ Cmaa quiih˼, hax maacta.

   now sbj.nmlz:be.fl intns rlmi:1s.sbj.tr.em.look_at
[The name] is new, I think. bb 2YHUKHDUG

 Haxz° ticom quictamo siihi.

dog md:hz sbj.nmlz:ferocious future
I wonder if that dog is ferocious. bb &<+,

Adnominal examples

 Cmaam cacösxaj zo yoofp.

female sbj.nmlz:tall/long indf;sg rlyo:arrive
A tall woman arrived.

 [ [ Cmiique caacoj ] àpa zo ] nsiiho aha.

(Seri)_person sbj.nmlz:big enormous_quantity indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:see aux:dcl
You will see an enormous quantity of big people. bb &<+,

10.4.1.2. Deverbal nouns based on intransitive verbs (agentive and non-agentive). 7KH FODXVH PD\ EH KHDGHG
E\ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ EDVHG RQ DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH DFWLRQ YHUE DV LQ H[DPSOHV 

 …, cooha, yoque.

sbj.nmlz:cry rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
…, she is crying, it is said.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD E

 Cmaam tiquij xeele cöcoos, yoque.

female md:cm fog 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sing rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
That woman had supernatural power of the fog, it is said.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ That woman sang about the fog, it is said.bb 2᯲HUHG

 Cocazni° com ilít quij cactim iha xo isoj com cói
Crotalus_spp. def;hz 3.poss:head def;cm sbj.nmlz:be_cut dcl but 3.poss:body def;hz still
csiijim oo ha.
sbj.nmlz:move del dcl
The head of the rattlesnake was cut off, but its body was still moving.bb &<+,

 Hapaspoj quih hocö quih ano moca ha.

sbj.nmlz:pass:write def;fl pine/wood def;fl [3.poss:]in/from twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
Paper is made from wood.bb &<+,

Adnominal examples
242 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

 Coos quij he hita quih haa ha.

sbj.nmlz:sing def;cm 1.pro 1.poss:mother def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
The one who is singing is my mother.

 cocsar caticpan tacoi

Mexican sbj.nmlz:work md:pl
those non-Indian Mexican workersbb &<+,

$Q H[DPSOH OLNH  VKRZV WKDW WKH KHDG RI WKH SKUDVH LQ ZKLFK WKH DGQRPLQDO PRGL᯳HU RFFXUV PD\ EH QXOO

10.4.1.3. Deverbal nouns based on transitive verbs. 7KH FODXVH PD\ EH KHDGHG E\ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ EDVHG RQ
D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE DV LQ H[DPSOHV 

 Haxz° ticop zixcám zo quihit iha.

dog md:vt fish indf;sg sbj.nmlz:tr:eat dcl
That dog is eating a fish.

 Haxz° ticop zixcám z imahit iha.

dog md:vt fish indf;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:eat dcl
That dog is not eating a fish.

 Haxz° ticop zixcám zo quihit iihi.

dog md:vt fish indf;sg sbj.nmlz:tr:eat past
That dog was eating a fish.

 Hapete quih ˻ miizj cmiique caai˼ ha.

abs:mother def;fl    well (Seri)_person sbj.nmlz:[tr:]make dcl
Our mother does good things for us.bb &<+,

Adnominal examples

 [ Ziix xiica quih caai tahac iti quiij quij hapxa
thing thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]make md:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit def;cm Sylvilagus_sp.
hapáh ] quij itataamalca, yoque.
sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:aug:hv:horn(s)/antlers rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
The being that made the things [the Creator] who was there, put antlers on the cotton-tail, it is said.bb
&RQ$VW

 ˻ Acaam ccaa˼ tiquij, ziic ziix zo quihit áa z

3.poss:husband sbj.nmlz:[tr:]look_for md:cm bird thing indf;sg sbj.nmlz:tr:eat true indf;sg

imhaa ha.
sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
The wren (Troglodytes aedon and others) is not a bird that eats a lot.bb (6 DFDDP FFDD 

10.4.1.4. Deverbal nouns based on passives of transitive verbs. 7KH FODXVH PD\ EH KHDGHG E\ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ
EDVHG RQ D SDVVLYL]HG WUDQVLWLYH YHUE DV LQ 

 Ziix spahit ca quisil ipi impaho ha.

thing irr.ind:pass:eat sbj.nmlz:aux sbj.nmlz:small del sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:see dcl
There isn’t anything to eat.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ Not even one little thing that will be eaten is found.bb &<+,

 ¿Hast coopol ticom zó hapai siihi?

  stone/mountain sbj.nmlz:black md:hz how? sbj.nmlz:pass:tell future
What could that black mountain be called, I wonder. bb &<+,
§10.4.2 Person marking in sentences headed by deverbal nouns 243

Adnominal examples

 Ziix hapahit iha.

thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat dcl
It is food.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ It is something that is eaten.bb 2YHUKHDUG

 Hapeme quij ziix impaxpx iha.

abs:father.fe def;cm thing sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:mad_at dcl
A woman should not get angry with her father.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ One's father [of female] is a thing that should not be gotten angry at.bb &<+,

10.4.2 Person marking in sentences headed by deverbal nouns

6HQWHQFHV ZLWK GHYHUEDO QRXQV DV WKH SUHGLFDWH LQ WKH PDLQ FODXVH DUH LQWHUHVWLQJ V\QWDFWLFDOO\ LQ WKDW WKHLU SUHV
HQFH D᯲HFWV WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI WKH UHPDLQGHU RI WKH VHQWHQFH 7KH GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV LQ H[DPSOHV OLNH WKHVH
DUH TXLWH XQXVXDO DOWKRXJK WKLV LV QRW LPPHGLDWHO\ HYLGHQW 7KH YHUEV RI WKH GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV DUH VWULSSHG RI
VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ tazoj UDWKHU WKDQ hptazoj ZLWK ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU LQWUDQVLWLYH VXEMHFW hp- LQ  tcooo
UDWKHU WKDQ hatcooo ZLWK ᯳UVW SHUVRQ SOXUDO VXEMHFW ha- LQ  DQG  tahit UDWKHU WKDQ itahit ZLWK 3.sbj
i- LQ  taai UDWKHU WKDQ itaai LQ  DQG poop UDWKHU WKDQ impoop LQ  7KH SHUVRQ RI WKH VXEMHFW LV
RQO\ LQGLFDWHG E\ WKH RYHUW RU LPSOLFLW SURQRXQ ,Q IDFW LQ QR RWKHU FRQWH[W LV D ZRUG IRUP VXFK DV tahit RU taai
JUDPPDWLFDO

 D He tazoj oo comsisiin iha.

1.pro rlt:alone del sbj.nmlz:pitiful dcl
I am the only pitiful/poor one.

E * He hptazoj oo comsisiin iha.

1.pro 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:alone del sbj.nmlz:pitiful dcl
(I am the only pitiful/poor one.)

 D He tcooo hizac iti coii ha.

1.pro rlt:all px:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand\pl dcl
We are all here.bb +( 

E * He hatcooo hizac iti coii ha.

1.pro 1p.sbj:rlt:all px:loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand\pl dcl
(We are all here.)

 D He tcooo Yooz quij oeen iha.

1.pro rlt:all God def;cm [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry_items dcl
We are all God’s children.bb 177 7L 

E * He hatcooo Yooz quij oeen iha.

1.pro 1p.sbj:rlt:all God def;cm [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry_items dcl
(We are all God’s children.)

 D ˻ heen imt˼ quij tahit quícatx quij

   cow 3.poss:milk def;cm rlt:eat sbj.nmlz:tr:leave_behind def;cm
the one who stopped eating the (powdered) milk

7KH IRUP tazoj RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG DV DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE LV HDVLO\ XVHG HOVHZKHUH DV D WKLUG SHUVRQ IRUP 7KH FUXFLDO
GL᯲HUHQFH ZLWK tahit DQG taai LV WKDW WKHVH WZR DUH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV
244 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

E * ˻ heen imt˼ quij itahit quícatx quij

   cow 3.poss:milk def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:eat sbj.nmlz:tr:leave_behind def;cm
(the one who stopped eating the (powdered) milk)

 D hant quij taai quixi quij

land def;cm rlt:make sbj.nmlz:tr:finish def;cm
the creator of the world

E * hant quij itaai quixi quij

land def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:make sbj.nmlz:tr:finish def;cm
(the creator of the world)

 ¿Me hoox oo ihaamac poop, siitax quee ya?

  2.pro intns del alone irr.ind:stand irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Are you going unaccompanied?bb &<+,

7KH VDPH NLQG RI VWULSSLQJ RI VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ LV VHHQ LQ H[DPSOH  WKDW KDV D GHYHUEDO QRXQ camoz
DV WKH PDLQ SUHGLFDWH ZLWK D FRPSOHPHQW WKDW LV D WKRXJKW i 1RWH WKDW WKH YHUE saai LV QRW LQ᯴HFWHG IRU
VXEMHFW SHUVRQ

 ¿Me áz saai taa camoz ya?

   2.pro what? irr.ind:make rlt:aux sbj.nmlz:think qm
What are you planning to make?

7KH XQXVXDOQHVV RI WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK D GHYHUEDO QRXQ DV KHDG H[WHQGV WR WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ WKDW RFFXUV
LQ WKHP LW LV DOZD\V WKLUG SHUVRQ XQOLNH LQ ᯳QLWH FODXVHV VHH i 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 D He isoj cnípatim iha.

1.pro 3.poss:body sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit:impf dcl
I am hitting myself.

E * He hisoj cnípatim iha.

1.pro 1.poss:body/being sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit:impf dcl
(I am hitting myself.)

 D Me isoj cnípatim iha.

2.pro 3.poss:body sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit:impf dcl
You are hitting yourself.

E * Me misoj cnípatim iha.

2.pro 2.poss:body/being sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit:impf dcl
(You are hitting yourself.)

 D ¿˻ Zó tpacta ma˼ me ísolca cnooptolca ya?

    how? rlt:be_in_appearance ds 2.pro 3.poss:body\pl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit\pl\impf qm
Why are you hitting yourselves?

E * ¿˻ Zó tpacta ma˼ me mísolca cnooptolca ya?

bbbbhow? rlt:be_in_appearance ds 2.pro 2.poss:body\pl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit\pl\impf qm
(Why are you hitting yourselves?)


7KLV LV QRW DQ LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQW 9HUEV OLNH √amoz DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i
§10.4.3 Object-oriented deverbal nouns 245

10.4.3 Object-oriented deverbal nouns

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DQG DGQRPLQDOO\ 7KLV QRPLQDOL]DWLRQ UHTXLUHV D SRVVHVVRU WKDW FRUUHVSRQGV WR WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE LQ D
V\QRQ\PRXV ᯳QLWH FRQVWUXFWLRQ $OO RI WKH YHUEV LQ WKLV FDVH DUH RI FRXUVH WUDQVLWLYH

 Comcaac coi ocoaaj iha.

(Seri)_person\pl def;pl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:know:pl dcl
The Seri people know it.

 He hant moyaai zo himaaj iha.

1.pro land 2.poss:obj.nmlz:go_to indf;sg 1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]neg:know:pl dcl
We don’t know where you are going. bb 177 -Q 

 Oot zo toc cötiih ma, he hapi htaai,

Canis_latrans indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:be.fl ds 1.pro intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:make/do
hoicö iihi.
1.poss:obj.nmlz:kill past
I killed a coyote myself.

 Cmaam himcop xiica hizcop ipasi oomzo ha.

female dt:vt thing\pl px:vt 3.poss:[pon:]pass:drink [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:want dcl
That woman wants this to be drunk.

Adnominal example

 Hap hoicö com ˻ iiha capii˼ ha.

Odocoileus_hemionus 1.poss:obj.nmlz:kill def;hz    ? sbj.nmlz:? dcl
The mule deer that I killed was fat.bb &<+,

 Zixquisiil quih haxölinaail caziim ocoho quih

child def;fl shelled_mollusk sbj.nmlz:pleasant [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see def;fl

cöimacocta.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:help_see
The child showed him/her the pretty mollusk [shell] that s/he had found. bb &<+,

10.4.4 Proposition/oblique-oriented deverbal nouns

7KH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ i LV FRPPRQO\ XVHG LQ VLPLODU FRQVWUXFWLRQV 7KH SRV
VHVVRU RI WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ FRQVWUXFWLRQ FRUUHVSRQGV WR ZKDW ZRXOG EH WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE LQ D V\QRQ\PRXV
᯳QLWH FRQVWUXFWLRQ

 Cöizaxö hac haptco cöiyaasitim iha.

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]discuss def;loc already 3.io:3.poss:pon:deceive dcl
Already he was tricking him by what he was saying.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ It was his deceiving of him with what he was saying.bb 7UDPSRVRB

 Cöiyaasitim iha.

3.io:3.poss:pon:deceive dcl
He had tricked him.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ It was his deceiving of him.bb &RQHMRB&R\RWHB

Adnominal examples

7KH WKLQJ WR ZKLFK WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ UHIHUV LV DSSDUHQWO\ WKH WRSLF LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV
246 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

 Hateeya ziix iháx an ihiip quih conspooin aha.

glass thing 3.poss:fat [3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:stand def;fl 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:close aux:dcl
You should close the bottle of cooking oil.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ You should close the bottle in which cooking oil is standing.bb &<+,

10.4.5 Irrealis examples

:KLOH WKH H[DPSOHV DERYH DUH DOO UHDOLV GHYHUEDO LUUHDOLV IRUPV DOVR H[LVW DQG DUH FRPPRQ DOWKRXJK QXPHURXV
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([DPSOHV  VKRZ WKH XVH RI LUUHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQV DV PDLQ YHUEV 1RWH WKH ODFN RI DQ\ PDUNLQJ
RI VXEMHFW SHUVRQ RQ WKH YHUEV WKHPVHOYHV

 D Hizac iti hayaii quih ixaap poopxa ta, he

px:loc 3.poss:on 1p.poss:pon.intr:be.fl def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]spend_night irr.dep:three ds 1.pro

cösitooij caha.
3.io:irr.ind:go\pl sbj.nmlz;aux:dcl
After we have been here three days, we will leave.

E * Hizac iti hayaii quih ixaap poopxa ta,

px:loc 3.poss:on 1p.poss:pon.intr:be.fl def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]spend_night irr.dep:three ds

he cöhasitooij caha.
1.pro 3.io:1p.sbj:irr.ind:go\pl sbj.nmlz;aux:dcl
(After we have been here three days, we will leave.)

 ¿Saapl quee ya?

   irr.ind:cold sbj.nmlz;aux qm
Will it be cold? (ambiguous between weather and simple interpretation)

 ¿Me ˻ hant pofii˼ ta smaaitoj quee ya?

   2.pro    land irr.dep:?  ds irr.ind:neg:fish\pl sbj.nmlz;aux qm
Won’t you go fishing tomorrow?

 D He ma siiho caha.

1.pro 2s.do:irr.ind:see sbj.nmlz;aux:dcl
I will see you.

E * He ma hsiiho caha.
1.pro 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:see sbj.nmlz;aux:dcl
(I will see you.)

 ¿Cmaacoj quih zímjöc siifp quee ya?

  old_man def;fl when? irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux qm
When is [my] old man [father or husband] going to arrive? bb &<+,

 ¿Me cmaax siitax quee ya?

  2.pro now irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Are you going to go now?bb &<+,
§10.4.6 The distribution of the deverbal nouns 247

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SOHV DQG i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH IRUPV

10.4.6 The distribution of the deverbal nouns

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 Me mipnaail quih maziim. / … xaziim. / … caziim iha.

2.pro 2.poss:skirt def;fl rlmi:pleasant em:pleasant sbj.nmlz:pleasant dcl
YOUR skirt is pretty.

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KDSSHQLQJ

 Caticpan iha.

sbj.nmlz:work dcl
S/he is working.

 Caafp iha.

sbj.nmlz:arrive dcl
S/he is arriving.

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 ˻ Hax cmaapa˼ miifp. / … yoofp. / … * xoofp. / … caafp iha.

   just_now rlmi:arrive rlyo:arrive    em:arrive sbj.nmlz:arrive dcl
S/he/it just now arrived.

 Zaah quih coox cah cömaticpan. / … cöyaticpan. / … * cöxaticpan. / …

sun/day def;fl all def;fl:foc 3.io:rlmi:work 3.io:rlyo:work    3.io:em:work
cöcaticpan iha.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:work dcl
S/he works every day.

 Mipnaail quih maziim áa. / … * xaziim áa. / … caziim áa ha.

2.poss:skirt def;fl rlmi:pleasant true    em:pleasant true sbj.nmlz:pleasant true dcl
Your skirt is very pretty.

 Panaal hizquih moaatjö. / … * yaatjö. / … xöaatjö. / … * coaatjö iha.

honey px:fl rlmi:sweet    rlyo:sweet em:sweet    sbj.nmlz:sweet dcl
Honey is sweet. (using the generic determiner hizquih)

 Panaal quih moaatjö. / … * yaatjö. / … xöaatjö. / … coaatjö iha.

honey def;fl rlmi:sweet    rlyo:sweet em:sweet sbj.nmlz:sweet dcl
Honey is sweet.
248 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

 Panaal quih yaatjö, ˻ xiica an icaai˼ coi ˻ iiqui

honey def;fl rlyo:sweet    thing:pl [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:make def;pl  3.poss:toward
cöihiin hac˼.
3.io:3.poss:pon:touch def;loc
Honey is sweeter than sugar.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ Honey is sweet, in comparison to sugar.

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EDFNJURXQG LQIRUPDWLRQ RU RXW RI WKH WLPHOLQH RI WKH QDUUDWLYH

10.4.7 The comparative construction

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 Cocazni° com, tiix cacaatol iha, haquiimet com ˻ iiqui

Crotalus_spp. def;hz dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl lizard def;hz    3.poss:toward

cöihiin hac˼.
3.io:3.poss:pon:touch def;loc
A rattlesnake is more dangerous than a lizard. bb &<+,

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 Haamjö icáp coi hesen coi ˻ iiqui

Agave_subsimplex 3.poss:stalk def;pl Olneya_tesota_(dry) def;pl    3.poss:toward
cöihiin hac˼ haamjö icáp coi, taax
3.io:3.poss:pon:touch def;loc Agave_subsimplex 3.poss:stalk def;pl dem;dt;pl

cafzx iha.
sbj.nmlz:lightweight dcl
The flowering stalk of the Agave subsimplex is lighter than ironwood.bb &<+,

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 Rosa quih ˻ iiqui he ihiin hac˼ he cacösxaj iha.

Rosa def;fl    3.poss:toward 1.io:3.poss:pon:touch def;loc 1.pro sbj.nmlz:tall/long dcl
I am taller than Rosa.bb &<+,

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 ¿Quíih caii ya?

bbwho? mature qm
Who is older?

 ¿Me caii ya? ¿Me quisil ya?

  2.pro mature qm 2.pro sbj.nmlz:small qm
Are you older or younger?

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§10.4.7 The comparative construction 249

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 He quisil iha.

1.pro sbj.nmlz:small dcl
I’m younger.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ I’m little.

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coha 3.poss:front 3.poss:in/from 3.io:sbj.nmlz:beLUUHJ  PHDQ smaller, younger WKH\ KDYH FRPSDULVRQ LQFOXGHG LQ
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 Oot cop, tiix xeecoj cop ˻ iizc ano cöcayaxi˼

Canis_latrans def;vt dem;dt;sg Canis_lupus def;vt    3.poss:front [3.poss:]in 3.io:sbj.nmlz:measure
ha.
dcl
A coyote is smaller than a wolf.bb &<+,

 He ˻ miizc ano me coha˼ ha.

1.pro    2.poss:front [3.poss:]in 2.pro 3.io:sbj.nmlz:beLUUHJ dcl
I am younger (or smaller) than you.bb &<+,

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 Zaah quij hant quij ˻ itacl cöcayaxi˼ ha.

sun def;cm land/earth def;cm bbb3.poss:surface 3.io:sbj.nmlz:measure dcl
The sun is larger than the earth.bb &<+,

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 D Eenim quih ziix caaiscan iha.

metal def;fl thing sbj.nmlz:hard dcl
Metal is hard.bb &<+,

E Hocö quih iiscan quih anxö cöqueemij iha.

pine/wood def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]hard def;fl intns 3.io:sbj.nmlz:surpass dcl
It is much harder than wood.bb &<+,

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 Cmaacoj tiquij tihiij oo toohit, cmiique hax yomayaxi.

old_man md:cm rlt:remain_seated del rlt:unsp.sbj:eat (Seri)_person intns rlyo:neg:measure
That old man stayed behind eating. He is bigger than anyone else.bb &<+,

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 ¿Me hant zó cyaxi cömooix ya?

  2.pro land/year how? sbj.nmlz:? 3.io:2.poss:obj.nmlz:leave_behind qm
How many years older than him are you?bb &<+,
250 Chapter 10: The predicative clause

 Hant coocj cohyooix.

land/year sbj.nmlz:two 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:leave_behind
I am two years older than him/her.bb &<+,

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 11
Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

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11.1 The determiner phrase

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 Comcaac coi Sonora quij iti coii ha.

(Seri)_person\pl def;pl Sonora def;cm 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:be.fl\pl dcl
The Seris live in Sonora.

 ˻ Xiica quixaazjoj˼ coi, comcaac coi ˻ hehe án˼ com

   thing\pl  sbj.nmlz:have_weapon;pl def;pl (Seri)_person\pl def;pl  plant [3.poss:]area def;hz
ano toom ma x, cömocaaaxoj.
[3.poss:]in rlt:lie ds ut 3.io:rlmi:follow\pl
The soldiersi chased the Serisj while theyi,*j were in the countryside.

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 He comcaac, he Sonora quij iti coii ha.

1.pro (Seri)_person\pl 1.pro Sonora def;cm 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand\pl dcl
We Seris live in Sonora.

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6HH i

251
252 Chapter 11: Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

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 WKH LUUHJXODU YHUE hatom LV LQ᯴HFWHG IRU ᯳UVW SHUVRQ

 Me comcaac ¿zó matooctam?

2.pro (Seri)_person\pl bbhow? 2p.sbj.rlt:look_at\pl
How do you Seri people view it?

 He comcaac ˻ hehe án˼ com ano hatom ma x, ˻ xiica

1.pro (Seri)_person\pl    plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.rlt:lie ds ut    thing\pl

quixaazjoj˼ coi he mocaaaxoj.

sbj.nmlz:have_weapon\pl def;pl 1.io.rlmi:follow\pl
When we Seris were in the countryside, the soldiers chased after us.

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DV GLDJUDPPHG LQ ᯳JXUH  IRU  VHH i

)LJXUH bb3URQRXQ PRGL᯳HG E\ SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO

DP

DP NP

Pro N
me comcaac

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 ... ox hayoomxoj, he comcaac.

thus 1p.sbj:rlyo:say\pl 1.pro (Seri)_person\pl
... that’s what we call it, we Seris. bb (6 [SHH]RM

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 Cmajiic coi imiiht.

female\pl def;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:see\pl
a. They saw the women.
b. 2U The women saw it/her/him/them.
c. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (The women saw themselves.)

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§11.2 The reflexive construction 253

 Taax, cmajiic coi imiiht.

dem;dt;pl female\pl def;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:see\pl
a. They found/saw the women.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (The women saw themselves.)

 Cmajiic coi, taax imiiht.

female\pl def;pl dem;dt;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:see\pl
a. The women saw them.
b. 2U  They saw the women.
c. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (The women saw themselves.)

 Taax cmajiic coi imiiht.

dem;dt;pl female\pl def;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:see\pl
a. The women saw them.
b. 2U They saw the women.
c. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (The women saw themselves.)

 Cmajiic coi cmajiic coi imiiht.

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a. The womeni saw the womenj .
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 Imiiht.
3.sbj:rlmi:see\pl
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b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (They saw themselves.)

11.2 The reflexive construction

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VWHP Cmajiic coi, taax imiiho 3.sbj:rlmi:see S/he saw the women
254 Chapter 11: Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

11.2.1 Simple analytic reflexives

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DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 ¿Isoj itamsisiin?
   3.poss:body/self 3.sbj:rlt:love
Does he love himself? / Does she love herself?

 ¿Ísolca itamsisiijc?
   3.poss:body/self\pl 3.sbj.rlt:love\pl
Do they love themselves?

 Hisoj ihyamsisiin.
 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:love
I love myself.

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 * ¿Isoj intamsisiin?
   3.poss:body/self 2s.sbj.rlt:love
(Do you love yourself?)!

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 Cocazni° com ilít quij cactim iha xo isoj com cói

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csiijim oo ha.
sbj.nmlz:move del dcl
The head of the rattlesnake was cut off, but its body was still moving.bb &<+,

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L hant quih iti icmiiquet isoj áa hac

land def;fl 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]be_person 3.poss:body true def;loc
his hometown area bb 177 0W 


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§11.2.1.1 Reflexive pronoun and object inflection 255

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 D Hisoj ihtaactim ma, ...

1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rl:cause_be_cut ds
I cut myself, ... bb &<+,

E * Hisoj him ihtaactim ma, ...

1.poss:body/self 1s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:cause_be_cut ds
(I cut myself, ...)

F * Him ihtaactim ma, ...

1s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:cause_be_cut ds
(I cut myself, ...)

 Tzih com haso quih ano toom, isoj

Sphoeroides_annulatus def;hz net def;fl [3.poss:]in rlt:lie 3.poss:body/self
itahiix, hapx iicom iyomá.
3.sbj:rlt:cause_be_inflated outside inf.intr:lie 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
The pufferfish was caught in a net, it inflated itself and couldn’t get out.bb &<+,

 Ox popacta ta, hipi hisoj ihsiih aha ...

thus irr.dep:be_in_appearance ds intns 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux:dcl
Then I will tell myself: ... bb 177 /N 

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256 Chapter 11: Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

 Hacat com isoj itahaa, yoque.

shark def;hz 3.poss:body/self 3.sbj:rlt:cause_eq rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
He changed himself into a shark, it is said. bb &<+,

 ¿Isoj itaactim?
  3.poss:body/self 3.sbj:rlt:cause_be_cut
Did he cut himself? / Did she cut herself?

 Isoj iyooho.
3.poss:body/self 3.sbj:rlyo:see
She saw herself. / He saw himself. / It saw itself.

11.2.1.2. Plural subjects. 7KH IRUP RI D UH᯴H[LYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK D SOXUDO VXEMHFW LV VRPHZKDW YDULDEOH
7KH MXGJPHQWV LQ  DUH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH 7KH ZRUGV XVHG LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV DUH he ᯳UVW SHUVRQ SURQRXQ
XQPDUNHG IRU QXPEHU i WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV hisoj DQG hísolca DQG GL᯲HUHQW IRUPV RI WKH OH[HPH √nip
hit (especially with hand) √nip VLQJXODU VXEMHFW SHUIHFWLYH √nípatim VLQJXODU VXEMHFW LPSHUIHFWLYH √nooptoj
SOXUDO VXEMHFW SHUIHFWLYH √nooptolca SOXUDO VXEMHFW LPSHUIHFWLYH
,W LV DSSDUHQWO\ PRVW DSSURSULDWH WR XVH D YHUE LQ᯴HFWHG IRU plural VXEMHFW DQG D plural UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ
([DPSOHV JK DUH YHU\ ZHOOIRUPHG 6HH DOVR  %XW H[DPSOHV LQ ZKLFK D YHUE LQ᯴HFWHG IRU plural VXEMHFW
LV XVHG ZLWK D singular UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ DUH DOVR YHU\ DFFHSWDEOH VHH HI ([DPSOHV FRPELQLQJ D YHUE
LQ᯴HFWHG IRU VLQJXODU VXEMHFW DQG D VLQJXODU UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ ZHUH MXGJHG XQJUDPPDWLFDO VHH FG 7KRVH
ZKHUH ERWK WKH YHUE DQG WKH SURQRXQ DUH VLQJXODU UHTXLUH DQ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ LQ ZKLFK D VLQJOH SHUVRQ LV DFWLQJ
UH᯴H[LYHO\

 D RQH SHUVRQ DFWLQJ UH᯴H[LYH

(He) hisoj ihyoníp.
I hit myself.

E RQH SHUVRQ DFWLQJ UH᯴H[LYH

(He) hisoj ihyonípatim.
I hit myself.

F >XQJUDPPDWLFDO@
* He hísolca ihyoníp.
(I hit myself. / We hit ourselves.)

G >XQJUDPPDWLFDO@
* He hísolca ihyonípatim.
(I hit myself. / We hit ourselves.)

H SOXUDO SHUVRQV UH᯴H[LYH

(He) hisoj hayonooptoj.
We hit ourselves.

7KLV H[SUHVVLRQ LQGLFDWHV DQ LQWHQWLRQDO FXWWLQJ D GL᯲HUHQW H[SUHVVLRQ LV XVHG IRU DQ DFFLGHQWDO FXWWLQJ

7KLV H[DPSOH LV D ELW XQQDWXUDO VLQFH DV ZDV H[SODLQHG RQH XVXDOO\ ORRNV LQ D PLUURU DQG VHHV RQHൿV IDFH DQG WKHUHIRUH
ZRXOG VD\ MXVW WKDW

([DPSOHV ZLWK SOXUDO VXEMHFWV DUH DOVR D ELW PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG LQ WKHLU LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ 7KH SULPDU\ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKH
SOXUDO H[DPSOHV LV VWULFW UH᯴H[LYH HDFK RQH WR KLPVHOI RU KHUVHOI EXW IRU VRPH VSHDNHUV DW OHDVW D UHFLSURFDO UHDGLQJ PD\
EH DFFHSWHG )RU PRVW FRQVXOWDQWV WKH UHFLSURFDO UHDGLQJ LV H[SUHVVHG RQO\ ZLWK WKH ZRUG pti i 3DUW RI WKH SUREOHP RI
WKHVH H[DPSOHV LV FKRRVLQJ DQ DSSURSULDWH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKDW KDV ZHOONQRZQ DQG ZHOODFFHSWHG SOXUDO IRUPV 7KH YHUE √azt
tattoo WKDW DSSHDUV LQ VRPH H[DPSOHV LQ 0DUOHWW E LV QRZ VRPHZKDW OHVV IUHTXHQWO\ XVHG DQG WKHUHIRUH SUREOHPDWLF IRU
FHUWDLQ FRQVXOWDQWV VLQFH WKH\ IHHO XQVXUH DERXW WKH SOXUDO IRUPV
§11.2.1.3 Transitive clauses 257

I SOXUDO SHUVRQV UH᯴H[LYH

(He) hisoj hayonooptolca.
We hit ourselves.

J SOXUDO SHUVRQV UH᯴H[LYH

(He) hísolca hayonooptoj.
We hit ourselves.

K SOXUDO SHUVRQV UH᯴H[LYH

(He) hísolca hayonooptolca.
We hit ourselves.

 Hax cop ah hisoj (~ hísolca) cöhamatoaasxaj.

fresh_water def;vt foc 1.poss:body/self bbbb1.poss:body/self\pl 3.io:1p.sbj:rlmi:clean\pl
We wash ourselves with water. bb &<+,

11.2.1.3. Transitive clauses. ,Q WKH FDQRQLFDO UH᯴H[LYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ WKH YHUE LV LQ᯴HFWHG DV LI LW KDG D WKLUG
SHUVRQ GLUHFW REMHFW ,Q WKH VLPSOHVW FDVHV ZLWK ᯳UVW DQG VHFRQG SHUVRQ VXEMHFWV QR RYHUW PRUSKRORJ\ RFFXUV IRU
GLUHFW REMHFWV EXW LQ FDVHV ZLWK WKLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFWV WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- DSSHDUV DV LQ  VHH i 7KH
WUDQVLWLYLW\ WHVWV VHH DSSHQGL[ & DUH XQDPELJXRXV WKH FODXVHV DUH WUDQVLWLYH 1RWH WKDW WKH WUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK
RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ h- UDWKHU WKDQ hp- DSSHDUV LQ D DQG  WKDW WKH WUDQVLWLYH
DOORPRUSK iha- RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH SUH᯳[ DSSHDUV LQ  DQG WKDW WKH WUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH
QRPLQDOL]HU h- LV XVHG LQ  $OWHUQDWLYHV VXFK DV DQ DWWHPSW WR XVH WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH LQ᯳QLWLYH SUH᯳[ ica- LQ 
LQVWHDG RI WKH WUDQVLWLYH iha- ZKLFK ZRXOG \LHOG *icaactim DUH XQJUDPPDWLFDO

 Hisoj ihaactim ihmiimzo.

1.poss:body/self inf.tr:cause_be_cut 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to cut myself.

 Cmaam ticop misoj mihaactim imiimzo.

female md:vt 2.poss:body/self 2.poss:pon:cause_be_cut 3.sbj:rlmi:want
That woman wants you to cut yourself.

11.2.1.4. Reflexives in multiclausal situations. 7KH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ PD\ RFFXU LQ DQ LQ᯳QLWLYDO FODXVH DV LQ
 DERYH ZLWK LWV DQWHFHGHQW EHLQJ WKH VXEMHFW WKDW LV WKH FRQWUROOHU RI WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH 2QO\ WKUHH
YHUEV DOORZ LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQWV VHH i ,Q᯳QLWLYHV GR QRW RFFXU LQ DQ\ RWKHU FRQVWUXFWLRQ $Q H[DPSOH
ZLWK √aCa know LQ WKH VHQVH RI be able VHH i LV JLYHQ LQ 

 ˻ Miizj isoj ihaacta˼ iyomaa.

  well 3.poss:body/self inf.tr;look_at 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know
S/he isn’t able to protect himself/herself.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ S/he isn’t able to look at herself well.

7KH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ RFFXUV LQ RWKHU FODXVHV LQFOXGLQJ FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV KHDGHG E\ GHYHUEDO QRXQV DV LQ
 DERYH RQO\ XQGHU WKH FRQGLWLRQV WKDW KROG IRU VLPSOH FODXVHV ZLWK WKH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKDW WKH SRVVHVVRU RI
WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ LV WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH FODXVH
([DPSOHV  DQG  ZLWK GHULYHG FDXVDWLYHV VKRZ WKDW WKH DQWHFHGHQW RI WKH UH᯴H[LYH FDQ RQO\ EH WKH
DJHQWVXEMHFW RI WKH FDXVDWLYH YHUE QRW WKH QRPLQDO WKDW ZRXOG EH WKH DJHQW RI WKH YHUE RQ ZKLFK WKH FDXVDWLYH
YHUE LV EDVHG

 Juan cop Pedro quij (hipi) isoj cöiyacohot.

Juan def;vt Pedro def;cm intns 3.poss:body/self 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_see
a. Juan showed himself to Pedro.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Juan showed Pedroi to himselfi .)
258 Chapter 11: Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

 Juan cop Pedro quij (hipi) isoj cöiyaqueecotol.

Juan def;vt Pedro def;cm intns 3.poss:body/self 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_listen
Juani made Peterj hear himselfi,*j .

11.2.1.5. Reflexive and passive. $ UH᯴H[LYH FODXVH PD\ EH SDVVLYH 3DVVLYH FODXVHV DUH SRVVLEOH RQO\ LI WKH
DJHQWH[SHULHQFHUDFWRU LV XQVSHFL᯳HG ,I WKLV XQVSHFL᯳HG DJHQWH[SHULHQFHUDFWRU LV DOVR FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH
SDWLHQW WKH FRQGLWLRQV DUH PHW IRU UH᯴H[LYL]DWLRQ DQG WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ quisoj oneself LV XVHG ([DPSOH
 ZDV JLYHQ DV D TXHVWLRQ WKDW RQH PLJKW DVN LI RQH ZDV VXSSRVHG WR GR VRPH NLQG RI ULWXDO EHIRUH HQWHULQJ D
URRP

 ¿Quisoj sahníp haa ya?

  unsp.sbj:3.poss:body/self irr.ind:pass:hit aux qm
Is one supposed to hit oneself?
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ Should one’s self be hit?bb 2᯲HUHG

 Hoox miizj quisoj tompaho ho.

intns well unsp.sbj:3.poss:body/self rlt:neg:pass:see dcl
One doesn’t only take care of oneself.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ One’s self is not looked at well.bb 2᯲HUHG

11.2.1.6. Lack of determiner with reflexive pronoun. 'HVSLWH EHLQJ D QRXQ HW\PRORJLFDOO\ WKH UH᯴H[LYH
SURQRXQ GRHV QRW RFFXU ZLWK D GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH RU GHPRQVWUDWLYH LQ WKH UH᯴H[LYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ 6LQFH WKH ZRUG isoj
PHDQV his/her/its body/being WKHUH PD\ EH VLWXDWLRQV ZKHUH WKH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ myself DQG my body RU my
being LV PLQLPDO 7KXV RQH PD\ VRPHWLPHV ᯳QG hisoj com 1.poss:body def;hz RU hisoj cop 1.poss:body def;vt
my body RU hisoj quij 1.poss:body def;cm my being LQ VRPH VOLJKWO\ OHVV FRUSRUHDO VHQVH LQ QHDU V\QRQ\P\ ZLWK
hisoj ZLWKRXW DQ DUWLFOH myself EXW WKH ODWWHU LV TXLWH GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH RWKHUV LQ PRUH ZD\V WKDQ VHPDQWLFV DV
VKRZQ EHORZ ([DPSOHV  DUH QRW UH᯴H[LYH FRQVWUXFWLRQV 1RWH WKDW LQ  WKH VXEMHFW DQG WKH SHUVRQ
WR ZKRP WKH ERG\ EHORQJV PD\ RU PD\ QRW EH FRUHIHUHQWLDO DQG WKDW WKH VHQWHQFH VSHFL᯳FDOO\ PHDQV WKDW D ERG\
per se LV EHLQJ GLVFXVVHG

 ¿Isoj quij itamsisiin?

   3.poss:body/self def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:love
Does he love his own life? / Does she love her own life? bb 2᯲HUHG

 ¿Isoj com itaactim?

   3.poss:body/self def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:cause_be_cut
Did s/hei cut his/her/itsi,j body? [Coreference possible.]

 Isoj com iyooho.

3.poss:body def;hz 3.sbj:rlyo:see
S/hei saw his/her/itsi,j body. [Coreference possible.]

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QRW FRQVWUXDEOH DV GHQRWLQJ DQ DFWLRQ WR RU WRZDUGV RQHൿV ERG\ ([DPSOHV  DUH XQJUDPPDWLFDO ZLWK DQ\
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 DERYH

 * Hapi hisoj com / quij ihsiih haa hi: ...

 intns 1.poss:body/self def;hz def;cm 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux dcl
(Then I will tell myself: ...)

6HH DOVR WKH DQDORJRXV H[DPSOHV RI quisoj LQ i

7KH DUWLFOH ZRXOG EH cop def;vt LI RQH ZHUH VWDQGLQJ LQ IURQW RI D PLUURU
§11.2.1.7 Inexact coreference 259

 * Hacat com isoj com / quij iyahaa.

shark def;hz 3.poss:body/self def;hz def;cm 3.sbj:rlyo:cause_eq
(He changed himself into a shark.)

11.2.1.7. Inexact coreference. ,Q WKH FDQRQLFDO UH᯴H[LYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ WKH FRQWUROOHU LV H[DFWO\ FRUHIHUHQWLDO
ZLWK WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ ([DPSOH  ZDV RQH UHVXOW RI DWWHPSWV WR HOLFLW H[DPSOHV ZLWK SDUWLDO FRUHIHUHQFH
EHWZHHQ VXEMHFW DQG GLUHFW REMHFW 1RWH WKDW WKH ZRUG hísolca LV IROORZHG E\ D GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYH WKLV
LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKH VHQWHQFH LV QRW D WUXH UH᯴H[LYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ 7KH GLUHFW REMHFW LV DQ HPSKDWLF SURQRPLQDO
SKUDVH RI WKH W\SH GLVFXVVHG LQ i 7KH ODFN RI WKH DUWLFOH LQ  PDNHV WKDW H[DPSOH XQJUDPPDWLFDO

 Hipi hísolca hizcoi hyooho.

intns 1.poss:body/self;pl px:pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw us.

 * Hipi hísolca hyooho.

intns 1.poss:body/self;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
(I saw us.)

11.2.2 Reflexive pronoun and indirect object

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SUHVHQFH RI WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW SUH᯳[ REOLJDWRULO\ RFFXUV RQ WKH YHUE LQGLFDWHG
E\ co-cö- 7KDW LV XQOLNH WKH VLWXDWLRQ ZLWK WKH VXVSHQVLRQ RI GLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ PHQWLRQHG LQ i
DERYH LQ WKHVH FDVHV WKH SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ LV QRW VXVSHQGHG 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ... isoj cöitamjc, ...

3.poss:body/self 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:deliver
... he brought them to himself, ... bb 177 0W 

 Misoj contamjc?
2.poss:body/self 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:deliver
Did you bring them to yourself?

 Jesús cap ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ quih ptiti coii tacoi

Jesus def;vt    thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl rcp:3poss:on sbj.nmlz:be.fl\pl md:pl
isoj cöimacooix.
3.poss:body/self 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:cause_go_away_from
Jesus sent the crowd of people away (from himself). bb 177 0N 

7KH YHUE √aahal PHDQV bring/take with DQG RI FRXUVH RQH DOZD\V EULQJV WKH LWHP ZLWK RQHVHOI 7KHUHIRUH
WKLV YHUE SURWRW\SLFDOO\ RFFXUV ZLWK D UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ DV ZHOO DV D third person LQGLUHFW REMHFW SUH᯳[ DV QRWHG
DERYH 6HH H[DPSOHV 

7KLV SKUDVH ZLWK quij LV JUDPPDWLFDO RQ WKH UHDGLQJ RI WHOOLQJ about RQHVHOI WR RWKHUV

7KH JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ FDQ EH PDGH WKDW WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ DV VXFK LV RQO\ SRVVLEOH ZKHQ WKHUH LV FRUHIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ DQ
DJHQWH[SHULHQFHUDFWRU DQG DQ REMHFW GLUHFW RU LQGLUHFW UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH VHPDQWLF UROH LW PD\ KDYH
([DPSOHV LLL KDYH XQFHUWDLQ V\QWD[ EXW WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ LV QRW REYLRXVO\ UHODWHG WR D SDWLHQWGLUHFW REMHFW %RWK
RI WKHP KDYH LQGLUHFW REMHFW DJUHHPHQW RQ WKH YHUE

L Hipi hisoj iic cohmqueepe.

intns 1.poss:body/self 3.poss:toward 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:like
I want it for myself.

LL He hisoj cohyomacooyam.
1.pro 1.poss:body/self 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:honor
I’m not proud.
260 Chapter 11: Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

 ¿Zixcám ticom misoj consaahal haa ya?

bb fish md:hz 2.poss:body/self 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:deliver aux qm
Are you going to take that fish with you?

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, iquiistox quih imiipe quih

  thus   rlt:be_in_appearance ds 3.poss:unsp.sbj:spirit:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:neg:good def;fl

˻ tomcoj cöquiih˼ coi isoj cöitaahal, ...

   five:two 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be.fl def;pl 3.poss:body/self 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:
Then it brings seven evil spirits with it, ... bb 177 /N 

2WKHU YHUEV WKDW VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU LQGLUHFW REMHFWV RU REOLTXH REMHFWV WKDW DUH SHRSOH RU DQLPDOV VHH i DQG
i DOVR DOORZ WKHVH WR EH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV ZLWK WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ
UHTXLUHG DV ZHOO VHH H[DPSOHV  1RWH WKDW LW FDQQRW EH RPLWWHG DV VKRZQ LQ  7KH YHUE √eeti fetch
for DV LQ H[DPSOH  LV RQO\ XVHG LQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVHV WKH LWHP IHWFKHG PXVW EH GHGXFHG IURP WKH FRQWH[W
RU H[SUHVVHG LQ DQRWKHU FODXVH ZLWK DQRWKHU YHUE

 D Eenim cop hisoj cohyacooix.

metal/knife def;vt 1.poss:body/self 3.io:1.sbj.tr:cause_go_away_from
I grabbed the knife away from myself.

E * Eenim cop hisoj ihyacooix.

metal/knife def;vt 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:cause_go_away_from
(I grabbed the knife away from myself.)

 Haxz° cap isoj cöyaaitim.

dog def;vt 3.poss:body/self 3.io:rlyo:chase
The dog is chasing itself.

 Ziix ihpaatim, hisoj cohsaaha aha.

thing 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:?:impf 1.poss:body/self 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:keep aux:dcl
I will make the food, I will keep it for myself. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Ihpooij, hipi hisoj cohpseeti aha.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water intns 1.poss:body/self 3.io:1s.sbj:irr.ind:fetch_for aux:dcl
I will go for water and fetch it for myself.

7KH YHUEV √acohot show, cause to see DQG √aqueecotol make listen SURYLGH PRUH LQWHUHVWLQJ FRQWH[WV VLQFH RQH
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FDQ EH WKH DQWHFHGHQW RI WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ 7KHVH H[DPSOHV DUH QRW DPELJXRXV

 Juan cop Pedro quij (hipi) isoj cöiyacohot.

Juan def;vt Pedro def;cm intns 3.poss:body/self 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_see
a. Juan showed himself to Pedro.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Juan showed Pedroi to himselfi .)

7KH FKDVHG LWHP LV DOZD\V DQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW ZLWK WKLV YHUE ZKLFK LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ √Vsoj √acohot body/self show KDV GHYHORSHG KRZHYHU D VRPHZKDW OH[LFDOL]HG PHDQLQJ RI present self
WKDW QHHGV WR EH UHFRJQL]HG

L ..., misoj cöhacohot.

2.poss:body/self 3.io:im:cause_see
..., present yourself to him/her.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ ..., show yourself to him/her.bb 177 0W 
§11.3 Coreference between subject and possessor 261

 Juan cop Pedro quij (hipi) isoj cöiyaqueecotol.

Juan def;vt Pedro def;cm intns 3.poss:body/self 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_listen
Juani made Peterj hear himselfi,*j .

0RUH H[DPSOHV ZLWK WKHVH YHUEV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i

11.3 Coreference between subject and possessor

1R VSHFLDO SRVVHVVRU PRUSKRORJ\ LQGLFDWHV FRUHIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ D VXEMHFW DQG WKH SRVVHVVRU RI D QRXQ 1HYHU
WKHOHVV LQ PDQ\ VLWXDWLRQV WKHUH LV DQ VWURQJ LPSOLFDWLRQ WKDW WKH WZR DUH FRUHIHUHQWLDO 7KLV PD\ EH EHFDXVH RI
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D SRVVHVVHG QRXQ 7KXV ZKLOH RQH PLJKW WKLQN WKDW H[DPSOHV VXFK DV  VKRXOG EH FRQVWUXDEOH GL᯲HUHQWO\
WKDQ WKH UHDGLQJV VKRZQ LW ZDV QRW SRVVLEOH WR REWDLQ RWKHU LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV $OWHUQDWLYH UHDGLQJV UHTXLUH VR IDU
DV FRXOG EH GHWHUPLQHG WKH LQFOXVLRQ RI VRPH RWKHU H[SOLFLW QRPLQDO EHIRUH WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ

 María quih ata quij hapaspoj quih anxö iiqui iyaacatim.

María def;fl 3.poss:mother def;cm sbj.nmlz:pass:write def;fl intns toward 3.sbj:rlyo:send\impf
Maríai sent many letters to heri,*j mother. bb &<+,

 Ctam tiquij itaamt coi iyoqueepe.

male md:cm 3.poss:sandal(s) def;pl 3.sbj:rlyo:like
That mani likes hisi,*j sandals.

 Comcaii cop iicto coi iyahácotim.

old_woman def;vt 3.poss:[obj.:nmlz]pregnant_with def;pl 3.sbj:rlyo:cause_be_covered
The old womani covered up heri,*j children (as with a blanket). bb &<+,

+RZHYHU DV LI WKHUH ZHUH DQ\ GRXEW DERXW WKH FRUHIHUHQFH RQH PD\ DOVR LQGLFDWH FRUHIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH
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 Juan quih hiza tacsx, hipi yaazi cop iyoocta.

Juan def;fl towards_elsewhere rlt:wake_up intns [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry def;vt 3.sbj:rlyo:look_at
Juani looked to one side and looked at hisi,*j child. bb &<+,

)LJXUH bb'LDJUDP IRU WKH ᯳QDO FODXVH RI H[DPSOH 


7KLV H[DPSOH LV XQDPELJXRXV HYHQ ZLWKRXW WKH SUHVHQFH RI hipi
262 Chapter 11: Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

DP DP VP

Pro NP Det V

DP N

Pro Adv

i
i hipi yaazi cop iyoocta

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 Cmaam cop iiquet com itexl, isaraapi quih

female def;vt 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:take/buy 3.poss:blanket def;fl
an imfain.
[3.poss:]in/from 3.sbj:rlmi:tie_up
The woman took her child and wrapped him/her in his/her blanket. [ambiguous]

 Cmaam cap iiquet° com itexl, hipi isaraapi

female def;vt 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:take/buy intns 3.poss:blanket
quih an imfain.
def;fl [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlmi:tie_up
The womani took her childj and wrapped him/her in heri,*j blanket.

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 Juan cop Pedro quij isoj cop cöiyacohot.

Juan def;vt Pedro def;cm 3.poss:body def;vt 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_see
Juani showed Pedroj hisi,j body. [ambiguous]

 Juan cop Pedro quij ihipon cop cöiyaqueecotol.

Juan def;vt Pedro def;cm 3.poss:pon:hv:voice def;vt 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_listen
Juani made Pedroj hear hisi,j voice. [ambiguous]

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§11.4 Coreference with complement of a P 263

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 Juan cop Pedro quij hapi ihipon cop cöiyaqueecotol.

Juan def;vt Pedro def;cm intns 3.poss:pon:hv:voice def;vt 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_listen
Juani made Pedroj hear his*i,j voice.

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 Juan cop (hapi) ihipon cop Pedro cop cöiyaqueecotol.

Juan def;vt intns 3.poss:pon:hv:voice def;vt Pedro def;vt 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_listen
Juani made Pedroj hear hisi,*j voice.

11.4 Coreference with complement of a P

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 D Hásatoj coi imocaj hac an iyocaaitaxlca.

stone:pl def;pl 3.poss:underside/place_under\pl def;loc [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlyo:put.cm\pl\impf
They put the stones under them / themselves. (ambiguous)

E Hásatoj coi hapi imocaj hac an

stone:pl def;pl intns 3.poss:underside/place_under\pl def;loc [3.poss:]in
iyocaaitaxlca.
3.sbj:rlyo:put.cm\pl\impf
They put the stones under themselves.

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 D ..., hinzeet quij iti httaxz, ...

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F * Hanzeet quij iti hisoj ihyoaxz.

abs:heel def;cm 3.poss:on 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:hit.hz
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L Juan cop hapi Pedro quij ihipon cop cöiyaqueecotol.

Juan def;vt intns Pedro def;cm 3.poss:pon:hv:voice def;vt 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cause_listen
Juan made Pedro hear his voice. (ambiguous)
264 Chapter 11: Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

11.5 Reciprocals
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 D Hipi pti hasamsisiijc aha.

intns rcp 1p.sbj:irr.ind:love\pl aux:dcl
We should love one another.

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rcp 1s.sbj.tr:love\pl
(We should love one another.)

F Hipi pti hasamsisiin aha.

rcp 1p.sbj:irr.ind:love
We should love one another.

G * Hipi pti hsamsisiin aha.

(We should love one another.)

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 Comcaac tacoi pti cnooptoj iha.

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Those Seris were hitting each other (once in a while).

 Comcaac tacoi pti cnooptolca ha.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl rcp sbj.nmlz:[tr:]hit\pl\impf dcl
Those Seris were boxing each other.

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§11.5 Reciprocals 265

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 ¿Pti itconnooptolca?
   rcp 3.sbj:rlt:neg:hit\pl\impf
Didn’t they hit each other?

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 Comcaac tacoi pti iházitim quimcaj iha.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl rcp inf.tr:tattoo:impf sbj.nmlz:tr:want\pl dcl
Those people wanted to tattoo each other.

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resemble ZKLFK KDV D QRQDJHQWLYH VXEMHFW RI FRXUVH DUH JLYHQ LQ 

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rcp irr.ind:resemble sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
They are going to resemble each other.bb &<+,

 Pti hayomahinej.
rcp 1p.sbj:rlyo:neg:separate
We were companions.bb &<+,

 Pti iyasaacajam.
rcp 3.3:rlyo:use_arms_to_support
They hugged each other.

 Cmaacöl cmozimtoj coi pti iyasaacalcam.

old_man\pl sbj.nmlz:drunk:pl def;pl rcp 3.sbj:rlyo:use_arms_to_support\pl
The drunk old men were walking around with their arms around each other.bb &<+,

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L ... iicp pte tmiipe ho.

3.poss:side rcp;3.io:rlt:neg:good dcl
... they don’t get along with each other. bb 177 -G 


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266 Chapter 11: Coreference and disjoint reference in simple clauses

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ptiihax

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intns rcp:3.poss:with rlt:go\pl
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... they ate food with each other, ... bb 177 $F 

 Hásatoj coi ptimocaj hac an iyocaaitajc.

stone:pl def;pl rcp:3.poss:place_under def;loc [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlyo:put.cm\pl
They put the stones under each other.

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ixoyai.
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Those two families were fighting with each other over land.

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Those houses really resemble each other.

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still rcp del 3.io:rlt:neg:arrive ds
§11.5.1 Reciprocals and the portmanteau pte 267

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pte mascmaai aha.

rcp;3.io 2p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:do/say/put.fl\pl aux:dcl
You shouldn’t do bad things to each other.

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 Háxaca° coi hapi pte caaitim iha.

dog\pl def;pl intns rcp;3.io:sbj.nmlz:chase dcl
The dogs are chasing each other.

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now 3.poss:with rcp;3.io:rlmi:hv:spirit:pl
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 ... miistox quih coox com pte masamsisiin aha.

2.poss:spirit:pl def;fl all def;hz rcp;3.io:2p.sbj:irr.ind:love aux:dcl
... love one another earnestly. bb 177  3W 

 ... ox tooza, hapi pte immiiitim.

thus rlt:speak\pl intns rcp;3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:ask:impf
... thus they said, they asked each other about it. bb 177 0N 

7KH ZRUG pte RFFXUV LQ H[DPSOHV  EHFDXVH WKH GLUHFW REMHFW DQG WKH LQVWUXPHQW D FURVVUHIHUHQFHG
REOLTXH REMHFW VHH i DUH EHLQJ KLW DJDLQVW HDFK RWKHU

 Hast cahmác quih pte htaafc ma, ...

stone sbj.nmlz:emit_spark def;fl rcp;3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:pound ds
When I struck the rocks together, ... bb &<+,

 ¿Juan quih pte itcmaafc?

bb Juan def;fl rcp;3.io:3.sbj:rlt:neg:pound
Didn’t Juan strike them together?

7KH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH WZR ZRUGV pti DQG pte LV VLJQL᯳FDQW LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQV VKRZQ LQ  ZKLFK DUH
SUHVXPDEO\ IRUPHG RQ WKH URRW tazo one

 D pti √atazo be on the level LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE

E pte √atazo make level WUDQVLWLYH YHUE
 12
Complement clauses

&RPSOHPHQW FODXVHV RFFXU LQ GL᯲HUHQW IRUPV 7KH FODXVH PD\ EH KHDGHG E\ DQ LQ᯳QLWLYH D GHYHUEDO QRXQ RU D
᯳QLWH YHUE &RPSOHPHQW FODXVHV ZLWK LQ᯳QLWLYHV i DQG GHYHUEDO QRXQV DV KHDGV i DQG i IXQFWLRQ
FOHDUO\ DV VXEMHFWV DQG GLUHFW REMHFWV RI RWKHU YHUEV WKH\ DUH FRPPRQ W\SHV &RPSOHPHQW FODXVHV ZLWK ᯳QLWH YHUEV
i XVXDOO\ KDYH TXLWH GL᯲HUHQW VWUXFWXUHV KRZHYHU DQG W\SLFDOO\ DUH QRW WUXH VXEMHFWV RU GLUHFW REMHFWV 7KH
UHPDLQLQJ VHFWLRQV RI WKLV FKDSWHU SUHVHQW VSHFL᯳F YHUEV E\ JURXS DQG GHPRQVWUDWH WKH NLQGV RI FRPSOHPHQWV
WKDW RFFXU ZLWK WKHP
7ZR RI WKH YHUEV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV FKDSWHU √amzo want DQG √aCa ZLWK WKH VHQVH be able HW\PRORJLFDOO\ know
HVVHQWLDOO\ UHTXLUH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV 7KH YHUE √amzo want FDQQRW RFFXU JUDPPDWLFDOO\ ZLWK D VLPSOH REMHFW
FRPSOHPHQW QRXQ SKUDVH DV VKRZQ LQ 

 * ¿Siimet quih intamzo?

bbbread def;fl 2s.sbj:rlt:want
(Do you want the bread?)

2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKH GHULYHG YHUE √queepe like VHH i HDVLO\ WDNHV QRXQ SKUDVHV DV GLUHFW REMHFWV DV VKRZQ
LQ 

 Satoj ixoqueepe.
Modiolus_capax 3.sbj:em:like
S/he likes mussels.

 Hap ipxasi quih hxoqueepe.

Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:flesh def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:em:like
I like mule deer meat. bb &<+,

12.1 Infinitival complements

2QO\ WKUHH YHUEV RU IRXU GHSHQGLQJ RQ KRZ RQH FRXQWV WKHP DOORZ LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQWV )XUWKHUPRUH
LQ᯳QLWLYHV i RFFXU LQ WKH ODQJXDJH RQO\ LQ FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV ZLWK WKHVH YHUEV 7KUHH RI WKHVH YHUEV XVH
D FRQWURO VWUXFWXUH i DQG RQH RFFXUV LQ D VRFDOOHG UDLVLQJ VWUXFWXUH i

12.1.1 Control structure

7KH WKUHH YHUEV RFFXUULQJ LQ D FRQWURO VWUXFWXUH DUH √amzo want √aCa know how WR GR VRPHWKLQJ DQG E\
H[WHQVLRQ LQ VRPH FDVHV to be an expert DW VRPHWKLQJ DQG √queepe like ZKLFK DOORZV RQO\ intransitive LQ᯳QLWLYDO
FRPSOHPHQWV LQ DGGLWLRQ WR GHYHUEDO QRXQ FRPSOHPHQWV 6RPH YHU\ VLPSOH H[DPSOHV ZLWK WKUHH GL᯲HUHQW PDLQ
YHUEV DUH JLYHQ LQ  DQG DQ DQDO\VLV IRU DQ H[DPSOH ZLWK DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FRPSOHPHQW LV LOOXVWUDWHG LQ ᯳JXUH



7KH YHUE √amzo want UDUHO\ RFFXUV ZLWKRXW DQ RYHUW FRPSOHPHQW EXW H[DPSOHV LLL DUH FDVHV LQ ZKLFK LW GRHV

L [ Haxz° cap max ] tootar coi iyoocotim, itamzo x.

dog def;vt even chicken def;pl 3.sbj:rlyo:kill:impf 3.sbj:rlt:want ut
Even the DOG killed chickens if it wanted to. bb &<+,

LL Impoomzo x, hin nsahiipet aha.

2s.sbj:irr.dep:want ut 1s.do2s.sbj:irr.ind:heal aux:dcl
If you wanted to, you could heal me. bb 177 0W 


7KH JUDPPDWLFDO YHUVLRQ RI WKLV VHQWHQFH ZRXOG EH VRPHWKLQJ HTXLYDOHQW WR Do you want to eat the bread? ZLWK WKH
WUDQVLWLYH LQ᯳QLWLYH ihaahit to eat it EHIRUH WKH YHUE intamzo

7KLV LV REYLRXVO\ D TXLUN\ IDFW WKDW UHTXLUHV VRPH GLVFXVVLRQ 6HH EHORZ

268
§12.1.1 Control structure 269

)LJXUH bb&RQWURO VWUXFWXUH

S

DPi S VP

DP VP V
know
like
want

i Vinf

 D Icoos imiimzo.
inf.intr:sing 3.sbj:rlmi:want
S/he wants to sing.

E Icoos ihmiimzo.
inf.intr:sing 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to sing.

F ¿Icoos intamzo?
  inf.intr:sing 2s.sbj:rlt:want
Do you want to sing?

G Icoosi hamiimcaj.
inf.intr:sing:pl 1p.sbj:rlmi:want;pl
We want to sing.

 D Icoos imiya.
inf.intr:sing 3.sbj.rlmi:know
S/he knows how to sing.

E Icoos ihmiya.
inf.intr:sing 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know
I know how to sing.

F ¿Icoos intaa?
   inf.intr:sing 2s.sbj:rlt:know
Do you know how to sing?

G Icoosi hamiyaj.
inf.intr:sing:pl 1p.sbj:rlmi:know:pl
We know how to sing.

 D Icoos imqueepe.
inf.intr:sing 3.sbj:rlmi:like
S/he likes to sing.

E Icoos ihmqueepe.
inf.intr:sing 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:like
I like to sing.
270 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

F ¿Icoos intqueepe?
   inf.intr:sing 2s.sbj:rlt:like
Do you like to sing?

G Icoosi hamqueept.
inf.intr:sing:pl 1p.sbj:rlmi:like;pl
We like to sing.

7KH LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH PD\ KDYH D YHUE ZLWK YDULRXV NLQGV RI YHUEV LQFOXGLQJ YHUEV LQ WKH SDVVLYH
YRLFH EXW DOZD\V ZLWK FRUHIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH JUDPPDWLFDO VXEMHFW RI WKDW YHUE DQG WKH DJHQWH[SHULHQFHU
DFWRU RI WKH FRQWUROOLQJ YHUE 1R QHJDWLYH LQ᯳QLWLYHV H[LVW KRZHYHU ([DPSOHV  DOO KDYH LQWUDQVLWLYH
FRPSOHPHQWV

Intransitive complements of √amzo want

 Hant icahjiit ihyomamzo.

land inf.intr:fall 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:want
I don’t want to fall.

 ¡Icapazt ihxoomzo!
  inf.intr:pass:tattoo 1s.sbj.tr:em:want
I want to be tattooed!

 Hacx icamiih ihyomamzo.

apart inf.intr:not_be.fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:want
I don’t want to die.

 Icahaapl ihyomamzo.
inf.intr:feel_cold 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:want
I don’t want to feel cold. [from weather]

 Icacozim ihyomamzo.
inf.intr:feel_hot 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:want
I don’t want to feel hot. [from weather]

 Socaaix an iquiih ihyoomzo.

Punta_Chueca [3.poss:]in inf.intr:be.fl/live 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:want
I want to live in Punta Chueca.

Intransitive complements of √aCa know

 Zixquisiil quih icacat itcmá, ...

child def;fl inf.intr:swim 3.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able
a. The child didn’t know how to swim, ...
b. 2U The child couldn't swim, ...bb &<+,

 Icooit quiya ha.

inf.intr:dance sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
S/he knows how to dance well.

Intransitive complements of √queepe like


$WWHPSWV ZLWK QRPLQDOL]DWLRQV RU RWKHU VWUXFWXUHVൺDOO XQJUDPPDWLFDOൺWR VKRZ WKDW WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH LV WKH RQO\ ZD\ WR VD\
WKHVH WKLQJV DUH QRW SUHVHQWHG KHUH
§12.1.1 Control structure 271

 ¿Icacat intqueepe?
  inf.intr:swim 2s.sbj:rlt:like
Do you like to swim?

 Icoop ixoqueepe.
inf.intr:unsp.obj:sew_basket 3.sbj:em:like
S/he likes to sew baskets.

 Icapazt ihxoqueepe.
inf.intr:pass:tattoo 1s.sbj.tr:em:like
I like to be tattooed.

 Icahahásaquim ihxoqueepe.
inf.intr:passive:aug:comb_one’s_hair 1s.sbj.tr:em:like
I like to have my hair combed.

$QG H[DPSOHV  KDYH WUDQVLWLYH FRPSOHPHQWV

Transitive complements of √aCa know

 Hapaspoj° ihacaaitom ixoaa.

paper inf.tr:cause_speak 3.sbj:em:know
S/he knows how to read. [implication: s/he reads well]

Transitive complements of √amzo want

 Zixquisiil ctam tintica [ zixcám z ihanaaij ] quimzo ha.

child male md:aw fish indf;sg inf.tr:catch sbj.nmlz:tr:want dcl
The boy wants to catch a fish. bb +( 

 [ ¿Ziix z ihaahit ] intamzo?

bbthing indf;sg inf.tr:eat 2s.sbj:rlt:want
Do you want to eat something?

 [ Hant ihamihzx ] ihyomamzo.

land inf.tr:slip_on 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:want
I don’t want to slip.

 Comcaii quih [ him ihazt ] ixoomzo, ...

old_woman def;fl 1s.do:inf.tr:tattoo 3.sbj:em:want
The old woman wanted to tattoo me, ... bb &<+,

:KHQ WKH FRQWUROOLQJ VXEMHFW LV SOXUDO WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH DOVR XVHV D SOXUDO YHUE VWHP MXVW DV LW ZRXOG LQ D VLP
SOH FODXVH i DV VKRZQ LQ  $ VLQJXODU VWHP LQ WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH LV DOZD\V XQJUDPPDWLFDO XQGHU WKHVH
FRQGLWLRQV

 D ..., [ iihax icooza ] hamiimcaj.

3.poss:with inf.intr:speak\pl 1p.sbj:rlmi:want;pl
..., we want to talk with him. bb 177 -Q 

E * …, [ iihax icaaitom ] hamiimcaj.

inf.intr:speak
(..., we want to talk with him.)

7KH YHUE IRU slip LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH DOWKRXJK LW GRHV QRW KDYH DQ REYLRXV GLUHFW REMHFW ,I DQ REMHFW LV PHQWLRQHG
VXFK DV D URFN WKH YHUE LV LQ᯴HFWHG IRU DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW
272 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

7KH DJHQW WKDW FRQWUROV WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH PD\ EH WKH XQH[SUHVVHG DJHQW RI WKH SDVVLYH YHUE VHH
i

 ..., [ cöicahtxima hac iti cöiica ]

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:rich def;loc 3.poss:on 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:beLUUHJ

cöipamzo xaha, ...

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]pass:want crd
..., and the desire to have wealth, ...
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ ..., and to have that with which one is rich being wanted, ...bb 177 0W 

 [ Icaatax ] popamzo x, quisoj sahtaaho aha.

inf.intr:go irr.dep:pass:want ut unsp.sbj:3.poss:body/self irr.ind:pass:make_ready aux:dcl
If one wants to go, one should get ready.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ If to go is wanted, one’s self should be gotten ready.

$V PHQWLRQHG DERYH WKH YHUE √queepe like PD\ WDNH DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQW LOOXVWUDWHG E\
H[DPSOHV  DQG  DERYH EXW QRW D WUDQVLWLYH RQH 6HH  IRU H[DPSOHV RI DWWHPSWV WR HPEHG WUDQVLWLYH
FRPSOHPHQWV

 * [ Satoj (quih) ihaahit ] ixoqueepe.

Modiolus_capax def;fl inf.tr:eat 3.sbj:em:like
(She likes to eat mussels.)

 * [ Sooda coopol ihasi ] ixoqueepe.

soda_pop sbj.nmlz:black inf.tr:drink 3.sbj:em:like
(She likes to drink Coke.)

$WWHPSWV DW HOLFLWLQJ D WUDQVLWLYH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKLV YHUE KDYH DOZD\V SURGXFHG HLWKHU D VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH
FODXVH ZLWK D QRXQ SKUDVH DV GLUHFW REMHFW DV VKRZQ LQ  DERYH RU D FKDLQHG FODXVH FRQVWUXFWLRQ DV VKRZQ
E\ H[DPSOHV 

 Satoj quih itahit x, ixoqueepe.

Modiolus_capax def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:eat ut 3.sbj:em:like
She likes to eat mussels.

 Sooda coopol quih itasi x, ixoqueepe.

soda_pop sbj.nmlz:black def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:drink ut 3.sbj:em:like
She likes to drink Coke.

7KH VDPH FKDLQHG FODXVH VWUXFWXUH PD\ EH XVHG ZLWK DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE LQ OLHX RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQW DV
LQ 

 Toop x, ixoqueepe.
rlt:unsp.obj:sew_basket ut 3.sbj:em:like
S/he likes to sew baskets.

12.1.2 Raising structure with infinitival complement

7KH YHUE √aCa ZKLFK PHDQV know how LQ FRQWURO VWUXFWXUHV DV GHVFULEHG LQ i PHDQV be able LQ RWKHU
FRQWH[WVൺD YHU\ VOLJKW FKDQJH VHPDQWLFDOO\ 7KH ODWWHU VLWXDWLRQV DUH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LGHQWLFDO WR WKH FRQWURO
VWUXFWXUHV 7KDW LV DV LW LV YHU\ LPSRUWDQW WR QRWH WKH YHUE LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH MXVW DV LWV KLVWRULFDO VRXUFH
§12.1.2 Raising structure with infinitival complement 273

LV WUDQVLWLYH 7KH XQGHUVWRRG VXEMHFW RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH DQG WKH H[SOLFLW VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE √aCa DUH FRUHIHUHQWLDO
6HH H[DPSOHV 

Intransitive complements of √aCa in the sense of be able

 Miizj iquiim ihyomaa.

well inf.intr:sleep 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
I couldn’t sleep well.

 Iquihehe himaa ha.

inf.intr:hv:plant/rod 1.poss:[pon:]neg:know/be_able dcl
I can’t be governor.

 Iquihehe hscmaa aha

inf.intr:hv:plant/rod 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:neg:know/be_able aux:dcl
I won’t be able to be governor.

 Icaticpan iyomá.
inf.intr:work 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
S/he can’t/couldn’t work. (e.g., lacked time, or had a physical impediment)

 Icaticpan imá ha.

inf.intr:work sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:know/be_able dcl
S/he can’t work.

 Tcooo, icaalx itcmaaj, ...

rlt:all inf.intr:go\pl 3.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able:pl
None of them could walk, ... bb 9LDMHB7LEXURQB

Transitive complements of √aCa in the sense of be able

 Miizj ihaaho hyomaa.

well inf.tr:see 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
I couldn’t see it well.

 Miizj isoj ihaacta iyomá.

well 3.poss:body/self inf.tr:look_at 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
S/he isn’t able to protect himself/herself.

8QOLNH WKH H[DPSOHV ZLWK WKH YHUEV GLVFXVVHG LQ i KRZHYHU WKH VXEMHFW RI √aCa DV ZHOO DV WKH FRP
SOHPHQW FODXVH LV QRW QHFHVVDULO\ DQ DJHQWLYH VHQWLHQW RU HYHQ D OLYLQJ EHLQJ DV WKH H[DPSOHV  VKRZ
7KHVH VXJJHVW WKDW WKH YHUE √aCa LV IXQFWLRQLQJ DV D UDLVLQJ YHUE WKDW WKH VXSHU᯳FLDO VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE √aCa
LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV KDV QR VHPDQWLF UROH ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKDW YHUE

 Trooqui quij iquiisaxim iyomá.

vehicle def;cm inf.intr:hv:spirit:impf 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
The car couldn’t start.

 Zaah quij icazaahox iyomá.

sun def;cm inf.intr:shine 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
The sun couldn’t shine.

%\  LW EHFDPH FOHDU WKDW DW OHDVW IRU VRPH VSHDNHUV LQFOXGLQJ 5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD WKHUH LV D SKRQHWLF GL᯲HUHQFH
EHWZHHQ itaa s/he knows DQG itá s/he is able HYHQ WKRXJK ERWK DUH FOHDUO\ IURP WKH YHUE √aCa know DQG WKDW WKH GL᯲HUHQFH
VKRXOG EH UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WKH SUDFWLFDO ZULWLQJ V\VWHP $SSDUHQWO\ WKH FRQWUDVW GRHV QRW H[WHQG WR RWKHU SHUVRQV QRU HYHQ WR
WKLUG SHUVRQ SOXUDO , DWWHPSW WR IROORZ WKH GHFLVLRQ WR UHSUHVHQW WKH WZR VHQVH GLVFULPLQDWLRQV FRUUHFWO\ EXW , PD\ QRW EH
HQWLUHO\ FRQVLVWHQW
274 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 Haaco ticop icooxp siya caha.

abs;house md:vt inf.intr:white irr.ind:know/be_able sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
That house can be white. [e.g., it’s physically possible, says a painter]

 Trooqui quij iquiipe iyomá.

vehicle def;cm inf.intr:good 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
The car couldn’t be fixed.

 ¿Trooqui quij iquiipe quiya ya?

    vehicle def;cm inf.intr:good sbj.nmlz:tr:know/be_able qm
Can the car be fixed?

 Hapaha quis coi icaatxo iyomá, ziix

sbj.nmlz:pass:grind sbj.nmlz:raw def;pl inf.intr:much/many 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able thing

an isoii ha zo tompaho ma.

[3.poss:]in 3.poss:irr.ind:be.fl\pl foc indf;sg rlt:neg:pass:see ds
It wasn’t possible for there to be much flour, since a container for it was not found.

 Hamiime com icooil smá caha, hamcaaxat quih

sky def;hz inf.intr:blue/green irr.ind:neg:know/be_able sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl smoke def;fl

pootxo ta x.
irr.dep:much/many ds ut
The sky can’t be blue if there is a lot of smoke.

 Quisiil° ctam quih icám icaacösxaj iyomá.

child male def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]alive inf.intr:tall/long 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
The life of the boy couldn’t be long.

7KH HPEHGGHG FODXVH PD\ EH SDVVLYH DV LQ 

 ¿Cafee pac icapasi quiya ya?

    coffee indf;pl inf:intr:pass:drink sbj.nmlz:tr:know/be_able qm
Is there any coffee that can be drunk?
RU Can coffee be drunk?

 Zixcám com icapahit iyomá.

fish def;hz inf.intr:pass:eat 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
The fish couldn’t be eaten. (e.g., bad flavor, too many bones, etc.)

 Imxomotet. Icahsanj intcmaa ho.

2s.sbj:em:heavy inf.intr:pass:carry_on_back 2s.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able dcl
You’re heavy. You can’t be carried.

$ VFKHPDWLF DQDO\VLV IRU  LV JLYHQ LQ ᯳JXUH  DOWKRXJK LW GRHV QRW FOHDUO\ VKRZ WKDW WKH YHUE know LQ
WKLV FDVH GRHV QRW VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU WKH VXUIDFH '3 VXEMHFW WKDW LW VKRZV V\QWDFWLFDOO\
:KHQ WKH JUDPPDWLFDO VXEMHFW RI WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH LV XQVSHFL᯳HG WKH SDVVLYH IRUP RI √aCa know PXVW
EH XVHG VLQFH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV FDQQRW KDYH DQ XQVSHFL᯳HG JUDPPDWLFDO VXEMHFW VHH i %XW WKLV FKDQJH
DOVR SURPSWV WKH XVH RI D GHYHUEDO QRXQ LQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH UDWKHU WKDQ DQ LQ᯳QLWLYH LQ WKLV SDUWLFXODU
FRQVWUXFWLRQ DV VKRZQ LQ H[DPSOHV  7KH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ DQG WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH LV
QRQH[LVWHQW SKRQHWLFDOO\ LQ VRPH FDVHV EXW YHU\ FOHDU LQ RWKHUV 7KH GHYHUEDO QRXQ ipasi LQ  FRQWUDVWV FOHDUO\
ZLWK WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ SDVVLYH LQ᯳QLWLYH icapasi ZKHUHDV WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ icoopis LQ D LV FRLQFLGHQWDOO\
SKRQHWLFDOO\ LGHQWLFDO WR WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ LQ᯳QLWLYH icoopis
§12.1.3 Pro-complement 275

)LJXUH bb$QDO\VLV RI WKH UDLVLQJ VWUXFWXUH LQ H[DPSOH 

S

DPi S VP

DP VP V

∅i Vinf

trooqui quij iquiipe iyomaa

vehicle the to be good it does not know it

 D ¿Icoopis hapaa ya?

    3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:smoke sbj.nmlz:pass:know/be_able qm
Can one smoke?

E ¿Icoopis quiya ya?

a. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (Can one smoke?)
b. 3RVVLEOH UHDGLQJV Does s/he know how to smoke? DQG Can s/he smoke?

 ¿Cafee pac ipasi hapaa ya?

   coffee indf;pl 3.poss:[pon:]pass:drink sbj.nmlz:pass:know/be_able qm
Is it possible (permitted) to drink coffee?
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ Is coffee being drunk permitted?

,Q DW OHDVW VRPH FDVHV ZLWK DQ HPEHGGHG LGLRP WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH KLJKHU YHUE LV WKH SHUVRQ RI WKH SRVVHVVRU LQ
WKH LGLRP 1RWLFH WKDW WKH VXEMHFWV RI √aCa LQ  DQG  DUH FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH SRVVHVVRU RI WKH QRXQV
hiisax DQG mimoz UHVSHFWLYHO\

 ˻ Hiisax hant icooit˼ ihyomaa.

   1.poss:spirit land inf.intr:arrive 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
I can’t be happy.

 ˻ Mimoz icameet˼ inscmaa aha.

   2.poss:heart inf.intr:? 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:know/be_able aux:dcl
You can’t be sad.

2WKHU FDVHV RI UDLVLQJ DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i DQG i

12.1.3 Pro-complement
7KH YHUE √aCa know LQ WKH VHQVH RI be able LV WKH RQO\ YHUE WKDW FDQ WDNH D FRPSOHPHQW FRQVLVWLQJ RI WKH ZRUG
seehe 7KH ZRUG seehe JORVVHG to do (it) KHUH SHUKDSV PD\ EH EHVW DQDO\]HG DV D SURFRPSOHPHQW ,W KDV QR
RWKHU XVDJH LQ WKH ODQJXDJH :KHQ seehe LV WKH FRPSOHPHQW WKH YHUE √aCa LV DOPRVW DOZD\V LQ᯴HFWHG IRU WKLUG
SHUVRQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW IRU QR REYLRXV UHDVRQ 6RPH VLPSOH H[DPSOHV ZLWK WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH seehe
DUH JLYHQ EHORZ 7KH DQWHFHGHQW RI seehe LV LQIHUUHG IURP WKH OLQJXLVWLF RU VLWXDWLRQDO FRQWH[W 6HH H[DPSOHV

276 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 Seehe cohyomá.
to_do_(it) 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
a. I can’t/couldn’t.
b. 2U I can’t/couldn’t do it.

 ¿Seehe contá?
bb to_do_(it) 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:know/be_able
a. Can/could you?
b. 2U Can/could you do it?

 Seehe cösiya caha.

to_do_(it) 3.io:irr.ind:know/be_able sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
a. S/he will be able.
b. 2U S/he will be able to do it.

 Hitoaa cop tapxölim ma, seehe cohyomá.

1.poss:foot/leg/toe def;vt rlt:broken ds to_do_(it) 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
Because my leg is broken, I can’t/couldn’t. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Seehe xah itcmá, iyoocatx.

to_do_(it) ? 3.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able 3.sbj:rlyo:release
He couldn’t and just gave up. bb 2᯲HUHG

 ˻ Xiica quih quiistox˼ quih xepe com iti caticpan quih ˻ haai
   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl sea def;hz 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:work def;fl ?
cahipt˼ ísolca com, taax oo seehe
sbj.nmlz:?/pl 3.poss:body\pl def;hz dem;dt;pl del to_do_(it)

cöocoaaj iha, cöisooxi hac.

3.io:[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:know/be_able:pl dcl 3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:die def;loc
People who are expert fishermen can do it, with respect to their [the flounders] being caught.bb (6
FDDVTXLP 

 Moosni zo hataht, seehe cöhatcmaaj ma, Pedro

Chelonia_mydas indf;sg 1p.sbj:rlt:see\pl  to_do_(it) 3.io:1p.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able:pl ds Pedro
quih hizi yaaicot.
def;fl 1p.do:rlyo:help_kill
We saw a turtle and we couldn’t kill it, so Pedro helped us kill it. bb &<+,

 Seehe compomaa ta x, sahmees

to_do_(it) 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.dep:neg:know/be_able ds ut Citrus_x_sinensis
yatoiilcam tacoi pac ma hsacooomot aha.
[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:distribute;pl md:pl indf;pl 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:request_for aux:dcl
I will ask for some of those oranges for you.
0RUH FRPSOHWHO\ Since you are unable, I will ask on your behalf for some of those oranges that are
being distributed.bb &<+,

7KH ZRUG seehe W\SLFDOO\ VXEVWLWXWHV IRU D FRPSOHPHQW KHDGHG E\ DQ DFWLYH DQG YROLWLRQDO YHUE EXW WKH FRP
SOHPHQW QHHG QRW EH RI WKDW W\SH ,I VRPHRQH ZHUH WR VXJJHVW WKDW RQH VKRXOG EH JRYHUQRU IRU H[DPSOH RQH
PLJKW DQVZHU ZLWK 

 Seehe cohtcmá ho.

to_do_(it) 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know/be_able dcl
I can’t. [perhaps because I’m sick or I have a lot of work, etc.]
§12.1.3 Pro-complement 277

$V D SURFRPSOHPHQW WKH ZRUG seehe LV W\SLFDOO\ QRW DFFRPSDQLHG E\ D QRPLQDO FRPSOHPHQW ,W GRHV QRW
HDVLO\ RFFXU ZLWK D GLUHFW REMHFW FRPSOHPHQW DW DOO ,I LW ZHUH D SURLQ᯳QLWLYH UDWKHU WKDQ D SURFODXVH WKLV LV DQ
XQH[SHFWHG IDFW ,Q UHVSRQVH WR WKH VHQWHQFH You should eat that fish RQH PLJKW DQVZHU ZLWK  RU RQH PLJKW
DQVZHU ZLWK WKH PRUH HODERUDWHG DQG OHVV FRPPRQ 

 Zixcám ticom cöipahit hac seehe cohyomá.

fish md:hz 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]pass:eat def;loc to_do_(it) 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
I can’t/couldn’t with respect to the eating of that fish.bb 2᯲HUHG

$WWHPSWV WR UHFDVW  ZLWKRXW WKH ZRUGV cöipahit hac LQ WKHP ZHUH QRW VXFFHVVIXO 7KLV ZRXOG VXSSRUW WKH
SURSRVDO WKDW seehe LV D SURFRPSOHPHQW DQG QRW D SURLQ᯳QLWLYH
1HYHUWKHOHVV D IHZ H[DPSOHV DUH REVHUYHG RU HOLFLWHG LQ ZKLFK seehe LV SUHFHGHG E\ D VLPSOH QRPLQDO SKUDVH
WKDW LV WKH WRSLF 6HH H[DPSOHV  7KHVH DUH SHUKDSV EHVW DQDO\]HG DV VOLJKWO\ VWULSSHG EDFN YHUVLRQV RI
WKH H[DPSOHV ZLWK GHYHUEDO QRPLQDO REOLTXH REMHFWV MXVW VHHQ WKH\ DUH WUDQVODWHG LQ WKLV ZD\ LQ VRPH FDVHV

 Ziix ihmaa° zo seehe cöimá ha.

thing other indf;sg to_do_(it) 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:know/be_able dcl
S/he can’t/couldn’t do anything else. bb &<+,

 Ihmaa° zo seehe cohyomá.

other indf;sg to_do_(it) 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
I can’t/couldn’t with respect to another.

 Siimet ihmaa° zo seehe cohyomá.

bread other indf;sg to_do_(it) 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
I can’t/couldn’t with respect to another piece of bread.

 Zixcám ticom seehe cohyomá. Xomotet.

fish md:hz to_do_(it) 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know/be_able em:heavy
I can’t/couldn’t with respect to that fish. It is heavy.

 Ee ziix quih coox cah seehe cöitá camoz iha.

3.pro thing def;fl all def;fl:foc to_do_(it) 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:know/be_able sbj.nmlz:think dcl
S/HE thinks that s/he can do anything.

 ..., taax seehe cöhimá ha.

dem;dt;pl to_do_(it) 3.io:1.poss:[pon:]neg:know/be_able dcl
..., I can’t do THAT. bb 177 $F 

 ¿Taax seehe contá?

   dem;dt;pl to_do_(it) 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:know/be_able
Can you do THAT?

([DPSOH  VKRZV WKDW D FODXVH KHDGHG E\ WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ cöhapá FDQ EH XVHG DV D UHODWLYH FODXVH LQ WKH
VHQVH RI that is possible that is available

 ˻ Heme cöiquiin˼ hac ziix quih hayaa quih hipi

   abs:home/family 3.io:3.poss:unsp.sbj:go_away def;loc thing def;fl sbj.nmlz;pass:own def;fl intns
seehe cöhapá, taax oo speque aha.
to_do_(it) 3.io:sbj.nmlz:pass:know/be_able dem;dt;pl del irr.ind:pass:give_gift aux:dcl
When one is asking for someone in marriage, any kind of gift that is available can be given. bb&<+,


,W LV SRVVLEOH WKDW WKH W\SH RI WRSLF DV REOLTXH REMHFW VKRZQ KHUH ZLWK D GHYHUEDO QRXQ DV KHDG LV LPSOLFLW LQ DOO H[DPSOHV
ZLWK seehe 7KLV ZRXOG DFFRXQW IRU WKH XVH RI WKH LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ VHH i RQ REOLTXH REMHFWV
278 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

12.2 Deverbal noun complements

$ IHZ YHUEV WDNH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV LQ ZKLFK WKH PDLQ YHUE LV D GHYHUEDO QRXQ i 2EMHFW FRPSOHPHQWV
DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ i DQG VXEMHFW FRPSOHPHQWV LQ i 6RPH FRPSOHPHQWV RI YHUEV WKDW DSSHDU WR EH
IXQFWLRQLQJ DV UDLVLQJ YHUEV DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ i 2WKHUVൺQXPEHU YHUEV LQ WKH WLPHV FRQVWUXFWLRQൺDUH
GLVFXVVHG LQ i

12.2.1 Object complements

'L᯲HUHQW YHUEV KDYH GL᯲HUHQW FRQGLWLRQV IRU ZKHQ WKH REMHFW FRPSOHPHQW PXVW DSSHDU ZLWK D GHYHUEDO QRXQ DV
KHDG

12.2.1.1. √amzo want. 7KH YHUE √amzo want UHTXLUHV GHYHUEDO QRXQKHDGHG FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV ZKHQ LWV
VXEMHFW GRHV not FRQWURO WKDW RI WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH DJHQWH[SHULHQFHUDFWRUVXEMHFW 6HH i IRU WKH XVH
RI LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQWV ZKHQ FRQWURO LV LQYROYHG 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Ana quih iitax ] hoomzo ha.

Ana def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]go 1.poss:obj.nmlz:want dcl
I want Ana to go.

 [ Yas ] oomzo ha.

[3.poss:]pon:sing [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:want dcl
S/he wants him/her to sing.

 [ Hilít quih iicöla ] hyoomzo.

1.poss:head/hair def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]tall/long 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:want
I want to have long hair.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ I want the my hair’s being long.

 [ Cöipanzx hac ihiha ] hyoomzo.

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]run def;loc 3.poss:pon:be_fast 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:want
I wanted him/her to run fast.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ I wanted his/her running’ being fast.

 Hant miisaquim ihmiimzo.

land 2.poss:[pon:]brush 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want you to sweep the floor/ground. bb &<+,

 [ Iifp ] impoomzo x, ...

3.poss:[pon:]arrive 2s.sbj:irr.dep:want ut
If you want him/her/it to arrive, ...
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ If you want his/her arrival, ...

([DPSOH  KDV D SDVVLYH LQ᯳QLWLYH DQG D SDVVLYH IRUP RI √amzo want VLQFH WKLV LV UHTXLUHG ZKHQ WKH VXEMHFW
LV XQVSHFL᯳HG

 [ Cafee pac ipasi ] popamzo ta x, ...

coffee indf;pl 3.poss:[pon:]pass:drink irr.dep:pass:want ds ut
If one wants to drink coffee, ...
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ If coffee’s being drunk is wanted, ….bb 2YHUKHDUG

12.2.1.2. √aCa know. 7KH YHUE √aCa know ZLWK WKH OLWHUDO PHDQLQJ know DQG not ZLWK WKH PHDQLQJ be able
RU know how DOZD\V WDNHV D GHYHUEDO QRXQKHDGHG FRPSOHPHQW ZKHQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW LV FODXVDO $PELJXLW\
LV URXWLQH LQ VXFK H[DPSOHV ZLWK WKLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW VLQFH FRUHIHUHQFH RU GLVMRLQW UHIHUHQFH LV QRW VLJQDOHG LQ
DQ\ ZD\ 7KH FRPSOHPHQWV RI WKLV YHUE WHQG WR EH PDUNHG ZLWK WKH ORFDWLYH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH hac i

7KLV XQ᯳QLVKHG VHQWHQFH D UKHWRULFDO GHYLFH LV D SROLWH ZD\ WR DVN WKH TXHVWLRQ
§12.2.1.2 √aCa know 279

XQOLNH WKH FRPSOHPHQWV RI want VKRZQ DERYH ZKLFK KDYH QR DUWLFOHV )XUWKHUPRUH UHDOLV FRPSOHPHQWV DUH
LQ᯴HFWHG IRU QR REYLRXV UHDVRQ ZLWK WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ co-, cö- VHH i $V
GRFXPHQWHG EHORZ VRPH FRPSOHPHQWV PD\ DOVR EH SUHVHQWHG ZLWKRXW WKH LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ DQG
ZLWK WKH ᯴H[LEOH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH quih i LQVWHDG WKH GL᯲HUHQFH LQ PHDQLQJ LV DSSDUHQWO\ YHU\ VOLJKW 6HH
H[DPSOHV 

 [ Cöhimoqueepe hac, ] tiix imaa ha.

3.io:1.poss:[pon:]sick def;loc dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:know dcl
S/he didn’t know that I was sick.

 [ Cömihiim hac ] ihyoaa.

3.io:2.poss:pon:sleep def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:know
I know/knew that you were sleeping.

 D Ihmiya, [ eenim quih me cömicooz hac ].

1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know metal/knife def;fl 2.pro 3.io:2.poss:[pon:]steal def;loc
I know that you stole the knife from him/her.

E [ Eenim quih me cömicooz hac ] ihmiya.

metal/knife def;fl 2.pro 3.io:2.poss:[pon:]steal def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know
I know that you stole the knife from him/her.

 D [ Cöimoqueepe hac ] quiya ha.

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]sick def;loc sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
S/he knew that s/he was sick. [ambiguous]

E [ Imoqueepe quih ] quiya ha.

3.poss:[pon:]sick def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
S/he knew that s/he was sick. [ambiguous]

 D [ Cömiroocö hac ] ihmiya.

3.io:2.poss:[pon:]crazy def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know
I know you’re crazy.

E [ Miroocö quih ] hmiya.

2.poss:[pon:]crazy def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know
I know you’re crazy.

3URSRVLWLRQREOLTXH GHYHUEDO QRXQV ZLWK quih def;fl RU zo indf;sg UHIHU WR D VSHFL᯳F DVSHFW RI WKH FODXVH WLPH RU
ORFDWLRQ IRU H[DPSOH EXW QRW WR WKH SURSRVLWLRQ LWVHOI

L Hant iiqui ihiin quih hocoaa ha.

land 3.poss:toward 3.poss:place_near def;fl 1.poss:obj.nmlz:know dcl
I know where s/he was going.

LL Contita ma iifp zo htcmaa ho.

3.io:aw:rlt:move ds 3.poss:[pon:]arrive indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know when s/he arrived.

LLL Contita ma miifp zo htcmaa ho.

3.io:aw:rlt:move ds 2.poss:[pon:]arrive indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know when you arrived.

LY Contita ma iizcam zo htcmaa ho.

3.io:aw:rlt:move ds 3.poss:[pon:]arrive\pl indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know when they arrived.
280 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

7KH FRPSOHPHQW PD\ EH LQ WKH LUUHDOLV PRRG LQ ZKLFK FDVH DQ DX[LOLDU\ LQVWHDG RI DQ DUWLFOH PD\ EH XVHG
7KH IXOO UDQJH RI IDFWV KHUH KDV QRW EHHQ VWXGLHG 6HH H[DPSOHV  VRPH RI ZKLFK KDYH DQ DX[LOLDU\
DQG VRPH RI ZKLFK KDYH DQ DUWLFOH

 D [ Misiitax ha, ] taax ihtcmaa ho.

2.poss:irr.ind:go aux dem;dt;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I didn’t know that you were going.

E [ Misiitax ha ] htcmaa ho.

2.poss:irr.ind:go aux 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I didn’t know that you were going.

F * [ Misiitax taa ] htcmaa ho.

2.poss:irr.ind:go rlt:aux 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
(I didn’t know that you were going.)

 [ Cmiique zo miscmaho hac ] ihmiya.

(Seri)_person indf;sg 2.poss:irr.ind:neg:see def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know
I knew that you wouldn’t see anyone.

 ˻ Hant pofii˼ ta, [ isiifp hac ] hocoaa ha.

   land irr.dep:? ds 3.poss:irr.ind:arrive def;loc 1.poss:obj.nmlz:know dcl
I know that he will come tomorrow.

 [ Hapiistox oo, hant hac hiseaaxoj ha, ] taax

1p.sbj:irr.dep:hv:spirit:pl del land def;loc 1.poss:irr.ind:go_away_from;pl aux dem;dt;pl

himaaj iha.
1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]neg:know:pl dcl
We didn’t think that we would leave the place alive.

 [ ¿Hiihax isaai ha ] taax intcmaa?

  1.poss:with 3.poss:irr.ind:make aux dem;dt;pl 2s.sbj:rlt:neg:know
Don’t you know that he will help me?

 D [ Cmiique z iscmaho hac ] quiya ha.

(Seri)_person indf;sg 3.poss:irr.ind:neg:see def;loc sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
S/hei knew that s/hei,j wouldn’t see/find anyone.

E [ Cmiique z iscmaho taa ] quiya ha.

(Seri)_person indf;sg 3.poss:irr.ind:neg:see rlt:aux sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
S/hei knew that s/hei,j wouldn’t see/find anyone.

 [ Cmiique z iscmaho ha quih ] quiya ha.

(Seri)_person indf;sg 3.poss:irr.ind:neg:see aux def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
S/he knew that no one would see/find him/her/it.

 [ Juan quih mihaa quih ] hmiya.

Juan def;fl 2.poss:pon:eq def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know
I know you are Juan.

7KH SUHFHGLQJ H[DPSOHV ZLWK GHYHUEDO FRPSOHPHQWV FRQWUDVW ZLWK H[DPSOHV  ZKLFK KDYH ᯳QLWH GH
SHQGHQW LUUHDOLV FODXVHV RU DQ LUUHDOLV DX[LOLDU\ SUHFHGLQJ WKH YHUE √aCa know 7KHVH SUHVXPDEO\ DUH QRW
FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV LQ D VWULFW VHQVH DW DOO

7KHUH LV UHSRUWHGO\ D VOLJKW GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKHVH WZR H[DPSOHV :LWK WKH DX[LOLDU\ taa LQ D WKH SHUVRQ LQ TXHVWLRQ
ZHQW DQ\ZD\ EXW ZLWK hac LQ E SHUKDSV WKH WULS ZDV FDQFHOHG
§12.2.1.3 √queepe like 281

 Paticpan imaa ha.

irr.dep:work sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:know dcl
S/he doesn’t work. [for whatever reason―e.g., s/he has never worked, s/he doesn’t know how to work,
s/he doesn’t have experience working]
3HUKDSV PRUH OLWHUDOO\ If she has ever worked, she doesn’t know it.

 Ihpooho htcmaa ho.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:see 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
a. I’ve never seen him/her before.
b. 2U I don’t recognize him/her.
3HUKDSV PRUH OLWHUDOO\ If I have ever seen him/her, I do not know it.

 Zo hpooho htcmaa ho.

indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:see 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I’ve never seen one.

 ¿María quih hiihax isaai pi ta ntcmaa?

bb María def;fl 1.poss:with 3.sbj:irr.ind:make irr.dep;aux ds 2s.sbj:rlt:neg:know
Don’t you know if María will help me?

12.2.1.3. √queepe like. 7KH YHUE √queepe like UHTXLUHV GHYHUEDO QRXQKHDGHG FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV ZKHQ WKH
KLJKHU VXEMHFW GRHV QRW FRQWURO WKDW RI WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHൿV DJHQWH[SHULHQFHUDFWRUVXEMHFW RU ZKHQ WKH
FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH KDV D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE 6HH i IRU WKH FDVHV RI FRQWURO 7KH UHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQV OLNH
WKRVH RI √aCa want DUH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFWV DQG WDNH WKH DUWLFOH hac 6HH H[DPSOHV


 [ Conyeenj hac ] ihtcomqueepe ho.

3.io:2.poss:pon.intr:unsp.obj:yell_at def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:like dcl
I don’t like you to yell.

 [ Anxö conyahamoc hac ] ihtcomqueepe ho.

intns 3.io:2.poss:pon.intr:stay_late def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:like dcl
I don’t like you to come home late at night.

 [ Cöicoopis hac ] ihyomqueepe.

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:smoke def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:like
I don’t like people to smoke.

 [ Ziix ipxasi quih cöipahit hac ] ihyomqueepe.

thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]pass:eat def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:like
I don’t like the eating of meat.

 [ Ziix ipxasi quih cöhiihit hac ] ihyomqueepe.

thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl 3.io:1.poss:[pon:]eat def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:like
I don’t feel like eating meat. [e.g. I’m tired of it]

12.2.1.4. √aho see. 6HQWHQWLDO FRPSOHPHQWV RI WKH YHUE √aho see DUH RI WZR W\SHV DOWKRXJK ERWK KDYH GHYHUEDO
QRXQ KHDGV  WKRVH ZLWK DUWLFOH hac DQG WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ co-/cö- DV VHHQ DERYH ZLWK
RWKHU YHUEV DQG  WKRVH ZLWK WKH VLPSOH GHYHUEDO QRXQ IRUP :KHQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW KDV WKH ODWWHU IRUP WKH
PHDQLQJ LV VRPHKRZ ංPRUH GLUHFWඃ 7KLV WRSLF KDV QRW EHHQ H[SORUHG WR DQ\ GHSWK 6HH H[DPSOHV 

7KH PRVW FRPPRQ ZD\ WR H[SUHVV SHUFHSWLRQ RI DQ HYHQW VHHPV WR EH D FKDLQHG FODXVH VWUXFWXUH RI WKH W\SH x happened,
y saw it 7KH VHHLQJ RU KHDULQJ LV RI WKH HYHQW WKHUHIRUH WKH H[SUHVVLRQ LV you were talking, I heard it DQG QRW you were talking,
I heard you
282 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 [ Cöipanzx hac ] ihyooho.

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]run def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw when s/he/it ran.

 [ Ipanzx ] ihyooho.

3.poss:[pon:]run 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw him/her/it run.

 [ Miitax ] ihyooho.

2.poss:[pon:]go 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw you go.

 [ Eenim cop icooz ] ihmiiho.

metal/knife def;vt 3.poss:pon:steal 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:see
I saw him/her steal the knife.

 [ Hihizil ] intaho.

1.poss:pon:small\pl 2.sbj:rlt:see
Did you see us when we were little?

12.2.1.5. hax √oocta and hax √Cimoz think (opine). 7KH YHUEV √oocta look at DQG √Cimoz think DUH XVHG ZLWK
VSHFLDO FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV DQG WKH DGYHUE hax intns WR H[SUHVV RSLQLRQ RU EHOLHI 7KH IRUP RI WKH FRPSOHPHQW
LV VSHFLDO LQ PRUH WKDQ RQH ZD\ )LUVW RI DOO ZKHQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW LV UHDOLV DQG WUDQVLWLYH WKH YHUE RI WKH
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VKRZQ LQ  WKH ZRUG iquihit

 [ Juan quih sahmees quih iquihit ] hax ihmoocta.

Juan def;fl Citrus_x_sinensis def;fl 3.sbj:sbj.nmlz:tr:eat intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:look_at
I think that Juan ate the orange. bb 2᯲HUHG

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WKRXJK WKHVH DUH DUJXDEO\ WKH VDPH VSHFLDO IRUP LOOXVWUDWHG LQ WKH SUHYLRXV H[DPSOH EXW ZLWKRXW i- DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ
EHFDXVH WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW RI LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV LV QRW RYHUWO\ PDUNHG

 [ Cafee cop cmatj, ] hax ihmoocta.

coffee def;vt sbj.nmlz:hot intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:look_at
I think the coffee is hot.

7KH FRPSOHPHQW PD\ DOVR KDYH D VLPSOH SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ i ZLWKRXW D PRGDO

 [ Hipiix stacj, ] hax maaimoz.

dem;px;sg Crassostrea_palmula intns rlmi:1s.sbj.em.tr:think
This is a rock oyster, I think.

,UUHDOLV FRPSOHPHQWV XVH WKH DUWLFOH quih DIWHU WKHP EXW WKH YHUE LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WKH ᯳QLWH LUUHDOLV IRUP
1RWH WKH ODFN RI SRVVHVVRU PRUSKRORJ\ DQG ZKHQ DSSURSULDWH WKH SUHVHQFH RI RYHUW VXEMHFW SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ
PRUSKRORJ\

 [ Cösihiimat quih ] hax ihmoocta.

3.io:irr.ind:be_lie def;fl intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:look_at
I think it will be a lie.

 Hatee [ siitax quih ] hax maacta.

1.em.pro irr.ind:go def;fl intns rlmi:1s.em.sbj.tr.look_at
I think that she’s going.
§12.2.1.6 hax √Vsoj √Cii think 283

 [ Hatee seehe conscmaa quih ] hax maacta.

1.em.pro to_do_(it) 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:know/be_able def;fl intns rlmi:1s.em.sbj.tr.look_at
I don’t think you will be able.

 [ Ihpsiitax quih ] hax imoocta.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go def;fl intns 3.sbj:rlmi:look_at
She thinks that I will go.

 [ Insiitax quih ] hax imoocta.

2s.sbj:irr.ind:go def;fl intns 3.sbj:rlmi:look_at
S/he thinks that you’re going.

 [ Sahmees hipquij ihsiihit quih ] hax ihmoocta.

Citrus_x_sinensis px:cm 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat def;fl intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:look_at
I think I will eat this orange. bb 2᯲HUHG

7KH FRPSOHPHQW PD\ DOVR EH D FODXVH ZLWK D SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO ZLWKRXW D PRGDO VHH i DV LQ 

 [ Me roocö ] hax ihmoocta.

2.pro crazy intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:look_at
I think you’re crazy.

12.2.1.6. hax √Vsoj √Cii think. 7KH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE √Cii feel RFFXUV LQ DQ H[SUHVVLRQ ZLWK WKH DGYHUE hax intns
DQG WKH LQ᯴HFWHG UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ WR PHDQ think $SSDUHQWO\ D VWDWHPHQW ZLWK WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ LQGLFDWHV WKH
KDUERULQJ RI VRPH FRQVLGHUDEOH GRXEW DERXW WKH YHUDFLW\ RI WKH SURSRVLWLRQ 7KH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH PLJKW QRW
LQ IDFW VWULFWO\ EH D FRPSOHPHQW RI WKLV YHUE LI WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ FRUUHVSRQGV WR LWV GLUHFW REMHFW 7KH IRUPV
RI WKH YHUE IRU WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ H[DFWO\ SDUDOOHO WKRVH RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU hax √oocta think
GLVFXVVHG LQ i 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ ¿Iquihit ] hax misoj inttii?

   3.sbj:sbj.nmlz:tr:eat intns 2.poss:body/being/self 2s.sbj:rlt:feel
Do you think that s/he ate it?

 [ Iquihit ] hax hisoj ihyoii.

3.sbj:sbj.nmlz:tr:eat intns 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:feel
I think that she ate it.

 [ Cmatj ] hax misoj inttii?

sbj.nmlz:warm intns 2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:rlt:feel
Do you think that it’s hot?

 [ Tiix ˻ hacx cmiih˼ ] hax hisoj ihmmii.

dem;dt;sg    apart sbj.nmlz:not_be.fl intns 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:feel
I think that s/he died.

 [ ¿Tiix ˻ hacx cmiih˼ ] hax misoj inttii?

   dem;dt;sg    apart sbj.nmlz:not_be.fl intns 2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:rlt:feel
Did you think that s/he died?

 ... [ ¿cói pac ihsaamlquim oo quih ] hax misoj inttii?

bb still indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cut.hz:impf del def;fl intns 2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:rlt:feel
... but do you think I should cut more?

 [ Isiihit quih ] hax misoj inttii?

3.sbj:irr.ind:eat def;fl intns 2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:rlt:feel
Do you think that s/he will eat it?
284 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 [ Roocö ] hax misoj inttii?

crazy intns 2.poss:body/self 2s.sbj:rlt:feel
Do you think that s/he is crazy?

12.2.1.7. hax √ahii seem. 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ hax √ahii it seems D SDVVLYH IRUP EDVHG RQ WKH YHUE √Cii sense,
feel WDNHV WKH VDPH NLQG RI FRPSOHPHQWV DV WKH DFWLYH YHUE i ,W LV RIWHQ IROORZHG E\ D SKUDVH VXFK DV
hax taa ma intns rlt:auxbds 6LQFH WKH H[SUHVVLRQ LV DW OHDVW PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ SDVVLYH WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV WKHQ
W\SLFDOO\ RQH LQ ZKLFK WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH LV D VXEMHFW FRPSOHPHQW

 [ ... halx iquiixíím ] hax tahii hax taa ma, ...
atten 3.sbj:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]fear:<mod> intns rlt:pass:feel intns rlt:aux ds
... it seems that he was a bit scared of him, ...bb &RQHMRB&R\RWHB

 Cói matiiima oo, [ hiza macoii ] hax mahii s.

still 2p.sbj:rlt:sleep\pl del towards_elsewhere 2p.sbj:sbj.nmlz:be.fl\pl intns rlmi:pass:feel crt
It seems like you are here still sleeping. bb 177 0N 

 ... [ taax icmís ] hax pahii hax paa ta x, ...

dem;dt;pl 3.sbj:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]resemble intns irr.dep:pass:feel intns irr.dep:aux ds ut
... it will be like that, ... bb 177 0W 

 ... [ ziix quih canoj quih caaixaj timoca iquiht ] hax
thing def;fl sbj.nmlz:burn def;fl sbj.nmlz:strong md:twd 3.sbj:sbj.nmlz:tr:see:pl intns

pahii hax saa aha.

irr.dep:pass:feel intns irr.ind:aux aux:dcl
... it will be like they have seen a strong light. bb 177 0W 

 ... [ hant ihpcooca ] hax pahii hax paa ta, ...
land 1s.sbj.intr:sbj.nmlz:]unsp.obj:put.hz intns irr.dep:pass:feel intns irr.dep:aux ds
... it seems that I will rest, ...bb 177 /N 

 ... [ mimofeaa ] hax tahii hax taa, ...

2s.sbj:sbj.nmlz:neg:have_good_eyesight intns rlt:pass:feel intns rlt:aux
... it is like you are blind, ... bb 177 5Y 

 ... [ imcofeaa ] hax pahii hax paa ta x, ...

2s.sbj:sbj.nmlz:have_good_eyesight intns irr.dep:pass:feel intns irr.dep:aux ds ut
... (and) it will be like you will have good eyesight, ... bb 177 5Y 

12.2.1.8. √iixim fear. :KHQ WKH YHUE √iixim fear WDNHV D FODXVDO FRPSOHPHQW WKDW FRPSOHPHQW LV KHDGHG E\ D
GHYHUEDO QRXQ DQG LV IROORZHG E\ DQ DUWLFOH $ UHDOLV IRUP XVHV WKH DUWLFOH LV capcop def;vt W\SLFDO RI DEVWUDFWLRQV
VHH i DQG LUUHDOLV FRPSOHPHQWV XVH WKH DUWLFOH hac 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ ˻ Psaac icooxi˼ cop ] ihtcmiixim iho.

   hunger 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:die def;vt 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I am not afraid of hunger.

 [ ˻ Hacx icamiih˼ cop ] ihtcmiixim iho.

   apart 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:not_be.fl def;vt 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I’m not afraid to die. / I’m not afraid of dying/death.

 [ Ziix quih cjizi cop ] ihtcmiixim iho.

thing def;fl sbj.nmlz:painful def;vt 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I’m not afraid of pain.
§12.2.2 Subject complements 285

 [ Xepe com iiqui cöhisiin hac ] ihtcmiixim iho.

sea def;hz 3.poss:toward 3.io:1.poss:irr.ind:go def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I’m not afraid to go out on the sea.

 [ Cöhisoos hac ] ihtcmiixim iho.

3.io:1.poss:irr.ind:sing def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I’m not afraid to sing [e.g., in this event].

 [ Cöiscoos hac ] ihtcmiixim iho.

3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:unsp.sbj:sing def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I’m not afraid of singing [in general].

 [ ˻ Ziix ccap˼ quij ano cöhisiij hac ] ihtcmiixim iho.

   thing sbj.nmlz:fly def;cm [3.poss:]in 3.io:1.poss:irr.ind:sit def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I’m not afraid to fly in an airplane.

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ZHUH UHMHFWHG LQ IDYRU RI SDVVLYH YHUVLRQV RI WKH VDPH DV H[DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH

 [ Cöispahit hac ] ihtcmiixim iho.

3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:pass:eat def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I’m not afraid to eat it.

 [ ˻ Ziix ccap˼ quij cöisahcaatax hac ] ihtcmiixim iho.

   thing sbj.nmlz:fly def;cm 3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:pass:cause_go def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:fear dcl
I’m not afraid to fly an airplane. (more literally, of the airplane’s being caused to go.)

12.2.2 Subject complements

,Q RQH VHQVH VXEMHFW FRPSOHPHQWV DUH YHU\ FRPPRQ 7KH FODXVH KHDGHG E\ WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ cöipanxz his/her/its
running LQ  UHSHDWHG DV  LV WKH VXEMHFW FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ ihiha its being fast

 [ [ Cöipanzx hac ] ihiha ] ] hyoomzo.

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]run def;loc 3.poss:pon:be_fast 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:want
I wanted him/her to run fast.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ I wanted his/her running’s being fast. (= (76))

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SUHVVLRQV IRU necessary DUH WKH PRVW VDOLHQW DQG WKH\ DOO WDNH GHYHUEDO QRXQKHDGHG FRPSOHPHQWV

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WKDW LOOXVWUDWH LWV XVDJH DOO KDYH UHDOLV FRPSOHPHQWV SUHVHQWHG ZLWKRXW DQ\ DUWLFOH VHH 

 [ Miisi ] iicp cöquiipe ha.

2.poss:[pon:]drink 3.poss:side 3.io:sbj.nmlz:good dcl
It is necessary for you to drink it.

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WKDW KDV D GHYHUEDO QRXQ IROORZHG E\ DQ H[SUHVVLRQ RI WLPH :KLOH WKHVH PLJKW EH VXEMHFW FRPSOHPHQWV WKH IDFW WKDW WKH
YHUE DJUHHV LQ QXPEHU ZLWK WKH XQLW RI WLPH WKH\ DUH WDNHQ KHUH DV DGMXQFW FODXVHV WKDW DUH QRW FURVVUHIHUHQFHG RQ WKH YHUE
6HH L

L Juan quih ˻ hacx imiih˼ quih hant moocj.

Juan def;fl    apart 3.poss:[pon:]not_be.fl def;fl land/year rlmi:two
Juan died two years ago.
286 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 [ Iti nyaaspoj ] iicp cöquiipe ha.

3.poss:on 1.poss:pon:write 3.poss:side 3.io:sbj.nmlz:good dcl
You have to write it.

 [ Hezitmisoj quij contmiiha ] iicp cöquiipe ha.

Hermosillo def;cm 3.io:aw:2.poss:pon:move 3.poss:side 3.io:sbj.nmlz:good dcl
You have to go to Hermosillo.

 [ Imcaatax ] iicp cöquiipe ha.

3.poss:[pon:]neg:unsp.sbj:go 3.poss:side 3.io:sbj.nmlz:good dcl
It isn’t necessary that one go.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ One’s not going is necessary.

12.2.2.2. haa √ahca necessary. 7KLV H[SUHVVLRQ LV DQ LGLRP haa √ahca there be_located ([DPSOH  KDV
DQ LUUHDOLV GHYHUEDO FRPSOHPHQW DQG WKH DUWLFOH quih

 [ Hisiitax xah quih ] haa caahca ha.

1.poss:irr.ind:go ? def;fl there sbj.nmlz:be_located dcl
I will have to go, I guess.

12.2.2.3. toc co- √ahca necessary. 7KLV H[SUHVVLRQ LV DQ LGLRP toc co- √ahca there 3.io- be_located 7KH
FRPSOHPHQWV LQ H[DPSOHV  DUH ZLWK LUUHDOLV GHYHUEDO FRPSOHPHQWV DQG WKH DUWLFOH hac

 [ Cmiique quih ˻ haait quizp˼ quij ˻ ziix hapsx

(Seri)_person def;fl    abs;blood sbj.nmlz:tr:expel_from_anus def;cm thing ?
caaitim˼ quij cöisahaaix hac ] oo toc
 sbj.nmlz:[tr:]make/do def;cm 3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:pass:take def;loc del there

cöcaahca ha.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:be_located dcl
It is necessary to take a person who has dysentery to a doctor.

 [ Isiitax hac ih ] toc cöcaahca ha.

3.poss:irr.ind:go def;loc em there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be_located dcl
It is necessary for him/her to go.

12.2.3 Deverbal noun complements of phasal verbs

7KH SKDVDO YHUEV GLVFXVVHG LQ GHWDLO LQ i EHORZ PD\ DOVR RFFXU ZLWK FRPSOHPHQWV KHDGHG E\ UHDOLV GHYHUEDO
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LV SUHVHQWHG LQ i 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ..., [ hai cap cói iixaj oo ] cötajöc ma, ...

wind def;vt still 3.poss:[pon:]strong del 3.io:rlt:continually ds
..., the wind continued to be strong, ... bb 177 $F 

 [ ¿Inyáhitim ] intaxi?

   2.poss:pon:unsp.obj:eat:impf 2s.sbj:rlt:finish
Have you finished eating?
§12.3 Finite complements of phasal verbs 287

12.3 Finite complements of phasal verbs

7KUHH YHUEV DUH XVHG DV SKDVDO YHUEV √axi finish HOVHZKHUH XVHG WR PHDQ make, create (an object) √ácatx stop
HOVHZKHUH XVHG WR PHDQ release, set free, let go, let loose, abandon DQG √ajöc continually be or do QRW XVHG
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WR D GHSHQGHQW DGYHUELDO FODXVH HLWKHU ZLWK LUUHDOLV po- i RU UHDOLV t- i $QG RYHUVLPSOLI\LQJ
D ELW IRU WKH PRPHQW WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH SKDVDO YHUE LV FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH
7KH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH LV EUDFNHWHG LQ H[DPSOHV  DQG WKH RYHUW LQGLFDWRUV LI DQ\ RI VXEMHFW SHUVRQ
LQ᯴HFWLRQ DUH XQGHUVFRUHG
b
With the verbb√axibfinish

 ... [ tiix ihtíp ] ihtaxi, ...

dem;dt;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:straighten 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:finish
... when I finished straightening that one, ... bb &<+,

 [ Ox tee ] itaxi, ...

thus rlt:say 3.sbj:rlt:finish
When he finished saying thus, ... bb &RQ3XP

 Zo hpoohit ihpooxi,

indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:eat 1s.sbj:irr.dep:finish
When I finish eating part of it,bb &RQ3XP

 [ Taax hapafitlam ] hapoox, cmaax hasaaitoj aha.

dem;dt;pl 1p.sbj:irr.dep:pull\pl 1p.sbj:irr.dep:finish now 1p.sbj:irr.ind:eat\pl aux:dcl
When we finish pulling them in, then we will go fishing. bb )LVKLQJB&RQYHUVDWLRQB

 [ Xiica quipxa hoeenec tacoi hataaitoj ]

thing\pl sbj.nmlz:few/little_bit 1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry\pl md:pl 1p.sbj:rlt:eat\pl
hatáx, ...
1p.sbj:rlt:finish\pl
When we had finished eating the few things that we had taken along, ... bb )XWXUHB)LVKLQJB

 [ Ihpásaquim ] ihpooxi, ...

1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:comb_one’s_hair 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:finish
When I finish combing my hair, ... bb &<+,

 [ Iscám com itaacöim ] itaxi, ...

3.poss:reed_craft def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:make_reed_boat_ready 3.sbj:rlt:finish
S/he finished readying his/her reed watercraft, ... bb &<+,

 [ Mooin quij impoom ] impooxi, ...

2.poss:obj.nmlz:have_in_cheek_of_mouth def;cm 2s.sbj:irr.dep:swallow 2s.sbj:irr.dep:finish
When you finish swallowing that mouthful, ... bb &<+,

 [ Haptco toos ] iyooxi.

already rlt:sing 3.sbj:rlyo:finish
S/he has already finished singing.

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WKHLU PRUSKRORJ\ LQ WKDW WKH WZR WKDW DUH HW\PRORJLFDOO\ DQG PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH DUH IXQFWLRQLQJ DV LQWUDQVLWLYH SKDVDO
YHUEV

7KLV VHFWLRQ UHSULVHV DQ DQDO\VLV WKDW ZDV ᯳UVW SUHVHQWHG LQ 0DUOHWW H
288 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 [ Ihtahit ] ihyooxi.

1s.sbj.tr:rlt:eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:finish
I finished eating it.

With the verbbÇcatxbrelease/stop

 Tapca itácatx ma x, xepe com xiimj.

rlt:rain 3.sbj:rlt:release ds ut sea def;hz em:clear
When the rain stops, the sea is clear. bb &<+,

 ..., [ quihehe caacoj quij itzaxö ] itácatx ma, ...

sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod sbj.nmlz:big def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:discuss 3.sbj:rlt:release ds
..., when the king stopped speaking to him, ... bb 177 0W 

 ¿˻ Zó tpacta ma˼ [ taaitom x ] itcmácatx, ctam tiquij?

bb  how? rlt:be_in_appearance ds rlt:speak ut 3.sbj:rlt:neg:release male md:cm
Why doesn’t that man stop talking?

 [ Haptco toos ] iyoocatx.

already rlt:sing 3.sbj:rlyo:release
S/he has already stopped singing.

With the verbb√ajöc continually be or do

 [ Hax ihpooitom ] cohpoojöc oo, ...

intns 1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:speak 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:continually del
Even if I talk continually, ... bb &<+,

 [ Taax taa oo cöpopacta ] cöpoojöc oo x, toc

dem;dt;pl dem;md;pl del 3.io:irr.dep:be_in_appearance 3.io:irr.dep:continually del ut there

cösoii caha.
3.io:irr.ind:be.fl\pl sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
They will forever be like that. bb 177 +H 

 [ He hptiim ] cohptajöc oo toc cöhamom.

1.pro 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:sleep 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:continually del there 3.io:1.sbj:rlmi:lie
I was there sleeping all the time.

 [ Tooha ] cötajöc oo x, hant com iti quiihtim iha.

rlt:cry 3.io:rlt:continually del ut land def;hz 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:be.fl:impf dcl
She is continually going around crying.bb (6 DFDDP FFDD 

 [ Hant hizac tcomca ] cöcajöc oo ha.

land px:loc rlt:noisy 3.io:sbj.nmlz:continually del dcl
This place is always noisy.

 [ Hamiime com tooil ] cöcajöc oo ha.

sky def;hz rlt:green/blue 3.io:sbj.nmlz:continually del dcl
The sky is always blue.

 [ Tiix toos ] cöyoojöc oo.

dem;dt;sg rlt:sing 3.io:rlyo:continually del
S/he was always singing.
§12.3 Finite complements of phasal verbs 289

 [ Miicot piij ] cösiijöc oo caha.

2.poss:with\pl irr.dep:sit 3.io:irr.ind:continually del sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
He will always be with you (pl.). bb 177 -Q 

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S

DPi S VP

DP VP V

∅i Vfinite Phasal verb

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 D [ Cmaam tiquij paha ] cöyomajöc oo.

female md:cm irr.dep:cry 3.io:rlyo:neg:continually del
That woman isn’t always crying.

E * [ Cmaam tiquij tooha ] cöyomajöc oo.

rlt:cry
(That woman isn’t always crying.)

 D [ Adolfo quih pas ] cöyomajöc oo.

Adolfo def;fl irr.dep;sing 3.io:rlyo:neg:continually del
Adolfo wasn’t always singing.

E * [ Adolfo quih toos ] cöyomajöc oo.

rlt:sing
(Adolfo wasn’t always singing.)

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 [ Ihptásaquim ] ihtcmaxi ipi ma, zaah quij áno

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:comb_one’s_hair 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:finish del ds sun def;cm [3.poss:]in
yoozquim.
rlyo:enter
I didn’t finish combing my hair before the sun set.

 D [ Adolfo quih toos x ] iyomácatx.

Adolfo def;fl rlt:sing ut 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:release

Adolfo doesn’t stop singing.
290 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

E * [ Adolfo quih pas x ] iyomácatx.

irr.dep;sing
(Adolfo doesn’t stop singing.)

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 * Toos tiix cöyoojöc oo.

rlt:sing dem;dt;sg 3.io:rlyo:continually del
(S/he was always singing.)

 * Toos Pedro quij cöyoojöc oo.

rlt:sing Pedro def;cm 3.io:rlyo:continually del
(Pedro was always singing.)

 * Haptco toos María quij iyooxi.

already rlt:sing María def;cm 3.sbj:rlyo:finish
(María has already finished singing.)

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 %/* Ø Inol cop itipjc, Pedro cop imafitot.

3.poss:arm/hand/finger def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:grab Pedro def;vt 3.sbj:rlmi:cause_stand_up
a. +LJKO\ SUREOHPDWLF RU LPSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ Taking his/heri hand, Pedro helped him/heri stand up.
b. 0RUH SRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ H[FHSW IRU LQFRQJUXLW\ ZLWK WKH DUWLFOH cop ZKLFK LQGLFDWHV WKDW 3HGUR LV
DOUHDG\ VWDQGLQJ Taking his hand, s/he helped Pedro stand up.

 % Toos, cmaam quij toc cöquiij iha.

rlt:sing female def;cm there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
The woman was there singing.

 % Iistox theemloj, ctamcö coi toc cöcoii ha.

3.poss:spirit:pl rlt:stink;pl male\pl def;pl there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand;pl dcl
The men were angry.

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 Ihptoos haptco htaxi, hizac hihiij iha.

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:sing already 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:finish px:loc 1.poss:pon:sit dcl
I’ve already finished singing, here I am.

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L Adolfo quih yas iyomácatx.

Adolfo def;fl [3.poss:]pon;sing 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:release
Adolfo did not stop singing.
§12.3 Finite complements of phasal verbs 291

 % ¿Impás x xaa nsiixi haa ya?

  2s.sbj:irr.dep:sing ut soon 2s.sbj:irr.ind:finish aux qm
Are you going to finish singing soon?

 % ¿Impás x zímjöc insiixi haa ya?

   2s.sbj:irr.dep:sing ut when? 2s.sbj:irr.ind:finish aux qm
When are you going to finish singing?

 Toos x cöyoojöc oo, hant quih iti tiij x.

rlt:sing ut 3.io:rlyo:continually del land def;fl 3.poss:on rlt:sit ut
S/he was always there singing.

 Ihptoos hax ihtaxi hax taa hpyaanpx.

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:sing intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:finish intns rlt:aux 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:return_home
Right as soon as I finished singing, I went home.

 Ihptaticpan hax ihtácatx, hax taa ma, hin yaaipot.

1s.sbj:rlt:work intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:release intns rlt:aux ds 1s.do:rlyo:pay
As soon as I finished working, s/he paid me.

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 D Hant hizac tcomca cöcajöc oo ha.

land px:loc rlt:noisy 3.io:sbj.nmlz:continually del dcl
This place is always noisy. = (169)

E * Cöcajöc oo ha, hant hizac tcomca .

(This place is always noisy.)

F * Hant hizac cöcajöc oo ha, tcomca.

(This place is always noisy.)

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WDQW IDFW WR XQGHUVWDQG VLQFH WKH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV √axi finish DQG √ácatx release/stop PXVW KDYH DJHQWLYH VXEMHFWV
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 Intmoqueepe cömiijöc oo.

2s.sbj:rlt:sick 3.io:rlmi:continually del
You were always sick.

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EHWZHHQ FODXVHV LQ WKH ODWWHU EXW QRW LQ WKH IRUPHU

5HFDOO WKDW √ajöc be/do continually LV RQO\ XVHG DV D SKDVDO YHUE
292 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 D Hast quij ipaainj iyoocatx.

stone def;cm 3.poss:[pon:]tumble 3.sbj:rlyo:release
The rock stopped tumbling.

E Hast quij tpaainj itácatx, ...

stone def;cm rlt:tumble 3.sbj:rlt:release
When the rock stopped tumbling, ...

 Áno tooit ma tapca itácatx ma, ...

[3.poss:]in rlt:arrive ds rlt:rain 3.sbj:rlt:release ds
It stopped raining in the afternoon.

 Hamiime com tooil cöcajöc oo ha.

sky def;hz rlt:green/blue 3.io:sbj.nmlz:continually del dcl
The sky is always blue. = (170)

 Xepe com íti toom x cöcajöc oo ha.

sea def;hz 3.poss:on rlt:lie ut 3.io:sbj.nmlz:continually del dcl
The sea is always over [covering] it.bb (6 VDWRMBKDVDLLWDM 

 He hptooxnij cohptajöc oo, toc cöhamom.

1.pro 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:snore 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:continually del there 3.io:1.sbj:rlmi:lie
I was there snoring the whole time.

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 Tapca itácatx ma x, xepe com xiimj.

rlt:rain 3.sbj:rlt:release ds ut sea def;hz em:clear
When the rain stops, the sea is clear. bb &<+,

 Tapca x, iyomácatx.

rlt:rain ut 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:release
It doesn’t stop raining.

 Tanloj cöcajöc oo ha.

rlt:thunder:impf 3.io:sbj.nmlz:continually del dcl
It’s always thundering.

 Ttamjö itácatx ma x, yoonloj.

rlt:lightning 3.sbj:rlt:release ds ut rlyo:thunder:impf
When it stopped lightning, it thundered. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Hant hizac tcozim cöyoojöc oo.

land px:loc rlt:hot.(weather) 3.io:rlyo:continually del
It is always hot here.

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L Iipca iyomácatx.
3.poss:[pon:]rain 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:release
It stopped raining.
§12.3 Finite complements of phasal verbs 293

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 ¿˻ Miisax hant tooit˼ cötajöc oo?

     2.poss:spirit land rlt:arrive 3.io:rlt:continually del
Are you always happy?

 ¿˻ Miisax theemt˼ cötajöc oo?

     2.poss:spirit rlt:stink 3.io:rlt:continually del
Are you always angry?

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 D Intahahásaquim contajöc oo, ...

2s.sbj:rlt:pass:aug:comb_one’s_hair 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:continually del
You are always having your hair combed, ...

E Intahahásaquim cötcaajöc oo, ...

2s.sbj:rlt:pass:aug:comb_one’s_hair 3.io:rlt:unsp.sbj:continually del
Someone is always combing your hair, ...

F Intahahásaquim cötajöc oo, ...

2s.sbj:rlt:pass:aug:comb_one’s_hair 3.io:rlt:continually del
You are always having your hair combed, ...

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 ˻ Zaxt quisil˼ cmaam quij tahahásaquim tpaxi ma, zaah

   ? sbj.nmlz:small female def;cm rlt:pass:aug:comb_one’s_hair rlt:pass:finish ds sun
quij áno yoozquim.
def;cm [3.poss:]in rlyo:enter
When the girl finished having her hair combed, the sun set.

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 D ? Intahahásaquim intpaxi ma, zaah quij áno

2s.sbj:rlt:pass:aug:comb_one’s_hair 2s.sbj:rlt:pass:finish ds sun def;cm [3.poss:]in
yoozquim.
rlyo:enter
When you finished having your hair combed, the sun set.
294 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

E Intahahásaquim tpaxi ma, zaah quij áno yoozquim.

2s.sbj:rlt:pass:aug:comb_one’s_hair rlt:pass:finish ds sun def;cm [3.poss:]in rlyo:enter
(When you finished having your hair combed, the sun set.)

F * Intahahásaquim intaxi ma, zaah quij áno yoozquim.

2s.sbj:rlt:pass:aug:comb_one’s_hair 2s.sbj:rlt:finish ds sun def;cm [3.poss:]in rlyo:enter
(When you finished having your hair combed, the sun set.)

12.4 Indirect speech

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 [ Inaail quih itacl tintica iiqui tjizi, ] teeme.

3.poss:skin def;fl 3.poss:surface md:aw even rlt:painful rlt:say
S/he said that even his/her skin hurt.

 [ Tmoqueepe, ] imii.

rlt:sick 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
They told him/her/them that s/he was sick.

 [ Pedro quih tmoqueepe, ] imiih.

Pedro def;fl rlt:sick 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
S/he told him/her/them that Pedro was sick.

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S

DP S VP

Indirect discourse Speech verb

12.4.1 Morphology of the embedded clause

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 D [ Ziix zo ntizi, ] meye.

thing indf;sg 2s.sbj:rlt:defeat 2s.sbj:rlyo:say
You said that you defeated someone.bb &<+,

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§12.4.1 Morphology of the embedded clause 295

E * [ Ziix zo nyizi, ] meye.

2s.sbj:rlyo:defeat
(You said that you defeated someone.)

F * [ Ziix zo nxizi, ] meye.

2s.sbj:em:defeat
(You said that you defeated someone.)

G * [ Ziix zo mmizi, ] meye.

2s.sbj:rlmi:defeat
(You said that you defeated someone.)

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6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Icoos itá (*ma) ] teete, ...

inf.intr:sing 3.sbj:rlt:know      ds rlt:say
S/he says that s/he knows how to sing, ... bb &<+,

 [ Intmoqueepe (*ma), ] ma miih.

2s.sbj:rlt:sick       ds 2s.do:rlmi:be.fl
S/he told you that you were sick.

 [ Intmoqueepe (*ma), ] him miih.

2s.sbj:rlt:sick      ds 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
S/he told me that you were sick.

 [ Tmoqueepe (*ma), ] imii.

rlt:sick       ds 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
They told him/her/them that s/he was sick.

 [ Ihptmoqueepe (*ma), ] him mii.

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:sick       ds 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
They told me that I was sick.

,Q WKH FDVH RI D SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO i WKH PRGDO WKDW LV UHTXLUHG LQ VLPSOH VHQWHQFHV LV RPLWWHG ZKHQ WKH
SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO FODXVH LV HPEHGGHG DV LQGLUHFW VSHHFK VHH 

 [ Ctam cacösxaj (*iha), ] yoque.

male sbj.nmlz:tall/long     dcl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
He was a tall man, it is said.

$ ᯳QLWH LUUHDOLV FRPSOHPHQW DSSHDUV ZLWK D YHUE LQ WKH ᯳QLWH LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV IRUP IROORZHG E\ WKH DX[LOLDU\
ha EXW QR PRGDO RU E\ WKH UHDOLV DX[LOLDU\ taa %RWK W\SHV RI FRPSOHPHQWV JHQHUDOO\ EXW QRW DOZD\V LQGLFDWH
D VHQVH RI REOLJDWLRQ 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Insaticpan ha ] teeme.

2s.sbj:irr.ind:work aux rlt:say
S/he said that you should work.

 Hita quih somcapjoee ha, teeme.

1.poss:mother def;fl irr.ind:neg:gossip aux rlt:say
My mother said that one should not gossip. bb &<+,
296 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 Ihyaaco cop ano tafp, hin yatolec, ihpsiij ha

1.poss:house def;vt [3.poss:]in rlt:arrive 1s.do:rlyo:ask_for_help 1s.sbj:irr.ind:fetch_water aux

teete.
rlt:say
S/he arrived at my house and asked me to help him/her by fetching water.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ S/he arrived at my house, s/he asked me for help, s/he said that I should fetch water.bb
&<+,

 Him caazi quij [ ihpsaticpan taa ] him miih.

1s.do:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]carry def;cm 1s.sbj:irr.ind:work rlt:aux 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
My father told me to work (told me that I should work).

 [ Poyáám ta, isexl ha ] teeme.

irr.dep:later ds 3.sbj:irr.ind:take/buy aux rlt:say
S/he said that s/he will buy it/them later. R
2U S/he said that s/he should buy it/them later.

 [ Ox somquee ha ] teeme.

thus irr.ind:neg:unsp.sbj:say aux rlt:say
S/he said that one should not talk like that.

 [ Hasocoozx xah taa ] hemyo.

1p.sbj:irr.ind:unsp.obj:steal ? rlt:aux 1p.sbj:rlmi:say\pl
We said that we should rob.

 [ Siifp (quih) ha ] teepe x, siifp aha.

irr.ind:arrive def;fl aux irr.dep:say ut irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl
If s/he said s/he was coming, she will come.

 [ Zixcám com insiimjc ha ] teeme.

fish def;hz 2s.sbj:irr.ind:deliver aux rlt:say
S/he said for you to bring the fish.

,I WKH LUUHDOLV FRPSOHPHQW RFFXUV LQ D VWULSSHG LUUHDOLV IRUP i IROORZHG E\ WKH DX[LOLDU\ ca i WKH
VHQVH LV VLPSOH UHSRUWHG VSHHFK DQG QRW REOLJDWLRQ 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Pac siifp ca ] teeme.

indf;pl irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
S/he said that some [mass noun or as items as group] is/are coming.

 [ Me saticpan ca ] teeme.

2.pro irr.ind:work sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
S/he said that you are going to work.

 [ Me zixcám zo siimjc ca ] teeme.

2.pro fish indf;sg irr.ind:deliver sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
S/he said that you are going to bring a fish.

 [ Me zixcám zo siiho ca ] teeme.

2.pro fish indf;sg irr.ind:see sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
S/he said that you will see a fish.
§12.4.2 Position of the subject phrases 297

12.4.2 Position of the subject phrases

,I WKH YHUE RI VSHHFK KDV DQ H[SOLFLW SKUDVDO VXEMHFW WKDW VXEMHFW DSSHDUV HLWKHU EHIRUH WKH HPEHGGHG LQGLUHFW
TXRWH DV LQ  RU LW LV SRVWSRVHG WR IROORZ WKH YHUE RI VSHHFK DV LQ  7KH DQDO\VLV GHSLFWHG
LQ ᯳JXUH  DERYH ZLWK WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI SRVWSRVLQJ GLVFXVVHG LQ i DFFRXQWV IRU WKHVH IDFWV

 Pedro quih, [ cmaam, tiix tmoqueepe, ] imiih.

Pedro def;fl female dem;dt;sg rlt:sick 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
Pedro told him/her/them that THAT WOMAN is/was sick.

 Pedro quih [ Juana quih tmoqueepe, ] imiih.

Pedro def;fl Juana def;fl rlt:sick 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
Pedro told him/her/them that Juana was sick.
QR DPELJXLW\ *Juana told him/her/them that Pedro was sick.

 Comcaac himcoi [ trooqui zo htcooz, ] him mii.

(Seri)_person\pl dt:pl vehicle indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:steal 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
Those people accused me of having stolen a car.

 Cmaam, tiix [ Pedro quih tmoqueepe, ] imiih.

female dem;dt;sg Pedro def;fl rlt:sick 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
THAT WOMAN told him/her/them that Pedro is/was sick.

 [ Tmoqueepe, ] imiih, Pedro quih.

rlt:sick 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl Pedro def;fl
Pedro told him/her/them that s/he was sick.

 [ Cmaam, tiix tmoqueepe, ] imiih, Pedro quih.

female dem;dt;sg rlt:sick 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl Pedro def;fl
Pedro told him/her/them that THAT WOMAN is/was sick.

 [ Trooqui zo htcooz, ] him mii, comcaac himcoi.

vehicle indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:steal 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl (Seri)_person\pl dt:pl
Those people accused me of having stolen a car.

$V VXJJHVWHG E\ WKH DQDO\VLV VKRZQ LQ ᯳JXUH  WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE RI VD\LQJ FDQQRW DSSHDU EHWZHHQ WKH
FRPSOHPHQW DQG WKH YHUE RI VSHHFK 6HH XQJUDPPDWLFDO H[DPSOHV 

 * [ Tmoqueepe, ] Pedro quih imiih.

rlt:sick Pedro def;fl 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
(Pedro told him/her/them that s/he was sick.)

 * [ Cmaam, tiix tmoqueepe, ] Pedro quih imiih.

female dem;dt;sg rlt:sick Pedro def;fl 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
(Pedro told him/her/them that THAT WOMAN was sick.)

 * [ Trooqui zo htcooz, ] comcaac himcoi him mii.

vehicle indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:steal (Seri)_person\pl dt:pl 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl\pl
(Those people accused me of having stolen a car.)

1RU FDQ WKH HPEHGGHG LQGLUHFW VSHHFK EH SRVWSRVHG VHH  IRU DQ DWWHPSW WR SRVWSRVH LW

 * Cmaam tiquij imiih, [ (Pedro com) tmoqueepe ].

female md:cm 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl Pedro def;hz rlt:sick
(That woman told him/her/them that he (Pedro) was sick.)
298 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

7KH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE RI WKH HPEHGGHG LQGLUHFW GLVFRXUVH DW OHDVW LQ D VLPSOH H[DPSOH PD\ DOVR EH SRVWSRVHG
IROORZLQJ WKH YHUE RI VD\LQJ ,Q  WKH SRVWSRVHG '3 LV OLNHO\ WR EH WDNHQ DV WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH YHUE tmoqueepe
s/he was sick EHFDXVH RI WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH ticom GHQRWLQJ WKDW WKH UHIHUHQW RI cmaam woman LV LQ D KRUL]RQWDO
SRVLWLRQ

 [ Tmoqueepe, ] imiih, cmaam ticom.

rlt:sick 3.sbj:rlmi:do/say/put.fl female md:hz
S/he told him/her/them that that woman was sick.
>6RPH RWKHU UHDGLQJV DUH DOVR SRVVLEOH KHUH@

12.4.3 The use of yoque

7KH XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW IRUP RI WKH LUUHJXODU YHUE √eLUUHJ sayൻyoque rlyo:unsp.sbj:sayൻLV FRPPRQO\ XVHG DV
WKH YHUE RI VD\LQJ WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ H[SUHVVHG LQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW LV QRW EDVHG RQ GLUHFW REVHUYDWLRQ
RU SHUVRQDO NQRZOHGJH 7KHUHIRUH WUDGLWLRQDO VWRULHV DUH OLEHUDOO\ SHSSHUHG ZLWK WKH ZRUG yoque ,Q VXFK WH[WV
WKH ZRUG LV W\SLFDOO\ XQVWUHVVHG DQG RIWHQ UHGXFHG SKRQRORJLFDOO\ WR WKH SRLQW RI EHLQJ SUDFWLFDOO\ LQDXGLEOH DQG
LQ IDFW PD\ EH RPLWWHG HQWLUHO\ LQ IDVW VSHHFK ,Q FDVHV RI WKH ODWWHU RQH LV FOXHG WR WKH HOLVLRQ RI yoque E\ WKH IDFW
WKDW WKH VHQWHQFH HQGV SURVRGLFDOO\ ZLWK D GHSHQGHQW FODXVH DQG WKH DEVHQFH RI DQ LQGHSHQGHQW FODXVH DQ\ZKHUH
6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ..., hant iiqui itasnan ma, toc cotom, yoque.

land 3.poss:toward 3.sbj:rlt:? ds there 3.io:rlt:lie rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
..., he (Puma) held him (Rabbit) against the ground, he (Rabbit) was there, it is said.bb &RQHMRB3XPDB

 Iscmáhitim taa, itáh, yoque.

3.sbj:irr.ind:neg:eat:impf rlt:aux 3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
She told him that he should not be eating it, it is said.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD 

 Tal cah itaaitoj, yoque.

coal/charcoal def;fl:foc 3.sbj:rlt:eat;pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
They ate embers, it is said. bb $SRVWDGRUB

 Hant Xnit, taax contita, yoque.

land Xnit dem;dt;pl 3.io:aw:rlt:move rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
He went to Xnit, it is said. bb 'RVB+HUPDQRVB

12.5 Indirect thought

7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √amoz think LV XVHG WR SUHVHQW LQGLUHFW WKRXJKWV DQG WR H[SUHVV EHOLHIV LQWHQWLRQV DQG
SUHWHQVLRQV 7KH ZRUG xah DSSHDUV DIWHU RU QHDU WKH HQG RI WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH ZLWK WKH DSSHDUDQFH RI
GHPDUFDWLQJ WKH FRPSOHPHQW 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Tiim haa toom xah hpmiimoz.

rlt:sleep there rlt:lie ? 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:think
I thought that s/he was there sleeping.bb &<+,

 [ Tiim haa toom xah ] miimoz.

rlt:sleep there rlt:lie ? rlmi:think
S/he thought that s/he was asleep.

 Hita he ˻ hacx smiih˼ ca xah yoomoz.

1.poss:mother 1.pro    apart irr.ind:not_be.fl sbj.nmlz:aux ? rlyo:think
My mother thought that I was going to die. bb &<+,

7KLV ZRUG LV HOVHZKHUH DQ DWWHQXDWLQJ DGYHUE i DQG D FRRUGLQDWRU i
§12.5 Indirect thought 299

 [ Ee yaa° xah ] yoomoz.

3.pro [3.poss:obj.nmlz:]own ? rlyo:think
S/he (incorrectly) thought that s/he was the owner of it.bb 2᯲HUHG

 [ Isyaa xah taa ] yoomoz.

3.sbj:irr.ind:own ? rlt:aux rlyo:think
S/he intended to take possession of it.

 [ Ihpsiifp xah taa ] camoz iha.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:arrive ? rlt:aux sbj.nmlz:think dcl
He thought that I was going to arrive.

9HUEOHVV SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDOV DUH SUHVHQWHG ZLWKRXW D PRGDO FKDSWHU  ZKHQ HPEHGGHG DV VKRZQ LQ 


 Oot cop haxz° xah hpyoomoz.

Canis_latrans def;vt dog ? 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:think
I thought that the coyote was a dog. bb &<+,

 [ Ctam ticop ziix icocooz quiya xah ] hpyoomoz.

male md:vt thing ? 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:think
I thought that man was a robber.

7KH VDPH UHVWULFWLRQ DJDLQVW XVLQJ D QDPH DV D SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO LQ YHUEOHVV FRQVWUXFWLRQ i KROGV LQ WKHVH
FDVHV DV ZHOO DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ 

 * [ Ctam ticop Juan xah ] hpyoomoz.

male md:vt Juan ? 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:think
(I thought that man was Juan.)

6HQWHQFHV ZLWK WKLV YHUE WHQG WRZDUG WKH PHDQLQJ RI LQWHQWLRQ LQ VRPH FDVHV 6HH 

 Ihpsiitax xah taa hpyoomoz.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go ? rlt:aux 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:think
a. I was thinking about going.
b. 2U I was intending to go.bb &<+,

 [ Ihsiihit xah taa ] hpyoomoz.

1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat ? rlt:aux 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:think
I thought I would eat it.

 ¿Me [ áz saai taa ] camoz ya?

   2.pro what? irr.ind:make rlt:aux sbj.nmlz:think qm
What are you planning to make?

,W DOVR KDV WKH LGHD RI SUHWHQGLQJ LQ VRPH FDVHV DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ 

 Itcmajíz xah yoomoz.

3.sbj:rlt:neg:feel_pain ? rlyo:think
S/he is pretending that it doesn’t hurt her/him. bb &<+,

7KLV NLQG RI TXHVWLRQ FDQ KDYH WKH ZRUG xah MXVW EHIRUH taa DQG WKH PHDQLQJ LQ WKDW FDVH LV D ELW GL᯲HUHQW 7KH VHQWHQFH
ZLWKRXW xah LV D PRUH RSHQ TXHVWLRQ ZKLFK PLJKW HYHQ EH UKHWRULFDO ZKLOH WKH VHQWHQFH ZLWK xah LPSOLHV WKDW WKH UDQJH RI
DQVZHU LV SUDJPDWLFDOO\ UHVWULFWHG E\ VRPHWKLQJ LQ WKH FRQWH[W LWHPV RQ WKH WDEOH IRU H[DPSOH WKH VHFRQG VHQWHQFH FRXOG
QRW EH UKHWRULFDO
300 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

 [ Itcmaa xah ] yoomoz.

3.sbj:rlt:neg:know ? rlyo:think/pretend
S/he pretended that s/he didn’t know it.

 [ Ihtcmii xah ] hpyoomoz.

1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:hear ? 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:think/pretend
I pretended not to hear it/him/her.

12.6 Expectation and intention

6HYHUDO RWKHU YHUEV DQG LGLRPV DUH XVHG WR H[SUHVV WKRXJKWV DQG LQWHQWLRQV

12.6.1 ox √imoz expect

7KH YHUE √imoz JHQHUDOO\ FRQMXJDWHG DV D PRUSKRORJLFDO LQWUDQVLWLYH GHULYHG IURP have heart XVHG ZLWK WKH
DGYHUE ox thus FDQ EH XVHG WR H[SUHVV H[SHFWDWLRQV

 [ Inscmaai taa / pi ] ox inscmimoz aha.

2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:make rlt:aux irr.dep;aux thus 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:hv:heart aux:dcl
Don’t expect that you will not do it.

 [ Insiihit taa / pi ] ox inscmimoz aha.

2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat rlt:aux irr.dep;aux thus 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:hv:heart aux:dcl
Don’t expect to eat it.

 [ Insiitax pi ] ox inscmimoz aha.

2s.sbj:irr.ind:go irr.dep;aux thus 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:hv:heart aux:dcl
Don’t expect to go.

 Tiix [ oyacj quih isiihit taa ] ox yimoz.

dem;dt;sg [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:call_sibling def;fl 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat rlt:aux thus rlyo:hv:heart
S/he expected that her brother would eat it.

 [ Hapi isiihit (xah) taa ] ox yimoz.

intns 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat ? rlt:aux thus rlyo:hv:heart
S/he expected to eat it her/himself.

12.6.2 √amoz try, expect

7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √amoz think KDV WKH PHDQLQJV try, intend DQG HYHQ want DQG expect ZLWK FODXVDO FRPSOH
PHQWV 7KH FRPSOHPHQWV PD\ KDYH D UDQJH RI PRUSKRORJLFDO IRUPV EXW WKH\ LQFOXGH WKH ZRUG xah PHQWLRQHG
DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI i 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Ptcamn com hayocaat / hatcaat xah ]

Panulirus_inflatus def;hz 1p.sbj:rlyo:look_for:pl 1p.sbj:rlt:look_for:pl ?

hayoomjöc.
1p.sbj:rlyo:think/try\pl
We tried to hunt for lobsters.

 [ Ptcamn com hamcaat xah ] hamiimjöc.

Panulirus_inflatus def;hz 1p.sbj:rlmi:look_for:pl ? 1p.sbj:rlmi:think/try\pl
We tried to hunt for lobsters.

 [ Ptcamn com hapocaat xah ] hasiimjöc aha.

Panulirus_inflatus def;hz 1p.sbj:irr.dep:look_for:pl ? 1p.sbj:irr.ind:think/try\pl aux:dcl
We will try to hunt for lobsters.
§12.6.3 √Cimoz think, try 301

 [ Ptcamn com he scaat xah taa ] camjöc iha.

Panulirus_inflatus def;hz 1.pro irr.ind:look_for:pl ? rlt:aux sbj.nmlz:think\pl dcl
We decided to try to hunt for lobsters

 [ Insiihit xah taa ] ntamoz?

2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat ? rlt:aux 2s.sbj:rlt:think/expect
Did you expect to eat it?

12.6.3 √Cimoz think, try

7KH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE √Cimoz FDQ WDNH D UHDOLV FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH DQG PHDQ think LQ VRPH VLWXDWLRQV DV LQ 

 [ Taalim xah ] oímjöc iha.

rlt:play ? [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:think\pl dcl
They thought he was just playing.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

7KH VDPH YHUE PHDQV try ZLWK FRPSOHPHQWV WKDW KDYH D VXEMHFW WKDW LV FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH VXEMHFW RI √Cimoz
6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Isiiptajc xah taa ] immimjöc.

3.sbj:irr.ind:pull_out:pl ? rlt:aux 3.sbj:rlmi:think/try\pl
They tried to pull it out.

 [ Ihsiihit xah taa ] hyoímoz.

1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat ? rlt:aux 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:think/try
I tried to eat it.

 [ Insiihit xah taa ] nttimoz?

2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat ? rlt:aux 2s.sbj:rlt:think/try
Did you try to eat it?

12.7 Direct quotations

'LUHFW TXRWDWLRQV DUH W\SLFDOO\ H[SUHVVHG ZLWK D YHUE RI VD\LQJ EHIRUH RU DIWHU WKH TXRWDWLRQ 7KHVH YHUEV RI VD\LQJ
DUH HLWKHU WKH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √ee SOXUDO √ooza say RU WKH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE √ai SOXUDO √aaam
tell (someone) ZKLFK LV QRW XVHG ZLWK LQGLUHFW TXRWDWLRQV 7KH DGYHUE ox thus RU WKH ZRUG xah RFFXUV GLUHFWO\
EHIRUH WKHVH YHUEV ZKHQ LW LV XVHG WR UHSRUW GLUHFW VSHHFK ([DPSOHV RI GLUHFW TXRWDWLRQV ZLWK RWKHU YHUEV VXFK
DV RQHV PHDQLQJ whisper RU shout KDYH QRW EHHQ IRXQG 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Himoz quij cohpseepit aha — ox mee, ziix coosyat quih.

1.poss:heart def;cm 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:? aux:dcl thus rlmi:say giant def;fl
“I will bet my heart,” said the giant. bb &<+,

 «Ziix hipxahcop haa poho» ox tee yoque.

thing px;atten;vt [sbj.nmlz:]eq doubt thus rlt:say rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
“Might this be him/her/it?” s/he asked, it is said. bb &<+,

 Cocazni° hi. Cocazni° hi ― ox mee.

Crotalus_spp. dcl Crotalus_spp. dcl thus rlmi:say
ං5DWWOHVQDNH 5DWWOHVQDNHඃ VKH \HOOHG

 &RQ3XP 


7KH SOXUDO VWHP EHJLQV ZLWK WKH VDPH VKRUW ORZ YRZHO DV WKH VLQJXODU VWHP LPSRUWDQW WR NQRZ IRU FRQMXJDWLRQ SXUSRVHV
IROORZHG E\ D ORQJ YRZHO DV WKH UHVXOW RI WKH DEODXW WKDW LQGLFDWHV SOXUDO
302 Chapter 12: Complement clauses

D Xazoj cop ox tee, yoque:

Puma_concolor def;vt thus rlt:say rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
Puma said:bb &RQ3XP

E «¡Ctam hipcom isliicot hac hax xomasol oo!

   male px;hz 3.poss:upper_back def;loc intns em:yellow del
“The back of this male is really yellow!”bb &RQ3XP

F ox itai, yoque.
thus 3.sbj:rlt:tell rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
thus he told him.bb &RQ3XP

 ... quisil quij ctam oyacj quij ox itai,

sbj.nmlz:small def;cm male [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:call_sibling def;cm thus 3.sbj:rlt:tell

yoque: [ ... ] ox tee, yoque.

rlyo:unsp.sbj:say thus rlt:say rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
... the younger one said to his brother: “...”, he said, it is said.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRVB

0RVW RI WKH SUHFHGLQJ H[DPSOHV VKRZ WKDW WKH TXRWHG PDWHULDO LV H[DFWO\ DV LW ZRXOG DSSHDU DV VSRNHQ E\ WKH
RULJLQDO VSHDNHU LQFOXGLQJ ZLWK ᯳QDO PRGDOV ([DPSOHV  DOVR KDYH GLUHFW TXRWDWLRQV IROORZHG E\ xah
DQG DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE RI VD\LQJ

 [ Cmaa scaatax ha ] xah teemyo.

now irr.ind:1.em.sbj.intr:go aux ? rlmi:say\pl
They said, “Let’s go right away!”

 [ Xaa haa hapoozcam x, ziix zo hasiitoj aha ] xah mee.

soon there 1p.sbj:irr.dep:arrive\pl ut thing indf;sg 1p.sbj:irr.ind:eat\pl aux:dcl ? rlmi:say
“We will arrive soon, we will eat something,” she said. bb 7RSHWHB

'LUHFW H[SUHVVLRQV RI WKRXJKW DUH LGHQWLFDO LQ VWUXFWXUH H[FHSW WKDW WKH\ XVH WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √amoz think
VHH H[DPSOH 

 ..., cmaax ox miimoz: [ ..., ] ox miimoz, ctam tiquij.

now thus rlmi:think thus rlmi:think male md:cm
..., then he thought: ..., thus the man thought. bb 177 /N 

12.8 Non-complements
,Q VRPH FDVHV WKH 6HUL HTXLYDOHQWV RI ZKDW DUH H[SUHVVHG DV FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV LQ RWKHU ODQJXDJHV DUH QRW
FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV DW DOO 7KH VWUXFWXUH RI WKH VHQWHQFH LV VLPSO\ FKDLQHG FODXVHV VHH FKDSWHU  7KLV LV WUXH
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 'LUHFW FDXVDWLYH PRUSKRORJLFDO

¿Cafee cop intahoaatjö?
bb coffee def;vt 2s.sbj:rlt:cause_sweet
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 ,QGLUHFW FDXVDWLYH SHULSKUDVWLF FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK FKDLQHG FODXVHV

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bb coffee def;vt 2.pro del 2s.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds sbj.nmlz:sweet qm
a. Did you sweeten the coffee?
b. 2U Did YOU sweeten the coffee?
c. 2U Did you have the coffee sweetened?
§12.8 Non-complements 303

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 He hipi oo ma htah ma, ntcompezi ho.

1.pro intns del 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds 2s.sbj.rlt:neg:pass:defeat dcl
I MYSELF made you be invincible.

 Me oo hin ntah ma, ma htcmaho ho.

2.pro del 1s.do:2s.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds 2s.do:1s.sbj:rlt:neg:see dcl
You caused it such that I could not see you. bb $SRVWDGRUB

 ¿Juan quih me oo ntah ma, coos ya?

bb Juan def;fl 2.pro del 2s.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds sbj.nmlz:sing qm
Did you have Juan sing?

 He hapi hisoj hipquij Yooz quij oo hin tah ma, he hiz
1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being px:cm God def;cm del 1s.do:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds 1.pro here
cömoca ha.
3.io:twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
I have come here because God caused it. bb 177 /N 

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 Oot zo hantaxl cötiihtim ma, ittiix, ...

Canis_latrans indf;sg near 3.io:rlt:be.fl:impf ds 3.sbj:rlt:feel:pl
They sensed that a coyote was nearby, ...
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ A coyote was nearby, they sensed it, ...

 Tiix pohaa ta htcmaa ho.

dem;dt;sg irr.dep:eq ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know whether it’s him or not.
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 Ihpooho htcmaa ho.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:see 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know him/her.
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 Zaah zo haquix piij ta htcmaa ho.

sun indf; somewhere irr.dep:sit ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know whether there is a sun or not.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ If there were a sun, I don’t know it.
 13
Nouns

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ant hehe plant RI DQ\ W\SH conee grass RI DQ\ W\SH ziic bird hacat shark hapaj octopus haquiimet small
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304
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13.1 Morphological classes

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13.1.1 Possessive marking

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F c-aticpan worker, one who works *hi-caticpan (my worker)
sbj.nmlz-work
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sbj.nmlz-write
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sbj.nmlz-pass:write what was marked
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sbj.nmlz:pass:write   hanoocaj
sbj.nmlz[:pass]-
carry_under_arm

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K hehe tree, plant, stick *hi-hehe (my tree, plant, stick)

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306 Chapter 13: Nouns

 D oot izamt a species of small swimming crab Cronius ruber

coyote 3.poss-zamt FI zamt blue swimming crab Callinectes bellicosus
E oot icaanj soapfish Rypticus VSS
coyote 3.poss-caanj FI caanj Gulf grouper Mycteroperca jordani
F oot ijoeene a desert passion vine Passiflora arida
coyote 3.poss-joeene FI joeene edible Passiflora palmeri
G oot ipyooque an unidentified sun star (starfish)
coyote 3.poss-pyooque FI pyooque a sun star Heliaster kubiniji

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 .LQVKLS WHUP
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1.poss-daughter_in_law
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1.poss:mother
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F *lit (head) hi-lít my head, my hair
1.poss-head/hair
G *f (nose) hiif my nose
1.poss:nose
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H *taamt (sandal) hi-taamt my sandal, my shoe
1.poss-sandal
I *onam (hat) hiionam my hat
1.poss:hat
J *xz (pet) hiixz my pet
1.poss:pet


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1.poss-sword
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1.poss-place_under
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[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat 1.poss:obj.nmlz:eat
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[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:swallow
what s/he swallowed
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1.poss:pon:small my childhood

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[3.poss:]pon:sing 1.poss:pon:sing
his/her singing

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1.poss-knife
S tom money hi-tóm my money
1.poss-money
T caamiz shirt hi-caamiz my shirt
1.poss-shirt
U cápota jacket hi-cápota my jacket
1.poss-jacket
V saaco long blouse hi-saaco my long blouse
1.poss-long_blouse

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308 Chapter 13: Nouns

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nose )RXUWK WKH SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[ FDQQRW EH VWUHVVHG IRU HPSKDVLV *hilít ZLWK H[WUD VWUHVV RQ WKH V\OODEOH hi
MY hair/head )LIWK WKH SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[ FDQQRW EH VHSDUDWHG IURP WKH QRPLQDO VWHP E\ DQ\ RWKHU ZRUG *hi
caacoj eenim my big knife 6L[WK WKH SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[ RFFXUV HYHQ LI DQ RYHUW QRXQ SKUDVH SRVVHVVRU RFFXUV
DQG WKH SKUDVH LV XQJUDPPDWLFDO ZLWKRXW LW Juan quij ilít Juan’s head/hair *Juan quij lit
1RXQV WKDW DUH QRW ERG\ SDUW QRXQV SHUVRQDO LWHPV RU NLQVKLS WHUPV FDQQRW KDYH WKH ංSRVVHVVRUඃ H[SUHVVHG
GLUHFWO\ XVLQJ WKH SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[HV $QG LI WKH QRXQ LV QRW DFWXDOO\ SRVVHVVHG WKH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ i
LV DOVR QRW IHOLFLWRXV &RQVLGHU WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D comcaac ˻ hantx mocat˼ ancestors

E * hicomcaac hantx mocat (our ancestors)
F * comcaac hantx mocat hoyaat (our ancestors)

 D hapaaal E * hihapaaal
sbj.nmlz:pass:order bb1.poss:sbj.nmlz:pass:order
employee bbbbb (my employee)
F * hapaaal ihyaa°
                            mine
bbbbb (my employee)

 D queaal E * hiqueaal
sbj.nmlz:tr:order bb1.poss:sbj.nmlz:tr:order
boss bbbbb (my boss)
F * queaal ihyaa°
bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbmine
bbbbb (my boss)

 D ˻ hapaspoj°    cöcacoaat˼
  paper                     3.io:sbj.nmlz:cause_know
school teacher bbbbb
E * hihapaspoj cöcacoaat˼
bb1.poss: …
(my teacher)
F * hapaspoj cöcacoaat ihyaa°
bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbmine
(my teacher)

 D ˻ hapaspoj° cöhacoaat˼ E * hihapaspoj cöhacoaat

  paper             3.io-sbj.nmlz:pass:cause_know bbb1.poss: …
student (in school) bbbbb (my student)
F * hapaspoj cöhacoaat ihyaa°
bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbmine
bbbbb (my student)

 D ˻ hehe         iti           icoohitim˼

  plant/wood 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:eat:impf
table bbbbb
E * hihehe iti icoohitim
(my table) bbbbb
F ˻ hehe iti icoohitim˼ ihyaa°
my table bbbbb
§13.1.1 Possessive marking 309

 D ˻ hanol      hacaaix˼ E * hihanol hacaaix

 abs:finger sbj.nmlz;pass:put.cm (my ring)
ring bbbbb
F ˻ hanol hacaaix˼ ihyaa°
bbbbb my ring

 D hant E * hi-hant
land bbb1.poss-land
bbbbb (my land)
F hant ihyaa°
land   mine
bbbbb my land (a piece of owned property)
G H comcaac            quih hant yaat°
* comcaac i-hant (Seri)_person\pl def;fl land their
   (Seri)_person\pl3.poss-land Seri people’s land (Seri territory)
(Seri people’s land) bbbbb (or hant comcaac quih yaat)

([SUHVVLRQ RI D UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK WKHVH QRXQV LV GRQH ZLWK HLWKHU DQ H[WUD GHYHUEDO QRXQ RU D SURSHU IRUP RI
WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ WKDW LV WKH FRUH RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ DV VKRZQ LQ 

 comcaac ˻ hantx mocat˼ ˻ iyat cöhayacp˼

(Seri)_person\pl    at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move:pl 3.poss:tip 3.io:1p.poss:pon:grow
our ancestors (the ancestors from whom we have descended)bb 6LHWHB)LORV 

 hoaal
1.poss:obj.nmlz:order
my employee (lit., the one whom I order)

 him queaal
1s:do:sbj.nmlz:tr:order
my boss (lit., the one who orders me)

 ˻ hapaspoj° he cacoaat˼
   paper 1.io :sbj.nmlz:cause_know
my school teacher (lit., the one who causes me to know paper)

 ˻ hapaspoj° cohyacoaat˼
   paper 3.io:1.poss:pon:cause_know
my student (lit., the one whom I cause to know paper)

 ˻ hehe iti hyahitim˼

   plant/wood 3.poss:on 1.poss:pon;unsp.obj;eat:impf
my table (lit., the wood that I eat on)

 hinol hocaaix
1.poss:finger 1.poss:obj.nmlz:put.cm
my ring (lit., what I put on my finger)

 comcaac quih hant iti yaii

(Seri)_person\pl def;fl land 3.poss:on [3.poss:]pon:be_fl\pl
Seri territory (lit., the land where the Seri people live)


7KH ZRUG hamt ZKLFK XVXDOO\ PHDQV loose soil KDV D SRVVHVVHG IRUP SUHYLRXVO\ XQUHFRUGHG ihamt ZKLFK PHDQV his
or her native land
310 Chapter 13: Nouns

13.1.2 Absolute marking

$QRWKHU LPSRUWDQW PRUSKRORJLFDO FKDUDFWHULVWLF WKDW GLYLGHV QRXQV LQWR FODVVHV LV WKH DEVROXWH SUH᯳[ ZKLFK LV
WKH SUH᯳[ WKDW RFFXUV ZKHQ QR SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[ LV SUHVHQW 6HH i DERXW WKH XVH RI WKLV IRUP 1RXQV
HLWKHU GR RU GR QRW RFFXU ZLWK WKLV SUH᯳[ 2QO\ NLQVKLS WHUPV ERG\ SDUWV DQG VRPH SHUVRQDO LWHPV KDYH DEVROXWH
IRUPV $V VKRZQ LQ i DEVROXWH PRUSKRORJ\ KDV D IHZ FRPSOLFDWLRQV LQ IRUP WKDW DUH LJQRUHG KHUH 7KH
VWDUUHG IRUPV LQ WKH ᯳UVW FROXPQ LQ  DUH PHDQW WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH URRW IRU WKH QRXQ FDQQRW RFFXU ZLWKRXW
VRPH SUH᯳[

 .LQVKLS WHUP
D *camaz (daughter-in-law) hacamaz daughter-in-law
bbbbb abs:daughter_in_law
E *ta, te (mother) hapete mother
bbbbb abs:mother
%RG\ SDUW WHUP
F *lit (head) halít head, hair
bbbbb abs:head
G *f (nose) haaf nose
bbbbb abs:nose
3HUVRQDO LWHP WHUP
H *taamt (sandal) hataamt sandal, shoe
bbbbb abs:sandal
I *onam (hat) haaonam hat
bbbbb abs:hat

7KH H[DPSOHV LQ  VKRZ WKH LPSRVVLELOLW\ RI LQ᯴HFWLQJ RWKHU QRXQV IRU DEVROXWH

 1DPH
D Socaaix Punta Chueca *haSocaaix (Punta Chueca)

5HODWLRQDO QRXQ
E *mocl (under) *hamocl (under)
F *pac (behind) *hapac (behind)

&RPPRQ QRXQ
G hast stone *hahast (stone)
H hehe plant, stick *hahehe (plant, stick)

'HYHUEDO QRXQ
VXEMHFWRULHQWHG UHDOLV
I caticpan worker, *hacaticpan (worker)
sbj.nmlz:work one who works
J hapaspoj° paper, *hahapaspoj (paper)
sbj.nmlz:pass:write what was written

'HYHUEDO QRXQ
REMHFWRULHQWHG UHDOLV
K oohit what s/he/it ate *hapoohit (food)
[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:
eat


:KLOH WKLV LV JHQHUDOO\ WUXH RQH ORFDWLYH QRXQ √VVcp place next to GRHV KDYH WKH DEVROXWH IRUP hapecp UHFRUGHG IRU
WKH ᯳UVW WLPH LQ 0D\  6HH QRWH  LQ WKLV FKDSWHU
§13.1.3 Plural marking and count/mass noun status 311

L ocoaa what s/he knows *hapocoaa (knowledge)

[3.poss]:obj.nmlz:
know

'HYHUEDO QRXQ
SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG UHDOLV
M ihisil his/her childhood *hahisil
3.poss:pon:small (childhood)
N yaticpan his/her working *hayaticpan (working)
[3.poss:]pon:
work

&RPPRQ QRXQ
VPDOO VXEVHW RI ORDQZRUGV
O eenim knife *hapeenim (knife)
P tom money *hatóm (money)
Q cápota jacket *hacápota (jacket)
R saaco long blouse *hasaaco (long blouse)

$OO RI WKHVH FODVVHV RI QRXQV FRPPRQO\ KDYH SOXUDO IRUPV DV VKRZQ LQ i 7KH ZRUG IRU blood LV XQXVXDO LQ
WKDW WKH VWHP haait LV WKH VDPH DV WKH DEVROXWH IRUP RI WKH ZRUG LWVHOI haait &RPSDUH hi-haait 1.poss-blood
my blood
$ IHZ QRXQV KDYH WZR VWHPV WKDW DUH HVVHQWLDOO\ VXSSOHWLYH DOWKRXJK WKH\ DUH VLPLODU 2QH VWHP LV XVHG ZKHQ
WKH QRXQ LV SRVVHVVHG DQG WKH RWKHU VWHP LV XVHG ZKHQ WKHUH LV QR SRVVHVVRU DQG ZLWKRXW DQ DEVROXWH SUH᯳[ YL]
LW LV WKH DEVROXWH IRUP 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  1RWH WKDW LQ WKH FDVH RI WZR RI WKHVH H[DPSOHV WKH VWDQGDUG
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV RI WKH DEVROXWH DQG SRVVHVVHG IRUPV DUH VOLJKWO\ GL᯲HUHQW

 $EVROXWH 3RVVHVVHG VWHP 3RVVHVVHG H[DPSOH

D haaco house bbbb √yaaco bbbb inyaaco your house
E haacni bow bbbb √yaacni bbbb inyaacni your bow
F hasaj flat basket bbbb √VVsj bbbb miisj your flat basket
G haxz° dog bbbb √VVxz bbbb miixz your pet
H hax fresh water bbbb √Vx bbbb ix its liquid, its sap

13.1.3 Plural marking and count/mass noun status

0DQ\ QRXQV GLVSOD\ SOXUDO IRUPV VHH i SOXUDOLW\ LV JHQHUDOO\ LQGLFDWHG E\ D VX᯵[ 7KH H[LVWHQFH RI D
SOXUDO IRUP FRUUHODWHV IDLUO\ ZHOO ZLWK WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ FRXQW QRXQ DQG PDVV QRXQ &RXQW QRXQV W\SLFDOO\
EXW QRW DOZD\V KDYH GLVWLQFW SOXUDO IRUPV ZKLOH PDVV QRXQV GR QRW &RXQW QRXQV DOVR KDYH RWKHU SURSHUWLHV DV
VKRZQ LQ  ZKHUHDV PDVV QRXQV DUH GL᯲HUHQW LQ DOO WKHVH SRLQWV

 &RXQW QRXQV
D PD\ EH SOXUDOL]HG
E PD\ RFFXU ZLWK D QXPEHU PRGL᯳HU
F PD\ RFFXU ZLWK WKH VLQJXODU LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH zo a an
G PD\ RFFXU ZLWK D VLQJXODU SRVLWLRQDO DUWLFOH VHH i
H PD\ RFFXU ZLWK WKH YHUE √aazi carry LQVWHDG RI √oon carry (plural items)

6RPH QRXQ SDLUV DUH IXQFWLRQDOO\ VLPLODU WR WKHVH EXW DUH LQ IDFW TXLWH GL᯲HUHQW VWUXFWXUDOO\ 7KH ZRUG IRU road LV haaho
EXW WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ yahaaho its trail (of animal) LV DQ REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ EDVHG RQ WKH GHULYHG YHUE √ahaaho
make road 6LPLODUO\ WKH QRXQ Yooz (Judaeo-Christian) God FDQQRW EH SRVVHVVHG 7R LQGLFDWH D UHODWLRQVKLS WR *RG IRU
H[DPSOH RQH XVHV WKH REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ EDVHG RQ WKH GHULYHG YHUE √ayooz worship KHQFH ha-y-ayooz-xam
1.poss-obj.nmlz-worship-pl our God OLWHUDOO\ the one that we worship 6HH 
312 Chapter 13: Nouns

$ SURWRW\SLFDO FRXQW QRXQ LV WKH QRXQ haxz° dog 7KLV PD\ EH FRQWUDVWHG ZLWK WZR SURWRW\SLFDO PDVV QRXQV
hamt loose soil, sand DQG hax fresh water 6HH WKH GDWD LQ  1RWH WKDW WKHVH UHIHU WR SRZGHUW\SH RU OLTXLG
W\SH LWHPV 7KHVH QRXQV FRQWUDVW YHU\ FOHDUO\ LQ WKH FKDUDFWHULVWLFV MXVW SUHVHQWHG

 dog loose soil, sand fresh water

6LQJXODU haxz° hamt hax
3OXUDO háxaca QRQH QRQH
1XPEHU háxaca coocj two * hamt coocj * hax coocj
,QGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH haxz° zo * hamt zo * hax zo
9HUE IRU carry caazi coon coon

0DVV QRXQV OLNH hamt soil, sand DUH GLVWLQJXLVKHG IURP WKRVH OLNH hax fresh water ERWK VHPDQWLFDOO\ DQG
IRUPDOO\ 7KRVH OLNH hamt DUH FRPSRVHG RI GLVWLQJXLVKDEOH LQGLYLGXDO SLHFHV ZKHUHDV WKRVH OLNH hax DUH QRW
HLWKHU EHFDXVH WKH\ DUH OLTXLG RU WKH\ DUH VROLG PDVV 7KRVH OLNH hamt FRPPRQO\ RFFXU ZLWK WKH SOXUDO DUWLFOH
coi XQOLNH WKRVH OLNH hax fresh water ZKLFK RFFXUV ZLWK cop 6RPH H[DPSOHV RI PDVV QRXQV ZLWK LQGLYLGXDWHG
SDUWV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 D hamt coi the sand

E ˻ xiica an icaai˼ coi the sugar
F hilít coi my hair [on head]
G tom coi the money

7KH JURXS RI PDVV QRXQV GRHV QRW LQFOXGH VROLG REMHFWV H[FHSW ZKHQ WKH\ DUH YLHZHG DV FRPSRVHG RI SRZ
GHU\JUDLQ\ VXEVWDQFHV )RU H[DPSOH the meat ZRXOG EH ziix ipxasi quih thing3.poss:flesh def;fl RU ziix ipxasi
coi WKH ODWWHU LQGLFDWLQJ PXOWLSOH SLHFHV

13.2 Inflectional morphology of nouns

7KH LQ᯴HFWLRQDO PRUSKRORJ\ RI QRXQV LV OLPLWHG WR QXPEHU DQG SRVVHVVRUDEVROXWH
&RXQW QRXQV W\SLFDOO\ KDYH VRPH PRUSKRORJ\ IRU VKRZLQJ WKH VLQJXODUSOXUDO GLVWLQFWLRQ DOWKRXJK LW LV QRW
DOZD\V H[SORLWHG VHH i 6RPH NLQVKLS WHUPV DUH D ELW PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG LQ WKLV UHJDUG LQ WKDW WKH\ DOVR
LQGLFDWH WKH VLQJXODUSOXUDO GLVWLQFWLRQ RI WKH ංSRVVHVVRUඃ
7KH PRUSKRORJLFDO WUDSSLQJV IRU SOXUDOLW\ YDU\ EXW WKH\ PRVW W\SLFDOO\ LQYROYH D VX᯵[ DQG PD\ LQYROYH D
FKDQJH LQ WKH VWHP ORVV RI D YRZHO RU LQ᯳[DWLRQ $ VLPSOH H[DPSOH LV noosi mourning dove noosilc mourning
doves 7KH GHWDLOV RI SOXUDOL]DWLRQ PRUSKRORJ\ ZKLFK LV FRQVLGHUDEO\ PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG WKDQ LV DSSDUHQW E\ WKLV
H[DPSOH DUH JLYHQ LQ i
3RVVHVVLYH DQG DEVROXWH PRUSKRORJ\ DUH SUH᯳[DO H[FHSW IRU VRPH RGG VX᯵[DO PDWHULDO WKDW DEVROXWH IRUPV
VRPHWLPHV LQFOXGH LQ DGGLWLRQ WR WKH SUH᯳[ 'HWDLOV DUH JLYHQ LQ i DQG i

7KLV PLJKW RFFXU LQ D QHJDWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ EXW QHJDWLRQ LQGXFHV WKH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LQ VSHFLDO ZD\V i WKDW
VKRXOG QRW FRQIXVH XV UHJDUGLQJ WKH EDVLF VLWXDWLRQ 6HH IRU H[DPSOH L

L … tom zo ma-po-m-oonec, …
money indf;sg 2p.sbj-irr.dep-neg-carry_items\pl
… and don’t take money, …bb 177 /N  


7KLV RFFXUV LQ D QHJDWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ VHH QRWH 

L Hax zo h-xo-m-aho.
fresh_water indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr-em-neg-see
I don’t have any water.bb &<+, 


7KLV WRSLF LV WUHDWHG LQ GHWDLO LQ ( 0RVHU 0 0RVHU  0DUOHWW EFKDSWHU  DQG 0DUOHWW 
§13.2.1 Details about plural morphology 313

$QWLFLSDWLQJ RQH GHWDLO DERXW ංXQVSHFL᯳HG SRVVHVVRUඃ H[SODLQHG LQ i WKH LQ᯴HFWLRQDO PRUSKRORJ\ IRU
QRXQV LV VXPPDUL]HG LQ ᯳JXUH  6RPH VLPSOH H[DPSOHV LOOXVWUDWLQJ WKHVH SDWWHUQV ZLWK PRUSKHPH EUHDNV
VKRZQ DUH JLYHQ LQ WDEOH 

)LJXUH bb0RUSKRORJLFDO VWUXFWXUH RI SRVVHVVHG QRXQV DQG NLQVKLS WHUPV

Unspecified Absolute Stem Plural

Possessor Possessor Extra Absolute material

7DEOH bb([DPSOHV RI QRXQV DQG LQ᯴HFWLRQDO PRUSKRORJ\

8QVSHFL᯳HG $EVROXWH  5RRW 3OXUDO ([WUD *ORVV

3RVVHVVRU 3RVVHVVRU $EVROXWH
PDWHULDO
noosi mourning dove
noosi -lc morning doves
hi- lít my head/hair
  i- lít -coj their head
qu-   i- lít one’s head/hair
hi- ntaac my younger maternal aunt
ha- ntaaca -t younger maternal aunt
  a- ntaac -la his/her/their younger maternal aunts

13.2.1 Details about plural morphology

&RXQW QRXQV WKDW GR QRW KDYH D GLVWLQFW SOXUDO IRUP LQFOXGH EXW DUH E\ QR PHDQV OLPLWHG WR cacajöc a bagworm
moth cacni wood ibis cam a bark boring beetle cama big skate Raja binoculata capoclim chiton catápora
robber fly haan smooth Pacific Venus clam haaxt walkingstick (insect) hacözj sea catfish ptcamn lobster
sahmees orange DQG satoj mussel
6LQJXODU DQG SOXUDO IRUPV DUH VRPHWLPHV VXSSOHWLYH IRUPV DOWKRXJK WKH H[DPSOHV RI VXFK DUH QRW QXPHURXV
6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D cmiique comcaac Seri person
E cmaam cmajiic female, woman
F eejc itooxöl 3.poss:strength
G zaah ixaap day
H ziix xiica thing

6RPH QRXQV VLPSO\ DGG D VX᯵[ WR IRUP WKH SOXUDO 7KH SXWDWLYH PRUSKHPH EUHDNV DUH LQGLFDWHG LQ WKH
H[DPSOHV LQ  7KH SRVVLELOLW\ RI XQGHUO\LQJ IRUPV LV LJQRUHG KHUH WKLV SUHVHQWDWLRQ ORRNV DW VXSHU᯳FLDO

7KLV IRUPXOD LV VOLJKWO\ GL᯲HUHQW ZLWK GHYHUEDO QRXQV WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFWSRVVHVVRU SUH᯳[ IROORZV WKH SRVVHVVRU LQ
WKRVH IRUPV ZKHUHDV LW SUHFHGHV WKH SRVVHVVRU LQ QRXQV EDVHG RQ QRXQ URRWV 6HH i

&DPSEHOO *RGGDUG  VXJJHVW WKDW VRPH NLQG RI DEODXW SDWWHUQ IXQFWLRQLQJ RYHU WKH ංFRQVRQDQWDO IUDPHඃ
LV FRPPRQ EHWZHHQ WKH VLQJXODU IRUP cmiique DQG WKH SOXUDO IRUP comcaac EXW WKLV GRHV QRW VHHP WR EH D SURGXFWLYH
K\SRWKHVLV ZKLFK ZDV EDVHG LQ SDUW RQ LQFRUUHFW GDWD

7KH HW\PRORJ\ RI WKH SOXUDO IRUP ixaap LV NQRZQ LW LV WKH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH GHYHUEDO QRXQ IRUP RI WKH YHUE √xaap
spend the night in a place
314 Chapter 13: Nouns

IRUPV ,Q VRPH FDVHV WKH SDWWHUQ VKRZQ LV DWWHVWHG E\ RQO\ RQH RU WZR ZRUGV ZKHUHDV LQ RWKHUV WKH SDWWHUQ LV
PRUH UREXVWO\ DWWHVWHG 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
& VX᯵[
D hehe hehe-t plant
E cof cof-t San Juanico (tree)
F ctam ctam-cö man
G hamác hamac-j fire
H caamopxa caamopxa-j white-lined sphinx moth

&& VX᯵[
I hapxa hapxa-lc cottontail rabbit
J hax hax-lc arrow point

&&9 VX᯵[
K xpaahjö xpaahjö-lca hematite
L isxaneehjö isxaneehjö-lca 3.poss-sternum

&9& VX᯵[
M xtaasi xtaasi-toj estuary
N xees xees-taj fox
O nop nop-xam bobcat
P zaap zaap-coj roadrunner
Q hamquee hamquee-col wooden cooking fork

&&9& VX᯵[
R haaho haaho-lcam road

2WKHU QRXQV ORVH D YRZHO LQ HLWKHU WKH VLQJXODU IRUP RU WKH SOXUDO IRUP DOWKRXJK WKLV LV UDUHO\ WKH VROH LQGLFDWRU
RI SOXUDOLW\ IRU QRXQV 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  0RUH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ EHORZ

 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D inol inl his/her arm/hand/finger
E colquiimet colquiimt black vulture

2WKHU QRXQV DSSHDU WR LQ᯳[ WKH FRQVRQDQW j EHIRUH D ᯳QDO c LQ WKH SOXUDO IRUP 6RPH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ



7KH YRZHO WKDW LV DEVHQW RU SUHVHQW YDULHV XQSUHGLFWDEO\ LQ TXDOLW\ DQG WKHUHIRUH PXVW EH ORVW UDWKHU WKDQ LQVHUWHG LQ PRVW
LI QRW DOO FDVHV 6RPH HYLGHQFH IURP KLVWRULFDO GRFXPHQWV VHH 0DUOHWW E DQG IURP DUFKDLF IRUPV SUHVHUYHG LQ VRQJV
VXSSRUWV WKLV YLHZ 'LV\OODELF QRXQV LQ VRQJV LQFOXGH “hamat” earth QLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ hamt earth, soil, year DQG PRGHUQ
hant earth, year DQG hamt soil DQG “coeepit” quail PRGHUQ coeept VJ coeepitoj SO 7KH ZRUG “hamat” DSSHDUV LQ
YDULRXV VRQJV LQFOXGLQJ WKH FUHDWLRQ VRQJ “Hant quij cöipaxi hac” WKH ZRUG “coeepit” DSSHDUV LQ D VRQJ DERXW WKH TXDLO E\
/LGLD ,EDUUD WKDW DSSHDUV LQ D FROOHFWLRQ LQ SUHSDUDWLRQ E\ 7KRU 0RUDOHV 7KH HYLGHQFH LV FOHDU WKDW YRZHO ORVV LV UHVSRQVLEOH
IRU WKH ODELDOL]HG FRQVRQDQWV LQ 6HUL 6HH WKH GDWD LQ  LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ IRU H[DPSOH

7KLV OH[HPH LV REYLRXVO\ HW\PRORJLFDOO\ UHODWHG WR WKH YHUEDO H[SUHVVLRQൻcola quiime high sbj.nmlz:hv:home ൻDQG VR
WKHUHIRUH LW UHDOO\ ᯳WV ZLWK WKH YHUE SOXUDOL]DWLRQ SDWWHUQV GHVFULEHG LQ i
§13.2.1 Details about plural morphology 315

 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D caatc caatjc grasshopper
E hameepec hameepejc place behind the house
F hasc hasjc abs:body_louse
G icoeesc icoeesjc woven basket used as strainer
H xpeetc xpeetjc a sack-like brown seaweed

<HW RWKHU QRXQV LQGLFDWH SOXUDOLW\ LQ SDUW WKURXJK FKDQJHV LQ FHUWDLQ FRQVRQDQWV QHDU WKH HQG RI WKH ZRUG 7KH
PRVW FRPPRQ FKDQJHV DUH j [x] WR l [ɬ] DV LQ  DQG n WR z [ʃ] DV LQ  EXW m WR WKH VHTXHQFH tz [tʃ] LV DOVR
DWWHVWHG LQ VRPH ORDQZRUGV DV LQ  ,W LV QRW REYLRXV ZKHWKHU WKHVH DUH VLPSOH RU QRW VR VLPSOH FRQVRQDQW
PXWDWLRQV RU PRUH FRPSOH[ FDVHV RI D᯵[DWLRQ DQG GHOHWLRQ RU D FRPELQDWLRQ RI WKHVH

 jal
6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D haamoja haamol-ca antelope
E zaaj zaal-ca cave
F paaij paail-c driftwood

 naz
6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D canocni canocz-oj Heermann’s gull
E iixöni iixöz-aj his/her placenta and umbilical cord
F mooxon mooxoz-a spotted scorpionfish

 m a tz
6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D hequem héquetz grinding stone (archaic)
E eenim eentz knife
F haaonam haaonatz abs:hat
G yequim yectz Yaqui

0RVW QRXQV XVH D FRPELQDWLRQ RI VX᯵[DWLRQ GHOHWLRQ DQG PXWDWLRQ IRU LQGLFDWLQJ SOXUDOLW\ 7KH PRUSKHPH
EUHDNV DUH RQO\ VXJJHVWLYHO\ LQGLFDWHG LQ H[DPSOHV  EHFDXVH LW LV UHDOO\ TXLWH GL᯵FXOW WR WHOO ZKDW LV WKH
VWHP DQG ZKDW LV WKH VX᯵[


,Q )HEUXDU\ RI  WKHUH ZDV DQ LQWHUHVWLQJ GLVFXVVLRQ EHWZHHQ YDULRXV SHRSOH LQ 3XQWD &KXHFD DERXW WKLV IRUP 6RPH
VDLG WKDW WKH\ KDG QHYHU KHDUG LW DQG WKDW WKH\ ZRXOG MXVW XVH WKH IRUP caatc ZLWK D SOXUDO DUWLFOH RQH PDQൿV HOGHUO\ DXQW
R᯲HUHG caatjoj DV WKH FRUUHFW SOXUDO 2WKHU \RXQJ ZRPHQ LQ WKH FRPPXQLW\ WKDW GD\ UHDGLO\ JDYH WKH SOXUDO caatjc

7KH ᯳QDO i LQ WKLV ZRUG DQG WKH QH[W FRXOG EH HSHQWKHWLF VLQFH FRGD FRQVRQDQW FOXVWHUV GLVDOORZ REVWUXHQWQDVDO VHTXHQFHV
6HH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ DW WKH HQG RI i

7KLV ZRUG LV D ORDQZRUG IURP D 8WR$]WHFDQ ODQJXDJH 6HH DSSHQGL[ $ 7KH VRXUFH RI WKLV SOXUDO IRUPDWLRQ LV XQNQRZQ
KRZHYHU LW GRHV QRW VHHP WR EH IRXQG LQ PRGHUQ 8WR$]WHFDQ ODQJXDJHV

7KLV ZRUG LV D ORDQZRUG IURP D 8WR$]WHFDQ ODQJXDJH 6HH DSSHQGL[ $

1HYHUWKHOHVV WKHUH LV VRPH HYLGHQFH LQGLFDWLQJ FRQVRQDQWV DQG YRZHOV WKDW DUH SDUW RI WKH VWHP 6HH WKH OHQJWKHQLQJ
UXOH GHVFULEHG LQ i
316 Chapter 13: Nouns

 :RUGV ZLWK SRVWWRQLF VWHP YRZHOV LQ ERWK IRUPV

6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D cozixoj cozíxol-coj banded gecko
E hanaj hanal-c crow
F hapaj hapal-c octopus
G hasaj hásal-ca flat basket
H xcoomoj xcoomol-ca housefly
I xeenoj xeenol-coj hummingbird
J itaasi itaasi-toj 3.poss:name

 :RUGV ZLWK SRVWWRQLF VWHP YRZHOV LQ QHLWKHU IRUP

6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D slenapzj slenapzl-coj little blue heron
E cotj cot-lca round stingray

 :RUGV ZLWK SRVWWRQLF VWHP YRZHOV LQ WKH SOXUDO IRUP RQO\

6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D coeept coeepit-oj Gambel’s quail
E hasct hasact-oj abs:lung
F hast hasat-oj stone
G haxz° haxa-ca dog
H iist iisat-oj 3.poss:roe
I isct isact-oj 3.poss:lung
J oot ooto-lc coyote
K siip siipi-lc male youth
L xpist xpisat-j a squirrel
M xtiip xtiipo-lc giant Panamic cockle
N ziic ziica-lc bird
O zoozj zoozal-ca burlap bag

 :RUGV ZLWK SRVWWRQLF VWHP YRZHOV LQ WKH VLQJXODU IRUP RQO\

6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D heexoj heexöl dry pitahaya torch
E hapefe hapef-coj harpoon point
F mojepe mojep-toj sahuaro cactus
G haquim hactz whale
H icaheme icahem-toj camp
I iime iim-t 3.poss:dwelling
J iizax iiztox month
K hoocax hooctax raincloud
L yaamol yaaml-oj 3.poss:stomach (of fish)
M seepol seepl-oj a common small coastal shrub
N teepol teepl-oj black jackrabbit
O xeecoj xeecöl wolf
P sleecoj sleecöl heron
Q heexoj heexöl torch made of dry organ pipe cactus
R imoz imjöc 3.poss:heart
S haaco haacö-t abs:house


7KH VLQJXODU IRUP LV WKH ZRUG IRU moon 6LQFH WKHVH ZRUGV EHJLQ ZLWK i- WKH\ PD\ DFWXDOO\ EH SRVVHVVHG IRUPV OLWHUDOO\
its moon IRU H[DPSOH
§13.2.2 Plural possessor 317

7KH SOXUDO VX᯵[HV -j DQG -oj ZKLFK PLJKW EH DOORPRUSKV RI HDFK RWKHU RU RI WKH VX᯵[ -toj DQG -taj DSSHDU
ZLWK PRVW RI WKH UHFHQW ORDQZRUGV DV LQ  1RWH DOVR WKDW WKH VX᯵[HV –j DQG –taj DSSHDU LQ WKH SOXUDOV RI
VXUQDPHV DV VKRZQ LQ i DIWHU YRZHOV DQG QRQVLELODQW FRQVRQDQWV UHVSHFWLYHO\

 :RUGV ZLWK SRVWWRQLF VWHP YRZHOV LQ ERWK IRUPV

6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
9RZHO᯳QDO VWHP
D cascareera cascareera-j ladder
E hohra hohra-j mule
F pazaato pazaato-j shoe
G soaano soaano-j bed sheet
H seaato seaato-j goat
I saraapi saraapi-taj blanket
J canoaa canoaa-taj boat

&RQVRQDQW᯳QDO VWHP
K santaar santaar-oj soldier
L tootar tootar-oj chicken
M meroon meroon-taj melon
N ret ret-coj lariat

7KH H[DPSOHV LQFOXGHG KHUH DUH RQO\ D VDPSOH RI WKH IDFWV %HFDXVH RI WKH FRPSOH[LWLHV RI H[SUHVVLQJ QXPEHU
WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ OLVWV SOXUDO IRUPV IRU QRXQV DQG DOVR IRU YHUEV EHFDXVH WKH FRPSOH[LWLHV DUH VLPLODU
VHH i 6HH WKH IROORZLQJ VHFWLRQ i IRU DGGLWLRQDO FRPSOH[LWLHV SUHVHQWHG E\ WKH QXPEHU RI WKH
SRVVHVVRU

13.2.2 Plural possessor

3RVVHVVRU SUH᯳[ PRUSKRORJ\ GRHV QRW JHQHUDOO\ GLVWLQJXLVK WKH QXPEHU RI WKH SRVVHVVRU VHH i 7KH
PRUSKRORJLFDO LQGLFDWRUV RI QXPEHU GLVFXVVHG LQ WKH SUHYLRXV VHFWLRQ ZKLFK JHQHUDOO\ LQGLFDWH WKH QXPEHU RI
WKH LWHP VLQJXODU RU SOXUDO VRPHWLPHV DOVR LQGLFDWH WKH QXPEHU RI WKH SRVVHVVRU )RU H[DPSOH WKH ZRUG ipl
3.poss:tongue PHDQV his/her/its tongue LW KDV WKH SOXUDO IRUP ípaloj 3.poss:tongue:pl ZKLFK PHDQV their tongues
,Q PRVW FDVHV WKLV ZRXOG LPSO\ WKDW WKHUH LV PRUH WKDQ RQH SRVVHVVRU EHFDXVH DQLPDOV DQG SHRSOH GR QRW VKDUH
WRQJXHV DQG WKH\ W\SLFDOO\ GR QRW KDYH PRUH WKDQ RQH WRQJXH $Q DQLPDO WKDW GLG KDYH WZR WRQJXHV KRZHYHU
ZRXOG XVH WKH IRUP ípaloj QRQHWKHOHVV 2WKHU QRXQV OLNH WKLV ZKHUH D SOXUDO SRVVHVVRU ZRXOG JHQHUDOO\ LPSO\
PRUH WKDQ RQH SRVVHVVHG LWHP DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D ilít his/her/its head ilit-coj their heads
E ipac his/her/its back ípaj-oj their backs
F iip its tail iip-coj their tails
G yaap his/her/its neck yaap-coj their necks

7KH SOXUDO IRUP LV FOHDUO\ DPELJXRXV IRU YDULRXV OH[HPHV UHIHUULQJ WR LWHPV WKDW DUH FRPPRQO\ SOXUDO HYHQ ZKHQ
D VLQJOH SRVVHVVRU LV LQYROYHG 6RPH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 


2QH PLJKW DVN KRZ WKHVH SOXUDO IRUPV DUH OHDUQHG RU ZKHWKHU WKHUH LV GLVDJUHHPHQW DERXW WKHP $V D PDWWHU RI IDFW
WKHUH LV TXLWH ZLGHVSUHDG DJUHHPHQW DERXW WKHP DOWKRXJK QRW VXUSULVLQJO\ D IHZ DOWHUQDWLYH SOXUDOV KDYH EHHQ UHFRUGHG
:KHQ RQH DVNV DERXW D SDUWLFXODU SOXUDO IRUP RQH FDQ ZLWQHVV SHRSOH ᯳VKLQJ IRU WKH SOXUDO IRUP DW WLPHV $QG FHUWDLQO\ QR
RQH NQRZV DOO RI WKH SOXUDO IRUPV WKDW KDYH EHHQ UHFRUGHG HVSHFLDOO\ IRU ZRUGV WKDW DUH XQFRPPRQ RU DUFKDLF
318 Chapter 13: Nouns

 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D isla his/her/its ear isl-oj his/her/its/their ears
E inol his/her/its hand/arm inl-oj his/her/its/their hands/arms
F iime his/her/its home iim-toj his/her/its/their homes
G itrooqui his/her car itrooqui‑j his/her cars; their car(s)
H yaaco his/her house yaacö-t his/her houses; their house(s)

6RPH NLQVKLS WHUPV DQG SHUVRQDO LWHPV KDYH WKH VDPH DPELJXLW\ IRXQG LQ ERG\ SDUW QRXQV 6HH 

 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO DPELJXRXV

D acmajeete his wife’s older sister acmajeet-oj his wife’s older sisters RU
their wives’ older sisters
E azaac her older sister azaac-la her older sisters RU their
older sisters
F icaamiz his/her shirt icaamij-oj his/her/their shirts

)RU VRPH ERG\ SDUW QRXQV DW OHDVW RQH SHUVRQDO LWHP DQG PDQ\ NLQVKLS WHUPV WKH ODQJXDJH LV PRUH H[SUHVVLYH
LQ WKDW LW RIWHQ KDV D GLVWLQFW IRUP RI WKH QRXQ ZKHQ WKH SRVVHVVRU LV SOXUDO 7KH ZRUG WKDW LQGLFDWHV SOXUDOLW\ RI
SRVVHVVRU LQ DGGLWLRQ WR LPSOLHG SOXUDOLW\ RI WKH LWHP DSSHDUV WR KDYH H[WUD SOXUDO PRUSKRORJ\ DV LQGLFDWHG E\ WKH
WHQWDWLYH PRUSKHPH EUHDNV VKRZQ LQ  $ ZRUG VXFK DV átcalcoj LV DPELJXRXV LW PHDQV ERWK their younger
sister DQG their younger sisters

 6LQJXODU LWHP 3OXUDO LWHP VJ 6J3O LWHP

VJ SRVVHVVRU SRVVHVVRU XVXDOO\ SO
SRVVHVVRU
D imt imt ímat-j breast
E istj istj ístal-ca leaf, petal
F ito ito-j íto-lcoj eye
G itoaa itooit itoaa-tj foot/leg
H ii ii-t eaa-tj head louse
I itac ítajc ítaj-oj bone, stem, trunk
J iiseja iiselca iiselc-oj wing, branch
K itaamt itaamt itaamat-j sandal
L atalxiicom atalxiicom-jc atalxiicom-joj wife’s sister’s husband
M atcamahaj atcamahal-c atcamáhal-coj younger sister (of female)’s child
N atcmajeem atcmajeem-taj atcmajeem-tolca younger sister (of female)’s hus-
band
O atcz atcal átcal-coj younger sister (of female)
P azcz azcal ázcal-oj younger brother (of male)

3RVVHVVHG QRXQ VWHPV ZKHWKHU ERG\ SDUW QRXQV RU GHYHUEDO QRXQV XVLQJ WKH QRPLQDOL]HU y- EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK
y KDYH VSHFLDO DOORPRUSKV RI WKH SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[HV IRU ᯳UVW DQG VHFRQG SHUVRQ ZKHQ WKH SRVVHVVRU LV SOXUDO 7KDW
LV UDWKHU WKDQ WKH XVXDO hi- DQG mi- ZKLFK KDYH WKH DOORPRUSKV (i)h- DQG (i)n- EHIRUH y DV H[SODLQHG LQ i
EHORZ WKH DOORPRUSKV ha- DQG ma- RFFXU LQ WKLV VLWXDWLRQ 2WKHUZLVH WKHVH DOORPRUSKV RI WKH SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[HV
GR QRW RFFXU 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 


,W ZDV PDGH FOHDU WR PH LQ  WKDW WKLV ZRUG KDV VKLIWHG LQ WKH VSHHFK RI PRVW \RXQJHU SHRSOH VR WKDW LW UHIHUV WR WKH
OLYLQJ SODFHV RI DQLPDOV QRW RI SHRSOH

7KLV IRUP ZDV QRW UHFRUGHG XQWLO  VR IDU DV , NQRZ , WKDQN ;DYLHU 0RUHQR IRU SRLQWLQJ LW RXW WR PH

1R NLQVKLS WHUP URRW EHJLQV ZLWK y VR WKLV VWUDWHJ\ IRU LQGLFDWLQJ SOXUDO SRVVHVVRU LV QRW XVHG ZLWK NLQVKLS WHUPV 7KH
SUH᯳[HV ha- DQG ma- DUH WKH VXEMHFW PDUNHUV IRU ᯳UVW DQG VHFRQG SHUVRQ SOXUDO UHVSHFWLYHO\ i 7KLV PD\ EH D FDVH
LQ ZKLFK WKH PRUSKRORJ\ IURP WKH YHUE SDUDGLJPV KDV OHDNHG RYHU WR WKH QRXQ SDUDGLJPV
§13.2.3.1 Kinship terms 319

 6LQJXODU SRVVHVVRU 3OXUDO SRVVHVVRU

D ihyanopj my fist
E ihyanoplc my fists hayanópalcoj our fists
F inyanopj your fist
G inyanoplc your fists mayanópalcoj your (pl.) fists
H yanopj his/her fist
I yanoplc his/her fists yanópalcoj their fists

 6LQJXODU SRVVHVVRU 3OXUDO SRVVHVVRU

D ihyahit my eating hayaaitoj our eating
E inyahit your eating mayaaitoj your (pl.) eating
F yahit his/her/its eating yaaitoj their eating

 6LQJXODU SRVVHVVRU 3OXUDO SRVVHVVRU

D ihyayooz the one I worship hayayoozxam the one(s) we worship
E inyayooz the one you worship mayayoozxam the one(s) you worship
F yayooz the one s/he worships yayoozxam the one(s) they worship

13.2.3 Details about possessor morphology

3RVVHVVRU PRUSKRORJ\ LV OLPLWHG WR D VPDOO VHW RI SUH᯳[HV 2I WKH FODVV RI QRXQV WKDW XVH SRVVHVVRU PRUSKRORJ\
WZR LPSRUWDQW VXEFODVVHV HPHUJH EDVHG RQ WKH GHWDLOV RI WKH PRUSKRORJ\ NLQVKLS WHUPV YV WKH RWKHUV LQFOXGLQJ
ERG\ SDUW QRXQV SHUVRQDO LWHPV UHODWLRQDO QRXQV DQG GHYHUEDO QRXQV i 7KH SRVVHVVRU PRUSKRORJ\ XVHG
IRU WKH ODWWHU LV DOVR XVHG ZLWK WKH LQ᯴HFWHG 3V i

13.2.3.1. Kinship terms. .LQVKLS WHUPV DUH D VHPDQWLFDOO\ FRKHUHQW FODVV RI ZRUGV WKH\ DOO H[SUHVV WKH IDPLOLDO
UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ LQGLYLGXDOV 7KH OH[HPHV WKHPVHOYHV PD\ LQGLFDWH WKH VH[ RI WKH UHIHUHQW WKH VH[ RI
WKH SHUVRQ WR ZKRP WKH\ DUH UHODWHG DQG WKHLU UHODWLYH DJH 6HH WKH VDPSOH OH[HPHV SUHVHQWHG LQ  7KHVH
OH[HPHV DOVR LOOXVWUDWH WKH GL᯲HUHQFH LQ LQ᯴HFWLRQDO SDWWHUQV EHWZHHQ FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV √paac DQG √mahaj
DQG YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV √VVcaz DQG √Vpaz 1RQH RI WKH NLQVKLS WHUPV ZLWK YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV JLYHV DQ\ GLUHFW
KLQW DV WR WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH YRZHO DOWKRXJK WKHVH WHUPV GR GLVWLQJXLVK EHWZHHQ RQH PRUD DQG WZR PRUDV LQ
WKH VWUHVVHG V\OODEOH :H NQRZ WKDW WKH\ DUH YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV EHFDXVH WKH UHJXODU VWUHVV SDWWHUQ LV WR VWUHVV WKH
SHQXOWLPDWH V\OODEOH RI WKH URRW

 older sister (of father’s older younger brother paternal

male) brother (of female) grandfather
)LUVW SHUVRQ hipaac himahaj hiicaz hipaz
6HFRQG SHUVRQ mapaac mamahaj maacaz mapaz
7KLUG SHUVRQ apaac amahaj aacaz apaz

$ IHZ H[SUHVVLRQV RI NLQVKLS DUH V\QFKURQLFDOO\ DQG WUDQVSDUHQWO\ EDVHG RQ YHUEV DQG DUH WKHUHIRUH LQ᯴HFWHG OLNH QRUPDO
GHYHUEDO QRXQV 7KH PRVW FRPPRQ RQHV DUH LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKHVH H[DPSOHV him caazi 1s.do sbj.nmlz:carry my father PRUH OLW
HUDOO\ the one who carried me ihyaazi 1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry my child (male speaking) PRUH OLWHUDOO\ the one whom I carried
hoeen 1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry_items my children (male speaking) PRUH OLWHUDOO\ the ones whom I carried him quiiquet 1s.do
sbj.nmlz:pregnant_with my mother PRUH OLWHUDOO\ the one who was pregnant with me hiiquet 1.poss:obj.nmlz:pregnant_with
my child (woman speaking) PRUH OLWHUDOO\ the one with whom I was pregnant 7KHUH DUH DOVR SURGXFWLYH ZD\V WR H[SUHVV
NLQVKLS XVLQJ GHQRPLQDO YHUEV EDVHG RQ NLQVKLS QRXQ URRWV VHH i
7KH NLQVKLS WHUPV DUH SUREDEO\ RQ WKH YHUJH RI EHLQJ REVROHWH IRU PDQ\ 6HUL VSHDNHUV 7KHVH GDWD ZHUH FROOHFWHG PRUH
WKDQ ᯳IW\ \HDUV DJR E\ (GZDUG DQG 0DU\ 0RVHU DQG EHIRUH WKHP E\ $OIUHG .URHEHU VHH .URHEHU  2I FRXUVH VRPH
RI WKHP DUH VWLOO LQ XVH EXW WKH QXPEHU RI SHRSOH ZKR FRQWURO WKHP ZHOO KDV EHHQ GHFUHDVLQJ GUDVWLFDOO\ 6HH 0DUOHWW 0
0RVHU  DQG 0 0RVHU 0DUOHWW  6RPH FRUUHFWLRQV DSSHDU LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ $V PHQWLRQHG LQ WKH
LQWURGXFWLRQ WKH QXPEHU RI SULPDU\ NLQVKLS WHUPV LQ WKH ODQJXDJH VKRXOG PDNH LW D FRQWHQGHU IRU D ZRUOG UHFRUG KROGHU

'LVFXVVLRQV RI WKHVH URRWV LQ 0DUOHWW E FODLPHG WKDW WKHVH URRWV EHJLQ ZLWK aa DQG a EDVHG RQ LQGLUHFW KLQWV
SULPDULO\ DQDORJ\ ZLWK YHUE URRWV +RZHYHU ZKLOH WKH YHUE URRWV SURYLGH GLUHFW HYLGHQFH IRU WKH TXDOLW\ WKH URRWLQLWLDO
YRZHO WKH QRXQ URRWV QHYHU GR
320 Chapter 13: Nouns

6HH i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH PRUSKRORJ\ UHODWLQJ WR D SOXUDO SRVVHVVRU 6HH i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI
DEVROXWH IRUPV RI WKHVH QRXQV

13.2.3.2. Other possessed nouns. 3RVVHVVHG QRXQV RWKHU WKDQ NLQVKLS WHUPV DOO XVH WKH RWKHU VHW RI SRVVHVVLYH
SUH᯳[HV VKRZQ LQ WDEOH 

7DEOH bb3RVVHVVRU PRUSKRORJ\

.LQVKLS WHUPV 2WKHU SRVVHVVHG QRXQV

)LUVW SHUVRQ hi- hi- DQG ha- VHH i
)LUVW SHUVRQ HPSKDWLF — hati-
6HFRQG SHUVRQ ma- mi- DQG ma- VHH i
7KLUG SHUVRQ a- i-

$V ZLWK NLQVKLS WHUPV SOXUDOLW\ RI WKH SRVVHVVRU LV VRPHWLPHV LQGLFDWHG E\ VX᯵[HV VHH i DOWKRXJK
QRXQ VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK y GR VRPHWKLQJ D ELW PRUH H[SUHVVLYH VHH WKH HQG RI i 6HH WKH VDPSOH OH[HPHV
SUHVHQWHG LQ  7KHVH OH[HPHV DOVR LOOXVWUDWH WKH GL᯲HUHQFH LQ LQ᯴HFWLRQDO SDWWHUQV EHWZHHQ FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO
URRWV √taast yLQLWLDO URRWV √yeen DQG YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV √VVsa DQG √Vsoj 1RQH RI WKH QRXQV ZLWK YRZHO
LQLWLDO URRWV JLYHV DQ\ GLUHFW KLQW DV WR WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH YRZHO

 tooth face tonsil body

)LUVW SHUVRQ hitaast ihyeen hiisa hisoj
)LUVW SHUVRQ HPSKDWLF hatitaast hatyeen hatiisa hatisoj
6HFRQG SHUVRQ mitaast inyeen miisa misoj
7KLUG SHUVRQ itaast yeen iisa isoj
8QVSHFL᯳HG SRVVHVVRU quitaast quisoj

7KH i RI WKH SUH᯳[HV hi- mi- DQG i- HOLGHV EHIRUH y 7KLV SURGXFHV D FOXVWHU WKDW LV QRW V\OODEL᯳DEOH XQOHVV WKH
ZRUG LV SUHFHGHG E\ D YRZHO DQG WKHUHIRUH LQ PRVW FDVHV DQ HSHQWKHWLF YRZHO i SUHFHGHV WKH VRQRUDQWFRQVRQDQW
FOXVWHU VHH i 7KH m DVVLPLODWHV WR WKH SRLQW RI DUWLFXODWLRQ RI WKH y VHH i
7KH WKLUG SHUVRQ SRVVHVVRU SUH᯳[ PD\ EH SUHFHGHG E\ WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW SRVVHVVRU SUH᯳[ ca VHH i
ZKLFK ORVHV LWV YRZHO LQ WKLV FRQWH[W quilít  SXWDWLYH XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP {ca-i-lit} one’s head/hair quitoj one’s
eyes quipl one’s tongue 7KH PHDQLQJ RU XVDJH RI VXFK IRUPV LV VOLJKWO\ GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH DEVROXWH IRUPV halít
head/hair hatoj eyes hapl tongue VHH i $ SDLU RI H[DPSOHV WR FRQWUDVW WKH WZR IRUPV LV JLYHQ LQ 

 D Quilít quij sahpaaisx aha.

unsp.sbj:3.poss:head def;cm irr.ind:pass:cause_be_clean aux:dcl
One should wash one’s head.bb &<+,

E ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼ x, tpaha x, cötcapanim

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds ut rlt:pass:grind_(seeds) ut 3.io.rlt:unsp.sbj:wash_one’s_hair
ma x, halít quih imacaaitic.
ds ut abs:head/hair def;fl 3.sbj:rlmi:cause_be_soft
... it softens the hair.bb &<+,

7KLV XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW RU SRVVHVVRU SUH᯳[ ca- LV XVHG LQ WKLV ZD\ EHIRUH JHQHUDO SRVVHVVHG QRXQV EXW QHYHU
EHIRUH NLQVKLS WHUPV *caata one’s mother *casaac one’s son .LQVKLS WHUPV RQO\ XVH WKH DEVROXWH IRUPV IRU
VLPLODU LGHDV

<RXQJHU SHRSOH XVH WKH ZRUG heenim IRU knife LQVWHDG RI eenim 7KH SRVVHVVHG IRUPV WKDW WKH\ XVH DUH DOVR GL᯲HUHQW
IURP WKRVH XVHG E\ WKH SUHYLRXV JHQHUDWLRQ ,QVWHDG RI meenim your knife \RXQJHU SHRSOH VD\ mi-heenim

7KH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKHVH PHDQLQJV LV VLJQDOHG E\ WKH FKRLFH RI DUWLFOH quij def;cm IRU the head DQG quih def;fl
IRU the hair
§13.3 Noun classes with origin in profile 321

5HODWLRQDO QRXQV DUH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU SRVVHVVRU LGHQWLFDOO\ WR WKH ERG\ SDUW QRXQV VHH i 'HYHUEDO QRXQV DUH
GLVFXVVHG LQ FKDSWHU 

13.2.4 Details about absolute morphology

%RG\ SDUW QRXQV DQG NLQVKLS WHUPV PD\ EH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU WKH DEVROXWH SUH᯳[ i 6HH WDEOH 

7DEOH bb$EVROXWH 0RUSKRORJ\

.LQVKLS WHUPV *HQHUDO SRVVHVVHG QRXQV

ha- EHIRUH FRQVRQDQW ha-
hape- EHIRUH YRZHO

7KH DEVROXWH SUH᯳[ IRU QRXQV RWKHU WKDQ NLQVKLS WHUPV LV ha- ZLWK WKH VXUIDFH DOORPRUSK haa- ZKHQ WKH URRW
EHJLQV ZLWK WZR PRUDV VHH WKH GDWD LQ 

 tooth face tonsil body

7KLUG SHUVRQ itaast yeen iisa isoj
$EVROXWH hataast hayeen haasa hasoj
5RRW √taast √yeen √VVsa √Vsoj

7KH DEVROXWH SUH᯳[ IRU NLQVKLS WHUPV LV ha- EHIRUH FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV DQG hape- EHIRUH YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV
VHH  2QH FDQ GHWHFW WKDW YRZHO KDUPRQ\ i LV WDNLQJ SODFH LQ WKH DEVROXWH IRUPV RI WKH NLQVKLS
WHUPV WKDW KDYH hape-

 older sister (of father’s older younger brother paternal

male) brother (of female) grandfather
7KLUG SHUVRQ apaac amahaj aacaz apaz
$EVROXWH hapaac hamahaj hapeequez hapepez
5RRW √paac √mahaj √VVcaz √Vpaz

6RPH RI WKH DEVROXWH IRUPV RI NLQVKLS WHUPV KDYH H[WUD PDWHULDO DW WKH HQG RI WKH ZRUG DV VKRZQ LQ 

 sister’s child (of stepchild father (of husband’s sister

male) female)
7KLUG SHUVRQ aac acomiique am aqueec
$EVROXWH haaca-t hacomiique-t hapeme haqueeque-t
5RRW √VVca √comiique √Vm √queeque

13.3 Noun classes with origin in profile

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FRPSOLFDWHG


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RI WKLV WR WKH SODFHPHQW RI VWUHVV

7KH SKRQHWLF HYLGHQFH VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH YRZHO WKDW PD\ DSSHDU LV SDUW RI WKH URRW EXW WKDW WKH ᯳QDO FRQVRQDQW LV D
VX᯵[ WKH ZRUGV DUH K\SKHQDWHG WKDW ZD\ EHORZ 7KH YRZHOV OHQJWKHQ SKRQHWLFDOO\ ZKHQ WKH\ DUH LQ WKH SRVLWLRQ UHTXLUHG
IRU SRVWWRQLF OHQJWKHQLQJ i ,W LV ZHOO HVWDEOLVKHG WKDW VXFK OHQJWKHQLQJ GRHV QRW DSSO\ WR VX᯵[HV

7KLV QRXQ LV LUUHJXODU LQ WKDW LW XVHV ha- IRU WKH $EVROXWH UDWKHU WKDQ hape- WKDW LV H[SHFWHG IRU YRZHOLQLWLDO NLQVKLS URRWV

6HH 0DUOHWW 0 0RVHU 
322 Chapter 13: Nouns

13.3.1 Determiner selection

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RI WKHVH DUWLFOHV YHU\ RIWHQ WDNHV LQWR FRQVLGHUDWLRQ WKH SK\VLFDO RULHQWDWLRQ RI WKH LWHP haxz° com dog def;hz
LV DSSURSULDWH ZKHQ WKH GRJ LV O\LQJ GRZQ haxz° cop dog def;vt ZKHQ LW LV VWDQGLQJ haxz° quij dog def;cm
ZKHQ LW LV VLWWLQJ DQG haxz° quih dog def;fl ZKHQ LW LV QRW LQ YLHZ 7KH ංPRWLRQඃ GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV
tintica md;aw DQG tanticat md;aw:pl DUH VRPHWLPHV XVHG ZLWK D QRQGHLFWLF IRUFH haxz° tintica ZKHQ WKH LWHP
LV JRLQJ DZD\ IURP WKH SRLQW RI UHIHUHQFH HWF
7KH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH VLQJXODU DUWLFOH comൺW\SLFDOO\ XVHG IRU D KRUL]RQWDO REMHFW EXW KHUH GHQRWLQJ D
JURXS ൺDQG WKH SOXUDO DUWLFOH coi LV DOVR XVHG H᯲HFWLYHO\ ZKHQ WKH QRXQ LV RYHUWO\ SOXUDO WR JLYH H᯲HFWV VXFK DV
WKDW VKRZQ LQ 

 D Hahootj com tcooo, ...

abs:entrance:pl def;hz rlt:all
All of the doors (e.g., in the town), …bb 2᯲HUHG

E Hahootj coi tcooo, …

abs:entrance:pl def;pl rlt:all
All of the doors (e.g., of the house), …bb 2᯲HUHG

7KH HPHUJLQJ QRXQ FODVVHV VKRZ D UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKLV IRXQGDWLRQ LQ SK\VLFDO RULHQWDWLRQ RU VWDQGDUG SUR᯳OH
:KLOH VRPH QRXQV HVSHFLDOO\ WKRVH UHIHUULQJ WR SURPLQHQW PRELOH LWHPV VXFK DV ODUJH PDPPDOV PD\ RFFXU
ZLWK RQH RI YDULRXV DUWLFOHV LQ GL᯲HUHQW FRQWH[WV RWKHU QRXQV DUH PRUH OLPLWHG ,QVHFWV ELUGV DQG VPDOO DQL
PDOV PD\ RFFXU ZLWK D PRWLRQ GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYH EXW RWKHUZLVH W\SLFDOO\ XVH quij FRPSDFW DV GR ZRUGV
IRU EXVKHV DQG ZRUGV OLNH siimet bread ZKHQ YLHZHG DV D UROO DQG zaah sun :RUGV IRU ORQJ DQG W\SLFDOO\
SURQH LWHPV VXFK DV canoaa boat JHQHUDOO\ XVH com KRUL]RQWDO ZKHQ PRWLRQ LV QRW UHOHYDQW :RUGV IRU WDOO
LWHPV VXFK DV haaco KRXVH XVH cap YHUWLFDO RU LWV YDULDQW cop )OH[LEOH LWHPV VXFK DV FKDLQV FORWK DQG
EUHDG LQ D JHQHULF VHQVH W\SLFDOO\ XVH quih ᯴H[LEOH 0HWHRURORJLFDO H[SUHVVLRQV VXFK DV WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQV
icozim 3.poss:[pon:]hot_(weather) summer, hot weather i-h-aapl 3.poss-pon-cold winter, the cold DQG ihamoc
3.poss:[pon:]become_night GDUNQHVV QLJKW DV ZHOO DV WKH ZRUGV zaah day FI sun DQG hai air, wind DOO XVH WKH
DUWLFOH cop YHUWLFDO DV GR FHUWDLQ RWKHU DEVWUDFWLRQV VXFK DV icaaitom 3.poss:pon:unsp.sbj:speak word psaac
icooxi hunger 3.poss:pon:unsp.sbj:die hunger DQG i-h-a-sii 3.poss-pon-aug-smell smell, odor

13.3.2 Existential verb selection

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SUHVHQW QHZ FKDUDFWHUV LQ D QDUUDWLYH 7KHVH YHUEV DUH WKH HW\PRORJLFDO VRXUFHV RI WKH DUWLFOHV

13.3.2.1. Vertical profile and abstractions: √ap stand and article cop/cap. 6RPH QRXQV WKDW W\SLFDOO\ ᯳W WKH
YHUWLFDO SUR᯳OH LQFOXGH haaco house DQG RWKHU EXLOGLQJV hehe tree hast mountain LI WDOO hateeya bottle
xaasj cardón cactus DQG mojepe sahuaro cactus 1RXQV XVHG DV DEVWUDFWLRQV LQ WKLV FODVV LQFOXGH zaah day FI
sun iizax month FI moon 7KH ZRUG hai wind, air DOVR LV LQ WKLV FODVV 1RWLFH WKH XVH RI WKH YHUE √ap stand
LQ H[DPSOHV 

 …, haaco zo toc cötap ma, …

abs:house indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand ds
..., there was a house, ... bb &<+,

 ..., zaah xah zo toc cötap, ...

sun/day ? indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand
..., one day, ... bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ 

3OXUDO QRXQV LQ WKLV JURXS XVH WKH VXSSOHWLYH SOXUDO √oii stand\pl DQG WKH SOXUDO DUWLFOH coi DV LOOXVWUDWHG LQ
 7KLV SOXUDO IRUP LV XVHG DQG JORVVHG DV D PRUH JHQHUDO SOXUDO VWHP LQ RWKHU VLWXDWLRQV QRW LQGLFDWLYH RI
SUR᯳OH 6HH EHORZ
§13.3.2.2 Compact profile: √iij sit and article quij 323

 Haacöt pac toc cötoii, ...

abs:house:pl some there 3.io:rlt:stand\pl
There were some houses, …

13.3.2.2. Compact profile: √iij sit and article quij. 6RPH QRXQV WKDW W\SLFDOO\ ᯳W WKH FRPSDFW SUR᯳OH LQFOXGH
ziic bird DQG YLUWXDOO\ DOO VSHFLHV RI ELUGV haxölinaail shelled mollusk DOWKRXJK VRPH DUH FRQVLGHUHG ORQJ
hast rock trooqui vehicle ˻ hehe yapxöt˼ flower sahmees orange ˻ ziix coqueht˼ ball hamác lamp FI fire DQG
˻ hehe hascám˼ ship 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV ZLWK √iij LQ 

 Hamác zo toc cötiij, ...

fire/lamp indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit
There was a lamp, ...

 Coneenoziic zo toc cötiij ma, htahiihom,

Amphispiza_sp. indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:attack_without_warning
ihyonaaij.
1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:grab
A sparrow was there, I attacked it without warning and grabbed it.bb &<+,

3OXUDO LWHPV LQ WKLV JURXS XVH WKH VXSSOHWLYH SOXUDO √ooxalca sit\pl ZKHQ WKH\ DUH SUHVHQWHG DV EHLQJ VHSDUDWH
DQG LQ WKHLU ORFDWLRQV DQG WKH PRUH JHQHUDO √oii be.fl\pl ZKHQ WKH\ DUH SUHVHQWHG DV EHLQJ JDWKHUHG WRJHWKHU
6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 Haxölinaailc pac toc cötooxalca / cötoii, ...

shelled_mollusk\pl indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:sit\pl 3.io.rlt:be.fl\pl
There were some shelled mollusks, ...

 ˻ Hehe iti iquícolim˼ pac toc cötooxalca, ...

   plant/wood 3.poss:on 3.poss:unsp.sbj:sit:impf indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:sit\pl
There were some chairs, ...

 Sahmees pac toc cötooxalca, ...

Citrus_x_sinensis indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:sit\pl
There were some oranges, ...

1RWH WKH YHUE √ooxalca sit\pl LV XVHG IRU QRXQV LQ WKLV FODVV WKDW GR QRW YDU\ LQ SRVLWLRQ $ GL᯲HUHQW
VXSSOHWLYH SOXUDO IRUP RI √iij sit LV XVHG ZKHQ WKH QRXQ LV YDULDEOH LQ SRVLWLRQ W\SLFDO RI SHRSOH DQG ODUJH
PDPPDOV VHH i

13.3.2.3. Horizontal profile: √oom lie and article com. 6RPH QRXQV WKDW W\SLFDOO\ ᯳W WKH KRUL]RQWDO SUR᯳OH
LQFOXGH haquiimet lizard DQG VSHFLHV RI OL]DUGV coiimaj snake DQG VSHFLHV RI VQDNHV hast mountain LI ORQJ
hasoj river zixcám fish DQG VSHFLHV RI ᯳VK itoozj his/her/its intestine satoj mussel xepe sea DQG icaaspoj pencil,
pen 6HH H[DPSOH 

 Canoaa zo toc cotom, ...

boat indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:lie
There was a boat, ...

3OXUDO LWHPV LQ WKLV JURXS XVH WKH VXSSOHWLYH SOXUDO √ooitoj lie\pl ZKHQ WKH\ DUH SUHVHQWHG DV EHLQJ VHSDUDWH
DQG LQ WKHLU ORFDWLRQV DQG WKH PRUH JHQHUDO √oii be.fl\pl ZKHQ WKH\ DUH SUHVHQWHG DV EHLQJ JDWKHUHG WRJHWKHU
6HH 

 Canoaataj pac toc cötooitoj / cötoii, ...

boat:pl indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:lie\pl 3.io:rlt:be.fl\pl
There were some boats, ...
324 Chapter 13: Nouns

13.3.2.4. Items with flexible characteristics or indeterminate profile: √iih be (flexible) and article quih.
6RPH QRXQV WKDW W\SLFDOO\ ᯳W WKH ං᯴H[LEOHඃ SUR᯳OH LQFOXGH cápota jacket hapnaail skirt hapaspoj° paper ˻ ha-
paspoj hanoocaj˼ book ˻ eenm hacoaazj˼ chain poosj fishing line ˻ ziix icacötim˼ blanket siimet bread JHQHU
LFDOO\ ,QGHWHUPLQDWH SUR᯳OH ziix thing H[SUHVVLRQV IRU SHRSOH HVSHFLDOO\ LQ WKH VHQVH RI UHVLGLQJ 1RWH WKH
XVH RI WKH YHUE √iih LQ 

 Hap inaail zo toc cötiih ma, itamjc,

Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:skin indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:be.fl ds 3.sbj:rlt:deliver
cöyaapca.
3.io:rlyo:cover_oneself_from_rain
There was a mule deer hide, he brought it, he covered himself from the rain with it.bb &<+,

3OXUDO LWHPV LQ WKLV JURXS XVH WKH SOXUDO √iihtolca be.fl:pl ZKHQ WKH\ DUH SUHVHQWHG DV EHLQJ VHSDUDWH DQG LQ
WKHLU ORFDWLRQV DQG WKH PRUH JHQHUDO √oii be.fl\pl ZKHQ WKH\ DUH SUHVHQWHG DV EHLQJ JDWKHUHG WRJHWKHU VHH 

 Hapáspolca° pac toc cötiihtolca / cötoii, ...

papers indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:be.fl\pl\impf 3.io:rlt:be.fl\pl
There were some papers, ...

13.3.3 Loose (non-liquid) mass: √oii be (pl.) and article coi

6RPH QRXQV FKDUDFWHUL]HG DV EHLQJ ORRVH EXW QRQOLTXLG PDVVHV LQFOXGH ˻ xiica coosotoj˼ rice thing\pl sbj.nmlz:
narrow:pl ˻ xiica is cquihjö˼ beans thing\pl 3.poss:fruit sbj.nmlz:red ˻ hapaha quis˼ flour sbj.nmlz:pass:grind
sbj.nmlz:raw hamt soil, sand ˻ xiica coopolʾ coffee EHDQV RU JURXQGV thing\pl sbj.nmlz:black 1RWH WKH XVH RI
√oii LQ 

 ˻ Xiica an icaai˼ pac toc cötoii, …

   thing\pl  [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:make some there 3.io:rlt:be.fl\pl
There was sugar, …

13.3.4 Liquid and knife-like items: √ap stand and article cap
6RPH QRXQV UHSUHVHQWLQJ OLTXLGV RWKHU WKDQ ODUJH ERGLHV RI ZDWHU LQFOXGH haait blood abs:blood iquihaamaj
one’s sweat 3.poss:pon:unsp.sbj:sweat hataajc saliva abs:saliva ˻ hax ihasii quiipe˼ perfume ˻ sooda coopol˼
cola soda sbj.nmlz:black cafee ˻ xiica coopol˼ OLTXLG coffee thing\pl sbj.nmlz:black .QLIHOLNH LWHPV DUH DOVR
LQ WKLV FODVV IRU XQNQRZQ UHDVRQV WKHVH QRXQV LQFOXGH eenim knife haspaaya sword abs:sword 1RWH WKH XVH
RI √ap LQ H[DPSOHV 

 Hax pac toc cötap, …

water indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:stand
There was water, …

 Eenim zo toc cötap, …

knife indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand
There was a knife, …

13.3.5 People and other large land mammals: stand, sit, lie, be (flexible) and corresponding
articles
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EHLQJ LQ D SODFH ZKHQ QRW LOO GHDG WUDYHOLQJ HWF EXW WKH\ PD\ DOVR EH SUHVHQWHG DV ංOLYLQJඃ LQ D SODFH XVLQJ
WKH YHUE √iih be.fl RU LQ VSHFL᯳F SRVLWLRQV 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Cmiique zo toc cötiij, ...

(Seri)_person indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit
There was a person, ...
§13.3.6 Items viewed as locations: √ahca be located and the article hac 325

 Cmiique ctam zo toc cötiih, ...

(Seri)_person male indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:be.fl
There was a Seri man, ... bb &RQVHMRBSHUURV

7KH SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI SOXUDO VHDWHG SHRSOH RU ODUJH DQLPDOV LQ WKLV FODVV LV GL᯲HUHQW WKDQ WKDW IRU WKLQJV XVLQJ
WKH URRWV √ahca sit\pl DQG √áhajca sit\pl:impf UDWKHU WKDQ √ooxalca VHH i 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Comcaac pac toc cötáhajca, ...

(Seri)_person\pl indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:sit\pl\impf
There were some people, ...

 Háxaca° pac toc cötahca, ...

dog\pl indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:sit\pl
There were some dogs, ...

13.3.6 Items viewed as locations: √ahca be located and the article hac
6RPH QRXQV DUH SUHVHQWHG DV ORFDWLRQV UDWKHU WKDQ REMHFWV 7KHVH LQFOXGH hahoot entrance DQG zaaj cave 1RWH
WKH XVH RI √ahca LQ 

 Hahoot zo toc cötahca ma, ...

abs:entrance indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:be_located ds
There was a doorway, ...

 Hahootj pac toc cötahjoj, ...

abs:entrance:pl indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:be_located\pl
There were some entrances, ...

13.4 Relational nouns

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WKH SK\VLFDO UHODWLRQVKLS RI RQH LWHP WR DQRWKHU 6RPH RI WKH QRXQV DOVR KDYH PRUH FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJV LQ ZKLFK
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7KH  GLFWLRQDU\ LQFRUUHFWO\ OLPLWHG WKH Çhajca VWHP WR SHRSOH

7KH QRXQ ihít place behind LV QHDUO\ DOZD\V XVHG ZLWKRXW WKH ORFDWLYH DUWLFOH hac RU D 3 VHH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ EHORZ DQG
IRU WKDW UHDVRQ LW LV RPLWWHG IURP WKLV OLVW

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326 Chapter 13: Nouns

 D (he) himac hac ano in our midst

1.pro 1.poss:midst def;loc [3.poss:]in
E (me) mimac hac ano in your midst
2.pro 2.poss:midst def:loc [3.poss:]in
F comcaac           coi imac hac ano in the midst
(Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.poss:midst def;loc [3.poss:]in of the people

7KH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH WKDW RFFXUV ZLWK WKH QRXQ ZKHQ LW KDV WKH PRUH FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ LV OLNHO\ WR EH RQH RI WKH
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QXPEHU RI WKH FRPSOHPHQW 7KXV itacl 3.poss:surface/place_above LV the place above him/her/it DQG itacaj
3.poss:surface/place_above\pl LV the place above them

13.4.1 Án place inside of it

7KH ᯳UVW UHODWLRQDO QRXQ DOSKDEHWLFDOO\ LQ WKH OLVW LQ WDEOH  LV GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH UHVW LQ WKDW LW GRHV QRW KDYH DQ
RYHUW WKLUG SHUVRQ SRVVHVVRU PDUNHU RQ LW DQG FDQQRW EH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU ᯳UVW RU VHFRQG SHUVRQ 7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ
án place inside of it LV SUHVXPDEO\ UHODWHG WR ERWK WKH FRQFUHWH QRXQ án its interior DQG WKH 3 ano in it i
,WV SOXUDO IRUP LV ancoj 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 ˻ Xiica canaaotaj˼ coi haacöt coi ancoj hac ano

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:meow def;pl abs:house\pl def;pl [3.poss:]area:pl def;loc [3.poss:]in
coii ha.
sbj.nmlz:be.fl\pl dcl
The cats are inside the houses.

 ˻ Hehe zamij˼ quij án hac ano quiij iha.

   plant/wood palm_tree def;cm [3.poss:]place_inside def;loc [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
It is down inside the box.

([DPSOH  LV QRW DQ H[DFW SDUDSKUDVH RI D VLPLODU VHQWHQFH WKDW RPLWV WKH UHODWLRQDO DUWLFOH DQG LWV GHWHUPLQHU
DV VKRZQ LQ  LQ ZKLFK WKH PHDQLQJ RI inside LV H[SUHVVHG VROHO\ E\ WKH 3

 ˻ Hehe zamij˼ quij ano quiij iha.

   plant/wood palm_tree def;cm [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
It is in the box.

13.4.2 Cöipatj beside it

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ cöipatj beside it LV SUHVXPDEO\ UHODWHG HW\PRORJLFDOO\ WR WKH YHUE URRW √patj flattened VKDULQJ
WKH VDPH SOXUDO VWHP √patalca DQG EHLQJ D SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH GHYHUEDO IRUP i RI WKDW YHUE ZKLFK LV WKH
UHDVRQ IRU WKH SUH᯳[ cö- i 7KH QRXQ PD\ KDYH WKH FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ RI the side of something DV haaco

7KH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ iicot place between SOXUDO iicotaj GRHV QRW RFFXU ZLWK hac DSSDUHQWO\ DQG FRPPRQO\ RFFXUV
ZLWKRXW D 3 ,W LV DVVXPHG KHUH WKDW LW LV QRW D QRXQ RI WKH FDWHJRU\ GLVFXVVHG KHUH

7KH PHDQLQJ inside of you LV H[SUHVVHG misoj com ano 2.poss:body def;hz [3.poss:]in

7KH VLPSOHU VHQWHQFH Xiica canaaotaj coi haacöt coi ano coii ha LV DOVR JUDPPDWLFDO DQG V\QRQ\PRXV
§13.4.2 Cöipatj beside it 327

7DEOH bb5HODWLRQDO QRXQV

)LUVW SHUVRQ 6HFRQG SHUVRQ 7KLUG SHUVRQ

D ―* ―* án place inside of (sg.)
―* ―* ancoj place inside of (pl.)

E cöhipatj cömipatj cöipatj place next to (sg.)

cöhipátalca cömipátalca cöipátalca place next to (pl.)

F hihiin mihiin ihiin place near

G hihiinpx mihiinpx ihiinpx place near

H hiicp miicp iicp place next to

I himac mimac imac place in the midst of

J himocl mimocl imocl place under (sg.)

himocaj mimocaj imocaj place under (pl.)

K himozít mimozít imozít place in the middle of

L hipac mipac ipac place behind (sg.)

hípajoj mípajoj ípajoj place behind (pl.)

M hipot mipot ipot place at the bottom of

N hitacl mitacl itacl place above (sg.)

hitacaj mitacaj itacaj place above (pl.)

O hiyat miyat iyat place on top of

P ihyaniicp inyaniicp yaniicp place in front of (sg.)

hayaniicjoj mayaniicjoj yaniicjoj place in front of (pl.)

)LUVW DQG VHFRQG SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWHG IRUPV RI án DQG LWV SOXUDO IRUP ancoj DUH QRW
JUDPPDWLFDO XQOLNH WKRVH RI WKH SRVWSRVLWLRQ ano i
328 Chapter 13: Nouns

cöipatj external wall surface (of house) RU WKH VLGH RI D SHUVRQ VHH H[DPSOH S LQ FKDSWHU  7KLV UHODWLRQDO
QRXQ LV XVHG WR GHVFULEH WKH SRVLWLRQ RI DQ LWHP WKDW LV WR RQH VLGH RU WKH RWKHU RI DQRWKHU REMHFW 6HH 

 ˻ Hapaspoj° hanoocaj˼ quih cömipatj iicp hac iti

   paper sbj.nmlz:[pass:]carry_under_arm def;fl 3.io:2.poss:beside 3.poss:side def;loc 3.poss:on

quiih iha.
sbj.nmlz:be_fl dcl
The book is at your side (next to you).

 ˻ Hapaspoj° hanoocaj˼ coi cömipátalca iicp hac

   paper sbj.nmlz:[pass:]carry_under_arm def;pl 3.io:2.poss:beside:pl 3.poss:side def;loc

iti coii ha.

3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:be.fl\pl dcl
The books are at your side (next to you).

13.4.3 Ihiin place near it

7KH QRXQ ihiin PHDQV place near it 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Canoaa com ihiin hac iti caap iihi.

boat def;hz 3.poss:place_near def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand past
S/he was near the boat.bb &<+,

 Canooataj coi ihiin hac iti caap iihi.

boat:pl def;pl 3.poss:place_near def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand past
S/he/it was (standing) near the boats.

 ..., hasoj Jordán hapáh com ihiin com iti

river Jordan sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;hz 3.poss:place_near def;hz 3.poss:on
cayaxi xah com tcooo
sbj.nmlz:measure ? def;hz rlt:all
... all the region near the river Jordan bb 177 0W 

 Heezitim Salím hapáh quij ihiin hac ano

town Salim sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm 3.poss:place_near def;loc [3.poss:]in
caahca ha.
sbj.nmlz:be_located dcl
It was near the city of Salim. bb 177 -Q 

 Heezitim tiquij ihiin hac hax cactim caacoj z iti

town md:cm 3.poss:place_near def;loc water sbj.nmlz:be_cut sbj.nmlz:big indf;sg 3.poss:on

tiij ma, ...

rlt:sit ds
There is a pool near that city, … bb 177 -Q 

0RUH VSHFL᯳F UHIHUHQFH FDQ EH PDGH E\ UHIHUULQJ WR ZKHWKHU WKH LWHP LV xepe iicp cöipatj hac the sea side hehe án iicp
cöipatj hac DOWHUQDWLYHO\ heen iicp cöipatj hac the desert side xnaa iicp cöipatj hac the south side RU haapa iicp cöipatj
hac the north side 1RUWK DQG VRXWK DUH DSSUR[LPDWHO\ ᯳[HG SRLQWV EXW WKH VHD VLGH DQG WKH GHVHUW VLGH YDU\ E\ ORFDWLRQ
:KHQ QHFHVVDU\ WKH\ PD\ EH UHSODFHG E\ zaah quij iicp cöipatj hac the east side UHIHUULQJ WR zaah sun DQG zeeme quij iicp
cöipatj hac the west side UHIHUULQJ WR zeeme sunset RU H[SUHVVLRQV WKDW DUH HYHQ PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG

7KLV ZRUG RFFXUV LQ WKH QDPH IRU %DMD &DOLIRUQLD DQG WKH GLVWDQW LVODQGV LQ WKH ZHVW Hant Ihiin land 3.poss:place_near
7KDW RQH QDPH DOVR LV WKH RQO\ RQH NQRZQ WR KDYH D VSHFLDO IRUP D XQLTXH VX᯵[HG IRUP ZKHQ PRGLI\LQJ D QRXQ VXFK DV
Comcaac (Seri)_person\pl Hant Ihiini Comcaac Baja California Seris
§13.4.4 Ihiinpx place near it 329

 Mihiin hac iti quiij iha.

2.poss:place_near def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
S/he/it is sitting near you.

13.4.4 Ihiinpx place near it

7KH QRXQ ihiinpx DOVR PHDQV place near it VHH H[DPSOHV  0XFK OHVV FRPPRQO\ XVHG WKDQ ihiin
DQG FRQVLGHUHG VRPHZKDW ROGIDVKLRQHG WKLV QRXQ PD\ EH XVHG WR GHPRQVWUDWH UHVSHFW WR WKH DGGUHVVHH LI WKH
DGGUHVVHH LV DOVR WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ DV LQ 

 Mihiinpx hac iti quiij iha.

2.poss:place_near def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
S/he/it is sitting near you.

 ¿Ihiinpx hac iti hsiih haa ya?

  3.poss:place_near def;loc 3.poss:on 1s.sbj:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux qm
Do you want me to put it near the other one?bb &<+,

 ... Jerusalén hac ihiinpx hac iti miizcam.

Jerusalem def;loc 3.poss:place_near def;loc 3.poss:on rlmi:arrive\pl
… they arrived near Jerusalem. bb 177 0N 

 ... hiicto hizcoi mihiinpx hac iti tmahca.

1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with px:pl 2.poss:place_near def;loc 3.poss:on sbjv:sit\pl
… may my children be seated near you. bb 177 0W 

13.4.5 Iicp place next to it

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ iicp PHDQV place next to it ,W DOVR KDV DQ H[WHQGHG QRQSK\VLFDO PHDQLQJ RI on the side
of it VRPHWLPHV because of it ZLWK WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ go DQG TXLWH FRPPRQO\ about, concerning DQG UHODWHG
PHDQLQJV

 Me miicp hac iicp ihpsiij aha.

2.pro 2.poss:place_next_to def;loc 3.poss:side 1s.sbj:irr.ind:sit aux:dcl
I am going to sit next to you.bb &<+,

 He miicp hac iicp siip caha.

1.pro 2.poss:place_next_to/side def;loc 3.poss:side irr.ind:stand aux:dcl
I’m going to be on your side — I’m going to vote for you. bb 2᯲HUHG

7KLV ZRUG LV OLVWHG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ DV D YDULDQW RI ihiin EXW WKLV ZDV DQ HUURU KRZHYHU WKH\ DUH QHDU V\QRQ\PV
7KH GLFWLRQDU\ DOVR OLVWV ihiinipxat DV D SOXUDO +RZHYHU ihiinipxat LV QRW UHDOO\ D SOXUDO DQG LW LV QRW XVHG DV D UHODWLRQDO
QRXQ :KHUHDV ihiin DQG ihiinpx PHDQ place near ihiinipxat PHDQV place rather near ZLWKLQ VRPH NLQG RI SHULPHWHU $
VHQWHQFH JLYHQ WR LOOXVWUDWH LW ZDV L

L He Hast Yaxaxoj ihiinipxat com oo he quiihtolca ha.

1.pro Cerro_Pelón place_rather_near def;hz del 1.pro sbj.nmlz:be.fl\pl\impf dcl
We were walking near Pelón Peak. bb 2᯲HUHG


$ SUHYLRXVO\ XQUHFRUGHG ංXQVSHFL᯳HG SRVVHVVRUඃ RU DEVROXWH IRUP RI WKLV ZRUG LV IRXQG LQ WKH UHIUDLQ LQ L UHSRUWHG
E\ 5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD

L Ziix hapecp zo haa pomahca ta x, áno somcasiijim

thing abs:place_next_to/side indf;sg there irr.dep:neg:be_located ds ut [3.poss:]in irr.ind:neg:unsp.sbj:do
aha.
aux:decl
One should not get involved in affairs that are not one’s own.
330 Chapter 13: Nouns

 Me miicp hac iti mhata, he soos caha.

2.pro 2.poss:place_next_to/side def;loc 3.poss:on twd:1s.sbj:rlt:move 1.pro irr.ind:sing aux:dcl
I will sing because of you.

 Me miicp hac iti mota ma, …

2.pro 2.poss:place_next_to/side def;loc 3.poss:on twd:rlt:move ds
Because of you, … bb 177  7K 

 Icaaitom hizac hast hipquij iicp hac

3.poss:[pon]unsp.sbj:speak px:loc stone px:cm 3.poss:place_next_to/side def;loc

czaxö iha.
sbj.nmlz:[tr:]:discuss dcl
This paper tells about this rock.

13.4.6 Imac place in the midst of them

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ imac PHDQV place between them DQG DOZD\V WDNHV D SOXUDO FRPSOHPHQW XQOLNH WKH FRQFUHWH
XVH RI WKDW QRXQ PHDQLQJ its middle 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Xiica quiistox coi imac hac ano cap, …

thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit\pl def;pl 3.poss:middle/place_between def;loc [3.poss:]in im:stand
Stand up in the midst of the people,…bb 177 /N 

 ¿Mimac hac ano tap?

    2.poss:middle/place_between def;loc [3.poss:]in rlt:stand
Is s/he/it standing in your midst?

 ... Pedro com santaar quih coocj imac hac ano

Pedro def;hz soldier def;fl sbj.nmlz:two 3.poss:middle/place_between def;loc [3.poss:]in
toom, ...
rlt:lie
…Peter was lying between two soldiers, … bb 177 $F 

 ¡˻ Ziix coqueht˼ quij mimac hac ano xiij!

bbbthing sbj.nmlz:bounce def;cm 2.poss:middle/place_between def;loc [3.poss:]in em:sit
The ball is in the midst of you (pl.)!

13.4.7 Imocl place under it

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ imocl PHDQV place under it DQG KDV D SOXUDO IRUP imocaj ,WV FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ LV its
underside 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ˻ Ziix quiijc˼ com canoaa com imocl hac ano

   thing sbj.nmlz:explode def;hz boat def;hz 3.poss:underside/place_under def;loc [3.poss:]in

toom, miijc.
rlt:lie rlmi:explode
The dynamite exploded under the boat.bb &<+,

7KH SOXUDO IRUP ímajc LV RQO\ XVHG ZLWK WKH FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ

7KH WUDQVODWLRQ RI /N  KDV iiselca coi imocl hac an itaquim x IRU she puts them under her wings ,W LV QRWDEOH WKDW
KHUH WKH VLQJXODU IRUP imocl LV XVHG DOWKRXJK WKH FRPSOHPHQW LV SOXUDO iiselca coi 3.poss:wing;pl def;pl 7KLV WUDQVODWLRQ ZDV
FRQ᯳UPHG WR PH DQG LW ZDV H[SODLQHG WKDW LW ZDV DSSURSULDWH EHFDXVH WKHUH LV RQO\ RQH KHQ ,I WKHUH ZHUH WZR KHQV WKH SOXUDO
IRUP imocaj ZRXOG EH DSSURSULDWH
§13.4.8 Imozít in the middle of it 331

 ˻ Hapaspoj° hanoocaj˼ quih mimocl hac ano

   paper sbj.nmlz:[pass:]carry_under_arm def;fl 2.poss:underside/place_under def;loc [3.poss:]in

xiih.
em:be.fl
The book is under you.bb &<+,

 Hast quij himocl hac ano hyocaaix.

stone def;cm 1.poss:underside/place_under def;loc [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj:rlyo:put.cm
I put the stone under me.

 Haxz° com himocaj hac ano coom iha.

dog def;hz 1.poss:underside/place_under\pl def;loc [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie dcl
The dog is lying under us.

 ˻ Acaam ccaa˼ quij hehet com imocaj

   3.poss:husband sbj.nmlz:[tr:]look_for def;cm plant:pl def;hz 3.poss:underside/place_under\pl
com ano tiihtim x, hizac iiqui tpanzx xox, himcac
def;hz [3.poss:]in rlt:be.fl:impf ut px:loc 3.poss:toward rlt:run although px:loc

iiqui tpanzx, hacx miih.

3.poss:toward rlt:run apart rlmi:be.fl
The wren (Troglodytes aedon and others) goes around very quickly under the bushes here and there,
looking for its mate.bb &<+,

7KLV UHODWLRQDO QRXQ DV GLVWLQJXLVKHG IURP WKH FRPSRQHQW SDUW QRXQ DSSHDUV WR JHQHUDOO\ EH XVHG ZLWK D
UHODWLYH IUDPH RI UHIHUHQFH 7KLV LV WKH DSSURSULDWH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ WR XVH ZKHQ GHVFULELQJ IRU H[DPSOH DQ
LQVHFW WKDW LV VLWWLQJ ංRQඃ WKH VXUIDFH RI DQ LQYHUWHG WDEOH WKH LQVHFW LV DFWXDOO\ XQGHU WKH WDEOH 7KLV LV DOVR WKH
DSSURSULDWH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU GHVFULELQJ WKH SRVLWLRQ RI DQ\WKLQJ WKDW LV ORZHU WKDQ DERXW ZDLVW OHYHO RI D SHUVRQ
ZKR LV VHDWHG LQ D FKDLU ,W PDNHV QR GL᯲HUHQFH ZKHWKHU DQ REMHFW LV RQ WKH ᯴RRU EHKLQG EHVLGH RU LQ IURQW RI
WKH SHUVRQ

13.4.8 Imozít in the middle of it

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ imozít PHDQV in the middle of it ,WV FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ LV its half $OWKRXJK D SOXUDO IRUP RI
WKH QRXQ H[LVWV WKH VLQJXODU IRUP LV XVHG IRU WKH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ 6HH 

 ˻ Ziix coqueht˼ quij mimozít hac ano xiij.

   thing sbj.nmlz:bounce def;cm 2.poss:half/middle def;loc [3.poss:]in em:sit
The ball is in the midst of all of you.bb &<+,

13.4.9 Ipac place behind it

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ ipac PHDQV place behind it 6HH  ,WV FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ LV its/her/his back WKH SDUW
RI WKH ERG\ 7KH SOXUDO IRUP LV QRW XVHG ZKHQ WKH UHIHUHQW REMHFWV DUH JURXSHG DV LQ  EXW LW LV DSSURSULDWH
ZKHQ SOXUDO SHUVRQV DUH UHIHUUHG WR DV LQ 

 Haxz° cop haaco quih ipac hac ano caap iha.
dog def;vt abs;house def;fl 3.poss:back/place_behind def;loc [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:stand dcl
The dog is behind the house.bb &<+,

 Haxz° cop haacöt coi ipac hac ano caap iha.
dog def;vt abs:house\pl def;pl 3.poss:back/place_behind def;loc [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:stand dcl
The dog is behind the houses.

 Haxz° cop hípajoj hac ano caap iha.

dog def;vt 1.poss.back/place_behind\pl def;loc [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:stand dcl
The dog is behind us.
332 Chapter 13: Nouns

7KLV UHODWLRQDO QRXQ DSSHDUV WR EH XVHG ZLWK DQ LQKHUHQW IUDPH RI UHIHUHQFH ZKHQ WKH UHIHUHQFH REMHFW *URXQG
KDV DQ LQKHUHQW EDFNVLGH 7KHUHIRUH WKLV ZRUG LV XVHG WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH LWHP LV ංEHKLQGඃ DQ REMHFW HYHQ LI WKH
EDFNVLGH RI WKH *URXQG LV IDFLQJ WKH LQWHUORFXWRUV

13.4.10 Ipot place at the bottom of it

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ ipot PHDQV place at the bottom of it ZKLOH LWV FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ LV its bottom 6HH H[DPSOH


 ¿Hapáspolca° coi ipot hac ano toom?

  papers def;pl 3.poss:bottom def;loc [3.poss:]in rlt:lie
Is it at the bottom of the pile of papers?bb &<+,

13.4.11 Itacl place above it

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ itacl PHDQV place above it ZKLOH LWV FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ LV its surface )RU VRPH VSHDNHUV
WKLV UHODWLRQDO QRXQ DOVR PHDQV on top of it ZKLOH IRU RWKHUV WKDW PHDQLQJ LV SUHIHUHQWLDOO\ LQGLFDWHG E\ iyat
VHH i EHORZ 7KH EDVLF GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH WZR LV FOHDU IURP WKH FRQWUDVW EHWZHHQ itacl hac iti
3.poss:surface/place_above def;loc 3.poss:on ZKLFK LPSOLHV in the air DQG iyat hac iti 3.poss:tip/place_on_top_of
def;loc 3.poss:on ZKLFK XVXDOO\ PHDQV on the surface 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Hamazaj quij mitacl hac ano quiij iha.

abs:clay_pot def;cm 2.poss:surface/place_above def;loc [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
The pot is above you.bb &<+,

 ˻ Ziix ccap˼ tintica itacaj hac iti quiij iha.

   thing sbj.nmlz:fly md:aw 3.poss:surface/place_above def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
The airplane is above them.bb &<+,

6HH DOVR WKH H[SUHVVLRQ LQ  ZLWKRXW D 3

 ¡Mitacl hac hoocta!

  2.poss:surface/place_above def;loc im:look_at
Look above you!

13.4.12 Iyat place on top of it

7KH UHODWLRQDO QRXQ iyat PHDQV place on top of it ZKLOH LWV FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ LV its tip 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ˻ Ziix canaao˼ quij ˻ hehe iti icoohitim˼ com

   thing sbj.nmlz:meow def;cm plant/wood 3.poss:on 3.poss:pon:unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:eat\impf def;hz
iyat hac iti quiij iha.
3.poss:tip/place_on_top def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
The cat is on the table.

 Caatc quij iyat hac iti quiij iha.

grasshopper def;cm 3.poss:tip/place_on_top def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
The grasshopper is on it (e.g., the table).

 Miyat hac iti hsiiquim aha.

2.poss:tip/place_on_top def;loc 3.poss:on 1s.sbj:irr.ind:put_items aux:dcl
I am going to put them on top of you.

,I WKH SRVVHVVRU RI WKH DEVWUDFW QRXQ LV SOXUDO WKH SOXUDO IRUPV WKDW DUH XVHG IRU WKH FRQFUHWH PHDQLQJ DUH QRW
XVHG
§13.4.13 Yaniicp place in front of it 333

13.4.13 Yaniicp place in front of it

7KH ZRUG yaniicp place in front of it VRPHWLPHV SURQRXQFHG yeniicp LV HW\PRORJLFDOO\ GHULYHG IURP yeen its
face DQG iicp place next to it i 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Haxz° cop haaco cop yaniicp hac iti caap iha.
dog def;vt abs;house def;vt [3.poss:]place_in_front_of def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand dcl
The dog is standing in front of the house.

 Haxz° cop haacöt coi yaniicjoj hac iti caap

dog def;vt abs:house\pl def;pl [3.poss:]place_in_front_of\pl def;loc 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand

iha.
dcl
The dog is standing in front of the houses.

 ¡Ihyaniicp hac caaaxoj!

  1.poss:place_in_front_of def;loc im:go_away_from\pl
Get out of in front of me!

7KLV UHODWLRQDO QRXQ DSSHDUV WR EH XVHG ZLWK DQ LQKHUHQW IUDPH RI UHIHUHQFH ZKHQ WKH UHIHUHQFH REMHFW *URXQG
KDV DQ LQKHUHQW IURQW VLGH 7KHUHIRUH WKLV ZRUG LV XVHG WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH LWHP LV ංLQ IURQW RIඃ DQ REMHFW HYHQ LI
WKH IURQW RI WKH *URXQG LV IDFLQJ DZD\ IURP WKH LQWHUORFXWRUV

13.5 Lexicalized expressions and compound nouns

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WKH WZR GL᯵FXOW WR GHWHUPLQH $W WKH VDPH WLPH VRPH H[SUHVVLRQV DUH VOLJKWO\ PRUH FRPSUHVVHG SKRQRORJLFDOO\
7KHVH DUH DOO FRQVLGHUHG WR EH FRPSRXQGV LQ WKLV JUDPPDU
:KHQ D FRPSRXQG KDV TXLWH WUDQVSDUHQW PHDQLQJ DQG WKH SDUWV DUH DOO TXLWH FOHDUO\ VLPLODU WR H[LVWLQJ ZRUGV
WKH FRPSRXQG LV ZULWWHQ DV PRUH WKDQ RQH ZRUG 7KHVH DUH FDOOHG analytic compounds KHUH :KHQ WKH SLHFHV RI
WKH FRPSRXQG DUH OHVV WUDQVSDUHQW VHPDQWLFDOO\ RU PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WKH FRPSRXQG LV ZULWWHQ DV RQH ZRUG 7KHVH
DUH FDOOHG synthetic compounds KHUH
,Q WKLV VHFWLRQ FRPSRXQGV DUH SUHVHQWHG E\ FRPSDULQJ WKHP ZLWK SURGXFWLYH V\QWDFWLF FRQVWUXFWLRQV WKDW WKH\
UHVHPEOH DQG IURP ZKLFK WKH\ SUHVXPDEO\ KDYH GHULYHG KLVWRULFDOO\

13.5.1 Common noun + common noun

2QH SURGXFWLYH V\QWDFWLF FRQVWUXFWLRQ FRPELQHV WZR QRXQV WR IRUP D QRXQ SKUDVH VHH i 2QH FRPPRQ
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKHVH SKUDVHV LV WKDW WKH ᯳UVW QRXQ JLYHV WKH PDWHULDO RI ZKLFK WKH VHFRQG QRXQ LV PDGH $
VLPSOH H[DPSOH LV caztaz haaztoj wheat porridge 7KLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV WKH VRXUFH RI VRPH FRPSRXQGV WKDW DUH
TXLWH WUDQVSDUHQW DV ZHOO DV VRPH WKDW DUH QRW VR WUDQVSDUHQW VHH  )RU H[DPSOH DQ H[SODQDWLRQ IRU WKH
FRPSRXQG hehe zamij box EDVHG RQ LWV SDUWV LV XQNQRZQ 7KH FRPSRXQGV xepe ziic sea bird DQG xepe poosj
fishing line DUH DQDO\WLF QRXQQRXQ FRPSRXQGV EXW WKH ᯳UVW ZRUG xepe sea GRHV QRW LQGLFDWH WKH PDWHULDO IURP
ZKLFK WKH LWHP LQGLFDWHG E\ WKH VHFRQG ZRUG ziic bird poosj cord, string LV PDGH


7KH GHFLVLRQV DERXW ZULWLQJ FRPSRXQGV ZHUH PDGH E\ D FRPPLWWHH IRU WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ 6RPH \RXQJHU SHRSOH WRGD\
LQGLFDWH D SUHIHUHQFH WR ZULWH PRUH FRPSRXQGV DV VLQJOH ZRUGV V\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV DOWKRXJK WKH LPSOLFDWLRQV RI WKLV DUH
QRW HQWLUHO\ REYLRXV WR WKHP DW ᯳UVW

$OWHUQDWLYHO\ WKH VHFRQG QRXQ VSHFL᯳HV WKH VKDSH DQG IRUP RI WKH PDWHULDO PHQWLRQHG LQ WKH ᯳UVW QRXQ

7KH FRXQWHUSDUW WR WKH WHUP xepe ziic LV QRW D 1RXQ  1RXQ H[SUHVVLRQ EXW UDWKHU DSSDUHQWO\ $GYHUE  1RXQ heeno
ziic desert bird ZKHUH heeno LV DQ DGYHUE WKDW XVXDOO\ PRGL᯳HV D YHUE DQG LQGLFDWHV VRPHWKLQJ OLNH UHODWLQJ WR WKH GHVHUW 7KH
SDUWLFXODU UHODWLRQVKLS LPSOLHG EHWZHHQ xepe DQG ziic LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ xepe ziic GRHV QRW VHHP WR EH D FRPPRQ RQH IRU VXFK
H[SUHVVLRQV
334 Chapter 13: Nouns

 D hehe hascám ship plant/wood abs:reed_craft

E eenim cosi needle metal thorn
F hehe zamij box plant/wood palm_tree
G xepe ziic sea bird sea bird
H xepe poosj fishing line sea cord/string
I mooj poosj cotton cord cotton cord/string
J caaz poosj mesquite root cord prepared_mesquite_root cord

7KH FRPSRXQG hant xnoois land Zostera_marina_seeds PHDQLQJ garbage, trash LV DQ RSDTXH FRPELQDWLRQ
7KH H[DPSOHV LQ  PLJKW ZHOO EH FRQVLGHUHG V\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV IRU PRUH WKDQ RQH UHDVRQ DOWKRXJK WKH\
KDYH EHHQ ZULWWHQ DV WZR ZRUGV LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ 7KH ᯳UVW SDUW eenm LV D UHGXFWLRQ RI WKH ZRUG
eenim metal ,Q IDFW WKH m LV QRW SURQRXQFHG LQ WKH FRPSRXQG DQG WKH n PHWDWKHVL]HV RU PHUJHV ZLWK WKH
JORWWDO VWRS RI WKH IROORZLQJ PRUSKHPH [ɛʔˈnaakni] VRPH SHRSOH VD\ [ɛʔnoˈakni] DQG [ɛʔˈnaR χʷɬ] UHVSHFWLYHO\

 D eenm haacni rifle < eenim haacni metal bow

E eenm haxöl spoon < eenim haxöl metal clam_(Leukoma_grata)

13.5.2 Possessor + possessed noun

$ SRVVHVVRU QRPLQDO SKUDVH SUHFHGHV D SRVVHVVHG QRXQ VHH i 7KLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV WKH EDVLV IRU PDQ\
DQDO\WLF FRPSRXQGV LQFOXGLQJ WKRVH LQ 

 D hápats imoon lima bean Apache 3.poss:bean

E oot ipyooque a species of sun star coyote 3.poss:Heliaster_kubiniji
F oot iquejöc ashy limberbush coyote 3.poss:firewood
G xepe án intertidal zone (especially) sea [3.poss:]area
H hehe án inland area, countryside plant [3.poss:]area
I xepe án iheel red tide sea sea [3.poss:]area 3.poss:[pon:]red
J hocö ine tar made from plants pine 3.poss:mucus

6RPH V\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV VXFK DV WKRVH LQ  DOVR GLVSOD\ WKLV SDWWHUQ

 D haxölinaail shelled mollusk < haxöl i-naail Leukoma_grata 3.poss-skin/shell

E hateiictim rag < hataai° iictim cloth 3.poss:[pon:]break

7KH ZRUG hapnaail skirt LV SUHVXPDEO\ GHULYHG KLVWRULFDOO\ IURP hap inaail mule_deer 3.poss:skin +RZHYHU
LI WKDW LV VR LW KDV EHHQ UHDQDO\]HG DV ha-pnaail abs-skirt VLQFH LW QRZ IXQFWLRQV LQ WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ SDUDGLJP
hipnaail my skirt mipnaail your skirt ipnaail her skirt

13.5.3 Postpositional phrase + common noun

3RVWSRVLWLRQDO SKUDVHV GR QRW FRPPRQO\ RFFXU LQ QRXQ SKUDVHV ZLWK FRPPRQ QRXQV UDWKHU WKDQ GHYHUEDO QRXQV
DV KHDGV VHH i EXW VRPH UHODWLYHO\ VWUDLJKWIRUZDUG DQDO\WLF FRPSRXQGV VXFK DV WKRVH LQ  VKRZ WKLV
SDWWHUQ

 D [ Hast ano ] cmaam, [ Hast ano ] ctam

San_Esteban_Island [3.poss:]in female San_Esteban_Island [3.poss:]in man
San Esteban Island woman, San Esteban Island man

([SUHVVLRQV OLNH xepe án DQG hehe án DUH FRPPRQ H[DPSOHV RI D W\SH WKDW LV TXLWH SURGXFWLYH DQG PD\ VLPSO\ EH D
SKUDVH UDWKHU WKDQ D FRPSRXQG 6HH IRU H[DPSOH xaasj án area where there are many cardón cactuses mojepe án area
where there are many sahuaro cactuses haas án area where there are many mesquite trees DQG cocsar án place where
there are lots of non-Indian Mexicans 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ XVHV WKH VLQJXODU IRUP RI WKH QRXQ WKDW LV UHIHUUHG WR +RZHYHU LQ
 VRPH \RXQJ SHRSOH LQGLFDWHG WKHLU SUHIHUHQFH IRU ZULWLQJ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU countryside DV heheaan GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ LW
IURP WKH GHFRPSRVDEOH SKUDVH RU FRPSRXQG ʽbhehe ánʾ place of plants 2WKHU ZULWHUV FRQWLQXH WR UHMHFW WKDW VSHOOLQJ

7KLV VXJJHVWLRQ ZDV ᯳UVW PDGH E\ 0DU\ % 0RVHU SF VR IDU DV , NQRZ
§13.5.4 Noun + clause with deverbal noun head 335

E [ iicj ano ] moosni

fine_sand [3.poss:]in black_sea_turtle
a mole crab (Hippa pacifica)

F [ caail° iti ] siml

dry_lake_bed 3.poss:on barrel_cactus
Emory’s barrel cactus (Ferocactus emoryi)

G [ xepe ano ] coiiz

sea [3.poss:]in spider
a sea spider (Pycnogonida)

H [ haas ano ] cocazni°

Prosopis_glandulosa [3.poss:]in Crotalus_spp.
lyre snake (Trimorphodon biscutatus)

6RPH V\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV VXFK DV WKRVH LQ  DUH DOVR REYLRXVO\ EDVHG RQ WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ

 D xepenococazni a pelagic sea snake  xepe ano          cocazni°

(Pelamis platurus) sea       [3.poss:]in rattlesnake
E xepenosiml purple urchin  xepe ano         siml
(Echinometra vanbrunti) sea      [3.poss:]in barrel_cactus
F xepenozatx a fireworm  xepe ano         zatx
(Eurythoe complanata) sea      [3.poss:]in glochids
G xepenocaay a fantastic sea creature  xepe ano         caay
sea      [3.poss:]in horse
H xepenohaxz a fantastic sea creature  xepe ano         haxz°
sea      [3.poss:]in dog

13.5.4 Noun + clause with deverbal noun head

7KH VWDQGDUG ZD\ WR PRGLI\ D QRXQ ZLWK D FODXVH LV WR XVH D UHODWLYH FODXVH KHDGHG E\ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ VHH
FKDSWHU  7KH VDPH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV WKH VRXUFH IRU YDULRXV OH[LFDOL]HG H[SUHVVLRQV

13.5.4.1. Subject-oriented deverbal noun-headed relative clause modifying overt head. 7KH H[DPSOHV LQ
 KDYH RYHUW KHDGV DQG VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQV

 D ˻ zixcám caacoj˼

bbbfish sbj.nmlz:big
giant seabass (Stereolepis gigas)

E ˻ zixcám cooil˼
   fish sbj.nmlz:blue/green
white weakfish (Atractoscion nobilis)

F ˻ xiica cooxp˼
   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:white
common olive snails, spark plugs

G ˻ hasaaiti coozlil˼
   petroleum sbj.nmlz:slippery
lubricating oil

H ˻ ziix paaij ano coom˼

   thing driftwood [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie
striped tail scorpion (Vaejovis VS)
336 Chapter 13: Nouns

I ˻ ziix hast iizx ano coom˼

   thing rock 3.poss:[pon:]tear [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie
northern chuckwalla (lit., thing that lies in rock crevice) (Sauromalus obesus)

J ˻ ziix quiisax˼
   thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit
person

K ˻ ziix quixaaza˼
   thing sbj.nmlz:have_weapon
soldier, policeman

L ˻ zixquisiil quisil˼
   child sbj.nmlz:small
baby

M ˻ hant xepe imac quiij˼

   land sea 3.poss:middle sbj.nmlz:sit
island

N ˻ hanzajipj quiipa˼
   pan sbj.nmlz:hv:tail
frying pan

7KH VDPH SDWWHUQ LV VHHQ LQ WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  H[FHSW WKDW WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ LV SDVVLYH DQG KHQFH KDV D
GL᯲HUHQW DOORPRUSK RI WKH QRPLQDOL]HU VHH i

 D ˻ eenm hacoaazj˼

   metal sbj.nmlz:[pass:]braid
chain (lit., metal that is braided)

E ˻ haat hanoohcö˼
   Jatropha_cuneata sbj.nmlz:[pass:]make_concave
pot-shaped basket (lit., limberbush that has been made into a concave shape)

F ˻ hapaspoj° hanoocaj˼
   paper sbj.nmlz:[pass:]carry_under_arm
book (lit., paper that is carried under the arm)

G ˻ hehe hamasij˼
   plant/wood sbj.nmlz:[pass:]cause_open
ceremonial crown (lit., wood that has been opened up)

6\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV PDGH RQ WKLV SDWWHUQ LQFOXGH WKRVH LQ 

 D zixcám fish  ziix ccam

thing sbj.nmlz:alive
E zixquisiil child  ziix quisil
thing sbj.nmlz:small
F xpacaao mermaid  xepe caao
sea sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pass_by

7KH FRPSRXQG QRXQ zixcám fish LV DWWHVWHG DV HDUO\ DV  VHH %DUWOHWW  LWHP 

,Q WKLV FRPSRXQG WKH VWUHVV LV DOVR VKLIWHG WR WKH ULJKW DQG FDXVHV D OHQJWKHQLQJ RI WKH YRZHO i
§13.5.4.3 Proposition/oblique-oriented deverbal noun-headed relative clause modifying overt head 337

7KH FRPSRXQG hant quixoaa land sbj.nmlz:plan_to_fight hermit crab (Paguroidea) GRHV QRW KDYH DQ REYLRXV
DQDO\VLV VLQFH WKH UROH RI hant LQ WKH FRPSRXQG LV XQFOHDU

13.5.4.2. Subject-oriented deverbal noun-headed relative clause modifying non-overt head. -XVW DV KHDG
OHVV UHODWLYH FODXVHV ZLWK GHYHUEDO QRXQV RFFXU SURGXFWLYHO\ i KHDGOHVV UHODWLYHV DOVR RFFXU LQ DQDO\WLF
FRPSRXQGV 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D hehe hascám quij ano caticpan sailor(s)

plant/wood abs:reed_boatdef;cm[3.poss:]insbj.nmlz:work ZKR ZRUN LQ WKH VKLS
E santaar quih ano quihehe officer (of soldiers)
soldier def;fl [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod ZKR LV OHDGHU DPRQJ WKH VROGLHUV
F hant ano ccah a large yellow bee XQLGHQWL᯳HG VSHFLHV
land [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:make_sound ZKDW PDNHV VRXQG LQ JURXQG
G miizj hant quixquim boat captain
well land sbj.nmlz:tr:put.hz ZKR SXWV LW >ERDW@ GRZQ ZHOO
H acaam ccaa wren Troglodytes aedon HWF
3.poss:husband sbj.nmlz:[tr:]look_for ZKR LV ORRNLQJ IRU KHU KXVEDQG
I hehe iti cooscl tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus) (
 plant/tree 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:mottled ZKDW LV PRWWOHG DQG RQ D WUHH
J hapaha quis flour
sbj.nmlz:pass:grind sbj.nmlz:raw ZKDW LV JURXQG DQG UDZ
K hayaa cacoxl storekeeper
sbj.nmlz:[pass:]own sbj.nmlz:[tr:]tend ZKR WHQGV SRVVHVVLRQV
L hayaa hacoxl store (of merchandise)
sbj.nmlz:[pass:]own sbj.nmlz:[pass:]tend SRVVHVVLRQV WKDW DUH WHQGHG

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU ancestor LV EDVHG RQ WKH LGLRP IRU EHLQJ IURP WKH DQFHVWUDO SDVW DQG LV D KHDGOHVV UHODWLYH
˻ hantx moca˼ at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move

13.5.4.3. Proposition/oblique-oriented deverbal noun-headed relative clause modifying overt head. 7KH
DQDO\WLF FRPSRXQGV LQ  DUH IRUPHG ZLWK SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQV DQG RYHUW KHDGV

 D ziix icacötim blanket

thing 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:cover_oneself WKLQJ WKDW RQH FRYHUV XS ZLWK
E ziix icoop awl
thing 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:sew_basket WKLQJ WKDW RQH VHZV D EDVNHW ZLWK
F ziix icaaspoj pen, pencil
thing 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:write WKLQJ WKDW RQH ZULWHV ZLWK
G eenm icaatj hammer
metal 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:pound_flat PHWDO WKDW RQH SRXQGV ᯴DW ZLWK
H ziix iti icoohit plate
thing 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:eat WKLQJ RQ ZKLFK RQH HDWV
I ziix an hax ipén water container
thing [3.poss:]in water 3.poss:[pon:]pass:carry_items WKLQJ LQ ZKLFK ZDWHU LV FDUULHG
J hant an icocoho window
land/place [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:see SODFH IURP ZKLFK RQH VHHV
K hehe iti icoohitim table
plant 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:eat:impf ZRRG RQ ZKLFK RQH HDWV
L haaco ano hapaspoj° cöicacoaat school
abs:house [3.poss:]in paper 3.io:3.poss: EXLOGLQJ LQ ZKLFK RQH LV WDXJKW IRUPDOO\
unsp.sbj:cause_know
M hax ihasii quiipe perfume
water 3.poss:pon:aug:smell sbj.nmlz:good ZDWHU WKDW KDV D JRRG RGRU
338 Chapter 13: Nouns

N hehe an icaaij water drum

plant/wood [3.poss:]in3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj: ZRRG LQ ZKLFK RQH IHWFKHV ZDWHU
[unsp.obj:]fetch_water

7KH VHFRQG SDUW RI WKH FRPSRXQG hant ipzx gulch, arroyo LV YHU\ VLPLODU WR WKH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG
GHYHUEDO QRXQ RI WKH SUHGLFDWH IRU torn iipzx 3.poss:[pon]be_torn] +RZHYHU WKH YRZHO LQ WKH FRPSRXQG H[
SUHVVLRQ LV VKRUW

13.5.4.4. Proposition/oblique-oriented deverbal noun-headed relative clause modifying non-overt head.

7KH DQDO\WLF FRPSRXQGV LQ  DUH IRUPHG ZLWK SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQV DQG QRQRYHUW
KHDGV

 D an icayeeno mask

[3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:face ZKDW RQH SXWV RQHൿV IDFH LQWR
E an ihiih container (for flexible things)
[3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:be.fl WKDW LQ ZKLFK LW LV
F an ihiij container (for compact things)
[3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:sit WKDW LQ ZKLFK LW VLWV
G an iquitj pants
[3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:trunk WKDW RQH SXWV RQH WUXQN LQWR
H eenim ipemt whetstone
metal 3.poss:[pon:]pass:rub ZKDW PHWDO LV UXEEHG ZLWK
I hant imaasij tire
land 3.poss:[pon:]roll ZKDW LW UROOV RQ WKH JURXQG ZLWK
J hehe ipácotim axe
plant/wood 3.poss:[pon:]pass:kill:impf ZKDW ZRRG LV FKRSSHG ZLWK
K hehe ihacaptax drill
plant/wood 3.poss:pon:pass:pierce:impf ZKDW ZRRG LV SHUIRUDWHG ZLWK
L hehe ipazix wood saw
plant/wood 3.poss:[pon:]pass:saw ZKDW ZRRG LV VDZQ ZLWK
M hant haaco iima worldwide disaster
land ? 3.poss:[pon:]? ZKHQ WKH ODQG " "
N iti miiha his/her parent
3.poss:on twd:3.poss:pon:move ZKR VKH FDPH IURP

7KH KHDGOHVV FRPSRXQG hant imaasij an ihiij tire rim PRUH OLWHUDOO\ that in which sits what it rolls on the
ground with FRPELQHV WKH KHDGOHVV FRPSRXQG hant imaasij tire VHH I DERYH ZLWK WKH FRPPRQO\ KHDGOHVV
FRPSRXQG an ihiij container VHH F DERYH
7KH KHDGOHVV FRPSRXQG hehe iti icoohitim ihaanim tablecloth PRUH OLWHUDOO\ what the wood on which one
eats is covered with FRPELQHV WKH RYHUWO\ KHDGHG FRPSRXQG hehe iti icoohitim table VHH K DERYH ZLWK
WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ ihaanim 3.poss:pon:pass:cause_be_covered that with which it is covered 7KH FRPSRXQG hant
ihiip its meaning land 3.poss:pon:stand LV DSSDUHQWO\ EDVHG RQ WKH URRW √ap stand ,W KDV D IXWXUH IRUP hant isiip
ha what it will mean DV LQ WKH VHQWHQFH ¿Hant isiip ha zo nsiya haa ya? Are you going to understand its meaning
(what it will mean)?

13.5.5 Noun + adjective

7KH FODVV RI DGMHFWLYHV LV YHU\ VPDOO VHH FKDSWHU  EXW VRPH DGMHFWLYHV RFFXU LQ OH[LFDOL]HG H[SUHVVLRQV 6RPH
H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ  VHH PRUH H[DPSOHV LQ i


7KLV ZDV PLVUHFRUGHG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ WKH FRUUHFWLRQ LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ LV GXH WR 5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD

2WKHU IRUPV LQFOXGH iti hmiiha my parent iti hmiihat my parents iti mmiihat your parents
§13.5.6 Noun + compounding adjectival form 339

 D siml áa variety of barrel cactus  siml barrel cactus áa real

(Ferocactus tiburonensis)
E hapis áa factory-made cigarette  hapis tobacco áa real
F cmiique áa clean-living person  cmiique person áa real
G inol aapa his/her right hand  inol 3.poss:arm/hand/finger, aapa strong
H haamjö íi a plant (Hechtia montana)  haamjö Agave subsimplex íi first
I inol zaac his/her little finger  inol 3.poss:arm/hand/finger, zaac small

6RPH V\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV DUH EDVHG RQ WKLV SDWWHUQ 7ZR H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 D haitaapa northwest wind  hai wind aapa strong

E mosnaapa variety of black sea turtle  moosni black sea turtle aapa strong

13.5.6 Noun + compounding adjectival form

6RPH V\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV XWLOL]H D FRPSRXQGLQJ DGMHFWLYDO URRW 7KHVH PRUSKHPHV DUH DSSDUHQWO\ OLPLWHG LQ
QXPEHU DQG VRPH DUH IRXQG LQ RQO\ RQH RU WZR FRPSRXQGV $ OLVW SHUKDSV H[KDXVWLYH RI WKHVH FRPSRXQGLQJ
DGMHFWLYDO URRWV LV JLYHQ LQ WDEOH  ([DPSOHV RI OH[HPHV ZLWK WKHVH FRPELQLQJ DGMHFWLYHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

7DEOH bb&RPSRXQGLQJ DGMHFWLYHV

&RPSRXQGLQJ IRUP 6WDWLYH SUHGLFDWH

D -aacoj SO -aacöl big √aacoj SO √aacöl
E -ictoj -iictoj red √actoj
F -iicösxaj SO –iicöla long, tall √acösxaj SO √acöla
G -iil large " HW\PRORJLFDOO\ IURP √ooil blue/green
H -iispoj spotted, patterned √oospoj
I -ipol SO -ipl black √oopol (pl. √oopl)
J -iscl gray √ooscl
K -isol SO –isl yellow √masol (pl. √masl)
L -isot narrow √oosot
M -ixp white √ooxp

 D hantaacoj mainland b hant -aacoj

land big
E cocaznaacöl gopher snake b cocazni° -aacöl
(Pituophis melanoleucus) rattlesnake big;pl
F Hastictoj D SODFH b hast -ictoj
stone/mountain red
G xnejamsiictoj D EXVK Stegnosperma b xneeejam is -iictoj
halimifolium — 3.poss:seed red
H Taijiicösxaj D SODFH b itaaij -iicösxaj
shoreline long/tall
I Hastojiicöla YROFDQR FRQHV RQ %DMD b hásatoj -iicöla
&DOLIRUQLD stone/mountain:pl long/tall\pl
J mosniil variety of black sea turtle b moosni -iil
Chelonia mydas large
K seneliispoj monarch butterfly b seenel -iispoj
(Danaus plexippus) butterfly spotted
L mosnipol OHDWKHUEDFN VHD WXUWOH b moosni -ipol
(Dermochelys coriacea) Chelonia_mydas black
M Hastojipl D SODFH b hásatoj -ipl
stone/mountain:pl black\pl
340 Chapter 13: Nouns

N catquiscl pallid-winged grasshopper b caatc -iscl

(Trimerotropis pallidipennis) grasshopper gray
O Hastisol D SODFH b hast -isol
stone/mountain yellow
P tajisl an unidentified fish b taj RU taaj -isl
? yellow\pl
Q xtipisot jackknife clam b xtiip -isot
(Tagelus californianus) Laevicardium elatum narrow
R hantixp gypsum b hant -ixp
land white
S xpanamsaacöl sargassum b xpanaams -aacöl
Sargassum VS Sargassum herporhizum big\pl
T Cailipolaacoj D FHUWDLQ GU\ ODNH EHG b caail° -ipol -aacoj
dry_lake_bed, black big
U Taijiicösxaj D SODFH QDPH b itaaij -iicösxaj
shoreline long

13.6 Allomorphy in possessed nouns and kinship terms

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UHJXODU EXW QRW DOWRJHWKHU VLPSOH 5HSUHVHQWDWLYH SDUDGLJPV RI HDFK DUH JLYHQ EHORZ $EVROXWH IRUPV RI NLQVKLS
WHUPV RIWHQ KDYH DGGLWLRQDO PDWHULDO DW WKH HQG RI WKHP ZKLFK LV QRW GLVFXVVHG KHUH VHH i 1RXQ URRWV WKDW
EHJLQ ZLWK WUXH FRQVRQDQWV RU JORWWDO VWRS DOORZ WKH SUH᯳[HV WR EH VHHQ LQ WKHLU XQGHUO\LQJ IRUPV 6HH i
IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ VHFRQG SHUVRQ mi- DQG ma- DQG WKLUG SHUVRQ i- DQG a- ([DPSOHV DUH
JLYHQ LQ 

 $EVROXWH )LUVW SHUVRQ 6HFRQG SHUVRQ 7KLUG SHUVRQ

%RG\ SDUW
D halít hilít milít ilít head, hair
E hataast hitaast mitaast itaast tooth

3HUVRQDO LWHP
F hamazaj himazaj mimazaj imazaj clay pot
G hataamt hitaamt mitaamt itaamt sandal

.LQVKLS WHUP
H hacamaz hicamaz macamaz acamaz daughter-in-law
I hatmahaj hitmahaj matmahaj atmahaj mother’s older sister

5HODWLRQDO QRXQ
J himocl mimocl imocl place under
K hitacl mitacl itacl place above
L hihiin mihiin ihiin place near

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i 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 
§13.6 Allomorphy in possessed nouns and kinship terms 341

 $EVROXWH )LUVW SHUVRQ 6HFRQG SHUVRQ 7KLUG SHUVRQ

%RG\ SDUW
D hayáx ihyáx inyáx yax belly
E hayeen ihyeen inyeen yeen face

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F ihyaniicp inyaniicp yaniicp place in front of

5RRWV WKDW SXWDWLYHO\ EHJLQ ZLWK D YRZHO VKRZ IXVLRQ ZLWK WKH SUH᯳[ YRZHO WKLV LV GLVFXVVHG LQ i 6HH
i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ DEVROXWH SUH᯳[ XVHG ZLWK NLQVKLS WHUPV DQG WKDW XVHG ZLWK RWKHU
QRXQV 7KHVH DUH GLYLGHG LQWR JURXSV LQ  EDVHG RQ WKH OHQJWK RI WKH VWUHVVHG YRZHO LQ WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ
IRUP

 $EVROXWH )LUVW SHUVRQ 6HFRQG SHUVRQ 7KLUG SHUVRQ

%RG\ SDUW
D hamas himas mimas imas pubic hair
E hamt himt mimt imt breast
F heaaj meaaj eaaj vertebra

.LQVKLS WHUP
G hapepez hipaz mapaz apaz paternal grandfather
H hapeme him mam am father (of female)
I hapeez heaaz maaz aaz maternal grandfather
J hapeetz hiitz maaitz aaitz father’s younger brother

5HODWLRQDO QRXQ
K hipot mipot ipot place at bottom of
L hipac mipac ipac place behind

 $EVROXWH )LUVW SHUVRQ 6HFRQG SHUVRQ 7KLUG SHUVRQ

%RG\ SDUW
D haaf hiif miif iif nose

.LQVKLS WHUP
E hapect hiict maact aact maternal grandmother

5HODWLRQDO QRXQ
F hapecp hiicp miicp iicp place next to

3HUVRQDO LWHP
G haaonam hiionam miionam iionam hat

7KH ZRUG IRU daughter (of male) LV XQXVXDO LQ WKDW LW KDV DQ LQYDULDQW YRZHO ee DQG DOVR DQ XQH[SHFWHG DOORPRUSK
IRU DEVROXWH 7KH ZRUG IRU child of sister (of male) VKRZQ LQ  DOVR GLVSOD\V DQ XQXVXDO SDWWHUQ RI LQ᯴HFWLRQ

 $EVROXWH )LUVW SHUVRQ 6HFRQG SHUVRQ 7KLUG SHUVRQ

D heequet heec meec eec daughter (of male)
E haacat heác maac aac child of sister (of male)
342 Chapter 13: Nouns

13.6.1 i-Deletion, relevant to y-initial roots

,I D ERXQG QRXQ URRW EHJLQV ZLWK D y WKH YRZHO i RI D SUH᯳[ JHQHUDOO\ GHOHWHV EHIRUH LW 7KXV XQGHUO\LQJ {i-yeen}
3.poss-face EHFRPHV yeen his/her/its face
,I WKH SUH᯳[ LV hi RU mi WKH ORVV RI WKH i UHVXOWV LQ D FOXVWHU WKDW LV QRW D SHUPLWWHG V\OODEOH RQVHW 7KLV RIWHQ
UHVXOWV LQ WKH YRZHO i EHLQJ HSHQWKHVL]HG EHIRUH WKH FOXVWHU VHH i IRU WKH FRQGLWLRQV 7KH ODELDO QDVDO
DVVLPLODWHV WR WKH SRLQW RI WKH LPPHGLDWHO\ IROORZLQJ FRQVRQDQW i 7KXV XQGHUO\LQJ {hi–yeen} EHFRPHV
ihyeen my face DQG {mi-yeen} EHFRPHV inyeen your face 7KH i RI WKH SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[ DOVR GHOHWHV EHIRUH WKH
REMHFW QRPLQDOL]HU y- i DQG WKH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH QRPLQDOL]HU y- i H[FHSW ZKHQ WKH SRVVHVVRU
SUH᯳[ LV SUHFHGHG E\ WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ IRU LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW cö- &RPSDUH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D hant iti yaii

land 3.poss:on [3.poss:]pon-be.fl\pl
place where they are/were

E toc cöiyaii iti

there 3IO:3.poss:pon:be.fl\pl 3.poss:on
while they were there

13.6.2 Root-initial vowels

,W LV QRW SRVVLEOH WR GLUHFWO\ VHH WKH URRWLQLWLDO YRZHO LQ SRVVHVVHG QRXQV EHFDXVH DOO RI WKH SUH᯳[HV hi– mi– i–
ha– hape– DUH YRZHO᯳QDO DQG WKDW YRZHO LV DOZD\V SUHVHUYHG $QG \HW WKH URRWV PXVW EH YRZHOLQLWLDO VLQFH
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WKH DFFRXQW RI VWUHVV LQ i 7KH YRZHOLQLWLDO QDWXUH RI WKHVH URRWV DOVR SURYLGHV WKH PHDQV IRU DQ DFFRXQW RI
WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI WKH DEVROXWH SUH᯳[ DOORPRUSKV i
$ FRQVHUYDWLYH DSSURDFK IRU REOLJDWRULO\ SRVVHVVHG QRXQV GRHV QRW JLYH D VSHFL᯳F YRZHO LQ WKH URRWLQLWLDO
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RI WKH QRXQV RQO\ WKH YRZHOV RI WKH SUH᯳[HV DUH LPSRUWDQW LQ WKH VWUHVVHG V\OODEOH RI WKHVH H[DPSOHV 7KHUHIRUH
LW LV SURSRVHG WKDW WKH URRWV KDYH XQGHUO\LQJ IRUPV VXFK DV √Vsoj body DQG √VVsa tonsil 7KH DGGLWLRQ RI WKH
SUH᯳[ hi– 1.poss IRU H[DPSOH VXSSOLHV WKH YRZHO IHDWXUHV WR DVVRFLDWH WR WKH URRWLQLWLDO YRZHO SRVLWLRQV hisoj
my body DQG hiisa my tonsil

13.6.3 i-Lowering
7KH URRW IRU maternal grandfather PXVW EH √Vaz 7KH SUH᯳[ YRZHO RFFXSLHV WKH URRWLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ DQG LI
WKDW SUH᯳[ YRZHO LV i LW ORZHUV WR e 6XEVHTXHQWO\ WKH a DSSDUHQWO\ OHQJWKHQV EHFDXVH RI WKH GLSKWKRQJ H᯲HFW
i heaaz 1.poss:maternal_grandfather my maternal grandfather
7KH ORZHULQJ RI i WR e LV DOVR REVHUYHG LQ WKH FRQMXJDWLRQ RI D IHZ XQXVXDO YHUEV VHH WKH HQG RI i 7KH
SKRQHWLF VHTXHQFH ia LV DSSDUHQWO\ QRW SRVVLEOH LQ WKH ODQJXDJH 6RPH PRUSKHPHLQWHUQDO H[DPSOHV RI ea VXFK
DV √oneaax wash hands DQG seaato goat IURP 6SDQLVK chivato DURVH IURPൺRU SHUKDSV HYHQ V\QFKURQLFDOO\
DFWXDOO\ DUHൺ/ia/


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D SRVVHVVRU SUH᯳[ WKH i GRHV QRW GHOHWH 7KH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- QHYHU GHOHWHV EHIRUH WKH UHDOLV SUH᯳[ yo- 7KH i RI WKH SRVVHVVRU
SUH᯳[HV GHOHWHV EHIRUH D QRPLQDOL]HU y VXFK DV yatj  {i-y$EODXW -otj} 3.poss-pon-arise his/her arising VHH i EXW LW GRHV
QRW GHOHWH EHIRUH D ]HURDOORPRUSK QRPLQDOL]HU WKDW LV IROORZHG E\ D URRWLQLWLDO y VXFK DV iyaa  {i-Ø-yaa} 3.poss-pon-own
his/her owning it

7KH VROH H[FHSWLRQ RI D SRVVHVVHG QRXQ ZLWK DQ LQLWLDO YRZHO RI D VSHFL᯳F YRZHO TXDOLW\ LV WKH URRW √eec daughter (of
male) PHQWLRQHG DW WKH HQG RI i 7KH SUH᯳[ YRZHOV GHOHWH EHIRUH WKLV YRZHO

,Q VRPH RI P\ RZQ HDUOLHU ZRUN HJ 0DUOHWW E WKH OHQJWK RQ WKH YRZHO LQ WKHVH QRXQV ZDV LJQRUHG XQIRUWXQDWHO\
,W ZDV WKRXJKW WR EH D SKRQHWLF OHQJWKHQLQJ LI LW ZDV UHDOO\ WKHUH DW DOO 7KH FRQWUDVW EHWZHHQ ORQJ DQG VKRUW YRZHOV LQ WKHVH
ZRUGV LV QRW YHU\ HYLGHQW DW ᯳UVW ,Q WHUPV RI GLVWULEXWLRQ WKH PDMRULW\ RI ZRUGV ZLWK DQ RSHQ ᯳UVW V\OODEOH KDYH D VKRUW YRZHO
DQG PRVW ZRUGV ZLWK D FORVHG ᯳UVW V\OODEOH KDYH D ORQJ YRZHO , QRZ EHOLHYH WKDW WKH OHQJWK RQ WKHVH YRZHOV LV QRW LPDJLQDU\
DQG QRW GXH WR D SKRQHWLF UXOH DQG WKLV LV FRQ᯳UPHG E\ WKH UHDFWLRQ RI VNLOOHG ZULWHUV DQG UHDGHUV
§13.6.4 Low vowel harmony 343

13.6.4 Low vowel harmony

8QGHUO\LQJ {hape-Vaz} abs-maternal_grandfather maternal grandfather LV VXUIDFH hapeez VKRZLQJ WKDW VRPH
UXOH UDLVLQJ a WR e LV QHFHVVDU\ ,Q D VLPLODU YHLQ XQGHUO\LQJ {hape-Vmaz} abs-paternal_grandmother paternal
grandmother LV VXUIDFH hapemez XQGHUO\LQJ {hape-Vpxaz} abs-older_sister’s_child_fe older sister (of woman)’s
child LV VXUIDFH hapepxez DQG XQGHUO\LQJ {hape-VVcaz} abs-younger_brother_fe younger brother (of woman) LV
VXUIDFH hapeequez
7ZR H[FHSWLRQV WR WKH UDLVLQJ RI a WR e ERWK ZLWK D FRURQDO FRQVRQDQW DV SDUW RI WKH LQWHUYHQLQJ FOXVWHU
DUH hapetcaz woman’s younger sister IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {hape-Vtcaz} DQG hapezcaz man’s younger brother IURP
XQGHUO\LQJ {hape-Vzcaz}
+DUPRQ\ RI WKH YRZHOV a DQG e LV DWWHVWHG LQ WKH YHUE SDUDGLJPV LQ VOLJKWO\ GL᯲HUHQW ZD\V 6HH i ZKHUH
LW LV VKRZQ WKDW a...e EHFRPHV e...e DQG i ZKHUH LW LV VKRZQ WKDW VRPH LUUHJXODU YHUEV GR VRPHWKLQJ VLPLODU
7KH VHTXHQFH é>&RQVRQDQW@a ZLWK VWUHVV RQ WKH YRZHO e LV SRVVLEOH PRUSKHPHLQWHUQDOO\ EXW LW LV QRW FRP
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geniculata heeesam seahorse 7KH VHTXHQFH e>&RQVRQDQW@á LV QRW IRXQG PRUSKHPH LQWHUQDOO\

13.6.5 Other rules

8QGHUO\LQJ {hape-Vitz} EHFRPHV hapeetz VKRZLQJ WKDW DQRWKHU NLQG RI UXOH ORZHULQJ i WR e LV QHHGHG )RU PDQ\
VSHDNHUV WKH VHTXHQFH ei LV DWWHVWHG RQO\ LQ WKH FRPSRXQG hateeictim rag REYLRXVO\ UHFHQWO\ IRUPHG IURP hataai°
iictim cloth 3.poss:[pon:]be_cut <RXQJHU VSHDNHUV DUH SURQRXQFLQJ PDQ\ LI QRW DOO VHTXHQFHV aii OHQJWK RI WKH
YRZHOV LV FULWLFDO DV LI WKH\ ZHUH eii ([DPSOHV LQFOXGH comcaii old woman DQG hapaii what was made
 14
Deverbal nouns

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IURP YHUEV 6XFK GHULYDWLRQ LV H[WUHPHO\ LPSRUWDQW LQ WKH ODQJXDJH
7KH GHYHUEDO QRXQV KDYH WUDLWV RI ERWK QRXQV DQG YHUEV 7KH VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ IUDPHV WKDW FKDUDFWHUL]H WKH
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SODFHV LQ WKLV JUDPPDU ZKHUH GHYHUEDO QRXQV DUH SUHVHQWHG ,Q DGGLWLRQ DQ DGYHUE VXFK DV miizj well RU anxö
intns VHH i PD\ RFFXU EHIRUH WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ MXVW DV EHIRUH D YHUE DV LQ  ZLWK D KHDGOHVV RU
IXVHGKHDG UHODWLYH FODXVH

 Miizj cqueecöl quih haa piij, …

well sbj.nmlz:[tr:]listen def;fl there irr.dep:sit
The one who listens well being there, … bb 177 5Y 

 Anxö cooit quih ˻ iihjoj sooxyat˼ aha.

intns sbj.nmlz:dance def;fl    3.poss:limb\pl irr.ind:die\pl aux:dcl
The one who dances a lot will get tired.

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VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQV RU H[SUHVVHG PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WKURXJK WKH SRVVHVVRU VHW LQ WKH REMHFW DQG
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7KH GHYHUEDO QRXQV GLVWLQJXLVK EHWZHHQ UHDOLV DQG LUUHDOLV E\ WKHLU PRUSKRORJ\ 7KH UHDOLV IRUPV DUH WKH
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2WKHU ZD\V LQ ZKLFK WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQV WHQG WR ORRN OLNH QRXQV LV D UHVXOW RI WKH FRQWH[WV LQ ZKLFK WKH\ DUH
XVHG :KHQ XVHG LQ VLPSOH KHDGOHVV UHODWLYH FODXVHV WKH\ PD\ EH SUHVHQWHG ZLWK RQO\ D GHWHUPLQHU DQG WKXV ORRN
OLNH DQ\ VLPSOH QRXQ IROORZHG E\ D GHWHUPLQHU 7KLV LV FHUWDLQO\ WKH HW\PRORJ\ RI D QXPEHU RI QRXQVൺVRPH
TXLWH WUDQVSDUHQWO\ DQG RWKHUV OHVV VR )LYH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ  QXPHURXV RWKHUV FRXOG EH SURYLGHG

 D [ Ø cocazni ]                     com E cocazni° com

           sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj:bite  def;hz
the one that bites the rattlesnake

 D [ Ø coopol ]           quij E coopol quij

           sbj.nmlz:black  def;cm
the one that is/was black the black widow spider

 D [ Ø caail ]             com E caail° com

           sbj.nmlz:wide  def;hz
the one that is wide the dry lake bed

 D [ Ø cöcoqueetx ]                 quij E cöcoqueetx quij

           3.io-sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj-? def;cm
the one returning to it girl celebrating the second puberty fiesta


7KH LUUHDOLV REMHFWRULHQWHG IRUP LV H[FHSWLRQDO LQ WKLV UHJDUG 6HH i

,Q WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ WKHVH DUH JHQHUDOO\ OLVWHG VHSDUDWHO\ IURP WKH YHUE

344
Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns 345

 D [ Ø hataai ]                          quih E hataai° quih

           sbj.nmlz:[pass:]wear_kilt  def;fl
what was worn as a kilt the cloth

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 )URP WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH URRW √oos sing

D coos sbj.nmlz:sing who sings/sang
E imoos sbj.nmlz:neg:sing who is not singing / did not sing
F soos ca irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux who will sing
G smoos ca irr.ind:neg:sing sbj.nmlz:aux who will not sing

 )URP WKH WUDQVLWLYH URRW √azix saw, cut with sawing motion
D quizix sbj.nmlz:tr:saw who saws/sawed it
E imazix sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:saw who does/did not saw it
F hapazix sbj.nmlz:pass:saw which is being or has been sawn
G impazix sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:saw which is/was not sawn
H siizix ca irr.ind:saw sbj.nmlz:aux who will saw it
I smazix ca irr.ind:neg:saw sbj.nmlz:aux who will not saw it
J spazix ca irr.ind:pass:saw sbj.nmlz:aux which will be sawn
K sompazix ca irr.ind:neg:pass:saw sbj.nmlz:aux which will not be sawn

 )URP WKH GHULYHG LQWUDQVLWLYH VWHP √oozix saw  {-o$EODXW -azix} -unsp.obj-saw)
D coozix sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj:saw who is sawing
E imoozix sbj.nmlz:neg:unsp.obj:saw who is not sawing
F soozix ca irr.ind:unsp.obj:saw sbj.nmlz:aux who will saw
G smoozix ca irr.ind:neg:unsp.obj:saw sbj.nmlz:aux who will not saw

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 )URP WKH WUDQVLWLYH URRW √azix saw, cut with sawing motion
D hoozix 1.poss:obj.nmlz:saw what I sawed
E moozix 2.poss:obj.nmlz:saw what you sawed
F oozix [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:saw what s/he sawed
G himazix 1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]neg:saw what I didn’t saw
H ihsiizix ha 1.sg.sbj.tr:irr.ind:saw aux what I will saw
I ihscmazix ha 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:neg:saw what I will not saw

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346 Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns

RU GLUHFW REMHFW 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  7KH QHJDWLYH REMHFWRULHQWHG DQG QHJDWLYH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH
RULHQWHG UHDOLV IRUPV DUH DOZD\V LGHQWLFDO LQ IRUP &RPSDUH G DQG G

 )URP WKH WUDQVLWLYH URRW √azix saw, cut with sawing motion
D hiizix 1.poss:[pon:]saw my act of sawing it, what I sawed it with, etc.
E miizix 2.poss:[pon:]saw your act of sawing it, what you sawed it with,
etc.
F iizix 3.poss:[pon:]saw his/her act of sawing it, what s/he sawed it
with, etc.
G himazix 1.poss:[pon]:neg:saw my act of not sawing it, etc.
H impazix 3.poss:[pon:]neg:pass:saw its not being sawn, etc.
I hisiizix ha 1.poss:irr.ind:saw aux my future act of sawing it, what I will saw it
with, etc.
J hiscmazix ha 1.poss:irr.ind:neg:saw aux my future act of not sawing, what I will not
saw it with, etc.
K ispazix ha 3.poss:irr.ind:pass:saw aux its future act of being sawn, with what it will
be sawn, etc.
L iscompazix ha 3.poss:irr.ind:neg:pass:saw aux its future act of not being sawn, with which it
will not be sawn, etc.

 )URP WKH GHULYHG LQWUDQVLWLYH VWHP √oozix saw  {-o$EODXW -azix}-unsp.obj:saw)

D ihyazix 1.poss:pon:unsp.obj:saw my act of sawing, what I saw with, etc.
E himoozix 1.poss:[pon:]neg:unsp.obj:saw my act of not sawing, what I don’t saw with,
etc.
F hisoozix 1.poss:irr.ind:unsp.obj:saw my future act of sawing. what I will saw with,
etc.
G hiscmoozix 1.poss:irr.ind:neg:unsp.obj:saw my future act of not sawing. what I won’t saw
with, etc.

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14.1 Details about realis subject-oriented deverbal nouns

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§14.1 Details about realis subject-oriented deverbal nouns 347

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 cmaam coostim quih

female sbj.nmlz:sing:impf def;fl
he singing woman, the woman who sings, the woman who sang, the woman singer

 ctam imacösxaj quih

male sbj.nmlz:neg:tall/long def;fl
the man who is not tall, the man who was not tall

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 ¡Cöicaasitim quiya, taax cöcaap!

  3.io:inf.intr:deceive sbj.nmlz:tr:know dem;dt;pl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand
You deceiver!

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 Cmaam quij coos iha.

female def;cm sbj.nmlz:sing dcl
The woman is/was singing.

 Hiip cop cacösxaj iha.

1.poss:tail def;vt sbj.nmlz:tall/long dcl
My tail is long.bb /DJDUWLMDV 

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 D cmaam ipca quiho quih

female rain sbj.nmlz:tr:see def;fl
the woman who sees/saw the rainbb VHH (6 FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKR

E cmaam him quiho quih

female 1s.do:sbj.nmlz:tr:see def;fl
the woman who sees/saw me

F cmaam ma quiho quih

female 2s.do:sbj.nmlz:tr:see def;fl
the woman who sees/saw you (sg.)

 D haxz° he cocaai quih

dog 1.io:sbj.nmlz:? def;fl
the dog that follows/followed me/us

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348 Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns

E haxz° me cocaai quih

dog 1;.io:sbj.nmlz:? def;fl
the dog that follows/followed you (sg. or pl.)

F haxz° cöcocaai quih

dog 3.io:sbj.nmlz:? def;fl
the dog that follows/followed him/her/it/them

14.1.1 The morphology of the form

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 sbj.nmlz-stem
D cooxp {c-ooxp} white (sg.)
E cooxapoj {c-ooxapoj} white (pl.)
F cacösxaj {c-acösxaj} tall/long (sg.)
G cacöla {c-acöla} tall/long (pl.)
H cpanzx {c-panzx} running (sg.)
I cpancojc {c-pancojc} running (pl.)
J ctapjö {c-tapjö} disintegrated
K quis {qu-is} raw (sg./pl.)

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 twd/aw-sbj.nmlz-stem
D moca {mo-c-a} coming (sg.)
E intica {nt-c-a} going (sg.)

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§14.1.1 The morphology of the form 349

 sbj.nmlz-tr-stem who is/was …

D quizix {qu-i-azix} sawing (it)
E quizyajc {qu-i-azyajc} sawing (it) (pl.)
F quim {qu-i-am} swallowing (it)
G quimyoj {qu-i-amyoj} swallowing (it) (pl.)
H quiizi {qu-i-izi} defeating him/her
I quiic {qu-i-ic} cultivating it
J quitooc {qu-i-itooc} cultivating it (pl.)
K quiimt {qu-i-imt} rubbing (it)
L quiip {qu-i-ip} straightening (it)
M quiip {qu-i-iip} carrying (it) on head
N cataaxa {qu-i-ataaxa} wetting (it) (limberbush)
O cataaxajam {qu-i-ataaxajam} wetting (it) (pl.) (limberbush)
P caapo {qu-i-aapo} harvesting (it)
Q catoopjoj {qu-i-atoopjoj} harvesting (it) (pl.)
R coocta {qu-i-oocta} watching (it)
S cooctam {qu-i-ooctam} watching (it) (pl.)
T cpii {qu-i-pii} tasting (it)
U cpcooyo {qu-i-pcooyo} tasting (it) (pl.)
V ctis {qu-i-tis} pointing at (it)
W ctisxam {qu-i-tisxam} pointing at (it) (pl.)

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 D co-h-a 3.io-sbj.nmlz-beLUUHJ who/that experiences VHH i

E haa [sbj.nmlz:]beLUUHJ (used in certain idioms) VHH i
F haa [sbj.nmlz:]eq who/that is VHH i
G ha-pacta sbj.nmlz-be_in_appearance that is
H aaha sbj.nmlz:beLUUHJ that happens

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 sbj.nmlz-pass-stem what is/was …

D hapazix {ha-p$EODXW -azix} sawn
E hapám {ha-p$EODXW -am} swallowed
F hataaxa {ha-ah-ataaxa} wetted (limberbush)
G hapapo {ha-p$EODXW -aapo} harvested
H hapacta {ha-p$EODXW -oocta} looked at
I hapii {ha-ah-pii} tasted
J hatís {ha-ah-tis} pointed at
K hacaa {ha-ah-caa} looked for

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350 Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns

 sbj.nmlz-neg-stem who/what is/was …

D imooxp {i-m-ooxp} not white
E imacösxaj {i-m-acösxaj} not tall/long
F imafp {i-m-afp} not arriving
G impanzx {i-m-panzx} not running
H intapjö {i-m-tapjö} not disintegrated
I imís {i-m-is} not raw
J mima {mo-i-m-a}  (twd-sbj.nmlz-neg-move) not coming
K cöima {co-i-m-a} (3.io-sbj.nmlz-neg-move) not happening

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 sbj.nmlz-neg-pass-stem
D impazix {i-m-p$EODXW -azix} not sawn
E impám {i-m-p$EODXW -am} not swallowed
F imahtaaxa {i-m-ah-ataaxa} not wetted
G impapo {i-m-p$EODXW -aapo} not harvested
H impacta {i-m-p$EODXW -oocta} not looked at
I impii {i-m-ah-pii} not tasted
J imahtis {i-m-ah-tis} not pointed at

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 sbj.nmlz-tr-neg-stem
D imazix {i-i-m-azix} not sawing (it)
E imám {i-i-m-am} not swallowing (it)
F imataaxa {i-i-m-ataaxa} not wetting (it, limberbush)
G imaapo {i-i-m-aapo} not harvesting (it)
H imoocta {i-i-m-oocta} not watching (it)
I impii {i-i-m-pii} not tasting (it)
J intís {i-i-m-tis} not pointing at (it)
K imcaa {i-i-m-caa} not looking for (it)

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 D cacaatax {c-i-acaatax} driving (it)

sbj.nmlz-tr-drive
E imacaatax {i-i-m-acaatax} not driving (it)
sbj.nmlz-tr-neg-drive
F hacaatax {ha-ah-acaatax} driven
sbj.nmlz-pass-drive


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§14.1.1.1 Some irregularities 351

G imahcaatax {i-m-ah-acaatax} not driven

sbj.nmlz-neg-pass-drive
H hahitaj {ha-ah-ahitaj} ignited
sbj.nmlz-pass-cause_ignite

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 D coop {c-o$EODXW -ap} sewing (basket)

sbj.nmlz-unsp.obj-sew_basket
E imoop {i-m-o$EODXW -ap} not sewing (basket)
sbj.nmlz-neg-unsp.obj-sew_basket

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14.2 The inflected subject-oriented deverbal noun

,Q VRPH VSHFLDO FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV DQG RQO\ LQ WKRVH FRQWH[WVൺZKLFK IDFW PDNHV WKHVH IRUPV YHU\ UDUH DV ZHOO
DV YHU\ XQXVXDO PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ൺWKH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQV RFFXU ZLWK VXEMHFW SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ $Q\
SUH᯳[ RI WKH VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ VHW LQFOXGLQJ 3.sbj i- RFFXUV EHIRUH WKH VXEMHFW QRPLQDOL]HU 6HH WKH IRUPV LQ



6HH 0DUOHWW  IRU PRUH GLVFXVVLRQ )XUWKHUPRUH ZH QRZ NQRZ WKDW WKH ZRUG cöhaisx wounded (as with hunting
weapon) LV DQRWKHU ZRUG OLNH WKLV QRW DQ DGMHFWLYH DV FODLPHG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ EXW XQOLNH √pacta LW GRHV QRW KDYH D
SDVVLYH HW\PRORJ\ VR IDU DV , NQRZ 7KH YHUE LV RWKHUZLVH D UHJXODU LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE EDVHG RQ WKH URRW √aisx

:KHQ WKH YHUE LV LQWUDQVLWLYH DQG WKH VXEMHFW LV WKLUG SHUVRQ WKHUH LV QR RYHUW VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ H[DFWO\ DV H[SHFWHG E\
WKLV DQDO\VLV 7KH KRPRSKRQ\ RI 3.sbj DQG 3.poss ERWK i- PDNHV WKLV IDFW LPSRUWDQW WR QRWH
352 Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns

 D iquihit {i-qu-i-ahit} 3.sbj-sbj.nmlz-tr-eat

E ihpcooca {hp-c-ooca} 1s.sbj.intr-sbj.nmlz-rest
F imcofeaa {m-c-ofeaa} 2s.sbj-sbj.nmlz-have_good_eyesight
G macoii {ma-c-oii} 2p.sbj-sbj.nmlz-be.fl\pl
H icmís {i-c-i-mis} 3.sbj-sbj.nmlz-tr-resemble
I iquiht {i-qu-i-aht} 3.sbj-sbj.nmlz-tr-see;pl
J cohcacooix {co-h-c-acooix} 3.io-1s.sbj.tr-sbj.nmlz-remove

6HH i IRU WKH UHOHYDQW FRQWH[WV IRU WKHVH IRUPV DV FRPSOHPHQWV RI hax √oocta think (opine) hax √Cimoz
think (opine) hax √ahii seem DQG hax √Vsoj √Cii think

14.3 Details about realis object-oriented deverbal nouns

7KH REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ LV XVHG LQ UHODWLYH FODXVHV ZKHQ WKH FODXVH PRGL᯳HV D QRXQ WKDW LV WKH GLUHFW
REMHFW RI WKH YHUEDO EDVH 6HH i DQG DOVR i IRU XVHV LQ KHDGOHVV FRQVWUXFWLRQV 7KH IRUP DOZD\V
LQGLFDWHV WKH SHUVRQ RI WKH VXEMHFW SHUVRQ E\ PHDQV RI D SRVVHVVRU SUH᯳[ 7KH JORVVHV GR QRW DOZD\V UH᯴HFW
WKH IDFW WKDW WKH IRUP LV DPELJXRXV EHWZHHQ SUHVHQW DQG SDVW WHQVH DV D UHDOLV IRUP LW GRHV QRW LQGLFDWH IXWXUH
KRZHYHU ([DPSOHV RI WKLV XVH DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 D Azlc canl hozaxö hizcoi ...

star\pl sbj.nmlz:burn\pl 1.poss:obj.nmlz:discuss px:pl
These stars that I am talking about ... bb (6 +DSMB

E haaco mooxi cap

abs;house 2.poss:obj.nmlz:finish def;vt
the house that you built

F ctam canoaa quih hiiye quij

male boat def;fl 1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]give_gift def;cm
the man whom I gave the boat

7KLV IRUP LV DOVR XVHG LQ ZKDW PLJKW EH WKRXJKW RI DV PDLQ FODXVHV ZLWK D PRGDO i &ODXVHV ZLWK WKLV
IRUP DUH VRPHWLPHV PRVW IHOLFLWRXVO\ WUDQVODWHG DV SDVVLYH FODXVHV LQ (QJOLVK DQG 6SDQLVK EHFDXVH WKLV XVH JLYHV
WKHPDWLF SURPLQHQFH WR WKH SDWLHQWREMHFW WKH\ DUH QRW SDVVLYH FODXVHV LQ 6HUL 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 D Azoj Cmiique hapáh cop

star (Seri)_person sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;vt
cöootni ha.
3.io:[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:make_pointed_contact_with dcl
[The mule deer] was injured by Azoj Cmiique. bb (6 +DSMB

E Xoop cap comcaac coi ˻ iisax quihiih cah˼

Bursera_microphylla def;vt (Seri)_person\pl def;pl    3.poss:spirit sbj.nmlz:? def;fl:foc
cöiyanzaaitj iha.
3.io:3.poss:obj.nmlz:respect:pl dcl
The Seri people are very respectful of the elephant tree.

F Haptco mocoht iha.

already 2.poss:obj.nmlz:see\pl dcl
You (pl.) have already seen him. bb 177 -Q 

 Ipanzx hoomzo ha.

3.poss:[pon:]run 1.poss:obj.nmlz:want dcl
I want him/her/it to run.
§14.3.1 The morphology of the form 353

 ..., heme itámlajc x, oiitoj iha.

abs:camp 3.sbj:rlt:deliver\pl ut [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat\pl dcl
..., they took them to camp, they ate them.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

14.3.1 The morphology of the form

7KHUH DUH VHYHUDO UHJXODU VXSSOHWLYH DOORPRUSKV RI WKH UHDOLV REMHFW QRPLQDOL]HU ([DPSOHV EHORZ DUH DOO FLWHG LQ
WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ IRUP WKH SHUVRQ RI WKH SRVVHVVRU QHYHU D᯲HFWV WKH IRUP RI WKH QRPLQDOL]HU 7KH REMHFWRULHQWHG
UHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQ KDV WKH VWUXFWXUH VKRZQ LQ 

 6WUXFWXUH RI WKH REMHFWRULHQWHG UHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQ

,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW ,Q᯴HFWLRQ ൺ 3RVVHVVRU ൺ 1RPLQDOL]HU ൺ 6WHP

7KH QRPLQDOL]HU LV QXOO LQ DOO QHJDWLYH FODXVHV 7KHVH WKLUG SHUVRQ IRUPV WXUQ RXW WR EH KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH
QHJDWLYH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO IRUPV i %XW XQOLNH WKH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG IRUPV WKHVH EHORQJ WR D VHW
WKDW LV YDULDEOH E\ SHUVRQ )RU H[DPSOH mimazix 2.poss:[obj.nmlz]:neg:saw what you didn’t saw himazix what
I didn’t saw 1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]neg:saw 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 3.poss-obj.nmlz-neg-stem
D imazix {i-Ø-m-azix} what s/he didn’t saw
E imamzo {i-Ø-m-amzo} what s/he didn’t want
F imoocta {i-Ø-m-oocta} what s/he didn’t look at
G imitalhaa {i-Ø-m-italhaa} what s/he didn’t buy
H imaa {i-Ø-m-aCa} what s/he didn’t know

7KH QRPLQDOL]HU LV h- ZKHQ LW SUHFHGHV WKH unstressed i WKDW LV WKH GHQRPLQDOL]LQJ SUH᯳[ hv i VXFK DV
LV RIWHQ IRXQG ZLWK WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV PHDQLQJ have X VHH i DQG NLQVKLS YHUEV i $OO FDVHV
RI stressed i LQFOXGLQJ WKH GHQRPLQDOL]LQJ SUH᯳[ DQG WKH YHUEV WKDW KDYH DQ unstressed i in root-initial position
WDNH WKH QXOO DOORPRUSK GHVFULEHG EHORZ DQG LOOXVWUDWHG LQ  6HH 

 3.poss-obj.nmlz-hv-root
D ihihaxöl {i-h-i-haxöl} what s/he had for a spoon
E ihicaamiz {i-h-i-caamiz} what s/he had for a shirt
F ihitaamt {i-h-i-taamt} what s/he wore as sandals

7KH QRPLQDOL]HU LV QXOO ZKHQ LW SUHFHGHV RWKHU LQVWDQFHV RI i ZKLFK LQFOXGHV DOO FDVHV RI stressed i DQG
DOVR unstressed i that are not prefixes H[FHSW IRU WKH YHUE √italhaa LQ G DV VKRZQ LQ  7KLV DOORPRUSK
WKHUHIRUH RFFXUV EHIRUH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV PHDQLQJ have X VHH i LI WKH VWHP KDV DQ initial stressed vowel DV
LQ J


+HUH WKH ZRUG ංVWHPඃ UHIHUV WR HYHU\WKLQJ HOVH WKDW IROORZV WKH QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ LQ WKH YHUE ZRUG

7KH H[DPSOHV ZLWK VWUHVVHG SUH᯳[ i PD\ EH D FRPSOLFDWLRQ ,I ihipon his/her/its voice LV GHULYHG IURP WKH YHUE √ipon
have voice ZKLFK LV LQ WXUQ GHULYHG IURP WKH ROGHU URRW √Vpon voice ZKLFK VKRZV XS DV ipon LQ VRPH FRQWH[WV WKHQ VRPH
VWUHVVHG i YHUEV GR LQGHHG WDNH WKH DOORPRUSK h- 7KH FUXFLDO H[DPSOH LQ WKH QH[W VHW LV WKH IRUP GHULYHG IURP √ita have as
mother 7KLV YHUE GRHV QRW WDNH h- IRU WKH QRPLQDOL]HU

2QH FRQVXOWDQW GLG QRW OLNH WKLV IRUP +H ZRXOG VLPSO\ XVH WKH IRUP icaamiz 3.poss:shirt LQVWHDG UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH
FLUFXPVWDQFHV

2QH FRQVXOWDQW GLG QRW OLNH WKLV IRUP +H ZRXOG VLPSO\ XVH WKH IRUP itaamt 3.poss:sandal LQVWHDG UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH
FLUFXPVWDQFHV

,W LV SRVVLEOH WKDW RQH PLJKW SURSRVH RQH RI WKH RWKHU DOORPRUSKV RI WKLV SUH᯳[ VXFK DV o- WR XQGHUO\ WKH IRUPV KHUH DV
ZHOO $QG LW LV SRVVLEOH WKDW RQH PLJKW DFFRXQW IRU WKH GHOHWLRQ RI WKLV YRZHO E\ RWKHU JHQHUDO UXOHV RI WKH ODQJXDJH
354 Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns

 3.poss-obj.nmlz-stem
6WHPV ZLWK LQLWLDO XQVWUHVVHG i
D icseenpx {i-Ø-icseenpx} what s/he carried under her/his arm
E ihiicx {i-Ø-ihiicx} whom s/he had intercourse with
F itai {i-Ø-itai} what s/he resisted

7KH VWHP √italhaa

G italhaa {i-Ø-italhaa} what s/he bought

6WHPV ZLWK LQLWLDO VWUHVVHG i

H ii {i-Ø-ii} what s/he heard
I iic {i-Ø-iic} what s/he planted
J iiha {i-Ø-iiha} what s/he owns
K iip {i-Ø-iip} what s/he carried on her/his head
L iiquet {i-Ø-iiquet} whom she was pregnant with
M iixim {i-Ø-iixim} what s/he feared
N ip {i-Ø-ip} what s/he straightened
O ita {i-Ø-i-Vta} whom s/he has as mother
P iitlim {i-Ø-itlim} what s/he kindled

7KH QRPLQDOL]HU LV y EHIRUH ORQJ ORZ YRZHOV DQG DOVR EHIRUH WKH SUH᯳[HV ah- ac- a- WKDW RFFXU LQ DXJPHQWHG
IRUPV VXFK DV FDXVDWLYHV 7KH YRZHO RI WKH SRVVHVVRU SUH᯳[ GHOHWHV EHIRUH WKLV DSSUR[LPDQW VHH i
H[FHSW ZKHQ LW LV LQ᯴HFWHG IRU DQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW DV LQ cöiyaafc what s/he pounded with it 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ


 3.poss-obj.nmlz-stem
D yaazi {i-y-aazi} what s/he carried
E yaafc {i-y-aafc} what s/he pounded
F yaactim {i-y-aa-actim} what s/he cut (caused to be cut)
G yacaalim {i-y-ac-aalim} what s/he played with
H yahaapl {i-y-ah-aapl} what s/he cooled (caused to be cold)
I yataamatot {i-y-a-taamatot} the one on whom s/he put sandals

7KH QRPLQDOL]HU LV oco- ZKHQ LW LPPHGLDWHO\ SUHFHGHV WKH YHUEV √aCa know √aho see DQG √ii hear DV VKRZQ
LQ  ,W DEODXWV WKH YRZHO RI WKH YHUE LQ WKH FDVH RI WKH YHUE √ii hear DV LQ IJ VHH i DQG WKHUHIRUH
LW LV WDJJHG DV DQ DEODXW WULJJHU


7KLV LV D SROLWH WHUP

7KLV LV DOVR XVHG LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ miizj √itai ZKLFK UHIHUV WR WKH LGHD RI KROGLQJ RXW DJDLQVW DQ RSSRQHQW

2QH FRQVXOWDQW GLG QRW OLNH WKLV IRUP +H ZRXOG VLPSO\ XVH WKH IRUP ata 3.poss:mother LQVWHDG UHJDUGOHVV RI WKH
FLUFXPVWDQFHV

7KH ORQJ YRZHO KHUH LV XQH[SODLQHG

7KH DXJPHQW SUH᯳[ RFFXUV DV ORQJ ZKHQHYHU LW LV VWUHVVHG EXW VKRUW ZKHQHYHU LW LV QRW VWUHVVHG 7KH GLVMXQFWLRQ LQ WKH
JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ JLYHQ KHUH LV DYRLGHG LI RQH SURSRVHV WKDW DOO DOORPRUSKV RI WKH DXJPHQW SUH᯳[ DUH XQGHUO\LQJO\ ORQJ
7KLV DOORPRUSK LV QRW XVHG EHIRUH WKH SKRQHWLFDOO\ ORQJ ORZ YRZHOV WKDW DUH SDUW RI GLSKWKRQJV 6HH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH
GLSKWKRQJ H᯲HFW RQ OHQJWK LQ i

7KH GHULYHG YHUE √acaalim PHDQV play with (something) DQG WKH WR\ RU JDPH LV WKH GLUHFW REMHFW 6HH i
§14.3.1 The morphology of the form 355

 1/2/3.poss-obj.nmlz-stem
D ocoaa {i-oco$EODXW -aCa} what s/he knew
E mocoaa {mi-oco$EODXW -aCa} what you knew
F ocoho {i-oco$EODXW -aho} what s/he saw
G hocoho {hi-oco$EODXW -aho} what I saw
H hocoht {hi-oco$EODXW -aht} what we saw
I hoqué {hi-oco$EODXW -ii} what I heard
J hoquee {hi-oco$EODXW -iii} what we heard

7KH QRPLQDOL]HU LV o$EODXW - RWKHUZLVH DV VKRZQ LQ  7KLV DOORPRUSK LQ H᯲HFW RFFXUV EHIRUH FRQVRQDQWV
H[FHSW IRU QHJDWLYH IRUPV VHH  DERYH EHIRUH URRWLQLWLDO VKRUW ORZ YRZHOV DQG EHIRUH oLQLWLDO URRWV RI
ZKLFK WKHUH PD\ EH RQO\ RQH QDPHO\ √oocta ,Q WKH FDVHV RI LWV RFFXUUHQFH EHIRUH VKRUW ORZ YRZHOV WKH VDPH
SURFHVVHV RI HOLVLRQ DQG FRDOHVFHQFH DSSO\ DV LQ WKH LQ᯴HFWLRQ RI PRRG RQ YHUEV VHH FKDSWHU  ,Q WKH FDVH
RI LWV RFFXUUHQFH EHIRUH DQ oLQLWLDO URRW VHH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI $EODXW LQ i

 3.poss-obj.nmlz-stem
D opii {i-o$EODXW -pii} what s/he tasted
E ocaa {i-o$EODXW -caa} what s/he looked for
F oozix {i-o$EODXW -azix} what s/he sawed
G oom {i-o$EODXW -am} what s/he swallowed
H oohit {i-o$EODXW -ahit} what s/he ate
I oosi {i-o$EODXW -asi} what s/he drank
J oomen {i-o$EODXW -emen} what sh/e shook back and forth
K oaacta {i-o$EODXW -oocta} what s/he looked at

7KLV DOORPRUSK RFFXUV DV H[SHFWHG EHIRUH WKH URRW √ah do, say, put (flexible item) EXW XQH[SHFWHGO\ WKLV YHUE
GRHV QRW XQGHUJR WKH XVXDO UXOH RI 6KRUW /RZ 9RZHO $VVLPLODWLRQ i ZKLFK ZRXOG KDYH \LHOGHG *ooh
WKH REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO IRUP LV oaah what s/he did ZLWK VRPHZKDW XQH[SHFWHG OHQJWKHQLQJ RI WKH a LQ
WKLV IRUP 7KLV DOORPRUSK DOVR RFFXUV DV H[SHFWHG EHIRUH WKH URRW √acö kill EXW XQH[SHFWHGO\ DQ i DSSHDUV LQ
WKH REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ LQVWHDG RI WKH H[SHFWHG *oocö WKH IRUP ooicö DSSHDUV 7KH UHJXODU REMHFW
QRPLQDOL]HU DOORPRUSK\ LV VXPPDUL]HG LQ  H[FOXGLQJ WKH DOORPRUSK oco- ZKHUH WKH RUGHU RI SUHVHQWDWLRQ
RI WKH ංFODXVHVඃ LV DJDLQ FUXFLDO


,Q VLPSOH WHUPV o+a EHFRPHV oo
356 Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns

 2EMHFW 1RPLQDOL]HU UHDOLV

QXOO ZKHQ QHJDWLYH
h EHIRUH XQVWUHVVHG SUH᯳[DO i
QXOO EHIRUH RWKHU i
y EHIRUH ORQJ ORZ YRZHO DQG SUH᯳[DO a
o$EODXW HOVHZKHUH

14.4 Details about realis proposition/oblique deverbal nouns

7KH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO YHUE IRUP LV XVHG LQ VHYHUDO ZD\V ,W LV XVHG LQ UHODWLYH FODXVHV LQ ZKLFK
WKH KHDG QRXQ ZKLFK PD\ EH QRQRYHUW LV QHLWKHU WKH VXEMHFW QRU WKH GLUHFW REMHFW 7KUHH VLPSOH H[DPSOHV DUH
JLYHQ LQ  PRUH DUH IRXQG LQ i

 comcaac quih hant iti yaii hac

(Seri)_person\pl def;fl land 3.poss:on [3.poss]:pon:be.fl/live\pl def;loc
where the Seris live—the Seri land

 Ihaapl cop cöyaxyat.

3.poss:pon:cold def;vt 3.io:rlyo:die\pl
They died from the cold (weather). [lit., when it is cold]bb 2᯲HUHG

 ¡Ihyacazni xooixaj!
  1.poss:pon:unsp.obj:bite em:strong
My bite is strong! [a lizard talking about himself]bb /DJDUWLMDV 

7KLV GHYHUEDO QRXQ LV FRPPRQO\ LQ᯴HFWHG IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW XVLQJ co-/cö- i ZKHQ
LW LV EHLQJ XVHG DV WKH KHDG RI D FODXVH LQ D VWDJHVHWWLQJ VLWXDWLRQ RU WKH IDFW RI WKH DFWLRQ RU VWDWH DV LQ H[DPSOHV
 UHVSHFWLYHO\ 7KH LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW PRUSKRORJ\ LV XQH[SODLQHG

 Azlc canl Hapj hapáh coi hamiime com iti

star\pl sbj.nmlz:burn\pl (name) sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;pl sky def;hz 3.poss:on

cöiyaii hac ...

3.io:3.poss:pon:stand\pl def;loc
When the stars called Hapj are in the sky ... bb (6 +DSMB

 Zixcám ticom cöipahit hac ˻ seehe cohyomá˼.

fish md:hz 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]pass:eat def;loc    to_do_(it) 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know
I can’t/couldn’t with respect to the eating of that fish. bb 2᯲HUHG

7KLV IRUP LV DOVR UHTXLUHG LQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW FODXVHV RI WKH SURWRW\SLFDO W\SH VHH i DV LQ 

 Micazni hmiimzo.
2.poss:[pon:]bite 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want you to bite it.

7KLV GHYHUEDO IRUP LV XVHG LQ H[FODPDWLRQV VXFK DV WKDW LQ 

 Trooqui tintica, ¡cöihaziim, taax!

vehicle md:aw   3.io:3.poss:pon:pleasing dem;dt;pl
How nice that car!

2WKHU FRQWH[WV XVH WKLV IRUP LQFOXGLQJ WKH FRQFHVVLYH DX[LOLDU\ isax VHH i LOOXVWUDWHG LQ 
§14.4.1 The morphology of the form 357

 Miica mpoomzo x, immisa aha xo miixaj

twd:inf.intr:move 2s.sbj:irr.dep:want ut twd:2s.sbj:irr.ind:move aux:dcl but 2.poss:[pon:]strong

quih ihinej isax, cmiique zo ma sconsacj aha.

def;fl 3.poss:pon:empty aux (Seri)_person indf;sg 2s.do:irr.ind:neg:carry_on_hip aux:dcl
You can come if you want, but if you get tired, no one is going to carry you.bb &<+,

'XH WR WKH ZLGH YDULHW\ RI XVDJHV LW LV QRW SRVVLEOH WR JLYH D VLQJOH DGHTXDWH WUDQVODWLRQ IRU DQ\ JLYHQ IRUP
WKH WUDQVODWLRQ PXVW EH DGDSWHG WR WKH FRQWH[W )RU H[DPSOH WKH IRUP hiizix LQ D UHODWLYH FODXVH PLJKW UHIHU WR
WKH LQVWUXPHQW XVHG DQG WKH EHVW WUDQVODWLRQ ZRXOG EH with which I sawed it i ,Q DQRWKHU FRQWH[W LW PLJKW
UHIHU WR WKH SODFH LQ ZKLFK WKH DFWLRQ WRRN SODFH DQG VR LW ZRXOG EH WUDQVODWHG where I sawed it 2QH PLJKW XVH
LW WR UHIHU WR WKH PDQQHU LQ ZKLFK RQH FXWV DQG VR LW ZRXOG EH WUDQVODWHG how I sawed it ,Q D FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH
LW ZRXOG EH WUDQVODWHG that I saw it RU for me to saw it

14.4.1 The morphology of the form

7KH SURSRVLWLRQ RU REOLTXHRULHQWHG UHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQ KDV WKH VWUXFWXUH VKRZQ LQ 

 ,QGLUHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,Q᯴HFWLRQ ൺ 'LUHFWLRQDO ൺ 3RVVHVVRU ൺ 1RPLQDOL]HU ൺ 6WHP

7KH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH QRPLQDOL]HU KDV IRXU UHJXODU VXSSOHWLYH DOORPRUSKV DQG WZR LGLRV\QFUDWLF RQHV 7KH
LGLRV\QFUDWLF DOORPRUSK hi- RFFXUV ZLWK WKH YHUE √ap stand DV LQ ihiip 3.poss:pon:stand where it stands VHH E
LQ FKDSWHU  7KH DOORPRUSK h- ZKLFK LV DOVR D UHJXODU DOORPRUSK LQ DQRWKHU FRQWH[W RFFXUV ZLWK WKH YHUEV IRU
come DQG go ZKLFK DUH EDVHG RQ WKH VDPH URRW miiha his/her/its coming IURP {mo-i-h-a} twd-3.poss-pon-move
DQG intiiha his/her/its going IURP {nt-i-h-a} aw-3.poss-pon-move ,W OLNHZLVH RFFXUV LQ WKH LUUHJXODU YHUE WKDW
PHDQV be with, happen cöiiha IURP {co-i-h-a} 3.io-3.poss-pon-beLUUHJ 
%HIRUH URRWLQLWLDO VWUHVVHG VKRUW ORZ YRZHOV DQG EHIRUH FRQVRQDQWV ZKLFK PD\ EH WKH m RI WKH QHJDWLYH
SUH᯳[ RU WKH p RI WKH SDVVLYH SUH᯳[ RU DQRWKHU SUH᯳[ WKH QRPLQDOL]HU LV QXOO ([DPSOHV RI WKLV DOORPRUSK LQ
WKHVH WZR FRQWH[WV DUH JLYHQ LQ  2Q WKH OHQJWK RI WKH SUH᯳[ YRZHO LQ WKH VXUIDFH IRUP VHH i

 3.poss-pon-stem
D iizix {i-Ø-azix} her/his sawing it
E iimen {i-Ø-emen} her/his shaking it back and forth
F iihit {i-Ø-ahit} her/his eating it
G iiho {i-Ø-aho} her/his seeing it

 3.poss-pon-stem
D icaa {i-Ø-caa} her/his looking for it
E ipanzx {i-Ø-panzx} her/his/its running
F icám {i-Ø-cam} his/her living, his/her life
G imoqueepe {i-Ø-moqueepe} his/her being sick, his/her sickness
H icozim {i-Ø-cozim} its being hot (weather), heat, summer
I ihamoc {i-Ø-hamoc} its being night, night

 3.poss-pon-neg-stem
D imazix {i-Ø-m-azix} her/his not sawing it
E imcaa {i-Ø-m-caa} her/his not looking for it

 3.poss-pon-pass-stem
ipahit {i-Ø-p$EODXW -ahit} its being eaten

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6HH i
358 Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns

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 3.poss-pon-unsp.sbj-stem
D icamatj {i-Ø-ca-matj} one’s being hot, one’s fever
E icamoqueepe {i-Ø-ca-moqueepe} one’s being sick, one’s sickness
F icaaitom {i-Ø-ca-âaitom} one’s speaking, one’s word
G icaaixaj {i-Ø-ca-âaixaj} one’s being strong, one’s strength
H icapitol {i-Ø-ca-pitol} one’s being bloated, one’s indigestion
I icaapl {i-Ø-ca-aapl} one’s being cold, the cold
J icoos {i-Ø-ca-oos} one’s singing, one’s song
K icaaspoj {i-Ø-ca-aaspoj} pencil, what one writes with

%HIRUH WKH DOORPRUSK RI WKH SDVVLYH PRUSKHPH WKDW LV QRW FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO WKH QRPLQDOL]HU LV h- DV VKRZQ
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 3.poss-pon-pass-stem
D ihacazni {i-h-ah-cazni} her/his being bitten
E ihatís {i-h-ah-tis} her/his being pointed at
F ihasanj {i-h-ah-sanj} her/his being carried on the back

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 3.poss-pon-stem
D yatj {i-y$EODXW -otj} her/his arising
E yazix {i-y$EODXW -o$EODXW -azix} her/his sawing (unspecified object)
F yaahzx {i-y$EODXW -aahzx} her/his sneezing
G yaaspoj {i-y$EODXW -aaspoj} her/his writing (intr.)
H yaalim {i-y$EODXW -aalim} her/his playing
I yaticpan {i-y$EODXW -aticpan} her/his working
J yanaao {i-y$EODXW -anaao} its meowing

7KH QRPLQDOL]HU LV h- HOVHZKHUH DV LOOXVWUDWHG LQ  6SHFL᯳FDOO\ WKLV PHDQV EHIRUH KLJK IURQW YRZHOV EHIRUH
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RI WUDQVLWLYH YHUE IRUPV LQFOXGLQJ WUDQVLWLYH FDXVDWLYHV DQG DVVLVWLYHV


6HH DOVR icocooxa 3.poss:pon:unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:sing_to_baby lullaby

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§14.4.2 Ablaut 359

 3.poss-pon-stem
D ihíp {i-h-ip} her/his straightening it
E ihisil {i-h-isil} his/her being small, his/her childhood
F ihihiicx {i-h-ihiicx} his/her having intercourse
G ihaafc {i-h-aafc} her/his pounding it
H ihaacsx {i-h-aa-acsx} her/his waking him/her (cause awaken)
I ihaactim {i-h-aa-actim} her/his cutting it/him/her (cause be cut)
J ihaaspoj {i-h-aaspoj} her/his writing it (cause be spotted)
K ihoocta {i-h-oocta} her/his looking at it
L ihatolec {i-h-atolec} his/her asking him/her for help
M ihacohot {i-h-acohot} his/her showing it to him/her

 hasaj ctam ticop mi-h-italhaa

flat_basket male md;vt 2.poss-pon-buy/sell
basket that you sold to that man

 hasaj i-h-italhaa cop

flat_basket 3.poss-pon-buy/sell def;vt
a. the basket that s/he sold
b. 2U the basket that s/he sold to him/her

 hasaj me i-h-italhaa cop

flat_basket 2.io:3.poss-pon-buy/sell def;vt
the basket that s/he sold to you

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14.4.2 Ablaut
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L Juan quih hasaj he ihitalhaa quih

Juan def;fl flat_basket 1.io:3.poss:pon:sell def;fl
the basket that Juan sold me

LL Juan quih hasaj me ihitalhaa quih

Juan def;fl flat_basket 2.io:3.poss:pon:sell def;fl
the basket that Juan sold you

LLL hasaj Juan quih María quih ihitalhaa quih

flat_basket Juan def;fl María def;fl 3.poss:pon:sell def;fl
the basket that Juan sold María
360 Chapter 14: Deverbal nouns

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14.5 Details about irrealis deverbal nouns

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 cmaam mazi siiho ca quih

female 2p.do:irr.ind:see sbj.nmlz:aux def;fl
the woman who will see you (pl.)

 He soos caha.
1.pro irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
I will sing.

([DPSOHV RI WKH LUUHDOLV VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 D siitax ca {si-atax} who will go

irr.ind-go
E smatax ca {si-m-atax} who will not go
irr.ind-neg-go
F siisi ca {si-asi} who will drink it
irr.ind-drink
G smasi ca {si-m-asi} who will not drink it
irr.ind-neg-drink
H soohitim ca {si-o$EODXW -ahit-tim} who will eat (unspecified object)
irr.ind-unsp.obj-eat-impf
I smoohitim ca {si-m-o$EODXW -ahit-tim} who will not eat (unspecified object)
irr.ind-neg-unsp.obj-eat-impf
J spahit ca {si-p$EODXW -ahit} that will be eaten
irr.ind-pass-eat
§14.5 Details about irrealis deverbal nouns 361

K sompahit ca {si-m-p$EODXW -ahit} that will not be eaten

irr.ind-neg-pass-eat
L mosa ca {mo-si-a} who/that will come
twd-irr.ind-move
M insama ca {mo-si-m-a} who/that will not come
twd-irr.ind-neg-move

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 D ihscmasi ha {h-si-m-asi} what I will not drink

1s.sbj.tr-irr.ind-neg-drink
E hasiisyoj ha {ha-si-asyoj} what we will drink
1p.sbj-irr.ind-drink\pl
F iscatxla ha {i-si-catxla} whom/which it will bite
3.sbj-irr.ind-bite
G masoonec ha {ma-si-oonec} which you (pl.) will carry
2p.sbj-irr.ind-carry\pl

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 D hisacötim ha {hi-si-ācötim} what I will cover up with

1.poss-irr.ind-cover_oneself
E misiizcam ha {mi-si-azcam} that you (pl.) will be arriving
2.poss-irr.ind-arrive\pl
F an hisiihca ha {hi-si-ahca} that we will travel in
1.poss-irr.ind.sit\pl
G ispácotim ha {i-si-p$EODXW -aco-tim} what it will be chopped with
3.poss-irr.ind:pass-kill-impf
H an isahahoopol ha {i-si-ah-ah-oopol} what it will be made black in
3.poss-irr.ind:pass-aug-black
I iscamoiij ha {i-si-ca-a-moiij} that one will mend with
3.poss-irr.ind-unsp.sbj-aug-circular
 15
Names

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15.1 Distinguishing common nouns from names

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 D * Hipiix Juan (quih) iha.

dem;px;sg Juan def;fl dcl
(This is Juan.)

E * Hant himquij Tahejöc (quij) iha.

land dt:cm Tiburon_Island def;cm dcl
(That land/place over there is Tiburon Island.)

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 D Hipiix Juan quih haa ha.

dem;px;sg Juan def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
This is Juan.

E Hant himquij Tahejöc quij haa ha.

land dt:cm Tiburon_Island def;cm [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
That land/place is Tiburon Island.

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362
§15.1 Distinguishing common nouns from names 363

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 Juan caacoj cah hyooho.

Juan sbj.nmlz:big def;fl:foc 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw the BIG Juan.

 Juan quih coocj coi hyooho.

Juan def;fl sbj.nmlz:two def;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw the two “Juans”.

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 D Astorga-j quih yoozcam.

Astorga-pl def;sg rlyo:arrive\pl
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E * Astorga-j quih yoofp.

Astorga-pl def;fl rlyo:arrive

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López

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 * ¿Juan zo ntaho?
bb Juan indf;sg 2s.sbj:rlt:see
(Have you seen (a) Juan?)

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364 Chapter 15: Names

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 D Himt ipxasi quih isnaap impáh.

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The flesh on my breast is called “isnaap”.bb &<+,

E Tiix ah cahínata mpah.

dem;dt;sg foc kind_of_deer rlmi:pass:do/say/put.fl
That one [kind of deer] is called “cahínata”.bb &<+,

F «Pancho» mpah.
  Pancho rlmi:pass:do/say/put.fl
His name is Pancho.bb &<+,

G Taax ah oo cötpacta ma, Hast

dem;dt;pl foc del 3.io:rlt:be_in_appearance ds stone/mountain
Ihiitij impáh, hast ticap.
3.poss:pon:slope_steeply_upwards rlmi:pass:do/say/put.fl stone/mountain md:vt
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H Hastojiicöla mpah.
(name) rlmi:pass:do/say/put.fl
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 (Hataasi) Priscila hapáh hac, taax consataasitot

abs:name Priscila sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;loc dem;dt;pl 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:aug:[hv:]name

aha.
aux:dcl
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 Pedro quij cmaam yaazi íi zo toc cötiij ma, Juana hac

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cöimataasitot.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:aug:[hv:]name
Pedro named his first daughter Juana.

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§15.2 The form of names 365

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366 Chapter 15: Names

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15.2.2 Names derived from simple noun phrases

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 D Comcaii Ilít Cooxp

old_woman 3.poss:head/hair sbj.nmlz:white
White-haired Old Woman (a certain Seri woman, now deceased)

E Zaaj Án Cooxp hac

eroded_area/cave [3.poss:]area/interior sbj.nmlz:white def;loc
Cave Whose Interior Is White (on San Esteban Island)

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 D Xepe Coosot tintica

sea sbj.nmlz:narrow md:aw
Narrow Sea (the Infiernillo Channel)

E Xepe Heeque tintica

sea small md:aw
Small Sea (El Infiernillo Channel) (alternate name)

F Hant Cooxp hac

land sbj.nmlz:white def;loc
White Land (a camp on Tiburon Island)

G Ziix Anxö Coohit

thing intns sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj:eat
Thing that Ate a Lot (a legendary giant who lived with the Seris for a while)

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§15.2.2 Names derived from simple noun phrases 367

H Cmaacoj Cmasol
old_man sbj.nmlz:yellow
Yellow Old Man (the person who named the animals)

I Iimox Impafc
Spondylus_calcifer sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:pound
[the name of an individual that was the strongest of the giants]

J Hast Ctam cop

stone/mountain male def;vt
Male Mountain (Cabeza de Caballo, on San Esteban Island)

K Hast Cmaam cop

stone/mountain female def;vt
Female Mountain (a peak on San Esteban Island)

L Azoj Canoj ˻ Hant Ifii˼ Caao quij

star sbj.nmlz:burn/roar    land 3.poss:[pon:]? sbj.nmlz:pass_by def;cm
Star that Passes in the Morning [Venus]

M Azoj Canoj Imatax quij

star sbj.nmlz:burn/roar sbj.nmlz:neg:go def;cm
Star that Doesn’t Move [North Star, Polaris]

N Azoj Yeen oo Caap quij

star [3.poss:]face del sbj.nmlz:stand def;cm
Star that Goes First [Aldebaran]

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LQ HVVHQFH EH WKH KHDG RI WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ VHH i 7KLV GHYHUEDO QRXQ PD\ EH WKH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG IRUP
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 D Hant Caai quij

land sbj.nmlz:[tr:]make def;cm
Maker of the World (the Creator in the traditional Seri belief system)

E Cozactim quih
sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj:intercept def;fl
Interceptor [the star Canopus]

F Hant Iiha Quimx

land 3.poss:[pon:]possess sbj.nmlz:[tr:]tell
[the person who first gave names to the things for the Seri ancestors]

G Quixop quih
sbj.nmlz:tr:carry_with_pole_over_shoulder def;fl
[the spirit that harms people who have mistreated a dog or coyote]

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368 Chapter 15: Names

H Hooro Cöicaasitim Quiya

gold 3.io:inf.intr:[unsp.obj:]deceive sbj.nmlz:tr:know
The Great Trickster (a legendary figure who could fool people, especially outsiders, into doing all
kinds of things; gold played a role in some of the tricks)
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 D Zep Oosi hac

Aquila_chrysaetos [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:drink def;loc
What the Golden Eagle Drank [a place]

E Comís Oohit hac

(name?) [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat def;loc
What Comís Ate [a place]

F Coneaax Oaacta quij

sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj:wash_one’s_hands [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:look_at def;cm
What the One Washing Hands Looks At [Venus]

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 D Haxöl Iihom hac

Leukoma_grata 3.poss:pon:lie def;loc
Where the Multicolored Clams Are [El Desemboque]

E Ool quih An Ihiip hac

Stenocereus_thurberi def;fl [3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:stand def;loc
Where the Organpipe Cactus Is [a place]

F Hant Coox Ipaho hac

land all/completely 3.poss:[pon:]pass:see def;loc
Place Where Everything is Seen [a place]

G Miist Caal quih An ˻ Hacx Imiih˼ hac

cat companion def;fl [3.poss:]in    apart sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl def;loc
Where the Companion Cat Was Lost [a place]

H Pnaacoj Cacösxaj quih Hapx Ihiip hac

mangrove sbj.nmlz:tall/long def;fl outside 3.poss:pon:stand def;loc
Where Pnaacoj Cacösxaj Appears [a certain place in the sea that one locates by seeing a certain
landmark on the mainland]

I ˻ Hant Caalajc˼ Ipapjö quih

   land sbj.nmlz:[tr:]aug:release\pl 3.poss:[pon:]:pass:illuminate def;fl
With Which Those Giving Birth Are Given Light [Aldebaran, said to be giving light to Cmaamc as
the women in that constellation are giving birth]

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ZKR LV \HW WR EH ERUQ

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§15.2.2 Names derived from simple noun phrases 369

J Queeto Yaao cop

Arcturus [3.poss:]pon:[unsp.obj:]pass_by def;vt
When Queeto Passes [referring to the visibility of the star Arcturus; the month corresponding to
October]

K Hee yaao cop

Lepus_alleni [3.poss:]pon:[unsp.obj:]pass_by def;vt
When Hee Passes [referring to the visibility of the star Hee, the antelope jackrabbit; the month
corresponding to November]

L Naapxa yaao cop

Cathartes_aura [3.poss:]pon:[unsp.obj:]:pass_by def;vt
When Naapxa Passes [referring to the visibility of the star Naapxa, the turkey vulture; the month
corresponding to December]
7KH QDPHV LQ  KDYH GHYHUEDO QRXQV EXW WKHUH LV QR H[SOLFLW VXEMHFWSRVVHVVRU SUHVHQW LQ WKH SKUDVH

 D An Icatázatoj hac
[3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:cut_into_strips\pl def;loc
Where (Meat) Was Cut Into Strips [a camp on Tiburon Island]

E Zaaj Tomcácöatim An Iicom hac

eroded_area/cave rlt:neg:unsp.sbj:cover_up:impf [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:lie def;loc
Cave in which One Lies without a Blanket [on Tiburon Island]

F icatoomec caacoj cop

week sbj.nmlz:big def;vt
Sunday

G icatoomec heeque cop

week small def;vt
Saturday

7KH KHDG RI WKH QRXQ SKUDVH PD\ EH D SRVVHVVHG QRXQ 7KH SRVVHVVRU SUHFHGHV WKLV QRXQ VHH i DV VKRZQ
LQ 

 D Hast Yeen hac

stone/mountain [3.poss:]face def;loc
Mountain’s Face [a camp on Tiburon Island]

E Cofteecöl Iifa cop

San_Esteban_Island 3.poss:point def;vt
Cofteecöl Peninsula [Playa el Escabel, Punta Baja (on San Esteban Island)]

F Caiinim Iyat cop

(name) 3.poss:tip def;vt
Caiinim Peak [Caiinim is a hill on Tiburon Island]

6HH QRWH  LQ WKLV FKDSWHU

7KH IRUP icatoomec LV WKH REOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ RI √catoomec be Sunday ZKLFK LV D ERUURZLQJ IURP 6SDQLVK
domingo YLD WKH 8WR$]WHFDQ ODQJXDJH 2ൿRGKDP 'DYLG 6KDXO SF 7KH IRUP icatoomec LWVHOI LV SULPDULO\ XVHG IRU WKH
PHDQLQJ week QRZ EXW PD\ DOVR PHDQ Sunday 7KH H[SUHVVLRQV icatoomec caacoj DQG icatoomec heeque DUH ERWK DUFKDLF

7KH GD\V RI WKH ZHHN RWKHU WKDQ 6XQGD\ DQG 6DWXUGD\ GR QRW KDYH 6HUL QDPHV
370 Chapter 15: Names

G Caiinim Inoohcö quij

(name) 3.poss:[pon:]concave def;cm
Caiinim Bay

H Hast Caacoj quih Iyat cop

stone/mountain sbj.nmlz:big def;fl 3.poss:tip def;vt
Tip [Peninsula] of Big Mountain [Narragansett Point on Tiburon Island]

I Coniic Yataam hac

(name) [3.poss:]mountain_pass def;loc
Coniic Pass [Coniic is a camp on Tiburon Island]

J Mosnictoj Iime hac

variety_of_Chelonia_mydas 3.poss:home def;loc
Red Sea Turtle’s Home [a certain place in the sea]

K Caay Ítajc hac

horse 3.poss:bone;pl def;loc
Horse’s Bones [a place on Tiburon Island]

L xnoois ihaat iizax cop

Zostera_marina_seeds 3.poss:pon:mature moon/month def;vt
Month When the Eelgrass Grain Matures [the month corresponding to April]

M iqueetmoj iizax cop

sitting_in_shade moon/month def;vt
Month for Sitting in the Shade [the month corresponding to May]

N imám imám iizax cop

3.poss:fruit 3.poss:[pon:]ripe moon/month def;vt
Month When the [Cactus] Fruit Is Ripe [the month corresponding to June]

O icoozlajc iizax cop

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:pile_up\pl moon/month def;vt
Month When One Piles Up (Mesquite Beans) [the month corresponding to July]

P ˻ hant yaail˼ ihaat iizax cop

   land [3.poss:]pon:green/blue 3.poss:pon:mature moon/month def;vt
Month When The Vegetation Matures [the month corresponding to August]

6RPH QDPHV KDYH D V\QWDFWLF VWUXFWXUH WKDW LV XQOLNH ZKDW LV IRXQG LQ FRPPRQ QRXQ SKUDVHV )LUVW WKHUH DUH
H[DPSOHV ZKHUH WKH KHDG QRXQ RI WKH QDPH LV SKUDVH᯳QDO DQG SUHFHGHG E\ RWKHU SKUDVHV RU ZRUGVൺRIWHQ QRXQV
7KLV LV WKH PRVW W\SLFDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ IRU QDPHV RI ZDWHU KROHV FDPSV HWF WKDW DUH UHODWHG WR RWKHU SODFH QDPHV
7KH KHDG QRXQV LQ WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ XQGHUOLQHG LQ  DUH XQSRVVHVVHG QRXQV

 D Caamajoj Zaaj cop

(name) eroded_area/cave def;vt
Caamajoj Cave [a hill with caves in it on San Esteban Island]

6RPH RI WKH QDPHV RI WKH PRQWKV H[SOLFLWO\ LQFOXGH WKH ZRUG iizax moon, month EXW RWKHUV GR QRW

7KLV IRUP LV QRW UHDGLO\ H[SODLQHG LQ LWV UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH YHUE √aqueetmoj to sit in the shade EXW WKH PHDQLQJ LV FOHDU

0RUH H[DPSOHV DSSHDU LQ 0DUOHWW D
§15.2.2 Names derived from simple noun phrases 371

E Xaaxp Hax hac

(name) fresh_water def;loc
Xaaxp Water [a place where fresh water is found on Tiburon Island]

F Coniic Xtaasi quij

(name) estuary def;cm
Coniic Estuary [Coniic is a camp on Tiburon Island]

G Hant Iicot Conttàca Toii Hant

land 3.poss:between 3.io:aw:rlt:unsp.sbj:move toward_elsewhere land
Cöicaap Hast cop
3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:stand stone/mountain def;vt
Mountain at the Channel Where One Passes Through to Go Farther On [Las Ánimas Island]

H Xeecös Yaiij com

(name) dune/shoal def;hz
Xeecös Shoal [near the place named Xeecös]

:KHUHDV WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  KDYH WKH KHDG QRXQ DW WKH HQG RI WKH QDPH WKRVH LQ  UHSUHVHQW D OHVV FRPPRQ
W\SH WKDW KDV WKH KHDG QRXQ DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKH QDPH 7KH VHFRQG SDUW VRPHWLPHV KDV QR NQRZQ HW\PRORJ\
ZKHQ LW LV D PHDQLQJIXO ZRUG LW PD\ YDJXHO\ LQGLFDWH VRPHWKLQJ WKDW ZDV RU LV VDOLHQW DERXW WKH SODFH

 D Hast Otiipa cop

stone/mountain (name) def;vt
Mount Otiipa >3DWRV ,VODQG@

E Hast Pizal cop

stone/mountain (name) def;vt
Mount Pizal >3XHUWHFLWRV %DMD &DOLIRUQLD@

F Hast Xpos cop

stone/mountain Neotoma_albigula def;vt
Pack Rat Mountain >D SODFH ZKHUH WKHUH DUH ORWV RI SDFN UDWV@

G Hast Moxet cop

stone/mountain kind_of_soft_white_rock def;vt
Mount Moxet >D SODFH ZKHUH WKLV NLQG RI ZKLWH URFN XQLGHQWL᯳HG LV IRXQG@

H Caail° Hatni com

dry_lake_bed Melanerpes_uropygialis def;hz
Woodpecker Dry Lake Bed

I Azoj Cmiique cop

star (Seri)_person def;vt
Person Star >WKH FRQVWHOODWLRQ WKDW LV WKH KXQWHU RI WKH DQLPDOV LQ WKH FRQVWHOODWLRQ Hapj@

J Hast Haquim cop

stone/mountain whale def;vt
Whale Mountain >3HUUR 3RLQW RQ 7LEXURQ ,VODQG@

$ QDPH PD\ EH D MX[WDSRVLWLRQ RI QRXQV RU RWKHU ZRUGV ZKRVH UHODWLRQVKLS LV QRW UHDGLO\ H[SODLQHG LQ ZKLFK
D PHDQLQJIXO WUDQVODWLRQ LV QRW IRUWKFRPLQJ DQG ZKHUH QHLWKHU LV YHU\ REYLRXVO\ WKH KHDG 7KLV LV QRW D FRPPRQ
FRQVWUXFWLRQ 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 
372 Chapter 15: Names

 D Comitin Oot hac

Olneya_tesota_(dry) Canis_latrans def;loc
>D SODFH@

E Hast Cmiique
stone/mountain (Seri)_person
>FKLHI VSLULW LQ WKH EHOLHIV RI WKH LQKDELWDQWV RI 6DQ (VWHEDQ ,VODQG@

F Hant Hasooma
land shade_shelter
>WKH EHLQJ ZKR FUHDWHG WKH ᯳UVW 6HUL DQG ZKR ZDV RZQHU RI DOO WKH DQLPDOV@

G azoj imal cmizj cop

star sbj.nmlz:neg:accompany sbj.nmlz:well_formed def;vt
>WKH PRQWK WKDW FRUUHVSRQGV WR -DQXDU\ WKHUH LV QR VWDU DFFRPSDQ\LQJ WKH PRRQ@

H azoj imal icozim quih ano caap cop

star sbj.nmlz:neg:accompany 3.poss:[pon:]hot_(weather) def;fl [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt
>WKH PRQWK WKDW FRUUHVSRQGV WR 6HSWHPEHU WKHUH LV QR VWDU DFFRPSDQ\LQJ WKH PRRQ GXULQJ WKLV
WLPH RI KRW ZHDWKHU@
2FFDVLRQDOO\ D 6SDQLVK ZRUG RU SKUDVH KDV EHHQ LQFRUSRUDWHG LQWR D SODFH QDPH HLWKHU TXLWH GLUHFWO\ WKURXJK
DQ RYHUKHDUG FRPPHQW SHUKDSV LQ WKH FDVH RI Laletiro LQ D RU WKURXJK D ORDQZRUG WKDW KDG DOUHDG\ EHHQ
WDNHQ LQWR WKH ODQJXDJH LQ WKH FDVHV RI Masaana DQG saraapitaj LQ EF

 D Laletiro hac         6SDQLVK Dale tiro. Shoot it.

>D SODFH QRUWK RI (O 'HVHPERTXH@

E Masaanaj hac bbbbbb  6SDQLVK damajuana demijohn D NLQG RI ODUJH ERWWOH SOXUDOL]HG ZLWK –j
Demijohns >D SODFH ZHVW RI 3XQWD 6DUJHQWR@

F Saraapitaj hac bbbbbb  6SDQLVK sarape blanket SOXUDOL]HG ZLWK VX᯵[ –taj
Blankets >D ORFDWLRQ RQ 7LEXURQ ,VODQG@

6RPH QDPHV DUH REYLRXVO\ GHULYHG KLVWRULFDOO\ IURP FRPELQDWLRQV RI FRPPRQ QRXQ DQG PRGL᯳HUV EXW D
FRQVRQDQW KDV EHHQ ORVW RU D YRZHO KDV EHHQ ORVW RU VKRUWHQHG 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D Hezitmisoj quij bbbbbb  heezitim settlement isoj true

True Settlement >+HUPRVLOOR FDSLWDO RI WKH VWDWH RI 6RQRUD@

E Xpanoháx hac bbbbbb  xepe sea ano in hax (fresh) water
Fresh Water in Sea Water >3XHUWR /LEHUWDG@

F cayajzaac cop bbbbbb  caayaj travelers VHD WXUWOHV zaac small/young

Small Travelers >WKH PRQWK WKDW FRUUHVSRQGV WR )HEUXDU\@

G Xpatacl hac bbbbbb  xepe sea itacl 3.poss:surface

Surface of the Sea >D SODFH@

H Yecmiihom hac bbbbbb  yequim Yaqui iihom 3.poss:pon:lie

Where the Yaqui Is >D SODFH LQ WKH %DFDWHWH PRXQWDLQV QHDU *XD\PDV@

,W LV QRW NQRZQ ZK\ WKLV EHLQJ KDV WKLV QDPH H[FHSW SHUKDSV EHFDXVH LW H[WHQGHG SURWHFWLRQ

7KH GHFLVLRQV WR ZULWH VRPH FRPSRXQGV DV VHSDUDWH ZRUGV DQG RWKHUV DV VLQJOH ZRUGV ZHUH QRW DOZD\V EDVHG RQ FOHDU
SKRQRORJLFDO GDWD 3KUDVHV DQG FRPSRXQGV DUH QRW GLVWLQJXLVKHG E\ VWUHVV SDWWHUQV LQ WKH ODQJXDJH
§15.3 Excursus into ethnonyms and language names 373

$ QDPH OLNH VRPH FRPPRQ QRXQV WKHPVHOYHV PD\ EH FRPSRVHG RI D QRXQ DQG WKH FRPELQLQJ IRUP RI DQ
DGMHFWLYDO SUHGLFDWH 7KHVH DGMHFWLYDO IRUPV DUH QRW LQGHSHQGHQW ZRUGV DQG PDQ\ WLPHV GR QRW KDYH WKH VDPH
YRZHO DV WKH URRWV RI WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ LQGHSHQGHQW ZRUGV VHH i ([DPSOHV RI WKHVH W\SHV RI QDPHV DUH
JLYHQ LQ 

 D Hastaacoj cop bbbbbb  hast mountain -aacoj big

Big Mountain >7XUQHUൿV ,VODQG@

E Hasixp hac bbbbbb  haas mesquite -ixp white

White Mesquite >D ORFDWLRQ@

F Hastictoj hac bbbbbb  hast mountain -ictoj red

Red Mountain >D ORFDWLRQ@

G Hastisol hac bbbbbb  hast mountain -isol yellow

Yellow Mountain >D ORFDWLRQ@

H Yaijispoj hac bbbbbb  yaiij shoal -ispoj spotted

Spotted Shoal >D VKRDO@

I Ihamoquixp com bbbbbb  ihamoc its night -ixp white

White Night >0LON\ :D\@

J cayajaacoj cop bbbbbb  caayaj ones traveling VHD WXUWOHV –aacoj big
Large Travelers >WKH PRQWK WKDW FRUUHVSRQGV WR 0DUFK@

K Cailipolaacoj com bbbbbb  caail° dry lake bed -ipol black -aacoj big
Big Black Dry Lake Bed >D GU\ ODNH EHG QRUWK RI 3XHUWR 3H³DVFR@

L Taijiicösxaj hac bbbbbb  itaaij shoreline -iicösxaj long, tall

Long Shoreline >D SODFH RQ 7LEXURQ ,VODQG@

M Hastiscl cop bbbbbb  hast mountain -iscl gray

Gray Mountain >WKH KLOO DW 3XQWD 6DUJHQWR@

15.3 Excursus into ethnonyms and language names

(WKQRQ\PV DQG WKH QDPHV RI DQFHVWUDO JURXSV LQ 6HUL DUH FRPPRQ QRXQV RU QRXQ SKUDVHV EDVHG RQ FRPPRQ
QRXQV WKH\ SDVV DOO WKH WHVWV IRU FRPPRQ QRXQV PHQWLRQHG HDUOLHU 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
D Cmiique Comcaac Seri(s)
E Cocsar Cocsar non-Indian Mexican(s)
F Hápats Hápatsoj Apache(s)
G Yequim Yectz Yaqui(s)
H Hapaay O’odham person

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QRWHG WKDW WKHVH DUH DOO QRXQV UHIHUULQJ WR SHRSOH WKH\ DUH QRW DGMHFWLYHV

7KH ZRUG Comcaac LQ VRPH OLPLWHG FRQWH[WV PD\ UHIHU WR MXVW DQ\ SHRSOH EXW LW LV PRVW FRPPRQO\ XVHG DQG XQGHUVWRRG
DV UHIHUULQJ RQO\ WR WKH 6HUL SHRSOH :KHQ VSHDNLQJ JHQHULFDOO\ DERXW SHRSOH WRGD\ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ XVHG LV xiica (quih) quiistox
things that have life VLQJXODU IRUP ziix (quih) quiisax 7KH SUHVHQFH RI WKH LQWHUYHQLQJ GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH YDULHV E\ FRQWH[W

6HH DSSHQGL[ $

3LQDUW  KDG WKH ZRUG Papani IRU the Papago Indians LH WKH 2ൿRGKDP SHRSOH EXW QR RQH WKDW , KDYH FRQVXOWHG
KDV UHFRJQL]HG WKDW ZRUG
374 Chapter 15: Names

I Maricaana Maricaanaj American(s)

J †
Casopin Spaniard
K Xnaamótat the Seris who lived near Guaymas in earlier times

6XFK QRXQV GR QRW RFFXU DV VLPSOH PRGL᯳HUV LQ ODUJHU QRXQ SKUDVHV LQ 6HUL KHQFH RQH FDQQRW VD\ the American
government a Seri boat RU the Punta Chueca road H[FHSW OHVV GLUHFWO\ VXFK DV a boat owned by a Seri person
DQG the road leading to Punta Chueca
7KH QDPHV RI YDULRXV RWKHU EDQGV FODQV RU JURXSV RI SHRSOH DUH SKUDVHV ([DPSOH  KDV D SUHSRVLWLRQDO
SKUDVH SUHFHGLQJ WKH QRPLQDO KHDG ZKLFK LV QRW FRPPRQ LQ RUGLQDU\ QRXQ SKUDVHV LQ WKH ODQJXDJH VHH FKDSWHU


 [ Caail° iti ]PP ctamcö

San_Bartolo_Playa 3.poss:on male-pl
San Bartolo Playa men

,W LV IDU PRUH FRPPRQ IRU D 33 WR EH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK D YHUE VHH FKDSWHU  LQFOXGLQJ WKH YHUE RI D UHODWLYH
FODXVH PRGLI\LQJ D KHDG QRXQ DV LQ 

 D xiica [ Hast ano coii ] coi

thing\pl stone/mountain [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:be.fl/reside\pl def;pl
the San Esteban Island people

E xiica hai iicp coii

thing\pl wind 3.poss:side sbj.nmlz:be.fl/reside\pl
those who lived toward the north wind

F xiica xnaai iicp coii

thing\pl south_wind 3.poss:side sbj.nmlz:be.fl/reside\pl
those who lived toward the south wind

$ SDWWHUQ WKDW PD\ EH UHVWULFWHG WR HWKQRQ\PV LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  LQ ZKLFK D WRSRQ\P LV
IROORZHG E\ D FRPPRQ QRXQ W\SLFDOO\ Comcaac (Seri) people RU WKH VLQJXODU IRUP Cmiique (Seri) person

 D Socpatix Comcaac
(name) (Seri)_person\pl
the Seri people who lived in the area of Socpatix

$QRWKHU FRPPRQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU American LV ziix xepe iti quiih thing sea 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:be.fl SOXUDO xiica xepe iti
coii ,W UHSRUWHGO\ UHIHUV WR WKH IDFW WKDW WKH ᯳UVW $PHULFDQV DUULYHG WR WKH 6HUL DUHD E\ ERDW

6HH DSSHQGL[ %

7KLV ZDV %DQG 9 DV GHVFULEHG ᯳UVW LQ ( 0RVHU  :KLOH WKH GLFWLRQDU\ FRPPLWWHH GHFLGHG WR ZULWH WKLV DV RQH
ZRUG \HW ZLWK D ORQJ YRZHO LQ WKH ᯳UVW V\OODEOH LW LV TXLWH REYLRXVO\ FRPSRVHG RI WKH ZRUG xnaa PHDQLQJ south LQ YDULRXV
H[SUHVVLRQV DQG WKH ZRUG motat ZKLFK LV D SOXUDO FRQMXJDWHG IRUP RI WKH YHUE moca come 7KH ZRUG LV D ELW RGG ZKHUHDV RQH
ZRXOG H[SHFW mocat those who come from WKH IRUP motat they were coming IURP DSSHDUV LQVWHDG 7KH HGLWRULDO FRPPLWWHH
RI WKH GLFWLRQDU\ FKRVH WR ZULWH WKLV ZRUG DV D FRPSRXQG DQG QRW DV WZR ZRUGV ZLWK D ORQJ YRZHO LQ WKH V\OODEOH xnaa
6WUHVV RFFXUV RQ WKH SHQXOWLPDWH V\OODEOH RI WKH ZRUG

7KDW KDYLQJ EHHQ VDLG , VKRXOG DOVR SRLQW RXW WKDW WKH SKUDVH 1$&,21 &20&$$& Seri nation XVLQJ WKH 6SDQLVK
ZRUG IRU nation RFFXUV RQ WKH R᯵FLDOO\ UHJLVWHUHG ᯴DJ RI WKH 6HUL QDWLRQ 7KLV ᯴DJ ZDV VKRZQ WR PH RQ 1RYHPEHU  
, KDYH DOVR REVHUYHG D VOLJKW DPRXQW RI DFFRPPRGDWLRQ WR WKH LQVLVWHQFH E\ (QJOLVK DQG 6SDQLVKVSHDNHUV WR IRUP VXFK
FRQVWUXFWLRQV ZKHQ 6HULV DUH VSHDNLQJ 6SDQLVK

7KLV LV %DQG 9, DV GHVFULEHG LQ ( 0RVHU 

7KLV LV %DQG , WKH 6HULV ZKR OLYHG WR WKH QRUWK RI 3XQWD 7HSRSD DV GHVFULEHG LQ ( 0RVHU 

7KLV LV %DQG ,, DV GHVFULEHG LQ ( 0RVHU 
§15.4 Names for individuals 375

E Tahejöc Comcaac
Tiburon_Island (Seri)_person\pl
the Seri people who lived on Tiburon Island (and their descendants)

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California LV Hant Ihiin EXW WKH IRUP Hant Ihiini DSSHDUV LQ WKH QDPH IRU WKH 6HUL SHRSOH ZKR XVHG WR OLYH RQ
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RI WKH IROORZLQJ QRXQ ZHUH VRXQGO\ UHMHFWHG E\ FRQVXOWDQWV
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RULHQWHG GHYHUEDO IRUP RI √aaitom speak VHH i EXW DOVR VRPHWLPHV iimx with which s/he tells D SDUDOOHO
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 D Cocsar iitom
non-Indian_Mexican 3.poss:[pon:]speak
Spanish (language)

E Cmiique iitom
(Seri)_person 3.poss:[pon:]speak
Seri (language)

F Cmiique iimx
(Seri)_person 3.poss:[pon:]say
Seri (language)

G Maricaana iitom
American 3.poss:[pon:]speak
English (language)

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LQDOL]HG IRUP RI WKH YHUE WKDW JRHV ZLWK D VLQJXODU VXEMHFW 7KH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV SURGXFWLYH WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU
)UHQFK ODQJXDJH LV Fransés iitom :KHQ WKH QDPH RI WKH GLFWLRQDU\ ZDV EHLQJ SURSRVHG KRZHYHU WKH 6HUL HG
LWRULDO FRPPLWWHH GHFLGHG RQ Comcaac quih Yaza quih Hant Ihiip Hac the meaning of the Seri people’s speech
ZKHUH Comcaac quih yaza LV FRPSRVHG RI D SOXUDO QRXQ Comcaac Seri people DQG D QRPLQDOL]HG IRUP RI WKH
VXSSOHWLYH SOXUDO IRUP RI WKH YHUE IRU VSHDNLQJ √ooza SOXV WKH LQWHUYHQLQJ GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH quih
6LPSO\ WKH ZRUG Cmiique person/Seri W\SLFDOO\ RFFXUV ZLWK WKH YHUE √ii to hear DV LQ ¡Cmiique hxii! I
really know the Seri language! OLWHUDOO\ I hear Seri person! ZKLFK XVXDOO\ LV WDNHQ WR PHDQ VSHDN LW DV ZHOO DV
XQGHUVWDQG LW

15.4 Names for individuals

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&KLOGUHQ DUH JHQHUDOO\ JLYHQ D EDE\ QDPH ZKHQ WKH\ DUH YHU\ \RXQJ XVXDOO\ E\ WKHLU SDUHQWV 7KH ZRUG IRU
WKLV NLQG RI QDPH LV ihacaalim what one plays with 7KLV QDPH JHQHUDOO\ FHDVHV WR EH XVHG DW DERXW WKH WLPH RI

7KLV LV %DQG ,,, DV GHVFULEHG LQ ( 0RVHU 

6HH +HUUHUD &DVDQRYD 

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LV FRPPRQO\ KHDUG DV [marikaˈniːtom] ,W VKRXOG EH QRWHG WKDW WKHVH H[SUHVVLRQV DUH QRXQ SKUDVHV UHIHUULQJ WR WKH ODQJXDJHV
WKH\ DUH QRW DGMHFWLYHV

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378 Chapter 15: Names

 D Cámota quih ai
Cámota def;fl 3.poss:father.me
Cámota’s father [Manuel Encinas]
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E Hast Haquim quih ai

Hast Haquim’s father [Antonio Herrera]
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F Xaasj Ihamoc quih ai

[Santiago Blanco] Xaasj Ihamoc’s father
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15.5 Embellishment
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thing (Seri)_person grown/older female Luisa
long ago deceased Seri female Luisa

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deceased old man Porfirio

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§15.6 Names as appositive modifiers 379

E ziix cmaam María

thing female María
deceased old woman María

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thing sbj.nmlz:strong Roberto
deceased adult Roberto

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thing sbj.nmlz:strong sbj.nmlz:hv:skirt Ramona
deceased adult Ramona

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thing sbj.nmlz:weak Pedro
deceased young person Pedro

E ziix cmotomn quipnaail María

thing sbj.nmlz:weak sbj.nmlz:hv:skirt María
deceased young person María

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15.6 Names as appositive modifiers

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1.poss:younger_brother.me René
my younger brother René

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380 Chapter 15: Names

E René, hizcz
René, my younger brother

 D Pedro quih azcz René

Pedro def;fl 3.poss:younger_brother.me René
Pedro’s younger brother René

E René, Pedro quih azcz

René, Pedro’s younger brother

 D René quih (cmaacoj) ai José Ángel

René def;fl old_man 3.poss:father.me José Ángel
René’s father José Ángel

E José Ángel, René quih ai

José Ángel, René’s father

 D Martín quih oyacj Juan

Martín def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:call_sibling Juan
Martín’s brother Juan

E Juan, Martín quih oyacj

Juan, Martín’s brother

 D Luis quih yaazi José

Luis def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry José
Luis’s son José

E José, Luis quih yaazi

José, Luis’s son

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 D heezitim caacoj [ Jericó hapáh ] quij

town sbj.nmlz:big Jericho sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm
the city named Jerichobb 177 /N 

E cmiique caii [ Oficj Cooil

(Seri)_person grown/older [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:wear_shirt sbj.nmlz:blue/green
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sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;fl
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F hant [ Galilea hapáh ] hac

land Galilee sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;loc
the land named Galileebb 177 0W 

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 D [ Cofteecöl Iifa hapáh ] quih

San_Esteban_Island 3.poss:point sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;loc
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E haa ntiya, Heeesam Yapóticol hapáh

there aw:rlyo:move Hippocampus_ingens [3.poss:]pon:evade\impf sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl
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def;loc
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15.7 Nominals in vocative function

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members of the Christian faith (male or female)

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 — Hinyaac, hant haa xoofp.

1.poss:older_brother.me land there em:arrive
“Older brother, the year has ended.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Pedro, ¿áz intaho?

Pedro bb what? 2.sbj:rlt:see
Pedro, what did you see?

 ¡Moha, hiiquet!
b twd:im:move 1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with
Come, my child!

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 * ¿Áz (ya), Pedro, intaho?

bb what? qm Pedro 2s.sbj:rlt:see
(What, Pedro, did you see?)

 ? Hast hipquij, Lorenzo, ¡hoocta!

stone px:cm Lorenzo   im:look_at
Look, Lorenzo, at this stone! 


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§15.8 Indirect reference 383

15.8 Indirect reference

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 D him quiiquet quij

1s.do:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pregnant_with def;cm
my mother

E María quih ata quih iiquet quij

María def;fl 3.poss:mother def;fl 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;cm
María’s brother/sister
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ María’s mother’s child

F cmaacoj Montaño quih yaazi quih imac caap cop

old_man Montaño def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry def;fl 3.poss:midst sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt
don Montaño’s middle childbb 0RVHU 

G Zixquisiil cmaam ihyaazi quih imiipla saa taa, haa

child female 1s.poss:obj.nmlz:carry def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]bad irr.ind:beLUUHJ rlt:be there
moom.
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My daughter is lying there about to die.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ The female child that I carried is lying there about to die.bb 177 0N 

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 D ˻ ziix iti miiha˼ cmaam com

   thing 3.poss:on twd:3.poss:pon:move female def;hz
his/her deceased motherbb 0RVHU 

E ˻ ziix itleen oaah˼ com

   thing 3.poss:palm [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:do/say/put.fl def;hz
his/her deceased childbb 0RVHU 

F ˻ Ziix itleen oo hapáh˼ quih imiipla haa ha.

   thing 3.poss:palm del sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]bad [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
The child has died.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ The thing that was put in his/her hand has died.bb 177 0N 

G ˻ ziix cmotomn˼ ctam com

  thing sbj.nmlz:weak male def;hz
the deceased young manbb 0RVHU 

H ˻ ziix caaixaj˼ com

   thing sbj.nmlz:strong def;hz
the deceased person [person older than speaker]bb 0RVHU 
 16
Pronouns

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1.pro 1.poss:pet dcl
It is MY pet.

E * Hiixz iha.
(It’s my pet.)

 D Me nyaaco cop caacoj iha.

2.pro 2.poss:house def;vt sbj.nmlz:big dcl
YOUR house is big. bb $/,0 

E Inyaaco cop caacoj iha.

2.poss:house def;vt sbj.nmlz:big dcl
Your house is big.

 D Me nscmatax aha.
2.pro 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:go aux:dcl
YOU shouldn’t go.

E Inscmatax aha.
2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:go aux:dcl
You shouldn’t go.

 D Tiix smatax aha.

dem;dt;sg irr.ind:neg:go aux:dcl
THAT ONE shouldn’t go.

E Smatax aha.
irr.ind:neg:go aux:dcl
S/he shouldn’t go.


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§16.1.1 First person he 385

16.1 Personal pronouns

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1.pro female dcl
I am a woman. bb +( 

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386 Chapter 16: Pronouns

 He cmajiic iha.
1.pro female\pl dcl
We are women.

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 He Hezitmisoj quij ano moca ha.

1.pro Hermosillo def;cm [3.poss:]in/from twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
I have come from Hermosillo. bb &<+,

 He imiipla caaitom iha.

1.pro 3.poss:[pon:]bad sbj.nmlz:speak dcl
I misspoke. bb &<+,

 He cmaax ˻ ziix coqueht˼ sacaalam caha.

1.pro now    thing sbj.nmlz:bounce irr.ind:play_with sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
We’re going to play baseball now.

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 He hásalca coi ah cohpmitalhaa iiha.

1.pro flat_basket:pl def;pl foc 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:buy/sell only
I sold only the flat baskets.bb &<+,

 He hesen hatatoomlcam ma x, ...

1.pro Olneya_tesota_(dry) 1p.sbj:rlt:cut.vt/hz \pl ds ut
WE cut ironwood, ... bb &<+,

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 D He hin yomaxpx.
1.pro 1s.do:rlyo:neg:mad_at
S/he was not mad at ME. (contrastive)
RU S/he does/did not scold ME.bb &<+,

E Hin yomaxpx.
1s.do:rlyo:neg:mad_at
She wasn’t mad at me.

 D He taax hin satoosiploj aha.

1.pro dem;dt;pl 1s.do:irr.ind:write/photograph\pl aux:dcl
THOSE will photograph me. (contrastive focus, I choose them)

E Taax he hin satoosiploj aha.

dem;dt;pl 1.pro 1s.do:irr.ind:write/photograph\pl aux:dcl
They will photograph ME. (contrastive focus)

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§16.1.1 First person he 387

F Taax hin satoosiploj aha.

dem;dt;pl 1s.do:irr.ind:write/photograph\pl aux:dcl
THOSE will photograph me.

G He hin satoosiploj aha.

1.pro 1s.do:irr.ind:write/photograph\pl aux:dcl
They will photograph ME. (contrastive focus)

H Hin satoosiploj aha.

1s.do:irr.ind:write/photograph\pl aux:dcl
They will photograph me.

 He hizi yooho.
1.pro 1p.do:rlyo:see
S/he saw/sees US. (contrastive)

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 He pac he camjc.
1.pro indf;pl 1.io:im:deliver
Bring some TO ME!

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 he hiime hac
1.pro 1.poss:home def;loc
MY home

 he hiiquet quih
1.pro 1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;fl
MY child bb &<+,

 He hihihiimet quih hant yohanl.

1.pro 1.poss:pon:be_married def;fl land/year rlyo:ten
I have been married for ten years.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ My being married has been for ten years.bb &<+,

 he hayaza hac
1.pro 1.pl.poss:pon:speak\pl def;loc
OUR language bb (OLFLWHG DOVR LQ 177  7K 

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WKH SURQRXQ DUH IRXQG HOVHZKHUH LQ WKH JUDPPDU DQG DUH QRW SUHVHQWHG KHUH
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7KH SHUVRQDO SURQRXQ PD\ EH PRGL᯳HG E\ DQ 13 7KH DQDO\VLV LV SUHVXPHG WR EH WKDW VKRZQ LQ ᯳JXUH ൺDQ
LQWHUQDOO\KHDGHG UHODWLYH FODXVH ZLWK D SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO VHH i

 He cmajiic, he soosi caha.

1.pro female\pl 1.pro irr.ind:sing:pl sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
We women will sing.
388 Chapter 16: Pronouns

 He cmajiic hascmalx aha.

1.pro female\pl 1p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:go\pl aux:dcl
We women will not go.

 He comcaac hatcooo, ox hamimjöc.

1.pro (Seri)_person\pl 1p.sbj:rlt:all thus 1p.sbj:rlmi:think\pl
That’s how all of us Seris think.

)LJXUH bb3URQRXQ DV KHDG RI UHODWLYH FODXVH

DP

DP NP

Pro

7KH SHUVRQDO SURQRXQ PD\ EH PRGL᯳HG E\ D UHODWLYH FODXVH FRQWDLQLQJ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ W\SLFDO RI UHODWLYH FODXVHV
VHH i

 He [ hihaaitloj quih coaatjö ] ox hamooctam.

1.pro 1.poss:blood:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:sweet thus 1p.sbj:rlmi:look_at:pl
That’s how those of us who are diabetics see it.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ That’s how we whose blood is sweet see it.

 He [ cacöla ] hant hac án cöicoizct

1.pro sbj.nmlz:tall/long\pl land def;loc [3.poss:]interior 3.io:inf.intr:enter\pl
hascmaaj aha.
1p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:know\pl aux:dcl
We who are tall won’t be able to enter it.

7KH SHUVRQDO SURQRXQ PD\ DOVR RFFXU LQ FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK WKH TXDQWL᯳HU coox all RU WKH DGMHFWLYH tazo one 7ZR
H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ  )RU WKH DQDO\VLV RI WKLV W\SH RI H[DPSOH VHH i

 He coox oo siilx caha.

1.pro all del irr.ind:go\pl sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
We will all go.

 He tazo ipi imatax iha.

1.pro one del sbj.nmlz:neg:go dcl
Not one of us went.

7KH SURQRXQ PD\ EH IROORZHG E\ D QDPH WDNHQ DV FRUHIHUHQWLDO ,Q VXFK D VLWXDWLRQ LW LV FRPPRQ IRU WKH SURQRXQ
WR EH UHSHDWHG DIWHU WKH 3URQRXQ1DPH VHTXHQFH DV LQ 

 He Pablo he ma hsaaipot aha.

1.pro Paul 1.pro 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:pay aux:dcl
I, Paul, will pay you. bb 177 3KP 


7KH VDPH VHQWHQFH EXW ZLWKRXW WKH RYHUW SURQRXQ he ZDV MXGJHG XQJUDPPDWLFDO
§16.1.2 Second person me 389

16.1.2 Second person me

7KH H[DPSOHV LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ LOOXVWUDWH WKH XVDJH RI WKH VHFRQG SHUVRQ SURQRXQ me ZLWK ERWK VLQJXODU DQG SOXUDO
UHIHUHQFH LQ D YDULHW\ RI FRQVWUXFWLRQV

$V VXEMHFW RI D YHUEOHVV SUHGLFDWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ i

 Me siip iha.
2.pro young_man dcl
You are a young man.bb +( 

 Me siipilc quih coocj iha.

2.pro young_man\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:two dcl
You are two young men. bb +( 

$V VXEMHFW RI D GHYHUEDO QRXQ LQ D SUHGLFDWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ i

 ¿Me áz casiijim ya?

  2.pro what? sbj.nmlz:[tr:]do qm
What are you (sg.) doing? bb &<+,

 ¿Me áz caseaalam ya?

  2.pro what? sbj.nmlz:[tr:]do\pl qm
What are you (pl.) doing?

 Me he him isal caha.

2.pro 1.pro 1s.do:irr.ind:accompany sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
You will accompany ME.

 Me cmotet iha.
2.pro sbj.nmlz:heavy dcl
You are heavy.bb &<+,

 ¿Me hant caacj ya?

  2.pro land/year sbj.nmlz:have_two_years_age qm
Are you two years old? bb &<+,

$V VXEMHFW RI D ᯳QLWH YHUE FURVVUHIHUHQFHG E\ PRUSKRORJ\ RQ WKH YHUE VHH i

 ¿Me maal quih intácatx?

  2.pro 2.poss:spouse def;fl 2s.sbj:rlt:abandon
Did YOU (sg.) leave (divorce) your spouse? bb &<+,

 ¿Me zó matooza?
   2.pro how? 2p.sbj:rlt:say\pl
What are YOU (pl.) saying? bb 177 0W 

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$V REMHFW RI D ᯳QLWH RU QRPLQDOL]HG YHUE FURVVUHIHUHQFHG E\ PRUSKRORJ\ RQ WKH YHUE VHH i

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ ¿Áz me casiijim ya? LQ  FDQQRW PHDQ What are you doing? EXW LW LV JUDPPDWLFDO RQ WKH UHDGLQJ
What is s/he doing to you? ZKHUH me LV LQGLUHFW REMHFW DJUHHPHQW DQG QRW WKH SURQRXQ me GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV FKDSWHU
390 Chapter 16: Pronouns

 ¡Me ma hxooh!
  2.pro 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:em:do/say/put.fl
I’m speaking to YOU (sg.)!bb 177 0W 

 ¡Me mazi hxooh!

  2.pro 2p.do:1s.sbj.tr:em:do/say/put.fl
I’m speaking to YOU (pl.)! bb 177 $F 

 me ma cmistaj coi
2.pro 2s.do:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]resemble:pl def;pl
(those) who resemble YOU (sg.)

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i

 Me nyaaco cop caacoj iha.

2.pro 2.poss:house def;vt sbj.nmlz:big dcl
YOUR house is big. bb $/,0 

 ¿Me miixz ya?

   2.pro 2.poss:pet qm
Is it YOUR pet?

 ¿Me nyaa° ya?

   2.pro yours qm
Is it YOURS? bb 2YHUKHDUG

 ¿Me moyaat° ya?

   2.pro yours:pl qm
Is it YOURS (plural possessor)?

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QRUPDO UHODWLYH FODXVH i

 Me ctamcö, me hizac oo iti masoii aha.

2.pro male\pl 2.pro px:loc del 3.poss:on 2p.sbj:irr.ind:be.fl\pl aux:dcl
You men should stay here.

 Me [ xiica quiistox (quih) imihiimtoj, ] iij

2.pro thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:neg:married;pl otherwise/apart
iiqui aii, toc cöaii.
3.poss:toward [im;]stand\pl there 3.io:[im;]stand\pl
You who aren’t married, stand to one side!

 Me [ satoj quih quiiitoj ] masmoqueept aha.

2.pro Modiolus_capax def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:eat;pl 2p.sbj:irr.ind:sick;pl aux:dcl
You who ate mussels are going to be sick.

16.1.3 Expletive phrase complement

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PD\ EH XVHG IRU HPSKDVLV LQ VRPH VLWXDWLRQV WKH IXQFWLRQ LV QRW HQWLUHO\ FOHDU 6XFK H[SUHVVLRQV DUH QRW DW DOO
§16.1.3 Expletive phrase complement 391

XQFRPPRQ $Q H[DPSOH RI D FRPSOHWH H[SUHVVLRQ LV he hapi hisoj hipquij 1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being  px:cm

I this my being RU OHVV OLWHUDOO\ I myself 6HH RWKHUV LQ WDEOH 

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3URQRXQ ,QWHQVL᯳HU 1RXQ 'HWHUPLQHU

I myself (he) hapi hisoj hipquij
you yourself (me) hapi misoj hipquij
she herself, he himself, it itself hapi isoj hipquij
oneself (unspecified) hapi quisoj quij
we ourselves (he) hapi hísolca hizcoi
you yourselves (me) hapi mísolca hizcoi
they themselves hapi ísolca hizcoi

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FRQGLWLRQV

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PRVW FRPPRQ GHWHUPLQHU XVHG LQ WKHP LV WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH hipquij DV VKRZQ EXW hipcop DQG hipcom DUH DOVR
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WKHVH H[SUHVVLRQV

 He hipi hisoj hipquij ihyooho.

1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being px:cm 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I myself saw it.

 He hapi hisoj hipquij quihehe caacoj quij ihyooho.

1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being px:cm sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod sbj.nmlz:big def;cm 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I myself saw the governor.

 He hapi hisoj hipquij, icatoomec quih tazo hant quih iti tap
1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being px:cm week def;fl one land def;fl 3.poss:on rlt:stand

ma x, ziix quih hapahit, taax himahit ihptaacj

ds ut thing def;fl sbj.nmlz:pass:eat dem;dt;pl 1.poss:[pon:]neg:eat 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:times;two

ma x, queme ha.
ds ut sbj.nmlz:depleted dcl
I fast twice a week. bb 177 /N 

 He hapi hisoj hipquij Yooz quij oo hin tah ma, he hiz

1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being px:cm God def;cm del 1s.do:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds 1.pro px
cömoca ha.
3.io:twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
I have come here because God caused it. bb 177 /N 

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7KH KHDG QRXQ LV WUDQVODWHG being KHUH 7KH PRVW EDVLF PHDQLQJ RI WKH ZRUG LV body EXW WKH FKRLFH RI DUWLFOH PDNHV
D GL᯲HUHQFH VHH WKH H[DPSOHV DQG GLVFXVVLRQ LQ i 6RPH VSHDNHUV SUHIHU WKH GLDOHFWDO YDULDQW hipi IRU WKH LQWHQVL᯳HU
hapi

7KLV LV OLNH VD\LQJ WKDW RQH ZDV DQ H\HZLWQHVV WR WKH HYHQW $QRWKHU ZD\ RI VD\LQJ LW LV Hapi hitoj hizcoi cohyooho (intns
1.poss:eye:pl px:pl 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see I saw it with my own eyes
392 Chapter 16: Pronouns
)LJXUH bb$QDO\VLV RI he hapi hisoj hipquij
DP

NP D

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he hapi hisoj hipquij

 He hapi hísolca hizcoi tazo ipi hiza piij, ...

1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being;pl px:pl one del towards_elsewhere irr.dep:sit
Not even one of us here, … bb 177 +H 

 ¿Me hipi mísolca hizcoi mataaitoj?

   2.pro intns 2.poss:body/being:pl px:pl 2p.sbj:rlt:eat\pl
Did you yourselves eat it?

 Hipi misoj iha xo hipimax ziix iti cömiitom ipi zo

intns 2.poss:bodoy/being dcl but not_even thing 3.poss:on 3.io:2.poss:[pon:]speak del indf;sg

mimaa ha.
2.poss:[pon:]neg:know dcl
You have no idea what you are saying.

 Hipi quisoj cop miizj spaii aha.

intns sbj.nmlz:hv:body def;vt well irr.ind:pass:make aux:dcl
One should take care of oneself. bb 2᯲HUHG

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 IRU H[DPSOH LOOXVWUDWHV WKDW WKLV SURQRXQ ZLWK H[SOHWLYH SKUDVH PD\ RFFXU ZLWK WKLUG SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ LQ
DW OHDVW VRPH FDVHV

 He hapi hisoj hipquij iyooho.

1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being px:cm 3.sbj:rlyo:see
I myself saw it.

7KH QHJDWLYH SDUW RI not even FRPHV IURP WKH QHJDWLYH YHUE WKDW FRPHV ODWHU LQ WKH VHQWHQFH

7KLV H[DPSOH ZDV DGDSWHG IURP 0N  WR VKRZ WKH SHUVRQ PRUSKRORJ\ PRUH FOHDUO\ LQ VHFRQG SHUVRQ 7KLV XWWHUDQFH
LV FRQVLGHUHG YHU\ FRORUIXO VSHHFK DQG UHSUHVHQWDWLYH RI 6HUL SKUDVHRORJ\ $Q DSSURSULDWH FRQWH[W LV ZKHQ VRPHRQH EHFDXVH
RI IHDU RU VXUSULVH EHJLQV VD\LQJ WKLQJV ZLWKRXW WKLQNLQJൺMXVW VWDUWV EDEEOLQJ

7KLV FDQQRW EH VDLG LQ WKH SOXUDO * Hipi quísolca coi ....

([DPSOH  VXUSULVHG PH EXW DOO RI WKH FRQVXOWDQWV MXGJHG LW FRPSOHWHO\ DFFHSWDEOH ,W LV FHUWDLQO\ PRUH FRPPRQ WR
XVH WKH VXEMHFW SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ WKDW DJUHHV LQ SHUVRQ ZLWK WKH SRVVHVVRU RI WKH KHDG QRXQ
§16.1.4 Third person ee 393

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QHFHVVDULO\ RPLWWHG ZKHQ WKH SKUDVH LV WKH FRPSOHPHQW LQ D SDUWLWLYH H[SUHVVLRQ DV LQ H[DPSOHV 

 D [ [ Hapi mísolca coi ] pac ] haa toii x, ...

intns 2.poss:body\pl def;pl indf;pl there rlt:be.fl\pl ut
Some of you are there, ...

E Hapi mísolca coi pac haa matoii x, …

2p.sbj:rlt:be.fl\pl ut
Some of you are there, … bb 177  &R 

 D [ [ Hapi mísolca hizcoi ] coocj ] haquix paii, ...

intns 2.poss:body\pl px:pl sbj.nmlz:two somewhere irr.dep:be.fl\pl
If two of you are somewhere, ... bb 177 0W 

E Hapi mísolca hizcoi coocj haquix mapaii, …

1p.sbj:irr.dep:be.fl\pl
If two of you are somewhere, ...

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU each LV UDWKHU FRPSOH[ VHH i IRU GHWDLOV ,W PD\ WDNH D VLPSOH VHFRQG SHUVRQ SURQRXQ
FRPSOHPHQW WR H[SUHVV each of you RU LW PD\ WDNH D FRPSOHPHQW ZLWK WKH H[SOHWLYH SKUDVH 7KH HQWLUH SKUDVH LV
WKLUG SHUVRQ DV LW GHWHUPLQHV WKLUG SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Me iij càap tazo cah quiya ha.

2.pro otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:stand one def;fl:foc sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
Each of you knows it.

 ¿Me iij càap tazo quih haa ya tooit?

   2.pro otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:stand one def;fl aux qm rlt:dance
Did each of you dance (separately)?

 Hapi mísolca hizcoi iij càap tazo cah quiya ha.

intns 2.poss:body\pl px:pl otherwise/apart sbj.nmlz:stand one def;fl:foc sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
Each of you knows it.

16.1.4 Third person ee

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ZKHQ XVHG LQ FRPELQDWLRQ ZLWK WKH LQWHQVLI\LQJ DGYHUE hapi VHH i WKLV FRQQRWDWLRQ PD\ EH GHIXVHG
$ GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ LV FRPPRQO\ XVHG ZKHQ RQH ZDQWV WR PDNH VLPSOH UHIHUHQFH WR D WKLUG SHUVRQ VHH
i )RU VRPH H[DPSOHV RI ee VHH 

 Ee ziix quih coox cah seehe cöitaa camoz iha.

3.pro thing def;fl all def;fl:foc to_do_(it) 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:know sbj.nmlz:think dcl
S/HE thinks that s/he can do anything.

$OVR SRVVLEOH

L He hapi hisoj hipquij quiho ha.

1.pro intns 1.poss:body/being px;cm sbj.nmlz:tr:see dcl
, P\VHOI VDZ LW


7KLV SURQRXQ RFFXUV OHVV WKDQ  WLPHV LQ WKH 1HZ 7HVWDPHQW WUDQVODWLRQ ZKHUHDV ᯳UVW SHUVRQ he DQG VHFRQG SHUVRQ me
DUH XVHG WKRXVDQGV RI WLPHV
394 Chapter 16: Pronouns

 Ee ha tahtxima xah yoomoz.

3.pro foc rlt:rich ? rlyo:think
S/HEi thinks s/hei ’s rich. bb &<+,

 Ee ha tahtximj xah yoomjöc.

3.pro foc rlt:rich;pl ? rlyo:think\pl
THEY think they’re rich. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Ee ha áno yázalca, ziix quih hant quih iti tahca ma x.

3.pro foc [3.poss:]in rlyo:speak\pl;impf thing def;fl land def;fl 3.poss:on rlt:be_located ds ut
THEY are always sticking their noses into things.bb &<+,

 Juan quij, ee hipi mos mino ntica itamzo, ...

Juan def;cm 3.pro intns also 2.poss:in aw:inf:move 3.sbj:rlt:want
Juan himself wants to visit you, ...

 ... ee mos isiihit taa siimoz aha, ...

3.pro also 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat rlt:aux irr.ind:think aux:dcl
... S/HE might think to eat it, ... bb 177  &R 

16.1.5 First person emphatic hatee

7KH SURQRXQ hatee LV XVHG HPSKDWLFDOO\ RU SHUKDSV FRQWUDVWLYHO\ E\ WKH VSHDNHU WR UHIHU WR KLPVHOI RU KHUVHOI
,W PRVW FRPPRQO\ LI QRW H[FOXVLYHO\ co-RFFXUV ZLWK VSHFLDO PRUSKRORJ\ RQ WKH YHUE WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ HPSKDWLF
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H[DPSOHV 

 Hatee smaahit aha.

1s.em.pro irr.ind:neg:1s.em.sbj.tr:eat aux:dcl
I won’t eat it! bb &<+,

 Hatee somcaatax aha.

1s.em.pro irr.ind:neg:1s.em.sbj.intr:go aux:dcl
I won’t go! bb &<+,

 Hatee squiim aha.

1s.em.pro irr.ind:1s.em.sbj.intr:sleep aux:dcl
I will sleep.bb &<+,

 Hatee hatyaa° ha.

1.em.pro em;mine dcl
It’s MINE!

 Hatee hap zo quicö, hax maacta.

1s.em.pro Odocoileus_hemionus indf;sg sbj.nmlz:tr:kill intns rlmi:1s.sbj.em.tr:look_at
I think he killed a mule deer. bb &<+,

16.1.6 Possessive pronouns

7KH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQV VHH WDEOH  DERYH DUH REYLRXVO\ GHULYHG IURP WKH YHUE √yaa own, possess 7KH ᯳UVW
DQG VHFRQG SHUVRQ SOXUDO IRUPV LQ IDFW DUH LGHQWLFDO WR ZKDW RQH ZRXOG H[SHFW DV WKH REMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO
QRXQV EDVHG RQ WKLV YHUE DV VKRZQ LQ 
§16.1.6 Possessive pronouns 395

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moyaat  mi- o$EODXW - yaa -t

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7KH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQV GR QRW KDYH WKH VDPH UDQJH RI XVDJH DV LQ PDQ\ RWKHU ODQJXDJHV GXH RQH SUHVXPHV
WR WKHLU UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH YHUE √yaa own, possess DOWKRXJK WKH\ DUH JORVVHG KHUH DV VLPSO\ SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQV
7KH\ FDQQRW JHQHUDOO\ EH XVHG ZLWK UHIHUHQFH WR SHRSOH ERG\ SDUWV RU RWKHU LWHPV WKDW RQH GRHV QRW DFWXDOO\
RZQ
7KH KLVWRULFDO VRXUFH RI WKH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ DV D GHYHUEDO QRXQ DOVR VKRZV LWVHOI LQ WKH V\QWD[ RI WKH QRXQ
SKUDVH LW LV H[DFWO\ ZKDW LV H[SHFWHG ZLWK WKH DQDO\VLV RI DQ LQWHUQDOO\KHDGHG UHODWLYH FODXVH i 7KHUHIRUH
WKH SRVVHVVRU  bVXEMHFW FRPPRQO\ SUHFHGHV WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ  bREMHFW IROORZHG E\ WKH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ
 bYHUE $QG MXVW DV LQ VWDQGDUG UHODWLYH FODXVHV WKH KHDG QRXQ  bSRVVHVVHG QRXQ PD\ RFFXU FODXVHLQLWLDOO\
7KLV LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D [ Trooqui (quih) Juan quih yaa° quij ] caacoj iha.

vehicle def;fl Juan def;fl his/hers def;cm sbj.nmlz:big dcl
Juan’s vehicle is big.

E [ Trooqui (quih) Juan quih yaa° quij ] caacoj iha.

vehicle def;fl Juan def;fl his/hers def;cm sbj.nmlz:big dcl
Juan’s vehicle is big.

7KH SRVVHVVRU QHHG QRW EH H[SOLFLWO\ SUHVHQW RI FRXUVH DV VKRZQ LQ 

 trooqui yaa° quij

vehicle his/hers def;cm
his/her vehicle

 canoaataj hoyaat coi

boat:pl 1.poss:obj.nmlz:own:pl def;pl
our boats

7KH LQWHQVL᯳HU hapi a hipi PD\ EH XVHG ZLWK SRVVHVVRUV VHH i DQG i HYHQ QRQRYHUW RQHV DV LQ


 zaah hipi hyaa° quij

sun/watch intns mine def;cm
MY watch

%RG\ SDUWV FDQ RQO\ XVH WKH PRUSKRORJLFDO SRVVHVVRU DQG WKH VDPH LV WUXH RI NLQVKLS WHUPV ([SUHVVLRQV EXLOW RQ GHYHUEDO
QRXQV XWLOL]H WKH DSSURSULDWH PRUSKRORJ\ IRU SRVVHVVRU )RU H[DPSOH my belt LV ංZKDW , SXW DURXQG P\ ZDLVWඃ VHH i
5HODWLRQVKLS WR LWHPV WKDW FDQQRW EH SRVVHVVHG PXVW EH H[SUHVVHG LQ VRPH DSSURSULDWH ZD\ )RU H[DPSOH our land PD\ EH
hant iti hayaii PRUH OLWHUDOO\ the land on which we live

:KHQ WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ RFFXUV EHIRUH WKH SRVVHVVRU DQ DUWLFOH PD\ IROORZ WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ 6HH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI
WKHVH IDFWV LQ i
396 Chapter 16: Pronouns

:KHQ WKHUH LV QR QRPLQDO KHDG WKH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ PD\ HDVLO\ IXQFWLRQ DV KHDG RI WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ
DOWKRXJK LQ WKLV VLWXDWLRQ W\SLFDOO\ VRPHWKLQJ RYHUW DSSHDUV LQ WKH SRVVHVVRU SRVLWLRQ RU DW OHDVW DQ DGYHUE VKRXOG
EH SUHVHQW IRU WKH H[DPSOH WR EH FRQVLGHUHG ZHOOIRUPHG &RPSDUH WKH JUDPPDWLFDO H[DPSOHV  LQ
ZKLFK VRPHWKLQJ RYHUO\ DSSHDUV ZLWK WKH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ ZLWK WKH JHQHUDOO\ OHVV DFFHSWDEOH  DQG 
LQ ZKLFK WKH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQV DSSHDU DORQH

 ¿Hapi yaa° ya?

   intns his/hers qm
Is it HIS/HERS?

 ¿Me nyaa° ya?

   2.pro yours qm
Is it YOURS? bb 2YHUKHDUG

 ¿Tiix yaa° ya?

   dem;dt;sg his/hers qm
Is it HIS/HERS?

 Juan quih yaa° quij ihxoqueepe.

Juan def;fl his/hers def;cm 1s.sbj.tr:em:like
I really like Juan’s (e.g., watch)

 ¿Cói nyaa° oo ya?

b still yours del qm
Are you still owning it? bb 2᯲HUHG

 ¿Haptco yaa° ya?

  already his/hers qm
Is it already his/hers? bb 2᯲HUHG

 ? ¿Yaa° ya?
  his/hers qm
Is it his/hers?

 ? ¿Inyaa° ya?
  yours qm
Is it yours?

$Q H[SUHVVLRQ OLNH  ZLWK D SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ PD\ EH XVHG IHOLFLWRXVO\ ZLWK UHIHUHQFH WR SRVVHVVLRQV WKDW
QHYHU RFFXU V\QWDFWLFDOO\ ZLWK WKH SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ yaa VXFK DV D VFDUI D KRXVH RU VKRHV :KLOH SRVVHVVLRQ
RI WKHVH QRXQV LV DOZD\V LQGLFDWHG PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ DQG QRW ZLWK D SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQ VXFK DV inyaa WKH IDFW
WKDW WKH\ DUH VWLOO SRVVHVVLRQV DOORZV IRU WKH XVH RI D TXHVWLRQ VXFK DV  LQ UHIHUHQFH WR WKHP

16.2 Demonstrative pronouns

(LJKW GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV VHH WDEOH  DUH GLVWLQJXLVKHG E\ QXPEHU UHODWLYH GLVWDQFH IURP WKH VSHDNHU
ZKHQ XVHG H[RSKRULFDOO\ DQG D IDFWRU RI FRQWUDVWLYHQRQFRQWUDVWLYH HPSKDVLV i


$OWKRXJK LQ QRUPDO FRQYHUVDWLRQ VXFK VHQWHQFHV DUH FRQVLGHUHG EL]DUUH FRQVXOWDQWV FDPH XS ZLWK GL᯲HUHQW VLWXDWLRQV LQ
ZKLFK VXFK VHQWHQFHV FRXOG EH HDVLO\ XVHG 2QH ZDV DV DQ H[SUHVVLRQ RI DPD]HPHQW $QRWKHU LV LQ FRRUGLQDWLRQ ZLWK DQ
DOWHUQDWLYH VXFK DV ¿Yaa ya x? ¿Ipasot ya x? Does s/he own it or has s/he borrowed it? 2U ¿Inyaa ya x? ¿Minyaa ya x?
Is it yours or is it not yours? 7KH SOXUDO SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQV hoyaat moyaat DQG yaat VHHP WR KDYH WKH VDPH UHVWULFWLRQ RQ
XVDJH LQ WKDW VRPHWKLQJ RYHUW VKRXOG SUHFHGH WKHP LI WKH\ DUH WKH KHDG RI WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ
§16.2.1 Exophoric use 397

7DEOH bb6LPSOH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV

3UR[LPDO 3UR[LPDO 'LVWDO 'LVWDO

&HUWDLQ &HUWDLQ
6LQJXODU hipiix hipii tiix tii
3OXUDO  0DVV  $EVWUDFW  $UHD hizaax hizaa taax taa

7KH GLVWDO SURQRXQV DUH YHU\ FRPPRQO\ XVHG DQDSKRULFDOO\ i ZKLOH WKH SUR[LPDO SURQRXQV PD\ EH
XVHG FDWDSKRULFDOO\ i 7KH GLVWDO SURQRXQV DUH DOVR FRPPRQO\ XVHG IROORZLQJ D QRPLQDO WR VKRZ IRFXV
i 7KH UHIHUHQWV RI WKHVH SURQRXQV PD\ EH KXPDQ RU QRQKXPDQ DQLPDWH RU LQDQLPDWH EXW WKH UHIHUHQW
PXVW EH VSHFL᯳F

16.2.1 Exophoric use

([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKH XVH RI WKHVH SURQRXQV WR PDNH H[SOLFLW UHIHUHQFH WR D SK\VLFDO REMHFW LQ WKH
ORFDWLRQ RI WKH VSHHFK DFW

Proximal hipiix and hizaax

 Hipiix hiif quij haa ha.

dem;px;sg 1.poss:nose def;cm aux dcl
This is my nose. bb +(  PRGL᯳HG

 Hipiix zacaam iha.

dem;px;sg young_woman dcl
This is a girl. bb +(  PRGL᯳HG

 Hizaax siip cop itooit chaa ha.

dem;px;pl young_man def;vt 3.poss:foot/leg\pl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
These are the boy’s legs. bb +( 

 Hizaax hiteen hac haa ha.

dem;px;pl 1.poss:mouth def;loc aux dcl
This (area) is my mouth. bb +(  PRGL᯳HG

Distal tiix and taax

 Tiix xomiha.
dem;dt;sg em:neg:fast
That one’s not going fast.bb &<+,

 Taax mos siilx caha.

dem;dt;pl also irr.ind:go\pl sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
Those will also go. bb &<+,

 Taax inscmahit aha.

dem;dt;pl 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:eat aux:dcl
Don’t eat that (e.g., porridge)!

 Taax ano piij ta x, masiiht aha.

dem;dt;pl [3.poss:]in irr.dep:sit ds ut 2p.sbj:irr.ind:see:pl aux:dcl
He will be there, you will see him. bb 177 0W 


7KHVH SURQRXQV DUH FRPPRQ EXW WKH XVH RI taax PRUH WKDQ  RFFXUUHQFHV LQ WKH 1HZ 7HVWDPHQW WUDQVODWLRQ
RXWVWULSV tiix PRUH WKDQ  LQ SDUW EHFDXVH RI WKH YDULHG PHDQLQJV RI WKH IRUPHU
398 Chapter 16: Pronouns

16.2.2 Anaphoric use

7KH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV DUH D FRPPRQ ZD\ WR UHIHU WR D WKLUG SHUVRQ HVSHFLDOO\ EXW QRW H[FOXVLYHO\ WKH
GLVWDO SURQRXQV 7KH\ WKXV KDYH DQ DQDSKRULF XVH LQ WKDW WKH\ UHIHU LQ WKHVH FRQWH[WV WR VRPHWKLQJ SUHYLRXVO\
PHQWLRQHG LQ WKH GLVFRXUVH UDWKHU WKDQ WR VRPHWKLQJ VLWXDWHG SK\VLFDOO\ LQ WKH ORFDWLRQ RI WKH VSHHFK DFW 6HH
H[DPSOHV 

 Taax toc cömotat ma,

dem;dt;pl there 3.io:twd:rlt:move:pl ds
Those were coming there,bb +LSRFDPSR

 Tiix ˻ hant haaco iima˼ quih hoopatj quih caacoj iti caap,
dem;dt;sg    land ? 3.poss:[pon:]? def;fl wave def;fl sbj.nmlz:big 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:stand

tiix haa ha.

dem;dt;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
He is in the big wave that happens at the end of the world.bb +LSRFDPSR

 Taax ah aa itáh ma, ...

dem;dt;pl foc ? 3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds
Because of that, ...
/LWHUDOO\ That causing it, ... D YHU\ FRPPRQ SKUDVH

 Taax ihyomoozi.
dem;dt;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:dream
I dreamed about that.

$V ZLWK WKH SHUVRQDO SURQRXQV VHH i WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ taax PD\ RFFXU ZLWK WKH TXDQWL᯳HU coox
all RU WKH DGMHFWLYHSURQRXQ tazo one DV LQ 

 Taax coox oo cöitzaxö ma, ...

dem;dt;pl all del 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:discuss ds
After he had told him about all that, ... bb 177 $F 

 Taax tazo ipi zo yomatax.

dem;dt;pl one del indf;sg rlyo:neg:go
Not one of them went.

8QOLNH SHUVRQDO SURQRXQV KRZHYHU WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV GR QRW RFFXU DV KHDGV RI UHODWLYH FODXVHV &RP
SDUH JUDPPDWLFDO  ZLWK D KHDGOHVV UHODWLYH FODXVH DV VXEMHFW the ones hunting mule deer DQG XQJUDPPDWLFDO
 ZLWK D GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ DV KHDG RI WKH UHODWLYH FODXVH those hunting mule deer

 [ Hap quicötoj coi ] ox mimjöc.

Odocoileus_hemionus sbj.nmlz:kill\pl def;pl thus rlmi:think\pl
That’s how the expert mule deer hunters think.

 * [ Taax hap quicötoj ] (coi) ox mimjöc.

dem;dt;pl Odocoileus_hemionus sbj.nmlz:kill\pl def;pl thus rlmi:think\pl
(That’s how those who are expert mule deer hunters think.)

16.2.3 Cataphoric use

:KHQ UHIHUHQFH LV EHLQJ PDGH WR VRPHWKLQJ WKDW LV FRPLQJ XS LQ WKH GLVFRXUVH WKH SUR[LPDO GHPRQVWUDWLYH
SURQRXQ hizaax LV WKH RQH PRVW FRPPRQO\ XVHG DV VKRZQ LQ H[DPSOHV 

 Hizaax mos insiya aha, cói mpomatax ipi: ...

dem;px;pl also 2s.sbj:irr.ind:know aux:dcl still 2s.sbj:irr.dep:neg:go del
You should know this before you go: ...
§16.2.4 Focal use for contrast 399

 Hizaax oo cötpacta ma, mosnipol hapáh

dem;px;pl del 3.io:rlt:be_in_appearance ds Dermochelys_coriacea sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl
quij xepe án com ano tiih x, toc cöquiih iha.
def;cm sea [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in rlt:be.fl ut there 3.io:subj.nmlz:be_fl dcl
This is why the leatherback turtle lives in the sea.bb 0RVQLSRO 

 Ox oo mpacta xo, hizaax oo me hsii xo: ...

thus del rlmi:be_in_appearance but dem;px;pl del 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:tell but
But this is what I will tell you: ... bb 177 0W 

 Hizaax mos me hxomiiit: ...

dem;px;pl also 2s.io:1s.sbj.tr:em:ask
I also ask you this: ... bb 177 5RP 

16.2.4 Focal use for contrast

7KH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV tiix that one DQG taax those, that DEVWUDFW YHU\ FRPPRQO\ DSSHDU IROORZLQJ D QRXQ
SKUDVH HLWKHU DQ 13 RU D '3 ZKLFK PD\ EH D SURQRXQ $ FRPPRQ H᯲HFW RI WKLV LV FRQWUDVWLYH HPSKDVLV RQ
WKH QRPLQDO WKDW SUHFHGHV WKH SURQRXQ 6RPHWLPHV WKHUH LV D VOLJKW SDXVH EHIRUH WKH SURQRXQ DQG WKH SURQRXQ
EHJLQV DW D VOLJKWO\ KLJKHU SLWFK WKDQ WKH SUHFHGLQJ V\OODEOH EHFDXVH LW LV VWUHVVHG ([DPSOHV  VKRZ
WKH XVH RI D GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ IROORZLQJ DQ 13 WKDW LV D QRPLQDO SKUDVH ZLWKRXW D GHWHUPLQHU

 Comcaii, tiix zaah quih coox cah aal quih cöyacaai.
old_woman dem;dt;sg sun/day def;fl all def;fl:foc 3.poss:spouse def;fl 3.io:rlyo:?
THAT ELDERLY WOMAN always accompanies her husband. bb &<+,

 ... xo hax cpaaisx, taax ipi z imasi ha.

but fresh_water sbj.nmlz:clean dem;dt;pl del indf;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:drink dcl
... it doesn’t even drink CLEAN WATER.bb (6 DFDDPB FFDD E

 He quihehe isoj, tiix he haa ha.

1.pro sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod 3.poss:body/self dem;dt;sg 1.pro aux dcl
I am the CHIEF.

([DPSOHV  VKRZ WKH XVH RI WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV IROORZLQJ D W\SLFDO '3

 Ctam quij, tiix ˻ ziix hast iizx ano coom˼ com imhaa.
male def;cm dem;dt;sg    Sauromalus_obesus def;hz sbj.nmlz:neg:eq
THE MAN became the northern chuckwalla.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDDB 

 ¿Ixaap czooxöc coi, taax shaa quee ya?

   3.poss:[pon:]spend_night sbj.nmlz:four def;pl dem;dt;pl irr.ind:eq sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Will it [the party] be for FOUR DAYS?

$QG H[DPSOHV  VKRZ WKH XVH RI WKHP IROORZLQJ DQRWKHU SURQRXQ

 Hipiix, tiix ihyaazi ihyamsisiin quih haa ha.

dem;px;sg dem;dt;sg 1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry 1.poss:obj.nmlz:love def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
THIS is my beloved son. bb 177 0N 

 Hizcoi, taax hipi hsiihit aha.

px:pl dem;dt;pl intns 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
THESE, I’m going to eat them myself. bb *LJDQWHB&RPHOµQB

,Q H[DPSOHV  WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ IROORZV D QDPH WKDW LV SUHVHQWHG DV LV W\SLFDOൺVHH FKDSWHU
 ZLWK D GHWHUPLQHU
400 Chapter 16: Pronouns

 Hant Ihiin ticom, tiix contitat, yoque.

Baja_California md:hz dem;dt;sg 3.io:aw:rlt:move:pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
they headed toward Baja California.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Pedro quih, tiix inszaxö aha.

Pedro def;fl dem;dt;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:discuss aux:dcl
Speak with PEDRO!

,Q VRPH FDVHV WKLV PLJKW DSSHDU WR EH OHIW GLVORFDWLRQ ZLWK WKH QRXQ SKUDVH LQ D FODXVHLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ DQG WKH
GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ LQ WKH DUJXPHQW SRVLWLRQ LQGHHG WKDW PD\ EH WKH FRUUHFW DQDO\VLV IRU VRPH H[DPSOHV
VXFK DV WKRVH LQ F

 'RVB+HUPDQRV 

D Toc cöiyaii iti,
there 3.io:3.poss:pon:stand\pl 3.poss:on
While they were there,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

E quisil quij taa oo cötiij ma,

sbj.nmlz:little def;cm rlt:aux del 3.io:rlt:sit ds
the younger one [of the brothers] remained there,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

F ctam caii tintica, tiix taanpx, yoque.

male grown/older md:aw dem;dt;sg rlt:go_home rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
and the OLDER ONE went home, it is said.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Hapnaail, tiix ¿zó hapacta ya?

abs:skirt dem;dt;sg   how? [sbj.nmlz]:be_in_appearance qm
What color is THAT SKIRT? bb $/,0 

 Ziic tiquij, hast ancoj com, tiix an hant imooit iha.
bird md:cm stone [3.poss:]area:pl def;hz dem;dt;sg [3.poss:]in land sbj.nmlz:neg:arrive dcl
That bird doesn’t land on A ROCKY PLACE. bb (6 DF 

 He Pedro González, tii haa ha.

1.pro Pedro González dem;dt;sg aux dcl
I am Pedro González.

 Pedro González, tiix he haa ha.

Pedro González dem;dt;sg 1.pro aux dcl
I am Pedro González.

 He tiix yaazi, tiix he haa ha.

1.pro dem;dt;sg [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry dem;dt;sg 1.pro aux dcl
I am THAT ONE’S CHILD.

+RZHYHU WKLV FDQQRW EH WKH ZKROH VWRU\ DV LQ VRPH FDVHVൺ IRU H[DPSOHൺWKH QRXQ SKUDVH cmiique, tiix
LV QRW LQ FODXVHLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ VLQFH LW LV SUHFHGHG E\ D WLPH DGMXQFW

 Moxhamt cmiique, tiix ˻ iquiisax z imacapat˼.

last_year (Seri)_person dem;dt;sg    3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:spirit indf;sg 3.sbj:rlmi:cause_fly
Last year that person killed someone. bb &<+,

7KH GH᯳QLWH QRPLQDO PD\ KDYH D GHWHUPLQHU RU LW PD\ EH ZLWKRXW RQH GHVSLWH EHLQJ GH᯳QLWH VHH H[DPSOHV
 DQG  DERYH

7KH DXWKRU RI WKLV WH[W YHUL᯳HG WKDW WKH SURQRXQ tiix KHUH LV UHIHUULQJ WR WKH SODFH DQG QRW WR WKH ELUG
§16.2.4 Focal use for contrast 401

7KH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ LQ WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV RQO\ XVHG DQDSKRULFDOO\ 7KHUHIRUH LQ DQ H[DPSOH OLNH
 WKH SHUVRQ LV SUREDEO\ QRW LQ YLHZ DQG LQ  WKH VNLUW LV QRW SK\VLFDOO\ SUHVHQW ZLWK WKH VSHDNHU 7KH
UHIHUHQFHG SHRSOH RU WKLQJV DUH NQRZQ IURP WKH GLVFRXUVH FRQWH[W
$ SODFH QDPH PD\ KDYH WKH QRXQ hant land, place DIWHU LW WR LQGLFDWH WKDW RQH LV VSHDNLQJ RI WKH DUHD RI WKDW
SODFH QDPH 7KLV SKUDVH PD\ LQ WXUQ EH IROORZHG E\ HLWKHU tiix RU taax DQG WKHUH LV D VOLJKW GL᯲HUHQFH LQ PHDQLQJ
7KH SURQRXQ tiix VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH JHQHUDO DUHD RI WKH SODFH QDPH LV EHLQJ UHIHUUHG WR ZKHUHDV WKH SURQRXQ taax
LQGLFDWHV VSHFL᯳FDOO\ WKH YHU\ SODFH WKDW LV QDPHG 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Haaca Caacoj quih Inoohcö quij hant xah, tiix

Ziziphus_obtusifolia sbj.nmlz:big def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]concave def;cm land ? dem;dt;sg

ano ntita,
[3.poss:]in aw:rlt:move
he went through the area around "Big Crucillo Bush Bay",bb +LSRFDPSR

 Hajháx hant, taax iti toii,

Tecomate land dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on rlt:stand\pl
they were living at Tecomatebb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

7KLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV YHU\ FRPPRQO\ XVHG IROORZLQJ SKUDVHV KHDGHG E\ GHYHUEDO QRXQV RU DQ\ NLQG RI ංKHDYLHUඃ
QRPLQDO SKUDVH WR UHVWDWH WKHP LQ DQ DEEUHYLDWHG IDVKLRQ LW ZRXOG VHHP DQG WKXV DLG LQ SURFHVVLQJ

 Xiica quih quiistox quih oyácalcam quih ziix quih

thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:call_sibling def;fl thing def;fl
cöicamsisiin quih iti cöiihj hac, taax ah
3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:pitiful def;fl 3.poss:on 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]happen\pl def;loc dem;dt;pl foc

cöinzaxö.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:discuss
The sad things that had happened to their “brothers and sisters”—he talked to them about them.bb(6
$]RMB&DQRMB,PDWD[ 

 Jesús quij hant com iti cöiitax hac icaaitim

Jesus def;cm land def;hz 3.poss:on 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]go def;loc 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj;make:impf
quih quiipe, taax imaai.
def;fl sbj.nmlz:good dem;dt;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:make
Jesus went around doing good deeds. bb 177 $F 

 ˻ Heme cöiquiin˼ hac ziix quih hayaa quih hipi

   abs:home/family 3.io:3.poss:unsp.sbj:go_away def;loc thing def;fl sbj.nmlz;pass:own def;fl intns
seehe cöhapá, taax oo speque aha.
to_do_(it) 3.io:sbj.nmlz:pass:know/be_able dem;dt;pl del irr.ind:pass:give_gift aux:dcl
When one is asking for someone in marriage, any kind of gift that is available can be given. bb&<+,

 Hant com cmaa cöipaxi, taax ano cömota, ...

land def;hz now 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]pass:finish dem;dt;pl [3.poss:]in/from 3.io:twd:rlt:move
Ever since the beginning of the world, ... bb 177 -Q 

 ˻ Ziix hapahit˼ quih ˻ mos áno˼ quiipe quih cmiique quij
   thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat def;fl   also [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:good def;fl (Seri)_person def;cm
oohit, taax iiqui hapasx iha.
[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat dem;dt;pl 3.poss:toward sbj.nmlz:pass:count dcl
Among the best foods that a person eats, that [mollusk] is included in them. bb (6 6DWRM 
402 Chapter 16: Pronouns

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 ..., cmaax oot ticop, cmaax tiix isixö taa,

now Canis_latrans md:vt now dem;dt;sg 3.sbj:irr.ind:jump_over rlt:aux

itáh ma, ...

3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds
..., then THE COYOTE said that he was going to jump over it, ... bb 6DOWDUB/XQDB

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 Ctam, tiix inszaxö aha.

male dem;dt;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:discuss aux:dcl
Speak to THAT MAN! (The person is not in sight.)

 Ctam ticop, tiix inszaxö aha.

male md:vt dem;dt;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:discuss aux:dcl
Speak to THAT MAN!

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 ˻ Xiica quiistox˼, taax pti ixacomcaac.

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl dem;dt;pl rcp 3.sbj:em:aug:(Seri)_person\pl
THOSE PEOPLE respect each other. bb &<+,

 Cmaam iiquet quih caheetot cop tom coi,

female 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;fl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]lie_for def;vt money def;pl
tiix imexl teeme.
dem;dt;sg 3.sbj:rlmi:take rlt:say
The woman who lied for her child said that S/HE didn’t take the money.bb &<+,

 ctam caii tintica, tiix taanpx, yoque.

male grown/older md:aw dem;dt;sg rlt:go_home rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
and the OLDER ONE went home, it is said.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

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 Zacaam hapáh quih zo haa, yoque, ziix

young_woman sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;fl indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq rlyo:unsp.sbj:say thing
tiix.
dem;dt;sg
She was a young woman—that one.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

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§16.2.5 Pronouns of non-contrastive identity 403
)LJXUH bb'3 ZLWK IRFDO SURQRXQ H[DPSOH 
DP

DP DP

Dem

ctam caii tintica tiix

the mature man that one

 Zacaamalc, yoque, xiica taax cömocat, taax.

young_woman\pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say thing\pl dem;dt;pl 3.io:twd:sbj.nmlz:move\pl dem;dt;pl
They were young unmarried women, it is said, those who were coming there.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

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 ... ctam Jesús hapáh quij [ hipimax iicp miiha,

male Jesus sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm even 3.poss:side twd:3.poss:pon:move

taax ipi ] zo himaaj iha.

dem;dt;pl del indf;sg 1.poss:[pon:]neg:know:pl dcl
... the man named Jesus—where he comes from, even that we don’t know. bb 177 -Q 

16.2.5 Pronouns of non-contrastive identity

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 D ... he taax zo haa ha.

1.pro dem;dt;pl indf;sg aux dcl
I am one of them. bb VHH 177 -Q 

E He taa zo haa ha.

1.pro dem;md;pl indf;sg aux dcl
I am one of them. bb VHH 177 $F 

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WR UHIHU WR WKH JRYHUQRU RQH ZRXOG VD\ Tii oaah iha QRWDEO\ MXVW FKDQJLQJ WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ , KDYH QRWKLQJ PRUH
WR VD\ DERXW VXFK H[DPSOHV
404 Chapter 16: Pronouns

 D Tiix insexl aha.

dem;dt;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:buy aux:dcl
You should take THAT ONE. bb 2᯲HUHG

E Tii nsexl aha.

dem;dt;sg 2s.sbj:irr_ind:buy aux:dcl
You should take thàt òne. bb 2᯲HUHG

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 D ¿Hipiix haa ya?

b dem;px;sg aux qm
Is it this one?

E ¿Hipii haa ya?

b dem;px;sg aux qm
Is this it?

 D Tiix haa ha.

dem;dt;sg aux dcl
It’s HIM/HER.

E Tii haa ha.

dem;dt;sg aux dcl
THAT’S him/her. THAT’S the one. bb 2᯲HUHG

 D Taax haa ha.

dem;dt;pl aux dcl
It’s THEM.

E Taa haa ha.

dem;dt;pl aux dcl
It’s them (exactly).

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 Tii iti yiij.

dem;dt;sg 3.poss:on rlyo:sit
It is on it.

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 Taa ano yiij.

rlt:aux [3.poss:]in rlyo:sit
It is there.

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7KLV DOVR PHDQV It’s exactly there
§16.3 Interrogative pronouns 405

16.3 Interrogative pronouns

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bb2.pro who? qm
Who are you?

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  dem;dt;sg who? qm
Who is s/he?

 ¿Me áz haxehe ya?

  2.pro what? intns qm
What are you? (What is your profession?)

 ¿Me áz ya?

  2.pro what? qm
What are you? (What is your profession?)

 ¿Tiix áz haxehe ya?

  dem;dt;sg what? intns qm
a. What is that?
b. 2U What is that person’s profession?

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16.4 Locative pronouns

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toc there 7KHVH ORFDWLYH SURQRXQV RFFXU PRVW FRPPRQO\ DQG SHUKDSV H[FOXVLYHO\ ZLWK WKH YHUEV √ahca be
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 xazoj tintica hant z itaao, toc contica ha.

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Puma was there passing a certain place.bb &RQ3XP

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FDOO\ RI hiz DQG WKH GHWHUPLQHU hac

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406 Chapter 16: Pronouns

 Toc contiiha iti,

there 3.io:aw:pon:move 3.poss:on
While he was going there,bb &RQ3XP

 ... haaco z ano tiij, toc cötiij ma, ...

abs;house indf;sg [3.poss:]in rlt:sit there 3.io:rlt:sit ds
... he was there in a house, ... bb 177 0N 

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 Hiz cöimiij iha.

here 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:sit dcl
S/he’s not here. bb &<+,

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 ¡Hiz haxöaii!

  here 1p.sbj:em:be.fl\pl
Here we are!bb 2YHUKHDUG

 Coox oo hiz oo hamoii.

all del here del 1p.sbj:rlmi:be.fl\pl
We are all here. bb 177 $F 

 Hiz cöimiij iha.

here 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:sit dcl
S/he’s not here. bb &<+,

 Hant com iti cöiihca hac, hiz cötahca, hax taa ma,
land def;hz 3.poss:on 3.io:3.poss:be_located def;loc px 3.io:rlt:be_located intns rlt;aux ds
It happened on the earth some time ago,bb &RQ3XP

 Hant hipcom iti toom, hiz comom ...

land px:hz 3.poss:on rlt:lie px 3.io:rlmi:lie
They were here in this world, ... bb 177 +HE 

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 ¡Hip ihpxoop!

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Here I am! bb 2᯲HUHG 

16.5 The quantifiers antá and coox

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L * ¿Taax coox ya?

  dem;dt;pl all qm
(Is that all of them? Is that all?)
§16.5 The quantifiers antá and coox 407

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 coffee def;fl all elsewhere rlyo:dispersed
All of it (coffee) spilled out.

 Sahmees quih coox yojizi.

Citrus_x_sinensis def;fl all rlyo:sour/rotten
The entirety of the oranges is rotten.

 ¡Coox casi!

  all/completely im:drink
Drink it all! bb &<+,

 ¿Coox itqués?

    all 3.sbj:rlt:cover
Did it cover it completely?

 ¿Coox cötaanim?

  all 3.io:rlt:closed/covered
Did it cover it completely?

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 * Ziicalc quih coox ˻ hant yaait˼.

bird\pl def;sg all    land rlyo:arrive
(All of the birds descended.)!

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 Ziicalc quih coox ˻ hant cöyoome˼.

bird:pl def;fl all    land 3.io:rlyo:arrive\pl
The last one of the birds descended.

 Háxaca quih cmaax coox yaxyat.

dog\pl def;fl now all rlyo:die\pl
Then the last one of the dogs died.

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bird\pl def;fl rlt:all    land 3.io:rlyo:arrive\pl
All of the birds descended.

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7R VD\ All of the dogs died RQH XVHV WKH YHUE ZLWK WKH SUHVHQFH RI hanso JLYLQJ WKH HPSKDWLF UHDGLQJ
408 Chapter 16: Pronouns

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 D * Ziic quih coox yoofp.

bird def;fl all rlyo:arrive
(All of the birds arrived.)

E * Ziic quih coox yoozcam.

bird def;fl all rlyo:arrive\pl
(All of the birds arrived.)

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 Coox hant cötoii ma, tahmiiitim, yoque.

all land 3.io.rlt:stand\pl ds rlt:pass:ask:impf rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
All of them landed and were asked, it is said. bb $SRVWDGRUB

 Coox miizcam.

all rlmi:arrive\pl
All of them arrived.

 ¿Coox intisxö?

  all 2s.sbj:rlt:hide
Did you hide all of them?

 D Ziicalc quih coox yoozcam.

bird:pl def;fl all rlyo:arrive\pl
All of the birds arrived.

E * Ziicalc quih coox yoofp.

bird;pl def;fl all rlyo:arrive
(All of the birds arrived.)

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 ¡Coox hexl!

  all im:take
a. Take all of it!
b. 2U Take all of them!

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dog\pl def;fl just rlt:all rlyo:die\pl
ALL of the dogs died.


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L Ziicalc quih tcooo yoozcam.

bird:pl def;fl rlt:all rlyo:arrive\pl
All of the birds arrived
§16.5 The quantifiers antá and coox 409

 [ [ ¡Xiica hizcoi ] coox ] hexl!

  thing\pl px:pl all im:take
Take all these things!

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 [ [ ¿Xiica ccamotam quih ] coox ] intaho?

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Did you see all of the animals?

 [ [ He ] coox oo ] siilx caha.

1.pro all del irr.ind:go\pl sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
We all (all of us) will go.

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 D Me coox masiilx aha.

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YOU should go as a group.

E Me mapocooo masiilx aha.

2.pro 2p.sbj:irr.dep:all 2p.sbj:irr.ind:go\pl aux:dcl
ALL OF YOU should go.

 D ¿Coox intahooxp?

  all 2s.sbj:rlt:make_white
Did you paint it all white?

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Did you paint it/them all white?

 Coox tiijc, ...

all/completely rlt:wet
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 17
Verb inflection

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17.1 Sentence types and verb forms

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17.2 Overview of verb inflection

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§17.2 Overview of verb inflection 411

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412 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

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17.3 Inflection of finite forms

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7KH IROORZLQJ VHFWLRQV SUHVHQW WKH JHQHUDO XVDJH RI WKHVH IRUPV ZLWKRXW GLVFXVVLQJ GHWDLOV RI WKH DOORPRUSK\
VHH FKDSWHU  RU WKH V\QWD[ VHH FKDSWHU  7KH H[DPSOHV KHUH DUH SXUSRVHIXOO\ UHODWLYHO\ VLPSOH

17.3.1.1. Dependent irrealis. 7KH GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV IRUP XVLQJ WKH SUH᯳[ po- LV UHTXLUHG LQ GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV
WKDW DUH LQ WKH LUUHDOLV PRRG VHH i H[FHSW IRU SXUSRVH FODXVHV DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV  7KH
GHSHQGHQW FODXVH PD\ UHSUHVHQW D SRWHQWLDO HYHQW LQ WKH IXWXUH RU DQ XQUHDOL]HG HYHQW LQ WKH SDVW
414 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 Siimet pac ihpaaitim ta, miihit ihmiimzo.

bread indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:make:impf ds 2.poss:[pon:]eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
If I make bread, I want you to eat it.

 Taax toii cöhiheetol hac ihpoocatx ta x,

dem;dt;pl toward_somewhere_else 3.io:1.poss.pon:push def;loc 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:release ds ut

taax iti ˻ hant haaco iima˼ timoca haa mosa taa ma,
dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on    land ? 3.poss:[pon:]? md:twd there twd:irr.ind:move rlt:aux ds

hiz cötahca ma, ...

px 3.io:rlt:be_located ds
If I were to stop pushing, in that moment the worldwide disaster would happen, ...bb &RQHMRB&R\RWHB

 Ziix zo hpoaa, xepe iiqui hpiin, toc

thing indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:know sea 3.poss:toward 1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:go there
conthàpa x, xepe com cohpsiifp aha xo ziix
3.io:aw:1s.sbj:irr.dep:move ut sea def;hz 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl but thing

isahii ha zo himaa ha yax, aama.

3.poss:irr.ind:pass:feel aux indf;sg 1.poss:[pon:]neg:know dcl since rlmi:be
If I had known better, if I had gone toward the sea, I would have arrived at the sea, but I didn’t know
anything. bb 7RSHWHB

([DPSOHV  XVH WKH GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LQ K\SRWKHWLFDO VLWXDWLRQV HPEHGGHG XQGHU D IRUP RI D VSHHFK
YHUE

 Ipocaiit ta, hpoocta, xoque.

3.sbj:irr.dep:spear ds 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:look_at em:unsp.sbj:say
How I would like to see him spear it!

 ¡Hapoolx, xoque!
  1p.sbj:irr.dep:go\pl em:unsp.sbj:say
I wish we could go! bb &<+,

 ¡Impooho, xoc.
  2s.sbj:irr.dep:see em:unsp.sbj:say
I hope you see one!

0RUHRYHU WKH GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV IRUP LV XVHG LQ FDVHV RI VXERUGLQDWLRQ XQGHU D QHJDWHG SDVW HYHQW DV LQ 

 Him ipal, imatax iha.

1s.do:irr.dep:accompany sbj.nmlz:neg:go dcl
S/he didn’t go with me.

 Paziim áa, hax yoma.

irr.dep:pleasant true intns rlyo:neg:beLUUHJ
S/he/it isn’t/wasn’t very pretty. [Yes, s/he/it is pretty but s/he/it still lacks.]

 Pojizi áa hax tama ho.

irr.dep:hurt true intns rlt:beLUUHJ dcl
It’s not very picante.

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ xoque LQ  KDV DSSDUHQWO\ HYROYHG IXUWKHU VXFK WKDW xoque KDV DQ LQQRYDWLYH IRUP xoc DQG WKH QHZ
IRUP KDV D VOLJKWO\ GL᯲HUHQW PHDQLQJ ¡Hapoolx xoc! FDQ EH XVHG ZLWK D PRUH H[FOXVLYH XVDJH Xoc KDV D VWURQJHU RU PRUH
GLUHFW PHDQLQJ WKDQ xoque

2QH FDQ DOVR VD\ Paziim áa hax sama. It won’t be very pretty.
§17.3.1.2 Dependent realis 415

 Ptcamn zo poxtamt ta, himacötoj iha.

Panulirus_inflatus indf;sg irr.dep:abundant ds 1.poss:[pon:]neg:kill:pl dcl
We didn’t kill many lobsters.

 Zixcám zo poxtamt ta, tompaho ho.

fish indf;sg irr.dep:abundant ds rlt:neg:pass:see dcl
Not many fish were seen.

7KH GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV IRUP ZLWK WKH PRGDO (i)ho i LV DOVR XVHG LQ SDVW WLPH QDUUDWLYHV WR LQGLFDWH DQ
XQFHUWDLQW\ DERXW VRPH VLWXDWLRQ RU HYHQW

 ... hapxa zo toc copom iho x, toc cöpoop iho, ox xah

Sylvilagus_sp. indf;sg there 3.io:irr.dep:lie dcl or there 3.io:irr.dep:stand dcl thus atten
zo haii ha.
indf;sg sbj.nmlz:[pass:]feel dcl
… a cottontail rabbit was there lying down, or it was standing there, it seems.bb &RQHMRB&R\RWHB

17.3.1.2. Dependent realis. 7KH GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV IRUP XVLQJ WKH SUH᯳[ t- LV UHTXLUHG LQ GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV WKDW
DUH LQ WKH UHDOLV PRRG 2Q WKH YDULHW\ RI SRVVLEOH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV RI WKH GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV VHH i 7KH H[DPSOH
JLYHQ LQ  LV D FRPPRQ XVH WR GHVFULEH HYHQWV WKDW SUHFHGH WKH HYHQW RI WKH PDLQ FODXVH

 'HSHQGHQW UHDOLV GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV LQGHSHQGHQW UHDOLVmi IRUP

˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, cmaax taax iti tiij, ˻ hapx taailx˼ ma
   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds now dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on rlt:sit outside rlt:release\impf ds

x, imooctam, comcaac coi.

ut 3.sbj:rlmi:look_at\pl (Seri)_person\pl def;pl
Then, sitting there, she demonstrated her magical powers, and the people watched her.bb (6
FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKRBZ

17.3.1.3. Independent irrealis. ,QGHSHQGHQW FODXVHV LQ WKH LUUHDOLV PRRG KDYH YHUEV IRUPHG ZLWK WKH SUH᯳[ si-
7KH LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV YHUE IRUP YHU\ UDUHO\ RFFXUV E\ LWVHOI LQ WKH YHUE SKUDVH KRZHYHU LW LV DOPRVW DOZD\V
IROORZHG E\ DQ DX[LOLDU\ DQG PRGDO VHTXHQFH VHH i WKDW LQGLFDWH VRPHWKLQJ DERXW WKH DWWLWXGH RI WKH
VSHDNHU $Q LQYHQWRU\ RI WKHVH ZRUGV WKDW PD\ KHOS FRPSOHWH DQ LUUHDOLV FODXVHൺSUREDEO\ QRW H[KDXVWLYHൺLV
JLYHQ LQ  ZLWK DQ LOOXVWUDWLYH YHUE LQ HDFK FDVH 7KH PRVW FRPPRQ FRPELQDWLRQV DUH WKRVH LQ DE ZKLFK
XWLOL]H WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha i GHVSLWH LWV SKRQHWLF UHGXFWLRQ WR a RU HYHQ QXOO LQ VLWXDWLRQV OLNH D DQG LWV
SURORQJDWLRQ WR haa ZKHQ VWUHVVHG DV LQ E

 D Ihpsiitax aha. I will go.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go aux:dcl
E ¿Ihpsiitax haa ya? Shall I go?
auxqm
F Ihpsiitax (haa hi.) I guess I’ll go.
 aux dcl
G ¡Ihpsiitax xo! I will go!
em
H Ihpsiitax is. Of course I’ll go.
of_course
I Ihpsiitax poho. Perhaps I’ll go.
doubt


7KLV FRXOG DOVR EH WUDQVODWHG DV Not many fish are seen [these days] ,W ZDV DOVR SRLQWHG RXW WR PH WKDW WKH QDUUDWRU RI
WKLV LV FOHDUO\ SDUW RI WKH JURXS WKDW ZDV RQ WKH WULS GXULQJ ZKLFK WKH ᯳VK ZHUH QRW VHHQ ,I VKH ZHUH QRW VKH ZRXOG KDYH
XVHG WKH YHUE itcmaht iho 3.sbj:rlt:neg:see:pl dcl they didn’t see them LQ WKH VHFRQG FODXVH LQVWHDG RI WKH SDVVLYH YHUE

,Q DGGLWLRQ WR WKHVH SRVVLELOLWLHV WKHUH DUH RWKHU RSWLRQV XVLQJ GHQRPLQDO LUUHDOLV IRUPV VHH i
416 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

J Ihpsiitax íi. I’ll go first.

first
K Ihpsiitax i. I will go (with certainty).
crt

7KH LUUHDOLV IRUP ZLWK WKH PRGDO ha DQG D VXEMHFW RWKHU WKDQ ᯳UVW SHUVRQ W\SLFDOO\ KDV D KRUWDWLYH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
HVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQ SUHVHQWHG ZLWK WKH VLPSOH PRGDO SOXV DX[LOLDU\ VHTXHQFH aha

 Inscmexl aha.
2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:take aux:dcl
You shouldn’t grab it.

 Iscmexl aha.
3.sbj:irr.ind:neg:take aux:dcl
S/he shouldn’t grab it.

 Insiitax ha, teeme.

2s.sbj:irr.ind:go aux rlt:say
He said that you should go.

7KH LUUHDOLV IRUP ZLWK WKH DX[LOLDU\ SOXV PRGDO VHTXHQFH haa ya ZLWK VXEMHFWV RWKHU WKDQ ᯳UVW SHUVRQ W\SLFDOO\ LV
TXHVWLRQLQJ LQWHQWLRQDOLW\

 Impacat ¿toox insiizquim haa ya?

2s.sbj:irr.dep:swim   far 2s.sbj:irr.ind:enter aux qm
Are you going to swim out far? [Is that your intention?]

7KH LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV IRUP LV XVHG LQ SXUSRVH FODXVHV i ZLWKRXW WKH W\SH RI DX[LOLDU\ SOXV PRGDO FRP
SOH[ WKDW LV XVHG LQ LQGHSHQGHQW FODXVHV DOWKRXJK UHODWLYH WLPH PD\ EH LQGLFDWHG ZLWK WKH UHDOLV DX[LOLDU\ taa
i DQG JUHDWHU XQFHUWDLQW\ RU LUUHDOLW\ EHFDXVH RI QHJDWLRQ ZLWK WKH LUUHDOLV DX[LOLDU\ pi i

 Canoaa zo hataahoj, ano hpsiij.

boat indf;sg im:make_ready\pl [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:sit
Get a boat ready for me to go in! bb 177 0N 

 Quiimla ha, hai cah contisa taa ma.

sbj.nmlz:be_open\pl dcl wind def;fl:foc 3.io:aw:irr.ind:move rlt:aux ds
[The windows] are open to let air in.

 Cöisahipet aha, zixcám com isiihit pi ta x.

3.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:permit aux:dcl fish def;hz 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat irr.dep;aux ds ut
S/he will let him/her eat the fish.

 Hapapjc zo hsexl pi, hiz comhima

sbj.nmlz:pass:string indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy irr.dep;aux px 3.io:twd:1.poss:[pon:]neg:move

ha.
dcl
I didn’t come here to buy beads.

17.3.1.4. Subjunctive irrealis. 9HUEV ZLWK WKH SUH᯳[ tm- DUH QRW DV IUHTXHQWO\ XVHG DV RWKHU YHUE IRUPV EXW WKH\
DUH QRW DW DOO UDUH 7KH 6XEMXQFWLYH ,UUHDOLV VHHPV WR KDYH VHYHUDO XVHV DOO QRQQHJDWLYH DQG QRQLQWHUURJDWLYH
7KH ᯳UVW LV ZKHQ WKH VSHDNHU LV H[SUHVVLQJ D ZLVK WKH YHUE LV LQ WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ DV LQ 

2QH FRQVXOWDQW SRLQWHG RXW WKDW WKLV LQGLFDWHV WKHUH ZDV VRPH SDUWLFXODU UHDVRQ WKDW ZDV PDNLQJ WKH SHUVRQ GHFLGH WR JR

7KLV SUH᯳[ LV SKRQHWLFDOO\ DQG SKRQRORJLFDOO\ LGHQWLFDO WR D VHTXHQFH RI WKH VLPSOH t- DQG QHJDWLYH m- %RWK KDYH WKH VDPH
DOORPRUSK tcm- ZLWK WKH HSHQWKHWLF YHODU VWRS VHH i 0 0RVHU  UHIHUUHG WR WKLV IRUP DV WKH $᯵UPDWLYH
3RWHQWLDO
§17.3.1.5 Realis t- in main clause 417

 ¡Mojet xah zo tomhaa!

  Ovis_canadensis ? indf;sg sbjv:eq
May it be a bighorn sheep!

7KH VHFRQG LV ZKHQ WKH VSHDNHU LV LQGLFDWLQJ WKDW VRPHWKLQJ WKDW FRXOG KDYH KDSSHQHG GLG QRW LQ IDFW KDSSHQ
WKH YHUE PD\ EH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU DQ\ SHUVRQ RI VXEMHFW ,Q  WKH VHFRQG VHQWHQFH LV RQO\ PDNLQJ H[SOLFLW WKH
HQWDLOPHQW WKDW LV DOUHDG\ XQGHUVWRRG IURP WKH ᯳UVW VHQWHQFH DQG PLJKW HYHQ EH RPLWWHG LQ QDWXUDO FRQYHUVDWLRQ

 Impoofp ta, tmaticpan. Haptco yaticpan.

2s.sbj:irr.dep:arrive ds sbj:work already rlyo:work
S/he could have started working at the time of your arrival. [But in fact] S/he’s already working. bb
2᯲HUHG

7KH WKLUG VLWXDWLRQ LV ZKHQ WKH VSHDNHU LV UHOXFWDQWO\ JLYLQJ SHUPLVVLRQ IRU VRPHWKLQJ WR KDSSHQ RU LV LQGLFDWLQJ
WKDW VRPHWKLQJ should KDSSHQ DOWKRXJK RQH PLJKW ZLVK WKH VLWXDWLRQ WR EH GL᯲HUHQW 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 “Hin ntcmapatjc is.”

  1s.do:2s.sbj:sbjv:untie of_course
“OK, you can untie me!” bb 7UDPSRVR

 Ox xah hizi mii: “Hapi toc cömatcmoii.”

thus ? 1p.do:rlmi:tell   intns there 3.io:2p.sbj:sbj:stand\pl
Thus he told us: “You (pl.) just have to stay there.”

 “Hapi toc compiij, hazi ntcmaqueejim.

  intns there 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.dep:sit 1p.do:2s.sbj:sbjv:wait_for
“You will just stay there by yourself and wait for me.”bb 7RSHWHB

 “Himiipla haa paa ta x, ¡hilitnoocoj quij hapx intcomcaaix!” ox

  1s.poss:bad [sbj.nmlz:]beLUUHJ irr.dep:be ds ut 1s.poss:skull def;cm outside 2s.sbj:sbj:put.cm thus
itai, yoque.
3.sbj:rlt:tell rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
“When I die, you should take out my skull,” thus he said to her, it is said.bb 0XMHUB&DODYHUDB

7KH IRXUWK VLWXDWLRQ LV ZLWK D ᯳UVW SHUVRQ SOXUDO VXEMHFW DQG WKH H᯲HFW LV VRPHWKLQJ OLNH D PLOG KRUWDWLYH DV
LOOXVWUDWHG LQ 

 Hatcmocoozx, xah meeyo.

1p.sbj.sbjv:unsp.obj:steal;pl ? rlmi:say:pl
“Let’s rob,” they said. bb 9LDMHB7LEXURQB

 Hapoziit, hatcmooctam ―ox tee, yoque.

1p.sbj:irr.dep: 1p.sbj:sbjv:look_at:pl     thus rlt:say rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
“Let’s go there and see it,” he said, it is said. bb $SRVWDGRU 

17.3.1.5. Realis t- in main clause. 0DLQ FODXVHV PD\ RFFXU LQ WKH VLPSOH UHDOLV IRUP t- WKH\ PD\ EH H[FODPDWRU\
GHFODUDWLYH RU LQWHUURJDWLYH FODXVHV
([FODPDWRU\ VHQWHQFHV ZLWK UHDOLV t- DUH LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV VXFK DV  DQG 7KH\ VHHP WR EH TXLWH
UHVWULFWHG LQ IRUP

 ¡Aa xah tiipe!

  ? ? rlt:good
How good! [Now often used as an expression of thanks.]

7KLV VHQWHQFH DSSHDUV WZLFH LQ 0 0RVHU 0DUOHWW  ZKHUH LW ZDV ZULWWHQ DV haa xah tiipe 7KH ᯳UVW ZRUG KDV
VRPH YDULDWLRQ LQ SURQXQFLDWLRQ DQG LV SUREDEO\ XQUHODWHG WR DQ\ GLFWLRQDU\ HQWU\ LW QRZ VHHPV +HUH , IROORZ WKH SUHIHUUHG
VSHOOLQJ E\ 5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD
418 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 ¡Aa xah ntacösxaj, haquix intiih aha!

? ? 2s.sbj:rlt:tall somewhere 2s.sbj:rlt:be.fl rhet
Wow, you are really tall!bb 2᯲HUHG

 ¡Aa xah tiipe, David quih icaaitom tahac cöihaaspoj hac!

? ? rlt:good David def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:speak md:loc 3.io:3.poss:pon:write def;loc
It's great that David wrote it down!bb 2᯲HUHG

'HFODUDWLYH PDLQ FODXVHV ZLWK t- DUH RFFXU RQO\ ZKHQ WKH YHUE LV QHJDWLYH DQG DOVR VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ IROORZHG
WKH PRGDO (i)ho i 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 D Icoohit ihtcmamzo ho.

inf.intr:unsp.obj:eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:want dcl
I don’t want to eat. bb &<+,

E * Icoohit ihtcmamzo.
(I don’t want to eat.)
>ODFNV PRGDO@

F * Icoohit ihtamzo ho.

(I want to eat.)
>ODFNV QHJDWLYH@

 ... cöitcomcazit iho.

3.io:3.sbj:rlt:neg:grab_away dcl
... he didn’t take it away from him.bb 9LHQWRB1RUWHBE

5HDOLV FODXVHV ZLWK t- IRU LQWHUURJDWLYH PRRG DUH YHU\ FRPPRQ KRZHYHU WKH\ PD\ EH SRVLWLYH RU QHJDWLYH WKH\
GR QRW XVH D PRGDO 7KH YHUEV DUH DOZD\V DPELJXRXV EHWZHHQ SUHVHQW DQG SDVW WHQVH 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ¿˻ Haai ntahipe˼?
      ? 2s.sbj:rlt:cause_?
a. Can you do it?
b. 2U Do you know how to do it?bb &<+,

 ¿Quíih ya tazcam?
  who? qm rlt:arrive\pl
Who (pl.) arrived?

17.3.1.6. Realis yo-. 9HUEV ZLWK WKH SUH᯳[ yo- DUH ODEHOHG ංUHDOLVyoඃ :KLOH VRPHWLPHV UHIHUUHG WR LQIRUPDOO\
DV ංSDVW WHQVHඃ WKDW ODEHO XVHG LQ VRPH SUHYLRXV ZRUN IRU SRSXODU DXGLHQFHV LV LQDGHTXDWH DV LV WKH ODEHO
ං'LVWDOඃ 7KLV IRUP PXVW EH GLVWLQJXLVKHG IURP WKH UHDOLVmi IRUPV VHH i ,Q WUXWK ZH GR QRW KDYH DQ
DGHTXDWH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKLV YHUE IRUP :KHQ WKH\ DUH LQ WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ UHDOLVyo IRUPV ZH QRZ NQRZ
LQFOXGH D VWURQJ LPSOLFDWLRQ WKDW WKH VSHDNHU FDQ YRXFK IRU WKH YDOLGLW\ RI WKH D᯵UPDWLRQ EHFDXVH RI SHUVRQDO
SHUKDSV GLUHFW NQRZOHGJHൺWKHUH LV DQ HYLGHQWLDOLW\ IDFWRU 5HDOLVmi IRUPV GR QRW KDYH WKDW LPSOLFDWLRQ )RU
WKDW UHDVRQ QDUUDWLYHV WKDW DUH QRW ᯳UVW SHUVRQDO DFFRXQWVൺVXFK DV WUDGLWLRQDO WDOHV DQG DFFRXQWV RI GLVWDQW
DQFHVWRUVൺW\SLFDOO\ GR not XVH UHDOLVyo IRUPV H[FHSW IRU QHJDWLYH VLQFH WKHUH LV QR DOWHUQDWLYH UHDOLVmi IRUPV
FDQQRW EH QHJDWHG ([DPSOHV VXFK DV  DUH W\SLFDO RI VLWXDWLRQV WKDW WKH VSHDNHU KDV SHUVRQDO NQRZOHGJH
RI

 Ziix ipxasi cah tazoj oo ma x, yopahit.

thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl:foc rlt:alone del ds ut rlyo:pass:eat
Only meat was eaten.
§17.3.1.7 Realis mi- 419

 Haapis quih anxö him iiyyoj.

cigarette def;fl intns 1s.do:3.sbj:rlyo:give_gift\pl
They gave me lots of cigarettes. bb %XUJRVB

9HUEV ZLWK yo- DUH DOVR XVHG LQ FODXVHV LQGLFDWLQJ KDELWXDO DFWLRQ

 Ihptiim, ihyatj coox cah x, cafee quih hyoosi.

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:sleep 1.poss:pon.intr:arise all def;fl:foc ut coffee def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:drink
I always drink coffee when I get up from sleeping.

7KH IDFW WKDW WKH DPRXQW RI WLPH UHODWLYH WR WKH SUHVHQW VLWXDWLRQ LV QRW WKH NH\ IDFWRU DW OHDVW LQ PDQ\ VLWXDWLRQV
LV LQGLFDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV VXFK DV  ZKLFK LV W\SLFDO RI DQ DQVZHU WR D TXHVWLRQ VXFK DV Mata quih haa oo tiij?
Is your mother there? [in the house right behind you, right now] ,Q VXFK DQ H[DPSOH , XQGHUVWDQG WKDW WKH XVH
RI WKH UHDOLVyo IRUP LV DSSURSULDWH EHFDXVH WKH VSHDNHU KDV ᯳UVWKDQG NQRZOHGJH RI WKH IDFW

 Haa oo yiij.
there del rlyo:sit
S/he’s there. [First-hand knowledge by speaker.]bb 2YHUKHDUG RIWHQ

$W OHDVW IRU VRPH VSHDNHUV WKH XVH RI WKH UHDOLVyo IRUP LQ WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKH DFWLRQ LV QHLWKHU
LPPHGLDWH SDVW QRU GLVWDQW SDVW EXW WKDW WKHUH KDV EHHQ VRPH WLPH ODSVH EHWZHHQ WKH DFWLRQ DQG WKH VSHHFK DFW

17.3.1.7. Realis mi-. 7KH UHDOLV SUH᯳[ mi- RIWHQ LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKH HYHQW GHVFULEHG LQ WKH FODXVH KDV DOUHDG\
RFFXUUHG RU WKDW LW LV SUHVHQWO\ RFFXUULQJ 2Q WKH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ UHDOLVmi DQG UHDOLVyo IRUPV VHH WKH EULHI
GLVFXVVLRQ LQ i +RZHYHU WKH GL᯲HUHQFH LV QRW FOHDUFXW H[FHSW IRU ZKDW KDV UHFHQWO\ HPHUJHG DV D PDWWHU
RI HYLGHQWLDOLW\ LQ WKH FDVH RI WKLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW IRUPV 7KH SUH᯳[ mi- GRHV QRW FRRFFXU ZLWK QHJDWLRQ
KRZHYHU XQOLNH UHDOLVyo

 Ihpmeejim.
1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:old
I am old.

 Hant miisaquim ihmiimzo.

land 2.poss:[pon:]brush 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want you to sweep the floor/ground. bb &<+,

 Hahoot hac ah contita, cömiizquim.

 abs:entrance def;loc foc 3.io:aw:rlt:move 3.io:rlmi:enter
S/he entered by the door. bb &<+,

9HUEV ZLWK mi- DUH DOVR XVHG LQ FODXVHV LQGLFDWLQJ KDELWXDO DFWLRQ

 Siimet quih iictim quih hmcaa.

bread def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]be_cut def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:look_for
I look for a piece of bread (every day). bb %XUJRVB

 Hap quih hmiicö, hooxquim miipe yax.

Odocoileus_hemionus def;fl 1s.sbj.rlmi:kill 1.poss:obj.nmlz:shoot rlmi:good since
I used to kill mule deer; I was a good shot. bb %XUJRVB

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420 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

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 ¡Imxoma!
  twd:em:neg:move
S/he’s not coming!

 ¡Xaapl!
  em:cold
It’s cold! (weather or item)

 ¡Ziix zo hxomahit!
bbthing indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:em:neg:eat
I haven’t eaten a thing!

 ¡Anxö hiisax hant xöaait!

  intns 3.poss:spirit land em:arrive
I am very happy!

17.3.2 Person inflection

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 SOXUDO ha- 1p.sbj
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 i- 3.sbj (acting on third person direct object)
 HPSKDWLF a-  Ø$EODXW WUDQVLWLYH ca- LQWUDQVLWLYH 1.em.sbj.tr, 1.em.sbj.intr

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§17.3.2.1 Subject person inflection 421

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 ,QWUDQVLWLYH √afp arrive 7UDQVLWLYH √aho see

haa hptafp I arrived there zo htaho I saw one

haa ntafp you arrived there zo ntaho you saw one
haa tafp s/he arrived there z itaho s/he saw one
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i

 ihpyoofp I arrived pac ihyooho I saw some

inyoofp you arrived pac inyooho you saw some
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yoozcam they arrived pac iyooht they saw some

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First person emphatic
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 LQWUDQVLWLYH VWHPV
D √atax Hatee somcaatax aha. I won’t go.
1.em.pro irr.ind:neg:1.em.sbj.intr:goaux:dcl
E √fit Hatee scafít aha. I will stand up.
irr.ind:1.em.sbj.intr:stand_up
F √pazt Hatee scapazt aha. I will be tattooed.
irr.ind:1.em.sbj.intr:pass:tattoo
G √oohitim Hatee somcoohitim aha. I won’t eat.
irr.ind:neg:1.em.sbj.intr:unsp.obj:eat:impf
H √aahit Hatee scaahit aha. I will go fishing.
irr.ind:1.em.sbj.intr:fish
422 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 WUDQVLWLYH VWHPV
D √oonl Hatee saanl aha. I will stir it.
1.em.pro irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:stir
E √inj Hatee seenj aha. I will yell at him/her/it.
irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:yell_at
F √ahit Hatee smaahit aha. I will not eat it.
irr.ind:neg:1.em.sbj.tr:eat
G √azt Hatee sazt aha. I will tattoo him/her.
irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:tattoo
H √emen Hatee seemen aha. I will toss it back and forth.
irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:toss
I √pii Hatee sapii aha. I will taste it.
irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:taste

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 Cmaax hax ha tcacsx oo hax tahii hax taa, xaa

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quij iti quiih quih hanso ipnij án hac ano
def;cm 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:be.fl def;fl just 1.poss:throat [3.poss:]area def;loc [3.poss:]in

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3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:put_cm def;pl rlt:all ds rlt:1.em.sbj.tr:cut:impf;mult

tapox, himo tácatx, camiz ziix ipot

rlt:1.em.sbj.tr:take_off away rlt:1.em.sbj.tr:leave_behind shirt thing 3.poss:place_under
haficj hax quimaaxat oo, tiix oo hatisoj quij
sbj.nmlz:pass:wear_as_shirt just sbj.nmlz:drab del dem;dt;sg del 1.em.poss:body def;cm

iti tihiha ma, hax quiipe hax cafzx oo hax tahii

3.poss:on rlt:only ds just sbj.nmlz:good just sbj.nmlz:lightweight del just rlt:pass:feel
hax taa ma, taa cötcapacta, haxoj
just rlt:be ds dem;dt;pl 3.io:rlt:1.em.sbj.intr:be_in_appearance shore_seen_from_water
mayaai.
rlmi:1.em.sbj:go_to
Then I reacted, I quickly headed for shore. I grabbed the shirt that was on my body by its collar, I pulled
on it, I jerked it, I ripped off all of the buttons, I took it off, I threw it away, a gray shirt — that was
all I had on my body, I felt better and lighter, that’s how I was, I headed for shore.bb $FF&XDWUR

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§17.3.2.1 Subject person inflection 423

 * Hatee ma seenj aha.

1.em.pro 2s.do:irr.1.em.sbj.tr:yell aux:dcl
(I am going to yell at you.)

 Hatee hipi hisoj sazt aha.

1.em.pro intns 1.poss:body/being irr.ind:1.em.sbj.tr:tattoo aux:dcl
I am going to tattoo myself.

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 Pocaalx x, saactam.
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Let’s go look at it!
Third person on third person
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  inf.intr:go 3.sbj:rlt:want
Does s/he want to go?

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 Iyopéhetim.
3.sbj:rlyo:pass:give_gift:impf
They were given it.

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424 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 Hizi iscompéhetim aha.

1p.do:3.sbj:irr.ind:neg:pass:give_gift:impf aux:dcl
We will not be given it.

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 D Him imcazni. It bit me.

1s.do:rlmi:bite
E ¡Ihposanj! Carry me on your back!
  1s.do.im:[im:]carry_on_back
F ¡Ihpoozt! Tattoo me!
  1s.do.im:[im:]tattoo
G ¿Ma taho? Did s/he/it see you?
   2s.do:rlt:see
H Hizi yooho. S/he saw us.
1p.do:rlyo:see
I Mazi yooho. S/he saw you (pl.).
1p.do:rlyo:see


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 D [ʔimˈmiiʔ]
a. ... s/he told me.
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E * [ʔimˈmmiiʔ]

F * [ʔimˈimmiiʔ]

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 D [ʔinˈtɛɛjox]
a. Did they donate to me?
b. 2U Did you (pl.) donate to me?

E * [ʔimmaˈtɛɛjox]

F * [ʔimaˈtɛɛjox]

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426 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 D Mazi hamiixant.
2p.do:1p.sbj:rlmi:fear:pl
We fear you (sg. or pl.).

E * Ma hamiixant.
2s.do:1p.sbj:rlmi:fear:pl
(We fear you (sg.).

 D ¿Mazi hiityoj?
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Did we give it to you (sg. or pl.)?

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(Did we give it to you (sg.)?)

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We are hitting you (sg. or pl.).

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(We are hitting you (sg.).)

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2p.do:1.poss:[pon:]carry_on_back;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:want;pl
They want us to carry you (sg. or pl.) (on our backs).

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2s.do:1.poss:[pon:]carry_on_back;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:want;pl
(They want us to carry you (sg.) (on our backs).)

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2p.do:1.poss:[pon:]give_gift;pl dcl
We are giving them to you (sg. or pl.).

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2s.do:1.poss:[pon:]give_gift;pl dcl
(We are giving them to you (sg.).)

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 D Mazi ihasanzil hamiimcaj.

2p.do:inf.tr:carry_on_back:pl 1p.sbj:rlmi:want;pl
We want to carry you (sg. or pl.) (on our backs).
§17.3.2.3 Indirect/oblique object inflection 427

E * Ma ihasanzil hamiimcaj.
2s.do:inf.tr:carry_on_back:pl 1p.sbj.rlmi:want;pl
(We want to carry you (sg.) (on our backs).)

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 Juan cop Pedro quih hipi ihipon cop cöiyaqueecotol.

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Juani made Pedroj hear his*i,j voice.

 ¿Zó hamcaaxat ya cötasii?

  which? smoke qm 3.io:rlt:smell_like
What kind of smoke does it smell of?

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428 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

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 ¡Coomjc!
  3.io:[im:]deliver
Take it to him/her!

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3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:deliver
S/he took it to him/her.

 ¡Án cöaizct!
bb[3.poss:]interior 3.io:[im;]enter\pl
Come in!

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 Cötaaipot, ...
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S/he was paying with it, ...

 Cöyopanzx.
3.io:rlyo:run
S/he/it ran like him/her/it.

 Cöpopanzx x, ...
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If s/he runs like him/her/it, ... c

 ¡Cöhaas!
  3.io:im:cause_drink
Give it to him/her to drink!

 Cöquimjc iha.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:tr:deliver dcl
S/he is taking it to him/her.

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 Cöspanzx aha.
3.io:irr.ind:run aux:dcl
S/he will run like him/her/it.

 ¿Cötpanzx?
  3.io:rlt:run
Did s/he run like him/her/it?

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§17.3.2.3 Indirect/oblique object inflection 429

 ¿Cötmacötim?
  3.io:rlt:neg:cover_oneself
Didn’t s/he cover up with it?

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 ¿Áz iti coha ya?

   what? 3.poss:on 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be qm
What happened to him/her?

 ... toc còtom, ...

there 3.io:rlt:lie
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 Cohmiimjc.
3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:deliver
I took it to him/her.

 Consacötim aha.
3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:cover_oneself aux:dcl
You will cover up with it.

 Cohpsacötim aha.
3.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:cover_oneself aux:dcl
I will cover up with it.

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 Cocpanzx iha.

3.io:sbj.nmlz:run dcl
She is running like him/her.

 ¡Cocompanzx!
  3.io:im:neg:run
Don’t run like him!

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 D Cösompanzx aha.

3.io:irr.ind:neg:run aux:dcl
S/he will not run like him/her.

E * Cöscompanzx aha.
(S/he will not run like him/her.)

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430 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 D ¡He hpanzx!

  1.io:im:run
Run like me!

E * ¡He panzx!
(Run like me!)

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 Ma hsnip aha.

2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hit aux:dcl
I will hit you (as with a closed fist).

 ˻ ano hin siih˼ aha.

   [3.poss:]in 1s.do:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux:dcl
S/he will inject me.

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 D Hehe ticom me hsnip aha.

plant/stick md:hz 3.io+2.do:1.sg.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hit aux:dcl
I will jab you with that stick.

E * Hehe ticom cömahsnip aha.

3.io-2s.do-1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hit
(I will jab you with that stick.)

 D Penisiliina quih ˻ ano he siih˼ aha.

penicillin def;fl    [3.poss:]in 3.io+1.do:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux:dcl
He will inject me with penicillin.

E * Penisiliina quih ano cöhinsiih aha.

3.io:1s.do:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl
(He will inject me with penicillin.)

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 Xepe com contisoozi aha.

sea def;hz 3.io:aw:3.sbj:irr.ind:carry aux:dcl
S/he will take him/her into the sea.

 D Xepe com intmesoozi aha.

sea def;hz aw:3.io+2.do:irr.ind:carry aux:dcl
S/he will take you into the sea.
§17.3.3 Subject number inflection 431

E Xepe com contmesoozi aha.

3.io:aw:3.io+2.do:irr.ind:carry
(S/he will take you into the sea.)

F * Xepe com contmasoozi aha.

3.io:aw:2s.do:irr.ind:carry
(S/he will take you into the sea.)

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 ..., itacl ipi he mascmaht aha.

3.poss:surface del 3.io+1.do:2p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:see;pl aux:dcl
..., you (pl.) will never see me again. bb 177 $F 

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 Penisiliina quih ˻ ano he masii˼ aha.

penicillin def;fl    [3.poss:]in 3.io+2s.do:2p.sbj:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl\pl aux:dcl
You (pl.) should inject me with penicillin.

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 Tal zo me scmazt aha.

coal/charcoal indf;sg 3.io+2.do:irr.ind:neg:tattoo aux:dcl
S/he will not tattoo you with charcoal.

17.3.3 Subject number inflection

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432 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 D Ihpyomatax. I didn’t go.

1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:go
E Hayomalx. We didn’t go.
1p.sbj:rlyo:neg:go\pl

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 D Yomatax. S/he/it didn’t go.

rlyo:neg:go
E Yomalx. They didn’t go.
rlyo:neg:go\pl

 D Catax         iha. S/he is going.

sbj.nmlz:go dcl
E Calx                 iha. They are going.
sbj.nmlz:go\pl  dcl

 D ¡Catax! Go! (sg.)

  im:go
E ¡Calx! Go! (pl.)
  im:go\pl

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 D (He) tazo ipi zo hayomatax.

1.pro one del indf;sg 1p.sbj:rlyo:neg:go
Not one of us went.

E * He tazo ipi zo yomatax.

rlyo:neg:go
(Not one of us went.)

 D (He) zo hayootax.

1.pro indf;sg 1p.sbj:rlyo:go
One of us went.

E * He zo yootax.
rlyo:go
(One of us went.)

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§17.3.3.1 Morphology of subject number 433

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 D √aticpan work F √acaatol dangerous

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1.pro sbj.nmlz:work dcl
a. I am working.
b. 2U We are working.

 Haxz° ticop xacaatol.

dog md:vt em:dangerous
That dog is dangerous/scary.

 Háxaca° com xacaatol.

dog\pl def;hz em:dangerous
Dogs are dangerous/scary.

 Háxaca° tacoi xacaatol.

dog\pl md:pl em:dangerous
Those dogs are dangerous.

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D √ap √oii, √ooyoj stand
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I √iih √oii be (flexible item)
J √iij √ahca, √ooxalca sit
K √isil √ixt small
L √ooit √paailx, √eme arrive (in idioms)
M √oom √ooitoj lie


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434 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 7UDQVLWLYH VWHPV

6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW
D √aazi √oon carry
E √ah √aii say, put (flexible item)
F √ácatx √aalajc release
G √acozxot √aconec give
H √Cactim √Canloj use, touch
I √yaai √oziit go to

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 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √Cim √Cim-toj throw at
E √zaxö √zaxö-t discuss
F √tins √tins-o scrape
G √ās √ās-xam err
H √mis √mis-taj resemble

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 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √pasj-im √pasj-oj fall underwater
E √ooc-ta √ooc-tam look at
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 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √apo-x √ap-tajc pull out
E √imo-x √im-tajc butcher
F √ipa-x √ip-tajc climb
G √imo-x √imo-tajc butcher

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FRUUHFW EXW LW LV QRW SXUVXHG KHUH

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§17.3.3.1 Morphology of subject number 435

 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √atp √atop-oj spit out
E √actz √acatz-oj screen
F √meque √mec-toj lukewarm
G √pitol √pitl-oj bloated
H √imooni √imoon-taj dance victory dance
I √aho √ah-t see
J √axi √ax finish
K √oqueht √oquehel‑am bounce
L √oopol √oopl black

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 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √quecöl √quecol-oj listen
E √aaco √aacö-t build house
F √ihaxöl √iháxol-oj have eating utensil [clam]
G √apxöl-im √apxot-im break (intr.) [long item]
H √iixöp √iixop-oj make crunching sound (intr.)

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 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √aaij √aail-coj sway
E √aanj √aanl-coj poison projectile points
F √oteja √otel-coj stagger
G √aztoj √aztol make porridge
H √sipxoj √sipxol whistle
I √imaj √imal-coj test
J √yacj √yacal-cam call sibling

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 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √iisc √iisj-oj whistle; hiss
E √comc-a √comj-oj noisy
F √noosc √noosjc rough
G √ahc-a √ahj-oj be located

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436 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √zip √zcoop-xam kiss
E √fiz √fcooz-xam tie knot
F √ziim √zcoom-t appreciate
G √ficj √fcoocl wear as blouse
H √pii √pcoo-yo taste
I √sii √scoo-yo smell

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 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √ooit √ooil-a dance
E √saaitx √saail-ajc gather together with stick
F √ojast √ojásil-am step on (with P iti)
G √oquéht √oquéhel-am bounce
H √Ceetni √Ceetl-olca tap
I √atni √atl-olca jab

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D √ai √aaa-m tell
E √ahcaail √ahcaaal-im remain
F √aiix √aaax-oj go away from
G √ocai √ocaaaxoj follow
H √ooil √oaalo wear tuft of hair
I √siiij-im √seaal-am move
J √pajim √pajam-oj overcooked
K √taxim √taxam-oj scratch
L √yazim √yazam-oj finlike
M √iixim √iixan-t fear

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D √aacni √aacz-a bowed
E √isil √izil small
F √cazni √cazj-a bite
G √nip √noop-toj hit with hand

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§17.3.4 Negative 437

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H[DPSOHV LQ 

 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √aazlx √atoozalxoj cough
E √aaa √atooat call
F √aat √atootoj cook under coals
G √aainim √atooilcam cause be mixed
H √iip √itoopajö carry on head
I √iin √itooij go
J √atxiin √atxitoiizoj make headring
K √ictim √itoocl cross (transitive)
L √eefelim √atoofelam stumble on
M √aazquim √atoozijoj make enter
N √aaz √atooz make suckle
O √ahaanpx √atoonipxoj return (something)

7KH VHTXHQFH coo LV DOVR D SOXUDO LQ᯳[ EXW ZLWK D PXFK PRUH OLPLWHG GLVWULEXWLRQ 6RPH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ


 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

D √ficj √fcoocl wear as blouse
E √pii √pcooyo taste
F √sii √scooyo smell

$V DOUHDG\ LPSOLHG DERYH PRUH WKDQ RQH RI WKHVH LQGLFDWRUV RI SOXUDO PD\ FRRFFXU RQ D VLQJOH YHUE 7KDW LV D
FRPELQDWLRQ RI D VX᯵[ DQ LQ᯳[ DQG D VWHP FKDQJH PD\ DOO EH XVHG VLPXOWDQHRXVO\

17.3.4 Negative
)LQLWH YHUEV LPSHUDWLYHV DQG GHYHUEDO QRXQV PD\ EH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU QHJDWLRQ LQ᯳QLWLYHV FDQQRW EH VR LQ᯴HFWHG
7KH QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ LV m– ,W DSSHDUV LQ WKH SRVLWLRQ VKRZQ LQ WDEOH  LPPHGLDWHO\ DIWHU WKH PRRG SUH᯳[HV RU
DIWHU WKH LPSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ RU DIWHU WKH QRPLQDOL]LQJ SUH᯳[
7KH QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ LV YHU\ RIWHQ LQ DQ XQVWUHVVHG V\OODEOH DQG VXVFHSWLEOH WR SODFH DVVLPLODWLRQ i $V
D VRQRUDQW LW DOVR WULJJHUV HSHQWKHVLV HLWKHU RI i i RU o i DV ZHOO DV WKH XQXVXDO HSHQWKHVLV RI
D YHODU VWRS i 6HH DOVR WKH SKRQHWLF YDOXH LW KDV DV D QDVDOL]HG ODELDOYHODU DSSUR[LPDQW DIWHU D YHODU
VWRS i 7KH QHJDWLYH IRUPV RI VHYHUDO YHUEV DQG GHYHUEDO QRXQV DUH JLYHQ LQ  WR GHPRQVWUDWH WKH
DOORPRUSK\


7KH ZD\ LQ ZKLFK WKH ,Q᯳[DWLRQ UXOH DSSOLHV ZLOO D᯲HFW WKH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI VXSHU᯳FLDOO\ ORQJ YRZHOV ,Q E LW
VXSSRUWV DQ DQDO\VLV RI [aːː] DV D WZR YRZHO FOXVWHU ,Q H LW JLYHV HYLGHQFH IRU DQDO\]LQJ [iː] DV D VLQJOH ORQJ YRZHO EXW LQ
I DV D VHTXHQFH RI YRZHOV

7KHUH LV VRPH HYLGHQFH WKDW WKH YHUEV WR ZKLFK WKLV LQ᯳[DWLRQ SURFHVV DSSOLHV LV H[SDQGLQJ , KDYH QRWHG WKDW SHRSOH
WRGD\ DUH HGLWLQJ PDQXVFULSWV ZULWWHQ ᯳IW\ \HDUV DJR DQG DUH FKDQJLQJ WKH SOXUDO YHUE ZLWKRXW too WR RQH ZLWK WKDW LQ᯳[

$ IHZ YHUEV LQFOXGLQJ √moqueepe sick FRPSDUH ZLWK √oqueepe comfortable DQG WKH VWHP √miih FRPSDUH ZLWK √iih
be (flexible item) LQ H[SUHVVLRQV IRU die DQG scarce KDYH DUJXDEO\ UHDQDO\]HG WKH QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ LQWR WKH VWHP 0DUOHWW 
7KHVH YHUEV FDQ EH QHJDWHG DQG WKXV DSSHDU WR EH GRXEO\ QHJDWHG 7KH\ DOVR RFFXU ZLWK WKH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG QRPLQDOL]HU
DOORPRUSK c- VHH i ZKLFK GRHV QRW RFFXU ZLWK WKH LQ᯴HFWLRQDO QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ cmoqueepe who is sick immoqueepe
who is not sick coqueepe who is comfortable imoqueepe who is not comfortable
438 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 D yomafp [m] s/he/it didn’t arrive

E yontápolquim [n] it wasn’t broken
F yomcáp [ŋ] s/he/it didn’t fly
G cmatax [w̃ ] don’t go!
H tompaho [om] it wasn’t seen, …
I itcmaho [kw̃ ] s/he didn’t see it, …
J iscmaho aha [kw̃ ] s/he won’t see it
K itcompii [kom] s/he didn’t taste it, …

17.3.5 Passive and unspecified subject

8QVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW LV LQGLFDWHG LQ WZR GL᯲HUHQW ZD\V )LUVW ZLWK DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE VWHP WKH 8QVSHFL᯳HG 6XEMHFW
SUH᯳[ LV DGGHG 6HFRQG ZLWK D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE VWHP SDVVLYH YRLFH PXVW EH XVHG 7KH 8QVSHFL᯳HG 6XEMHFW SUH᯳[
DQG WKH 3DVVLYH SUH᯳[ GR QRW FRRFFXU RQH FDQQRW H[SUHVV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ VRPHWKLQJ OLNH if one is bitten
7KH 3DVVLYH SUH᯳[ KDV WZR VXSSOHWLYH DOORPRUSKV p$EODXW - ZKLFK RFFXUV EHIRUH YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV DQG ah-
HOVHZKHUH EHIRUH FRQVRQDQWV DQG EHIRUH YRZHOV WKDW DUH QRW URRWLQLWLDO
7KH DOORPRUSK p$EODXW - DOVR D᯲HFWV WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH YRZHO WKDW LPPHGLDWHO\ IROORZV LW FKDQJHV D KLJK YRZHO
LQWR D VKRUW ORZ YRZHO 6SHFL᯳FDOO\ ii DQG i EHFRPH e DQG oo DQG o EHFRPH a ([DPSOHV FLWHG LQ WKH UHDOLVt
IRUP DQG WUDQVODWHG DV DSSURSULDWH IRU PDLQ FODXVHV

 3DVVLYH YHUE 5RRW

D tpap Was it (basket) sewn? √ap
E tpazt Was s/he tattooed? √azt
F tpemen Was it shaken sideways? √emen
G tpezi Was s/he defeated? √izi
H tpesxö Was s/he/it hidden? √isxö
I tpemosim Was s/he begged from? √iimosim
J tpanl Was it stirred? √oonl
K tpacta Was s/he/it looked at? √oocta

 3DVVLYH YHUE 5RRW

D tahcazni Was s/he bitten? √cazni
E tahxáp Was it dug up? √xap
F tahníp Was s/he/it hit? √nip

:KHQ WKH SUH᯳[ ah- SUHFHGHV D VWHP WKDW EHJLQV ZLWK DQ XQVWUHVVHG a ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKLV LV SDUW RI WKH FDXVDWLYH
SUH᯳[ WKDW YRZHO RI WKH VWHP LV ORVW LQ WKH SDVVLYH IRUP DV VKRZQ LQ  XQOHVV WKH FRQVRQDQW LPPHGLDWHO\
IROORZLQJ WKDW a LV D JORWWDO VWRS DV LQ 

 D tahcoaazj Was it braided? {t-ah-acoaazj}

 rlt:pass:braid
E tahpaxoz Was it peeled off? {t-ah-a-paxoz}
 rlt:pass:aug:lifted_up
F tahsaamij Was it rolled up? {t-ah-a-saamij}
 rlt:pass:aug:rolled_up
G tahcCaaiscan Was it hardened? {t-ah-ac-âaiscan}
brlt:pass:aug-hard

7KLV LGHD LV H[SUHVVHG ZLWK D SDVVLYH YHUE DQG D QRXQ VXFK DV cmiique (Seri) person ൻ QRWDEO\ ZLWKRXW DQ DUWLFOH DV LQ
L

L Cmiique pahcazni ta x, ...

(Seri)_person irr.dep:pass:bite ds ut
If one (unspecified) is bitten, ...
§17.3.5 Passive and unspecified subject 439

 D tahahaatoj Was it stretched out? {t-ah-a-haatoj}

 rlt:pass:aug:extended
E tahahitaj Was it made to burn? {t-ah-ah-itaj}
 rlt:pass:aug:burn
F tahahásaquim Was his/her hair combed? {t-ah-ah-ásaquim}
 rlt:pass:aug:comb_one’s_hair

:KHQ WKH SDVVLYH SUH᯳[ ah- IROORZV D JORWWDO VWRS LQ WKH VDPH ZRUG WKH JORWWDO VWRS LQ WKH SDVVLYH SUH᯳[ LV ORVW
6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D hihacazni my being bitten {hi-h-ah-cazni}

 1.poss-pon-pass-bite
E mihaníp your being hit {mi-h-ah-nip}
 2.poss-pon-pass-hit
F hasanj who was carried on back {ha-ah-sanj}
 sbj.nmlz-pass-carry_on_back
G hahótitol who was gotten up {ha-ah-ahótitol}
 sbj.nmlz-pass-aug-arise

7KH SDVVLYH SUH᯳[ p$EODXW - DOVR FRPPRQO\ FKDQJHV ORQJ aa WR VKRUW a LQ WKLV UHVSHFW VRPH YHUEV SDUWLFLSDWH DQG
VRPH GR QRW &RPSDUH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  DQG  ZKLFK VXJJHVW WKDW WKH VKRUWHQLQJ KDSSHQV UHJXODUO\
XQOHVV D GLSKWKRQJ LV LQYROYHG EXW VHH H[DPSOH G

 6RPH YHUEV WKDW FKDQJH OHQJWK LQ WKH SDVVLYH YRLFH

D tpatj Was it pounded flat? √aatj
E tpaca Was it entrusted? √aaca
F tpafc Was it pounded hard? √aafc
G tpat Was it cooked under coals? √aat

 6RPH YHUEV WKDW GR QRW FKDQJH OHQJWK LQ WKH SDVVLYH YRLFH
D tpaaisx Was it cleaned? √aaisx
E tpaao Was it (place) passed? √aao

7KHUH DUH D YHU\ IHZ PRUH LUUHJXODU SDVVLYHV DV VKRZQ LQ 

 XQH[SHFWHG FKRLFH RI DOORPRUSK SOXV YRZHO FKDQJH

D conttahaazi Was s/he taken to it? √oozi take

XQH[SHFWHG FKRLFH RI DOORPRUSK SOXV YRZHO FKDQJH

E cötahatalhaa Was s/he sold it? co- √italhaa sell

XQH[SHFWHG FKRLFH RI DOORPRUSK SOXV YRZHO FKDQJH

F tahatalhaa Was it bought? √italhaa buy

OHQJWKHQLQJ RI VHFRQG YRZHO DV ZHOO DV VKRUWHQLQJ RI ᯳UVW

G tpaii Was it made? √aai make

XQH[SHFWHG FKRLFH RI DOORPRUSK

H cöitahaaix Was s/he taken there? co- √aaix WDNH

6RPH VSHDNHUV SURQRXQFH WKLV IRUP DV [ˈtpɛiː]
440 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

7KH YHUE VWHP √iic LV HVVHQWLDOO\ WKH VXSSOHWLYH SDVVLYH IRUP RI WKH YHUE √acö kill 7KH VWHP √iic PHDQV be
killed DQG RFFXUV LQ OLHX RI WKH GHULYHG IRUP *√p-acö pass:kill HYHQ WR WKH H[WHQW RI LQFOXGLQJ LQ LWV VHPDQWLF
VWUXFWXUH WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG DJHQWVXEMHFW WKDW LV UHOHYDQW IRU 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW PDUNLQJ i 1HYHUWKHOHVV
WKH PRUSKRORJLFDO SDVVLYH VWHP √p-aco-tim pass-kill-impf LV DOVR DWWHVWHG LW LV RYHUWO\ PDUNHG IRU LPSHUIHFWLYH
DVSHFW VHH i
8QVSHFL᯳HG 6XEMHFW LV LQGLFDWHG RQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE VWHPV DV PHQWLRQHG DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKLV VXEVHFWLRQ
E\ WKH SUH᯳[ ca- 7KH YHUE PD\ EH SOXUDO DV ZHOO DV VLQJXODU VHH WKH VWHPV LQ  DQG WKH H[DPSOHV LQ


 5RRW 8QVSHFL᯳HG 6XEMHFW  URRW

D √panzx √capanzx run
E √iij √quiij sit
F √oos √coos sing
G √atax √caatax go (sing.)
H √alx √caalx go (pl.)

 Anxö icaticpan isax, hacx somcamiih aha.

intns 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:work aux apart irr.ind:neg:unsp.sbj:not_be.fl aux:dcl
Even if one works a lot, one will not die.

 Íti yoquiih.

3.poss:on rlyo:unsp.sbj:be.fl/reside
One used to live on it (Tiburon Island).

 Cötcaahit, …
3.io:rlt:unsp.sbj:fish
One fished with it, … bb &<+,

 Cmiique Roberto himxahquij, cmiique Martín xah quij coox oo

(Seri)_person Roberto dt:crd:cm (Seri)_person Martín crd def;cm all del

cöicaahit hac ...

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:fish def;loc
Both Roberto and Martin, with respect to fishing ...

 Himcac ano tquiij x, coeenzil coi

dt:loc [3.poss:]in rlt:unsp.sbj:sit ut sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj:play_stringed_intrument;pl def;pl
mahqueecöl.
rlmi:pass:listen_to
There were people there listening to the musicians. bb $/,0  LPSURYHG

$ IHZ DXJPHQWHG IRUPV i DOO RI ZKLFK KDYH VWUHVV RQ WKH ᯳UVW V\OODEOH RI WKH VWHP WDNH WKH DOORPRUSK
p$EODXW - RI WKH SDVVLYH LQ YLRODWLRQ RI WKH JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ JLYHQ DERYH DFFRUGLQJ WR ZKLFK WKH DOORPRUSK RI WKH
SDVVLYH LV ah- EHIRUH SUH᯳[HV 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 %DVH $XJPHQWHG 3DVVLYH RI DXJPHQWHG

D √acsx √aacsx √pacsx
be awake, come awake awaken awakened
E √actim √aactim √pactim
be cut cut (trans.) cut (passive)


7KLV H[DPSOH LV LQWHUHVWLQJ EHFDXVH RI WKH FOHDU MX[WDSRVLWLRQ RI WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW RI DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE DQG WKH
XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW RI D SDVVLYH YHUE WKDW DUH FOHDUO\ WDNHQ DV EHLQJ FRUHIHUHQWLDO $V D UHVXOW WKHUH LV QR GL᯲HUHQW VXEMHFW
PDUNLQJ PDUNHG RQ WKH GHSHQGHQW FODXVH
§17.3.7 Verb prefix order 441

F √aso √aasot √pasot

be borrowed lend lent
G √apxölim √papxölim √papxölim
be broken, break (intr.) break (trans.) broken (passive)

17.3.6 Directionals
7ZR GLUHFWLRQDO SUH᯳[HV RFFXU RQ D IHZ YHUEV 7KH\ DUH YHQLWLYH mo- twd WRZDUG DQG DQGDWLYH nt- aw
DZD\ 7KH YHUEV ZLWK ZKLFK WKH\ RFFXU DUH FLWHG KHUH LQ WKHLU GLFWLRQDU\ FLWDWLRQ IRUPV moca come imcooit
arrive imquiin return imcoozi send close mocqueetx bring, return DQG intica go intcoozi send away
7KH SUH᯳[ nt- KDV WKH DOORPRUSK int- ZLWK SURWKHWLF i i ZKHQ LW LV QRW SUHFHGHG E\ D YRZHO HLWKHU LQ
WKH VDPH ZRUG RU DQRWKHU ZRUG 7KH SUH᯳[ mo- ORVHV LWV YRZHO ZKHQ LW SUHFHGHV D YRZHO DV LQ WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH RI
come miica twd:inf.intr:move VHH i ,W DOVR ORVHV LWV YRZHO ZKHQ LW LV XQVWUHVVHG DQG LV QRW IROORZHG E\
D FOXVWHU RI WZR YHODU VWRSV WKLV SURPSWV WKH QHHG IRU WKH VDPH SURWKHWLF YRZHO WKDW RFFXUV ZLWK nt- 7KH m DOVR
DVVLPLODWHV WR WKH SRLQW RI DUWLFXODWLRQ RI D IROORZLQJ FRQVRQDQW EHFDXVH WKH m LV LQ DQ XQVWUHVVHG V\OODEOH VHH
i 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D imcooit who arrives twd:sbj.nmlz:arrive

E intooit s/he/it arrived, … twd:rlt:arrive
F imquiin who returns twd:sbj.nmlz:go
G imhoozi Send it! twd:im:carry/send
H montoozi you sent it, … twd:2s.sbj:rlt:carry/send
I mitoozi s/he sent it, … twd:3.sbj:rlt:carry/send
J mocqueetx who brings it twd:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]deliver

7KH GLUHFWLRQDO PRUSKHPHV OLNH WKH LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ SUH᯳[HV DUH OHVV FORVHO\ DWWDFKHG WR WKH YHUE
WKH\ GR QRW SURYLGH WKH FRQWH[W QHFHVVDU\ IRU c(SHQWKHVLV i ,I WKHVH SUH᯳[HV ZHUH DV WLJKW WR WKH YHUE
DV PRVW SUH᯳[HV RQH ZRXOG H[SHFW D c WR EH LQVHUWHG DIWHU LW LQ WKH FDVHV OLNH  EXW WKLV GRHV QRW KDSSHQ

 D Contmaca. E (*Contcmaca.)

3.io:aw:rlmi:unsp.sbj:move
One (unspecified) went.

17.3.7 Verb prefix order

6LPSOH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ  WR VKRZ WKH UHODWLYH RUGHU RI HDFK RI WKH FODVVHV RI PRUSKHPHV GLVFXVVHG
LQ WKLV FKDSWHU 7KH RUGHU LV VXPPDUL]HG LQ WDEOH  ZKLFK PLJKW EH YLHZHG DV D OLVWLQJ RI WKH LQ᯴HFWLRQDO YHUEDO
SUH᯳[HV 2Q WKH ODFN RI H[DPSOHV LOOXVWUDWLQJ WKH FRRFFXUUHQFH RI LQGLUHFW REMHFW DQG GLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ VHH
i

7DEOH bb5HODWLYH RUGHU RI LQ᯴HFWLRQDO SUH᯳[HV RQ YHUE

,2 'LUHFWLRQDO '2 6XEMHFW 0RRG 1HJDWLYH 8QVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW

,PSHUDWLYH 1.sbj.em 3DVVLYH
bb,Q᯳QLWLYH b

 ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW ൹ 'LUHFWLRQDO

Xepe com co-nt-i-s-oozi aha.
sea def;hz 3.io-aw-3.sbj-irr.ind-carry aux:dcl
He will take him into the sea.

 'LUHFWLRQDO ൹ 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

Toii nt-hizi-m-oozi.
toward_somewhere_else aw-1p.do-rlmi-carry
S/he sent us away free. bb &<+,
442 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ൹ 6XEMHFW ൹ 0RRG ൹ 1HJDWLYH ൹ 3DVVLYH

Hizi i-s-com-p-éhe-tim aha.
1p.do-3.sbj-irr.ind-neg-pass-give-impf aux:dcl
We will not be given it.

 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ൹ 6XEMHFW ൹ 0RRG ൹ 1HJDWLYH

Ma h-yo-m-aho.
2s.do-1s.sbj.tr-rlyo-neg-see
I didn’t see you.

 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ൹ ,PSHUDWLYH ൹ 1HJDWLYH

¡Ihpo-Ø-m-oocta!
  1s.do.im-im-neg-look_at
Don’t look at me!

 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ൹ ,Q᯳QLWLYH

Ma iha-sanj ihyomaa.
2s.do-inf.tr-carry_on_back 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:know
I am unable to carry you (on my back).

 1HJDWLYH ൹ 8QVSHFL᯳HG 6XEMHFW

˻ Hacx s-om-ca-miih˼ aha.
   apart irr.ind-neg-unsp.sbj-not_be.fl aux:dcl
One won’t die.

 1HJDWLYH ൹ )LUVW 3HUVRQ (PSKDWLF 6XEMHFW

Hatee s-om-caa-tax aha.
1.em.pro irr.ind-neg-unsp.sbj-go aux:dcl
As for me, I won’t go.

 )LUVW 3HUVRQ (PSKDWLF 6XEMHFW ൹ 3DVVLYH

Hatee s-ca-p-azt aha.
1.em.pro irr.ind-1.em.intr-pass-tattoo aux:dcl
As for me, I will be tattooed.

 ,Q᯳QLWLYH  3DVVLYH

ica-p-azt
inf.intr-pass-tattoo
to be tattooed

17.3.8 Aspect
,PSHUIHFWLYH DVSHFW LV W\SLFDOO\ RYHUWO\ PDUNHG PRVW REYLRXVO\ E\ D VX᯵[ൻGHWDLOV DUH JLYHQ EHORZ ZKHUHDV
SHUIHFWLYH DVSHFW LV W\SLFDOO\ XQPDUNHGൻRU DW OHDVW XVXDOO\ KDV QR GHGLFDWHG PRUSKRORJ\ 9HUEV GHVFULELQJ
G\QDPLF HYHQWV WKHUHIRUH FRPPRQO\ KDYH LPSHUIHFWLYH IRUPV DV ZHOO DV SHUIHFWLYH IRUPV DV VKRZQ LQ 
DQG  IRU WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ pound ZKLFK KDV WKH VLQJXODU VXEMHFW SHUIHFWLYH VWHP √aafc DQG WKH VLQJX
ODU VXEMHFW LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √aafajquim ,Q WKLV JUDPPDU LPSHUIHFWLYH DVSHFW LV H[SOLFLWO\ JORVVHG ZKHUHDV
SHUIHFWLYH DVSHFW LV QRW ,I WKH VWHP √aafc ZHUH H[SOLFLWO\ WDJJHG LW ZRXOG EH pound.pfv ZLWK VLQJXODU VXEMHFW
ZKHUH pfv SHUIHFWLYH

 José quih inol cop ˻ eenm icaatj˼ quih

José def;fl 3.poss:finger def;vt  v metal 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:pound_flat def;fl
cöimaafc.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound
Joséi hit hisi finger with the hammer. bb &<+,
§17.3.8.1 The morphology of aspect 443

 Cmaam quij hast quij hehe com cöimaafajquim.

female def;cm stone def;cm plant/stick def;hz 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:pound;impf
The woman is pounding the stick with the stone.

3UHGLFDWHV WKDW PD\ EH WKRXJKW RI DV W\SLFDOO\ VWDWLYH VRPHWLPHV KDYH LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHPV DV ZHOO EXW LQ WKHVH
SDUWLFXODU VLWXDWLRQV WKH PHDQLQJ RI WKH YHUE LV QRW VWDWLYH 7KH YHUE √iih SHUIHFWLYH WKDW LV XVHG WR PHDQ EH LQ
D ORFDWLRQ IRU ᯴H[LEOH REMHFWV DQG IRU SHRSOH ERWK LOOXVWUDWHG LQ  KDV WKH LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √iihtim ZLWK
WKH PHDQLQJ be going DV LQ 

 Hant iti hihiih zo ˻ ziix hapahit˼ z iti

land 3.poss:on 1.poss:pon:be.fl/live indf;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat indf;sg 3.poss:on
tmiih, ...
rlt:not_be.fl
There isn’t any food in the place in which I live … bb %XUJRVB

 Hast com ano hptiihtim, ...

stone/mountain def;hz [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:be.fl:impf
As I was going in the hills, ... bb &<+,

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D √aanjö √aanal-im √aanl-coj √aanal-am poison points
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G √amaa-x √amaa-x-tim √amaa-j-c √amaa-x-ajam brew liquor
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I √tipt-x √tipit-x-im √tipt-a-j-c √tip-ta-x-lca touch
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G √nopij √nopil-im √nopz-il √nopz-ilca sink

17.4 Inflection of non-finite forms

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I iquiim to sleep inf.intr:sleep
J icaatax to go inf.intr:go


,QWUDQVLWLYH LQ᯳QLWLYHV DUH LGHQWLFDO SKRQHWLFDOO\ WR WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW IRUP RI WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH
RULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ VHH i &RPSDUH WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH iquiim to sleep {ica-iim} inf.intr-sleep ZLWK iquiim one’s sleeping
{i-Ø-ca-iim} 3.poss-pon-unsp.sbj-sleep 7KH ODWWHU FDQ EH QHJDWLYH KRZHYHU XQOLNH WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH imquiim one’s not sleeping
{i-Ø-m-ca-iim} 3.poss-pon-neg-unsp.sbj-sleep

7KH OHQJWK RI YRZHOV LQ LQ᯳QLWLYHV KDV EHHQ SUREOHPDWLF DW OHDVW IRU PH IRU VRPH \HDUV DQ LQ᯳QLWLYH VXFK DV icaatax to
go KDV EHHQ ZULWWHQ DV icatax LQ PDQ\ SUHYLRXV SXEOLFDWLRQV 7KH GL᯲HUHQFH LV EDUHO\ SHUFHSWLEOH EXW FXUUHQW FRQVXOWDQWV DUH
PXFK PRUH DZDUH RI WKH GL᯲HUHQFH DQG KHOSIXO LQ FDWFKLQJ PLVWDNHV LQ WKLV DUHD 8QOHVV WKH ORQJ YRZHO LQ WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH LV GXH
WR XQGHUO\LQJ YRZHO OHQJWK LQ WKH SUH᯳[DO a WKH OHQJWKHQLQJ LV DWWULEXWHG WR WKH FRPSHQVDWRU\ OHQJWKHQLQJ RU VRPHWKLQJ OLNH
LW WKDW RFFXUV ZKHQ RWKHU SUH᯳[ YRZHOV GLVSODFH D VKRUW ORZ URRWLQLWLDO YRZHO 6HH i
§17.4.1 Infinitives 449

 ,Q᯳QLWLYHV RI GHULYHG LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV LQFOXGLQJ SDVVLYHV

D icotís to point inf.intr:unsp.obj:point_at
E icapazt to be tattooed inf.intr:pass:tattoo
F icahcazni to be bitten inf.intr:pass:bite
G icahaapl to feel cold inf.intr:aug:cold
H icaacj to do twice inf.intr:times;two

 ,Q᯳QLWLYHV RI FDXVDWLYH YHUEV XVHG LQWUDQVLWLYHO\

D icahamoc to stay out late inf.intr:aug:become_night
E icaahit to go fishing inf.intr:aug:eat

 ,Q᯳QLWLYHV RI GHQRPLQDO YHUEV XVHG LQWUDQVLWLYHO\

D iquitaamt to be wearing sandals inf.intr:hv:sandals
E iquiionam to be wearing a hat inf.intr:hv:hat

7KH LQ᯳QLWLYHV RI D YDULHW\ RI WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 ,Q᯳QLWLYHV RI VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH DQG GLWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV

D ihapii to taste it inf.tr:taste
E ihaacta to look at it/him/her/them inf.tr:look_at
F iheep to carry it on head inf.tr:carry_on_head
G ihaaho to see it/him/her/them inf.tr:see
H ihaahit to eat it/them inf.tr:eat
I ihazt to tattoo him/her inf.tr:tattoo
J hapx ihaca to throw it out outside inf.tr:put.lq/lng
K ihapiz to suck juice from it inf.tr:suck_juice_from

 ,Q᯳QLWLYHV RI GHULYHG WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV

D ihaacsx to awaken him/her/it inf.tr:aug:awake
E ihaqueejc to make him/her/it wet inf.tr:aug:wet
F ihataamatot to put sandals on him/her inf.tr:aug:hv:sandal:?
G ihaneaaxot to wash his/her hands inf.tr:aug:wash.hands:?

7KH LQ᯳QLWLYH PD\ EH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU GLUHFW DQG LQGLUHFW REMHFWV WKH DEVHQFH RI RYHUW PDUNLQJ IRU GLUHFW REMHFW
PHDQV WKDW WKH GLUHFW REMHFW LV WKLUG SHUVRQ VHH 

 D ma ihee to give you (sg.) it 2s.do inf.tr:give_food

E ihee to give him/her it inf.tr:give_food

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 7KLV LV WKH RQO\ EDVLF WUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKDW EHJLQV ZLWK XQVWUHVVHG i

 ihatalhaa to buy it/them inf.tr:buy

7KH LQ᯳QLWLYHV RI GHQRPLQDO YHUEV OLNHZLVH FKDQJH WKH i RI WKH hv SUH᯳[ VHH i WR D ZKHQ WKH\ DUH XVHG
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 D iquitaamt to wear sandal(s) (intransitive) inf.intr:hv:sandal

E ihataamt to wear it/them as sandal(s) (transitive) inf.tr:hv:sandal

 D iquiionam to wear a hat (intransitive) inf.intr:hv:hat

E ihaaonam to wear it as hat (transitive) inf.tr:hv:hat

7KLV LV XVHG LQ D VHQWHQFH OLNH L
L Hipiix ihaaonam ihmiimzo.
dem;px;sg inf.tr:hv:hat 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to wear this one (as a hat).
450 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

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F ZLWK D FRXSOH RI PLQRU WZLVWV LQ D IHZ FDVHV DV GHVFULEHG EHORZ 7KLV NLQG RI DEODXW LV IRXQG HOVHZKHUH LQ
WKH ODQJXDJH VHH i

 D √oocta ihaacta to look at it/them

E √ooi ihaai to bring it/them
F √ooi ihaai to delouse head of him/her
G √oonl ihaanl to stir it/them
H √oon iheen to carry it/them

 D √ic iheec to plant it

E √ictim iheectim to cross it
F √imox iheemox to cut it into pieces
G √imt iheemt to rub it
H √inj iheenj to shout at him/her/it
I √ip iheep to straighten it
J √ipjc iheepjc to grab it
K √iptim iheeptim to harvest them (seeds)
L √is ihees to miss it/them
M √isxö iheesxö to hide it/them
N √itlim iheetlim to kindle it
O √ixoz iheexoz to scrape it
P √ixö iheexö to jump over it
Q √izi iheezi to defeat him/her/it

 D √ii ihee to hear him/her/it

E √iiha iheehe to have it
F √iimosim iheemosim to beg from him/her
G √iip iheep to carry it on head
H √iixim iheexem to fear it/them

7KH LQ᯳QLWLYH RI WKH YHUE √oon carry (plural items) ZRXOG EH H[SHFWHG WR EH *ihaan E\ WKLV SDWWHUQ EXW LW LV
iheen 7KLV LV TXLWH REYLRXVO\ WKH UHVXOW RI D UXOH RI KDUPRQ\ WKDW LV VHHQ RSHUDWLQJ HOVHZKHUH LQ WKH ODQJXDJH
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SOXUDO VWHP √oonec WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH RI ZKLFK LV iheenec

17.4.2 Imperatives
7KH RQO\ PRUSKRORJLFDO LPSHUDWLYH LV VHFRQG SHUVRQ 7KH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ VLQJXODU DQG SOXUDO VXEMHFW LV
H[SUHVVHG RQO\ LQ WKH IRUP RI WKH VWHP VHH i FRPSDUH IRU H[DPSOH catax Go (sg.)! DQG calx Go (pl.)!
7KH LPSHUDWLYH KDV VHYHUDO UHJXODU VXSSOHWLYH DOORPRUSKV )LUVW DV VKRZQ LQ  LW LV DOZD\V QXOO ZKHQ
WKH YHUE LV LQ᯴HFWHG ZLWK WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU REMHFW SUH᯳[ hpo- ZKHWKHU WKH YHUE LV QHJDWLYH RU D᯵UPDWLYH


,W ZDV FODLPHG LQ 0DUOHWW E WKDW WKH YRZHO DOVR VKRUWHQHG 7KLV LV QRW FRUUHFW DFFRUGLQJ WR FXUUHQW FRQVXOWDQWV IRU
WKH LQ᯳QLWLYHV

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6HH DOVR WKH KDUPRQL]DWLRQ RI a WR e LQ FHUWDLQ QRXQ IRUPV i

,Q RUGHU WR H[SUHVV VRPHWKLQJ OLNH D ᯳UVW SHUVRQ KRUWDWLYH Let’s ... RQH XVHV WKH LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV ZLWK D ᯳UVW SHUVRQ
HPSKDWLF SUH᯳[ OLWHUDOO\ WKH PHDQLQJ LV WE should ... 6HH i

7KLV DOORPRUSK\ ZDV ᯳UVW ODLG RXW LQ 0DUOHWW 

$V H[SODLQHG LQ i WKH SUH᯳[ hpo- RFFXUV RQO\ LQ LPSHUDWLYHV
§17.4.2 Imperatives 451

 D ¡Ihposanj! Carry me on your back! {ihpo-Ø-sanj} 1s.do.im-im-carry_on_back

E ¡Ihpoocta! Look at me! {ihpo-Ø-oocta} 1s.do.im-im-look_at
F ¡Ihpipjc! Wrestle me! {ihpo-Ø-ipjc} 1s.do.im-im-wrestle
G ¡Ihpomoocta! Don’t look at me! {ihpo‑Ø‑m‑oocta} 1s.do.im-im-neg-look_at
H ¡Ihpoozt! Tattoo me! {ihpo-Ø-azt} 1s.do.im-im-tattoo
I ¡Ihpomazt! Don’t tattoo me! {ihpo-Ø-m-azt} 1s.do.im-im-neg-tattoo

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c RFFXUV VHH  $Q HSHQWKHWLF o RFFXUV DIWHU LW EHIRUH WKH QDVDO RI WKH QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ XQGHU SUHGLFWDEOH
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 D ¡Cmatax! Don’t go! {c-m‑atax} im-neg-go

E ¡Cmotís! Don’t point! {c-m‑o$EODXW ‑tis} im-neg-unsp.obj-point
F ¡Contís! Don’t point at it! {c-m-tis} im-neg-point_at
G ¡Cocompanzx! Don’t run like him/her! {co‑c‑m‑panzx} 3.io-im-neg-run

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DOORPRUSK RFFXUV DOVR ZKHQ WKH LPSHUDWLYH PRUSKHPH LV SUHFHGHG E\ WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW
SUH᯳[ co- i DQG GLUHFWO\ IROORZHG E\ D URRWLQLWLDO VKRUW ORZ YRZHO YL] a RU e DV VKRZQ LQ 

 D ¡Coomjc! Take it to him/her! {co-Ø-amjc} 3.io-im-take

E ¡Hohra cootax! Go like a donkey! {co-Ø-atax} 3.io-im-go
F ¡Coomen! Winnow it with it! {co-Ø-emen} 3.io-im-shake

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ZLWK D URRWLQLWLDO VKRUW ORZ YRZHO YL] a RU e 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D ¡Catax! Go! {c-atax} im-go

E ¡Casi! Drink it! {c-asi} im-drink
F ¡Quemen! Shake it from side to side! {qu-emen} im-shake
G ¡He cazcam! Come (pl.) to me! {he-c-azcam} 1.io-im-arrive\pl

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SUH᯳[ IRU LPSHUDWLYH VHH EHORZ
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GXH WR WKH GLSKWKRQJ H᯲HFW VHH i 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D ¡Aait! Dance! {Ø$EODXW -ooit} im-dance

E ¡As! Sing! {Ø$EODXW -oos} im-sing
F ¡Aha! Cry! {Ø$EODXW -ooha} im-cry
G ¡Eenj! Shout! {Ø$EODXW -eenj} im-unsp.obj+yell_at
H ¡Asanj! Carry on your back! {Ø$EODXW ‑o$EODXW ‑sanj} im-unsp.obj-carry_on_back
I ¡Aticpan! Work! {Ø$EODXW -aticpan} im-work
J ¡Aanpx! Go home! {Ø$EODXW -aanpx} im-return_home
K ¡Aahit! Go fishing! {Ø$EODXW -aahit} im-fish
L ¡Éteja! Stagger! {Ø$EODXW -óteja} im:stagger


7KH YRZHOV WKDW DUH PDUNHG ZLWK D PDFURQ LQ XQGHUO\LQJ IRUPV VXFK DV WKH URRW √ācat swim DUH VKRUW SKRQHWLFDOO\ EXW
DFW DV ORQJ LQ DOO VLWXDWLRQV
452 Chapter 17: Verb inflection

7KH LPSHUDWLYH IRUP eteja LQ L VKRZV WKH VDPH NLQG RI YRZHO KDUPRQ\ VHHQ DERYH ZLWK WKH LQ᯳QLWLYDO
IRUP ihén i DQG GLVFXVVHG LQ i
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DOORPRUSK LV WKH GHIDXOW RQH GHVFULEHG EHORZ ¡Hant hoom! Lie down!
)LQDOO\ HOVHZKHUH DQG SUHVXPDEO\ DV WKH GHIDXOW FDVH WKH LPSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ LV h- 7KLV SUH᯳[ LV RIWHQ SUHFHGHG
E\ DQ SURWKHWLF i IRU UHDVRQV RI V\OODEL᯳FDWLRQ VHH i 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D ¡Hiim! Sleep! im:sleep

E ¡Hoocta! Look at it/him/her! im:look_at
F ¡Hoonl! Stir it! im:stir
G ¡Hoon! Carry them! im:carry_items
H ¡Haafc! Pound it! im:pound
I ¡Cöhaafc! Pound it with it! 3.io:im:pound
J ¡Ihmai! Be quiet! im:be_quiet
K ¡Ihtís! Point at it! im:point_at
L ¡Ihcaa! Look for it! im:look_for
M ¡Hahooil! Make it blue/green! im:aug:blue/green
N ¡Cohqueetx! Return it to him/her! 3.io:im:return
O ¡Hataamatot! Put sandals on him/her! im:aug:hv:sandal(s):?
P ¡Cöhacózixot! Make him/her saw it! 3.io:im:aug:saw:?
 18
Basic verb subcategorization

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ORJLFDO DQG V\QWDFWLF FULWHULD 7KH PRVW GLUHFWO\ LQGLFDWLYH FULWHULD DUH WKH PRUSKRORJLFDO PDUNLQJV GHVFULEHG DV
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3HUVRQDO LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ WKUHH VHFWLRQV iൺVWDWLYH YHUEV PDQ\ RI ZKLFK FRUUHVSRQG
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18.1 Impersonal verbs

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RI GD\


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6HH -DFNHQGR᯲ ᯲

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6HH i DQG i

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RWKHU ODWHU ZRUNV

7KH YHUEV √meque warm DQG √aapl cold DUH DOVR XVHG DV VWDWLYH SUHGLFDWHV VHH i EHORZ 7KH YHUE √apca rain PD\
EH XVHG DV DQ XQDFFXVDWLYH YHUE ZLWK WKH QRPLQDO xat hail DUJXDEO\ WKH VXEMHFW WR PHDQ (precipitate) hail 7KH YHUE √Camla
LV DQ LPSHUIHFWLYH DVSHFW VWHP RI WKH XQDFFXVDWLYH YHUE √Camjö shiny WKH SHUIHFWLYH VWHP RFFXUV LQ WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ ZKLOH
WKH LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP LV WKH SUHIHUUHG YHUEDO IRUP 6RPH RI WKH LGLRPV DUH DOVR LPSHUVRQDO LQFOXGLQJ áno √ooit be afternoon
i hánt √fii be next morning i

453
454 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 Impersonal Verb
6HPDQWLFV ൺ
6\QWD[ QXOO

 D √apca rain I √Camla lightning

E √cozim be hot (weather) J √hamoc become night
F √meque be warm K √iiziloj drizzle
G √aapl be cold L √taaplc be early in the morning
H √anj thunder

7KHVH YHUEV ZKHQ XVHG DV LPSHUVRQDOV GR QRW RFFXU ZLWK DQ RYHUW QRPLQDO VXEMHFW DOWKRXJK WKH YHUE LV DOZD\V
LQ᯴HFWHG IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW 7KLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ LV IRUPDOO\ XQPDUNHG LQ ᯳QLWH FODXVHV VHH
i EXW LW LV RYHUWO\ PDUNHG LQ GHYHUEDO QRXQV EDVHG RQ WKHVH LPSHUVRQDO YHUEV i VXFK DV ihamoc
{i-Ø-hamoc} 3.poss-pon-become_night night icozim {i-Ø-cozim} 3.poss-pon-hot_(weather) hot weather, sum-
mer ihaapl {i-h-aapl` 3.poss-pon-cold cold weather winter DQG eamjö {i-Ø-Camjö 3.poss-pon-lightning`
(sheet) lightning

 ... ttamla, tanloj, tapca, ...

rlt:shiny\impf rlt:thunder:impf rlt:rain
... there was lightning, it thundered, it rained, ...bb (6 FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKRBE

 ... tcozim, hoocala zo tompaho, ...

rlt:hot_(weather) cloud(s) indf;sg rlt:neg:pass:see
... it was hot, not a cloud was seen, ...bb (6 FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKRBE

 Quiiziloj iha xo hayomiijajoj.

sbj.nmlz:drizzle dcl but 1p.sbj:rlyo:neg:wet\pl
It drizzled but we didn’t get wet. bb &<+,

7KHVH YHUEV DFW DV LI WKH\ KDYH WKLUG SHUVRQ V\QWDFWLF VXEMHFWV LQ WKDW WKH\ PD\ SDUWLFLSDWH LQ WKH UDLVLQJ
FRQVWUXFWLRQ GHVFULEHG LQ i $ UHOHYDQW H[DPSOH LV JLYHQ LQ  EXW QHHGV WR EH H[DPLQHG LQ OLJKW RI WKH IDFWV
VKRZQ LQ i

 Moxima quih hiiqui iipca maapxa.

yesterday def;fl 1.poss:toward 3.poss:[pon:]rain rlmi:times;three
It rained on us three times.

9HUEV GHULYHG IURP LPSHUVRQDO SUHGLFDWHV DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH 6HH i IRU WKH H[SHULHQFHU YHUEV EDVHG RQ WKHP
DQG i IRU WKH FDXVDWLYHV EDVHG RQ WKHP $OVR VHH i IRU WKH XVH RI √apca rain ZLWK WKH H[SOLFLW VXEMHFW
xat hail

7KH YHUE √cozim EH hot (weather) LV QRUPDOO\ XVHG DV DQ LPSHUVRQDO YHUE EXW LW LV XVHG DV D QRQDJHQWLYH YHUE LQ MRFXODU
VSHHFK WR DVN IRU RQHൿV SHUVRQDO VSDFH

L Halx xah mxocozim tax, ¡halx toox iicx he hiij!

just atten 2s.sbj:em:hot_(weather) because bbjust far near 1.io:im:sit
Because you’re hot, sit farther away from me.bb 2᯲HUHG


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WR EH SKRQHWLFDOO\ QXOO IRU D ODQJXDJH OLNH 6HUL VLQFH 6HUL LV D SURGURS ODQJXDJH 7KLV VXEMHFW SDUWLFLSDWHV LQ WKH UDLVLQJ
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§18.2 Stative verbs 455

18.2 Stative verbs

,QWUDQVLWLYH VWDWLYH YHUEV ZKLFK DUH YHU\ QXPHURXV GHVFULEH D UHIHUHQW LQ VRPH ZD\ 7KH\ PD\ LQGLFDWH WKH VWDWH
LQ ZKLFK WKH LWHP LV RU ZLWKRXW DQ\ DGGLWLRQDO PRUSKRORJ\ RU SKUDVLQJ WKH VWDWH LQ ZKLFK WKH LWHP KDV EHHQ
ZLOO EH RU LV EHFRPLQJ 7KH\ DUH WKHUHIRUH RIWHQ DPELJXRXV EHWZHHQ D VWDWLYH DQG DQ LQFKRDWLYH UHDGLQJ 7KH\
PD\ LQGLFDWH LQWULQVLF RU WHPSRUDU\ FKDUDFWHULVWLFV $V LQGLFDWHG LQ WKH VFKHPD LQ  WKH VXEMHFW RI WKHVH FODXVHV
LV WKH QRPLQDO WKDW LV GHVFULEHG E\ WKH YHUE ([DPSOHV RI VWDWLYH YHUEV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Stative verb
6HPDQWLFV Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW

 D &RORU DQG SDWWHUQ √heel red √Cihjö red√masol yellow √ooil blue/green √oopol black √ooscl
speckled without much color √oospoj spotted √Camjö shiny √icopol dark √iimapxjij iridescent
with dark colors √imaaxat gray brown √ineehj shiny √inziitxi unattractive gray/brown YXOJDU
√oaan PXUN\ HWF
E 6KDSH DQG VL]H √aacni curved √apxeezc wedge-shaped √amootj forked √ipcö thick √acösxaj
long, tall √iteejöc skinny √jip flat √neeej curled up, gnarled √noftj bent, jagged √noocon bowed
√noohöc concave and deep √noosc rough √nopin convex √oiij tubular √ooipj oval √peehzx
concave and shallow √ahmazaj extra large and globular √aptj wide √oosot narrow √oojoj short
√aacoj big √aail spacious and open √isil small √opísica unusually small (opening) √eaam
spacious HWF
F :HLJKW √afzx light √motet heavy
G 7HPSHUDWXUH √aapl cold √matj hot √meque warm
H )ODYRU √acat bitter/salty √capxl sour √oaatjö sweet √cotp tart √jizi picante/painful
I 6PHOO √con stink like onions √cotxta have smell like body odor √cozl smell like rancid oil √icotj
musty, rotten-smelling √heemt stink HWF
J 4XDQWLW\ √azoj one √oocj two √apxa three √zooxöc four √ooitom five √hanl ten √cooo all
√atxo much, many √ipxa few √miih scarce HWF
K 3K\VLFDO FRQGLWLRQ √âaiscan hard √iipe good, well √moqueepe ill √monlc curly, wrinkled
√ahmaaco unobvious √ahtxima rich √ahzinz immature [mesquite pod] √ajöazp mushy (fruit)
√ancl rusty √axaaza drippy and thick √axax raspy √axt delicate, tender √ayáx in poor physi-
cal condition √azaplc paralyzed in the legs √cam full √haasax open and spread out √haanzx
twisted and unraveled √hac blind √hesen rigid and strong √is raw √maaitx soft, tender √mam
cooked, ripe √matis burned √maxquij taut, stiff √meesom unused, intact √miipala broken, ru-
ined √miipla bad, ruined √moqueepe sick √ocaait be in disarray √oozlil sticky √oqueepe
comfortable √paaisx clean HWF
L 0HQWDO RU HPRWLRQDO VWDWH √atla fearful of the authorities for having committed a crime √haxz
irritable √matiscal have a negative attitude, be a braggart √atol afraid HWF


7KLV YHUE KDV WKH URRW IRU black LQ LW LQH[SOLFDEO\ ZLWK D VKRUW YRZHO KRZHYHU EXW WKHUH LV QR UHJXODU PRUSKRORJLFDO
GHULYDWLRQ KDSSHQLQJ KHUH

6HH i

7KLV URRW LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH QRXQ IRU dry ironwood Olneya tesota

7KLV URRW FRQWDLQV WKH URRW IRU comfortable √oqueepe DQG DOVR D UHDQDO\]HG QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ VHH 0DUOHWW 

7KLV URRW LV HW\PRORJLFDOO\ D SDVVLYH IRUP RI D QRZ GLVXVHG WUDQVLWLYH URRW √aaisx clean 0DUOHWW 

7KLV URRW LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH DEVROXWH IRUP RI pet W\SLFDOO\ XVHG IRU dog 7KH SOXUDO YHUE VWHP √háxaca LV
KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH SOXUDO DEVROXWH IRUP RI pet

0DQ\ RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQV IRU PHQWDO DQG HPRWLRQDO VWDWHV DUH LGLRPDWLF VHH FKDSWHU 
456 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

M &KDUDFWHUL]HG E\ EHLQJ RU KDYLQJ VRPHWKLQJ HOVH √ahpizl have an overhang √ahsnaailc have
rough bark √ahtaap have pus √ahtaasim foamy, have foam √aptxö full of holes √atoopex have
whooping cough √cosyat thorny √haait bloody √hast rocky, stiff √hoopatj be rough sea
with breaking waves √oaanj poisonous, bearing plant poison √matsj be a liar HWF
N 2WKHU √ahntaxl close √haamx widely known √hapx made public, uncovered √ahizoj be mi-
rage √catoomec be Sunday √eme depleted √aptasa unlucky √comca noisy √pacta be in
appearance HWF

6WDWLYH YHUEV PD\ FRRFFXU ZLWK WKH LQWHQVLI\LQJ DGYHUEV aapa i DQG ˻ mos áno˼ i ([DPSOHV
 LOOXVWUDWH WKH IDFW WKDW WKH SUHGLFDWHV LQGLFDWLQJ TXDQWLW\ DUH HDVLO\ DQG QDWXUDOO\ XVHG DV PDLQ SUHGLFDWHV
LQ WKH FODXVH

7DEOH bb7KH QXPEHU V\VWHP

7KH QXPEHU V\VWHP LV D EDVHWHQ V\VWHP 7KH SULPDU\ WHUPV DUH

 bb√azoj DOWKRXJK tazo LV XVHG DV WKH VLPSOH ZRUG IRU one

   √oocj  bb√zooxöc    √hanl
   √apxa    √ooitom

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU six LV DQ DGGLWLRQ RI RQH WR VRPHWKLQJ isnaap √azoj 3.poss:breast one Seven LV
HW\PRORJLFDOO\ five with two tomcoj co- √iih five:two 3.io be.fl ZKHUH tom LV WKH ODVW V\OODEOH RI
√ooitom five DQG coj LV D FRQWUDFWLRQ RI coocj sbj.nmlz:two Eight LV HYLGHQWO\ DW OHDVW
HW\PRORJLFDOO\ D ංPXOWLSOHඃ IRUP VHH i RI four √zooxolcam Nine LV UHODWHG WR WKH YHUE IRU
ten csooi √hanl ? ten WKH ZRUG csooi RQO\ DSSHDUV LQ WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ DQG LWV GHULYDWLYHV
7KH PXOWLSOHV RI WHQ DUH H[SUHVVHG DV ihanl √oocj 3.poss:pon:ten two twenty ihanl √apxa thirty
ihanl csooi √hanl ninety ihanl ihanl √oocj two hundred HWF :KHQ WKH QXPEHU ZRUG LV D PXOWLSOH
RI WHQ WKH ංSOXUDOඃ VWHP √hánaloj LV XVHG ihanl ihanl chánaloj quih √oocj 3.poss:[pon:]ten
3.poss:[pon:]ten sbj.nmlz:ten\pl def;fl two two thousand
2WKHU QXPEHUV EHWZHHQ WKH PXOWLSOHV RI WHQ DUH H[SUHVVHG ZLWK DGGLWLRQV WR WKH SUHYLRXV PXOWLSOH RI
WHQ ZKLFK LV H[SUHVVHG DV D GHSHQGHQW FODXVH
 thanl tazo co- √iih rlt:ten one 3.io be.fl
 thanl toocj co- √iih rlt:ten rlt:two 3.io be.fl
 thanl tomcoj cötiih co- √iih rlt:ten five:two 3.io:rlt:be.fl 3.io be.fl
 ihanl toocj tazo co- √iih 3.poss:pon:ten rlt:two one 3.io be.fl

 Haaonatz quih coocj iha.

abs:hat\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:two dcl
There are/were two hats.

 Iiztox toocj x, iiztox tapxa ma x, yaanipxat.

moon/month\pl rlt:two ut moon/month\pl rlt:three ds ut rlyo:return_home;pl
After two or three months, they returned home.

7KLV URRW LV VLPLODU WR RU FRQWDLQV WKH URRW IRU thorn cosi

7KLV URRW LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH DEVROXWH IRUP RI WKH QRXQ IRU blood 7KH SOXUDO YHUE VWHP DQG WKH SOXUDO QRXQ VWHP
DUH QRW LGHQWLFDO

7KLV URRW LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH QRXQ IRU stone rock 7KH SOXUDO YHUE VWHP √hásatoj LV LGHQWLFDO WR WKH SOXUDO QRXQ
IRUP

7KLV URRW LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH QRXQ IRU ZDYH 7KH SOXUDO YHUE VWHP √hoopatalca LV LGHQWLFDO WR WKH SOXUDO QRXQ
IRUP

7KLV ZRUG HYHQWXDOO\ WUDFHV LWV RULJLQ EDFN WR 6SDQLVK domingo 6HH DSSHQGL[ %
§18.2 Stative verbs 457

 ˻ Eenm haaczoj˼ quih tcooo ma, itoon, tatax, yoque.

   metal abs:bow\pl def;fl rlt:all ds 3.sbj:rlt:carry_items rlt:go rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
He took all of the rifles, he went, it is said.

 Hai cop intooit ma, cöihaafzx hac iti hoocala

wind def;vt twd:rlt:arrive ds 3.io:3.poss:pon:fast def;loc 3.poss:on cloud
cötaanim ma, hant com tcooo yicopol.
3.io:rlt:closed/covered ds land def;hz rlt:all rlyo:dark
When the wind came, it quickly got cloudy and all the earth became dark. bb &<+,

 Tcooo yaanipxat.
rlt:all rlyo:return_home;pl
They all went home. bb FI 0RVHU 

 Pocooo ta nsiihit aha.

irr.dep:be_all ds 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
You should eat all of it/them. bb FI 0RVHU 

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DUH JLYHQ KHUH ,Q VRPH FDVHV GHVFULEHG LQ i D VWDWLYH SUHGLFDWH ZLWK DQ H[SHULHQFHU UHTXLUHV D VSHFLDO GHULYHG
YHUE

 Ihpimhác.
1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:blind
I am blind. bb &<+,

 ¿Ihpthaxz?
  1s.sbj.intr:rlt:irritable
Am I irritable? bb &<+,

 Ziix zo hyoohit yax, ihpxocám.

thing indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:eat since 1s.sbj.intr:em:full
I ate something and I’m full.

 Ihpxaptasa.
1s.sbj.intr:em:have_bad_luck
I have bad luck.

 Taax hapocooo x, cöhasmiipla aha.

dem;dt;pl 1p.sbj:irr.dep:all ut 3.io:1p.sbj:irr.ind:bad aux:dcl
7KDW ZRXOG EH EDG IRU DOO RI XV

 Hamatj ihptooxi, siml ix quih anxö ihtasi,

thirst 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:die Ferocactus_tiburonensis 3.poss:liquid def;fl intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:drink

ihpyazaplc.
1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:paralyzed_in_legs
When I was very thirsty, I drank lots of barrel cactus liquid and became paralyzed in the legs. bb
&<+,

7KH FRPPRQ YHUE √pacta be in appearance UHTXLUHV D VSHFLDO NLQG RI FRPSOHPHQW WKDW LQGLFDWHV WKH SRLQW RI
FRPSDULVRQ DQG WKLV DGMXQFW LV DOPRVW DOZD\V WKH SURQRXQ taax dem;dt;pl that WKH SURQRXQ hizaax dem;px:pl
this WKH DGYHUE ox thus RU WKH LQWHUURJDWLYH DGYHUE zó how

6RPH SHRSOH FRXOG RU ZRXOG XVH WKH SOXUDO VWHP √miiploj KHUH EXW WKH SUHIHUUHG IRUP DSSHDUV WR EH ZLWK WKH VLQJXODU
YHUE

6HH 0DUOHWW  IRU PRUH GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKLV VWHP ZKLFK LV D UHDQDO\VLV RI WKH SDVVLYH VWHP RI √oocta look at
458 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 Taax / Hizaax oo cöhapacta ha.

dem;dt;pl dem;px;pl del 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be_in_appearance dcl
That / This is what it is like.

 Ox hapacta ha.
thus [sbj.nmlz]:be_in_appearance dcl
That’s what it is like.

 ¿Zó hapacta ya?

   how? [sbj.nmlz]:be_in_appearance qm
What is it like?

 Pooixaj ta, ox impacta ha.

irr.dep:strong ds thus rlmi:be_in_appearance dcl
It wasn’t because he was strong. [It was supernatural power.]bb 0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[SB

6HH DOVR WKH XVH RI WKLV YHUE LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQV IRU then ox tpacta ma, … thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds why?
zó tpacta ma, … how? rlt:be_in_appearance ds that’s why taax (ah) oo cötpacta ma, … dem;dt;pl foc del
3.io:rlt:be_in_appearance ds DQG however ox oo mpacta xo thus del rlmi:be_in_appearance but

18.2.1 Equative verb √haa

7KH YHUE √haa HTXDWHV D VXEMHFW DQG D SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO 7KH FODXVHV LQ ZKLFK LW RFFXUV DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH E\ DOO
WHVWV )RU PRUH GHWDLOV RQ WKH XVDJH RI WKLV YHUE VHH i

 Equative Verb
6HPDQWLFV Patient Predicate Nominal
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ '3 ჳ

 ..., ˻ ziix hast iizx ano coom˼ com mos cmiique quih thaa x, ...
   Sauromalus_obesus def;hz also (Seri)_person def;fl rlt:eq ut
..., the chuckwalla was also a person, ...bb (6 DFDDP FFDD E

 ... ziix tiquij ziix quiisax áa z imhaa ha.

thing md:cm thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit true indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
... that thing was not a real person. bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 Ihyaaco cop ihapooin cop eenim quih chaa ha.

1.poss:house def;vt 3.poss:pon:pass:cause_closed def;vt metal def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
The door of my house is metal.

 ˻ Ziix hacacj˼ hipquij hast quih chaa ha.

   thing sbj.nmlz:[pass:]chip_at px:cm stone def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
This carving is made of stone.

18.2.2 Locational and existential verbs

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H[LVWHQFH 6RPH RI WKHVH YHUEV PD\ DOVR EH XVHG DV YHUEV RI PRWLRQ DQG WKH\ PD\ KDYH DJHQWLYH VXEMHFWV
VHH i 7KH\ DUH JORVVHG LQ WKH H[DPSOHV XVLQJ WKH VKRUWHU JORVVHV sit stand HWF EXW WKH\ DUH LQWHUSUHWHG
GL᯲HUHQWO\ E\ WKHLU FRQWH[WV 7KH\ DUH DOVR XVHG LQ WKH PRUH FRPSOH[ VLWXDWLRQDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ i 7KHVH
YHUEV DOZD\V RFFXU ZLWK VRPH ZRUG RU SKUDVH WKDW VSHFL᯳HV D ORFDWLRQ D ORFDWLYH DGYHUE i D 3SKUDVH
FKDSWHU  RU DQ REOLTXH REMHFW ZLWK LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW FURVVUHIHUHQFH PRUSKRORJ\ i
§18.2.2 Locational and existential verbs 459

 Locational verb 6HPDQWLFV Patient Location

6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW $GYHUE a 33 a 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW

 D √ahca be located
E √iij be seated
F √ap be standing
G √oom be lying
H √iih be (flexible item)

7KHVH YHUEV HVVHQWLDOO\ GLYLGH WKH ZRUOG XS LQWR GL᯲HUHQW W\SHV RI SK\VLFDO REMHFWV GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKHLU VKDSH
DQG RULHQWDWLRQ ,WHPV WKDW DUH FRPSDFW LQ IRUP DUH SUHVHQWHG ZLWK WKH YHUE √iij be seated WKRVH WKDW DUH H[WHQGHG
DQG QRW YHUWLFDO DUH SUHVHQWHG ZLWK √oom be lying HWF 6HH DOVR WKH QRXQ FODVVHV WKDW KDYH GHYHORSHG ZLWK UHVSHFW
WR WKH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV WKDW DUH HW\PRORJLFDOO\ UHODWHG WR WKHVH VDPH YHUEV i
([DPSOHV ZLWK DQ DGYHUE EHIRUH WKH ORFDWLRQDO YHUE

 Ihmaa° zo haa tiij ma, ...

other indf;sg there rlt:sit ds
Another one was there, ... bb 177 0W 

 Tiim haa toom xah hpmiimoz.

rlt:sleep there rlt:lie ? 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:think
I thought that s/he was there sleeping.bb &<+,

([DPSOHV ZLWK D 3SKUDVH LQ FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK WKH ORFDWLRQDO YHUE

 'HSHQGHQW UHDOLV GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV LQGHSHQGHQW UHDOLVmi IRUP

˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, cmaax taax iti tiij, ˻ hapx taailx˼
   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds now dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on rlt:sit    outside rlt:release\impf

ma x, imooctam, comcaac coi.

ds ut 3.sbj:rlmi:look_at\pl (Seri)_person\pl def;pl
Then, sitting there, she demonstrated her magical powers, and the people watched her.bb (6
FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKRBZ

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, cmaax taax iti tiij, ...

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds now dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on rlt:sit
Then, sitting there, ….bb (6 FPDDPBLSFDBTXLKRBZ

 Tzih com haso quih ano toom, isoj

Sphoeroides_annulatus def;hz net def;fl [3.poss:]in rlt:lie 3.poss:body/self
itahiix, hapx iicom iyomá.
3.sbj:rlt:cause_be_inflated outside inf.intr:lie 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know/be_able
The pufferfish was caught in a net, it inflated itself and couldn’t get out.bb &<+,

([DPSOHV ZLWK D FURVVUHIHUHQFHG REOLTXH REMHFW EHIRUH WKH ORFDWLRQDO SUHGLFDWH

 Coos quij toc cötiij x, cooit cop mos toc cömiip.

sbj.nmlz:sing def;cm there 3.io:rlt:sit ut sbj.nmlz:dance def;vt also there 3.io:rlmi:stand
There was a singer there, there also was a dancer.bb 6LHWHB)LORV 

 ¿Quíih ya miicp cötap?

  who? qm 2.poss:place_next_to 3.io:rlt:stand
Who is standing next to you?
460 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

:KHQ WKHVH YHUEV DUH XVHG ZLWK WKH ZRUG toc there D ZRUG WKDW UHTXLUHV REOLTXHREMHFW FURVVUHIHUHQFLQJ RQ WKH
YHUE WKH\ DUH LQWHUSUHWHG DV H[LVWHQWLDO SUHGLFDWHV WKH\ DUH LQ IDFW WKH FRPPRQ ZD\ WR SUHVHQW QHZ FKDUDFWHUV
LQ D VWRU\

18.2.3 Stative verb with additional nominal

7KH YHUE √poct full FRPPRQO\ RFFXUV ERWK ZLWK DQG ZLWKRXW D QRPLQDO SKUDVH 3DWLHQW EHORZ WKDW LV QRW FURVV
UHIHUHQFHG RQ WKH YHUE DW DOO 7KLV QRPLQDO LQGLFDWHV WKH FRQWHQWV RI WKH VXEMHFW

     6HPDQWLFV Patient Patient 

√poct full 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ'3ჳ

,Q  WKH YHUE RFFXUV ZLWKRXW WKH DGGLWLRQDO QRPLQDO Patient  DQG LQ  LW RFFXUV ZLWK LW

 ˻ Hehe an icaaij˼ quij cpoct iha.

   plant/wood [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water def;cm sbj.nmlz:full dcl
The water drum is full.

 ˻ Hehe an icaaij˼ quij hax quih

   plant/wood [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water def;cm fresh_water def;fl
cpoct iha.
sbj.nmlz:full dcl
The water drum is full of water.

 ... panaal quih tpoct ma, ...

honey def;fl rlt:full ds
... it was full of honey, ... bb &<+,

18.2.4 Dative stative verbs

$W OHDVW D FRXSOH RI VWDWLYH YHUEV VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU DQ REOLTXH REMHFW WKDW LV FURVVUHIHUHQFHG DV DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW
REMHFW i LQGLFDWHG E\ WKH SUH᯳[ co- LQ H[DPSOH  DQG WKH SUH᯳[ he LQ  7KH FODXVHV LQ ZKLFK
WKHVH YHUEV RFFXU DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH E\ DOO DYDLODEOH WHVWV

 Dative Stative Verb

6HPDQWLFV Patient Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW

 D √pam be connected
E √aanim be covering

 Zixquisiil ˻ cmaa hapx caap˼ com itoozj quih cói

child    now outside sbj.nmlz:stand def;hz 3.poss:intestine def;fl still
cocpám oo ha.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:connected del dcl
A newborn baby’s umbilical cord is still connected to it. bb &<+,

 Soaano quih he smaanim aha.

sheet def;fl 1.io:irr.ind:neg:cover aux:dcl
The bed sheet will not cover me.

$V HYLGHQFH RI WKH LQWUDQVLWLYLW\ RI WKLV YHUE QRWH WKDW LQ  WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- GRHV QRW RFFXU RQ WKH ᯳QLWH YHUE DV LW
ZRXOG LI WKH FODXVH KDG D GLUHFW REMHFW 7KH YHUE LV QRW PDUNHG ZLWK co- 3.io D IDFW WKDW GLVWLQJXLVKHV WKLV IURP FDVHV RI VLPSOH
DGMXQFWV

7KLV FRXOG DOVR EH XQGHUVWRRG DV UHIHUULQJ WR KRQH\EHHV UDWKHU WKDQ KRQH\
§18.3 Involuntary action verbs 461

18.2.5 Morphologically dative statives

$ IHZ VWDWLYH YHUEV GR QRW VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU DQ REOLTXH RU LQGLUHFW REMHFW EXW WKH\ QHYHUWKHOHVV LQ᯴HFW IRU WKLUG
SHUVRQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ DOO XVHV 7KHVH DUH OLVWHG LQ  DQG WKHLU XVHV DUH LOOXVWUDWHG LQ 
7KHLU GHULYHG FDXVDWLYHV DOVR LQ᯴HFW IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW 6HH i

 √naafij slightly arched √patyax striped √ootij dry √iin short and pudgy √ihmeel bright pink
√imahjö light pink √imasol orange √imaxp very light pink √oomlax stuck together, stiff (in limbs)
√ipootizx inside out

 ¿Cötootij? (*¿Tootij?)
  3.io:rlt:dry
Is it dry?

 ˻ Ziix is ccapxl˼ imám pac hataht ma, hax

thing 3.poss:immature_fruit sbj.nmlz:sour 3.poss:fruit indf;pl 1p.sbj:rlt:see\pl ds intns
cöyimasol oo.
3.io:rlyo:orange del
We found some pitaya agria (Stenocereus gummosus) fruit, they were orange-colored. bb &<+,

7KH YHUE √tootij PD\ KRZHYHU DOVR RFFXU ZLWK DQ REOLTXH REMHFW WKDW LQGLFDWHV WKH OLTXLG RI ZKLFK WKH VXEMHFW
LV ODFNLQJ LQ WKH SDWWHUQ GHVFULEHG LQ i

 Hax iihom com hax quih cötootij ma x, ...

fresh_water 3.poss:pon:lie def;hz fresh_water def;fl 3.io:rlt:dry ds ut
When a place that holds water dries up, ... bb &<+,

18.3 Involuntary action verbs

6RPH YHUEV W\SLFDOO\ GHVFULEH D PRWLRQ RU RWKHU DFWLRQ WKDW D QRPLQDO LV LQYROXQWDULO\ XQGHUJRLQJ ([DPSOHV RI
WKHVH DUH OLVWHG LQ  6RPH RI WKHVH DUH DOVR XVHG WR H[SUHVV D YROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ VHH i

 Involuntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW

 D &KDQJH WRZDUG D ᯳QDO FRQGLWLRQ √aactoj dry up (fruit) on plant √apxölim break [long item]
√Camopxa get lost √heme form into a group larger than expected √mapcö burst open, float up
√masij open up [fruit, wound] √ozt come loose √ooxi die HWF
E $FWLRQ DQGRU PRWLRQ √aahnij tremble √ahmác throw off sparks √ahxoomjoj shimmer √ās err
√oaafp bounce √oálali flap √ooseta jiggle, twitch √ooxot fall (as group) √paainj tumble over
√pamiz rock √ahtoopj fall from plant √aanapoj stagger √ahjiit fall √apniicl flip end to end
√oopjij vibrate gently √ooxot fall [mass or group of things] √oqueht bounce HWF
F 6RXQG √afiix make mysterious sound √oaap whinny √ooha cry √oosit rattle √oots sizzle √iifz
make snapping noise HWF
G %RGLO\ IXQFWLRQ RU DFWLRQ √aahzx sneeze √aajc yawn √aapj choke on solid √aazxl cough √āii
wake up part way √amós grimace, squint √anoozic frown √apazpx soil one’s pants because of
fear or surprise √oaaxalim blink rapidly HWF

,Q WKH GLFWLRQDU\ WKH\ DUH DOO OLVWHG ZLWK WKLV PRUSKRORJ\ LQ WKHLU HQWU\ IRUPV

,I WKH DFWLRQ LV GRQH WR DQRWKHU LWHP D FDXVDWLYH YHUE LV UHTXLUHG VHH i

7KLV YHUE LV HW\PRORJLFDOO\ D SDVVLYH IRUP RI √jiit throw 0DUOHWW  ,W LV JHQHUDOO\ XVHG ZLWK WKH QRXQDGYHUE hant
land, down
462 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

6RPH H[DPSOHV ZLWK KXPDQ VXEMHFWV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Ihpyaajc.
1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:yawn
I yawned.

 Zixquisiil tintica hanso yaanapolca, ...

child md:aw just rlyo:stagger;impf
That child is staggering, ... bb &<+,

 Moxima quih xaa hpyaii.

yesterday def;fl soon 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:wake_up
Yesterday I woke up early. bb &<+,

7KH W\SLFDOO\ LPSHUVRQDO YHUE √apca rain VHH i LV XVHG ZLWK WKH QRXQ xat hail DV LWV VXEMHFW WR PHDQ
to hail

 Xat yoopca.
hail rlyo:rain
It hailed.

18.3.1 Motion verb

2QH YHUE URRW DW OHDVW WKDW LQGLFDWHV LQYROXQWDU\ PRWLRQ RI DQ HQWLW\ VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU D UDQJH RI ORFDWLRQV
D ORFDWLYH DGYHUE i D 3SKUDVH FKDSWHU  RU DQ REOLTXH REMHFW ZLWK LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW FURVV
UHIHUHQFH PRUSKRORJ\ i 6HH DOVR i IRU LWV XVH ZLWK DQ DJHQWLYH VXEMHFW

 Motion Verb
6HPDQWLFV Agent/Patient Location
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW a $GYHUE a 33

 D √a UHTXLUHV D GLUHFWLRQDO SUH᯳[ DV ZHOO UHVXOW PHDQLQJ come RU go

E √ahjiit fall

 Iteen hac haait quih ano moma.

3.poss:mouth def;loc abs;blood def;fl [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlmi:move
Blood came from his/her/its mouth.

 Canoaa zo haa moca ha.

boat indf;sg there twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
There comes a boat. bb &<+,

7KH YHUE √ahjiit fall LV VLPLODU LQ WKDW LW DOVR UHTXLUHV VRPH NLQG RI ORFDWLRQ H[SUHVVHG LQ WKH FODXVH

 Toc cöihiihtolca iti x, zo hant sahjiit haa hi.

there 3.io:3.poss:pon:be.fl\pl\impf 3.poss:on ut indf;sg land irr.ind:fall aux dcl
They are there, one is going to fall.

18.3.2 Dative involuntary action verbs

6RPH LQYROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ YHUEV VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU DQ REOLTXH REMHFW FURVVUHIHUHQFHG DV DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW
ZKLFK LV VRPH YHU\ UHOHYDQW QRPLQDO 7KHVH DUH QRW WUHDWHG DV VLPSOH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV ZLWK DQ REOLTXH REMHFW
OLNH WKRVH SUHVHQWHG LQ i VLQFH WKHVH YHUEV UHTXLUH WKH REOLTXH QRPLQDO

7KH VXEMHFWKRRG RI WKH QRXQ xat LV PDGH HYLGHQW ZKHQ WKH FDXVDWLYH RI WKH LPSHUVRQDO YHUE √apca rain i LV
FRPSDUHG ZLWK WKH FDXVDWLYH RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU hail i 7KH IRUPHU LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH DQG WKH ODWWHU LV
PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH
§18.3.4 Passive intransitive 463

 Dative Involuntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Patient Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW

 D √coiimaj wind oneself around

E √aahjöim choke on

 Hehe hapéc quih hehe hant haníp cop cöscoiimaj

plant sbj.nmlz:pass:plant def;fl plant/stick land sbj.nmlz:pass:hit def;vt 3.io:irr.ind:wind_around
caha.
sbj.nmlz:aux:dcl
The plant is going to wind itself around the post. bb &<+,

 Zixquisiil ctam quih panaal zo cötaahjöim, ...

child male def;fl honey indf;sg 3.io:rlt:choke
The boy choked on honey, ...bb &<+,

18.3.3 Morphologically dative involuntary action verbs

$ IHZ LQYROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ YHUEV LQFOXGLQJ √pémetx overturn [generally something without arms or legs] capsize
DQG √oaafp come loose GR QRW VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU DQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW EXW W\SLFDOO\ LQ᯴HFW IRU RQH LQ DOO XVHV
QHYHUWKHOHVV DV LOOXVWUDWHG LQ 

 Canoaa com cöyopémetx.

boat def;hz 3.io:rlyo:overturn
The boat capsized.

 ... moficj quih ˻ iiqui cöipazj˼ quih

2.poss:obj.nmlz:wear_shirt def;fl    3.poss:toward 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]pass:string_up def;fl

cöcoaafp iha.
3.io:sbj.nmlz:come_loose dcl
... your blouse (shirt) is unbuttoned (has come unbuttoned). bb &<+,

6HH DOVR WKH SOXUDO IRUPV RI WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ arrive DV LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU descend YROXQWDULO\ RU LQYROXQWDULO\
PHQWLRQHG LQ i WKHVH DUH OLNHZLVH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ GDWLYH XQOLNH WKH VLQJXODU IRUPV

18.3.4 Passive intransitive

2QH YHUE KDV D VLPSOH IRUP EXW LV PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG LQ RWKHU ZD\V 7KH YHUE √iic KDV QR RWKHU VWHP DSSDUHQWO\
QRW HYHQ D GLVWLQFW SOXUDO DQG LV RQO\ XVHG ZLWK D VLQJOH VXUIDFH DUJXPHQW WKH SDWLHQW DV VXEMHFW +RZHYHU WKLV
YHUE LV DOZD\V XQGHUVWRRG DV LPSO\LQJ WKDW VRPHRQH KDV FDXVHG WKH DFWLRQ LW PHDQV be killed DQG QRW VLPSO\ die
DOWKRXJK WKH YHUE LV QRW PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ SDVVLYH )XUWKHUPRUH WKH 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW i PDUNLQJ SDWWHUQ LQ
WKH FDVH RI WKLV YHUE IXQFWLRQV DV LI WKHUH LV DQ $FWRU SUHVHQW

 Passive Intransitive Verb

6HPDQWLFV Patient Actor
√iic be killed 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ൺ

7KLV YHUE WKH URRW RI ZKLFK LV WKH VDPH DV D JHQHUDO WHUP IRU QRQYHQRPRXV VQDNH LV DOVR D YROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ YHUE ZKHQ
WKH VXEMHFW LV VRPHWKLQJ OLNH D VQDNH

7KH VLQJXODU VWHP RI WKLV YHUE LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ jump upwards EXW WKH SOXUDOV RI WKH WZR YHUEV
DUH GLVWLQFW

7KLV YHUE PD\ DOVR EH XVHG IRU D YROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ E\ VRPHWKLQJ ZLWKRXW DUPV RU OHJV VXFK DV D PDQWD UD\
464 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 Hap quih tiic x, heme hac cötpamjc ma x,

Odocoileus_hemionus def;fl rlt:be_killed ut abs:camp def;loc 3.io:rlt:pass:deliver ds ut
ipxasi coi imiitoj.
3.poss:flesh def;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:eat\pl
When a mule deer is killed, it is brought to camp and they eat the meat. bb &<+,

 Heecot poquiih (*ta) x, ˻ ziix ccam˼ zo popaho x,

countryside irr.dep:unsp.sbj:be.fl/live      ds ut    thing sbj.nmlz:alive indf;sg irr.dep:pass:see ut
siic aha.
irr.ind:be_killed aux:dcl
An animal is killed if one sees it while in the countryside. bb &<+,

18.4 Voluntary action verbs

6RPH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV W\SLFDOO\ RFFXU ZLWK DQ DJHQWLYH VXEMHFW

 Voluntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW

 D 0RWLRQ √aanpx return home √aapxtim change place of residence √aatotim crawl √ācat swim
√aheehtim wander around √apoti duck to avoid a blow √argüéyotim wander around √atax
go √cojp jump (like toad) √cap fly √fit stand up from seated position √haasx stand in line side
by side √meetosa stretch √miha go slowly √neejim dodge to one side √ocasjc walk with high
steps √ojoz flee √oocöz trot √otj stand up from lying down √ozaca move a boat by poling √atóm
make noisy strikes in water √panzx run √afp arrive HWF
E 6SHHFK DQG YRFDOL]DWLRQV √âaitom speak √Col argue √Cah make musical sound √oaap give
war whoop √oos sing HWF
F 2WKHU DFWLRQ √āsquim paddle √ócalim pack (to travel) √aalim play HWF

6RPH H[DPSOHV RI WKH YHUEV LQ FRQWH[W DUH JLYHQ KHUH 6RPH RI WKHP PD\ RFFXU ZLWK DQ RSWLRQDO REOLTXH
REMHFW VHH i RI FRXUVH VXFK DV WKH YHUE IRU arrive LQ 

 Xicaquiziil coi pácataj x, canoaa com cösiizcam aha.

child\pl def;pl irr.dep:swim\pl ut boat def;hz 3.io:irr.ind:arrive\pl aux:dcl
The children will get to the boat by swimming. bb &<+,

 ˻ Ziix coqueht˼ zo hit hant sooit taa ma,

   thing sbj.nmlz:bounce indf;sg 1.poss:on land irr.ind:arrive rlt:aux ds
hptapoti ma, ...
1s.sbj.intr:rlt:duck_blow ds
A ball was going to hit me and I ducked, ... bb &<+,

 Haxz° tintica tacat, hax yatomtim oo.

dog md:aw rlt:swim intns rlyo:make_sound_in_water:impf del
The dog was swimming and was hitting the water (making sound.) bb &<+,

0RWLRQ HYHQWV GR QRW FRQ᯴DWH WKH PDQQHU LQ WKH YHUE VR DFWLYLW\ YHUEV GR QRW GHVFULEH ERXQG HYHQWV &RP
SDUH H[DPSOHV  GHVFULELQJ DWHOLF HYHQWV DQG XQJUDPPDWLFDO H[DPSOH  DV ZHOO DV WKH XQJUDPPDWLFDO
UHDGLQJ JLYHQ LQ  LQ ZKLFK WKH VDPH YHUEV DUH DWWHPSWHG ZLWK WHOLF HYHQWV

6RPH RI WKHP DUH DOVR XVHG IRU LQYROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ )RU H[DPSOH √aanpx return home LV DOVR XVHG WR PHDQ shrink DQG
√ojoz flee LV DOVR XVHG WR PHDQ squirt out LQWUDQVLWLYH

7KLV ZRUG SUHVXPDEO\ EDVHG RQ 6SDQLVK vagar LV XQXVXDO EHFDXVH RI WKH VRXQG [w] LQ LW 6HH DSSHQGL[ %
§18.4.1 Motion verbs 465

 Haxz° hiixz quih xtaasi quij ano cácatim iha.

dog 1.poss:pet def;fl estuary def;cm [3.poss:]in/from sbj.nmlz:swim:impf dcl
My dog is swimming in the estuary.

 Cmaam tintica haaco cop ano yopanzx.

female md:aw abs;house def;vt [3.poss:]in/from rlyo:run
The woman ran through [in and then out] of the house.

 Haxz° hiixz quih tii ntita, canoaa com iiqui yacat.

dog 1.poss:pet def;fl dem;dt;sg aw:rlt:move boat def;hz 3.poss:toward rlyo:swim
My dog swam toward the boat.

 Haxz° tintica canoaa com cöyacat.

dog md:aw boat def;hz 3.io:rlyo:swim
a. The dog swam toward the boat.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (The dog swam to the boat.)

 Cmaam tintica ˻ hehe án˼ com ano cpánozxim iha.

female md:aw    plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in/from sbj.nmlz:run:impf dcl
The woman is running in the countryside.

 * Haxz° hiixz quih canoaa com iti / ano yácat(im).

dog 1.poss:pet def;fl boat def;hz 3.poss:on [3.poss:]in/from rlyo:swim(:impf)
(My dog swam to/from the boat.)

18.4.1 Motion verbs

6RPH YHUEV WKDW LQGLFDWH PRWLRQ VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU D ORFDWLYH REOLTXH REMHFW D ORFDWLYH DGYHUE RU D ORFDWLYH 33
H[FHSW IRU √ooit 7KH LUUHJXODU YHUE URRW √a DOVR UHTXLUHV HLWKHU WKH YHQLWLYH SUH᯳[ mo- twd RU WKH DQGDWLYH
SUH᯳[ nt- aw 7KH WZR YHUEV IRUPHG IURP WKLV URRW DUH H[WUHPHO\ FRPPRQ

 Motion Verb
6HPDQWLFV Agent/Patient Location
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 2EOLTXH REMHFW a $GYHUE a 33

 D √a move (come, go)

E √ooit arrive QRW ZLWK RQO\ 33
F √iin go
G √azquim enter SOXUDO VWHP √oizct

 +LSRFDPSR 
D ˻ Hehe án˼ z ano mota, toc cömiiha
   plant [3.poss:]area indf;sg [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move there 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move
iti,
3.poss:on
He was coming from the countryside, while he was coming there,bb +LSRFDPSR

E haa motat,
[sbj.nmlz:]eq twd:rlt:move:pl
they (others) were coming there,bb +LSRFDPSR

F itcaiilam ma,
3.io:rlt:shoot\pl:impf ds
they were shooting him,bb +LSRFDPSR
466 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

G tooxquim, tooxquim,
rlt:unsp.obj:throw/shoot rlt:unsp.obj:throw/shoot
he was throwing (rocks, etc.), he was throwing,bb +LSRFDPSR

H toc cömoma.
there 3.io:twd:rlmi:move
he was coming.bb +LSRFDPSR

 Hahoot hac ah contita, cömiizquim.

 abs:entrance def;loc foc 3.io:aw:rlt:move 3.io:rlmi:enter
S/he entered by the door. bb &<+,

 Ihpsoos taa ma, naapxa zo hant mooit.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:sing rlt:aux ds Cathartes_aura indf;sg land rlmi:arrive
When I was about to sing, a turkey vulture landed.

 Hai quih caaixaj quih me tooit, ...

wind def;fl sbj.nmlz:strong def;fl 2.io:rlt:arrive
When the strong wind arrives to you, ...bb +DVWB&DF¸ODB

 ¡Hant z iiqui hiin!

  land indf;sg toward im:go
Go somewhere else! bb &<+,

 He cacöla hant hac án cöicoizct

1.pro sbj.nmlz:tall/long\pl land def;loc [3.poss:]area 3.io:inf.intr:enter\pl

hascmaaj aha.
1p.sbj:irr.ind:neg:know:pl aux:dcl
We who are tall won’t be able to enter it.

,Q DQ LPSHUDWLYH WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ come FDQ EH XVHG ZLWKRXW WKH RYHUW H[SUHVVLRQ RI D ORFDWLRQ

 ¡Mohat. Hizac iti cazcam!

b twd:im:move:pl px:loc 3.poss:on im:arrive\pl
Come (pl.)! Come (pl.) here!

7KH URRW √ooit PD\ RFFXU ZLWK D GLUHFWLRQDO SUH᯳[ SHUKDSV RQO\ ZKHQ WKH VXEMHFW LV WKH ZLQG DQG LQ WKDW
FDVH QRW KDYH D VHSDUDWH ORFDWLRQ H[SUHVVHG

 Hai cap taapl, intooit, ...

wind def;vt rlt:cold twd:rlt:arrive
The wind is cold, it arrives, ...bb +DVWB&DF¸ODB

7KH URRW √iin PD\ DOVR RFFXU ZLWK D GLUHFWLRQDO SUH᯳[ VHH i :KHQ LW RFFXUV ZLWK DQ REOLTXH REMHFW LW
RIWHQ KDV WKH VHQVH RI return

18.4.2 Locational verbs as motion verbs

6RPH RI WKH VDPH YHUEV GHVFULEHG LQ i WKDW LQGLFDWH WKH ORFDWLRQ RI WKH DUJXPHQW DUH DOVR XVHG WR LQGLFDWH
PRWLRQ RI D YROLWLRQDO EHLQJ /LNH WKHLU VWDWLYH FRXQWHUSDUWV WKH\ UHTXLUH WKH H[SUHVVLRQ RI D ORFDWLRQ LQ WKH FODXVH
%XW LQ DGGLWLRQ WR WKH RQHV SRVVLEOH ZKHQ XVHG DV VWDWLYHV H[FHSW IRU WKH REOLTXH REMHFW LW VHHPV WKH\ PD\ DOVR
RFFXU ZLWK D ORFDWLYH QRXQ i ZKHQ XVHG DV YHUEV RI PRWLRQ
§18.4.3 Limited dative voluntary action verbs 467

 Locational Verb as Verb of Motion

6HPDQWLFV Agent Location
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW $GYHUE a 33 a /RFDWLRQ 1RXQ

 D √iij sit
E √ap stand
F √oom lie
G √iih walk (in imperfective aspect), reside

([DPSOHV ZLWK D 3SKUDVH LQ FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK WKH PRWLRQ YHUE

 ¡Hant czaahox com iti hiij!

  land sbj.nmlz:sunny def;hz 3.poss:on im:sit
Sit down in the sunny place! bb &<+,

 ¡Hahoot z iti camom!

b abs:entrance indf;sg 3.poss:on im:neg:lie
Don’t lie down in the doorway!

 Xiica quiistox coi imac hac ano cáp, ...

thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit\pl def;pl 3.poss:midst def;loc [3.poss:]in/from im:stand
Stand up in the midst of the people, ... bb 177 /N 

([DPSOH ZLWK D ORFDWLRQ QRXQ EHIRUH WKH PRWLRQ YHUE

 ¡Hant hiij!
  land im:sit
Sit down!

18.4.3 Limited dative voluntary action verbs

2QH YHUE √eeti fetch VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU DQ REOLJDWRU\ EHQH᯳FLDU\ %XW WKLV YHUE SUHVHQWV D PRUSKRV\QWDFWLF
WZLVW WKDW LV IRXQG LQ VHYHUDO YHUEV GLVFXVVHG LQ RWKHU VHFWLRQV RI WKLV FKDSWHU DV ZHOO DV WKLV RQH ,I WKH EHQH᯳FLDU\
LV VLQJXODU LW LV DQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW ,I WKH EHQH᯳FLDU\ LV SOXUDO LW RFFXUV LQ D 3SKUDVH KHDGHG E\ ano OLWHUDOO\
in

 Limited Dative Voluntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Beneficiary
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFWVJ  ჳ 33DQR ჳ

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 D Comcaac tacoi ano hpyeeti.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:fetch
I fetched for those people.

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WKH VRUW I will sing for you RU John will build a house for you GR QRW H[LVW

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468 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

E * Comcaac tacoi cohpyeeti.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:fetch

 Ihpooij, me hpseeti haa hi.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:unsp.obj:fetch_water 2.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:fetch aux dcl
a. I will go fetch water for you (sg.).
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (I will go fetch water for you (pl.).)bb &<+,

 Cohpyeeti.
3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:fetch
a. I fetched for him/her.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (I fetched for them.)

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 D * Ziix zo comcaac tacoi ano hpyeeti.

thing indf;sg (Seri)_person\pl md:pl [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:fetch
(I fetched for those people.)

E * Ziix zo comcaac tacoi ano hyeeti.

thing indf;sg (Seri)_person\pl md:pl [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:fetch

F * Comcaac tacoi ziix z ano hpyeeti.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl thing indf;sg [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:fetch

G * Comcaac tacoi ziix z ano hyeeti.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl thing indf;sg [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:fetch

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 D * Comcaac tacoi ziix zo cohyeeti.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl thing indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:fetch
(I fetched for those people.)

E * Comcaac tacoi ziix zo cohpyeeti.

(Seri)_person\pl md:pl thing indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:fetch

F * Ziix zo comcaac tacoi cohyeeti.

thing indf;sg (Seri)_person\pl md:pl 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:fetch

G * Ziix zo comcaac tacoi cohpyeeti.

thing indf;sg (Seri)_person\pl md:pl 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:fetch

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 Me hpyeeti.
2.io:1s.sbj.intr:fetch
a. I fetched for you (sg.).
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (I fetched for you (pl.).)

7KH 3 ZRXOG DOZD\V QHHG WR EH LQ SUHYHUEDO SRVLWLRQ VHH FKDSWHU 
§18.4.4 Dative voluntary action verbs 469

 D * Ziix zo me hpyeeti.

thing indf;sg 2.io:1s.sbj.intr:fetch
(I fetched something for you (sg.).)

E * Ziix zo me hyeeti.
thing indf;sg 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:fetch

18.4.4 Dative voluntary action verbs

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 Dative Voluntary Action Verb (Location)

6HPDQWLFV Agent Location
√zeemjö dive 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 2EOLTXH REMHFW

 ... xepe cyaail com cötzeemjö, ...

sea sbj.nmlz:deep def;hz 3.io:rlt:dive
... he dove into the deep sea, ... bb &<+,

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DOO WHVWV VHH DSSHQGL[ &

 Dative Voluntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 2EOLTXH REMHFW

 D √anaafin surround

E √eesyat pay as bride price
F √ocosot lend
G √aaitim chase after
H √eexetim refuse to give up
I √eepit bet with

 Cmaam cop cöyanaafin.

female def;vt 3.io:rlyo:surround
They surrounded the woman.

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DSSHQGL[ &

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RU WKLQJ

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VHH EHORZ LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ ZLWK ZKLFK LW LV V\QRQ\PRXV DV ORQJ DV QR UHFLSLHQW GHWHUPLQHV LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE 7KH PDWHULDO
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470 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 ˻ Eenm haacni˼ zo cohpyeesyat ...

    metal abs;bow indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pay_as_brideprice
I paid a rifle as bride price ... bb &<+,

 Hitrooqui quij cohpyomocosot.

1.poss:vehicle def;cm 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:lend
I haven’t lent my car.

 ¿Itrooqui quij cötocosot?

  3.poss:vehicle def;cm 3.io:rlt:lend
Did s/he lend his/her car?

 Ctam zo toc contita ma, cohpyaaitim, ...

male indf;sg there 3.io:aw:rlt:move ds 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:chase
A man was going there, and I chased after him, ... bb &<+,

 ... cöteexetim ma, ...

3.io:rlt:refuse_to_give_up ds
... [the traveler] refused to let go of it [his overcoat], ...bb 9LHQWRB1RUWHB

 Himoz quij cohpseepit aha — ox mee, ˻ ziix coosyat˼ quih.

1.poss:heart def;cm 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:? aux:dcl thus rlmi:say    thing sbj:nmlz:? def;fl
“I will bet my heart,” said the giant.bb &<+,

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 Dative Voluntary Action Verb with Optional Recipient

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient (Recipient)
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 2EOLTXH REMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW VJ  ჳ 33DQR ჳ

 D √italhaa sell

E √aasot lend

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 Hasaj hoop quih cohpsitalhaa aha.

flat_basket 1.poss:obj.nmlz:sew_basket def;fl 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:buy/sell aux:dcl
I am going to sell the basket that I made. bb &<+,

 Cmaax eenim ihyaa° zo cohpscmaasot haa hi.

now metal/knife mine indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:lend aux dcl
Now I won’t lend any knife of mine.

 Zixcám hipcom cohptcmitalhaa ho.

fish px:hz 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlt:neg:buy/sell dcl
I didn’t sell this fish.

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§18.4.4 Dative voluntary action verbs 471

 Cötmitalhaa ho.

3.io:rlt:neg:buy/sell dcl
S/he didn’t sell it.

 Hasaj cap cöiquitalhaa hmiimzo.

flat_basket def;vt 3.io:inf.intr:buy/sell 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to sell the basket.

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 Hasaj cop cohyitalhaa.

flat_basket def;vt 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:buy/sell
I sold the basket to him/her.

 Cöiyitalhaa.
3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:buy/sell
S/he sold it to him/her.

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 ¡Icocozyax zo he haasot!

  3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:saw;impf indf;sg 3.io;1s.do:im:lend
Lend me some scissors! bb &<+,

 ˻ Eenm haacni˼ zo me tompasot, ...

   metal abs;bow indf;sg 2.io:rlt:neg:pass:lend
You (sg.) weren’t lent a rifle, ...

 ¡He haasot!

  3.io;1s.do:im:lend
Lend me it!

 Tiix me ihatalhaa imá ha.

dem;dt;sg 2.io:inf.tr:buy/sell sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:know dcl
S/he can’t sell it to you (sg.).

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 Mino cöiquitalhaa hmiimzo.

2.poss:in/from 3.io:inf.intr:buy/sell 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to sell it to you (pl.).

 Hitrooqui quih áno cohpyitalhaa.

1.poss:vehicle def;fl [3.poss:]in 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:buy/sell
I sold them my car.

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472 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 Hino cöyitalhaa.

1.poss:in 3.io:rlyo:buy/sell
S/he sold it to us.

 Eenim zo hino cöyaasotim.

metal/knife indf;sg 1.poss:in 3.io:rlyo:lend:impf
S/he lent a knife to us.

 ˻ Eenm haaczoj˼ quih coocj ih hino comcaasot(im).

   metal abs:bow\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:two foc 1.poss:in 3.io:rlmi:unsp.sbj:lend:(impf)
One (unspecified) lent two rifles to us.

18.4.5 Morphologically dative voluntary action verbs

$ IHZ YHUEV RI YROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ LQFOXGLQJ √monjc go in zigzag fashion DQG √aaihalx protect one’s eyes against
the sun DQG WKH SOXUDO VWHP √eme arrive DV LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU descend DQG escape EXW QRW WKH VLQJXODU VWHP
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 Ctaamjij zo htaho, ihyoím xo cötmonjc ma, ...

Crotalus_cerastes indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:see 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:throw_at but 3.io:rlt:go_zigzag ds
I saw a sidewinder and threw something at it, but since it was going zigzag, ...

 ... cmiique cmaam zo toc cötap, cötaaihalx, hizi yoocta.

(Seri)_person female indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand 3.io:rlt:protect_eyes 1p.do:rlyo:look_at
... a Seri woman there was looking at us while protecting her eyes.bb &<+,

 Pnaacoj án com an hant cöteme ma, itcmaht

mangrove [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in/from land 3.io:rlt:arrive\pl ds 3.sbj:rlt:neg:see\pl
ma, hapx hant cöyoome.
ds outside land 3.io:rlyo:arrive\pl
They quickly entered the mangrove area and (their pursuers) didn’t see them and they escaped.

18.4.6 Intransitive lexical reflexives

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 Lexical Reflexive Verb

6HPDQWLFV AgentL  PatientL
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW


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he yaasotim ZLWK WKH SHUVRQ RI WKH $GGUHVVHH DFWXDOO\ DSSHDULQJ WZLFH LQ WKH VHQWHQFH 7KLUG Eenim z ano he yaasotim
ZKHUH WKH SHUVRQ RI WKH $GGUHVVHH DSSHDUV DV ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW DQG WKH 3 ano MXVW VLWV WKHUH 7KLV WKLUG RSWLRQ SUHIHUUHG E\
VRPH SHRSOH PD\ UHSUHVHQW D FRPSOLFDWLRQ 7KH $GGUHVVHH LV ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW WKH 7KHPH LV QRW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW VLQFH WKH
FODXVH LV LQWUDQVLWLYH ,I WKH 7KHPH LV D &K¶PHXU ZKDW LV WKH UHDVRQ IRU ano" ,I WKH 7KHPH LV WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI D 3 WKLV
LV WKH RQH VLWXDWLRQ ZKHUH WKDW RSWLRQ DULVHV

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DFWLRQ

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§18.4.6 Intransitive lexical reflexives 473

 D √acötim cover one’s body (as with blanket)

E √oneaax wash one’s hands
F √ā́saquim comb one’s hair
G √panim wash one’s hair

6RPH H[DPSOHV RI WKHVH OH[LFDO UH᯴H[LYHV DUH JLYHQ LQ  WKHVH GHPRQVWUDWH WKH LQWUDQVLWLYLW\ RI
WKHVH FODXVHV 1RWH WKDW LQ   DQG  WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU LQ᯴HFWLRQ DOORPRUSK hp-
RFFXUV DQG WKDW LQ  WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- i GRHV QRW RFFXU RQ WKH UHOHYDQW YHUE 

 Hicaamiz quih htapox, cohpmacötim.

1.poss:shirt def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:remove 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:cover_oneself
I took off my shirt and covered myself up with it.bb &<+,

 Haptco hpmoneaax.

already 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:wash_one’s_hands
I already washed my hands. bb &<+,

 Ihpyopanim.
1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:wash_one’s_hair
I washed my hair. bb &<+,

 Ilít quij ittánala x, tásaquim x, hant quih iti

3.poss:head/hair def;cm 3.sbj:rlt:touch\impf ut rlt:comb_one’s_hair ut land def;fl 3.poss:on

miij.
rlmi:sit
She was there combing and fixing her hair. bb &<+,

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UHTXLUH DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW WKDW LV WKH REMHFW RQ ZKLFK WKH DFWLRQ LV GRQH

 Dative Lexical 6HPDQWLFV AgentL  PatientL Patient

Reflexive Verb
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 2EOLTXH REMHFW

 D √coiimaj wind oneself around Patient2

E √atiiitx support oneself on Patient2

 Cocazni° tintica hehe cop cöyocoiimaj.

Crotalus_spp. md:aw plant/stick def;vt 3.io:rlyo:wind_around
The rattlesnake wrapped itself around the tree.

 ..., iti cohptatiiitx ma, ...

3.poss:on 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlt:lean ds
..., I leaned on it, ... bb &<+,


7KH YHUE √ā́saquim comb one’s hair KDV D URRW VLPLODU WR √ásaquim brush (something) 7KH YHUE √ā́saquim comb one’s hair
KDV D VKRUW YRZHO OLNH EUXVK VRPHWKLQJ KDV EXW FRQMXJDWHV DV LI LW ZHUH D ORQJ YRZHO XQOLNH Çsaquim brush (something)
KRZHYHU VHH i

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474 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

18.4.7 Intransitive verbs introducing direct quotes or thoughts

7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √ee say SOXUDO VWHP √ooza XVHG ZLWK WKH DGYHUE ox thus SUHVHQWV GLUHFW TXRWHV WKH
GLVFRXUVH LWVHOI GRHV QRW GHWHUPLQH DQ\ LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE 7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √amoz think XVHG ZLWK WKH
DGYHUE ox thus SUHVHQWV GLUHFW H[SUHVVLRQV RI WKRXJKW 7KHVH FODXVHV DUH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH )RU PRUH
GHWDLOV VHH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI TXRWDWLRQV LQ i

 Direct Quote/Thought Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent (Direct Discourse)
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ 'LUHFW 4XRWH7KRXJKW ჳ

 D √ee say

E √amoz think

 Ox mee: «...».

thus rlmi:say
S/he said: “...”.

 Ox mooza: «...».

thus rlmi:say\pl
They said: “...”.

 Ox miimoz: «...».

thus rlmi:think
S/he thought: “...”.

7KH TXHVWLRQV WKDW FRUUHVSRQGV WR WKHVH VWDWHPHQWV XVH WKH DGYHUE zó how? IRU WKH TXHVWLRQ ZRUG ¿Zó tee?
how? rlt:say What did s/he say? $ WUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKDW VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU DQ DGGUHVVHH DQG D GLUHFW TXRWH LV
SUHVHQWHG LQ i

18.4.8 Intransitive verbs presenting indirect quotations and thoughts

7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √eLUUHJ say IROORZV LQGLUHFW TXRWHV DQG WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √amoz think IROORZV LQGLUHFW
WKRXJKWV WKH LQGLUHFW TXRWH RU WKRXJKW LWVHOI GRHV QRW GHWHUPLQH DQ\ LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE 7KHVH FODXVHV DUH
PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH )RU PRUH GHWDLOV RQ WKH IRUP RI WKH LQGLUHFW TXRWHV RU WKRXJKWV VHH WKH GLVFXVVLRQV
LQ i DQG i

 Indirect Quote/Thought Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent (Indirect Discourse)
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ ,QGLUHFW 4XRWH7KRXJKW ჳ

 D √eLUUHJ say

E √amoz think

18.4.9 Phasal verbs

7KUHH YHUEV JLYHQ LQ  IXQFWLRQ DV SKDVDO YHUEV ZLWK UDLVLQJ RI WKH FRPSOHPHQWൿV VXEMHFW HYHQ WKRXJK WZR
RI WKHP DUH HW\PRORJLFDOO\ DQG PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV 7KH VLPSOL᯳HG VFKHPD VKRZQ LQ  LV PHDQW
WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH SKDVDO YHUE KDV D VXUIDFH VXEMHFW WKDW KDV QR VHPDQWLF UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH SKDVDO YHUE KHQFH
WKH ODFN RI UROH IRU WKDW QRPLQDO RQ WKH VHPDQWLFV OLQH 7KDW VXEMHFW PXVW EH FRUHIHUHQWLDO ZLWK WKH VXEMHFW RI
WKH HYHQW FODXVH 7KHVH YHUEV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ GHWDLO LQ i ZKHUH LW LV DUJXHG WKDW WKHVH DUH UDLVLQJ SUHGLFDWHV
DQG QRW FRQWURO SUHGLFDWHV
§18.5 Simple transitive verbs 475

 D √ajöc be/do continuously

E Çcatx stop
F √axi finish

 Phasal Verb

6HPDQWLFV Event
6\QWD[ > > 6XEMHFWL ඌ @ 6XEMHFWL @

18.4.10 The verb √aCa know as be able

7KH YHUE √aCa know FDQ EH XVHG WR PHDQ be able 7KH FRPSOHPHQW LQ WKDW FDVH LV DQ LQ᯳QLWLYDO FODXVH ,W LV
VKRZQ LQ i WKDW WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV RQH RI UDLVLQJ DQG QRW FRQWURO

     6HPDQWLFV Event

[ aCa ] be able 6\QWD[ > > š6XEMHFWL ඌ @,Q᯳QLWLYDO 6XEMHFWL @

18.5 Simple transitive verbs

7KH OH[LFRQ LQFOXGHV PDQ\ VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV ZLWK DJHQW RU H[SHULHQFHU VXEMHFWV 6RPH H[DPSOHV RI YHUEV
WKDW WDNH DJHQW VXEMHFWV DUH √aafc pound √acö kill √ahit eat √ap sew basket √apis smoke √azix cut with sawing
motion √azt tattoo √isxö hide √Caxz pound [with long object] DQG √nip hit (especially with the hand) 6RPH
RI WKHVH SUHGLFDWHV W\SLFDOO\ LQGLFDWH DFWLYLWLHV DQG RWKHUV LQGLFDWH DFFRPSOLVKPHQWV
6RPH H[DPSOHV RI YHUEV WKDW WDNH H[SHULHQFHU VXEMHFWV DUH √aCa know √aho see √ii hear √oocta look at √pii
taste DQG √Cii feel 0RVW RI WKHVH DUH VWDWLYH YHUEV DOWKRXJK √oocta look at DSSHDUV WR EH DQ DFWLYLW\

 Simple Transitive Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent/Experiencer Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

 ¡Hisxö!
b im:hide
Hide it!

 ¿He hsisxö haa ya?

   1.pro 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hide aux qm
Shall I hide it?

7KHVH YHUEV GR QRW JHQHUDOO\ DOORZ DQ LQVWUXPHQW DV VXEMHFW VR IDU DV LV NQRZQ

 * Eenim cop ziix ipxasi iyoozix.

metal/knife def;vt thing 3.poss:flesh 3.sbj:rlyo:saw
(The knife cut the meat.)

6RPH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV DUH YHUEV RI JLYLQJ VD\LQJ RU H[FKDQJLQJ EXW GR QRW DOORZ XQGHU DQ\ FLUFXPVWDQFHV D
UHFLSLHQW RU DGGUHVVHH 7KH YHUEV √eque give (as a gift) DQG √italhaa buy DUH LQ WKLV FODVV RI VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYHV
6RPH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 ¿Itrooqui quih iteque?

   3.poss:vehicle def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:give_as_gift
Did s/he give his/her car (as a gift)?

7KH GL᯲HUHQW FODVVHV RI VLWXDWLRQV LV GXH WR 9HQGOHU  $OVR VHH 'RZW\ 

7KLV YHUE LV LGHQWLFDO WR sell VHH i LQ WKH IRUP RI LWV URRW 7KH WZR PHDQLQJV DUH GLVWLQJXLVKHG E\ WKH V\QWDFWLF
IUDPHV LQ ZKLFK WKH\ RFFXU
476 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 ¿Zixcám catxo pac sitalhaa quee ya?

  fish sbj.nmlz:much/many indf;pl ind.irr:buy/sell sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Will s/he buy a lot of fish?

 Hasaj cap ihatalhaa hmiimzo.

flat_basket def;vt inf.tr:buy/sell 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to buy the basket.

7KH XQJUDPPDWLFDO VHQWHQFHV LQ  DUH DOO DWWHPSWV WR WU\ WR LQFOXGH PHQWLRQ RI WKH SHUVRQ IURP ZKRP WKH
EDVNHW ZRXOG EH ERXJKW 1RQH LV VXFFHVVIXO EHFDXVH WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ buy VLPSO\ GRHV QRW VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU RQH
VHPDQWLFDOO\ 7KH VDPH LV WUXH IRU WKH YHUE √eque give as gift LQ WKDW LW FDQQRW PHQWLRQ WKH UHFLSLHQW

 D * Hasaj cap me ihatalhaa hmiimzo.

flat_basket def;vt 2.io:inf.tr:buy/sell 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
(I want to buy the basket from you.)

E * Hasaj cap miti ihatalhaa hmiimzo.

flat_basket def;vt 2.poss:on inf.tr:buy/sell 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want

F * Hasaj cap ma ihatalhaa hmiimzo.

flat_basket def;vt 2s.do:inf.tr:buy/sell 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want

7KH YHUE √aCa know PD\ RFFXU ZLWK D VLPSOH QRPLQDO REMHFW FRPSOHPHQW LQ WKH VHQVH RI know a fact EXW QRW
LQ WKH VHQVH RI know a person XQOHVV VRPH HODERUDWLRQ LV JLYHQ 7KH H[DPSOHV LPPHGLDWHO\ EHORZ LOOXVWUDWH WKH
᯳UVW VHQVH

 [ ¿Itaasi zo ] ntaa?

  3.poss:name indf;sg 2s.sbj:rlt:know
Do you know his/her/its name?

 ¿Me hant ihiip zo ntaa?

  2.pro land 3.poss:pon:stand indf;sg 2s.sbj.rlt:know
Do you understand it? bb &<+,

 [ Hapimax iiqui ihiih ipi z ] impaa ha xo ...

even 3.poss:toward 3.poss:pon:be.fl del indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:know dcl but
It isn’t even known where he was but ... bb 177 /N 

 [ ¿Quihehe quij ziix chaa zo ] ntaa?

  sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;cm thing sbj.nmlz:eq indf;sg 2s.sbj:rlt:know
Do you know what kind of person the governor is?

 [ ¿Quihehe quij ziix chaa quih ] ntaa?

  sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;cm thing sbj.nmlz:eq def;fl 2s.sbj:rlt:know
Do you know who the governor is?

 He miizj ihmiya, [ me cömihaa hac ].

1.pro well 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know 2.pro 3.io:2.poss:[pon:]eq def;loc
I know very well who you are.

([DPSOH  UHSUHVHQWV WKH XQVXFFHVVIXO DWWHPSWV WR XVH WKLV YHUE LQ D VLPSOH VHQWHQFH ZLWK WKH VHQVH RI be
acquainted with

,W DOVR KDV WKH PHDQLQJ be able WKLV LV GLVFXVVHG LQ i
§18.5 Simple transitive verbs 477

 * ¿Ma taa?

  2s.do:rlt:know
(Does s/he know you?)

7KH W\SLFDO ZD\ WR H[SUHVV WKH LGHD RI EH DFTXDLQWHG ZLWK LV ZLWK D ELFODXVDO VWUXFWXUH XVLQJ DQ DGYHUELDO FODXVH
ZLWK WKH YHUE √aho see IROORZHG E\ WKH YHUE √aCa know ZKLFK KDV WKH SHUVRQ NQRZQ DV LWV GLUHFW REMHFW DV
HYLGHQW E\ H[DPSOHV 

 ¿Ma taho ma taa?

   2s.do:rlt:see 2s.do:rlt:know
Does s/he know you?

 ¿Juan quih intaho ntaa?

bb Juan def;fl 2.sbj:rlt:see 2s.sbj:rlt:know
Do you know Juan?

 ¿Quihehe quij intaho ntaa?

   sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;cm 2.sbj:rlt:see 2s.sbj:rlt:know
Are you acquainted with the governor?

1RW DOO WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV KDYH DJHQWH[SHULHQFHU VXEMHFWV 6RPH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV WDNH VXEMHFWV WKDW DUH SDWLHQWV
1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH V\QWD[ RI WKHVH W\SHV RI FODXVHV LV QRW GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH VWDQGDUG WUDQVLWLYHV 6HH H[DPSOHV
 1RWH WKH H[LVWHQFH RI WKH SDVVLYH IRUP RI WKH YHUE IRU resemble LQ H[DPSOH 

 Transitive Verb with Patient Subject

6HPDQWLFV Patient Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

 D √mis resemble

E Éainim mix with

 hap itaamalca itmis,

Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:horn(s)/antlers 3.sbj:rlt:resemble
they resembled mule deer antlers,bb &RQ$VW

 Hax cop hasaaiti coozlil cop iyooinim.

fresh_water def;vt petroleum_oil sbj.nmlz:slippery def;vt 3.sbj:rlyo:be_mixed_with
The water mixed with the oil. bb &<+,

 Oot taa xah tahmís x, ˻ hehe án˼ com ano

Canis_latrans dem;md;pl ? rlt:pass:resemble ut    plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in

yocaatax.
rlyo:unsp.sbj:go
One went around in the countryside like a coyote (viz., without fear).bb 2᯲HUHG


7KLV SKUDVH FDQ EH XVHG WR PHDQ Does it (e.g. a pet) recognize you? ,I LW LV D SHUVRQ VXFK DV D UHFRYHULQJ SDWLHQW LQ WKH
KRVSLWDO ZKR LV UHFRJQL]LQJ DQRWKHU WKH SKUDVLQJ LV ¿Ziix chaa quih ma taa? thing sbj.nmlz:eq def;fl 2s.do:rlt:know

7KH YHUE √mis LQ DGGLWLRQ PD\ WDNH D FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH ZLWK DQ LQ᯴HFWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ i

L [ Halx xah icoohit imquimzo ] ixomís tax.

just atten inf.intr:unsp.obj:eat 2s.sbj:sbj.nmlz:tr:want 3.sbj:em:resemble ?
I bet you are still hungry. bb &<+,
478 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

18.5.1 Simple transitive verbs with location

$ IHZ WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV DW OHDVW VXEFDWHJRUL]H WR KDYH D ORFDWLRQ H[SUHVVHG LQ WKH FODXVH XVXDOO\ DV D 33 EXW
VRPHWLPHV DV D ORFDWLYH DGYHUE ORFDWLRQ QRXQ RU D FURVVUHIHUHQFHG REOLTXH REMHFW 7KHVH DUH DOO YHUEV WKDW
WUDQVODWH DV put

 Transitive Verb with Location

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Location
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW 33 a $GYHUE a 1RXQ

 D √aquim put (items)

E √aca put (liquid or long item)
F √ah put (flexible item)
G √axquim put (horizontal item)
H √zam put (vertical item)
I √caaix put (compact item)

 Cmiique cmaam quij ziix hapi oaactim quih an

(Seri)_person female def;cm thing intns [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:use def;fl [3.poss:]in
imiiquim; ziix quih ihmaa° quih mos cöimasiijim.
3.sbj:rlmi:put_items thing def;fl other def;fl also 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:do
The Seri woman put her things in it and also did other things with it (a certain kind of basket). bb(6
OLLWUR

 Hita quih cafee ooztoj quij hapx itaca,

1.poss:mother def;fl coffee [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:cook_in_water def;cm outside 3.sbj:rlt:put.lq/lng

iyoozaj, isahaapl taa.

3.sbj:rlyo:do_back_and_forth 3.sbj:irr.ind:make_cold rlt:aux
My mother poured the coffee back and forth to cool it down. bb &<+,

 Comcaii quij oop quih zaah cop iti

old_woman def;cm [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:sew_basket def;fl sun/day def;vt 3.poss:on
iyooca.
3.sbj:rlyo:put.lq/lng
The old woman put her basket into the sunlight.

 Cötafp, itexl, hant itáh, hehe zo toc cotom

3.io:rlt:arrive 3.sbj:rlt:take/buy land 3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl plant/stick indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:lie

ma, itaai, heete cöitáh, ...

ds 3.sbj:rlt:make tip 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:do
He arrived to it [the meat that was on a drying rack], he grabbed it, he took it down, he put it on the end
of a stick that was there, ...bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ 

 Hásatoj coi ptimocaj hac an iyocaaitax.

stone:pl def;pl rcp:3.poss:place_under def;loc [3.poss:]in/from 3.sbj:rlyo:put.cm\pl
They put the stones under each other.

7KH YHUEV √yaai go to WKH SOXUDO VWHP LV √oziit DQG √âaix go away from, abandon VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU D ORFDWLRQDO
GLUHFW REMHFW ZKLFK PD\ EH D SODFH RU DQ LQGLYLGXDO 1RWH WKDW WKH YHUE LQ H[DPSOH  LV LQ᯴HFWHG IRU 3.sbj
,W DOVR SDVVHV DOO RWKHU WHVWV IRU D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE
§18.5.2 Simple transitive verbs with recipient/addressee as direct object 479

 ... mos zaah tiquij ityaai, yoque, ...

also sun md:cm 3.sbj:rlt:go_to rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
... he was traveling to the sun, ... bb $SRVWDGRUB

7KH YHUE √aao pass by WKH SOXUDO VWHP LV √aait DOVR VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU D ORFDWLRQDO GLUHFW REMHFW

18.5.2 Simple transitive verbs with recipient/addressee as direct object

$W OHDVW WKUHH VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV KDYH IDLUO\ VLPSOH XVDJH ZLWK GLUHFW REMHFWV WKDW DUH UHFLSLHQWV RU DGGUHVVHHV
,W LV REYLRXV WKDW ZKLOH WKLV SDWWHUQ H[LVWV LQ WKH ODQJXDJH WKLV LV QRW WKH GRPLQDQW SDWWHUQ IRU H[SUHVVLQJ UHFLS
LHQWVDGGUHVVHHV

 Transitive Verb with Recipient/Addressee as Direct Object

6HPDQWLFV Agent Recipient/Addressee (Other)
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW

 D √aaipot pay Recipient

E √miiit ask Addressee
F √atolec ask Addressee for help

 ..., cocsar quij miizj him xaaipot.

Mexican def;cm well 1s.:doem:pay
..., the non-Indian Mexican paid me well. bb &<+,

 Tiix iihax ihtaai ma, hin yaaipot.

dem;dt;sg 3.poss:with 1s.sbj:rlt:make ds 1s.do:rlyo:pay
I helped him/her and s/he paid me.

 ¿Mazi tcmaaipotim?

   2p.do:rlt:neg:pay:impf
Didn’t s/he pay you (pl.)?

 ¿Hizi tmiiitim?

   1p.do:rlt:ask:impf
Did s/he ask us?

 ¿Hin tmiiit?

b  1s.do:rlt:ask
Did s/he ask me?

 Ctam quij taaitom, cmaam cop itmiiit, ...

male def;cm rlt:speak female def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:ask
The man spoke, he asked the woman, ...

 ... hin yatolec, ...

1s.do:rlyo:ask_for_help
... s/he asked me for help, ... bb &<+,

,I WKH SD\PHQW LQ WKH FDVH RI √aaipot pay RU WKH WRSLF RU LWHP LQ WKH FDVH RI √miiit ask LV PHQWLRQHG LW
RFFXUV DV DQ REOLTXH REMHFW WKDW LV FURVVUHIHUHQFHG ZLWK LQGLUHFW REMHFW PRUSKRORJ\ 7KH FRPELQDWLRQ RI WZR
REMHFWV UHVXOWV LQ REMHFW EOHQGLQJ VHH i

 Peez capxajö me hsaaipotim haa hi.

peso sbj.nmlz:three\impf 3.io+2.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:pay:impf aux dcl
I am going to pay three pesos to each one of you.
480 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 ¿Ziix zo he tmiiit?

  thing indf;sg 3.io+1.do:rlt:ask
a. Did s/he ask me (about) something?
b. 2U Did s/he ask me for something?

 Ziix zo he yahmiiit.

thing indf;sg 3.io+1.do:rlyo:pass:ask
a. I was asked about something.
b. 2U I was asked for something.

7KH YHUE √zaxö discuss, talk LV VRPHZKDW XQXVXDO LQ WKDW WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI D VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH VHQWHQFH PD\
EH HLWKHU WKH WRSLF RU LW PD\ EH WKH DGGUHVVHH

     6HPDQWLFV Agent Topic RU Addressee

√zaxö discuss 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

 Icaaitom ihmaa° mos zo hyozaxö.

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:speak other also indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:discuss
I discussed another topic.

 He cmaax mos icaaitom ihmaa° zo he szaxö

1.pro now also 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:speak other indf;sg 1.pro irr.ind:discuss

caha.
sbj.nmlz:aux:dcl
I will now discuss another topic.

 Ma hnzaxö.
2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:discuss
I’m talking to you.

 Mazi hnzaxö.

2p.do:1s.sbj.tr:discuss
I am talking to you (pl.).

 Ma ihazaxö ihxoomzo.

2s.do:inf.tr:discuss 1s.sbj.tr:em:want
I want to talk with you (sg.)!

 Iyozaxö.
3.sbj:rlyo:discuss
S/he talked with him/her.

 Ihpyahzaxö.
1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:discuss
I was talked to.

7KLV YHUE DOVR DOORZV IRU WKH WRSLF DQG DGGUHVVHH WR FRRFFXU :KHQ WKH\ GR RQH RI WKHPൺDSSDUHQWO\ WKH
WRSLF EXW LW LV SHUKDSV LPSRVVLEOH WR GHFLGH ZKLFKൺLV FURVVUHIHUHQFHG DV DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW

     6HPDQWLFV Agent Addressee Topic

√zaxö discuss 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW

7KLV LV DQ LPSHUVRQDO SDVVLYH VHH i
§18.5.3 Transitive verbs with optional oblique/indirect object 481

 Icaaitom ihmaa° mos zo cohyozaxö.

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:speak other also indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:discuss
I discussed another topic with him/her.

 Ziix zo cöiyozaxö.

thing indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:discuss
S/he discussed something with him/her/them.

 Taax me hnzaxö.

dem;dt;pl 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:discuss
I am discussing that with you (sg./pl.).

 Ziix zo me hnzaxö.

thing indf;sg 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:discuss
I am discussing something with you (sg./pl.).

 Taax cöicahzaxö ihmiimzo.

dem;dt;pl 3.io:inf.intr:pass:discuss 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to be talked to about that.

18.5.3 Transitive verbs with optional oblique/indirect object

$ IHZ YHUEV PD\ EH XVHG DV VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYHV RU WKH\ PD\ EH XVHG ZLWK DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW WKDW LV WKH
SHUVRQ IURP ZKRP RU WR ZKRP WKH DFWLRQ LV GRQH

 Transitive Verb with with Optional Recipient/Addressee

6HPDQWLFV Agent Theme/Patient (Recipient/Addressee)
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW

 D √cazit snatch, grab

E √cooz steal
F √queetx take back
G mo- √queetx bring back

([DPSOH  LOOXVWUDWHV WKHVH YHUEV ZLWKRXW DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW

 Ziix z iyocazit / iyocooz / miyoqueetx.

thing indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:snatch 3.sbj:rlyo:steal twd:3.sbj:rlyo:return
S/he grabbed / stole / returned something.

:KHQ WKH SHUVRQ IURP ZKRP WKH JUDEELQJ RU VWHDOLQJ LV H[SUHVVHG WKDW QRPLQDO DSSHDUV DV WKH REOLTXHLQGLUHFW
REMHFW

7KH XVH RI √queetx ZLWKRXW DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW LV VSHFLDO DQG QRW FRPPRQ KRZHYHU 7KH YHUE √mihzx slip LV
VLPLODU WR WKHVH YHUEV V\QWDFWLFDOO\ ,W PD\ RFFXU ZLWK WKH QRXQ hant land DQG EH D VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH %XW PRVW FRPPRQO\ LW
RFFXUV ZLWKRXW hant DQG ZLWK DQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW WKDW LV WKH VSHFL᯳F REMHFW RQ ZKLFK RQH VOLSV

L Hast quij iti hptozám, cohtmihzx, hant ihptahjiit ma, ...

stone def;cm 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:unsp.obj:put.vt 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:slip land 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:fall ds
I stepped on a rock, slipped on it, fell down, ... bb &<+,


7KH SUH᯳[ i- LV ZULWWHQ IROORZLQJ WKH LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ LQ DFWLYH FODXVHV DOWKRXJK LQ QRUPDO VSHHFK LW LV XVXDOO\
QRW FOHDUO\ KHDUG
482 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 D Tom quih he iyocazit.

money def;fl 1.io:3.sbj:rlyo:snatch
S/he snatched the money away from me.

E Tom quih he iyocázitim.

money def;fl 1.io:3.sbj:rlyo:snatch:impf
S/he snatched the money away from us.

 Tiix ziix itac quih haxz° cop cöimcazit.

dem;dt;sg thing 3.poss:bone def;fl dog def;vt 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:snatch
SHE/HE snatched the bone away from the dog.

 Eenim hipcap ah he imcooz xo mos ihmexl.

metal/knife px:vt foc 1.io:3.sbj:rlmi:rob but also 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:take
He robbed this knife from me but I took it back. bb &<+,

 ¿Meenim quih me tahcooz?

  2.poss:knife def;fl 2.io:rlt:pass:rob
Was the knife robbed from you? bb &<+,

 Ihyaazi, ¡˻ hanzajipj quiipa˼ hipcop mamaz

1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry     pan sbj.nmlz:hv:tail px:vt 2.poss:paternal_grandmother

cohqueetx!
3.io:im:return
My son/daughter, take this frying pan back to your (paternal) grandmother. bb &<+,

7KH YHUE √amjc deliver LV OLNH WKH YHUEV LQ  LQ WKDW LW PD\ RFFXU ZLWK DQ RSWLRQDO UHFLSLHQW WKH SHUVRQ WR
ZKRP WKH LWHP LV EURXJKW EXW LW KDV WKH VLQJXODUSOXUDO WZLVW DGGHG WR LW $ VLQJXODU UHFLSLHQW LV H[SUHVVHG DV DQ
REOLTXH REMHFW EXW D SOXUDO UHFLSLHQW LV H[SUHVVHG LQ D 3SKUDVH KHDGHG E\ ano VHH i

 6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient (Recipient)

6\QWD[ √amjc deliver 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFWVJ  ჳ 33DQR ჳ

 ¿Áz intamjc?

   what? 2s.sbj:rlt:deliver
What did you bring? bb &<+,

 ¡Ziix zo he camjc!

  thing indf;sg 1.io:im:deliver
Bring something to me!

 ¡Tootjöc pac he camjc!

bbfruit_of_Cylindropuntia_fulgida indf;pl 1.io:im:deliver
Bring some cholla cactus fruit to me!

 ¡Ziix zo hino camjc!

  thing indf;sg 1.poss:in im:deliver
Bring something to us!

 ¡Tom quih hino camjc!

  money def;fl 1.poss:in im:deliver
Bring the money to us!
§18.5.5 Simple transitive verbs with optional addressee/recipient but no indirect object 483

18.5.4 Morphologically dative simple transitive verbs

6RPH VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV LQFOXGLQJ √pooin close DQG √acooyam honor, praise DUH GL᯲HUHQW IURP W\SLFDO
WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV LQ WKDW WKH\ DUH DOZD\V LQ᯴HFWHG DV LI WKH\ KDG D WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW RU REOLTXH REMHFW DOWKRXJK
QRQH LV HYHU SUHVHQW 1RWLFH WKH SUH᯳[ co- DOORPRUSK cö- LQ H[DPSOHV 

 ¿Hahoot hac cöitpooin?

   abs:entrance def;loc 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:close
Did she close the door?

 Quihehe quij cöimacooyam.

sbj.nmlz:hv:plant/rod def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:honor
S/he honored the chief.

7KH YHUE √aasitim deceive LV VLPLODU LQ WKDW LW LV DOVR LQ᯴HFWHG IRU D WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW ZKHWKHU
RU QRW RQH DFWXDOO\ PHQWLRQV DQ LWHP WKDW LV XVHG LQ WKH GHFHSWLRQ

 Juan quih cohtaasitim ma, ...

Juan def;fl 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlt:deceive ds
I deceived Juan, ... bb &<+,

18.5.5 Simple transitive verbs with optional addressee/recipient but no indirect object
7KH YHUE √âaom request gift IRU VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU RQO\ RQH REOLJDWRU\ V\QWDFWLF DUJXPHQWൺWKH SDWLHQWGLUHFW
REMHFW 1HYHUWKHOHVV LW SHUPLWV DQ DGGLWLRQDO VHPDQWLF DUJXPHQW WKH DGGUHVVHH 7KH DGGUHVVHH PXVW DSSHDU LQ D
SRVWSRVLWLRQDO SKUDVH KHDGHG E\ WKH GHIDXOW 3 IRU KXPDQ JRDOV iti IRU VLQJXODU RQHV DQG ano IRU SOXUDO RQHV
VHH i ,OOXVWUDWLYH VHQWHQFHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

     6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient (Addressee)

√âaom request gift 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ჳ 33 ჳ

 Siimet quih (miti) itaaom, ...

bread def;fl 2.poss:on 3.sbj:rlt:request_gift
S/he was asking for bread (from you (sg.)), ...

 ˻ Ziix cxatlc˼ quih (hin) itaaom, ...

   thing sbj.nmlz:thin def;fl 1.poss:in 3.sbj:rlt:request_gift
S/he was asking for tortillas (from us), ...

7KH YHUE √amx say LV VLPLODU EXW RQO\ VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU DQ RSWLRQDO SOXUDO DGGUHVVHH ,I D VLQJXODU DGGUHVVHH
LV WR EH LQFOXGHG WKH GHULYHG YHUE √aamx LV XVHG VHH i

     6HPDQWLFV Agent Utterance AddresseeSO 

√amx say (utterance) 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ჳ 33 ჳ

 D ¿Itamx?
  3.sbj:rlt:say
Did s/he say it?

6RPH VSHDNHUV DSSDUHQWO\ D PLQRULW\ GR VRPHWLPHV XVH WKH YHUE √pooin ZLWKRXW WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ
᯴HFWLRQ

7KLV YHUE PD\ RPLW PHQWLRQ RI WKH SHUVRQ GHFHLYHG ZKLFK PDNHV WKH FODXVH LQWUDQVLWLYH HYHQ LQ WKDW VLWXDWLRQ WKH
LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ RFFXUV RQ WKH YHUE
484 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

E Ihyoomx.
1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:say
I said it.

 ¡Mos camx oo!

  also im:say del
Say it again!

 D Mino hyoomx.

2.poss:in 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:say
I said it to you (pl.).

E ¡Quino camx!
  3.poss:in im:say
Tell it to them!

F Ano / Quino hyoomx.

[3.poss:]in 3.poss:in 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:say
I said it to them.

18.5.6 Morphologically transitive involuntary action verbs

7KH YHUEV √imt open up (involuntarily), be open DQG √ixoj dry up [columnar cactus fruit] DUH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\
WUDQVLWLYH DQG QRW UH᯴H[LYH 1RWH WKDW LQ  WKH YHUEV FDUU\ WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- i %XW WKH RQO\
DUJXPHQW DOORZHG LQ WKH FODXVHV LV WKH SDWLHQW 7KH VFKHPD LQ  LV DQ DWWHPSW WR GLVSOD\ WKH VLWXDWLRQ ZLWK
WKHVH YHUEV

 Morphologically Transitive Involuntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Patient ൺ
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

 Hinl itimla, ...

1.poss:arm/hand/finger\pl 3.sbj:rlt:open\pl
When my hand opened (involuntarily), ... bb &<+,

 ... hahootj com tcooo itimla, ...

abs:entrance:pl def;hz rlt:all 3.sbj:rlt:open\pl
... all the doors opened, ... bb 177 $F 

 Ool imám quih itixoj x, xöaatjö.

Stenocereus_thurberi 3.poss:fruit def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:dry_up ut em:sweet
When the organ pipe cactus fruit dries, it is very sweet. bb &<+,

18.5.7 The verb √amzo want

7KH YHUE √amzo want VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU D FRPSOHPHQW FODXVH WKDW LV KHDGHG E\ HLWKHU D GHYHUEDO QRXQ RU DQ
LQ᯳QLWLYH GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH PDWWHU RI FRUHIHUHQFH ZLWK WKH DJHQWVXEMHFW RI ZDQW 6HH i IRU H[DPSOHV DQG
GLVFXVVLRQ


Ano LV DOVR SRVVLEOH KHUH

7KH FDXVDWLYH IRUP RI WKH YHUE √imt LV XVHG ZKHQ DQ DJHQW SHUIRUPV WKH DFWLRQ √eemt open (trans.) 7KLV FDXVDWLYH YHUE
LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ GLWUDQVLWLYH LQ᯴HFWLQJ IRU LQGLUHFW REMHFW HYHQ WKRXJK LW LV D VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH V\QWDFWLFDOO\
§18.5.9 Transitive verb introducing direct quotes 485

18.5.8 Special use of √aCa know

7KH YHUE √aCa know PD\ RFFXU ZLWK D VSHFLDO NLQG RI FRPSOHPHQW FRQ᯳JXUDWLRQ LQ ZKLFK WKH GLUHFW RE
MHFW LV SURQRPLQDO DQG WKH SUHGLFDWH FRPSOHPHQW LQFOXGHV WKH SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO DQG WKH GHYHUEDO QRXQ chaa
sbj.nmlz:eq

 Ziix chaa zo hin yomaa.

thing sbj.nmlz:eq indf;sg 1s.do:rlyo:neg:know
S/he doesn’t/didn’t know who I am/was. [S/he doesn’t/didn’t recognize me.] bb &<+,

 He ziix chaa quih ma quiya ha.

1.pro def;fl ds sbj.nmlz:tr:know dcl
I know who you are.

 Jesús quih ziix quiisax chaa quih hmiya; Pablo quij mos
Jesus def;fl thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit sbj.nmlz:eq def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know Paul def;cm also
cmiique chaa quih hmiya.
(Seri)_person sbj.nmlz:eq def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know
I know who Jesus is and I also know who Paul is. bb 177 $F 

$Q DSSURSULDWH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI VXFK FODXVHV VKRXOG LQGLFDWH QRW RQO\ WKDW ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU LQ  LV JUDP
PDWLFDOO\ WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI know EXW DOVR WKH UHIHUHQW RI WKH SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO ziix 7KH VFKHPD LQ  LV
DQ DWWHPSW WR VKRZ WKLV XVLQJ EUDFNHWLQJ ' VWDQGLQJ IRU GHWHUPLQHU

     6HPDQWLFV Experiencer > Patient Predicate nominal @

√aCa know 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ჳ 13 chaa ' ჳ

18.5.9 Transitive verb introducing direct quotes

7KH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE √ai tell SOXUDO √aāam XVHG ZLWK WKH DGYHUE ox thus SUHVHQWV GLUHFW TXRWHV 7KH GLUHFW REMHFW
LV WKH DGGUHVVHH WKH GLVFRXUVH LWVHOI GRHV QRW GHWHUPLQH DQ\ LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE

     6HPDQWLFV Agent 8WWHUDQFH Addressee

√ai tell 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ 4XRWH ჳ 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, ox imii, ctam czaxö cop: «...».

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds thus 3.sbj:rlmi:tell male sbj.nmlz:[tr:]:discuss def;vt
Then the captain said: “...”.bb (6 $]RMB&DQRMB,PDWD[ D

 Ox hizi mii.

thus 1p.do:rlmi:tell
Thus s/he told us.

 Ox iyoaam.
thus 3.sbj:rlyo:tell\pl
Thus they told him/her/them.

5HIHUHQFH WR WKH FRQWHQW RI WKH GLVFRXUVH PD\ DOVR EH PDGH XVLQJ WKH LQWHUURJDWLYH DGYHUE zó how? ZKHUHDV
LW FDQQRW EH GRQH ZLWK WKH LQWHUURJDWLYH SURQRXQ áz what?

 D ¿Zó ma htai?

   how? 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:tell
What did I tell you?

7R XVH RWKHU WHUPLQRORJ\ WKLV DSSHDUV WR EH DQ H[DPSOH RI ංUDLVLQJ WR REMHFWඃ

7KH SKUDVH ctam czaxö LV OH[LFDOL]HG WR PHDQ WKH OHDGHU RI WKH JURXS RI ZDUULRUV
486 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

E * ¿Áz ma htai?
  what? ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:tell
(What did I tell you?)

18.6 Ditransitives
7KH SUHFHGLQJ VHFWLRQV KDYH SUHVHQWHG IDLUO\ VLPSOH DUUD\V RI IDFWV WKDW KDYH RQO\ RFFDVLRQDOO\ DQG RSWLRQDOO\
LQFOXGHG WZR REMHFWV RQH GLUHFW DQG RQH LQGLUHFW 7KLV VHFWLRQ KRZHYHU ORRNV DW YHUEV WKDW DUH obligatorily
VXEFDWHJRUL]HG IRU WZR REMHFWV ,W WXUQV RXW WKDW WKHUH DUH WZR PDMRU SDWWHUQV
7KH ᯳UVW SDWWHUQ LV UHPLQLVFHQW RI VRPH RI WKRVH SUHVHQWHG LQ WKH VHFWLRQ XQGHU VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYHV EXW LQ WKLV
FDVH DV PHQWLRQHG ERWK REMHFWV DUH REOLJDWRU\ ,Q HDFK FDVH WKH LWHP RU SHUVRQ PRVW D᯲HFWHG LV WKH GLUHFW REMHFW
WKH SHUVRQ RU LWHP VSODVKHG LQ WKH FDVH RI √inim WKH LWHP WUDQVSRUWHG LQ WKH FDVH RI √aaix DQG WKH SHUVRQ WR
ZKRP LQVXOWLQJ RU GHIDPDWRU\ ZRUGV H[WUHPHO\ VWURQJ LQVXOWV DUH VSRNHQ LQ WKH FDVH RI √aatajquim ,Q WZR
FDVHV WKLV GLUHFW REMHFW PXVW EH singular

 6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Instrument

√inim splash 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFWVJ 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW

 6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Goal SHUVRQ RU SODFH

√aaix carry 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW

 6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Topic

√aatajquim tell 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFWVJ 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW
(offensive things)

7KHVH YHUEV DUH LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV 

 ¡Hax me hsinim xo!

  fresh_water 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:splash em
I am going to splash water on you (sg.)! bb &<+,

 Hax hapasi hizcap iicp me hsaaix aha.

fresh_water sbj.nmlz:pass:drink px\pl:vt 3.poss:side 2s.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:fetch_water aux:dcl
I will take this water to you to drink. bb &<+,

 Hant quih iti isaticpan ha tahac cöimaaix.

land def;fl 3.poss:on 3.poss:irr.ind:work aux md:loc 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:cause_go_away_from
He took them to the place where they would work.

 Cmozime quij ziix quih cöipátajquim hac, taax

sbj.nmlz:drunk def;cm thing def;fl 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]pass:insult def;loc dem;dt;pl

cacaatol iha.
sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl
It is dangerous to say offensive things to a drunk man. bb &<+,

:KHQ WKH SDWLHQW LV SOXUDO D GHULYHG YHUE IRUP LV UHTXLUHG WKH SDWLHQW LQ WKRVH FODXVHV LV H[SUHVVHG DV D 3SKUDVH
7KHVH H[DPSOHV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i

7KH YHUE IRU splash LQ  HYLGHQFHV REMHFW EOHQGLQJ i
§18.6 Ditransitives 487

$QRWKHU SDWWHUQ IRU GLWUDQVLWLYHV VKRZQ LQ  LV IRXQG ZLWK RQO\ WZR YHUEV 8QOLNH WKH YHUEV MXVW PHQ
WLRQHG KRZHYHU WKHVH YHUEV DUH YHU\ FRPPRQO\ XVHG 7KH UHFLSLHQW LV WKH GLUHFW REMHFW LW GHWHUPLQHV GLUHFW
REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ 7KH SDWLHQW WKH REMHFW JLYHQ DSSHDUV V\QWDFWLFDOO\ EXW LV XQPDUNHG LQ DQ\ ZD\

 $ PLQRU SDWWHUQ IRU GLWUDQVLWLYHV

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Recipient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ർ '3 ർ 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

 D √eCe give Patient (food) to Recipient [the food must be nonspecific]
E √eLUUHJ give Patient (gift) to Recipient

([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKH XVH RI WKHVH YHUEV

 ¿Zixcám quih ma tee?

  fish def;fl 2s.do:rlt:give_food
Did s/he give you fish?

 Zixcám quih him miye.

fish def;fl 1s.do:rlmi:give_food
S/he gave me fish.

 ¿Tom quih ma hiite?

  money def;fl 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:give_gift
Did I give you the money?

 Canoaa zo him iiyoj.

boat indf;sg 1s.do:3.sbj:rlyo:give_gift\pl
They gave me a boat. bb &<+,

,Q H[DPSOHV  WKH FODXVHV DUH SDVVLYH WKH UHFLSLHQW LV WKH VXEMHFW ,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR QRWLFH WKDW HDFK
RI WKHVH FODXVHV LV FOHDUO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH DV HYLGHQFHG E\ WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK hp- RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU
VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ SUH᯳[ DQG RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYDO SUH᯳[ ica- VHH DSSHQGL[ &

 Tom quih hpyopehe.

money def;fl 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:pass:give_gift
I was given the money.

 ¿Zixcám quih hptpee?

  fish def;fl 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:pass:give_food
Was I given fish?

 Zixcám com icapehe hmiimzo.

fish def;hz inf.intr:pass:give_gift 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to be given the fish.

7KH\ DUH WKH RQO\ H[DPSOHV RI ZKDW PLJKW EH WKRXJKW WR EH FOHDUO\ D SDWWHUQ WKDW LV GRPLQDQW LQ RWKHU ODQJXDJHV GHVFULEHG
E\ 'U\HU  DV SULPDU\ REMHFW ODQJXDJHV 7KLV PLJKW EH DQ ROG SDWWHUQ LQ WKH ODQJXDJH WKDW KDV EHHQ VXSHUVHGHG HOVHZKHUH
E\ DQ LQQRYDWLYH SDWWHUQ

7KH JUDPPDWLFDO UHODWLRQ RI WKLV QRPLQDO ZRXOG EH &K¶PHXU GLUHFW REMHFW FK¶PHXU LQ WKH IUDPHZRUN RI 5HODWLRQDO
*UDPPDU ,Q DQRWKHU ODQJXDJH RI FRXUVH D FK¶PHXU PD\ LQ IDFW EH PDUNHG PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ 7KH DVVLVWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ
i DUJXDEO\ KDV D FK¶PHXU ZKHQ WKH EDVH YHUE LV WUDQVLWLYH

7KHVH IDFWV ZHUH GLVFXVVHG LQ 0DUOHWW E᯲ 0DUOHWW D᯲ DQG 0DUOHWW ᯲ ,W ZDV QRWHG WKDW
DQDORJRXV FODXVHV LQ (QJOLVK ZHUH ODEHOHG WUDQVLWLYH SDVVLYHV LQ +RFNHWW  7KH 6HUL IDFWV FOHDUO\ VKRZ WKDW WKHVH
SDVVLYH FODXVHV GR QRW KDYH D VXUIDFH GLUHFW REMHFW
488 Chapter 18: Basic verb subcategorization

 Zixcám quih icapee hmiimzo.

fish def;fl inf.intr:pass:give_food 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to be given fish.

:KLOH GHPRQVWUDEO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVHV WKH SDVVLYH FODXVHV GHPRQVWUDWH RQH PRUH LQWHUHVWLQJ IDFW WKH SUH᯳[
i- 3.sbj i RFFXUV ZKHQ WKH VXEMHFW DQG GLUHFW REMHFW DUH WKLUG SHUVRQ 7KLV LV WKH RQO\ VLWXDWLRQ LQ ᯳QLWH
YHUEV ZKHUH WKLV SUH᯳[ DSSHDUV LQ DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVH 7KH VHFRQGDU\ REMHFW canoaa zo LQ  DQG VLPLODU
H[DPSOHV GRHV QRW D᯲HFW WKH WUDQVLWLYLW\ RI WKH FODXVH VHH WKH PXOWLSOH WHVWV GHVFULEHG LQ DSSHQGL[ & EXW LW LV
SHUWLQHQW WR WKH SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI WKH SUH᯳[ i-

 Canoaa z iyopehe. (*yopehe)

boat indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:pass:give_gift (rlyo:pass:give_gift)
S/he was gifted a boat.

18.7 Other types of subcategorizations

$ IHZ ZRUGV DUH FRQVLGHUHG WR EH DX[LOLDU\ YHUEV DOWKRXJK WKH\ DUH QRW SURWRW\SLFDO FDVHV RI VXFK WKH\ GR QRW
LQ᯴HFW IRU SHUVRQ RU QXPEHU DQG GLVSOD\ YHU\ OLPLWHG ංWHQVHඃ GLVWLQFWLRQV 7KHVH DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ FKDSWHU 

18.8 Selectional restrictions

6RPH SUHGLFDWHV KDYH VHOHFWLRQDO UHVWULFWLRQV ZRUWK\ RI QRWH DQG D IHZ RI WKHVH DUH PHQWLRQHG KHUH 'LVFXVVLRQ
KHUH LV SULPDULO\ OLPLWHG WR EDVLF YHUEV
9HUEV PHDQLQJ URXJKO\ give VRPHWKLQJ DV D JLIW LQFOXGH WKH IROORZLQJ √eLUUHJ give (a gift, not food) VHH i
IRU VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ IDFWV √eque give as a gift D VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE VHH i DQG √eCe give (a gift that
is food) DQG WKH IRRG PXVW EH QRQVSHFL᯳F VHH i 7KHVH YHUEV DUH QRW XVHG IRU VLPSOH DFWV RI JLYLQJ VXFK
DV LQ FRQWH[WV RI KDQGLQJ RYHU DQ REMHFW
9HUEV PHDQLQJ URXJKO\ put (something in a location) LQFOXGH WKH IROORZLQJ √ah IRU ᯴H[LEOH WKLQJV √aquim
IRU VPDOO ORRVH WKLQJV √caaix IRU FRPSDFW LWHPV √axquim IRU KRUL]RQWDO LWHPV √aca IRU OLTXLGV DQG ORQJ LWHPV
DQG √zam IRU YHUWLFDO LWHPV VHH i
9HUEV PHDQLQJ grind LQFOXGH WKH IROORZLQJ √Cizj grind √sic grind (seeds, grain) √aLUUHJ grind (seeds, grain)
√acöim grind dry organ pipe cactus (to obtain a powder used for making tar) 6HH DOVR WKH GHULYHG YHUE √apám
grind dry mesquite pods 6HH DOVR WKH GL᯲HUHQW ZRUGV IRU mash ZKLFK LQFOXGH √neezj mash DQG √apamjöc pound
mesquite pods with water to make a mash
9HUEV WKDW PHDQ cut YDU\ SULPDULO\ RQ WKH NLQG RI DFWLRQ WKDW LV LQYROYHG HJ VDZLQJ EXW RQH YHUE VHOHFWV
REMHFWV WKDW KDYH D FHUWDLQ IRUP √aam cut (something tall or long)
7ZR LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV IRU choke GL᯲HU LQ WKH NLQG RI REMHFW ZKLFK LV SUHVHQWHG DV DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW
WKDW LV FDXVLQJ WKH SUREOHP √aapj choke (on solid) √aahjöim choke (on liquid)
9HUEV IRU hit DQG pound W\SLFDOO\ YDU\ E\ WKH NLQG RI DFWLRQ WKDW LW LV E\ WKH SURWRW\SLFDO LQVWUXPHQW XVHG RU
E\ WKH NLQG RI UHVXOW H[SHFWHG 7KHVH LQFOXGH √aafc hit hard √Caxz hit (with long item) √nip hit (especially
with hand) √aatj pound flat
9HUEV IRU carry LQFOXGH √aazi DQG √aheectim √iip (on one’s head) √iztim (on one’s hip) √icseenpx DQG
√asoompx (long thing under arm) √cooi (in many trips) √sanj (on one’s back) √ahasquim (in boat or car)
√axop (on pole over shoulder) √acaaix (with pole) √azni (using a handle) DQG √izcapxla (under arm)
,QWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV IRU LQWUDQVLWLYH break LQFOXGH √apxölim break (long item) √tapolquim break (large pieces)
√itxl break (into small pieces)
([SUHVVLRQV IRU die KDYH LPSRUWDQW VHOHFWLRQDO UHVWULFWLRQV RQ WKH VXEMHFW 7KH H[SUHVVLRQV hacx √miih i
DQG imiipla √airreg i DUH RQO\ XVHG ZLWK SHRSOH WKH ODWWHU EHLQJ YHU\ UHVSHFWIXO DQG RIWHQ PXFK PRUH KLJKO\

$FFRUGLQJ WR 5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD WKH QRXQ SKUDVH zixcám com ZRXOG UHIHU WR D ZKROH ᯳VK EXW WKH QRXQ SKUDVH
zixcám quih ZRXOG UHIHU WR D ᯳OOHWHG ᯳VK

7KLV XVDJH RI i- LV GHVFULEHG LQ 0DUOHWW E DQG 0DUOHWW DUU ZLWKLQ WKH IUDPHZRUN RI 5HODWLRQDO *UDPPDU
DV KDYLQJ WR GR ZLWK WKH SUHVHQFH RI D GLUHFW REMHFW FK¶PHXU ZKLFK FRUUHODWHV LQ SDUW WR ZKDW LV UHIHUUHG WR DV D VHFRQGDU\
REMHFW LQ WKH SUHVHQW YROXPH
§18.8 Selectional restrictions 489

SUHIHUUHG RYHU WKH RWKHU 7KH SUHGLFDWH √ooxi LV W\SLFDOO\ XVHG IRU DQLPDOV LW LV XVHG ZLWK D KXPDQ VXEMHFW RQO\
SHMRUDWLYHO\ )RU D SODQW WKH SUHGLFDWH PHDQLQJ dry LV XVHG VHH i
7KH SUHGLFDWH √iteejöc thin LV XVHG IRU SHRSOH DQG DQLPDOV WKDW DUH WKLQ GXH WR VLFNQHVV RU PDOQXWULWLRQ ZKLOH
√xatcaj thin LV XVHG SHRSOH DQLPDOV DQG LWHPV WKDW DUH WKLQ E\ QDWXUH RU EHFDXVH RI KHDOWK\ HDWLQJ KDELWV
 19
Derived verb subcategorization

9HUE VWHPV WKDW DUH UHODWHG WR PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ VLPSOHU VWHPV DUH FRQVLGHUHG LQ WKLV FKDSWHU i GLVFXVVHV
LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV WKDW DUH EXLOW RQ WUDQVLWLYH URRWV WKH GHULYHG YHUEV RPLW WKH GLUHFW REMHFW i PHQWLRQV D IHZ
YHUEV WKDW DUH IRUPHG RQ QRPLQDO EDVHV i GLVFXVVHV YHUEV EXLOW RQ QRPLQDO EDVHV ZKHUH WKH GHULYHG YHUE
LQGLFDWHV KDYLQJ RU SXWWLQJ RQ DQ LWHP UHIHUUHG WR E\ WKH QRXQ i ORRNV DW WKH UDUH NLQVKLS YHUEV i
SUHVHQWV YHUEV WKDW LQFOXGH DQ H[SHULHQFHUVXEMHFW LQ WKHLU DUJXPHQW VWUXFWXUH i H[DPLQHV FDXVDWLYH YHUEV
i DVVLVWLYH YHUEV DQG i WKH OHVV FRPPRQ VRFDOOHG EHQHIDFWLYH YHUEV 6RPH PLVFHOODQHRXV GHULYHG YHUEV
DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ i 7KH DOORPRUSK\ RI WKH SUH᯳[HV IRU FDXVDWLYHV DQG DVVLVWLYHV LV SUHVHQWHG LQ i DQG
WKH PRUSKRORJ\ IRU WKH WLPHVUDLVLQJ YHUEV LQ i )LQDOO\ VRPH XQXVXDO H[DPSOHV RI GDWLYH DQG DQWLGDWLYH
PRUSKRORJ\ DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ i

19.1 Unspecified object verbs

7KH JUHDW PDMRULW\ RI WUDQVLWLYH SUHGLFDWHV PD\ DSSHDU LQ VRPH ZD\ LQ WZR LQWUDQVLWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQV 7KH ᯳UVW
LV D SDVVLYH FODXVH VHH i LQ ZKLFK FDVH WKH YHUE LV LQ᯴HFWHG ZLWK SDVVLYH PRUSKRORJ\ i 7KH
VHFRQG FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV RQH LQ ZKLFK WKH H[SHFWHG SDWLHQWGLUHFW REMHFW GRHV QRW DSSHDU DQG LQ WKLV FDVH WKH YHUE
LV JHQHUDOO\ LQ᯴HFWHG ZLWK XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW PRUSKRORJ\ GHVFULEHG LQ i
:KHQ DQ XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHP LV XVHG WKH SDWLHQWGLUHFW REMHFW FDQQRW EH H[SUHVVHG V\QWDFWLFDOO\ DOWKRXJK
LW LV LPSOLHG RI FRXUVH WKH YHUE LV LQ᯴HFWHG DV DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE &RPSDUH WKH VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH FODXVH LQ D
ZLWK WKH VLPSOHൻEXW HQWLUHO\ W\SLFDOൻXQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW FODXVH LQ E

 D VWHP √tiin
Zixcám hipcom ihstiin aha.
fish px:hz 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cut_in_strips aux:dcl
I will cut this fish into strips.

E VWHP √otiin
Poyaam ta, hpsotiin aha.
irr.dep:later ds 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj:cut.in.strips aux:dcl
Later I will cut into strips.

7KH DEVROXWH XQDFFHSWDELOLW\ RI WKH SUHVHQFH RI D SDWLHQWGLUHFW REMHFW ZLWK WKHVH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUEV
LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH VHQWHQFHV LQ  ZKLFK FRQWUDVW WKH WUDQVLWLYH EDVLF YHUE LQ WKH D H[DPSOHV ZLWK WKH
LQWUDQVLWLYH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE LQ WKH E H[DPSOHV

 D ¿Áz ya itáhitim?
  what? qm 3.sbj:rlt:eat:impf
What is s/he/it eating?

E * ¿Áz ya toohitim?
  what? qm rlt:unsp.obj:eat:impf
(What is s/he/it eating?)

 D Haas quih cöcootij quih insiifmoj aha.

Prosopis_glandulosa def;fl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:dry def;fl 2s.sbj:irr.ind:gather_firewood aux:dcl
You should collect dry mesquite firewood.

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ZKLFK GR QRW KDYH PDLQ HQWU\ VWDWXV LQ WKH GLFWLRQDU\ DUH WUHDWHG LQ i 'LVFXVVLRQ RI YDOHQFHFKDQJLQJ RSHUDWLRQV LV
DOVR WKH IRFXV RI 0DUOHWW IRUWKFRPLQJ

490
§19.1 Unspecified object verbs 491

E * Haas quih cöcootij quih insoofmoj aha.

2s.sbj:irr.ind:unsp.obj:gather_firewood
(You should collect dry mesquite firewood.)

7KHUH LV QR ZD\ WR LQFOXGH WKH SDWLHQW QRPLQDO LQ WKHVH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW FODXVHV
%\ DOO NQRZQ WHVWV DSSHQGL[ & WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW FODXVHV DUH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH 7KHVH IDFWV DUH
EULH᯴\ UHYLHZHG KHUH )LUVW WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK hp- RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ i
RFFXUV DV LQ 

 Ihpmoohitim.
1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:unsp.obj:eat:impf
I am eating.

6HFRQG WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK ica- RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH SUH᯳[ i RFFXUV DV LQ  ZKHUH LW RFFXUV ZLWKRXW
WKH ᯳QDO YRZHO DV H[SHFWHG

 Icoohit ihmiimzo.
inf.intr:unsp.obj:eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to eat.

7KLUG WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK Ø$EODXW - RI WKH VHFRQG SHUVRQ LPSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ i RFFXUV DV LQ 

 ¡Afmoj!
  [im;]unsp.obj;gather_firewood
Gather firewood!

)RXUWK WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK y$EODXW - RI WKH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH QRPLQDOL]HU i RFFXUV DV LQ 

 Inyafmoj ihmiimzo.
2.poss:pon.intr:unsp.obj:gather_firewood 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want you to gather firewood.

)LIWK WKH UXOH FRDOHVFLQJ oൿV LQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVHV i DSSOLHV DV LQ 

 ¡Xöahitim!
  em:unsp.obj:gather_firewood:impf
S/he’s eating!

6L[WK WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK ca- RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ HPSKDWLF SUH᯳[ i RFFXUV DV LQ  ZKHUH LW
RFFXUV ZLWKRXW WKH YRZHO DV H[SHFWHG

 Hatee somcoop aha.

1.em.pro irr.ind:neg:1.sbj.em.intr:unsp.obj:sew_basket aux:dcl
As for me, I’M not going to sew basket.

6HYHQWK WKHVH FODXVHV PD\ KDYH DQ XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW i DV LQ 

 Pomcoohit x, somcaaixaj aha.

irr.ind:neg:unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:eat ut irr.ind:neg:unsp.sbj:strong aux:dcl
If one does not eat, one will not be strong.

(LJKWK WKH 3.sbj PRUSKHPH i- i GRHV QRW RFFXU LQ WKHVH FODXVHV DV VKRZQ LQ 

 D ¿Toohitim?
   rlt:unsp.obj:eat:impf
Is s/he eating?
492 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

E * ¿Itoohitim?
   3.sbj:rlt:unsp.obj:eat:impf
(Is s/he eating?)

19.1.1 Unspecified object morphology

8QVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW PRUSKRORJ\ RQO\ DSSHDUV RQ XQGHULYHG VWHPV 7KHUHIRUH RWKHU NLQGV RI YHUEV GHVFULEHG LQ WKLV
FKDSWHU GHQRPLQDO YHUEV DQG FDXVDWLYH YHUEV IRU H[DPSOH GR QRW KDYH DQ\ RYHUW XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW PRUSKRORJ\
DOWKRXJK WKH\ PD\ EH XVHG LQ FODXVHV ZLWK DQ XQVSHFL᯳HG GLUHFW REMHFW 7KH SURWRW\SLFDO VFKHPD UHODWLQJ QRQ
GHULYHG WUDQVLWLYH YHUE VWHPV DQG XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE VWHPV LV WKH RQH VKRZQ LQ 

 D 7UDQVLWLYH YHUE VWHP E 8QVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE VWHP

>;@ > o$EODXW > ; @ @
Agent/Experiencer Patient bbbbbb Agent/Experiencer
6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW 6XEMHFW

6RPH VLPSOH SDLUV RI YHUEV DUH JLYHQ LQ  JLYLQJ RQO\ WKH XQLQ᯴HFWHG VLQJXODU VWHPV RI WKHVH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV

 7UDQVLWLYH VWHP 8QVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHP

D aLQLWLDO URRWV
√ahit √oohit eat
√afmoj √oofmoj gather firewood
√am √oom swallow
√ap √oop sew basket

E eLQLWLDO URRWV
√emen √oomen shake from side to side
√épeza √oopeza lick lips

F iLQLWLDO URRWV
√ic √eec plant, cultivate
√imox √eemox butcher
√imt √eemt rub
√inj √eenj yell at
√ip √eep straighten
√ipjc √eepjc grab
√iptim √eeptim pick (plants)
√is √ees miss (like a shot)
√isxö √eesxö hide
√izi √eezi defeat

G iiLQLWLDO URRW
√iip √eep carry on head

H ooLQLWLDO URRWV
√oocta √oaacta watch
√ooi √oaai delouse

I &RQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV
√caa √ocaa look for
√cazni √ocazni bite [like snake]
√moozi √omoozi dream
√nip √oníp hit (with hand)
§19.1.1 Unspecified object morphology 493

√sanj √osanj carry on back

√tam √otám harvest eelgrass
√tis √otís point at

$SSDUHQWO\ DOO YHUEV ZLWK URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK aa DQG ee KDYH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHPV WKDW DUH LGHQWLFDO WR WKH
WUDQVLWLYH VWHPV 6RPH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 7UDQVLWLYH VWHP 8QVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHP

D √aa √aa hold
E √aai √aai make
F √aaa √aaa call (by voice or by signalling)
G √aaco √aaco build house
H √aaisx √aaisx wash
I √aao √aao pass by (a place)
J √eet √eet contradict, argue

$ IHZ RWKHU EDVLF YHUEV H[FHSWLRQDOO\ KDYH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHPV WKDW DOVR DUH LGHQWLFDO WR WKH WUDQVLWLYH VWHPV
.QRZQ H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 7UDQVLWLYH VWHP 8QVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHP

D Éaij Éaij fetch water
E √amjö √amjö hunt
F √atajc √atajc vomit
G √eque √eque give as a gift
H √iimosim √iimosim ask for (food)
I √iiquet √iiquet be pregnant with
J √itat √itat collect limberbush (Jatropha cuneata)

$ IHZ YHUEV KDYH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHPV WKDW GR QRW PDWFK DQ\ RI WKH SDWWHUQV VKRZQ DERYH 6RPH RI WKHVH
KDYH DQ o RU oco LQ WKH GHULYHG VWHP ZKLFK LV RI FRXUVH UHPLQLVFHQW RI WKH SDWWHUQ VKRZQ LQ  .QRZQ
H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 7UDQVLWLYH VWHP 8QVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHP

D √âaom √aaom request gift
E LUUHJXODU √aa grind
F √ah √oaah do, say, put (flexible)
G √acö √oicö kill
H √Cim √oiimtim throw stones at
I √aaal √ocoaal order to do
J √aho √ocoho see
K √ap √ocóp sting
L √âaix √ocooix win (a race)

7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH VWHP √ocosi bite and suck OLNH PRVTXLWRHV LV DSSDUHQWO\ GHULYHG DW OHDVW KLVWRULFDOO\ IURP WKH URRW √asi
drink RQ WKH VDPH SDWWHUQ

7KH FLUFXP᯴H[ RYHU WKH ᯳UVW YRZHO RI √âaom LV PHDQW WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKLV GLSKWKRQJLQLWLDO YHUE FRQMXJDWHV OLNH LW EHJLQV
ZLWK D VKRUW YRZHO VHH i IRU GHWDLOV RQ WKH GLSKWKRQJ LVVXH WKH ODFN RI FLUFXP᯴H[ RQ WKH VWHP √aaom LV PHDQW WR
LQGLFDWH WKDW WKLV YHUE FRQMXJDWHV OLNH LW EHJLQV ZLWK D ORQJ YRZHO

7KLV VWHP LV XQXVXDO LQ WKDW LW DSSDUHQWO\ KDV D ORQJ i ZKHUHDV WKH WUDQVLWLYH URRW KDV D VKRUW RQH DQG LQ LWV DSSDUHQW
REOLJDWRU\ XVH RI WKH LPSHUIHFWLYH VX᯵[ –tim 2WKHUZLVH WKH IRUP LV ZKDW LV H[SHFWHG IRU D YHUE URRW WKDW EHJLQV ZLWK WKH
HPSW\ FRQVRQDQW VHH i

7KLV URRW LV XQXVXDO LQ WKDW WKH ᯳UVW YRZHO LV D VKRUW a DV HYLGHQFHG E\ LWV FRQMXJDWLRQ SDWWHUQ LOOXVWUDWHG E\ iyoaal s/he
ordered him/her
494 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

19.1.2 Unspecified object verb with addressee as direct object

7KH YHUE Éaom request (a gift), beg LQ D LV D VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKDW VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU D GLUHFW REMHFW
WKDW LV WKH LWHP EHLQJ UHTXHVWHG VHH i IRU PRUH GHWDLOV 7KLV WUDQVLWLYH YHUE KDV LWV H[SHFWHG XQVSHFL᯳HG
REMHFW FRXQWHUSDUW WKDW LV √aaomൻGL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH WUDQVLWLYH VWHP LQ WKDW WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHP KDV D
VLPSOH ORQJ YRZHO aa DQG WKXV FRQMXJDWHV GL᯲HUHQWO\ VHH i :LWK WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW VWHP WKH JLIW EHLQJ
UHTXHVWHG FDQQRW EH PHQWLRQHG ,W LV LQWUDQVLWLYH LQ LWV VLPSOHVW XVDJH 6HH H[DPSOH  ZKLFK KDV WKH H[SHFWHG
LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW DJUHHPHQW SUH᯳[

 Moxima quih hpyaaom.

yesterday def;fl 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:unsp.obj;request_gift
I was begging yesterday. bb &<+,

7KLV GHULYHG YHUE LV XQXVXDO LQ WKDW LW DOORZV IRU WKH H[SUHVVLRQ RI WKH DGGUHVVHH EXW WKH DGGUHVVHH LV DOZD\V
SUHVHQWHG DV D GLUHFW REMHFW LQ WKLV VLWXDWLRQ 7KH VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ IUDPH LV JLYHQ LQ  DQG WZR VLPSOH H[DPSOHV
DUH JLYHQ LQ  VKRZLQJ WKH LQ᯴HFWLRQ IRU GLUHFW REMHFW WKDW FRUUHVSRQGV WR WKH DGGUHVVHH WKDW LV SRVVLEOH

     6HPDQWLFV Agent (Addressee)

√aaom request gift, beg 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

 Hin yaaomoj.
1s.do:rlyo:unsp.obj\request_gift:pl
They were begging from me.

 Hizi yaaomoj.
1p.do:rlyo:unsp.obj\request_gift:pl
They were begging from us.

([DPSOHV  DUH PHDQW WR LOOXVWUDWH WKDW DOWHUQDWLYH PRUSKRORJ\ൺLQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ LQ  3

PDUNLQJ LQ ൺLV QRW SRVVLEOH ZLWK WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE √aaom request gift

 * He yaaomoj.
1.io:rlyo:unsp.obj\request_gift:pl
(They were begging from me/us.)

 * Hiti yaaomoj.
1.poss:on rlyo:unsp.obj\request_gift:pl
(They were begging from me/us.)

19.1.3 Unspecified object verb with goal as direct object

7KH YHUE √isxö LV D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE PHDQLQJ hide VHH i WKH GLUHFW REMHFW LV WKH LWHP WKDW LV KLGGHQ 7KH
XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUVLRQ RI WKLV YHUE √eesxö XVHG ZLWK WKH DGYHUE hacx apart, alone LV OLNH WKH OH[LFDO UH᯴H[LYHV
GLVFXVVHG LQ iൺQR UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQ LV XVHG ZLWK LW EXW WKH PHDQLQJ LV DOZD\V WKDW RQH LV KLGLQJ RQHVHOI
7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ SUH᯳[ DSSHDUV LQ  DV H[SHFWHG

 Hacx ihpseesxö aha.

apart 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj\hide aux:dcl
I will hide (myself).

 ¿Me hacx queesxö ya?

b 2.pro apart sbj.nmlz:unsp.obj\hide qm
Are you hiding (yourself)?

6HH i IRU DQRWKHU XVH RI WKH YHUE √eesxö
§19.1.4 Unspecified object verb with recipient as PP 495

7KLV VDPH YHUE PD\ RFFXU ZLWK PHQWLRQ RI WKH SHUVRQ IURP ZKRP WKH KLGLQJ LV GRQH H[SUHVVHG DV D GLUHFW
REMHFW 1RWH LQ  WKH 2s.do SUH᯳[ ma DQG WKH WUDQVLWLYH SUH᯳[ IRU ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW h-

 Hacx ma hseesxö aha.

apart 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:unsp.obj;hide aux:dcl
I will hide (myself) from you.bb &<+,

([DPSOHV  DUH DOO DGGLWLRQDO HYLGHQFH IRU WKH WUDQVLWLYLW\ RI WKHVH FODXVHV  KDV DQ DOORPRUSK RI WKH
LPSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ WKDW LV SRVVLEOH ZLWK WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV RI WKLV VKDSH QRW ZLWK LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV 7KH WUDQVLWLYH
DOORPRUSK RI WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH SUH᯳[ LV XVHG LQ  $QG ᯳UVW SHUVRQ LV LQGLFDWHG LQ  E\ WKH GLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ
DSSURSULDWH IRU LPSHUDWLYHV

 ¡Hacx heesxö!
  apart im:unsp.obj\hide
Hide (yourself) from him/her!

 ¿Hacx iheesxö intamzo?

  apart inf.tr:unsp.obj\hide 2s.sbj:rlt:want
Do you want to hide (yourself) from him/her?

 ¡Hacx ihpeesxö!
  apart 1s.do.im:[im:]unsp.obj\hide
Hide (yourself) from me!

7KH DUJXPHQW WKDW LV WKH SHUVRQ IURP ZKRP WKH KLGLQJ LV GRQH LV ODEHOHG D JRDO LQ WKH VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ IUDPH
LQ 

 hacx √eesxö 6HPDQWLFV Agent+Patient (Goal)

hide oneself (from someone) 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW

19.1.4 Unspecified object verb with recipient as PP

7KH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE √izi defeat DOVR KDV WKH PHDQLQJ RI earn (money) LQ  ,WV XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW IRUP √eezi
DOVR KDV WKH PHDQLQJ RI earn DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ 

 7UDQVLWLYH
Pedro quih moxima peez ihanl capxa iyizi.
Pedro def;fl yesterday peso 3.poss:[pon:]ten sbj.nmlz:three 3.sbj:rlyo:defeat/earn
Pedro earned thirty pesos yesterday.

 8QVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW
Pedro quih anxö xeezi.
Pedro def;fl intns em:unsp.obj\defeat/earn
Pedro earns a lot.

7KLV XVDJH RI √eezi LV H[WHQGHG WR PHDQ rent LQ ZKLFK FDVH WKH YHUE VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU D UHFLSLHQW WKH SHUVRQ
WR ZKRP WKH LWHP ZLOO EH UHQWHG EXW QRW IRU D SDWLHQW 6HH WKH VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ IUDPH LQ 

 √eezi 6HPDQWLFV Agent Recipient

rent 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ33ჳ

7KH UHFLSLHQW DSSHDUV RQO\ ZLWK WKH GHIDXOW PDUNLQJ IRU UHFLSLHQWVDGGUHVVHHV QDPHO\ WKH 3 √Vti on DQG WKH 3
√ano in VHH i ,Q H[DPSOH  WKH ZRUG IRU house DSSHDUV LQ D VHSDUDWH FODXVH DQG LV RQO\ FRQFHSWXDOO\

7KLV H[DPSOH DOVR KDV WKH UHDGLQJ Are you hiding yourself from him/her? DV WKH GLVFXVVLRQ EHORZ H[SODLQV

2QH PLJKW WKLQN RI WKLV YHUE DV PHDQLQJ earn (from someone, especially by renting)
496 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

LPSOLHG LQ WKH FODXVH ZLWK rent 7KH FODXVHV DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH 1RWH WKDW WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW DJUHHPHQW
LQ  DQG  LV LQGLFDWHG ZLWK WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK hp-

 Haaco hyaa° cop cmiique ihmaa° z ano piih ta x, iti

abs;house mine def;vt (Seri)_person other indf;sg [3.poss:]in irr.dep:be;fl ds ut 3.poss:on

hpseezi aha.
1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj;defeat/earn aux:dcl
I am going to rent my house to someone.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ Another person will live in my house, I will rent to him/her.bb &<+,

 Mino hpscmeezi aha.

2.poss:in 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:unsp.obj\defeat/earn aux:dcl
I won’t rent to you (pl.)

19.1.5 Special cases

7KH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV √inim splash DQG √aatajquim insult VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU D SDWLHQW VHH i ZKHUH WKH
SDWLHQW LQ TXHVWLRQ LV WKH SHUVRQ RU LWHP UHFHLYLQJ WKH VSODVK RU KHDULQJ WKH LQVXOW ,I WKH SDWLHQW LV SOXUDO WKHVH
YHUEV FDQQRW EH XVHG ,Q WKH VLWXDWLRQ WKDW D SOXUDO SDWLHQW LV WR EH H[SUHVVHG XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUVLRQV RI WKHVH
YHUE VWHPV DUH XVHGൺ√eenim DQG √ocótajquim UHVSHFWLYHO\ൺDQG WKH SOXUDO SDWLHQW DSSHDUV ZLWK WKH 3 ano in
WKH GHIDXOW PDUNLQJ LQ VXFK FDVHV 6HH WKH VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ IUDPHV LQ  DQG  IRU WKHVH YHUEV ZKHQ WKHUH
LV QR VLQJXODU SDWLHQW

 √eenim 6HPDQWLFV Agent PatientSO Instrument

splash 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ33ჳ ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW

 √ocótajquim 6HPDQWLFV Agent PatientSO  Topic

utter insults 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ33ჳ ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW

7KH FODXVHV DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH DV HYLGHQFHG E\ WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU SUH᯳[ hp- LQ  DQG WKH ODFN RI 3.sbj i- LQ
 DQG 

 Xicaquiziil tacoi hamt pac ano cohpyeenim.

child\pl md:pl soil indf;pl [3.poss:]in 3io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:unsp.obj\splash
I threw dirt on those children.

 ¿˻ Ziix imiipla haa˼ cötocótajquim?

    thing 3.poss:[pon:]bad [sbj.nmlz:]beLUUHJ! 3.io:rlt:unsp.obj:insult
Did s/he say defamatory things about the deceased? bb &<+,

 Hino cöyacótajquim.
1.poss:in 3.io:rlyo:unsp.obj\insult
S/he told us defamatory things about him/her.

19.2 Simple denominal verbs

6LPSOH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV PD\ EH IRUPHG RQ VLPSOH QRXQ URRWV E\ LQ᯴HFWLQJ WKHP IRU PRRG i )HZ RI
WKHVH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV DUH OLVWHG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ EHFDXVH WKH\ DUH VR WUDQVSDUHQW DQG WKH
SURFHVV LV VR SURGXFWLYH DOWKRXJK QRW ZLGHO\ XVHG VR IDU DV , NQRZ 7KH JHQHUDO VFKHPD LV JLYHQ LQ 


$ YDULDQW RQ WKLV VHQWHQFH LV DOVR DFFHSWDEOH Hino he yacótajquim 7KLV YDULDQW VHHPV WR KDYH D GRXEOH PDUNLQJ RI WKH
᯳UVW SHUVRQ
§19.3 Denominal verbs 497

 6LPSOH GHQRPLQDO YHUE VFKHPD

> > ; @1 @9
be X
ZKHUH ; LV D VLPSOH XQSRVVHVVHG XQLQ᯴HFWHG QRXQ

7KH QRXQ PXVW EH D VLPSOH QRXQ DSSDUHQWO\ D FRPSRXQG i VXFK DV mosnipol leatherback sea turtle FDQQRW
EH WKH EDVH LQ WKLV VFKHPD 7KH QRXQ eenim metal KDV D JORWWDO VWRS EHIRUH LW LQ WKH GHULYHG YHUE √heenim $
IHZ H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 ¡Pomojet, hax tama!

  irr.dep:Ovis_canadensis intns sbjv:beLUUHJ
I hope it’s a big horn sheep!

 Pohast x, siiscan aha.

irr.dep:stone ut irr.ind:hard aux:dcl
If it is a rock, it will be hard.

 Pohehe x, smaaiscan aha.

irr.dep:plant ut irr.ind:neg:hard aux:dcl
If it is a plant (or stick), it won’t be hard.

 Yoheenim.
rlyo:metal
a. It was metal.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (It was a knife)

$ IHZ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV DUH OLVWHG LQ WKH GLFWLRQDU\ WKDW KDYH WKLV JHQHUDO SDWWHUQ EXW KDYH DGGLWLRQDO PRU
SKRORJ\ DQG RIWHQ GLYHUJHQW PHDQLQJV 7KH\ DUH XQXVXDO DV YHUEV LQ WKDW WKH\ GR QRW KDYH QRQQHJDWLYH VXEMHFW
RULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQV 7KDW LV WKH RWKHUZLVH H[SHFWHG IRUPV ZLWK WKH c- SUH᯳[ sbj.nmlz i RI WKHVH
SUHGLFDWHV GR QRW H[LVW 0DMRU H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 1RXQ 9HUE VWHP

D cmaam female, woman √cmaamat be short and wide
cmajiic SO √cmajiic SO
E ctam male, man √ctamot be male; be long and narrow
ctamcö SO √ctamcö SO
F cmiique (Seri) person √cmiiquet be a person DQG RWKHU PHDQLQJV
comcaac SO √comcaac SO
G comcaii old woman √comcaiit be old [woman]
comqueej SO √comqueej SO
H tal coal √tal be hot coal

19.3 Denominal verbs

7KH OH[LFRQ LQFOXGHV VRPH YHUEV WKDW DUH FRPSRVHG DURXQG D QRXQ URRW GHQRPLQDO YHUEV 7KH QXPEHU RI
VXFK YHUEV LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ LV EHWZHHQ  DQG  WKH H[DFW QXPEHU GHSHQGV RQ WKH GH᯳QLWLRQ WKDW RQH
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√icaacat have as grandchild (her daughter’s child) ZKLFK LV EDVHG RQ WKH URRW √caac (her) daughter’s child 7KHVH
NLQVKLS YHUEV DUH GLVFXVVHG VHSDUDWHO\ LQ i EHORZ DOWKRXJK WKH\ DUH VLPSO\ D VXEVHW RI WKH YHUEV GLVFXVVHG
LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ 7KH KLJKHU FRXQW ZRXOG DOVR LQFOXGH WKRVH SUHVHQWHG DERYH LQ i

6HH QRWH  LQ FKDSWHU  ZKHUH LW LV SRLQWHG RXW WKDW \RXQJHU VSHDNHUV XVH D JORWWDOVWRSLQLWLDO URRW IRU WKLV QRXQ LQ DOO
VLWXDWLRQV

6HH WKH JHQHUDO GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKLV WRSLF LQ *HUGWV 0DUOHWW  7KLV VHFWLRQ UHSULVHV 0DUOHWW I
498 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

7KH ORZHU FRXQW LV SULPDULO\ FRPSRVHG RI YHUEV IRUPHG IURP LQKHUHQWO\ SRVVHVVHG QRXQV RWKHU WKDQ NLQVKLS
WHUPV VXFK DV √iteems have beard ZKLFK LV EDVHG RQ WKH URRW √teems beard 0DQ\ RI WKH QRXQ URRWV DUH ERG\
SDUW WHUPV OLNH √teems beard EXW RWKHUV DUH SRVVHVVHG QRXQV WKDW LQFOXGH ORDQZRUGV 7KH FRPPRQ IDFWRU LQ DOO
RI WKH SURGXFWLYH FDVHV RI GHQRPLQDO YHUE VWHPV DSSHDUV WR EH D SRVVHVVHG QRXQ URRW UHJDUGOHVV RI LWV RULJLQ
7KHUHIRUH DORQJVLGH VXFK VLPSOH QRXQV DV caamiz shirt VHH DSSHQGL[ % DQG caamijoj shirts RQH DOVR ᯳QGV
SRVVHVVHG QRXQV OLNH hicaamiz my shirt hicaamijoj my/our shirts micaamiz your shirt DQG icaamijoj their shirts
VHH i $QG EHVLGHV WKHVH QRXQV D YHUE √icaamiz DOVR H[LVWV ZKLFK PHDQV have a shirt RU wear a shirt RU
put on a shirt 7ZR VLPSOH H[DPSOHV ZLWK WKLV YHUE DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 D ¿Iticaamiz?
   3.sbj:rlt:hv:shirt
Did s/he put it (a shirt) on?

E Yicaamiz.
rlyo:hv:shirt
S/he was wearing a shirt.

7KH GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV WKH PRVW FRPPRQ ZD\ WR H[SUHVV WKH UHOHYDQW FRQFHSW DQG PRVW JHQHUDOO\ PHDQV have
X 7KHUH PD\ EH DOWHUQDWLYH ZD\V WR H[SUHVV VLPLODU LGHDV XVLQJ VWDQGDUG YHUEV DQG GLUHFW REMHFWV LQ VRPH FDVHV
EXW WKH\ DUH QRW V\QRQ\PRXV DV WKHUH LV QR JHQHULF NLQG RI ංKDYHඃ YHUE $Q H[SOLFLW YHUE VXFK DV √yaa own
LQGLFDWHV D PRUH SHUPDQHQW SRVVHVVLRQ WKDQ WKDW H[SUHVVHG E\ WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUE $OVR VLQFH WKH YHUE √yaa
PHDQV own LW GRHV QRW FROORFDWH ZLWK PDQ\ RI WKH QRXQV RQ ZKLFK GHQRPLQDO YHUEV DUH IRUPHG QDPHO\ WKH
ERG\ SDUW WHUPV 7KH YHUEDO H[SUHVVLRQ iti √ah on put.fl put on (clothes) PHDQV MXVW WKDW DQG GRHV QRW PHDQ
wear DQG WKXV LV QRW V\QRQ\PRXV ZLWK WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV EDVHG RQ QRXQV IRU DUWLFOHV RI FORWKLQJ
7KH EDVLF IDFWV DERXW WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV DUH TXLWH VLPSOH 0RUSKRORJLFDO GHWDLOV DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ i
7KH SUH᯳[ i– RFFXUV ZLWK QRXQ VWHPVൺPRVWO\ ERXQG QRXQ VWHPV DQG IRU WKH PRVW SDUW LQKHUHQWO\ SRVVHVVHG
QRXQV 7KH UHVXOW LV D YHUE IRUP WKDW PHDQV DPELJXRXVO\ RU YDJXHO\ have X, be with X, wear X VWDWLYH PHDQLQJV
RU put on X, get X, use X, acquire X DV E\ PDNLQJ DFWLYH PHDQLQJV 7KH DEVWUDFW JORVV hv LV XVHG LQ WKH H[DPSOHV
EHORZ IRU WKH GHULYDWLRQDO SUH᯳[ i- 7KH EDVLF VFKHPD LV VKRZQ LQ  DQG D VLPSOH H[DPSOH LV VKRZQ LQ 
7KH ODEHO ංSRVVHVVHG QRXQ URRWඃ KHUH LV PHDQW WR LGHQWLI\ WKH FODVV RI QRXQ VWHPV RI WKH LQKHUHQWO\SRVVHVVHG
W\SH SULPDULO\ NLQVKLS WHUPV DQG ERG\ SDUW QRXQV VHH i

 'HQRPLQDO YHUE VFKHPD

>>i@>;@@
have, wear, put on X
ZKHUH ; LV D SRVVHVVHG QRXQ URRW

 √iteems have beard > > i @ > teems @ @

7KH GHQRPLQDO YHUE PD\ EH WUDQVLWLYH ZLWK DQ H[SOLFLW RU LPSOLFLW GLUHFW REMHFW RU LQWUDQVLWLYH ZLWK DQ
XQVSHFL᯳HG GLUHFW REMHFW 7KH VWHP LV LGHQWLFDO ZKHWKHU WKH YHUE LV WUDQVLWLYH RU LQWUDQVLWLYH XQOLNH ZKDW LV WUXH
IRU PRVW EDVLF YHUEV VHH i WKH GL᯲HUHQFH LQ WUDQVLWLYLW\ LV REYLRXV IURP WKH ZD\ WKH YHUEV FRQMXJDWH
([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKHVH YHUEV WZR KDYH VWDWLYH PHDQLQJV DQG WZR KDYH DFWLYH PHDQLQJV

 6WDWLYH PHDQLQJ WUDQVLWLYH

Ziix cmeque zo quicápota zo toc cöimiij iha.
thing sbj.nmlz:warm indf;sg sbj.nmlz:hv:jacket indf;sg there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:sit dcl
No one was wearing (or had) a warm jacket.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ There wasn’t anyone who was wearing-as-jacket a warm thing.bb 9LDMHB7LEXURQB

 6WDWLYH PHDQLQJ LQWUDQVLWLYH 'RV +HUPDQRV 

D — Comcaac xahxaii hoox oo quizil ih hamiiht.
(Seri)_person\pl sort_of em del sbj.nmlz:little\pl indf.foc 1p.sbj:rlmi:see;pl
“We have found SOME VERY LITTLE PEOPLE-LIKE THINGS.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV
§19.3.1 Syntactic facts 499

E Mizil xo miteemosoj.
rlmi:little\pl but rlmi:hv:whiskers\pl
They are little but they have whiskers.”bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 $FWLYH PHDQLQJ LQWUDQVLWLYH

Ihptahaapl, ihpmicápota.
1s.sbj.intr:rlt:feel_cold 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:hv:jacket
I felt cold and put on a jacket.

 $FWLYH PHDQLQJ DPELJXRXV WUDQVLWLYLW\

Haxz° heeque quisil com cói imitoj ipi ha.
dog small/young sbj.nmlz:small def;hz still sbj.nmlz:neg:hv:eye\pl el dcl
The newborn puppy hasn’t opened its eyes yet. bb &<+,

:KHQ WKH YHUE LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH VHH EHORZ WKH PHDQLQJ LV W\SLFDOO\ have, use as, put on (item)
)RU H[DPSOH √i–taamt hv-sandal ZRXOG PHDQ use (something) as sandals ZKHQ LW RFFXUV LQ D WUDQVLWLYH FODXVH
,Q DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVH LW W\SLFDOO\ PHDQV have sandals on, wear sandals EXW LW FDQ DOVR PHDQ put on sandals

 7UDQVLWLYH
Tiix hataamt ˻ cmaa quiih˼ pac imitaamt.
dem;dt;sg abs:sandal    now sbj.nmlz:be.fl indf;pl 3.sbj:rlmi:hv:sandal(s)
S/he is wearing new sandals.

 7UDQVLWLYH
Ihsitaamt aha.
1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hv:sandal(s) aux:dcl
I will put it/them (sandals) on.

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
Yomeesjö. Yitaamt.
rlyo:neg:barefoot rlyo:hv:sandal(s)
S/he wasn’t barefoot. S/he was wearing sandals.

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
Hant ihtamatj, ihpyitaamt.
land 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:feel_heat 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:hv:sandal(s)
Because I felt the heat of the earth, I put on sandals.

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
Ihpsitaamt aha.
1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:hv:sandal(s) aux:dcl
I will put on sandals.

19.3.1 Syntactic facts

$ GHQRPLQDO YHUE LQ DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVH XVXDOO\ LV QRW PDNLQJ UHIHUHQFH WR D SDUWLFXODU LWHP 6HH H[DPSOHV


 Canoaa com ano siij taa, yicápota, tahaapl.

boat def;hz [3.poss:]in irr.ind:sit rlt:aux rlyo:hv:jacket rlt:feel_cold
When s/he was about to get in the boat, s/he put on a jacket, because s/he felt cold. bb &<+,

 Siip tintica tiihi, xepe iyoyaai.

young_man md:aw rlt:hv:harpoon sea 3.sbj:rlyo:travel_to
The young man had a harpoon and went out to sea. bb &<+,
500 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 Haxz° hizquih tiifnij, titoj, miixax.

dog px:fl rlt:hv:nostril rlt:hv:eye\pl rlmi:hv:snout
A dog has a nose, eyes, and a snout. bb +(  PRGL᯳HG &<+,

,Q WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVHV QR QRPLQDO FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR WKH LWHP WKDW LV KDG RU ZRUQ PD\ DSSHDU LQ WKH FODXVH
ZLWK WKH YHUE DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH XQJUDPPDWLFDO H[DPSOHV 

 * Ziix zo yicápota.
thing indf;sg rlyo:hv:jacket
(S/he was wearing something as a jacket.)

 * Siip tintica ticom yiihi.

young_man md:aw md:hz rlyo:hv:harpoon
(The young man had that one as a harpoon.)

:KHQ WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV LQ D WUDQVLWLYH FODXVH DFWLYH RU SDVVLYH LW PD\ KDYH HLWKHU DQ LQGH᯳QLWH GLUHFW
REMHFW VXEMHFW LQ WKH SDVVLYH RU D GH᯳QLWH RQH ,I WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI D GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV RYHUW LW PD\ EH RI D
YDULHW\ RI IRUPV PRVW RI ZKLFK DUH SRVVLEOH ZLWK RUGLQDU\ YHUEV DV VKRZQ EHORZ
7KH GLUHFW REMHFW PD\ EH D QRPLQDO SKUDVH ZLWK D KHDG QRXQ WKDW KDV WKH VDPH URRW DV WKH RQH DSSHDULQJ LQ
WKH YHUE 7KLV QRPLQDO PD\ EH LQGH᯳QLWH RU GH᯳QLWH 6RPH LQGH᯳QLWH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Haat impoozyax x, hácalca queejim pac inseaacalca

Jatropha_cuneata 2s.sbj:irr.dep:saw ut abs:clothing sbj.nmlz:old indf;pl 2s.sbj:irr.ind:hv:clothing
aha.
dcl
When you are going to cut limberbush, you should wear old clothes.bb &<+,

 Ctam ticop caamiz ˻ cmaa quiih˼ z itexl, iyicaamiz.

male md:vt shirt    now sbj.nmlz:be.fl indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:take/buy 3.sbj:rlyo:hv:shirt
That man bought a new shirt and put it on. bb &<+,

6RPH H[DPSOHV ZLWK GH᯳QLWH QRPLQDOV DV GLUHFW REMHFWV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 [ Caamiz hipquih ] insicaamiz aha.

shirt px:fl 2s.sbj:irr.ind:hv:shirt aux:dcl
You should wear this shirt.

 Hant impamatj x, mitaamt quih hitaamt.

land 2s.sbj:irr.dep:feel_heat ut 2.poss:sandal(s) def;fl im:hv:sandal(s)
If the ground seems hot to you, put on your sandals. bb &<+,

 Tiix Socaaix quihiizitim iha.

dem;dt;sg Socaaix sbj.nmlz:hv:birthplace dcl
S/he was born in Socaaix [Punta Chueca].

 ¿Zó hant ya htihiizitim?

  which? land qm 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:hv:birthplace
Where was I born?
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ What place did I have as I my birthplace?

7KH GLUHFW REMHFW PD\ EH D QRPLQDO SKUDVH WKDW KDV D KHDG QRXQ WKDW LV QRW FRJQDWH ZLWK WKH URRW RI WKH GHQRPLQDO
YHUE DV LQ H[DPSOHV 

7KH FODVK EHWZHHQ WKH URRW RI WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUE DQG WKH URRW RI WKH GLUHFW REMHFW QRXQ LQ H[DPSOH  PDNHV LW OHVV
DFFHSWDEOH IRU VRPH VSHDNHUV 7KH VLQJXODU IRUP coopol LV HQWLUHO\ DSSURSULDWH KRZHYHU
§19.3.1 Syntactic facts 501

 ¿Hataamt coopl pac intipazaatoj?

  abs:sandal(s) sbj.nmlz:black\pl indf;pl 2s.sbj:rlt:hv:shoe\pl
Do you have black sandals? bb &<+,

 [ Saaco quih ] imeaacalca.

long_sleeved_blouse def;fl 3.sbj:rlmi:hv:clothing
She is wearing/putting on a long-sleeved blouse.

 [ Ziic hipquij ] ihsiixz aha.

bird px:cm 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hv:pet aux:dcl
I will have this bird as a pet.

 ... [ ˻ hanaj haaonam˼ xah ˻ hehe hamasij˼ xah ], taax

   Corvus_corax abs:hat crd plant/stick sbj.nmlz:pass:cause_be_open crd dem;dt;pl

itiionatz,
3.sbj:rlt:hv:hat;pl
… they were wearing feather headdresses and wooden ceremonial headpieces, … bb XQSXEOLVKHG WH[W

7KH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH WUDQVLWLYH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV OLNH WKRVH RI RWKHU YHUEV PD\ EH D QRPLQDO ZLWK RQH RI WKH
PRGL᯳HUV DV IXVHG KHDG VHH i $Q LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH i GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYH i DGMHFWLYH
i RU GHYHUEDO QRXQ i LQFOXGLQJ WKRVH EDVHG RQ WKH QXPEHU SUHGLFDWHV PD\ EH IXVHG ZLWK WKH KHDG
LQ WKHVH QRPLQDOV 6HH H[DPSOHV  7KH XQJUDPPDWLFDO H[DPSOHV LQFOXGHG KHUH GHPRQVWUDWH WKDW WKHVH
RYHUW QRPLQDOV FDQQRW FRPELQH ZLWK LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUVLRQV RI WKHVH SUHGLFDWHV

 ,QGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH
[ Zo ] hsicaamiz aha.
indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hv:shirt aux:dcl
a. I will wear one (shirt).
b. 2U I will put one (shirt) on.

 ,QGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH
[ Pac ] ihsicaamijoj aha.
indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hv:shirt\pl aux:dcl
a. I will wear some (shirts).
b. 2U I will put some (shirts) on.

 D 'HPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYH
[ Hipquih ] hsicaamiz aha.
px:fl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hv:shirt aux:dcl
a. I will wear this one (shirt).
b. 2U I will put this one (shirt) on.

E * [ Hipquih ] hpsicaamiz aha.

px:fl 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:hv:shirt aux:dcl
(I will wear this one (shirt).) (I will put this one (shirt) on.)

 'HPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYH
[ Hizcoi ] hsitaamt aha.
px:pl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hv:sandal(s) aux:dcl
a. I will put these (sandals) on.
b. 2U I will wear these (sandals).

 $GMHFWLYH
[ Tazo ] hyicaamiz.
one 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:hv:shirt
I was wearing ONE shirt.
502 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 $GMHFWLYH
[ Tazo ] iyitaamt.
one 3.sbj:rlyo:hv:sandal(s)
I was wearing ONE sandal.

 D 'HYHUEDO QRXQ
[ Coocj quih ] hyomicaamijoj.
sbj.nmlz:two def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:hv:shirt;pl
I was not wearing two shirts.

E * [ Coocj quih ] hpyomicaamijoj.

sbj.nmlz:two def;fl 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:hv:shirt;pl
(I was not wearing two shirts.)

 'HYHUEDO QRXQ
[ Coocj ] ya ntitrooquij?
sbj.nmlz:two qm 2s.sbj:rlt:hv:vehicle:pl
(Do you own two vehicles?)

 'HYHUEDO QRXQ
Me [ coocj ] sitrooquij quee ya?
2.pro sbj.nmlz:two irr.ind:hv:vehicle;pl sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Will you own two vehicles?

 'HYHUEDO QRXQ
[ Cheel zo ] hyomicaamiz.
sbj.nmlz:red indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:hv:shirt
I’m not wearing a red shirt.

 'HYHUEDO QRXQ
Ziix [ cmeque zo ] quicápota zo toc cöimiij iha.
thing sbj.nmlz:warm indf;sg sbj.nmlz:hv:jacket indf;sg there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:sit dcl
No one was wearing (or had) a warm jacket.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ There wasn’t anyone who was wearing-as-jacket a warm thing.bb 9LDMHB7LEXURQB

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 D * [ Quih ] hyomicaamiz.
def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:hv:shirt
(I’m not wearing the shirt.)

E * [ Quih ] hpyomicaamiz.
def;fl 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:hv:shirt
(I’m not wearing the shirt.)

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D GLUHFW REMHFW 6HH H[DPSOHV  7KH LQWUDQVLWLYLW\ RI WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV RYHUWO\ LQGLFDWHG LQ  E\ WKH
DOORPRUSK hp- RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ

 Anxö quitaast iha.

intns sbj.nmlz:hv:tooth dcl
S/he/it has a lot of teeth.

7KH ZRUG ziix LQ WKLV H[DPSOH FRXOG SRWHQWLDOO\ EH WDNHQ DV WKH KHDG RI WKH REMHFW '3 UDWKHU WKDQ WKH VXEMHFW '3
§19.3.1.1 Direct object with material noun 503

 He anxö ihptitaast?
1.pro intns 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:hv:tooth
Do I have a lot of teeth?

19.3.1.1. Direct object with material noun. 2QH NLQG RI GLUHFW REMHFW LV DSSDUHQWO\ XQLTXH ZLWK WKH GHQRPLQDO
YHUE 5HFDOO WKDW D QRXQ PD\ EH PRGL᯳HG E\ D SUHFHGLQJ QRXQ SKUDVH LQGLFDWLQJ WKH PDWHULDO RI ZKLFK WKH VHFRQG
QRXQ WKH KHDG QRXQ FRQVLVWV i 6R mooj poosj cotton rope PHDQV cotton rope 7KH GLUHFW REMHFW RI D
GHQRPLQDO YHUE FDQ EH D QRXQ WKDW LV XQGHUVWRRG DV PRGLI\LQJ WKH QRXQ URRW RI D WUDQVLWLYH GHQRPLQDO YHUE 6HH
H[DPSOHV 

 [ Hooro ] quitaast iha.

gold sbj.nmlz:hv:tooth dcl
S/he has a gold tooth/teeth.

 [ ¿Ziic ina ih ] iticaamiz?

   bird 3.poss:fur/feather foc 3.sbj:rlt:hv:shirt
Did s/he put on (or, was s/he wearing) a feather shirt?

 [ Eenim ih ] ititaamt, yoque.

metal foc 3.sbj:rlt:hv:sandals rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
He wore metal sandals, it is said. bb $SRVWDGRUB

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 D [ ¿Hooro ] htitaast?
  gold 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:hv:tooth
Do I have a gold tooth/teeth?

E * ¿Hooro hptitaast?
  gold 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:hv:tooth
(Do I have a gold tooth/teeth?)

 D [ ¿Hooro ] ititaast?
  gold 3.sbj:rlt:hv:tooth
Does s/he have a gold tooth/teeth?

E * ¿Hooro titaast?
  gold rlt:hv:tooth
(Does s/he have a gold tooth/teeth?)

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VXEVWLWXWLRQ UHTXLUHV D QRPLQDO WKDW LQFOXGHV D FRSXODU YHUE DV VKRZQ LQ 

 * [ Hateeya ] ano hpsoosi aha.

glass [3.poss:]in/from 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj:drink aux:dcl
(I will drink from the glass one.)

 [ Hooro quih ] hyooho.

gold def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
a. I saw the gold.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (I saw the gold one.)
504 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 [ Eenim ih ] itexl, ...

metal/knife foc 3.sbj:rlt:take
a. S/he took the metal/knife, ...
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (S/he took the metal one, ...)

 ?* [ Ziic ina ih ] iti hsiih aha.

bird 3.poss:fur/feather foc 3.poss:on 1s.sbj:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux:dcl
(I will put on a feather one.)

 [ Hateeya quih chaa quij ] ano hpsoosi aha.

glass def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq def;cm [3.poss:]in/from 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj:drink aux:dcl
I will drink from the glass one.

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H[DPSOHV

 Juan quih cohpxitrooqui.

Juan def;fl 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:em:hv:vehicle
I have a vehicle like Juan’s! bb 2᯲HUHG

 ¿Me hptitrooqui?
   2.pro 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:hv:vehicle
Do I have a vehicle like yours? bb 2᯲HUHG

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RI FRXUVH
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PDWHULDO DV LQ 

 Ctam, tiix hooro cohptitaast?

male dem;dt;sg gold 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlt:hv:tooth
Do I have a gold tooth like that man has?

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 Ctam, tiix hooro cohtitaast?

male dem;dt;sg gold 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlt:hv:tooth
Do I have a gold tooth like that man’s?

 Ctam, tiix hooro cöixitaast.

male dem;dt;sg gold 3.io:3.sbj:em:hv:tooth
S/he has a gold tooth like that man’s.
§19.3.2 Anaphora 505

19.3.2 Anaphora

19.3.2.1. Clauses with denominal verbs referring to an established referent. 1RW VXUSULVLQJO\ WKH WUDQVL
WLYH GHQRPLQDO YHUE PD\ KDYH D SURQRPLQDOL]HG DQG KHQFH QRQRYHUW GLUHFW REMHFW WKDW UHIHUV WR D SUHYLRXVO\
LQWURGXFHG QRPLQDO

 Xalaa heecto pac haa yaii tax, z

Campylorhynchus_brunneicapillus small/young\pl indf;pl there [3.poss:]pon.intr:be.fl\pl sbrd indf;sg
itamjc, iyiixz, zixquisiil ticap.
3.sbj:rlt:deliver 3.sbj.rlyo:hv:pet child md:vt
Some little cactus wrens were there (and) that child brought one and had it as a pet. bb &<+,

 [ Caamiz ˻ cmaa quiih˼ hipquih ]i me hmacóxetol, Øi insicaamiz

shirt    now sbj.nmlz:be.fl px:fl 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:buy_for 2s.sbj:irr.ind:hv:shirt

taa ma.
rlt:aux ds
I bought this new shirt for you to wear.

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 D 7UDQVLWLYH
Øi He yacóxetol, Øi ihsicaamiz taa ma.
1.io:rlyo:buy_for 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:hv:shirt rlt:aux ds
S/he bought it for me, so that I would wear it.

E ,QWUDQVLWLYH
Øi He yacóxetol, ihpsicaamiz taa ma.
1.io:rlyo:buy_for 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:hv:shirt rlt:aux ds
S/he bought it for me, so that I would have a shirt.

,Q  WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV SDVVLYL]HG

 Hataamt quiifazim quih hxomqueepe. Tahtaamt

abs:sandal(s) sbj.nmlz:make_snapping_sound\impf def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:em:neg:like rlt:pass:hv:sandal(s)

ma x, hanso tiifazim ma x, xomiipla.

ds ut just rlt:make_snapping_sound ds ut em:bad
I don’t like flip flops. When they are worn, they make an unpleasant snapping sound.bb &<+,

19.3.2.2. Denominal verbs setting up reference. :KHQ LW FRPHV WR WKH TXHVWLRQ RI ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKH GH
QRPLQDO YHUE FDQ VHW XS UHIHUHQFH IRU D VXEVHTXHQW DQDSKRU WKH IDFWV DUH QRW VR FOHDU ,Q WKH PRVW FRPPRQ
H[DPSOHV WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH GHQRPLQDO YHUE GRHV QRW KDYH D UHIHUHQWLDO EDVH %XW LQ RUGHU WR FKHFN WKH IDFWV PRUH
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 7KH UHVXOWV VKRZQ KHUH DUH IXOO\ DFFHSWDEOH DOWKRXJK VRPH VHHP WR EH D ELW DZNZDUG QRQHWKHOHVV
,I WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV WUDQVLWLYH DV LQ  DQG  WKHUH LV QR SUREOHP RI FRXUVH 7KH QRPLQDOL]D
WLRQ hihicaamiz LQ  LV DPELJXRXVO\ WUDQVLWLYH RU LQWUDQVLWLYH ([DPSOHV  KDYH XQDPELJXRXVO\
LQWUDQVLWLYH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV DQG WKHVH DOVR DUH JUDPPDWLFDO DV EHVW DV FRXOG EH GHWHUPLQHG

 Øi Ihticaamiz ma, Øi tihizlc ma, Øi hax ano

1s.sbj.tr:rlt:hv:shirt ds rlt:dirty ds fresh_water [3.poss:]in
hyooh.
1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:do/say/put.fl
I was wearing it, it got dirty, and I washed it.
506 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 [ Caamiz quihizlc quih ]i ihacaamiz hiimzo piquix, Øi hax

shirt sbj.nmlz:dirty def;fl inf.tr:hv:shirt 1.poss:[pon:]want hypoth fresh_water
ano hsiih aha.
[3.poss:]in 1s.sbj:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux:dcl
If I were to want to wear the dirty shirt, I would wash it.

 (Øi Hihicaamiz piquix, Øi hax ano hsiih aha.

1.poss:pon:hv:shirt hypoth fresh_water [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl aux:dcl
a. If I had worn a shirt, I would wash it.
b. 2U If I had worn it, I would wash it. >DPELJXRXV WUDQVLWLYLW\@

 Ihpticaamiz ma, Øi tihizlc ma, Øi hax ano hyooh.

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:hv:shirt ds rlt:dirty ds fresh_water [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:do/say/put.fl
I was wearing a shirt, it got dirty, and I washed it.

 Iquicaamiz hiimzo piquix, Øi hax ano hsiih

inf.intr:hv:shirt 1.poss:[pon:]want hypoth fresh_water [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl
aha.
aux:dcl
If I were to want to wear a shirt, I would wash it.

 ¡Cocsar tiquij ihyaai! ¡Hoocta! ¿Tiixa? Piixa ta x, pac iti

  Mexican md:cm im:go_to im:look_at   rlt:hv:water irr.dep:hv:water ds ut indf;pl 3.poss:on
caaom. Sasyoj.
im:request_gift irr.ind:1.sbj.em.tr:drink;pl
Go over to that non-Indian Mexican to see if s/he has any water. If s/he has water, ask her/him for some.
Let’s drink it.

19.3.3 Morphology of denominal verbs

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 HQ 1RXQ URRW 9HUE VWHP

D √taasi √itaasit have name
E √csaai √icsaa have brush
F √lit √iliti have long hair
G √scam √iscama have reed boat
H √sxap √isxapa have crown of head
I √sliic √isliiqui be left-handed
J √xaai √ixaa have roots
K √yeen √yeeno have face
L √VVf √iifa have nose
M √Vx √iixa have water
N √Vstalca √ihístalca have leaves, ruffles

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7KLV LV D SOXUDO QRXQ VWHP
§19.3.3.1 Allomorphy 507

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 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 6LQJXODU VXEMHFW 3OXUDO VXEMHFW

VLQJXODU LWHP SOXUDO LWHP W\SLFDOO\ SOXUDO LWHP
D √eenim √eenitzoj √eenitzoj have knife
E √icaamiz √icaamijoj √icaamijoj have shirt
F √itaast √itaast √itaasatj have tooth
G √itaamt √itaamt √itaamatj have sandal
H √iionam √iionatz √iionatz have hat
I √iit √eaatj have head lice

19.3.3.1. Allomorphy. 7KH PRUSKHPH WKDW GHULYHV GHQRPLQDO YHUE VWHPV IURP QRXQ URRWV ZLWK WKH PHDQLQJ
have LV TXLWH HYLGHQWO\ i- 7KLV LV VHHQ PRVW FOHDUO\ ZLWK FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV DV LQ 

 ([DPSOHV RI GHQRPLQDO YHUE IRUPDWLRQ RQ FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV

1RXQ URRW 9HUE VWHP
D √caamiz shirt √icaamiz wear shirt
E √cápota jacket √icápota wear jacket
F √hmiiha footprints √ihmiiha leave footprints
G √mazaj clay pot √imazaj have clay pot
H √mcanoiin pot (especially of metal) √imcanoiin have pot (especially of metal)
I √naail skin, shell, etc. √inaail have skin (etc.)
J √neezj scales √ineezj have scales
K √nlaz fingers √inláz have fingers
L √nooslca fingernails, claws √inooslca have fingernails, claws
M √pazaatoj shoes √ipazaatoj have shoes
N √pnaail skirt √ipnaail have skirt
O √quejöc firewood √iquejöc have firewood
P √slaaizil shoulders √islaaizil have shoulders
Q √sxap crown of head √isxáp have crown of head
R √taamt sandals √itaamt have sandals
S √taast tooth, teeth √itaast have tooth, teeth
T √taamalca horns, antlers √itaamalca have horns, antlers
U √teel edge √iteel have edge
V √teen mouth √iteen have mouth
W √teems beard √iteems have beard
X √toaa leg √itoaa have leg
Y √tom money √itóm have money
Z √yaacni weapon (bow or gun) √yaacni have weapon (bow or gun)
[ √yanopj hoof, fist √yanopj have hoof, fist

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7KLV YHUE VWHP DOVR PHDQV be empty
508 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

SUH᯳[HV LW GHOHWHV RU LV DEVHQW EHIRUH y DQG EHIRUH WKH UDUH H[SOLFLW YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV VXFK DV √eenim have
knife IURP WKH URRW √eenim knife
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LQ D

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1RXQ URRW 9HUE VWHP
D √Vcalca clothing √eaacalca wear clothing
E √Vhic seeds √ihic have seeds
F √Vleca drool √íleca have drool
G √Vmas pubic hair √imas have pubic hair
H √Vmjö anus √imjö have anus
I √Vms gill(s) √ims have gill(s)
J √Vmt breast √imt have breast
K √Vna fur, feather √ina have fur, have feathers
L √Vnl hands √inl have hands
M √Vnol hand and arm √inol have hand and arm
N √Vpij lower leg √ipij have lower leg
O √Vsc body lice √isc have body lice
P √Vselca wings √íselca have wings
Q √Vsloj outer ears √isloj have outer ears
R √Vtac bone √itac have bone
S √Vtj trunk of body √itj have trunk of body
T √Vtc scrotum and testicles √itc have scrotum and testicles
U √Vtoj eyes √itoj have eyes
V √Vtox tears √itox have tears
W √Vts umbilical cord √its have umbilical cord

 ([DPSOHV RI GHQRPLQDO YHUE IRUPDWLRQ RQ ORQJ YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV

1RXQ URRW 9HUE VWHP
D √VVsj basket √iisj have basket
E √VVhi harpoon for turtles √iihi have harpoon for turtles
F √VVfnij nostril √iifnij have nostril
G √VVme home √iime have home
H √VVonam hat √iionam have hat
I √VVp tail √iipa have tail
J √VVt lice √iit have lice
K √VVxax snout √iixax have snout

,Q D WUDQVLWLYH LQ᯳QLWLYH WKH i LV UHSODFHG E\ RU FKDQJHG WR a WKXV ihacaamiz inf.tr:hv:shirt to wear it (shirt)
DV LQ  DERYH 7KH SUHVXPHG XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP LV {iha$EODXW -i-caamiz} ZKHUH WKH W\SLFDO SDWWHUQ LV IRU WKDW
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VHH i 7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH LQ᯳QLWLYH GRHV QRW KDYH WKLV DEODXWLQJ FKDUDFWHULVWLF DQG WKH LQ᯳QLWLYH LV DV H[SHFWHG
iquicaamiz IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {ica-i-caamiz} inf.intr:hv:shirt
7KH SUH᯳[ i– hv LV DOVR SKRQHWLFDOO\ DEVHQW ZKHQ WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV SDVVLYL]HG DV VKRZQ LQ 


,W PLJKW EH DUJXHG WKDW WKH SUH᯳[ i– GRHV RFFXU XQGHUO\LQJO\ KRZHYHU VLQFH WKH SDVVLYH SUH᯳[ KDV WZR FRPSOHWHO\
UHJXODU VXSSOHWLYH DOORPRUSKV p– EHIRUH YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV DQG ah– HOVHZKHUH LQFOXGLQJ EHIRUH FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV DQG
YRZHOLQLWLDO SUH᯳[HV 0DUOHWW E 7KH IDFW WKDW WKH DOORPRUSK ah– RFFXUV LQ WKH SDVVLYH IRUP RI √itaamt have sandals
LV XQLQWHUHVWLQJ SHUKDSV DV ZH H[SHFW ah– EHIRUH YRZHOLQLWLDO SUH᯳[HV DV ZHOO DV FRQVRQDQWV LW LV MXVW PDWWHU RI DFFRXQWLQJ
IRU WKH DEVHQFH RI WKH i– 7KH SDVVLYH IRUP RI √eenim have knife LV PRUH LQWHUHVWLQJ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH VDPH DOORPRUSK ah–
§19.3.4 Kinship verbs 509

 $FWLYH VWHP 3DVVLYH VWHP

D √itaamt √ahtaamt have sandal(s)
E √eenim √aheenim have knife

7KH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV PD\ KDYH FDXVDWLYH IRUPV )RU H[DPSOH √itaasi have name KDV D FDXVDWLYH FRXQWHUSDUW
√ataasitot give name to 7KHVH IRUPV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i
$ IHZ YHUEV DUH VLPLODU WR WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV EDVHG RQ SRVVHVVHG QRXQV LQ WKDW WKH\ KDYH WKH YRZHO i EHIRUH
D QRXQ URRW EXW WKH QRXQ EDVH RI WKHVH LV DQ LQGHSHQGHQW QRXQ 6RPH RI WKHVH KDYH IDLUO\ SUHGLFWDEOH PHDQLQJV
EDVHG RQ WKH SURGXFWLYH SDWWHUQ DERYH EXW WKH\ DUH JHQHUDOO\ XVHG LQWUDQVLWLYHO\

 D xeele fog √ixeele foggy

E heexoj torch √iheexoj have torch
F hapoj digging stick √ihapoj have digging stick

2WKHUV VKRZ D PXFK OHVV GLUHFW UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH WZR OH[LFDO LWHPV LW PD\ HYHQ EH LQ VRPH FDVHV WKDW WKH
UHODWLRQVKLS LV VSXULRXV

 D ctam male, man √ictamo fierce

E hehe plant, stick, rod √ihehe be leader
F caay horse √icaayot go on four feet
G csipx certain resin √icsipx have reddish birthmark
H haxöl Leukoma grata clam √ihaxöl have spoon, use as spoon

7KH SURFHVV KDV JRQH D IXUWKHU VWHS LQ D FRXSOH RI FDVHV UHVXOWLQJ LQ VRPH QHDU V\QRQ\PV 7KH SRVVHVVHG
QRXQV √Vmoz VHH imoz her/his heart DQG √VVsax VHH iisax DUH WKH REYLRXV EDVHV RI WKH YHUEV √imoz think,
expect DQG √iisax have life UHVSHFWLYHO\ ZKLFK DOVR RFFXU LQ YDULRXV RWKHU H[SUHVVLRQV 1RXQV GHULYHG IURP
WKHVH YHUEV √ihimoz thought DQG √ihiisax breath, spirit, life QRZ VWDQG DORQJVLGH WKH RULJLQDO EDVH QRXQV DQG
VRPHWLPHV DUH IUHHO\ LQWHUFKDQJHG LQ VRPH LGLRPDWLF H[SUHVVLRQV 7KH QRXQ iisax GRHV QRW KDYH D VWURQJ OH[LFDO
VWDWXV RXWVLGH RI WKHVH LGLRPDWLF H[SUHVVLRQV KRZHYHU
2QH VSHFLDO SLHFH RI HYLGHQFH IDYRUV WKH FODLP WKDW WKH YHUEDOL]DWLRQ LV EDVHG RQ WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ 7KH YHUE
VWHP √yaacni have a weapon VWDQGV DORQJVLGH WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ VWHP √yaacni bow DQG WKH XQSRVVHVVHG IRUP
haacni bow 7KH IRUP RI WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV REYLRXVO\ PRUH VLPLODU WR DQG VWUDLJKWIRUZDUGO\ GHULYDEOH IURP
WKH SRVVHVVHG QRXQ VWHP EXW QRW REYLRXVO\ GHULYDEOH IURP WKH XQSRVVHVVHG IRUP

19.3.4 Kinship verbs

,Q D ZD\ FRPSOHWHO\ DQDORJRXV WR WKH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV GLVFXVVHG DERYH DQG XVLQJ WKH VDPH PRUSKRORJ\ WKH
REOLJDWRULO\ SRVVHVVHG NLQVKLS QRXQ URRWV PD\ DSSHDU LQ GHQRPLQDO YHUE IRUPV $V DQ H[DPSOH FRQVLGHU WKH
URRW √Vtcz younger sister (of female) ZKLFK KDV WKH RYHUW IRUPV atcz her younger sister matcz your younger sister
hitcz my younger sister (woman speaking) DQG DEVROXWH hapetcaz DPRQJ RWKHUV VHH i $ORQJVLGH WKHVH
H[LVW WKH YHUE √itcaz have as younger sister 7ZR UHSUHVHQWDWLYH JURXSV RI H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

RFFXUV LQ WKH SDVVLYH IRUP RI WKLV YHUE IROORZV GLUHFWO\ LI WKH YHUE VWHP LV [i [eenim]] ,I WKH EDVH WR ZKLFK SDVVLYH LV DSSOLHG
ZHUH [eenim] RQH ZRXOG LQFRUUHFWO\ H[SHFW p– $OWHUQDWLYHO\ RQH PLJKW FODLP WKDW WKH GHQRPLQDO VWHP LV 9 [ 1 [eenim]] DQG
WKDW WKH FRUUHFW JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ LV WKDW p– RFFXUV EHIRUH YRZHOLQLWLDO YHUE URRWV DQG ah– HOVHZKHUH 7KH DOORPRUSK ah– RFFXUV
DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI D YHUE VWHP DQG DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI D QRXQ URRW EXW QRW DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI D YHUE URRW

7KH YHUE √ihaxöl have spoon LQ  LV RQH WKDW FDQ HDVLO\ EH XVHG WUDQVLWLYHO\

6HH (YDQV 

7KH  GLFWLRQDU\ OLVWV WKHVH YHUEV DQG FURVVUHIHUHQFHV WR WKHP IURP WKH NLQVKLS WHUPV ,Q DGGLWLRQ LW JLYHV WKH
SOXUDO VWHPV ZKLFK DUH DQRWKHU OHYHO RI FRPSOH[LW\ 7KH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG QRPLQDO IRUP RI D VWHP EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK D VWUHVVHG
i IROORZHG E\ FRQVRQDQW KDV D ORQJ i EHFDXVH RI QRQHOLVLRQ RI WKH WUDQVLWLYH PDUNHU VHH i 7KXV WKH FLWDWLRQ IRUP RI
√ima have as father (of female) LV quiima
510 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 6RPH H[DPSOHV RI NLQVKLS YHUEV GHULYHG IURP 9LQLWLDO NLQVKLS QRXQ EDVHV
1RPLQDO URRW 'HULYHG VWHP have as or call …
D √Vi √eaa father (of male)
E √Vaz √eaaz maternal grandfather
F √Vac √eac child of sister (of male)
G √Vlxcmaam √ilxcmaam husband’s brother’s wife
H √Vm √ima father (of female)
I √Vmaz √imaz paternal grandmother
J √Vpaz √ipaz paternal grandfather
K √Vpxaz √ipxaz child of older sister (of female)
L √Vta √ita mother
M √Vtcz √itcaz younger sister (of female)
N √Vzcz √izcaz younger brother (of male)
O √VVct √iict have a as maternal grandmother
P √VVitz √iitz younger paternal uncle
Q √VVcaz √eequez younger brother (of female)

 6RPH H[DPSOHV RI NLQVKLS YHUEV GHULYHG IURP FRQVRQDQW LQLWLDO NLQVKLS QRXQ EDVHV
1RPLQDO URRW 'HULYHG VWHP have as or call …
D √caac √icaacat child of daughter (of female)
E √caaitz √icaaitz older sister’s husband
F √caasac √icaasac child of son (of female)
G √cacám √icacama son-in-law
H √camaz √icamaz daughter-in-law
I √catazata √icatazata wife of older brother (of male)
J √cmaahaj √icmaahaj child of younger brother (of male)
K √coaac √icoaacat wife of brother (of female)
L √comiique √icomiiquet son-in-law or daughter-in-law
M √coome √icoomet younger sister (of male)
N √maac √imaacat older brother (of female)
O √mahaj √imahaj older paternal uncle
P √maquete √imaquete wife’s younger sister
Q √ntaac √intaacat younger maternal aunt
R √nyaac √inyaacat older brother (of male)
S √paac √ipaacat older sister (of male)
T √queemez √iqueemez mother-in-law (of female)
U √queemot √iqueemot wife’s brother
V √queepez √iqueepez father-in-law (of female)
W √queec √iqueequet husband’s sister
X √queetz √iqueetz husband’s younger brother
Y √queezi √iqueezi (male’s) daughter’s child
Z √quiipaz √iquiipaz (male’s) son’s child
[ √quiitaz √iquiitaz (male’s) older brother’s child
\ √saac √isaacat son (of male)
] √talxiicom √italxiicom wife’s sister’s husband
DD √tcamahaj √itcamahaj (female’s) younger sister’s child
EE √tcmajeem √itcmajeem (female’s) younger sister’s husband
FF √tmahaj √itmahaj older maternal aunt
GG √xaac √ixaacat maternal uncle
HH √xiiha √ixiihat older brother
§19.4 Experiencer verbs 511

᯲ √zaac √izaacat older sister (of female)

JJ √zmii √izmiit maternal uncle
KK √zooc √izoocat (female’s) brother’s child

7KHVH YHUEV ZKLFK DUH XVHG ZLWK GHFUHDVLQJ IUHTXHQF\ WRGD\ VLQFH WKH NLQVKLS WHUPV WKHPVHOYHV DUH DOVR XVHG
ZLWK GHFUHDVLQJ IUHTXHQF\ VRPHWLPHV FRPSHWH ZLWK WKH NLQVKLS WHUP LWVHOI 7KH YHUE √eaa have as father, call
father (man) LV UHODWHG WR WKH NLQVKLS QRXQ √Vi 2EYLRXVO\ WKH GHULYDWLRQ LV QRW D VLPSOH PRUSKRORJLFDO RSHUDWLRQ
LQ WKLV FDVH XQOLNH RWKHUV $Q H[SUHVVLRQ ZLWK WKH NLQVKLS YHUE PD\ VXEVWLWXWH IRU DQ H[SUHVVLRQ XVLQJ WKH NLQVKLS
WHUP 6HH H[DPSOH 

 ¿Ma teaa?

   2s.do:rlt:hv:father.me
Does he call you father? = Are you his father?

$QRWKHU H[DPSOH LV WKH NLQVKLS YHUE √ita have as mother, call mother EDVHG RQ WKH VDPH URRW DV √Vta mother
,WV XVH LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV 

 Himita ha.

1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]neg:hv:mother dcl
She is not whom I call mother. = She’s not my mother.

 Him imita ha.

1s.do:sbj.nmlz:neg:hv:mother dcl
She is not who calls me mother. = I’m not her mother.

19.4 Experiencer verbs

$ IHZ VWDWLYH SUHGLFDWHV KDYH WUDQVLWLYH FRXQWHUSDUWV WR WKHP WKDW LQFOXGH DQ H[SHULHQFHU DV VXEMHFW 6RPH H[
DPSOHV RI WKHVH YHUEV DUH OLVWHG LQ 

 ([SHULHQFHU YHUEV EDVHG RQ VWDWLYH YHUE URRWV

6WDWLYH YHUE ([SHULHQFHU YHUE
D √âaiscan hard √acaaiscan find hard
E √aapl cold √ahaapl find cold
F √acat salty, bitter √acaacat find salty, bitter
G √comca noisy √acomca find noisy
H √iipe good √queepe like
I √jizi painful √ajíz experience pain from
J haa √maco unobvious haa √amacot find unobvious
K √matj hot √amatj find hot
L √miipla bad √amiipla dislike
M haai √mipi easy haai √amipit find easy
N √msisiin pitiful, cute √amsisiin have pity on, love
O √oaatjö sweet √aatjö find sweet
P √simta itchy √asimta find itchy
Q √toozi tough √atoozi find tough

7KHVH YHUEV SDVV DOO RI WKH WHVWV IRU WUDQVLWLYLW\ VHH DSSHQGL[ & QRWH WKDW LQ  WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i
RFFXUV RQ WKH YHUE DQG WKDW LQ E WKH WUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH SUH᯳[ IRU ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW

7KH (QJOLVK JORVV LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ ZDV LQ HUURU KHUH LW VKRXOG KDYH EHHQ be mother of UDWKHU WKDQ to DQG HYHQ
EHWWHU DOWKRXJK PRUH OLWHUDO ZRXOG KDYH EHHQ call mother, have as mother

1RW DOO RI WKHVH YHUEV ZHUH UHFRUGHG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ 7ZR LQWUDQVLWLYH SUHGLFDWHV WKDW GR not KDYH H[SHULHQFHU
FRXQWHUSDUWV LQFOXGH √isil small DQG √aacoj big
512 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

i RFFXUV 7KH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH H[SHULHQFHU YHUE LV WKH LWHP WKDW RQH ᯳QGV WR KDYH WKH FKDUDFWHULVWLF
LQGLFDWHG E\ WKH URRW RI WKH YHUE 7KH GHULYHG YHUEV KDYH TXLWH UHJXODU PHDQLQJV ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKHLU EDVHV EXW
WKHUH LV VRPH ᯴H[LELOLW\ DV WKH WUDQVODWLRQ RI √aatjö find sweet LQ H[DPSOH  LOOXVWUDWHV

 Hiictoj coi pajoocsim quih ixahoaatzil.

1.poss:[obj.nmlz]:pregnant_with\pl def;pl Batis_maritima def;fl 3.sbj:em:find_sweet\pl
Our children really like the sweetness of saltwort.bb &<+,

 ZLWK ([SHULHQFHU YHUE

D ¡Xojizi! E Hilít        ihyajíz.
  em:painful 1.poss:head 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:feel_pain_from
It is painful! My head hurts me.

 D ¡Xomiipla! E ¿Itamiipla?

   em:bad    3.sbj:rlt:find_bad
It is bad/ugly (etc.)! Does s/he dislike it?

 D ¿Quiipe ya? E Ihyoqueepe.

  sbj.nmlz:good qm 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:find_good
Is it good? I like/liked it.

 D ¿Tacat? E ¿Intacaacat?

  rlt:bitter/salty    2s.sbj:rlt:find_bitter/salty
Is it bitter/salty? Do you find it bitter/salty?

 D ¿Tsimta? E ¿Intasimta?

  rlt:itchy    2s.sbj:rlt:find_itchy
Is it itchy? Do you find it itchy?

 D ¡Xocomca! E Ihmacomca.

  em:noisy 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:find_noisy
It’s noisy! I find it noisy.

 D He tazoj oo, comsisiin iha.

1.pro rlt:alone del sbj.nmlz:poor dcl
I am the only pitiful/poor one.

E ZLWK ([SHULHQFHU YHUE

¡Him xamsisiijc!
  1s.do:em:love\pl
They love me!

([DPSOHV  VKRZ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH GHULYHG YHUE PD\ EH SDVVLYL]HG LI WKH H[SHULHQFHU LV XQVSHFL᯳HG
3DVVLYH H[DPSOHV DUH RQO\ SRVVLEOH RQ WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV

 Pahcaacat x, ...

irr.dep:pass:find_bitter/salty ut
If it is found to be bitter/salty, ...

7KH RFFDVLRQDO H[DPSOH OLNH E ZKHUH D ERG\ SDUW LV LQYROYHG DV GLUHFW REMHFW PD\ FDXVH RQH WR WKLQN RI SRVVHVVRU
DVFHQVLRQ DQDO\VHV +RZHYHU WKH GLUHFW REMHFWV DUH FRPPRQO\ QRW ERG\ SDUWV RU SRVVHVVHG QRXQV RI DQ\ VRUW DQG \HW WKH
V\QWDFWLF DQG PRUSKRORJLFDO IDFWV DUH WKH VDPH

7KH GHSHQGHQW YHUE LV QRW LQ᯴HFWHG IRU ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW EHFDXVH WKH PDLQ SUHGLFDWH LV H[SUHVVHG ZLWK D
GHQRPLQDO YHUE 6HH i
§19.4.1 Sensory verbs without experiencers 513

 Quilít pomahjíz x, ...

unsp.sbj:3poss:head irr.dep:neg:pass:feel_pain ut
If one’s head does not hurt, ...

,PSHUVRQDO YHUEV WKDW GHVFULEH PHWHRURORJLFDO FRQGLWLRQV DOVR KDYH H[SHULHQWLDO YHUE FRXQWHUSDUWV DV VKRZQ
LQ 

 ([SHULHQFHU YHUEV EDVHG RQ LPSHUVRQDO YHUE URRWV

,PSHUVRQDO YHUE ([SHULHQFHU YHUE
D √aapl cold √ahaapl be cold (because of weather)
E √cozim hot (weather) √acozim be hot (because of weather)
F √meque warm √ameque be warm (because of weather)

,Q WKLV FDVH WKH H[SHULHQWLDO YHUEV DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH WKH H[SHULHQFHU LV WKH VXEMHFW 7KH LQWUDQVLWLYLW\ RI WKH FRQ
VWUXFWLRQ LV HYLGHQW IRU H[DPSOH E\ WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ LQ D
DQG D DQG WKH ODFN RI 3.sbj i- LQ E DQG E

 D Ihpyacozim.
1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:aug:hot_(weather)
I’m hot.

E ¿Tacozim?
  rlt:aug:hot_(weather)
Is she hot?

 D Ihpmahaapl.
1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:feel_cold
I’m cold.

E ¿Tahaapl?
  rlt:feel_cold
Is s/he cold?

7KH PRUSKRORJ\ DQG WKH DOORPRUSK\ RI WKH SUH᯳[ WKDW GHULYHV H[SHULHQFHU YHUEV LV VLPLODU WR WKDW ZKLFK LV
IRXQG LQ FDXVDWLYH YHUEV i ,Q IDFW LQ VRPH FDVHV EXW QRW DOO WKH H[SHULHQFHU YHUEV DUH KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK
WKH FDXVDWLYH YHUEV 7KH YHUE √ahaapl DV D FDXVDWLYH YHUE LV W\SLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH DQG PHDQV to cause something to
be cold DV DQ H[SHULHQFHU YHUE EDVHG RQ WKH PHWHRURORJLFDO VHQVH LW LV LQWUDQVLWLYH DQG PHDQV to feel cold

19.4.1 Sensory verbs without experiencers

7UDQVLWLYH VHQVRU\ YHUEV VXFK DV cpii taste WKDW FRPPRQO\ RFFXU ZLWK DQ H[SHULHQFHU DV VXEMHFW SDLU XS ZLWK
GHULYHG LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV LQ ZKLFK QR H[SHULHQFHU LV PHQWLRQHG DQG LQ ZKLFK WKH SDWLHQW LV WKH JUDPPDWLFDO
VXEMHFW 7KH YHU\ VPDOO LQYHQWRU\ RI YHUEV GLVSOD\LQJ WKLV SDWWHUQ LV JLYHQ LQ 

 6HQVRU\ YHUE 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWKRXW H[SHULHQFHU

D √pii taste √apii taste (like)
E √sii smell √asii smell (like)
F √ziim appreciate √aziim pretty

7KH LQWUDQVLWLYLW\ RI WKH H[SHULHQFHUOHVV YHUE LV HYLGHQFHG LQ E E\ WKH ODFN RI WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- i

6HH DOVR i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKHVH YHUEV ZLWK LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFWV
514 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 D 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWK H[SHULHQFHU

Xomcahiift zo hxompii.
Lippia_palmeri indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:em:neg:taste
I haven’t tasted oregano.

E 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWKRXW H[SHULHQFHU

¡Hax hizcop halx xah xepe xapii!
  fresh_water px:vt atten ? sea em:taste_like
This water tastes like seawater!

F 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWKRXW H[SHULHQFHU

Xapoo ipxasi quih hap ipxasi quih
Zalophus_californicus 3.poss:flesh def;fl Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:flesh def;fl
imapii ha.
sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:taste_like dcl
Sea lion meat does not taste like mule deer meat. bb &<+,

 D 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWK H[SHULHQFHU

¿Zixcám cooxi hipcom intsii?
  fish sbj.nmlz:die px:hz 2s.sbj:rlt:smell
Do you smell this dead fish?

E 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWKRXW H[SHULHQFHU

¡Micaamiz quih halx xah zixcám xasii!
  2.poss:shirt def;fl atten ? fish em:smell_like
Your shirt smells like fish!

F 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWKRXW H[SHULHQFHU

¡Minl coi zixcám xasii!
  2.poss:hand/arm/finger\pl def;pl fish em:smell_like
Your hands smell like fish! bb 2᯲HUHG

 D 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWK H[SHULHQFHU

˻ Hehe án˼ com ano hptiihtim, hantoosinaj pac
   plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:be.fl:impf Abronia_villosa indf;pl
ihtaho, anxö ihyoziim.
1s.sbj.tr:rlt:see intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:find_pleasant
I was in the countryside and saw some sand verbenas that I liked a lot. bb &<+,

E 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWKRXW H[SHULHQFHU

¡Mipnaail quih xaziim!
  2.poss:skirt def;fl em:pleasant
Your skirt is pretty!

F 6HQVRU\ YHUE ZLWKRXW H[SHULHQFHU

Hehe yapxöt coi xaziim.
plant [3.poss:]pon.intr:bloom def;pl em:pleasant
The flowers are very pretty. bb &<+,
§19.5 Causative verbs 515

19.5 Causative verbs

0RUSKRORJLFDO FDXVDWLYH YHUEV DUH QXPHURXV DQG FRPPRQO\ XVHG 2Q WKH PRUSKRORJ\ VHH i ,Q
WKH  DQG  GLFWLRQDULHV WKH\ DUH OLVWHG VHSDUDWHO\ IURP WKH YHUEV DQG QRXQV RQ ZKLFK WKH\ DUH EDVHG
2EYLRXVO\ WKH\ DUH VHSDUDWH OH[LFDO LWHPV DQG LW LV QHFHVVDU\ WR UHFRUG WKH PHDQLQJV DQG WKH VWHP IRUPV IRU
SOXUDOV RI HDFK YHUE
&DXVDWLYH FODXVHV FRQWDLQ D PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ FRPSOH[ YHUE DQG D VXEMHFW WKDW LV WKH RQH ZKR FDXVHV WKH DFWLRQ
JHQHUDOO\ RU VRPHWLPHV SHUPLWV WKH DFWLRQ 7KH FDXVDWLYH FODXVH ZLWK D IHZ V\VWHPDWLF H[FHSWLRQV QRWHG
EHORZ DOZD\V HQWDLOV D SDUWLFXODU HYHQW WKDW PD\ EH H[SUHVVHG DV D VLPSOH FODXVH ZLWK D QRQFDXVDWLYH YHUE 7KH
ODWWHU LV FDOOHG WKH HQWDLOHG HYHQW FODXVH KHUH 6HQWHQFH  LV D FDXVDWLYH FODXVH WKDW LV UHODWHG WR WKH HQWDLOHG
HYHQW FODXVH 

 Hax hizcop ihmameque.

fresh_water px:vt 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:cause_warm
a. I warmed this water.
b. 2U I am warming this water.

 Hax hizcop immeque.

fresh_water px:vt rlmi:warm
This water is warm.

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7KH FDXVDWLYH RI DQ LPSHUVRQDO HQWDLOHG HYHQW FODXVH LV LQWUDQVLWLYH ([DPSOH  IRU LQVWDQFH KDV QR 3.sbj
SUH᯳[ i- i DQG  KDV WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK hp- RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ )RU
WHVWV RQ WUDQVLWLYLW\ VHH DSSHQGL[ &

 ¿Tacozim?
  rlt:aug:hot_weather
Did s/he (e.g. God) make it hot (weather)?

 Ihpyacozim.
1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:aug:hot_weather
I made it be hot (weather).

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FODXVH ,Q  WKH QRPLQDO hax hizcop this water LV WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH FDXVDWLYH FODXVH MXVW DV LW LV WKH

3RVVLEOH OH[LFDO FDXVDWLYHV WKDW RQH PLJKW SURSRVH VXFK DV OLQNLQJ √acö kill ZLWK DQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU die DUH QRW GLVFXVVHG
KHUH DV WKHUH GRHV QRW VHHP WR EH DQ\ SDUWLFXODU SXUSRVH LQ GRLQJ VR +RZHYHU VHH WKH YHUEV PHDQLQJ put WKDW SDLU XS ZLWK
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2I FRXUVH LI WKH FDXVDWLYH FODXVH LV SDVVLYH WKH FDXVHUVXEMHFW LV QRW RYHUWO\ H[SUHVVHG

7R H[SUHVV VRPHWKLQJ OLNH WKDW D ELFODXVDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ QRW FRPPRQ LV XVHG

L Ihpaai ta, insahcazni aha.

1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:make/do ds 2s.sbj:irr.ind:pass:bite aux:dcl
I will cause it, you will be bitten (as by a snake).


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DQG LW PD\ EH SK\VLFDO RU QRQSK\VLFDO $Q H[DPSOH LV JLYHQ KHUH

L Tiix ah oo hin tah ma, hapi hisoj ihmiizt.

dem;dt;sg foc del 1s.do:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds intns 1.poss:body/self 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:tattoo
S/he made me tattoo myself.
516 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

VXEMHFW RI WKH HQWDLOHG HYHQW FODXVH LQ  7KH HQWDLOHG HYHQW FODXVH PD\ EH RI DQ\ LQWUDQVLWLYH W\SHൺVWDWLYH
i LQYROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ i ERGLO\ IXQFWLRQ i YROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ i DFWLRQ ZLWK XQVSHFL᯳HG
REMHFW i

 &DXVDWLYH √ahooil make blue/green RI VWDWLYH √ooil blue/green

¿Itahooil?
  3.sbj:rlt:make_blue/green
Did s/he make it blue/green?

 &DXVDWLYH √apoct fill, cause to be full RI VWDWLYH √poct full

¿Itapoct?
   3.sbj:rlt:cause_full
Did s/he fill it?

 &DXVDWLYH √acaanoj burn, cause to burn RI LQYROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ √anoj burn (intr.)
¿Itacaanoj?
   3.sbj:rlt:cause_burn
Did s/he burn it?

 &DXVDWLYH √ahaazalxot make cough RI ERGLO\ IXQFWLRQ √aazx cough

He Juan quih cahaazalxot iha.
1.pro Juan def;fl sbj.nmlz:cause_cough dcl
I am making Juan cough.

 &DXVDWLYH √apánozxot make run RI YROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ √panzx run

Ma hsapánozxot aha.
2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_run aux:dcl
I will make you run.

 &DXVDWLYH √amoozitot make dream RI XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE √omoozi dream
Ma hsamoozitot aha.
2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_dream aux:dcl
I will make you dream.

 &DXVDWLYH √acómitot make swallow RI XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE √oom swallow
Ma hsacómitot aha.
2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_swallow aux:dcl
I will make you swallow.

 &DXVDWLYH √acópotot RI XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE √oop sew basket

Ma hsacópotot aha.
2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:aug:sew_basket aux:dcl
I will make you sew a basket.

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RQ WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE LQ IDFW , WKLQN WKH\ GR QRW &RPSDUH WKH IRUP LQ  ZLWK WKDW LQ  EHORZ
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7KH VXEMHFW RI D WUDQVLWLYH HQWDLOHG HYHQW FODXVH DOZD\V FRUUHVSRQGV WR WKH LQGLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH FDXVDWLYH
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, SRLQW RXW KHUH WKDW WKHUH LV QR GL᯲HUHQFH LQ IRUP EHWZHHQ WKH FDXVDWLYH RI DQ XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW YHUE RU WKH FDXVDWLYH
RI D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKH ODWWHU EHLQJ VKRZQ EHORZ 1RWH WKDW WKH VWHP RI WKH YHUE LQ  LV WKH VDPH DV WKDW RI WKH YHUE LQ
 ,Q IDFW WKHUH LV QR UHDVRQ WR DVVXPH WKDW WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW IRUP LWVHOI LV DQ LQSXW WR D GHULYDWLRQDO SURFHVV
§19.5 Causative verbs 517

 D &DXVDWLYH √aatni make have pointed contact with RI WUDQVLWLYH √atni have pointed contact with
¿Hast quih hehe com contaatni?
   stone def;fl plant/stick def;hz 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:cause_have_pointed_contact_with
Did you make the stone touch the stick?

E ¿Hast com hehe quih contaatni?

  stone def;hz plant/stick def;fl 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:cause_have_pointed_contact_with
Did you make the stick touch the stone?

 &DXVDWLYH √acómitot make swallow RI WUDQVLWLYH √am swallow

Siimet quih Pedro quih cohsacómitot aha.
bread def;fl Pedro def;fl 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_swallow aux:dcl
I will make Pedro swallow the bread.

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7KH SK\VLFDO FDXVDWLRQ PD\ EH VSHHFKUHODWHG DV PD\ EH WKH FDVH ZLWK WKH FDXVDWLYH LGLRP ˻ imoz cö- √aaitot˼
remind UHODWHG WR WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH LGLRP ˻ imoz cö- √ooitʾ remember

 Me peez tazo me hyaazj. Taax ˻ imoz me hyaaitot˼.

2.pro peso one 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:lend dem;dt;pl    3.poss:heart 2.io:rlyo:?
I lent you a peso and I am reminding you about it. bb &<+,

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FRHUFLRQ

 Me icoos zo me hsacoiit aha.

2.pro 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:sing indf;sg 2.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_do aux:dcl
I will obligate you to sing a song.

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LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKH YHUE LQ  PD\ EH DPELJXRXV

 Moosni caacoj zo hsiicö taa, ihyacám.

Chelonia_mydas sbj.nmlz:big indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:kill rlt:aux 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:let_live
I was going to kill a sea turtle, but I let it live. bb &<+,

 Honc zo hyonaaaij xo hscmahit quih hax tahii xah,

Larus_spp. indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:catch but 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:neg:eat def;fl intns rlt:pass:feel ?
hin taai ma, hyacapat.
1s.do:rlt:do/say/put.fl\pl ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:cause/let_fly
I captured a sea gull but they told me that I shouldn’t eat it, so I let it fly away. bb &<+,

 Cmiique zo cöiscmaqueexot ha, teeye.

(Seri)_person indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:neg:cause_hear aux rlyo:say
He said that he wouldn’t let anyone else listen. bb &<+,

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LPSRUWDQW DV FRPSDULVRQ RI WKH H[DPSOHV LQGLFDWHV

7KH QRPLQDOV siimet DQG Pedro FDQ EH H[SUHVVHG LQ UHYHUVH RUGHU ZLWK WKH VDPH PHDQLQJ ,I WKH DUWLFOH quih LQ HLWKHU
FDVH LV UHSODFHG ZLWK cah D FRQWUDVWLYH IRFXV LV LQGLFDWHG %XW WKH QRPLQDO ZLWK cah PXVW DSSHDU ᯳UVW

7KLV GLVFXVVLRQ GLVWLQJXLVKHV EHWZHHQ WKH FDXVDWLYHV WKH DVVLVWLYHV VHH i DQG RWKHU GHULYHG YHUE IRUPV WKDW XVH
VLPLODU PRUSKRORJ\

,Q WKH FDXVDWLYH IRUP WKH QRXQ imoz LV LQYDULDQW VHH i
518 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

6RPH FDXVDWLYH YHUEV EDVHG RQ GHQRPLQDO YHUEV KDYH WKH PHDQLQJ RI UHPRYH WKH LWHP LQGLFDWHG LQ WKH QRPLQDO
URRW 0RUH RI WKHVH DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i EHORZ

 D √alít remove head from FI √lit head

E √ahihic remove seeds from FI √Vhic seed
F √apxasit remove the meat from, fillet FI √pxasi flesh

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EH DQ LQDQLPDWH REMHFW )RU H[DPSOH DV PLJKW EH H[SHFWHG WKH VXEMHFW RI √ahaahazxot make sneeze VHH 
EHORZ FDQ EH VRPHWKLQJ OLNH EODFN SHSSHU (DFK FDXVDWLYH YHUE RFFXUV LQ RQH EDVLF FRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG WKLV LV
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7DEOH bb6\QWDFWLF UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ FRUH QRPLQDOV LQ EDVH DQG FDXVDWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQV

Base Causative
LQWUDQVLWLYH VXEMHFW ⇔ GLUHFW REMHFW
GLUHFW REMHFW ⇔ GLUHFW REMHFW
WUDQVLWLYH VXEMHFW ⇔ LQGLUHFW REMHFW

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YHUEV DV GHVFULEHG LQ i &DXVDWLYH YHUEV EDVHG RQ GHQRPLQDO YHUE EDVHV DUH VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYHV ZLWK WKH
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&DXVDWLYHV RI YHUEV RWKHU WKDQ VLPSOH URRWV RU GHQRPLQDO YHUEV DUH YLUWXDOO\ QRQH[LVWHQW DOWKRXJK WKHUH DUH VRPH
LQWHUHVWLQJ H᯲HFWV ZLWK WUDQVLWLYH EDVHV VHH i 1R FDXVDWLYHV RI SDVVLYHV H[LVW DOWKRXJK D IHZ YHUEV ORRN
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VKRXOG EH LQWHUSUHWHG DV WKH FDXVDWLYH RI DQ H[SHULHQFHU YHUE i 7KLV H[DPSOH VKRZV WKDW WKH PRUSKRORJ\
LV QRQFXPXODWLYH WKH YHUE IRUP LV QRW GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH H[SHULHQFHU YHUE LWVHOI

 Cmiique himintica, zaah quij ipaai x, isacozim

(Seri)_person dt:aw sun def;cm 3.sbj:irr.dep:make ut 3.sbj:irr.ind:cause_feel_hot_weather
aha.
aux:dcl
The sun is going to make that person feel hot.

&DXVDWLYH YHUEV PD\ EH SDVVLYL]HG VHH i IRU GHWDLOV DERXW WKH PRUSKRORJ\ RI WKH SDVVLYH IRUPV RI
FDXVDWLYHV


6RPH GHQRPLQDO YHUEV KDYH DVVLVWLYH IRUPV VHH i ZKLFK PHDQ help to put on

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FRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG WKH HUJDWLYH RI WKH ංHPEHGGHGൿ FODXVH LV WKH LQGLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH FDXVDWLYH

0DUOHWW  SUHVHQWV HYLGHQFH IRU WKH UHDQDO\VLV

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FRQVXOWDQW UHMHFWHG WKH VDPH VHQWHQFH DQG DQRWKHU DFFHSWHG LW 7KH RQH ZKR DFFHSWHG LW SURSRVHG WKDW LW ZRXOG EH LP
SURYHGൺPDGH PRUH XQGHUVWDQGDEOHൺE\ WKH LQFOXVLRQ RI WKH FODXVH ipaai x LQ LW 7KLV LQFOXVLRQ SURPSWV WKH TXHVWLRQ DV
WR ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKH YHUE √acozim KHUH LV D VLPSOH H[SHULHQFHU YHUE RU WKH FDXVDWLYH RI WKH H[SHULHQFHU YHUE 7ZR IDFWV
SRLQW WR WKH ODWWHU DQDO\VLV 7KH ODFN RI 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW PDUNLQJ EHWZHHQ WKH WZR FODXVHV LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKH VXEMHFWV DUH
FRUHIHUHQWLDO 7KH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- i RFFXUV RQ WKH YHUE isacozim LQGLFDWLQJ WKDW LW PXVW EH D WUDQVLWLYH FDXVDWLYH YHUE
DQG QRW DQ H[SHULHQFHU YHUE RU D VLPSOH LQWUDQVLWLYH FDXVDWLYH YHUE EDVHG RQ WKH LPSHUVRQDO URRW
§19.5.1 Causatives with impersonal verb base 519

19.5.1 Causatives with impersonal verb base

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ZHOOHVWDEOLVKHG FDXVDWLYH YHUE IRUPHG RQ DQ LPSHUVRQDO EDVH LV √acaapca make rain EDVHG RQ WKH YHUE √apca
rain 7KLV YHUE LV XVHG IHOLFLWRXVO\ LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI D GLYLQH EHLQJ VKDPDQ ziix haaco cama LQFOXGLQJ WKH
comcaii cacaapca old_woman sbj.nmlz:cause_rain rainmaker woman RU RWKHU DJHQW ZKR LV DEOH WR D᯲HFW VXFK
WKLQJV 7KH YHUE √acaanloj cause to thunder EDVHG RQ WKH LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √anloj RI WKH YHUE √anj thunder
GRHV QRW DSSHDU LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ EXW LW ZDV HDVLO\ HOLFLWHG

 D √acaapca cause to rain

E √acaanloj cause to thunder

7KHVH FDXVDWLYH YHUEV DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH 1RWH WKDW LQ H[DPSOHV  DQG  WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK RI WKH
᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ hp- RFFXUV i DQG DSSHQGL[ &

 Ihptacaapca ma, mataht mos, hisacaapca hac haa

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:make_rain ds 2p.sbj:rlt:see\pl also 1.poss:irr.ind:make_rain def;loc there

matatoohàjoj aha.
2p.sbj:rlt:put\pl<rhet> rhet
When have you seen me make it rain to make you imagine that I can make it rain?
,PSOLFDWLRQ <RX KDYHQൿW VHHQ PH PDNH LW UDLQbb 2᯲HUHG

 Zaah hipcop ihpsacaanloj aha.

sun/day px:vt 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:cause_thunder aux:dcl
Today I will make it thunder.

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 Causative of Impersonal Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW
> A > ; @9 @9
cause X
ZKHUH ; LV DQ LPSHUVRQDO YHUE

$ TXLWH GL᯲HUHQW NLQG RI GHULYHG DXJPHQWHG IRUP EDVHG RQ WKH LPSHUVRQDO URRW √apca DOVR H[LVWV 7KLV YHUE
√aapca LV DOVR LQWUDQVLWLYH EXW LW PHDQV cover up oneself from the rain ,W PD\ RFFXU ZLWK DQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW
REMHFW

 Hap inaail zo toc cötiih ma, itamjc,

Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:skin indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:be.fl ds 3.sbj:rlt:deliver
cöyaapca.
3.io:rlyo:cover_oneself_from_rain
There was a mule deer hide, he brought it, he covered himself from the rain with it.bb &<+,

$QG D VHPDQWLFDOO\ LUUHJXODU IRUP LV DOVR GHULYHG IURP WKH LPSHUVRQDO URRW √hamoc become night √ahamoc
PHDQV stay out late

7KH OHQJWKHQLQJ RI WKH URRW YRZHO KHUH LV UHDO EXW XQH[SHFWHG WKHUH LV QR NQRZQ SKRQRORJLFDO IDFWRU WKDW DFFRXQWV IRU
LW

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VHHPHG WR EH GXH WR LQWHUIHUHQFH IURP WKH H[SHULHQFHU YHUEV WKDW KDYH VLPLODU PRUSKRORJ\ VHH i

7KLV PHDQLQJ GRHV QRW DSSHDU LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\
520 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 Anxö inscmahamoc aha.

intns 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:stay_late aux:dcl
Don’t stay out late at night.

 Moxima anxö ihpyahamoc.

yesterday intns 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:stay_late
I stayed out late last night.

 Cooza coi quiicot cöhihiij hac anxö ihpmahamoc.

sbj.nmlz:speak\pl def;pl 3.poss:with\pl 3.io:1.poss:pon:sit def;loc intns 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:stay_late
I was at the meeting until very late at night.

19.5.2 Causatives with stative verb base

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W\SHV 7KH VFKHPD LV JLYHQ LQ  VRPH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH H[DPSOHV RI WKHVH YHUEV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Causative of Stative Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW
> A > ; @9 @9
cause Patient to be or become X
ZKHUH ; LV D VWDWLYH YHUE

 &DXVDWLYH 7\SH %DVH

D √ahooxp make white &RORU √ooxp white
E √ahaacoj enlarge 6L]H √aacoj large
F √ahooitom put five 4XDQWLW\ √ooitom five
G √acaacat make bitter or salty 7DVWH √acat bitter, salty
H √anopin make convex )RUP √nopin convex
I √apaaisx clean (tr.) &RQGLWLRQ √paaisx be clean
J √ahacat make blind &RQGLWLRQ √hac (be) blind
K √ahiipet fix &RQGLWLRQ √iipe good
L √aahca put 3RVLWLRQ √ahca be situated

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V\QWDFWLFDOO\

 ... hiionam quih hax ihtanopin oo, ...

1.poss:hat def;fl intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:make_convex del
... I made my hat have the crown be pushed out, ... bb &<+,

 ¡Siimet tacoi hahooitom! ¡Himcac cooquim!

  bread md:pl im:aug:five  dt;loc 3.io:[im:]put_items
Put five bread rolls over there! bb &<+,

7KH FDXVDWLYH IRUPV RI PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ GDWLYH VWDWLYH YHUEV i DOVR LQ᯴HFW IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW
REMHFW LQ DOO XVHV 6HH H[DPSOH 

7KHVH DV ZHOO DV WKRVH LQ WKH IROORZLQJ VHFWLRQ DUH FODVVLF XQDFFXVDWLYH SUHGLFDWHV VHH 3HUOPXWWHU  DQG WKH ODUJH
DPRXQW RI OLWHUDWXUH WKDW IROORZHG
§19.5.4 Causatives with non-agentive intransitive verb base 521

 Comcaii quij oop quih zaah cop iti iyooca,

old_woman def;cm [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:sew_basket def;fl sun def;vt 3.poss:on 3.sbj:rlyo:put.lq/lng
cöisahootij taa.
3.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:cause_dry rlt:aux
The woman put her basket in the sun to dry it. bb &<+,

19.5.3 Causative of equative verb

7KH HTXDWLYH YHUE √aa be i KDV D FDXVDWLYH FRXQWHUSDUW √ahaa cause to be ZKLFK KDV WKH VXEFDWHJRUL]D
WLRQ IUDPH VKRZQ LQ 

 Causative of Equative Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Predicate Nominal
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ჳ'3ჳ
> ahaa @9
cause Patient to be Nominal

 Pedro quih hapxa quih hsahaa aha.

Pedro def;fl Sylvilagus_sp. def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_eq aux:dcl
I will turn Pedro into a cottontail rabbit.

 ..., hast quih isoj itahaa, ...

stone def;fl 3.poss:body/self 3.sbj:rlt:cause_eq
..., he turned himself into a stone, ... bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

19.5.4 Causatives with non-agentive intransitive verb base

$QRWKHU ODUJH JURXS RI FDXVDWLYH YHUEV LV EDVHG RQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV RI LQYROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ i ,Q VRPH FDVHV
WKH EDVH LV DPELJXRXV EHWZHHQ D VWDWH DQG FKDQJH RI VWDWH )RU H[DPSOH WKH YHUE √aas LQ E LV DPELJXRXV
EHWZHHQ be deflated DQG deflate LQWU DQG WKH FDXVDWLYH YHUE PD\ EH VLPLODUO\ DPELJXRXV 7KH OLVW RI W\SHV LQ
 VKRXOG QRW EH WDNHQ DV H[KDXVWLYH $V WKH VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ IUDPH LQ  VKRZV WKHVH FDXVDWLYHV DUH
VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYHV

 Causative of Involuntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW
> A > ; @9 @9
cause Patient to X
ZKHUH ; LV DQ YHUE LQGLFDWLQJ LQYROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ

 Causative Base

$FFRPSOLVKPHQW YHUEV
D √aacsx awaken (tr.) √acsx awaken (intr.)
E √ahaas deflate (tr.) √aas deflate (intr.)
F √ahaama put in liquid √aama fill up with liquid
G √afitot cause or help stand up √fit stand up, be standing

$FWLYLW\ YHUEV
H √ahitaj burn (tr.) √itaj burn (intr.)
I √ahiimot put to sleep √iim sleep

9HUEV RI LQYROXQWDU\ PRWLRQ

J √acniiix make flow √ahcniiix flow strongly
522 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

,QYROXQWDU\ ERGLO\ DFWLRQ YHUEV

K √ahaahnij make tremble √aahnij tremble
L √ahaahazxot make sneeze √aahzx sneeze
M √ahaazalxot make cough √aazxl cough

([DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH WKLV W\SH RI FDXVDWLYH YHUE

 Hin yafitot.

1s.do:rlyo:cause_stand_up
S/he had me stand up.

 María quih quisiil° com iyahiimot.

María def;fl child def;hz 3.sbj:rlyo:cause_sleep
She put the baby to sleep.

 ¿Coqué coopol coi ma tahaahazxot?

  chili sbj.nmlz:black def;pl 2s.do:rlt:cause_sneeze
Does black pepper make you sneeze?

7KH LPSHUVRQDO YHUE √apca rain VHH i LV XVHG ZLWK WKH QRXQ xat hail DV VXEMHFW IRU WKH H[SUHVVLRQ to
hail VHH i 7KLV H[SUHVVLRQ PD\ EH FDXVDWLYL]HG OLNH DQ\ VLPSOH LQWUDQVLWLYH WKH UHVXOWLQJ FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV
WUDQVLWLYH

 Zaah hipcop xat ihsacaapca aha.

sun/day px:vt hail 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:aug:rain aux:dcl
Today I’m going to make it hail.

19.5.5 Causatives with voluntary action verb base

7KH EDVH RI D FDXVDWLYH YHUE PD\ DOVR EH DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKDW XVXDOO\ LQGLFDWHV YROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ i
,Q VRPH FDVHV WKH EDVH LV DFWXDOO\ DPELJXRXV EHWZHHQ DQ YROXQWDU\ DQG LQYROXQWDU\ UHDGLQJ DQG HYHQ EHWZHHQ
DJHQWLYH DQG QRQDJHQWLYH 7KHVH YHUEV DUH OHVV FRPPRQ WKDQ WKH SUHFHGLQJ W\SHV RI FDXVDWLYHV DOWKRXJK WKH\
DUH QRW GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKHP V\QWDFWLFDOO\

 Causative of Voluntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW
> A > ; @9 @9
cause Patient to X
ZKHUH ; LV DQ YHUE LQGLFDWLQJ YROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ

 &DXVDWLYH %DVH

D √apánozxot make run √panzx run
E √ahaato make fight √aato fight
F √ahácatot make swim √acat swim
G √ahoositot make sing √oos sing
H √anaaij make or persuade return √onaaij return
I √acaatax send, take, drive √atax go

 Ctam ticop xicaquiziil coi iyahaato.

male md:vt child\pl def;pl 3.sbj.rlyo:make_fight
That man made the children fight. bb &<+,
§19.5.7 Causatives with denominal verb base 523

19.5.6 Causatives with morphologically transitive involuntary action verb base

7KH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH LQYROXQWDU\ DFWLRQ YHUE √imt open i KDV D FDXVDWLYH FRXQWHUSDUW DV ZHOO
$FWLYH FODXVHV ZLWK WKLV FDXVDWLYH DUH GLWUDQVLWLYH DOWKRXJK RQO\ WZR QRPLQDOV W\SLFDOO\ RFFXU LQ WKHP DV LOOXVWUDWHG
E\ H[DPSOH  1RWH WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW SUH᯳[ cö- DQG WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i-

 Causative of Transitive Involuntary Action Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient ൺ
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW
√eemt
cause Patient to open

 Zixquisiil quih ˻ xiica an icaai˼ ano

child def;fl    thing\pl 3.poss:in 3.poss:[pon]unsp.sbj:make/do [3.poss:]in

yaii quij cöiteemt, iyoohit.

[3.poss:]pon.intr:stand\pl def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:open 3.sbj:rlyo:eat
The child opened the sugar bowl and ate the sugar. bb &<+,

19.5.7 Causatives with denominal verb base

$ GHQRPLQDO YHUE i PD\ DOVR EH WKH EDVH RI D FDXVDWLYH YHUE 6XSHU᯳FLDOO\ LW DSSHDUV WKDW WKH SUH᯳[ i-
XVHG LQ IRUPLQJ D GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV MXVW EHLQJ UHSODFHG E\ WKH FDXVDWLYH SUH᯳[ EXW VRPH HYLGHQFH SRLQWV WR LW
EHLQJ D ELW PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG 7KH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV QRW HQWLUHO\ SURGXFWLYH DSSDUHQWO\ $Q DWWHPSW WR JHQHUDWH WKH
FDXVDWLYH RI √ipazaatoj wear shoes ZKLFK RXJKW WR EH VRPHWKLQJ OLNH √apazaatoj RU √apazaatojot RQO\ SURGXFHG
DPXVHPHQW IRU WKH FRQVXOWDQW

 Causative Base

:HDU FORWKLQJ
D √acápota put jacket on √icápota have/wear jacket
E √ataamatot put sandals on √itaamt have/wear sandals
F √acaamizot put shirt on √icaamiz have/wear shirt
G √apnaaatol put skirt on √ipnaail have/wear skirt
H √aacalcot, √aacalca put clothes on √eaacalca have/wear clothing
I √aaonamot put hat on √iionam have/wear hat

+DYH ERG\ SDUW

J √aliti put hair/head on √ahcniiix have hair/head
K √ayeenot put face on √yeeno have face
L √ataamalca put antlers on √itaamalca have antlers
M √ayaacanot give weapon to √yaacni have weapon

+DYH RWKHU LWHP

N √ataasitot give name to √itaasit have name

7KH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH FDXVDWLYH YHUE EDVHG RQ D GHQRPLQDO YHUE LV WKH SHUVRQ DQLPDO RU WKLQJ WKDW ZHDUV RU
KDV WKH LWHP VKRHV VKLUW ERG\ SDUW QDPH HWF UHJDUGOHVV RI ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKH LWHP LV H[SOLFLWO\ PHQWLRQHG DV
DQ RYHUW QRPLQDO
524 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 Causative of Denominal Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Patient 
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW
> A >;@ @
cause Patient1 to have or put on
(Patient2 ) as X
ZKHUH ; LV WKH VWHP RI D GHQRPL
QDO YHUE

 Ma hsaacalcot aha.

2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:help_dress aux:dcl
I am going to dress you. bb &<+,

 Ma hsataamatot aha.

2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:aug:[hv:]shoes aux:dcl
I am going to put sandals on you. bb &<+,

 Hant xepe imac quiij zo haa tiij ma, mos hiiqui
land sea 3.poss:midst sbj.nmlz:sit indf;sg there rlt:sit ds also 1.poss:toward
imataasitoj.
3.sbj:rlmi:aug:[hv:]name\pl
They have named an island after me. bb /DJDUWLMDVB

7KH YHUE DOZD\V LPSOLHV LQ LWVHOI EHFDXVH RI WKH URRW WKDW VRPH LWHP LV ZRUQ RU VRPH SDUWLFXODU ERG\ SDUW LV
ංKDGඃ EXW DQ H[SOLFLW QRPLQDO PD\ DOVR EH LQFOXGHG LQ WKH FODXVH WKDW UHIHUHQFHV D SDUWLFXODU LWHP RI WKDW W\SH )RU
H[DPSOH ERRWV PLJKW EH ZRUQ DV VKRHV RU D UDJ PLJKW EH ZRUQ DV D VKLUW RU D SDUWLFXODU QDPH PLJKW EH JLYHQ
7KLV QRPLQDOൺ3DWLHQW LQ WKH VFKHPD DERYHൺLV V\QWDFWLFDOO\ DQ REOLTXH REMHFW ZKHQ LW LV SUHVHQW UHTXLULQJ
LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ DV LQ 

 Priscila hapáh hac, taax consataasitot aha.

Priscila sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;loc dem;dt;pl 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:aug:[hv:]name aux:dcl
You should give her the name Priscila. bb &<+,

 Haptco cheel quih cohyacaamizot.

already sbj.nmlz:red def;fl 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:aug:[hv:]shirt
I already put the red shirt on him/her.

 Hataamt hizcoi me hsataamatot aha.

abs:sandal px:pl 3.io+2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:aug:[hv:]sandals aux:dcl
I am going to put these sandals on you.

 Hipcom me hsayaacanot aha.

px:hz 3.io+2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:aug:[hv:]weapon aux:dcl
I am going to give you this pistol as a weapon.

6RPH FDXVDWLYH YHUEV EDVHG RQ QRXQ URRWV PHDQ WR UHPRYH WKH QRXQ
§19.5.8 Causatives with simple transitive verb base 525

 5HPRYDO YHUE 1RXQ URRW 5HODWHG GHQRPLQDO YHUE

D √apxasit fillet √pxasi flesh √ipxasi have flesh
E √ayaaicoj fillet (fish) √yaaicoj side:pl ൺ
F √ahihic remove seeds √Vhic seed √ihic have seed
G √ahisjc remove body lice √Vsjc body lice √isjc have body lice
H √apocj remove carapace √pocj carapace √ipocj have carapace
I √alít remove head √lit head √ilít have head
J √acósejc remove thorn √cosi thorn —

 Zixcám quih insapxasit aha.

fish def;fl 2s.sbj:irr.ind:fillet aux:dcl
Fillet the fish! bb &<+,

 Zixcám hipcom ihsayaaicoj aha.

fish px:hz 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:fillet_fish aux:dcl
I am going to fillet this fish. bb &<+,

 Xnoois pac haa toii ma, itahíhijoj ma, zaah

Zostera_marina_seeds indf;pl there rlt:be.fl/live\pl ds 3.sbj:rlt:remove_seeds;pl ds sun/day
cop hanso miime.
def;vt just rlmi:depleted
All day they removed the seeds from the eelgrass. bb &<+,

7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH FDXVDWLYH YHUE √ajoeene EDVHG RQ WKH QRXQ joeene dust KRZHYHU PHDQV raise dust UDWKHU WKDQ
remove dust

19.5.8 Causatives with simple transitive verb base

&DXVDWLYH YHUEV IRUPHG RQ WUDQVLWLYH EDVHV DUH OHVV FRPPRQ WKDQ WKRVH IRUPHG RQ LQWUDQVLWLYH EDVHV 0RUSKR
ORJLFDOO\ WKH\ DUH D ELW PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG WKDQ WKRVH DV ZHOO DV WKH\ FRPPRQO\ KDYH WKH VHTXHQFH acó- RU
VRPHWKLQJ VLPLODU ZKLFK ORRNV VXVSLFLRXVO\ OLNH WKH ac- DOORPRUSK VHH i IROORZHG E\ WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG
REMHFW SUH᯳[ o$EODXW - i DQG LW PLJKW EH MXVW WKDW HW\PRORJLFDOO\ 7KLV ංH[WUDඃ PRUSKRORJ\ LV REOLJDWRU\
KRZHYHU DQG WKHUH LV QR HYLGHQFH WKDW WKH SDWLHQW RI WKH WUDQVLWLYH EDVH LV RPLWWHG IURP WKH V\QWDFWLF FRQ᯳JX
UDWLRQ RI WKH FDXVDWLYH YHUE QRU LV WKHUH HYLGHQFH WKDW WKH SDWLHQW LV DQ\WKLQJ RWKHU WKDQ WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH
FDXVDWLYH YHUE 5HJDUGOHVV RI KRZ WKLV VHTXHQFH LV DQDO\]HG WKHVH YHUEV DUH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ OHVV WUDQVSDUHQW WR
WKH FDVXDO REVHUYHU WKDQ RWKHU FDXVDWLYH IRUPV
&DXVDWLYH YHUEV IRUPHG RQ WUDQVLWLYH EDVHV DUH W\SLFDOO\ GLWUDQVLWLYHV

 Causative of Transitive Verb

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW
> A >;@9 @9
cause Patient1 to X (Patient2 )
ZKHUH ; LV D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE
526 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 Causative Base

0RWLRQ RI RQH LWHP ZLWK UHVSHFW WR DQRWKHU
D √acooix √aiix
remove x from y x go away from y
take x from y (person)
make x (person) go away from y (place)
E √acoxot √ixö
make x jump over y x jump over y

$FWLRQ
F √acozxot √aazi
give y to x, cause x to have y x carry y
G √acohot √aho
show y to x, cause x to see y x see y
H √acocta √oocta
show y to x, cause x to look at y x look at y
I √acózixot √azix
cause x to saw (cut) y x saw (cut) y

 Ctam himcap eenim z itcooz ma, itaht, cöiyacoaaxoj.

male dt:vt metal/knife indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:steal ds 3.sbj:rlt:see\pl 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:remove\pl
That man stole a knife; they saw him and took it away from him. bb &<+,

 Zixquisiil quih haxölinaail caziim ocoho quih

child def;fl shelled_mollusk sbj.nmlz:pleasant [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:see def;fl

cöimacocta.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:help_see
The child showed him/her the pretty mollusk [shell] that s/he had found. bb &<+,

 ¡Micanoaa com he hacóhotim!

  2.poss:boat def;hz 1.io:im:cause_see:impf
Show us your boat!

19.5.9 Causatives with ditransitive or other verb base

1R FDXVDWLYHV EDVHG RQ GLWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV KDYH EHHQ IRXQG RU HOLFLWHG

19.5.10 Causatives with highly irregular semantics

$ QXPEHU RI FDXVDWLYH YHUEV DUH KLJKO\ LUUHJXODU LQ WKHLU VHPDQWLFV 7KHVH DOVR GHPRQVWUDWH WKH JUHDWHVW GLYHU
VLW\ RI EDVHV RQ ZKLFK WKH\ DUH IRUPHG DQG LQ VRPH FDVHV QRW GHWDLOHG EHORZ EXW LOOXVWUDWHG PRUH LUUHJXODU
DOORPRUSK\ RI WKH FDXVDWLYH SUH᯳[ 7KH ᯳UVW JURXS SUHVHQWHG LQ  KDV D EDVH WKDW LV VLPLODU RU LGHQWLFDO WR
D FRPPRQ QRXQ

 9HUE 1RXQ

D √acmiiquet love, respect, honor cmiique Seri person
E √acoene harm someone through sorcery Coen spirit that harms a child
F isoj √acoḻeeḻo proud of one’s looks coḻeeḻo an unidentified small owl
G √acsipxa solder, glue csipx resin
H √ajoeene raise dust joeene dust
I √aseenelim sleep face-up with legs separated seenel butterfly
J √ayooz worship Yooz God
K √aziix appreciate, respect, esteem ziix thing
§19.5.11 Causatives with nominal base 527

$W OHDVW WZR VHPDQWLFDOO\ LUUHJXODU FDXVDWLYH YHUEV DSSHDU WR KDYH D FORVHU UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH DEVROXWH IRUP RI D
SRVVHVVHG QRXQ WKDQ WR WKH VLPSOH URRW LQ WKDW WKH\ KDYH D JORWWDO VWRS DQG LQ WKH FDVH RI E D VKRUW YRZHO

 9HUE 1RXQ

D √ahajc ask for liquid nourishment hax water FI √Vx liquid
E √ahemet have neighbor heme camp FI √VVme home

6RPH LUUHJXODU FDXVDWLYHV KDYH DQ HW\PRORJLFDO EXW XQFOHDU UHODWLRQVKLS WR D ERG\ SDUW QRXQ

 9HUE 1RXQ

D √acaapxom fatten √Vpxom firm fat
E √asleepec remove head lice √sleepec place behind ear
F √asxeenot respect √sxeen abdomen
G √ateenot close (something cylindrical) √teen mouth
H √axaa collect roots √xaai root
I √ahitix use the best and leave sediment √Vtix sediment, remains, leftovers

2QH YHUE DSSHDUV WR EH EDVHG RQ WKH XQXVXDO DGYHUE ijaaptoj ZKLFK KDV WKH LGHD RI VRPHWKLQJ VWUDQJH DQG
XQIDYRUDEOH HVSHFLDOO\ UHODWLQJ WR VH[ √ajaaptoj rape
$ IHZ YHUEV DUH EDVHG RQ PRUSKHPHV WKDW DUH ORDQV IURP RWKHU ODQJXDJHV VHH DSSHQGLFHV $ DQG % DQG ZKLFK
RQO\ DSSHDU LQ WKHVH YHUE IRUPV DQG IRUPV REYLRXVO\ GHULYHG IURP WKHP 6HH DOVR WKH YHUE √atascar LQ 
EHORZ 7KHVH DUH IDLUO\ IHZ LQ QXPEHU

 D √apreent pawn

E √argüéyotim wander
F √aticpan work
G √apásiroj go for a stroll or ride

6RPH FDXVDWLYH YHUEV ZLWK LUUHJXODU VHPDQWLFV DUH EDVHG RQ RWKHU YHUEV

 &DXVDWLYH YHUE %DVH

D √aahit go fishing √ahit eat
E √acoohitim rob food from √ahit eat
F √aapca protect oneself from rain √apca rain
G √ahicös bring in (thorny fruit) √icös thorny
H √aahal bring/take with oneself √alLUUHJ accompany
I √acozit pay x (with y) √izi defeat, earn
J √acóxemot fear for security of √iixim fear

19.5.11 Causatives with nominal base

$ UHJXODUO\ IRUPHG FDXVDWLYH YHUE EDVHG RQ D QRPLQDO EDVH LV UHODWLYHO\ DQG VXUSULVLQJO\ YHU\ XQFRPPRQ 7KH
PHDQLQJ RI VRPH RI WKHVH LV UDWKHU VWUDLJKWIRUZDUG KRZHYHU make X (from Y) DV VKRZQ LQ  DQG QRW make
X into Y 7KH QRPLQDO EDVH RI WKHVH YHUE IRUPV LV D FRPPRQ QRXQ

 Causative Verb with Nominal Base

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW
> A >;@1 @9
make X (from Patient)
ZKHUH ; LV D FRPPRQ QRXQ QRW
LQKHUHQWO\ SRVVHVVHG
528 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 9HUE 1RXQ

D √ahaaho make road haaho road
E √asiimet make bread siimet bread
F √azeee make strips of limberbush zeee limberbush fiber that forms
(for basket-making) the base roll of a basket
and is covered with finer
strips of limberbush)

7KHVH YHUEV DUH SUREDEO\ PRVW FRPPRQO\ XVHG LQWUDQVLWLYHO\ DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH VLPSOH H[DPSOH VKRZQ LQ 
ZLWK WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK hp- RI WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VLQJXODU VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ i

 Moxima hpyasiimet.

yesterday 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:make_bread
Yesterday I made bread.

7KH VLPSOH H[DPSOH LQ  ZLWK WKH WUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK h- GHPRQVWUDWHV WKDW JLYHQ WKH SURSHU FRQWH[W WKHVH
YHUEV PD\ EH XVHG WUDQVLWLYHO\ WKH ංIURP 3DWLHQWඃ RSWLRQ LQ WKH VFKHPD VKRZQ LQ 

 Moxima haas copxöt coi pac ihyasiimet.

yesterday Prosopis_glandulosa sbj.nmlz:loose def;pl indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:make_bread
Yesterday I made bread from mesquite flour.

6HH i IRU GHSRQHQW FDXVDWLYHV WKDW DUH VLPLODU WR WKH RQHV GHVFULEHG LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ LQ WKDW VRPH KDYH QRXQ
EDVHV DOWKRXJK WKH\ DUH GL᯲HUHQW LQ D FUXFLDO ZD\

19.5.12 Deponent causatives

'HSRQHQW FDXVDWLYHV DUH YHUEV WKDW VHHP WR FOHDUO\ LQFOXGH WKH LGHD RI FDXVDWLRQ DQG DOVR DSSHDU WR KDYH FDXVDWLYH
PRUSKRORJ\ QDPHO\ DQ XQVWUHVVHG a LQ VWHPLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ EXW ZKLFK GR QRW KDYH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ YHUEV RU
QRXQV IURP ZKLFK WKH\ DUH V\QFKURQLFDOO\ GHULYHG 7KH YHUEV LQ  DUH DOO H[DPSOHV RI GHSRQHQW FDXVDWLYHV
7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √anaao meow LV DQ XQXVXDO RQH WKDW DSSHDUV WR EH EDVHG RQ DQ RQRPDWRSRHLF ERXQG URRW
√naao ZKLFK RQO\ RFFXUV LQ WKH FDXVDWLYH YHUE DQG WKH PLPHWLF H[SUHVVLRQ 7KH H[DPSOHV VKRZQ LQ 
KDYH D FRUUHVSRQGLQJ QRXQ WKDW KDV WKH PRUSKRORJ\ RI D SDVVLYH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ VHH i )RU
H[DPSOH hatascar tortilla LV {ha-ah-atascar} sbj.nmlz-passatascar 7KLV LV ZK\ DOO RI WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ QRXQV
EHJLQ ZLWK WKH VHTXHQFH ha

 9HUE VWHP 'HULYHG QRXQ

D √amaax make alcoholic beverage hamaax alcoholic beverage
E √apát make meat-drying rack hapát meat-drying rack
F √aqueeposlc make cat’s cradle haqueeposlc cat’s cradle
G √asooma make frame for shade shelter hasooma frame for shade shelter
H √atascar make tortillas hatascar tortilla
I √azaamt make adobes hazaamt adobe

19.5.13 Verbs and cognate nouns

7KH YHUEV LQ  DUH VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYHV DQG QRW GHSRQHQW FDXVDWLYHV 7KLV JURXS LV LQWHUHVWLQJ KRZHYHU LQ WKDW
WKHUH LV D FRUUHVSRQGLQJ FRJQDWH QRXQ 7KH YHUEV DUH QRW REYLRXVO\ GHULYHG IURP WKH QRXQV WKH YHUEV GR QRW
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LGHQWLFDO WR WKH YHUE URRWV 7KH QRXQV DUH QRW REYLRXVO\ GHULYHG IURP WKH YHUEV EHFDXVH WKH QRXQ GRHV QRW VKRZ
HYLGHQFH RI EHLQJ D V\QFKURQLF GHULYDWLRQ DV D SDVVLYH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ i ,I WKH\ DUH GHULYHG
IURP WKH YHUEV WKHLU GHULYDWLRQ LV LUUHJXODU )RU H[DPSOH WKH SURGXFWLYH SDVVLYH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ
EDVHG RQ √aztoj LV hapaztoj  {ha-p$EODXW -aztoj} sbj.nmlz-pass-cook_in_water WKLV IRUP LV DFWXDOO\ DWWHVWHG
§19.6 Assistive verbs 529

 9HUE &RJQDWH QRXQ

D √aaco build house haaco house abs;house)
E √aztoj cook in water haaztoj porridge
F √apis smoke haapis cigarette
G √atxi fart hatxi fart

19.6 Assistive verbs

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WR FDXVDWLYH YHUEV EXW KDYH VSHFLDO VHPDQWLFV WKHVH DUH FDOOHG DVVLVWLYH YHUEV KHUH 7KH LGHD H[SUHVVHG LV QRW
WKDW RI FDXVLQJ VRPHRQH WR GR VRPHWKLQJ EXW RI KHOSLQJ VRPHRQH WR GR LW XVXDOO\ EXW QRW DOZD\V E\ DVVLVWLQJ
WKDW SHUVRQ WR SHUIRUP WKH DFWLRQ WKURXJK FRRSHUDWLYH DFWLRQ 7KH PRUSKRORJ\ RI DVVLVWLYH YHUEV LV GLVFXVVHG LQ
i LW LV VLPLODU LI QRW LGHQWLFDO WR FDXVDWLYH PRUSKRORJ\ 7KH V\QWD[ RI DVVLVWLYH YHUEV LV GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKDW RI
FDXVDWLYH YHUEV DV WKH FRQWUDVW EHWZHHQ WKH DVVLVWLYH YHUE √acocta help see/find DQG WKH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LGHQWLFDO
FDXVDWLYH YHUE √acocta cause to see/find VKRZV 7KH IDFW WKDW WKH GL᯲HUHQFH LV IRXQG LQ WKH V\QWD[ DQG QRW LQ
WKH PRUSKRORJ\ PDNHV WKH JORVVLQJ RI ZRUGV VRPHZKDW PLVOHDGLQJ 7KH SDWLHQW RI WKH DVVLVWLYH YHUE √acocta LV
D GLUHFW REMHFW DQG WKH SDWLHQW RI WKH FDXVDWLYH YHUE √acocta LV DQ LQGLUHFW REMHFW 0RUH H[DPSOHV DUH SUHVHQWHG
EHORZ

 $VVLVWLYH YHUE

Hin yacocta.
1s.do:rlyo:aug:look_at
S/he helped me see it.

 &DXVDWLYH YHUE

He yacocta.
1.io:rlyo:aug:look_at
S/he made me see it.

7ZR DVVLVWLYH YHUEV KDYH DFWLYH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE EDVHV 7KHLU V\QWD[ LV VLPLODU WR WKDW RI VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYHV

 Assistive Verb on Intransitive Base

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW
> A >;@9 @9
help Patient X (usually by doing X with Patient)
ZKHUH ; LV DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE

 $VVLVWLYH YHUE %DVH

D √acaaitom act as interpreter for, ask on behalf of √âaitom speak (intr.)
E √aaicot help kill √oicö kill (intr.)
F √ahaanipxot help return home √aanpx return home
F √acópotot help sew basket √ap sew basket

 María quih iihax itaai, itacaaitom ma, cmaax hayaa

María def;fl 3.poss:with 3.sbj:rlt:make 3.sbj:rlt:help_speak ds now sbj.nmlz;pass:own

cacoxl cap ziix isexl ha quih imiya.

sbj.nmlz:[tr:]tend def;vt thing 3.sbj:irr.ind:take/buy aux def;fl 3.sbj.rlmi:know
When María helped him/her and interpreted for him/her, the storekeeper understood.
530 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 Hin yacaaitom.

1s.do:rlyo:help_speak
S/he asked on my behalf. bb &<+,

 Moosni zo hataht, seehe cöhatcmaaj ma, Pedro

Chelonia_mydas indf;sg 1p.sbj:rlt:see\pl to_do_(it) 3.io:1p.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able:pl ds Pedro
quih hizi yaaicot.
def;fl 1p.do:rlyo:help_kill
We saw a turtle and we couldn’t kill it, so Pedro helped us kill it. bb &<+,

 Hamatoonipxoj.
1p.sbj:rlmi:help_return_home
We helped him/her return home. bb &<+,

 Ma hsacópotot aha.

2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:help_sew_basket aux:dcl
I will help you sew the basket.

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REMHFW E\ GRLQJ WKDW DFWLRQ WR KLP RU KHU

 $VVLVWLYH YHUE %DVH

D √ahásaquim comb hair of √āsaquim comb one’s hair
E √apánomot wash hair of √panim wash one’s hair
F √aneaaxot wash hands of √oneaax wash one’s hands
G √ahácotim cover up (with blanket) √ācötim cover oneself up

 Ma hsahásaquim aha.

1s.do:1s.sbj.tr:comb_hair_of aux:dcl
I will help you comb your hair. = I will comb your hair.

$VVLVWLYHV IRUPHG RQ WUDQVLWLYH EDVHV DUH PRUH QXPHURXV 7KH V\QWD[ RI WKHVH FODXVHV LV DOVR GL᯲HUHQW IURP
WKDW RI FDXVDWLYHV RI WUDQVLWLYHV :KLOH FDXVDWLYHV RI WUDQVLWLYHV DUH W\SLFDOO\ GLWUDQVLWLYHV i WKH DVVLVWLYHV
DUH WUDQVLWLYHV SOXV D EDUH QRPLQDO 7KH GLUHFW REMHFW LV WKH SHUVRQ ZKR LV EHLQJ KHOSHG WR GR WKH DFWLRQ

 Assistive Verb on Transitive Base

6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Patient 
6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ჳ'3ჳ
> A >;@9 @9
help Patient1 X (Patient2 )
ZKHUH ; LV D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE

 $VVLVWLYH YHUE %DVH

D √acocta help see √oocta look at
E √acoiit help do √aait do
F √acómosim beg on behalf of √iimosim beg
G √aconxot help carry √oon carry (plural items)
H †
√acooi help carry √cooi carry on many trips
I √acoomenot help winnow √emen shake back and forth
J √acoonec help carry (plural items) √oon carry (plural items
K √acooomot request on behalf of √âaom request gift, beg
L √acooxat help take care of baby of √cooxa sing to (baby)
M √acospoj help write √aaspoj write
§19.6 Assistive verbs 531

N √acozixot help saw (cut) √azix saw (cut)

O √aheezit(ot) help earn, pay √izi earn
P √azápatol sew for √zaplim sew
Q hamác √acotlim kindle fire for hamác √itlim kindle fire
R hant √acócamot help lower √aquim put
S hax ano √aahit wash clothes for hax ano √ah wash clothes

 ¡Ihpacocta, zixquisiil ctam. Imxöafeaa, taax.

  1s.do.im:[im:]help_see child male 2s.sbj:em:have_good_eyesight dem;dt;pl
Help me see it (the needle), boy. You have good eyesight. [Revised punctuation.] bb &<+,

 María quih isacómenot aha.

María def;fl 3.sbj:irr.ind:help_shake_back_and_forth aux:dcl
She is going to help María clean the seeds. bb &<+,

 Hácalca quih anxö imxanoocaj tax, pac

abs:personal_items def;fl intns 2s.sbj:em:carry_in_arms sbrd indf;pl

ma hsaconxot.
2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:help_carry
You are carrying lots of clothing; I’ll help you carry it.bb &<+,

 Quisiil° quih amaz quih cafee iyacooomot.

child def;fl 3.poss:paternal_grandmother def;fl coffee 3.sbj:rlyo:help_request_gift
The child asked for coffee for his/her [paternal] grandmother. bb &<+,

 Seehe compomaa ta x, sahmees

to_do_(it) 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.dep:neg:know/be_able ds ut Citrus_x_sinensis
yatoiilcam tacoi pac ma hsacooomot aha.
[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:distribute;pl md:pl indf;pl 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:request_for aux:dcl
I will ask for some of those oranges for you.
0RUH FRPSOHWHO\ Since you are unable, I will ask on your behalf for some of those oranges that are
being distributed.bb &<+,

 Caztaz hizcoi ma hyacoomenot.

wheat px:pl 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:help_winnow
I helped you winnow this wheat.

 Cmaam tiquij iiquet quih isipnaail ha zo

female md:cm 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;fl 3.sbj:irr.ind:hv:skirt aux indf;sg
cazápatol iha.
sbj.nmlz:sew_for dcl
That woman is sewing a skirt for her daughter.

 Hiiquet, insipnaail ha zo ma hyazápatol.

1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with 2s.sbj:irr.ind:hv:skirt aux indf;sg 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:sew_for
My daughter, I am sewing a skirt for you.

 Haaco ano hapaspoj cöicacoaat cop ano

abs;house [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:pass:write 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:cause_know def;vt [3.poss:]in

tiij, itaasi quih itaaspoj itcmaxi ma, Pedro quih

rlt:sit 3.poss:name def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:write 3.sbj:rlt:neg:finish ds Pedro def;fl
iyacospoj.
3.sbj:rlyo:help_write
S/he was in school and couldn’t write her/his name, so Pedro helped her/him write it. bb &<+,
532 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 Miizj ma hsaheezitot aha.

well 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:help_earn aux:dcl
I am going to pay you well. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Zacaam ticop cmaacoj am quih hamác iyacotlim.

young_woman md:vt old_man def;fl fire 3.sbj:rlyo:help_kindle
That girl kindled fire for her father. bb &<+,

 Apaz quih heezitim quij ano mota, tafp ma,

3.poss:paternal_grandfather def;fl town def;cm [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move rlt:arrive ds

hácalca yahasquim coi hant ihyacócamot.

abs:clothing [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:transport_in_vehicle def;pl land 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:help_lower
I helped his grandfather get the things (that he had transported) down when he arrived from the city. bb
&<+,

 Hizaac quih hax an hizi maahtoj.

1.poss:older_sister def;fl fresh_water [3.poss:]in 1p.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl_for\pl
My older sister washes clothes for us. bb &<+, 

19.7 Benefactive verbs

%HQHIDFWLYH FODXVHV FRQWDLQ D PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ FRPSOH[ YHUE WKDW VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU D EHQH᯳FLDU\ 6XFK YHUEV
DUH IHZ LQ QXPEHUൻWKH RQHV OLVWHG LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ PD\ EH DOO WKDW H[LVWൻDQG WKH\ DUH QRW SURGXFWLYHO\ IRUPHG
2QH YHUE VWHP √atólecot ask (someone) for help for (someone) LV GL᯲HUHQW RQO\ IURP LWV VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH
FRXQWHUSDUW √atolec ask (someone) for help i E\ WKH LQFOXVLRQ RI WKH VX᯵[ -ot

 6HPDQWLFV Agent Addressee Beneficiary

6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW
√atólecot
ask Addressee for help for Beneficiary

 María quih Tomás quih haaco isaai ha cop Juan quih
María def;fl Tomás def;fl abs;house 3.poss:irr.ind:make aux def;vt Juan def;fl
cöiyatólecot.
3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:ask_for_help_for
María asked Tomás for help for Juan in his house-building.

$QRWKHU EHQHIDFWLYH YHUE LV √acóxetol buy (something) on behalf of (someone) ZKLFK LV UHODWHG WR WKH YHUE
√exl buy

 6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Beneficiary

6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW
√acóxetol
buy Patient for Beneficiary

 Hoyacj quih caamiz zo cohyacóxetol.

1.poss:obj.nmlz:call_sibling def;fl shirt indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.rlyo:buy_for
I bought the shirt for my brother/sister.

7KH YHUE √acóquetot give (a gift) to (someone) on behalf of (someone) LV DW OHDVW IXQFWLRQDOO\ UHODWHG WR WKH
LUUHJXODU GLWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √eLUUHJ give (gift) i
§19.9 The age construction 533

 6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient Recipient Beneficiary

6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ჳ'3ჳ 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW
√acóquetot
give Patient to Recipient for
Beneficiary

 ˻ Eenm haacni˼ hipcom Pedro quih cohsacóquetot aha.

   metal abs;bow px:hz Pedro def;fl 3.io:1s.sbj:irr.ind:give_for aux:dcl
I will give a rifle to them for Pedro.

7KH YHUE √aapacot cover (someone) to protect from the rain LV DQRWKHU EHQHIDFWLYH YHUE ,W LV UHODWHG WR WKH
YHUE URRW √apca rain

 6HPDQWLFV Agent " Patient

6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW
√aapacot
cover Patient to protect from rain

 Cmaam quij coox siijc taa ma, ical quij ˻ ziix hax
female def;cm all irr.ind:wet rlt:aux ds sbj.nmlz:[tr:]accompany def;cm    thing intns

cöimazquim˼ zo cöiyaapacot.
3.io:3.poss:[pon:]enter indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:cover_to_protect_from_rain
The woman was going to get wet, the one who was with her covered her with a piece of plastic.

19.8 Miscellaneous
7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √aalim play LV WKH EDVH IRU D GHULYHG WUDQVLWLYH YHUE √acaalim ZKLFK PHDQV play with (an
item, not an associate

 6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient

6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW
√acaalim
play with Patient
ZKHUH 3DWLHQW LV EHLQJ XVHG DV D WR\

 ˻ Zaxt quisil˼ quih xepe iteel quij, tiix canoaa heeque quih
   ? sbj.nmlz:small def;fl sea 3.poss:edge def;cm dem;dt;sg boat small/young def;fl
imacaalim; hacaaiz heeque quih mos imacaalim;
3.sbj:rlmi:play_with abs:fishing_spear small/young def;fl also 3.sbj:rlmi:play_with

tist heecto coi mos imacaalim.

harpoon_point:pl small/young\pl def;pl also 3.sbj:rlmi:play_with
The seaside child played with a toy boat, he played with a toy fishing spear, and he played with toy
harpoons. bb (6 RROBLWDF 

19.9 The age construction

([SUHVVLRQV RI DJH WDNH D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKDW ORRNV IRU DOO LQWHQWV DQG SXUSRVHV OLNH D FDXVDWLYH IRUP RI WKH QXP
EHU YHUE VHH i $ QRXQ WKDW H[SUHVVHV D XQLW RI WLPH WKDW PD\ EH VLQJXODU RU SOXUDO HJ hant land/year(s)
iizax moon/month, iiztox moons/months zaah sun/day ixaap 3.poss:[pon:]spend_night overnights LV SUHVXP
DEO\ WKH GLUHFW REMHFW 6HH H[DPSOHV  ZKHUH RQH RI WKHVH QRXQV DSSHDUV GLUHFWO\ EHIRUH WKH YHUE
534 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 Quisiil° quih hant saazoj caha.

child def;fl land/year irr.ind:aug:one sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
The child is going to be one year old.

 Hoox oo ixaap caapxa ha.

intns del 3.poss:[pon:]spend_night sbj.nmlz:aug:three dcl
S/he is only three days old. bb &<+,

7KH FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV WUDQVLWLYH E\ DOO DYDLODEOH WHVWV )RU H[DPSOH LQ  WKH WUDQVLWLYH DOORPRUSK IRU ᯳UVW SHUVRQ
VLQJXODU VXEMHFW h- LV XVHG LQ  WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- DSSHDUV DQG LQ  WKH YHUE KDV SDVVLYL]HG

 Hant ihmazooxöc.

land/year 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:aug:four
I am four years old.

 Iiztox imaaitom.

moon/month\pl 3.sbj:rlmi:aug:five
S/he is five months old.

 Hant pahahanl, icaahit spá aha.

land/year irr.dep:pass:aug:ten inf.intr:fish irr.ind:pass:know aux:dcl
When one is ten years old, one can go fishing.

19.10 Allomorphy of the augment prefix

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convex EDVHG RQ √nopin convex √ameque heat DQG √amequet barbecue on a stick EDVHG RQ √meque warm
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a ([DPSOH √azaamatot put sandals on EDVHG RQ √izaamt have sandals, wear sandals 7KH VDPH NLQG RI DEODXW
KDSSHQV ZKHQ WKH YHUE EHJLQV ZLWK DQ XQVWUHVVHG i ([DPSOHV √ataaho make ready EDVHG RQ √itaaho ready
√axonj loosen EDVHG RQ √ixonj loose
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remove x from y EDVHG RQ √aiix x go away from y √acoxot make x jump over y EDVHG RQ √ixö x jump over y
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rain YHUE √acaacat make salty/bitter EDVHG RQ √acat salty √acaaitic make soft EDVHG RQ √âaitic soft
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RQ √atajc vomit (something) √aconxot help carry (plural items) EDVHG RQ √oon carry (plural items) QRWH WKH
VKRUWHQLQJ RI WKH YRZHO LQ WKH DXJPHQWHG IRUP √acocta help see, show EDVHG RQ √oocta look at QRWH WKH
VKRUWHQLQJ RI WKH YRZHO LQ WKH DXJPHQWHG IRUP 6RPH FDXVDWLYH YHUEV EDVHG RQ URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK a WDNH
WKH DOORPRUSK a- ZKLFK SUHVXPDEO\ OHQJWKHQV E\ D UHJXODU UXOH VHH i ([DPSOHV √aacsx awaken (tr.)
§19.11 Times morphology 535

EDVHG RQ √acsx awaken (intr.) √aactim cut EDVHG RQ √actim be cut %HIRUH D URRW EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK e WKH YRZHO
KDUPRQL]HV √eeme GHSOHWH EDVHG RQ √eme depleted
$ IHZ FDXVDWLYH YHUEV EDVHG RQ URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK a WDNH WKH DOORPRUSK c$EODXW - ([DPSOHV √cazx tear EDVHG
RQ √azx torn √capzx tear out EDVHG RQ √apzx torn out 7KLV DOORPRUSK FDXVHV WKH IROORZLQJ YRZHO WR FKDQJH
TXDOLW\ LQ VRPH H[DPSOHV √queetc drip (trans.) EDVHG RQ √iitc drip (intr.) √queefz cause make snapping noise
EDVHG RQ √iifz make snapping noise √queejc make wet, explode (tr.) EDVHG RQ √iijc wet, explode (intr.) √queemj
clarify (liquid) EDVHG RQ √iimj clear (liquid)
$V PHQWLRQHG DERYH VRPH FDXVDWLYHV DUH IRUPHG E\ FKDQJLQJ WKH YRZHO RI WKH URRW WR D GL᯲HUHQW TXDOLW\ 7KH
FRPPRQ FKDQJH LV IURP o RU oo WR aa ([DPSOHV √aaipj put in tranverse position EDVHG RQ √ooipj be in tranverse
position √aaspoj mark, write, draw, record EDVHG RQ √oospoj spotted √aalali make flap EDVHG RQ √oalali flap
√aanj put poison (on arrow points) EDVHG RQ √oaanj be poisonous √aaipot pay EDVHG RQ √oopot paid QRWH WKH
DGGLWLRQ RI i WR WKH DXJPHQWHG VWHP DV ZHOO √aaxit XVHG LQ LGLRPV EDVHG RQ √ooxi die (animal)
$ IHZ YHUEV DUH LGHQWLFDO LQ IRUP LQ WKH VLPSOH YHUE DQG WKH FDXVDWLYH 2QH H[DPSOH LV FDXVDWLYH √aanim cover
DQG DOVR be covered
:KHQ DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE EHJLQV ZLWK DQ XQVWUHVVHG ah VHTXHQFH QRW D FRPPRQ VLWXDWLRQ WKH FDXVDWLYH IRUP
LV PDGH E\ GHOHWLQJ WKH h ([DPSOHV √acniiij cause to flow EDVHG RQ √ahcniiij flow strongly √ataasim make
foamy EDVHG RQ √ahtaasim be foamy
$OO RWKHU DXJPHQWHG IRUPV QDPHO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK D YRZHO WKDW LV QRW D UHJXODU a RU e WDNH WKH
SUH᯳[ ah- ([DPSOHV √ahooil make blue/green EDVHG RQ √ooil blue/green √ahooxp make white EDVHG RQ √ooxp
white √ahaanpx return something EDVHG RQ √aanpx return home √ahaas deflate EDVHG RQ √aas be deflated
√ahácatot make swim EDVHG RQ √ācat swim √ahiipet fix EDVHG RQ √iipe good √ahaacot help make house EDVHG
RQ √aaco make house
7KH DXJPHQW SUH᯳[HV a- ac- DQG aco- ORVH WKHLU YRZHOV ZKHQ WKH\ IROORZ WKH SDVVLYH SUH᯳[ i DQG LI
WKH SUH᯳[ YRZHO LV QRW FDUU\LQJ VWUHVV

 D tahmeque {t-ah-a-meque}

it was heated rlt-pass-aug-warm
E tahcaaitic {t-ah-ac-âaitic}
it was softened rlt-pass-aug-soft
F tahcoomenot {t-ah-aco-emen-ot}
s/he was helped winnow rlt-pass-aug-winnow-?

7KH FDXVDWLYH SUH᯳[ ah- DQG WKH VWUHVVHG YHUVLRQ RI a- GR QRW ORVH WKHLU YRZHOV DIWHU WKH SDVVLYH SUH᯳[

 D tahahitaj {t-ah-ah-itaj}

it was burned rlt-pass-aug-burn
E tahahaas {t-ah-ah-aas}
it was deflated rlt-pass-aug-deflate
F tahaactim {t-ah-a-actim}
s/he/it was cut rlt-pass-aug-be_cut

19.11 Times morphology

7KH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV WKDW DSSHDU LQ WKH WLPHV FRQVWUXFWLRQ GHVFULEHG LQ i DUH EDVHG RQ YHUE URRWV WKDW DUH
SUHGLFDWHV RI QXPEHU RU TXDQWLW\ 7KH OLVW RI NQRZQ SUHGLFDWHV LV JLYHQ LQ WDEOH  7KH PRUSKRORJ\ LV VLPLODU
WR WKDW ZKLFK LV XVHG IRU FDXVDWLYHV DQG DVVLVWLYHV EXW VRPH RI WKHVH VWHPV DUH GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH FDXVDWLYH IRUPV
WKDW PHDQ put 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKH VWHPV DUH LGHQWLFDO ZLWK WKRVH XVHG LQ WKH WUDQVLWLYH DJH FRQVWUXFWLRQ
VHH i H[FHSW LQ WKH FDVH RI seven VHH EHORZ 7KH put IRUPV W\SLFDOO\ WUDQVLWLYH DUH LQFOXGHG KHUH IRU
FRPSDULVRQ
7KH H[SUHVVLRQV IRU six DQG nine DUH FRPSRVLWH H[SUHVVLRQV DV VKRZQ LQ WDEOH  LQ FKDSWHU  2WKHU WKDQ
LQ WKH EDVLF H[SUHVVLRQV GHULYHG YHUEV ZLWK WKH DXJPHQW SUH᯳[ DUH XVHG

7KH DXJPHQWHG IRUP √aaxit LV DSSDUHQWO\ XVHG RQO\ LQ WKH LGLRPV ˻ hamatj √aaxit˼ cause to be thirsty FI ˻ hamatj √ooxi˼
be thirsty DQG ˻ psaac √aaxit˼ cause to be hungry FI ˻ psaac √ooxi˼ be hungry
536 Chapter 19: Derived verb subcategorization

 D isnaap √azoj six

E isnaap √aazoj six 7LPHV5DLVLQJ
F isnaap √aazoj put six FDXVDWLYH
G hant isnaap √aazoj six years of age

 D csooi √hanl nine

E csooi √ahanl nine 7LPHV5DLVLQJ
F csooi √ahanl put nine FDXVDWLYH
G hant csooi √ahanl nine years of age

7DEOH bb'HULYHG QXPEHU SUHGLFDWHV

5RRW 7LPHV5DLVLQJ IRUP ංDJHං IRUP ංSXWඃ IRUP

LQWUDQVLWLYH WUDQVLWLYH WUDQVLWLYH
D √azoj ← √aazoj → one
E √oocj ← √aacj √ahoocj two
F √apxa ← √aapxa → three
G √zooxöc ← √azooxöc → four
H √ooitom ← √aaitom √ahooitom five
I √zooxolcam ← √azooxolcam → eight
J √hanl ← √ahanl → ten
K √ipxa ← √ahipxa → few
L √atxo ← √ahaatxo → many

Seven XVHV WKH LQYDULDQW H[SUHVVLRQ tomcoj HW\PRORJLFDOO\ WKH ODVW V\OODEOH RI WKH URRW IRU five IROORZHG E\ D
UHGXFHG IRUP RI WKH URRW IRU two SOXV HLWKHU WKH YHUE √iih be RU WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE √aah QRW XVHG HOVHZKHUH
RU WKH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE √ah do/say/put.fl DOO LQ᯴HFWHG IRU D WKLUG SHUVRQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW

 D tomcoj cö- √iih seven

E tomcoj cö- √aah seven 7LPHV5DLVLQJ
F tomcoj cö- √ah put seven
G hant tomcoj cö- √ah seven years of age

19.12 Dative and Antidative stems

:KHQ WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ tell KDV QR DGGUHVVHH RU KDV D SOXUDO DGGUHVVHH WKH EDVLF YHUE √amx LV XVHG VHH i
EXW LI LW KDV D VLQJXODU DGGUHVVHH WKH GHULYHG YHUE √aamx LV XVHG DQG WKH DGGUHVVHH LV HQFRGHG DV DQ LQGLUHFW
REMHFW , UHIHU WR WKLV DV WKH GDWLYH VWHP RI WKH YHUE DQG JORVV LW say+io

 6HPDQWLFV agent topic addressee

√aamx tell, promise 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW6LQJXODU

 Cohyaamx.
3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:say+io
, VDLG LW WR KLPKHU

 Ziix zo me spaamx aha.

thing indf;sg 2.io:irr.ind:pass:say+io aux:dcl
Something will be said to you (sg.).
§19.12 Dative and Antidative stems 537

7KH YHUE √isxö hide LV D VLPSOH WUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKDW WDNHV D SDWLHQW DV GLUHFW REMHFW VHH i %XW DQ\ LGHD
RI KLGLQJ WKDW PHQWLRQV WKH SHUVRQ IURP ZKRP RQH LV KLGLQJ WKH REMHFW PXVW XVH WKH YHUE √eesxö WKH GDWLYH VWHP
JORVVHG hide+io V\QWDFWLFDOO\ D VLPSOH GLWUDQVLWLYH YHUE

 6HPDQWLFV agent Patient Goal

√eesxö hide from 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW

 ¡He heesxö!

  1.io:im:hide+io
Hide it from me/us!

 Icaaspoj quih me iscmeesxö aha.

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:write def;fl 2.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:neg:hide+io aux:dcl
S/he will not hide the pencil from you (sg./pl.).

 Icaaspoj quih he ipesxö ihmiimzo.

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:write def;fl 1.io:3.poss:[pon]:pass:hide+io 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want the pencil to be hidden from me.

7KH YHUE IRU ask LV √miiit ZKHQ DQ DGGUHVVHH LV H[SUHVVHG DV LQGLUHFW REMHFW i WKDW DGGUHVVHH PXVW
EH VLQJXODU %XW ZKHQ DQ DGGUHVVHH LV not SUHVHQW RU LI D SOXUDO DGGUHVVHH LV H[SUHVVHG QHFHVVDULO\ DV D 3
SKUDVH WKH DQWLGDWLYH VWHP √amiiit LV XVHG DV VKRZQ LQ  DQG H[DPSOHV  7KHVH H[DPSOHV DUH
DOO GHPRQVWUDEO\ LQWUDQVLWLYH E\ WKH WHVWV LQ DSSHQGL[ &

 6HPDQWLFV agent Patient (AddresseeSO )

6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW ,QGLUHFW 2EMHFW ჳ3SKUDVHჳ
√amiiit ask regarding Patient

(to Addressee)

 D ¿Cötamiiit?
   3.io:rlt:ask_[no_sg._Addressee]
Did s/he ask about him/her/it?

E ¿He tamiiit?
   1s.io:rlt:ask_[no_sg._Addressee]
Did s/he ask about me?

 Juan quih cohpyamiiit.

Juan def;fl 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:ask_about_[no_sg._Addressee]
I asked about Juan.bb &<+,)

 ¿Ziix zo mino cötamiiit?

   thing indf;sg 2.poss:in 3.io:rlt:ask_[no_sg._Addressee]
Did s/he ask you (pl.) about something?

 ¿Ziix z ano cötamiiit?

   thing indf;sg [3.poss:]in 3.io:rlt:ask_[no_sg._Addressee]
Did s/he ask them about something?


6HH i IRU DQRWKHU XVH RI WKH YHUE √eesxö
 20
Auxiliaries and modals

$ QXPEHU RI VPDOO ZRUGVൺVRPH VWUHVVHG DQG VRPH QRW VWUHVVHGൺRFFXU LQ YDULRXV FRQVWUXFWLRQV ZLWK YHU\
LPSRUWDQW XVHV WKDW DUH QRQHWKHOHVV QRW DOZD\V HDVLO\ GHVFULEHG RU FODVVL᯳HG ,Q WKLV JUDPPDU VRPH RI WKHP DUH
UHIHUUHG WR DV DX[LOLDULHV DQG VRPH DUH UHIHUUHG WR DV PRGDOV ,Q VRPH FRQVWUXFWLRQV WKHVH WZR FDWHJRULHV RI ZRUGV
FRRFFXU LQ WKH RUGHU $X[LOLDU\൹0RGDO VHH i IRU VRPH H[DPSOHV
7KH ZRUGV FDOOHG DX[LOLDULHV GR QRW IRUP D KRPRJHQHRXV FODVV 7KH\ DUH IRU WKH PRVW SDUW YHU\ VKRUW ZRUGV
WKDW VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU VSHFLDO YHUE IRUPV DQG DUH XVHG LQ D OLPLWHG QXPEHU RI FRQVWUXFWLRQV 7KHVH FRQVWUXFWLRQV
DUH LPSRUWDQW WR XQGHUVWDQG LQ SDUW EHFDXVH WKH\ DUH VR YHU\ FRPPRQ ,W LV DUJXDEOH WKDW WKHVH DX[LOLDULHV DUH
VRPHKRZ OLNH YHUEV DV VKRZQ LQ i
7KH ZRUGV FDOOHG PRGDOV WHQG WR LQGLFDWH GHFODUDWLYH PRRG YV LQWHUURJDWLYH PRRG EXW WKH\ DOVR VRPHWLPHV
FRQ᯴DWH WHQVH ii
7KH DX[LOLDULHV DQG PRGDOV DOZD\V IROORZ WKH ZRUGV WR ZKLFK WKH\ UHODWH ZKLFK LQ VRPH FDVHV PD\ EH WKRXJKW
RI DV WKHLU FRPSOHPHQWV
7KHUH DUH WZR W\SHV RI DX[LOLDULHV WKRVH JLYLQJ D QRPLQDO RXWSXW DQG WKRVH JLYLQJ D YHUEDO RXWSXW 7KHVH DUH
WDNHQ XS LQ WKDW RUGHU EHORZ WKRVH JLYLQJ D QRPLQDO RXWSXW LQ i DQG WKRVH JLYLQJ D YHUEDO RXWSXW LQ i

20.1 Auxiliaries as verbs

7KH ZRUGV paa DQG taa DUH SUHVXPDEO\ GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV DQG GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV IRUPV RI WKH VDPH YHUE JORVVHG
be KHUH LQ H[DPSOHV  7KH\ W\SLFDOO\ DUH unstressed KRZHYHU DQG WKH YRZHO LQ HDFK LV VXEVHTXHQWO\
VKRUWHQHG SKRQHWLFDOO\ 7KH\ DUH IROORZHG E\ 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW PDUNHUV i OLNH YHUEV RI RWKHU FODXVHV 6HH
H[DPSOHV 

 … taax icmís ˻ hax pahii˼ hax paa ta x, …

dem;dt;pl 3.sbj:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]resemble    intns irr.dep:pass:feel intns irr.dep:be ds ut
ඌ LW ZLOO EH OLNH WKDW ඌ bb 177 0W 

 — cöpamiiit hax paa ta,

3.io:irr.dep:ask_about intns irr.dep:aux ds
perhaps he asked about her,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Zaah xah zo toc cötap, hax taa ma, ...

sun/day ? indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand intns rlt:be ds
One day, …

 Miizj taa ma, he iyaamx.

well rlt:be ds 1.io3.sbj:rlyo:say+io
S/he told me it clearly.

20.2 Nominal-forming auxiliaries

7KH QRPLQDOIRUPLQJ DX[LOLDULHV ha DQG ca VHH WDEOH  VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU D YHUEDO IRUP DQG JLYH D QRPLQDO
RXWSXW 7KH PDLQ UHDVRQ IRU VD\LQJ WKHUH LV D QRPLQDO RXWSXW LV WKDW WKH IRUP PD\ WKHQ RFFXU ZLWK WKH 'HFODUDWLYH
PRGDO ha RU WKH 4XHVWLRQ PRGDO ya PRGDOV WKDW RWKHUZLVH RQO\ RFFXU IROORZLQJ QRPLQDOV VHH i

538
§20.2.1.1 Irrealis verbs in irrealis independent clauses 539

7DEOH bb1RPLQDO IRUPLQJ DX[LOLDULHV

6XEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU 

ha ZLWK YDULDQWV haa DQG a LQ᯴HFWHG LUUHDOLV
ca ZLWK YDULDQWV que DQG quee VWULSSHG LUUHDOLV

7KHVH DX[LOLDULHV VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV IRUPV IRUPHG ZLWK si- i EXW WZR W\SHV RI
IRUPV DUH XVHG 7KH DX[LOLDU\ ha i WDNHV DQ RUGLQDU\ LQ᯴HFWHG LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV IRUP 7KH DX[LOLDU\
ca i WDNHV D ංVWULSSHGඃ LUUHDOLV IRUP WKDW RPLWV WKH VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ i

20.2.1 Auxiliary ha (and variants haa and a)

7KH DX[LOLDU\ ha KDV D IDLUO\ ZLGH GLVWULEXWLRQ D IDFW WKDW PDNHV LW D ELW FRPSOLFDWHG WR H[SODLQ ,Q DGGLWLRQ LW KDV
WKUHH FRPPRQ DOORPRUSKV ha haa DQG a WKHVH DUH GHVFULEHG EHORZ 7KLV DX[LOLDU\ GRHV QRW KDYH DQ\ REYLRXV
VHPDQWLF FRQWHQW
%HVLGHV LWV QRPLQDOIRUPLQJ IXQFWLRQ WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha DOVR VLPSO\ RFFXUV ZLWK LUUHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQV LQ
UHODWLYH FODXVHV WKHVH DUH GHVFULEHG LQ i

20.2.1.1. Irrealis verbs in irrealis independent clauses. 7KH DX[LOLDU\ ha LV FRPPRQO\ XVHG WR IRUP D QRUPDO
LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV FODXVH 7KH LUUHDOLV IRUP WKDW RFFXUV ZLWK LW LV IXOO\ LQ᯴HFWHG IRU SHUVRQ $ PRGDO PXVW
IROORZ WKH DX[LOLDU\ LQ RUGHU WR FRPSOHWH WKH FODXVH ZKHQ LW LV QRW HPEHGGHG VHH i 7KH FKRLFH RI
PRGDO D᯲HFWV WKH H[DFW IRUP RI WKH DX[LOLDU\ HLWKHU XQVWUHVVHG a RU ha RU VWUHVVHG haa

 $X[LOLDU\ ZLWK EDVLF PRGDOV i

D aux-dcl a-ha 'HFODUDWLYH PRRG
E aux -qm haa ya ,QWHUURJDWLYH PRRG

$X[LOLDU\ ZLWK VSHFLDO GHFODUDWLYH PRGDO i

F aux dcl haa hi 'HFODUDWLYH PRRG

$X[LOLDU\ ZLWK SDVW WHQVH PRGDO i

G aux past ha iihi 'HFODUDWLYH PRRG

([DPSOHV  DOO KDYH VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH LUUHDOLV IRUP LQGLFDWLRQ WKDW WKH IRUP LV WKH IXOO\LQ᯴HFWHG
W\SH ,QWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV ZLWK WKLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW DV LQ  KDYH LQ᯴HFWHG LUUHDOLV IRUPV WKDW DUH KRPRSKRQRXV
ZLWK VWULSSHG LUUHDOLV IRUPV VLQFH VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ LV QXOO XQOHVV WKHUH LV DOVR D WKLUG SHUVRQ GLUHFW
REMHFW
b
Examples with basic declarative modal ha

 Insiitax aha.
2s.sbj:irr.ind:go aux:dcl
You should go.

 Hipiix ihsiihit aha.

dem;px;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
I will eat this one.

$IWHU D YHUE HQGLQJ LQ DQ XQVWUHVVHG a WKH DOORPRUSK a RI WKH DX[LOLDU\ LV QRW GLVWLQFWO\ SHUFHLYHG $V D UHVXOW WKH
GLFWLRQDU\ FRPPLWWHH GHFLGHG WR QRW HYHQ ZULWH WKDW YRZHO 7KDW FRQYHQWLRQ KDV not EHHQ IROORZHG LQ WKLV JUDPPDU 6RPH
VSHDNHUV DFWXDOO\ GURS WKH DX[LOLDU\ YRZHO SKRQHWLFDOO\ ZKHQ LW LV SUHFHGHG E\ RWKHU YRZHOV DQG SUHIHU WR ZULWH WKH H[DPSOHV
ZLWK ha UDWKHU WKDQ aha

:KLOH WKLV SDUWLFXODU FRPELQDWLRQ LV FRPPRQO\ IRXQG LQ WH[WV UHFRUGHG LQ WKH VHFRQG KDOI RI WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ WRGD\
LW LV QRW FRPPRQ 6RPH HGLWRUV RI WKRVH VDPH WH[WV WRGD\ VXJJHVW FKDQJLQJ DOO RI WKHP WR VLPSOH aha
540 Chapter 20: Auxiliaries and modals

 Sheel aha.
irr.ind:red aux:dcl
It should be/become red.

 Minl quih pozatx ta x, insooha aha.

2.poss:hand/arm/finger def;fl irr.dep:have_glochids ds ut 2s.sbj:irr.ind:cry aux:dcl
If your fingers get glochids in them, you will cry. bb &RQVHMRVBFKR\DB

 Inscmexl aha.
2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:take/buy aux:dcl
a. You shouldn’t grab it!
b. 2U You shouldn’t buy it!

Examples with basic question modal ya

 ¿Insiitax haa ya?

  2s.sbj:irr.ind:go aux qm
Are you (thinking about, planning on) going?

 ¿Ihpsiitax haa ya?

  1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go aux qm
Shall I go?

 Impaacat x, ¿toox insiizquim haa ya?

2s.sbj:irr.dep:swim ut   far 2s.sbj:irr.ind:enter aux qm
Are you going to swim out far?

 ¿Áz insiihit haa ya?

  what? 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat aux qm
What are you going to eat?

Examples with special declarative modal hi

 Masiiht haa hi.

2p.sbj:irr.ind:see:pl aux dcl
You (pl.) will see him/her/it. (some doubt)

 Ihpspanim haa hi.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:wash_one’s_hair aux dcl
I will wash my hair. (some doubt)

 He hin satoosiploj haa hi.

1.pro 1s.do:irr.ind:write/photograph\pl aux dcl
They might have the intention of taking pictures ME (without permission).

Example with past tense modal iihi

 Ihsiicatx ha iihi, ihyaticpan hac.

1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:abandon aux past 1.poss:pon:work def;loc
I have thought about quitting my job. bb 2᯲HUHG

$Q LUUHDOLV IRUP ZLWK WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha RU RQH RI LWV DOORPRUSKV RI FRXUVH DOPRVW DOZD\V LQGLFDWHV VRPH
PDWWHU RI WKH ZLOO DV WKH WUDQVODWLRQV RI WKH SUHFHGLQJ H[DPSOHV LOOXVWUDWH ,I VXFK D UHDGLQJ FDQQRW EH REWDLQHG
WKH SKUDVH LV QRQVHQVLFDO DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOH  ZLWK D PHWHRURORJLFDO YHUE
§20.2.1.2 Embedded irrealis clauses 541

 %* Scozim aha.
irr.ind:hot_(weather) aux:dcl

,QGHSHQGHQW FODXVHV ZLWK DQ LQ᯴HFWHG IXWXUH PD\ XVH RWKHU ZRUGV LQVWHDG RI WKH DX[LOLDU\ SOXV PRGDO FRPEL
QDWLRQV GHVFULEHG KHUH 7KHVH DUH GHVFULEHG LQ i

20.2.1.2. Embedded irrealis clauses. :KHQ DQ LQ᯴HFWHG LQGHSHQGHQW IXWXUH FODXVH LV SUHVHQWHG DV DQ LQGLUHFW
TXRWDWLRQ WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha DSSHDUV ZLWKRXW DQ\ PRGDO 7KH UHDGLQJ RI WKH HPEHGGHG FODXVH LV DPELJXRXV
EHWZHHQ GHRQWLF DQG QRQGHRQWLF ([DPSOH E LV XQJUDPPDWLFDO EHFDXVH WKH ZURQJ IRUP RI WKH DX[LOLDU\ LV
XVHG

 D Poyaam ta isexl ha teeme.

irr.dep:later ds 3.sbj:irr.ind:take/buy aux rlt:say
S/hei said that s/hei will buy it/them later.

E * Poyaam ta sexl ca teeme.

irr.dep:later ds irr.ind:take/buy sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
(S/hei said that s/hei will buy it/them later.)

 Hita quih somcapjoee ha, teeme.

1.poss:mother def;fl irr.ind:neg:gossip aux rlt:say
My mother said that one should not gossip. bb &<+,

 Consacaaixaj ha, teemyo.

3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:cause_strong aux rlmi:say\pl
They say that you should receive their greetings. bb &<+,

 Ihyaaco cop ano tafp, hin yatolec, ihpsiij

1.poss:house def;vt [3.poss:]in rlt:arrive 1s.do:rlyo:ask_for_help 1s.sbj:irr.ind:unsp.obj;fetch_water

ha teete.
aux rlt:say
S/he arrived at my house and asked me to help him/her by fetching water.bb &<+,

 Cmiique zo cöiscmaqueexot ha, teeye.

(Seri)_person indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:neg:cause_hear aux rlyo:say
He said that he wouldn’t let anyone else listen. bb &<+,

 Ihpsiifp ha heye.
1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:arrive aux 1s.sbj:rlyo:say
I said that I would arrive.

20.2.1.3. Deverbal nouns. 7KH LUUHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQV i DOVR UHTXLUH DQ DX[LOLDU\ DQG WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha LV
XVHG LQ PDQ\ VLWXDWLRQV ZLWK WKHVH DV GHWDLOHG EHORZ
b

:KHQ LW IROORZV D FRQVRQDQW LW LV SKRQHWLFDOO\ a DOWKRXJK LW LV VWLOO ZULWWHQ DV ha

,W PD\ EH WKH SUHVHQFH RI xah LQ H[DPSOHV LLL WKDW FDXVHV ha WR QRW DSSHDU

L [ Isiha xah quih ] haa yoohca.

3.poss:irr.ind:fast ? def;fl there rlyo:be_located
Apparently it is going to be very fast.

LL [ Ihmaa° xah pac isiizcam xah quih ] haa yoohca.

other ? indf;pl 3.poss:irr.ind:arrive\pl ? def;fl there rlyo:be_located
Apparently others are going to arrive.
542 Chapter 20: Auxiliaries and modals

b
b
Irrealis complement clauses
7KH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ LQ WKH LUUHDOLV PRRG RFFXUV LQ D GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVH WKDW LV WKH
DUJXPHQW RI DQRWKHU YHUE 7KHVH GHYHUEDO QRXQV DOO VKRZ SHUVRQ RI VXEMHFW YLD SRVVHVVRU SUH᯳[HV 7KHVH LUUHDOLV
PRRG SKUDVHV DUH EUDFNHWHG LQ WKH H[DPSOHV EHORZ

 [ He ziix iti hoyacj zo cöhisjeaatim ha z

1.pro thing 3.poss:on 1.poss:obj.nmlz:call_sibling indf;sg 3.io:1.poss:irr.ind:hit\impf aux indf;sg

] iti cöima ha.

3.poss:on 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:beLUUHJ dcl
I will never hit my brother. bb &<+,

 [ Isaziim ha quih ] cöiyaazquim.

3.poss:irr.ind:pleasant aux def;fl 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:surpass
It will be prettier. bb &<+,

 Ipca quih miixaj yax, [ issamla ha quih ] cöimaazquim.

rain def;fl 2.poss:[pon:]strong since 3.poss:irr.ind:lightning aux def;fl 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:surpass
Because of the heavy rainstorm, it looks like there is going to be lots of lightning.bb &<+,

 Pedro quih contìpa ta, [ canoaa zo cöisaai ha zo     ]

Pedro def;fl 3.io:aw:irr.dep:move ds boat indf;sg 3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:make aux indf;sg

htcmaa ho.
1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know when Pedro is going to make a boat.

 Contìpa ta, [ hisiifp ha zo ] htcmaa ho.

3.io:aw:irr.dep:move ds 1.poss:irr.ind:arrive aux indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know when I’m going to come.

 Ziix iti cöpopacta ta, [ ˻ hacx cöisahmiihit ha

thing 3.poss:on 3.io:irr.dep:be_in_appearance ds    apart 3.io:3.poss:irr.ind:pass:cause_die aux
z ] iti imahca ha xo, ...
indf;sg 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:neg:be_located dcl but
There was no reason for him to be killed, but ... bb &<+,

Relative clauses
$ subject relative clause KHDGHG E\ D VXEMHFWRULHQWHG LUUHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQ iൻD stripped LUUHDOLV LQ
WKDW LW GRHV QRW EHDU VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ iൻUHTXLUHV WKH DX[LOLDU\ ca VHH i 7KH ODFN RI VXEMHFW
LQ᯴HFWLRQ LV REYLRXV LQ FDVHV ZKHUH WKH PRUSKRORJ\ IRU 3sbj i- WKLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW DFWLQJ RQ WKLUG SHUVRQ GLUHFW
REMHFW LV PLVVLQJ DV LQ 

 Zixcám spahit ca com, ¿zó hant ano coom ya?

fish irr.ind:pass:eat sbj.nmlz:aux def;hz   which? land/place [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie qm
Where is the fish that will be eaten?

 Ctam soos ca quih, ¿háqui tiih?

male irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux def;fl   where? rlt:be.fl
Where is the man who is going to sing?

 Ziix cöspooin ca zo haquix imiih iha.

thing 3.io:irr.ind:close sbj.nmlz:aux indf;sg somewhere sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl
There isn’t anyone who will close it.
§20.2.1.3 Deverbal nouns 543

 Ziix ma ssacj ca zo haquix imiih iha.

thing 2s.do:irr.ind:carry_on_back sbj.nmlz:aux indf;sg somewhere sbj.nmlz:neg:be.fl dcl
There isn’t anyone who will carry you.

 ..., ˻ ziix quiisax˼ sexl ca zo htcmaa ho.

   thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit irr.ind:take/buy sbj.nmlz:aux indf;sg 1s.sbj:rlt:neg:know dcl
..., I don’t know anyone who will buy it. bb &<+,

 Quisiil° tintica quiiquet quih cöissáxazim taa ma,

child md:aw sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pregnant_with def;fl 3.io:3.sbj:irr.ind:hit\impf rlt:aux ds

htaho, ihtahójozot ma, cmaam quisiil° quih cössáxazim

1s.sbj.tr:rlt:see 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:help_flee ds female child def;fl 3.io:irr.ind:hit\impf

ca ticop hin yooxpx.

sbj.nmlz:aux md:vt 1s.do:rlyo:be_mad_at
I saw a woman who was going to hit her child. I helped him flee and she got mad at me. bb &<+,

 Ma sacooxat ca quih yoofp.

2s.do:irr.ind:help_care_for_baby sbj.nmlz:aux def;fl rlyo:arrive
The one who will help you care for the baby has arrived.

 Cmaam soos ca cop he hoyacj iha.

female irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux def;vt 1.pro 1.poss:obj.nmlz:call_sibling dcl
The woman who will sing is my sister.

 Canoaa siifp íi ca com he hyaa° ha.

boat irr.ind:arrive first sbj.nmlz:aux def;hz 1.pro mine dcl
The boat that will arrive first is mine.

$ direct object relative clause KHDGHG E\ DQ inflected LUUHDOLV IRUP i UHTXLUHV WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha

 imám quih hant cohsaheectim ha coi

3.poss:fruit def;fl land 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:aug:travel aux def;pl
the fruit that I am going to transport. bb &<+,

 ˻ ziix ccam˼ quih isiicö ha com

   thing sbj.nmlz:alive def;fl 3.sbj:irr.ind:kill aux def;hz
the animal that he was going to kill bb &<+,

 eenim ihsexl ha cop

metal/knife 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy aux def;vt
the knife that I was going to buy bb &<+,

 hant hasaait ha tintica

land 1p.sbj:irr.ind:travel aux md:aw
the road that we are going to travel on bb &<+,

Other irrealis relative clauses WDNH D SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG LUUHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQ i WKDW KDV WKH
VXEMHFW H[SUHVVHG DV possessor VHH mi- LQ  DQG i- LQ  DQG  ZKLFK PXVW EH WKLUG SHUVRQ SRVVHVVRU
DJUHHPHQW DQG QRW 3.sbj i- WKLUG SHUVRQ DFWLQJ RQ WKLUG SHUVRQ EHFDXVH WKHVH DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV

 ziix misoqueepe ha zo
thing 2.poss:irr.ind:comfortable aux indf;sg
something with which you will be comfortable! bb &<+,
544 Chapter 20: Auxiliaries and modals

 zixquisiil quij hasitj it isom ha zo

child def;cm sbj.nmlz:[pass:]tie_sticks_for_cradleboard 3.poss:on 3.poss:irr.ind:lie aux indf;sg
a cradleboard for the baby to lie on. bb &<+,

 hant quih iti isaticpan ha tahac

land def;fl 3.poss:on 3.poss:irr.ind:work aux md:loc
the place where s/he/they would work bb &<+,

20.2.2 Auxiliary ca (and variants quee and que)

20.2.2.1. Irrealis verbs in independent clauses. 7KH DX[LOLDU\ ca VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU D VWULSSHG LUUHDOLV FRPSOH
PHQWൺDQ LUUHDOLV IRUP ZLWKRXW VXEMHFW SHUVRQ LQ᯴HFWLRQ $ PRGDO PXVW IROORZ WKH DX[LOLDU\ LQ RUGHU WR FRPSOHWH
WKH FODXVH ZKHQ LW LV QRW HPEHGGHG VHH i 7KH FKRLFH RI PRGDO D᯲HFWV WKH H[DFW IRUP RI WKH DX[LOLDU\
HLWKHU XQVWUHVVHG ca RU VWUHVVHG quee

 $X[LOLDU\ ZLWK EDVLF PRGDOV i

D sbj.nmlz:aux-dcl ca-ha 'HFODUDWLYH PRRG
E sbj.nmlz:aux -qm quee ya ,QWHUURJDWLYH PRRG

$X[LOLDU\ ZLWK VSHFLDO GHFODUDWLYH PRGDO i

F sbj.nmlz:aux qm quee hi 'HFODUDWLYH PRRG

$X[LOLDU\ ZLWK SDVW WHQVH PRGDO i

G sbj.nmlz:aux doubt ca poho 'HFODUDWLYH PRRG
H sbj.nmlz:aux past, sbj.nmlz:aux future ca iihi ca siihi 'HFODUDWLYH PRRG

7KH DX[LOLDU\ ca KDV WKH DOORPRUSK que ZKHQ LW RFFXUV EHIRUH DQ\ IRUP RI WKH YHUE √mis resemble

 [ Saapl que ] ipomís ta x, insicápota aha.

irr.ind:cold sbj.nmlz:aux 3.sbj:irr.dep:resemble ds ut 2s.sbj:irr.ind:hv:jacket aux:dcl
If it seems like it is going to be cold weather, you should put on a jacket. bb &<+,

 [ Haxz° heeque saacoj que ] cmis cap

dog small/young irr.ind:big sbj.nmlz:aux sbj.nmlz:[tr:]resemble def;vt

ihsexl aha.
1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy aux:dcl
I will buy the puppy that looks like it is going to grow big. bb &<+,

8QOLNH WKH LUUHDOLV FODXVHV IRUPHG ZLWK WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha i WKRVH ZLWK ca GR QRW LQGLFDWH DQ\WKLQJ UHODWLQJ
WR RQHൿV ZLOO 7KH\ DUH MXVW ංPDWWHURIIDFWඃ LUUHDOLV FODXVHV ,Q DOO WKHVH FDVHV QRWKLQJ SUHFHGHV WKH SUH᯳[ si- WR
LQGLFDWH WKH SHUVRQ RI WKH VXEMHFW PDNLQJ WKH ZRUGV FRPSOHWHO\ DPELJXRXV IRU SHUVRQ EXW LQWHUSUHWHG DOZD\V DV
WKLUG SHUVRQ LQ WKH DEVHQFH RI D VXEMHFW SURQRXQ
b
Examples with basic declarative modal ha

 Siifp caha.
irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
a. S/he/it will arrive.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJV (I will arrive.) (You will arrive.)

%HFDXVH RI LWV VLPLODULW\ WR WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE VD\ WKH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ IRUP RI ZKLFK LV quee DQG
EHFDXVH YHUEV RI VD\LQJ DUH XVHG DV DX[LOLDULHV LQ VRPH <XPDQ ODQJXDJHV VHH /DQJGRQ  0 0RVHU 
JORVVHV WKLV DX[LOLDU\ LQ 6HUL DV say 7KH DFFRXQW JLYHQ LQ WKLV JUDPPDU VHHV LW DV PRUH FORVHO\ UHODWHG WR ca

7KLV FRPELQDWLRQ LV QRW FRPPRQO\ XVHG QRZ

7KLV YDULDQW ZDV QRW ZHOO GRFXPHQWHG XQWLO IDLUO\ UHFHQWO\
§20.2.2.1 Irrealis verbs in independent clauses 545

 He siifp caha.
1.pro irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
I will arrive.

 He siizcam caha.
1.pro irr.ind:arrive\pl sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
We will arrive.

 He ma siiho caha.
1.pro 2s.do:irr.ind:see sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
I will see you.

 Tiix siiho caha.

dem;dt;sg irr.ind:see sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he will see him/her/it.

Examples with basic question modal ya

 ¿Me siifp quee ya?

  2.pro irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Will you arrive?

 ¿Juan quih zímjöc siifp quee ya?

  Juan def;fl when? irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux qm
When is Juan coming?

 ¿Cmaax me moosni quih oo smaai quee ya?

  now 2.pro Chelonia_mydas def;fl del irr.ind:neg:make sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Aren’t you going turtle hunting now?

Examples with special declarative modal hi

 He hap inaail he siixoz quee hi.

1.pro Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:skin 1.pro irr.ind:scrape sbj.nmlz:aux dcl
I am going to scrape a mule deer skin.

 He saanpx quee hi.

1.pro irr.ind:return_home sbj.nmlz:aux dcl
I’m going home.

Example with poho

 Siitax ca poho.
irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz:aux doubt
Maybe s/he/it will go. bb &<+,

Examples with siihi and iihi

 Soos ca iihi.
irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux past
S/he was going to sing.

 Soos ca siihi.
irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz:aux future
I wonder if s/he’s going to sing.
546 Chapter 20: Auxiliaries and modals

 ¿Zímjöc siifp ca siihi?

  when? irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux future
When will s/he/it arrive?

20.2.2.2. Embedded irrealis clauses. $ VWULSSHG LUUHDOLV IXWXUH FODXVH FDQ DSSHDU DV DQ LQGLUHFW TXRWDWLRQ ZLWK
WKH DX[LOLDU\ ca ZLWKRXW DQ\ PRGDO

 Siifp ca teeme.
irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
S/he said/says that s/he/it will arrive.

 Tiix sahoocj ca teeme.

dem;dt;sg irr.ind:make_two sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
She says that she is going to have twins. bb &<+,

 ... hizi saaipotim ca teeme.

1p.do:irr.ind:pay:impf sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say
... s/he said/says that she will pay us. bb &<+,

 Siifp ca heye xo yomafp.

irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz:aux 1s.sbj:rlyo:say but rlyo:neg:arrive
I said that s/he would arrive but s/he didn’t arrive.

 Smaapxalcoj ca teeyo.
irr.ind:neg:move_away\pl sbj.nmlz:aux rlt:say\pl
They said that they are not going to move away. bb &<+,

 He ˻ ziix hamoz hamqueet˼ z iti cöspacta ca

1.pro    thing abs:heart  ? indf;sg 3.poss:on 3.io:irr.ind:be_in_appearance sbj.nmlz:aux

mecyo.
rlmi:unsp.sbj:say\pl
They say that I am going to have a lot of sadness. bb &<+,

,W PD\ DOVR DSSHDU LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ RI DQ LQGLUHFW WKRXJKW

 ... ˻ hacx smiih˼ ca xah tamoz x.

   apart irr.ind:not_be.fl sbj.nmlz:aux ? rlt:think ut
… s/he thought s/he was going to die. bb &<+,

 He ˻ hacx smiih˼ ca xah hpyoomoz.

1.pro    apart irr.ind:not_be.fl sbj.nmlz:aux ? 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:think
I thought I was going to die.

 ˻ Hacx smiih˼ ca xah hpyoomoz.

   apart irr.ind:not_be.fl sbj.nmlz:aux ? 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:think
I thought that s/he was going to die.

 Hita he ˻ hacx smiih˼ ca xah yoomoz.

1.poss:mother 1.pro    apart irr.ind:not_be.fl sbj.nmlz:aux ? rlyo:think
My mother thought that I was going to die. bb &<+,

20.2.2.3. Irrealis complement clauses. 7KH VWULSSHG VXEMHFWRULHQWHG LUUHDOLV IRUP IROORZHG E\ ca PD\ EH D
VXEMHFW FRPSOHPHQW RU DGMXQFW RI DQRWKHU YHUE ,Q WKLV XVDJH WKHUH LV QR DUWLFOH SUHVHQW LQ WKLV ZD\ GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ
WKHVH FOHDUO\ IURP VXEMHFW UHODWLYH FODXVHV
§20.3 Auxiliaries with verbal output 547

 [ Cmaax imám smam ca ] toc cöyoohca.

now 3.poss:fruit irr.ind:ripe/cooked sbj.nmlz:aux there 3.io:rlyo:be_located
Its fruit will be ripe soon.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ The near future ripening of its fruit is happening.bb &<+,

 ..., [ he cmaax socacj ca ] hiz cohpmiij.

1.pro now irr.ind:unsp.obj:chip sbj.nmlz:aux px 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:sit
…, now I am going to carve (an ironwood figure). bb &<+,

 [ Xepe com siixi ca ] toc comom.

sea def;hz irr.ind:finish sbj.nmlz:aux there 3.io:rlmi:lie
The tide will be low.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ The future going out of the tide is happening.bb &<+,

 Poofp x, [ saticpan ca ] haquix miih.

irr.dep:arrive ut irr.ind:work sbj.nmlz:aux somewhere rlmi:be.fl
When she comes, she is going to work.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ When she comes, her future working is happening.bb &<+,

 [ He ox mazi seaam ca ] hiz comhamat.

1.pro thus 2p.do:irr.ind:tell\pl sbj.nmlz:aux px 3.io:twd:1p.sbj:rlmi:move:pl
We have come to tell you that.

20.3 Auxiliaries with verbal output

7KH DX[LOLDULHV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ D᯲HFW WKH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ EXW QRW WKH FDWHJRU\ RI WKH ZRUG WKDW WKH\ IROORZ

20.3.1 Auxiliaries pi and taa

7KH XQVWUHVVHG DX[LOLDULHV pi irr.dep:aux DQG taa rlt:aux VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU LQ᯴HFWHG LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV
FRPSOHPHQWV WKH\ GR QRW D᯲HFW WKH DUJXPHQW VWUXFWXUH RI WKH FODXVH &RPSDUH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D Poofp (ta), ...

irr.dep:arrive ds
When s/he arrives, …

E Poofp (ta) x, ...

irr.dep:arrive ds ut
If s/he/it arrives, …

F Siifp pi (ta) x, ...

irr.ind:arrive irr.dep;aux ds ut
If s/he is going to arrive, … (tomorrow or later)

G Siifp taa (ma) x, ...

irr.ind:arrive rlt:aux ds ut
When s/he was going to arrive, …

7KH IRUPV RI WKHVH DX[LOLDULHV SDUDOOHO WKH GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV po- i DQG GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV t- i
IRUPV LQ WKH ODQJXDJH DQG WKH\ DUH DQDORJRXV LQ WKHLU IXQFWLRQ $ FODXVH ZLWK WKHP LV D GHSHQGHQW FODXVH DQG
LV PDUNHG IRU 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW i RU QRW DV DSSURSULDWH ,Q VRPH FDVHV D FODXVH HPEHGGHG XQGHU pi PLJKW
EH WUDQVODWHG if it will be the case that … DQG RQH HPEHGGHG XQGHU taa if it was the case that … DOWKRXJK VXFK
548 Chapter 20: Auxiliaries and modals

OLWHUDO WUDQVODWLRQV DUH QRW XVXDOO\ WKH PRVW DSSURSULDWH $OVR VHH WKH XVH RI WKHVH DX[LOLDULHV LQ SXUSRVH FODXVHV
i
b
Examples with pi

 Hascama scaap pi x, ...

in_reed_boat irr.ind:unsp.sbj:stand irr.dep;aux ut
If one goes hunting for sea turtle, …

 Ziix zo nsiihit pi x, insoneaax aha.

thing indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat irr.dep;aux ut 2s.sbj:irr.ind:wash_one’s_hands aux:dcl
If you eat something, wash your hands (afterwards). bb LPSURYHG RQ 0 0RVHU 

 Juan quih siifp pi ta x, he mos siifp caha.

Juan def;fl irr.ind:arrive irr.dep;aux ds ut 1.pro also irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
If Juan will be arriving, I will also arrive.

 Ziix zo nsiihit pi ta x, ma hsiiix aha.

thing indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat irr.dep;aux ds ut 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:go_away_from aux:dcl
If you are going to eat something, I’ll leave you.

 Insahipot pi ta x, xaa nsiifp aha.

2s.sbj:irr.ind:pass:pay irr.dep;aux ds ut soon 2s.sbj:irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl
If you are going to be paid, you should arrive early.

b
Examples with taa

 Soohitim taa ma, ctam ihmaa° quih yoofp.

irr.ind:unsp.sbj:eat:impf rlt:aux ds male other def;fl rlyo:arrive
When s/he was going to eat, the other man arrived.

 Ihpsoos taa ma, naapxa zo hant mooit.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:sing rlt:aux ds Cathartes_aura indf;sg land rlmi:arrive
When I was about to sing, a turkey vulture landed.

Embedded as indirect quote

b
7KH FODXVH ZLWK WKH DX[LOLDU\ PD\ EH HPEHGGHG DV DQ LQGLUHFW TXRWH

 D María quih siifp xah taa hemyo.

María def;fl irr.ind:arrive ? rlt:aux 1p.sbj:rlmi:say\pl
We said that María will/would come.

7KH ZRUG peetx LV UHFRUGHG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ DV D YDULDQW RI pix 7KLV ZRUG FRQ᯴DWHV WKH DX[LOLDU\ pi DQG WKH
DUFKDLF FRQMXQFWLRQ tx %RWK WKH ZRUG tx DQG peetx RU pee tx DV LW PLJKW EH ZULWWHQ DUH QRW XVHG WRGD\ 7KH ZRUG pee DOVR
DSSHDUV DV D YDULDQW RI pi LQ H[DPSOH L DSSDUHQWO\ 7KLV KDV QRW EHHQ VWXGLHG LQ GHWDLO

L ¡Ziix zo nsiihit pi / pee ta oo sahii teee!

  thing indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat irr.dep;aux ds del irr.ind:pass:feel rhet
You’re not going to eat anything!


&RPSDUH WKLV ZLWK H[DPSOH L WKDW KDV WKH VLPSOH GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV LQ WKH SURWDVLV

L Ziix zo mpoohit x, insoneaax aha.

thing indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.dep:eat ut 2s.sbj:irr.ind:wash_one’s_hands aux:dcl
If you eat something, wash your hands (afterwards).
§20.4 Words that replace auxiliary ha and modal after irrealis forms 549

E Siifp xah taa hemyo, María quih.

irr.ind:arrive ? rlt:aux 1p.sbj:rlmi:say\pl María def;fl

 Siifp taa teepe áa, siifp aha.

irr.ind:arrive rlt:aux irr.dep:say true irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl
If s/he really says s/he will come, s/he will come.

 Hasocoozx xah taa hetyo,

1p.sbj:irr.ind:unsp.obj:steal ? rlt:aux 1p.sbj:rlt:say\pl
We said that we would rob, …

 Him caazi quij ihpsaticpan taa him miih.

1s.do:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]carry def;cm 1s.sbj:irr.ind:work rlt:aux 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
My father told me to work.

 D Juan quih ˻ hant pofii˼ ta hasoosi ha teeme.

Juan def;fl    land irr.dep:? ds 1p.sbj:irr.ind:sing;pl aux rlmi:say
Juan is saying that we will sing tomorrow.

E ˻ Hant pofii˼ ta hasoosi ha teeme, Juan quih.

   land irr.dep:? ds 1p.sbj:irr.ind:sing;pl aux rlmi:say Juan def;sg

 ˻ Hant pofii˼ ta, hasoosi taa him miih.

   land irr.dep:? ds 1p.sbj:irr.ind:sing;pl rlt:aux 1s.do:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
Juan told me that we will sing tomorrow.

20.4 Words that replace auxiliary ha and modal after irrealis forms
)RXU ZRUGV PD\ DSSHDU DIWHU LUUHDOLV IRUPV LQ OLHX RI WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha

20.4.1 Uncertainty poho

7KH XQVWUHVVHG DX[LOLDU\ poho LQGLFDWHV GRXEW RQ WKH SDUW RI WKH VSHDNHU

 Hácataj quih anxö isiicötoj poho s.

shark;pl def;fl intns 3.sbj:irr.ind:kill:pl doubt of_course
Probably they will kill many sharks.

 Ihpsiij poho tx, ihpscmaaij poho.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water doubt or 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water doubt
Maybe I will fetch water. Maybe I won’t fetch water.

20.4.2 Certainty i
7KH XQVWUHVVHG DX[LOLDU\ i SHUKDSV QRZ TXLWH LQIUHTXHQWO\ XVHG HPSKDVL]HV WKH FHUWDLQW\ RI WKH HYHQW

 Ihpsiim i.
1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:sleep crt
I’m going to sleep.

 Ihsiihit i s.
1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat crt of_course
I’ll just have to eat it.

 Imaahit iha yax, tom z isconyaa i.

sbj.nmlz:neg:fish dcl since money indf;sg 3.sbj:irr.ind:neg:own crt
Since he doesn’t go fishing, he won’t have any money.
550 Chapter 20: Auxiliaries and modals

20.4.3 Emphatic xo
7KH FRPPRQO\XVHG DX[LOLDU\ xo JLYHV D VHQVH RI HPSKDVLV

 ¡Minl quih szatx xo!

  2.poss:hand/arm/finger\pl def;fl irr.ind:have_glochids em
Your fingers will get tiny thorns in them!

 ¡Ihpscmaapxtim xo!

  1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:move_away em
I’m not going to move away!

20.4.4 Rhetorical auxiliary teee

7KH ZRUG teee H[SUHVVHV VDUFDVP RU GLVEHOLHI :KLOH WKLV ZRUG SHUKDSV PD\ KDYH DQ HW\PRORJ\ UHODWLQJ LW WR D
YHUE RI VD\LQJ DV VXJJHVWHG E\ LWV IRUP LW LV WDNHQ KHUH VLPSO\ DV D UKHWRULFDO DX[LOLDU\ 7KH FRQVWUXFWLRQ KDV D
IDLUO\ GLVWLQFWLYH LQWRQDWLRQ FRQWRXU ZLWK ORZ WRQH RQ WKH ZRUG teee VRPHWLPHV ZULWWHQ DV tee 7KLV LQWRQDWLRQ
LV LQGLFDWHG ZLWK WKH SXQFWXDWLRQ PDUNV " EXW WKLV LV QRW PHDQW WR FODLP WKDW WKHUH LV LQWHUURJDWLYH PRUSKRORJ\
DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 ¡¿Tiix àpa shaa teee?!

   dem;dt;sg ? irr.ind:eq rhet
It couldn’t be him/her!

 ¡¿Taax àpa shaa teee?!

   dem;dt;pl ? irr.ind:eq rhet
It couldn’t be them!

([DPSOHV ZLWK teee DUH VRPHWLPHV WUDQVODWHG DV UKHWRULFDO TXHVWLRQV DV LQ WKH FDVH RI 

 ¡¿Zó mpooh, hax zo nsiisi teee?!

    how? 2s.sbj:irr.dep:do/say/put.fl fresh_water indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:drink rhet
How on earth would you get any water to drink? bb &<+,

/LNH ZKDW KDSSHQV LQ VRPH QHJDWLYH FODXVHV VHH WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI FKDSWHU  DQG HVSHFLDOO\ i D YHUE LQ
WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LQGXFHV WKH XVH RI WKH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH zo ZLWK D QRXQ LQ WKH FODXVH HYHQ LI QRQUHIHUHQWLDO DV
LQ H[DPSOH  DERYH

20.5 Basic declarative and interrogative modals

7ZR HQFOLWLF PRGDOV DUH H[WUHPHO\ FRPPRQ ha 'HFODUDWLYH DQG ya ,QWHUURJDWLYH 7KH HQFOLWLF ha KDV WKH
DOORPRUSK iha DIWHU D FRQVRQDQW ,Q ERWK FDVHV WKH ᯳QDO a LV VRPHWLPHV RPLWWHG LQ WKH VSHHFK RI VRPH SHRSOH
HYHQ LQ UDWKHU FDUHIXO VSHHFK WKLV LV DSSDUHQWO\ D UHODWLYHO\ UHFHQW LQQRYDWLRQ :KHQ WKH ᯳QDO a LV RPLWWHG IURP
WKH DOORPRUSK iha WKH JORWWDO VWRS PD\ EH TXLWH DWWHQXDWHG DQG VR RQH KHDUV SULPDULO\ WKH YRZHO i 7KH GLVFXVVLRQ
EHORZ XVHV RQO\ WKH FRQVHUYDWLYH RU FDUHIXO IRUPV ha DQG iha (DFK RI WKHVH PRGDOV ha DQG ya PD\ IROORZ D
QRPLQDO WR IRUP D VLPSOH VHQWHQFH VHH i 6HH H[DPSOHV 
bb

7KLV PRUSKHPH LV REYLRXVO\ SKRQHWLFDOO\ VLPLODU WR WKH HPSKDWLF UHDOLV YHUEDO SUH᯳[ xo- i

7KH ODWWHU KDV EHHQ ZULWWHQ DV D VX᯵[ LQ WKH SUDFWLFDO RUWKRJUDSK\ DV GHFLGHG E\ WKH FRPPLWWHH IRU WKH  GLFWLRQDU\
EXW WKHUH LV D SRVVLELOLW\ WKDW WKLV PD\ FKDQJH ZLWK QHZHU ZULWHUV 7KH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI ya LV QRW HQWLUHO\ SDUDOOHO ZLWK WKDW RI
WKH GHFODUDWLYH PRGDO ha VLQFH ya LV DOVR XVHG DIWHU TXHVWLRQ ZRUGV VHH FKDSWHU 

7KH FRQVRQDQW PD\ EH D WUXH FRQVRQDQW DQ DSSUR[LPDQW y RU D JORWWDO VWRS h
7KH YRZHO i FRXOG EH WDNHQ DV HSHQWKHWLF WKDW KDV EHHQ P\ SUDFWLFH LQ SUHYLRXV ZRUN $OWHUQDWLYHO\ WKH i FRXOG EH
XQGHUO\LQJ DQG GHOHWHG ZKHQ LW LPPHGLDWHO\ IROORZV D YRZHO 2U LW FRXOG EH WKDW QHLWKHU ha RU iha LV GHULYHG IURP WKH
RWKHU RI FRXUVH 5HJDUGOHVV RI WKH DQDO\VLV WKLV PRGDO LV GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKH DX[LOLDU\ ha i WKDW RFFXUV LQ LUUHDOLV
FRQVWUXFWLRQV ZKLFK GRHV QRW WDNH DQ HSHQWKHWLF YRZHO DW DOO
§20.5 Basic declarative and interrogative modals 551

Examples with basic declarative modal ha

 Hast caacoj iha.

stone sbj.nmlz:big dcl
It’s a big stone.

 Haso ha.

net dcl
It is a net.

 Tzih iha.

Sphoeroides_annulatus dcl
It’s a bullseye puffer.

 Hai ha.

air/wind dcl
It is air/wind.

Examples with interrogative modal ya

 ¿Hast ya?

  stone qm
Is it a stone?

 ¿Haso ya?

  net qm
Is it a net?

(DFK RI WKHVH PRGDOV PD\ DOVR IROORZ D GHYHUEDO QRXQ VHH i RU D FRXSOH RI DGMHFWLYHV WKDW DUJXDEO\ DUH
GHYHUEDO QRXQ IRUPV RI YHUEV ZLWK GHIHFWLYH SDUDGLJPV VHH i 6HH H[DPSOHV 
bb
Examples with deverbal nouns

 Cpanzx iha.

sbj.nmlz:run dcl
S/he/it is running.

 ¿Cpanzx ya?

  sbj.nmlz:run qm
Is s/he/it running?

 Tiix caai ha.

dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]make dcl
S/he is making it.

Examples with adjective-looking words

 Tazo ha.

one dcl
It is one.

 ¿Tazo ya?

  one qm
Is it one?
552 Chapter 20: Auxiliaries and modals

 Heeque ha.

young dcl
It is small/young.

 ¿Heeque ya?

  small qm
Is it small/young?

7KH PRGDOV DUH DOVR XVHG DIWHU WKH DX[LOLDULHV WKDW RFFXU ZLWK LQGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV YHUEV VHH i IRU
GHWDLOV RI XVDJH 7KHVH FRPELQDWLRQV ZKLFK KDYH EHHQ ZULWWHQ DV VLQJOH ZRUGV LQ WKH RUWKRJUDSK\ DUH JLYHQ LQ
 ZLWK IRUPV RI WKH YHUE √atax go WR LOOXVWUDWH WKHP 7KH ZRUGV caha DQG aha DUH XQVWUHVVHG EXW WKH ZRUGV
quee ya DQG haa ya DUH VWUHVVHG RQ WKH DX[LOLDU\

 'HFODUDWLYH bbb ,QWHUURJDWLYH

'HYHUEDO D He   siitax         caha. E ¿Me   siitax        quee               ya?
1.pro irr.ind:go  sbj.nmlz;aux:dcl    2.pro irr.ind:go  sbj.nmlz;aux  qm
I will go. Will you go?

)LQLWH F Ihpsiitax                   aha. G ¿Insiitax              haa   ya?

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go  aux:dcl bb2s.sbj:irr.ind:go  aux     qm
I will go. Will you go?

20.6 Tensed modals iihi and siihi

7KH GHFODUDWLYH PRGDO iihi JHQHUDOO\ LQGLFDWHV SDVW WLPH ZKLOH siihi LQGLFDWHV IXWXUH WLPH 7KH\ DUH JORVVHG past
DQG future UHVSHFWLYHO\ 7KHVH PRGDOV IROORZ QRPLQDOV LQFOXGLQJ GHYHUEDO QRXQV )RU PRUH H[DPSOHV VHH
i
b
Examples with past modal

 He “jefe” iihi xo ziix chaa zo hin tcmaaj iho.

1.pro chief past but thing sbj.nmlz:eq indf;sg 1s.do:rlt:neg:know:pl dcl
Although I was chief, they don’t know who I am.

 He imoohitim iihi.

1.pro sbj.nmlz:neg:unsp.obj:eat:impf past
I haven’t eaten.

 He ˻ ziix quiisax˼ hap quícotim isoj° iihi.

1.pro thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit Odocoileus_hemionus sbj.nmlz:tr:kill:impf real past
I used to be a expert mule deer hunter. bb $GDSWHG IURP DQ RYHUKHDUG FODLP

 Lauro quih mos hizac oo iti ˻ hapx caap˼ iihi.

Lauro def;fl also px:loc del 3.poss:on    outside sbj.nmlz:stand past
Lauro also was born here.

Examples with future modal

 Haxz° ticom quictamo siihi.

dog md:hz sbj.nmlz:ferocious future
I wonder if that dog is ferocious. bb &<+,

7KH XVH RI iihi LV D ELW PRUH FRPSOH[ 2QH FRQVXOWDQW SRLQWHG RXW WKDW LW PD\ EH XVHG LQ WKH ᯳UVW WLPH LQWURGXFWLRQ RI D
SHUVRQ WR VRPHRQH WKLV LV QRW SDVW WHQVH $IWHU WKH ᯳UVW LQWURGXFWLRQ LW ZRXOG QRW EH XVHG $QG DQRWKHU FRQVXOWDQW LQIRUPHG
PH WKDW LW LQGLFDWHG UHDO FHUWDLQW\ DQG LQ WKDW XVDJH GLG QRW LPSO\ SDVW WLPH
§20.7 Special declarative modals hi and ho 553

 ¿Hast coopol ticom zó hapai siihi?

  stone/mountain sbj.nmlz:black md:hz how? sbj.nmlz:pass:tell future
What could that black mountain be called, I wonder. bb &<+,

)RU WKH XVH RI WKHVH PRGDOV ZLWK LUUHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQV VHH i

20.7 Special declarative modals hi and ho

7KH GHFODUDWLYH PRGDO hi ZLWK WKH DOORPRUSK ihi DIWHU D FRQVRQDQW KDV D YHU\ GL᯲HUHQW GLVWULEXWLRQ IURP WKH
EDVLF GHFODUDWLYH PRGDO ha ,W GRHV QRW RFFXU ZLWK QRXQV RU GHYHUEDO QRXQV 6HH XQJUDPPDWLFDO H[DPSOHV
 LQ ZKLFK WKLV LV DWWHPSWHG

 * Hast ihi.

stone dcl
(It is a rock.)

 * Cpanzx ihi.

sbj.nmlz:run dcl
(S/he/it is running.)

7KLV PRGDO LV XVHG DIWHU WKH VWUHVVHG DX[LOLDULHV haa RU quee WKDW RFFXUV ZLWK LUUHDOLV YHUEV WKH IRUPV DUH
JLYHQ LQ 

 D 'HYHUEDO
He siitax quee hi.
1.pro irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz:aux dcl
I will go. (with some doubt)

E )LQLWH
Ihpsiitax haa hi.
1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go aux dcl
I will go.

7KH PRGDO hi LV DOVR XVHG DIWHU D YHUE LQ WKH VLPSOH UHDOLV t- IRUP i WR PDNH WKH YHUE IXQFWLRQ DV WKH
KHDG RI DQ LQGHSHQGHQW FODXVH 6HQWHQFHV  DUH QRW JUDPPDWLFDO DV GHFODUDWLYH VHQWHQFHV ZLWKRXW WKLV
PRGDO

 Tmaaiscan ihi.

rlt:neg:hard dcl
It’s not hard.

 Tisj ihi.

rlt:timid dcl
S/he’s timid.

 Icoohit ihtamzo hi.

inf.intr:unsp.obj:eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:want dcl
I want to eat.

/LNH hi WKH PRGDO ho ZLWK DOORPRUSK iho DIWHU FRQVRQDQWV GRHV QRW RFFXU ZLWK QRXQV RU GHYHUEDO QRXQV DV
VKRZQ LQ 

$V QRWHG DERYH ERWK RI WKH FRPELQDWLRQV quee hi DQG haa hi DUH VHOGRP XVHG QRZ DSSDUHQWO\ GHVSLWH DSSHDULQJ RIWHQ
LQ WH[WV UHFRUGHG LQ WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\ 7KH\ DUH UHSODFHG E\ WKH IRUPV caha DQG aha UHVSHFWLYHO\
554 Chapter 20: Auxiliaries and modals

 * Hast iho.

(It is a rock.)

 * Cpanzx iho.

(S/he/it is running.)

8QOLNH hi LW GRHV QRW RFFXU ZLWK LUUHDOLV IRUPV RI DQ\ VRUW DV VKRZQ LQ 

 D * Smatax caho.

(S/he will not go.)

E * Smatax aho.
(S/he will not go.) (S/he should not go.)

7KH PRGDO ho LV XVHG LQ WZR FRQWH[WV )LUVW LW LV XVHG ZLWK negative UHDOLVt YHUEV i XVHG LQ QRQ
LQWHUURJDWLYH LQGHSHQGHQW FODXVHV

 Zixcám zo poxtamt ta, tompaho ho.

fish indf;sg irr.dep:abundant ds rlt:neg:pass:see dcl
Not many fish were seen.

 Icoohit ihtcmamzo ho.

inf.intr:unsp.obj:eat 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:want dcl
I don’t want to eat. bb &<+,

6HFRQG LW LV XVHG ZLWK GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV YHUEV ZKHWKHU QHJDWLYH RU D᯵UPDWLYH LQ PDLQ FODXVHV WR H[SUHVV GRXEW
DERXW ZKHWKHU VRPHWKLQJ KDSSHQHG DV VKRZQ LQ 

 Juan quih paahit iho x, pomaahit iho x.

Juan def;fl irr.dep:fish dcl or irr.dep:neg:fish dcl or
Maybe Juan went fishing, or maybe he didn’t go fishing. bb &<+,

 Poopca ho x, pomapca ho x.

irr.dep:rain dcl or irr.dep:neg:rain dcl or
Maybe it rained, or maybe it didn’t rain.
 21
Determiners

7KLV FKDSWHU H[DPLQHV WKH FODVV RI GHWHUPLQHUV WKDW PD\ KHDG GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVHV VHH i 6XFK GHWHUPLQHUV
LQFOXGH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV i GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV i DQG GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV i 7KH LQGH᯳QLWH
DUWLFOHV DUH DOVR XVHG DV SURQRXQV WKDW LV WKH\ PD\ RFFXU ZLWKRXW D FRPSOHPHQW DW DOO VHH i RU PD\ KHDG
D SDUWLWLYH H[SUHVVLRQ i /LNHZLVH WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV PD\ DOVR EH XVHG DV SURQRXQV i $
GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ PD\ DOVR RFFXU LQ FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK D QRPLQDO SKUDVH WKLV PLJKW EH PLVWDNHQ IRU D VLPSOH
GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVH VHH i

21.1 Indefinite articles

7KH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV DUH zo a an DQG pac some 7KH DUWLFOH zo JHQHUDOO\ RFFXUV ZLWK VLQJXODU FRXQW QRXQV EXW
VHH i 7KH DUWLFOH pac LV XVHG ZLWK SOXUDO FRXQW QRXQV DQG DOVR ZLWK PDVV QRXQV 7KH SOXUDO GHWHUPLQHU
pac LV XQOLNH WKH TXDQWL᯳HUV PHDQLQJ all few DQG many VLQFH WKH ODWWHU DUH YHUEDO DQG RFFXU DV GHYHUEDO QRXQV
ZKHQ PRGLI\LQJ D QRXQ RU LQ DGGLWLRQ LQ WKH FDVH RI WKH ZRUG IRU all DV D VWUHVVHG TXDQWL᯳HU VHH i ,Q
DGGLWLRQ KRZHYHU pac LV XVHG DV D VLQJXODU DUWLFOH ZLWK VLQJXODU QRXQV WKDW UHIHU WR DQ RSHQLQJ LQ WKH HDUWKൺDW
OHDVW D FDYH D KROH LQ WKH JURXQG RU D ZHOO 6HH H[DPSOH 

 zaaj pac toc cötahca ma, cötafp ma,

indf;plthere 3.io:rlt:be_located ds 3.io:rlt:arrive ds
he came to a cave there,bb &RQ3XP

:KLOH WKH HW\PRORJ\ RI WKH ZRUG pac LV XQNQRZQ WKH ZRUG zo LV XQGRXEWHGO\ D VKRUWHQHG IRUP RI WKH ZRUG
tazo one VHH i ZKLFK LV LWVHOI SUHVXPDEO\ HW\PRORJLFDOO\ UHODWHG WR WKH URRW √azoj alone
7KH YRZHO RI WKH DUWLFOH zo LV REOLJDWRULO\ GURSSHG ZKHQ WKH IROORZLQJ ZRUG EHJLQV ZLWK D YRZHO WKH z V\OODEL᯳HV
ZLWK WKDW ZRUG 7KLV ZURQJZD\ FOLWLFL]DWLRQ RI WKH DUWLFOH LV QRW UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WKH FXUUHQW RUWKRJUDSK\ %RWK
zo DQG z DUH ZULWWHQ DV VHSDUDWH ZRUGV 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  ,Q DE WKH o LV SUHVHQW LQ FG LW LV
DEVHQW EHFDXVH RI WKH YRZHO DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKH IROORZLQJ ZRUG

 D ¡Ziix zo cahit!
  thing indf;sg im:eat
Eat something!

E Ziix zo hyoohit.
thing indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:eat
I ate something.

F Ziix z iyoohit.
thing indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:eat
S/he ate something.

3URQRXQV PD\ DOVR EH DQDO\]HG DV GHWHUPLQHUV WKDW W\SLFDOO\ GR QRW WDNH FRPSOHPHQWV VHH FKDSWHU 

,W LV DFWXDOO\ D ELW LPSUHFLVH WR XVH WKH ZRUG ංQRXQඃ KHUH VLQFH LQ PDQ\ FDVHV WKHUH LV QR RYHUW QRXQ DW DOO LQ WKH SKUDVH
7KH QRPLQDO LWVHOI DQG QRW WKH KHDG ZRUG LV UHOHYDQW

7KLV IDFW KDG EHHQ PLVVHGൺDQG WKH UHOHYDQW H[DPSOHV PLVXQGHUVWRRGൺXQWLO WKH VSULQJ RI  , WKDQN ;DYLHU 0RUHQR
+HUUHUD DQG 5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD IRU FODULI\LQJ LW IRU PH

7KH DOORPRUSK\ LV D KHOSIXO ZD\ WR GLVWLQJXLVK EHWZHHQ HSHQWKHWLF YRZHOV PRUH SUHFLVHO\ SURWKHWLF YRZHOV DQG XQ
GHUO\LQJ YRZHOV VHH i 7KH o SUHFOXGHV WKH LQVHUWLRQ RI DQ HSHQWKHWLF YRZHO WKDW PD\ RWKHUZLVH EH QHFHVVDU\
6RPH VSHDNHUV DOVR XVH WKH VKRUW IRUP RI WKH DUWLFOH EHIRUH h JORWWDO VWRS IROORZHG E\ YRZHO LQ VRPH VLWXDWLRQV WKDW
KDYH QRW EHHQ VWXGLHG DGHTXDWHO\ ,QGH᯳QLWH QRPLQDO SKUDVHV DUH QRW SURQRXQFHG LQ LVRODWLRQ QRU GR WKH\ RFFXU FODXVH RU
VHQWHQFH᯳QDOO\ 7KH GURSSLQJ RI WKH o RI zo LV REOLJDWRU\ DOWKRXJK LQ LQWHUUXSWHG VSHHFK RQH PLJKW ᯳QG LW

555
556 Chapter 21: Determiners

G ¿Ziix z ihaahit intamzo?

  thing indf;sg inf.tr:eat 2s.sbj:rlt:want
Do you want to eat something?

$ GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVH ZLWK DQ LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH PD\ EH RQH RI WKUHH PDMRU W\SHV L D UHIHUHQWLDO QRPLQDO ZLWK
D VSHFL᯳F LQGH᯳QLWH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ WKDW LV H[SUHVVLQJ TXDQWLWDWLYH LQGH᯳QLWHQHVV i LL D QRQUHIHUHQWLDO
QRPLQDO ZLWK D QRQVSHFL᯳F LQGH᯳QLWH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ WKDW LV H[SUHVVLQJ QRQTXDQWLWDWLYH LQGH᯳QLWHQHVV i
DQG F D QRQUHIHUHQWLDO QRPLQDO XVHG SUHGLFDWLYHO\ LQ WKH FRSXODU FRQVWUXFWLRQ i

21.1.1 Specific indefinite interpretation: quantitative indefiniteness

7KH VLQJXODU LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LV XVHG PRVW FRPPRQO\ ZLWK VLQJXODU FRXQW QRXQV VHH i WR LQGLFDWH TXDQ
WLWDWLYH LQGH᯳QLWHQHVV VHH H[DPSOHV  7KH SXPDൿV KHDG PHQWLRQHG LQ H[DPSOH  LV D VSHFL᯳F RQH LQ WKH
VWRU\ IURP ZKLFK WKH H[DPSOH LV WDNHQ

 «Xazoj ilit zo toc cöyiij tax,

  Puma_concolor 3.poss:head indf;sg there 3.io:rlyo:sit sbrd
“There is a puma's head there,bb &RQ3XP

 Cmaam zo yoofp. María mpah.

female indf;sg rlyo:arrive María rlmi:pass:do/say/put.fl
A woman arrived. Her name is María.

 Cocsar ctam zo toc cötap ma, hmiiho. Pedro González

Mexican male indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:see Pedro González
yopáh.
rlyo:pass:do/say/put.fl
A non-indigenous Mexican man was there, I saw him. His name was Pedro González.

 xazoj tintica hant z itaao, toc contica ha.

Puma_concolor md.aw land indf 3.sbj:rlt:pass there 3.io:aw:rlt:move dcl
Puma was there passing a certain place.bb &RQ3XP

:KLOH WKHVH SKUDVHV PD\ DOVR EH WDNHQ QRQUHIHUHQWLDOO\ DV VKRZQ LQ i DQG KHQFH WKHUH LV RIWHQ
DPELJXLW\ EHWZHHQ WKH WZR UHDGLQJV WKH VSHFL᯳FLW\ RI WKH LQGH᯳QLWH QRPLQDO PD\ EH VLJQDOHG LQ VRPH FDVHV E\
RWKHU PHDQV &RPSDUH H[DPSOHV D DQG E D EHLQJ UHIHUHQWLDO DQG E EHLQJ DPELJXRXV IRU UHIHUHQWLDOLW\

 D He ˻ icaaspoj áa˼ hax cooil oo zo

1.pro     3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:write true intns sbj.nmlz:green/blue del indf;sg

ccaa ha.
sbj.nmlz:[tr:]look_for dcl
I’m looking for a specific blue pencil.

E He ˻ icaaspoj áa˼ cooil zo (he) ccaa

1.pro    3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:write true sbj.nmlz:green/blue indf;sg 1.pro sbj.nmlz:[tr:]look_for

ha.
dcl
I’m looking for a blue pencil [could be just any one or a particular one].

7KH SOXUDO DUWLFOH LV XVHG ZLWK SOXUDO FRXQW QRXQV WR LQGLFDWH DQ LQGH᯳QLWH QXPEHU RI HQWLWLHV DV LQ D DQG
ZLWK PDVV QRXQV WR LQGLFDWH DQ LQGH᯳QLWH TXDQWLW\ DV LQ E

 D Comcaac pac yoozcam.

(Seri)_person\pl indf;pl rlyo:arrive\pl
Some Seris arrived.
§21.1.2 Non-specific indefinite interpretation: non-quantitative indefiniteness 557

E ..., hax pac toc cötap ma, ...

fresh.water indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:stand ds
…, there was some water there, …bb 177 0W 

21.1.2 Non-specific indefinite interpretation: non-quantitative indefiniteness

7KH QRPLQDO ZLWK WKH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LQ  LV QRQVSHFL᯳F DQG QRQUHIHUHQWLDO LQ DW OHDVW VRPH VLWXDWLRQV 6HH
DOVR H[DPSOHV 

 Caamiz z ihexl ihmiimzo.

shirt indf;sg inf.tr:take/buy 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:want
I want to buy a shirt.

 Pamtj zo htcmaho, haacni hyaa° com ihtcmahizj

Odocoileus_hemionus_tendon indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:neg:see abs;bow mine def;hz 1s.sbj.tr:neg:string
iho.
dcl
I can’t string my bow because I couldn’t find a mule deer tendon. bb &<+,

 Xepe (zo) mpoosi ta x, ma samiipala aha.

sea/seawater indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.dep:drink ds ut 2s.do:irr.ind:cause_bad aux:dcl
If you drink seawater, it will make you sick.

 Ziix ipxasi cmiipla zo hpoohit ta x, ˻ hiiqui saa˼ aha.

thing 3.poss:flesh sbj.nmlz:bad indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:eat ds ut    1.poss:toward irr.ind:? aux:dcl
If I eat rotten meat, it will do me harm. bb &<+,

21.1.3 Negative clauses

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FODXVH ZKHQ WKH QHJDWLRQ LV EHLQJ HPSKDVL]HG 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 … xo ziix yasiijim áa z ipacta zo tompaa

but thing [3.poss:]pon:do true indf;sg 3.poss:[pon:]be_in_appearance indf;sg rlt:neg:pass:know
ho.
dcl
… but it is not known what she was doing.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

 Cói isiitaxim ipi z ˻ an imoofin˼ iha.

still 3.poss:irr.ind:go\impf del indf;sg    [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:neg:? dcl
He was not old enough to walk yet.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ He had not arrived at the age of walking yet.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ

 ˻ Zaxt quisil˼ áa hant quih iti quiij zo yacp z

   ? sbj.nmlz:small true land def;fl 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit indf;sg [3.poss:]pon;grow indf;sg

itcommís, yoque.
3.sbj:rlt:neg:resemble rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
His growth was not like that of a real child.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQ


7KH LQGH᯳QLWH SOXUDO DUWLFOH pac some PD\ DOVR EH XVHG LQ  ZLWK D VLPLODU UHDGLQJ ,I D GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LV XVHG KRZHYHU
RQO\ D VSHFL᯳F UHDGLQJ LV SRVVLEOH

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ ZLWKRXW WKH GHWHUPLQHU KHUH LV WKH PRUH FRPPRQ ZD\ WR VD\ WKLV 7KH LQGH᯳QLWH SOXUDO DUWLFOH pacbsome
PD\ DOVR EH XVHG KHUH ZLWK D VLPLODU UHDGLQJ ,I D GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LV XVHG KRZHYHU RQO\ D VSHFL᯳F UHDGLQJ LV SRVVLEOH
558 Chapter 21: Determiners

21.1.4 Predicate nominal in copular construction

$ QRPLQDO ZLWK DQ LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH PD\ EH WKH SUHGLFDWH QRPLQDO LQ D FRSXODU FRQVWUXFWLRQ VHH i IRU PRUH
GHWDLOV DV VKRZQ LQ 

 Tiix cmiique ha xo cmiique áa z imhaa ha.

dem;dt;sg (Seri)_person dcl but (Seri)_person true indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
He was a Seri, but he wasn't a real Seri person.bb +LSRFDPSR

 María quij ˻ ziix zo shaa˼ caha.

María def;cm    thing indf;sg irr.ind:eq sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
María will be an official/officer.

21.1.5 No generic sense

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quih ZLWK D VLQJXODU QRPLQDO PD\ KDYH WKLV LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ KRZHYHU VHH i )RU XQJUDPPDWLFDO DWWHPSWV WR
GR WKLV VHH DE

 D * Xeecoj zo ˻ ziix ccam˼ cacaatol iha.

wolf indf;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:alive sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl
(A wolf is a dangerous animal.)

E * Cmozime zo ziix quih cöipátajquim hac, taax

sbj.nmlz:drunk indf;sg thing def;fl 3.io:3.poss:pon:pass:insult def;loc dem.dt.pl

cacaatol iha.
sbj.nmlz:dangerous dcl
(It is dangerous to say offensive things to a drunk man.)

21.1.6 Quantitative indefiniteness and count nouns

7KH VLQJXODU DUWLFOH FDQ EH QHDUO\ SDUDSKUDVHG ZLWK tazo one ZKHQ XVHG ZLWK FRXQW QRXQV DQG WKH SOXUDO DUWLFOH
FDQ EH UHSODFHG E\ VRPH H[SUHVVLRQ RI SOXUDO TXDQWLW\ ,Q ERWK FDVHV KRZHYHU WKHVH DOWHUQDWLYH H[SUHVVLRQV DUH
PRUH H[SOLFLW RU HPSKDWLF DERXW WKH QXPEHU

 D Cmiique tazo yoofp.

(Seri)_person one rlyo:arrive
ONE Seri person arrived.

E Comcaac quipxa yoozcam.

(Seri)_person\pl sbj.nmlz:few/little_bit rlyo:arrive\pl
Few Seris arrived.

7KH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV GR QRW FRRFFXU ZLWK WKH TXDQWL᯳HU H[SUHVVLRQV LQ WKH typical VLWXDWLRQV

 * moosni tazo zo
Chelonia_mydas one indf;sg
(one sea turtle)

 * háxaca° coocj pac

dog\pl sbj.nmlz:two indf:\pl
(two dogs)

0RUHRYHU tazo one GRHV FRRFFXU ZLWK zo a, an LQ WKH PDUNHG FRQWH[WV GHVFULEHG LQ i EHORZ

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU officer/official, person of authority LV ziix zo chaa thing indf;sg sbj.nmlz:eq who is a thing

7KHVH H[SUHVVLRQV RI TXDQWLW\ DUH QRW GHWHUPLQHUV KRZHYHU 7KH\ FRRFFXU ZLWK GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV LQ PDQ\ VLWXDWLRQV
§21.1.6 Quantitative indefiniteness and count nouns 559

7KH SOXUDO LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH FRRFFXUV ZLWK D TXDQWL᯳HG QRPLQDO LQ H[DPSOHV  KRZHYHU DOWKRXJK
WKHVH KDYH QRW EHHQ V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ VWXGLHG

 Xiica ctamcö coocj pti cyacj pac toc cötiih,

thing\pl male\pl sbj.nmlz:two rcp sbj.nmlz:[tr:]call_sibling indf;pl there 3.io:rlt:be.fl
There were two brothers,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 … ˻ xiica quiistox˼ catxo pac toc cömotat …

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl sbj.nmlz:much/many indf;pl there 3.io:twd:rlt:move:pl
… lots of people were coming, … bb 177 0N 

7KH LQGH᯳QLWH QRPLQDOV PD\ EH WKH DQWHFHGHQWV RI D SURQRXQ HYHQ LI SKRQHWLFDOO\ QXOO LQ D IROORZLQJ FODXVH
DV LQ  DQG 

 Moosni zo hataht, seehe cöhatcmaaj ma, Pedro

Chelonia_mydas indf;sg 1p.sbj:rlt:see\pl to_do_(it) 3.io:1p.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able:pl ds Pedro
quih hizi yaaicot.
def;fl 1p.do:rlyo:help_kill
We saw a turtle and we couldn’t kill it, so Pedro helped us kill it. bb &<+,

 'RVB+HUPDQRV 
D ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, comcaii zo toc cotom,
   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds old_woman indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:lie
Then an old woman was there,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

E ox itai, yoque, xiica tacoi:

thus 3.sbj:rlt:tell rlyo:unsp.sbj:say thing\pl md:pl
thus she told those people, it is said:bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

:KHQ pac RFFXUV ZLWK D FRXQW QRXQ WKH QRXQ LV XVXDOO\ LQ DQ H[SOLFLWO\ SOXUDO IRUP LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV
 DOWKRXJK LW LV YHU\ RFFDVLRQDOO\ LQ WKH VLQJXODU IRUP ,Q DOO WKHVH H[DPSOHV D QXPEHU H[SUHVVLRQ VXFK
DV capxa sbj.nmlz:three three FRXOG UHSODFH WKH SOXUDO LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH

 D ˻ an icoaahtoj˼ pac ihsexl taa

   [3.poss:]in 3.poss:pon:unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:do/say/put.fl:pl indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy rlt;aux
itaasi zo htcmaa ma, …
3.poss:name indf;sg 1s.sbj:rlt:neg:know ds
I was going to buy some injections, but I didn’t know the name of it… bb &<+,

E ˻ Eentz quiixlc coozalc˼ ˻ cmaa quiih˼ pac

   metal\pl sbj.nmlz:inflated;pl sbj.nmlz:square;pl now sbj.nmlz:be.fl indf;pl

ihtexl, …
1s.sbj.tr:rlt:take/buy
I bought some new five-gallon cans, … bb &<+,

 Comcaac pac ihtaho, …

(Seri)_person\pl indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:see
I saw some (Seri) people, … bb &<+,

*UDPPDWLFDO YDULDWLRQV RQ WKLV SKUDVH KHUH LQFOXGH xiica quih quiistox quih catxo, taax DQG xiica quih quiistox catxo
pac
560 Chapter 21: Determiners

 … xiica comcaac cmis pac ihtaho ma,

thing\pl (Seri)_person\pl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]resemble indf;pl 1s.sbj.rlt:see ds
hin yaaomoj.
1s.do:rlyo:request_gift:pl
I saw some (non-Seri) Indians, they asked me for things. bb &<+,

 … ˻ xiica canaaotaj˼ heecto pac …

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:meow:pl juvenile\pl indf;pl
some kittens

6RPH H[DPSOHV RI DSSDUHQW ODFN RI SOXUDO PDUNLQJ RQ WKH QRXQ PD\ EH GXH WR WKH IDFW WKDW WKH SOXUDO IRUP
KDV IDOOHQ LQWR GLVXVH 6XFK LV WKH SUREDEO\ WKH FDVH IRU hapxa cottontail rabbit ZKLFK KDV D SOXUDO IRUP hápxalc
OLVWHG LQ WKH GLFWLRQDU\ 6HH H[DPSOH 

 hapxa pac ano toii, toc cöcoii ha.

Sylvilagus_sp. indf;pl 3.poss:in rlt:stand;pl there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand;pl dcl
(and) there were some cottontail rabbits in it.bb &RQ3XP

2WKHU H[DPSOHV RI pac ZLWK D VLQJXODU FRXQW QRXQ IRU ZKLFK H[LVWV DQ H[SOLFLW SOXUDO IRUP DUH caatc pac some
grasshoppers FI caatjc grasshoppers hast pac some stones FI hásatoj stones ziix coaafp pac some mullets
FI xiica coaafp mullets DQG haaxat iyat pac some creosote branches FI íyataj its tips 7KHVH FDVHV PD\ EH
OLPLWHG WR VPDOO LWHPV RU LWHPV YLHZHG LQ JURXSV WKH IDFWV KDYH QRW EHHQ V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ VWXGLHG KRZHYHU
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HDUWK

21.1.7 Quantitative indefiniteness and mass nouns

%RWK RI WKH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV PD\ DOVR EH XVHG ZLWK PDVV QRXQV WR LQGLFDWH DQ LQGH᯳QLWH TXDQWLW\ 7KH VLQJXODU
DUWLFOH PD\ LQ VXFK FRQWH[WV LQGLFDWH D SRUWLRQ HVSHFLDOO\ LI WKH QRXQ UHIHUV WR VRPHWKLQJ WKDW LV HDVLO\ GLYLGHG
LQWR XQLWV KXQNV RU SLHFHV IRU H[DPSOH 7KH QRPLQDO PD\ HLWKHU EH VSHFL᯳F DQG UHIHUHQWLDO RU QRQVSHFL᯳F

 Hap ipxasi zo htasni, …

Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:flesh indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:roast
I roasted a piece of mule deer meat, … bb &<+,

 Zixquisiil ctam quih panaal zo cötaahjöim, …

child male def;fl honey indf;sg 3.io:rlt:choke
The boy was choking on a honeycomb, … bb &<+,

 Hax pac he haas.

fresh_water indf;pl 1.io:im:cause_drink
Give me some water to drink!bb &<+,

 ¡Tom pac hino camjc!

  money indf;pl 1.poss:to im:deliver
Bring us some money!bb &<+,

([DPSOHV RI WKH SOXUDO DUWLFOH pac ZLWK PDVV QRXQV LQFOXGH xiica hapahit pac thing\pl sbj.nmlz:pass:eat some
some food ˻ hocö ine˼ pac pine 3.poss:mucus some some tar xapoo ipxasi pac Zalophus_californicus 3.poss:flesh

,QGH᯳QLWH QRPLQDOV PD\ DOVR RFFXU ZLWKRXW DQ\ DUWLFOH

L ¡Hax cöhaas!
  fresh_water 3.io:im:cause_drink
Give her/him water to drink! bb &<+,
§21.1.8 Non-quantitative indefiniteness in marked contexts 561

some some sea lion meat hesen pac some ironwood hantíp pac some salt haquejöc pac some firewood
˻ xiica an icaai˼ pac thing\pl [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:make some sugar panaal yamaax pac honeybee
[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:make_alcoholic_beverage some honey hasaaiti pac some lubricating oil csipx pac some glue
haat ix pac Jatropha_cuneata 3.poss:resin some limberbush sap
:KLOH WKH VLQJXODU LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LV QRW W\SLFDOO\ XVHG ZLWK PDVV QRXQV H[FHSW WR LQGLFDWH D FRXQWDEOH XQLW
RI WKDW LWHP WKHUH DUH FRQWH[WV LQ ZKLFK LW GRHV RFFXU ZLWK PDVV QRXQV ZLWK GL᯲HUHQW VHPDQWLFV 6HH VHFWLRQ
i

21.1.8 Non-quantitative indefiniteness in marked contexts

7KH VLQJXODU DUWLFOH PD\ LQGLFDWH QRQTXDQWLWDWLYH LQGH᯳QLWHQHVV ZLWK PDVV QRXQV DQG FRXQW QRXQV LQ VRPH
PDUNHG FRQWH[WV HVSHFLDOO\ LQ QHJDWLYH FODXVHV DQG UKHWRULFDO TXHVWLRQV ZKHUH WKLV LV TXLWH FRPPRQ 7KH QRP
LQDO LV QRQVSHFL᯳F DQG QRQUHIHUHQWLDO LQ PDQ\ RI WKHVH FDVHV

 D Tom zo hyonyaa.
money indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:own
I don’t have any money.

E Tom z iyonyaa.
money indf;sg 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:own
S/he doesn’t have any money.

 Hax zo hxomaho.
fresh_water indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:em:neg:see
I don’t have any water.bb &<+,

 … tom zo mapomoonec, …
money indf;sg 2p.sbj:irr.dep.neg:carry_items\pl
… and don’t take along any money, …bb 177 /N 

 ¡¿Zó mpooh, hax zo nsiisi teee?!

    how? 2s.sbj:irr.dep:do/say/put.fl fresh_water indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:drink rhet
How on earth would you get any water to drink? bb &<+,

([DPSOH  VKRZV WKDW WKLV XVH RI WKH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LQ QHJDWLYH FODXVHV PD\ HYHQ H[WHQG WR QRXQ SKUDVHV
WKDW DUH XQGHUVWRRG DV GH᯳QLWH RU HYHQ UHIHUHQWLDO DOWKRXJK WKH H[SUHVVLRQ LV WDNHQ DV ංVWURQJHUඃ WKDQ WKH VWDQGDUG
RQH ZLWK WKH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH

 ¡Pedro zo hxomaho!
  Pedro indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:em:neg:see
I haven’t seen Pedro!

7KH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH PD\ FRRFFXU ZLWK WKH DGMHFWLYH tazo one XQGHU WKH VDPH FRQGLWLRQV RI QHJDWLRQ

 Ziix tazo z imhaa ha. Xiica quih anxö quiinim iha.

thing one indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl thing\pl def;fl intns sbj.nmlz:tr:be_mixed_with dcl
It’s not just one thing. It has lots of things mixed in it.


7KH ORDQZRUG panaal LV XVHG IRU honeybee DV ZHOO DV IRU honey DQG honeycomb ,Q )HEUXDU\  , ZDV WROG E\ RQH PDQ
WKDW WKH FRUUHFW IRUP IRU honey UHTXLUHV D SOXUDO IRUP RI WKH YHUE IRU make alcoholic beverage VLQFH LW FRPHV IURP PRUH WKDQ
RQH EHH ,Q WKDW FDVH WKH FRUUHFW IRUP LV yamaajc UDWKHU WKDQ yamaax 2WKHU FRQVXOWDQWV IRXQG WKLV FRPPHQW RGG
562 Chapter 21: Determiners

21.2 Definite articles

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/RFDWLRQ hac —

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 D haso hyaa° quih

net mine def;fl
my netbb &<+,

E haacni hyaa° com

abs;bow mine def;hz
my bowbb &<+,

F hilít quij
1.poss:hair/head def;cm
my headbb &<+,

G mata quij
2.poss:mother def;cm
your motherbb &<+,

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LUUHJXODU KRZHYHU LQ KDYLQJ D ORQJ YRZHO VLQFH WKH URRW DQG DOO RWKHU IRUPV RI WKLV YHUE KDYH D VKRUW YRZHO
§21.2.1 The article com (hz) 563

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21.2.1 The article com (hz)

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RU LQDQLPDWH REMHFW WKDW LV LQ WKLV SRVLWLRQ DQG ZKLFK KDV WKLV SUR᯳OH 3KUDVHV GHVFULELQJ VOHHSLQJ VLFN RU GHDG
DQLPDOV RU SHRSOH WKHUHIRUH XVXDOO\ RFFXU ZLWK WKLV DUWLFOH 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 ˻ Ziix canaao˼ com tacsx, tmeetosa itaxi, hant z iiqui

   thing sbj.nmlz:meow def;hz rlt:wake_up rlt:stretch 3.sbj:rlt:finish land indf;sg 3.poss:toward
yiin.
rlyo:go
The cat woke up, stretched and left.bb &<+,

 Zixquisiil com itoj coi iiqui caanlam iha. Quiim iha.

child def;hz 3.poss:eye:pl def;pl 3.poss:toward sbj.nmlz:closed\pl dcl sbj.nmlz:sleep dcl
The child has her/his eyes closed. S/he’s sleeping.bb &<+,

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, José com totj, …

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds José def;hz rlt:get_up_from_lying_down
Then Joseph got up, … bb 177 0W 

 Hap com tooxi ma x, …

Odocoileus_hemionus def;hz rlt:die ds ut
When a mule deer dies, … bb &<+,

7KLV DUWLFOH LV DOVR XVHG IRU FHUWDLQ REMHFWV RU DQLPDOV WKDW W\SLFDOO\ KDYH WKLV SUR᯳OH ZKHQ WKH\ DUH QRW LQ
VRPH RWKHU RULHQWDWLRQ OL]DUGV VQDNHV ᯳VK VWLFNV URSHV HWF 6RPH SDUWLFXODU LWHPV canoaa small boat csaai
hairbrush ˻ eenim cosi˼ needle ˻ hehe zamij˼ storage box zixcám fish hacaaiz spear icaaspoj writing instrument
OLNH SHQFLO ˻ hehe iti icoohitim˼ table cocazni° rattlesnake haxoj shore ˻ ziix hapx coom˼ whale heenj stringed
instrument haaho road ˻ hant hazaain˼ fence ixaai its roots haxaaza arrow itaamt his/her sandal yaap his/her
neck ˻ itj iixquim˼ his/her belt hasoj river ipl his/her tongue ˻ hehe icám˼ caterpillar 5HIHUHQFH WR D VOHHSLQJ EDW
LQ KDQJLQJ SRVLWLRQ XVHV WKH DUWLFOH com
7KH DUWLFOH com LV DOVR XVHG IRU REMHFWV WKDW DUH SHUFHLYHG DV RFFXS\LQJ D JUHDWHU SODQHOLNH DUHD UHJDUGOHVV
RI LWV RULHQWDWLRQ VXFK DV xepe sea hant land ˻ hehe án˼ countryside caail° dry lake bed hamiime sky inaail
his/her skin haaco iizc abs;house 3.poss.front wall of a house
:KHQ XVHG ZLWK hast stone, rock, mountain WKH DUWLFOH com PD\ LPSO\ D JURXS RI PRXQWDLQV DV LQ  D
ORQJ ORZSUR᯳OHG PRXQWDLQ RU D ORQJ URFN

 Hast com ano hptiihtim, ...

stone/mountain def;hz [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:be.fl:impf
I was going in the mountains, … bb &<+,

:KHQ XVHG ZLWK ˻ ziix is cquihjö˼ bean LQ LWV VLQJXODU IRUP thing 3.poss:fruit sbj.nmlz:red WKH DUWLFOH com
UHIHUV WR D FURS RI EHDQV DV LQ 

 ˻ Ziix is cquihjö˼ hapéc com cocyaxi ha.

   thing 3.poss:immature_fruit sbj.nmlz:red sbj.nmlz:pass:plant def;hz 3.io:sbj.nmlz:? dcl
The beans are ready to harvest.bb &<+,

:KHQ XVHG ZLWK WKH DUWLFOH com WKH QRXQ hehe EDVLFDOO\ plant PHDQV D branch stick RU board

$FFRUGLQJ WR ;DYLHU 0RUHQR SF WKH IROORZLQJ OHWWHUV RI WKH DOSKDEHW UHTXLUH WKLV DUWLFOH c cö, e f i j jö l s t x
xö y DQG z EHFDXVH RI WKHLU IRUP /LNH VRPH QDWLYH VSHDNHU ZULWHUV , KDYH EHHQ XQDEOH WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH PRWLYDWLRQ $OVR
VHH QRWH  LQ WKLV FKDSWHU
564 Chapter 21: Determiners

$ JURXS RI REMHFWV DQLPDOV SHRSOH SODQWV HWFൺDV SOXUDO QRXQVൺPD\ DOVR EH SUHVHQWHG ZLWK WKLV DUWLFOH
HYHQ WKRXJK DV VLQJXODU LWHPV WKH\ PD\ EH SUHVHQWHG ZLWK RWKHU DUWLFOHV 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ... hehet com imocaj com ano tiihtim x, ...

plant:pl def;hz 3.poss:place_under\pl def;hz [3.poss:]in rlt:be.fl:impf ut
… it goes under the bushes, … bb &<+,

 ˻ Xiica ccámotam˼ ˻ hehe án˼ com ano coom com

   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:alive:pl plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz
catl iha.
sbj.nmlz:timid\pl dcl
The animals in the countryside are wild.bb &<+,

 ˻ Xiica quih quiistox˼ ihmaa° com ...

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl other def;hz
Other people ... bb &<+,

 ˻ Hantx mocat˼ com, taax inloj iizjoj quih

   at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move:pl def;hz dem;dt;pl 3.poss:hand/arm\pl 3.poss:front\pl\pl def;fl
quipjöc iha.
sbj.nmlz:thick\pl dcl
The ancestors had very thick palms.bb &<+,

 … xiica quiistox com ipooht, …

thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;hz 3.sbj:irr.dep:see\pl
... when people see them, ... bb 177 0DWW 

 Thamoc ma x, azlc canl com xozaahox.

rlt:become_night ds ut star\pl sbj.nmlz:burn\pl def;hz em:shine
At night the stars shine.bb &<+,

 Hoocala com cötaanim, cötajöc oo, toc cömiihca, taax

cloud(s) def;hz 3.io:rlt:closed 3.io:rlt:continue del there 3.io:rlmi:be_located dem;dt;pl
cöiiha, taax.
3.io:3.poss:[pon:]beLUUHJ dem;dt;pl
It continued to be cloudy.bb &<+,

 Zaap quij, tiix ziic captasat isoj iha,

Geococcyx_californianus def;cm dem;dt;sg bird sbj.nmlz:bring_bad_luck_to 3.poss:body dcl
ziicalc ihmaa° com ˻ iiqui cöihiin hac˼.
bird:pl other def;hz    3.poss:toward 3.io.3.poss:pon:touch def;loc
The roadrunner is a bird that beings bad luck, unlike other birds.bb &<+,

1RXQV UHIHUULQJ WR soul life RU spirit DOO XVH WKH DUWLFOH com HYHQ LQ LGLRPV VHH FKDSWHU  VHH 

 D iisax com XVHG LQ YDULRXV LGLRPV RI HPRWLRQ

E ihiisax com his/her/its breath, his/her soul
F iquiisax com one’s life, one’s spirit
§21.2.2 The article quij (cm) 565

21.2.2 The article quij (cm)

7KH DUWLFOH quij SURWRW\SLFDOO\ FRUUHODWHV ZLWK FRPSDFW REMHFWV 7KH REMHFW PD\ EH DQ\ DQLPDWH RU LQDQLPDWH
REMHFW ZLWK WKLV SUR᯳OH 3KUDVHV GHVFULELQJ ODQG PDPPDOV LQFOXGLQJ SHRSOH XVH WKLV DUWLFOH ZKHQ WKH\ DUH
DFWXDOO\ SHUFHLYHG RU GHSLFWHG DV VLWWLQJ
%LUGV DQG LQVHFWV XQOHVV WKH\ DUH ORQJ RU GHSLFWHG DV ᯴\LQJ RU GHDG DUH XVXDOO\ SUHVHQWHG ZLWK quij xcoomoj
fly conteetxyat stinkbug caamjö° screech-owl cset frigatebird HWF
,W VHHPV WR EH WKH FDVH WKDW LI VRPHWKLQJ FDQQRW EH NQRFNHG RYHU RU PDGH WR IDOO LQ ZKLFK FDVH LW ZRXOG WDNH
cop i LV QRW ORQJ LQ ZKLFK FDVH LW ZRXOG WDNH com i LV QRW ᯴H[LEOH LQ ZKLFK FDVH LW ZRXOG
WDNH quih i DQG LV VWDWLRQDU\ WKHQ quij LV WKH DSSURSULDWH DUWLFOH 5RXQG REMHFWV DUH WKHUHIRUH W\SLFDOO\
SUHVHQWHG ZLWK quij 1RXQV W\SLFDOO\ RFFXUULQJ ZLWK quij LQFOXGH zaah sun iizax moon ilít his/her/its head ˻ ziix
an icoos˼ btape recorder iionam his/her hat hamazaj clay pot ˻ ziix hapamyam˼ pill/tablet trooqui vehicle ˻ hehe
hascám˼ ship (VWDEOLVKHG FLWLHV XVH WKLV DUWLFOH Hezitmisoj Hermosillo 1RXQV DQG QDPHV UHIHUULQJ WR SHRSOH
DQG GHLWLHV W\SLFDOO\ XVH WKLV DUWLFOH DOPRVW E\ GHIDXOW 7KH QRXQ IRU party pyeest DOVR XVHV WKLV DUWLFOH

21.2.3 The article cap (vt)

7KH DUWLFOH cap SURWRW\SLFDOO\ FRUUHODWHV ZLWK REMHFWV LQ D YHUWLFDO SRVLWLRQ 6RPH VSHDNHUV EXW DSSDUHQWO\ D
PLQRULW\ SUHIHU WKH IRUP cop 7KLV LQQRYDWLYH IRUP KDSSHQV WR DSSHDU LQ PDQ\ H[DPSOHV REWDLQHG IURP FHUWDLQ
NH\ FRQVXOWDQWV 6RPH VSHDNHUV RFFDVLRQDOO\ DOWHUQDWH EHWZHHQ WKH WZR IRUPV 7KH REMHFW PD\ EH DQ\ DQLPDWH
RU LQDQLPDWH REMHFW ZLWK WKLV SUR᯳OH /DQG PDPPDOV LQFOXGLQJ SHRSOH DUH GHVFULEHG WKLV ZD\ ZKHQ WKH\ DUH
DFWXDOO\ SHUFHLYHG RU GHSLFWHG DV VWDQGLQJ DV LQ 

 Xazoj cop ox tee, yoque:

Puma_concolor def;vt thus rlt:say rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
Puma said:bb &RQ3XP

7KLV DUWLFOH LV DOVR XVHG W\SLFDOO\ IRU FHUWDLQ REMHFWV WKDW W\SLFDOO\ KDYH WKLV SUR᯳OH ZKHQ WKH\ DUH QRW LQ VRPH
RWKHU RULHQWDWLRQ 6RPH SDUWLFXODU LWHPV haaco house √Vnol finger haas mesquite tree Prosopis glandulosa
:KHQ XVHG ZLWK WKH DUWLFOH cap WKH QRXQ hehe EDVLFDOO\ plant PHDQV tree 7KH QRXQ hast ZKLFK PHDQV stone,
rock ZLWK WKH DUWLFOH quij PHDQV mountain RI D FHUWDLQ SUR᯳OH ZKHQ LW LV DFFRPSDQLHG E\ cap
7KH DUWLFOH cap LV DOVR XVHG ZLWK QRXQV GHVFULELQJ OLTXLGV LQ FRQWDLQHUV DQG FHUWDLQ KDQJLQJ LWHPV VXFK DV
FXUWDLQV $W ᯳UVW WKLV PD\ VHHP RGG EXW OLNH VWDQGLQJ REMHFWV WKH\ IDOO ZKHQ WKH\ DUH QRW VXSSRUWHG ([DPSOHV
hasaaiti gasoline ˻ hasaaiti coozlil˼ lubricating oil ˻ ziix cooha˼ imt cow’s milk ˻ yahemej áa˼ sail 7KLV DUWLFOH LV
XVHG ZLWK FHUWDLQ REMHFWV WKDW FRQWDLQ OLTXLGV RU IRRG VXFK DV hasaj flat basket hateya bottle xtiip Laevicardium
elatum giant egg cockle (eenm) hanzajipj bowl, plate DQG eenm hanzajipj quiipa frying pan 6RPH ZRUGV
IRU FRQWDLQHUV LQFOXGLQJ taasa cup D ORDQZRUG DQG hamcanoiin pan XVH WKH DUWLFOH quij KRZHYHU $QG WKH
DUWLFOH cap LV DOVR XVHG ZLWK JDVHV LQFOXGLQJ hai wind, air XQOHVV GHVFULEHG H[SOLFLWO\ DV PRYLQJ 6HH H[DPSOHV


 Hax cop anxö spasi aha.

fresh_water def;vt intns irr.ind:pass:drink aux:dcl
One should drink lots of water.

 Hai cop intooit ma, cöihaafzx hac iti hoocala

wind def;vt twd:rlt:arrive ds 3.io:3.poss:pon:fast def;loc 3.poss:on cloud
cötaanim ma, hant com tcooo yicopol.
3.io:rlt:closed/covered ds land def;hz rlt:all rlyo:dark
When the wind came, it quickly got cloudy and all the earth became dark. bb &<+,

7KH DUWLFOH cap LV DOVR XVHG ZLWK QRXQV ZKHQ WKH\ DUH XVHG LQ D PRUH DEVWUDFW VHQVH VXFK DV SHULRGV RI WLPH
DV VKRZQ LQ 


$FFRUGLQJ WR ;DYLHU 0RUHQR SF WKH IROORZLQJ OHWWHUV RI WKH DOSKDEHW UHTXLUH WKLV DUWLFOH a h m n o p qu DQG r
EHFDXVH RI WKHLU IRUP $OVR VHH QRWH  LQ WKLV FKDSWHU
566 Chapter 21: Determiners

 D zaah cap the day zaah quij the sun

E iizax cap the month iizax quij the moon
F hant cap the year hant com the land

7KLV DUWLFOH LV XVHG ZLWK QRPLQDOL]DWLRQV RI YHUEV UHIHUULQJ WR PHWHRURORJLFDO HYHQWV DQG DOVR VRPH RWKHU
QRPLQDOL]DWLRQV DV VKRZQ LQ 

 D ihaapl cap the cold weather FI √aapl be cold

E ihamoc cap the night FI √hamoc become night
F ihipon cap his/her/its voice FI √ipon make vocal sound

7KH QRXQ IRU rain ipca LV DQ LUUHJXODU IRUPDWLRQ GLVWLQFW IURP WKH QRPLQDOL]DWLRQ iipca 3.poss:[pon:]rain its
raining LW DOVR XVHV WKH DUWLFOH cap
$ NQLIH RU NQLIHOLNH REMHFW DOZD\V XVHV WKH DUWLFOH cap IRU UHDVRQV WKDW DUH QRW FOHDU

21.2.4 The article quih (fl)

7KH DUWLFOH quih KDV D ZLGHU GLVWULEXWLRQ WKDQ WKH RWKHU DUWLFOHV ,W LV WKH DSSURSULDWH DUWLFOH IRU WKLQJV SHUFHLYHG
DV ᯴H[LEOH hapaspoj° paper hataai° cloth poosj fishing line ˻ eenm hacoaazj˼ chain ilit his/her hair hácalca
clothing, personal items 7KLV XVDJH ᯳WV PRVW GLUHFWO\ ZLWK LWV HW\PRORJLFDO VRXUFH WKH YHUE √iih be [flexible
item] 2QH H[DPSOH LV JLYHQ LQ 

 Poosj quih cozazni ha.

cord def;fl sbj.nmlz:tangled dcl
The fishing line is tangled up (on the ground).

,I DQ LWHP LV LQ YLHZ RU LI RQH NQRZV ZKDW SRVLWLRQ LW LV LQ WKHQ XVXDOO\ RQH VKRXOG XVH WKH DSSURSULDWH SRVLWLRQDO
DUWLFOH ZLWK WKH QRPLQDO UHIHUULQJ WR WKDW LWHP %XW VRPHWLPHV RI FRXUVH WKH LWHP LV QRW LQ VLJKW DQG RQH FDQQRW
DSSURSULDWHO\ LQGLFDWH LWV SK\VLFDO RULHQWDWLRQ ,W LV LQ WKLV VLWXDWLRQ WKDW WKH DUWLFOH quih LV DOVR W\SLFDOO\ XVHG
DOWKRXJK WKH FRQGLWLRQV IRU LWV XVH DUH QRW DV PHFKDQLFDO DV LW PLJKW VRXQG ,W LV SUREDEO\ LQFRUUHFW WR VD\ RXWULJKW
WKDW quih LV WKH ංXQVSHFL᯳HG SRVLWLRQඃ DUWLFOH EXW LW FRPHV FORVH WR EHLQJ WKDW ,W VHHPV WKDW LI RQH NQRZV WKH
SRVLWLRQ RI WKH LWHP LW LV VW\OLVWLFDOO\ SUHIHUUHG WR XVH WKH DSSURSULDWH DUWLFOH Quih DOVR VHHPV WR EH WKH DUWLFOH
DSSURSULDWH IRU QRPLQDOV WKDW DUH OHVV LQ IRFXV LQ WKH VHQWHQFH )RU RQH RI WKHVH UHDVRQV WKHUHIRUH WKH DUWLFOH
quih RFFXUV DW WKH HQG RI WKH QRPLQDO LQ H[DPSOH 

 [ Xazlc quih ctamcö quih caacöl quih ] htácotim,

Puma_concolor\pl def;fl male\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:big\pl def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:kill:impf
I have killed big male pumasbb &RQ3XP

%XW REYLRXVO\ WKH DUWLFOH quih RFFXUV WKUHH WLPHV LQ WKH QRPLQDO LQ  7KLV LOOXVWUDWHV D WKLUG PDMRU XVDJH
RI quih ZKLFK LV UHODWHG WR WKH KHDGLQWHUQDO VWUXFWXUH RI UHODWLYH FODXVHV LQ WKH ODQJXDJH ,W LV WKH RQO\ DUWLFOH
WKDW PD\ DSSHDU LQ WKLV FRQWH[W ZKLOH WKH ᯳QDO GHWHUPLQHU RI WKH QRPLQDO PXVW EH FKRVHQ EDVHG RQ WKH FULWHULD
PHQWLRQHG LQ WKH SUHYLRXV VHFWLRQV 6HH i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ
6HH DOVR WKH XVH RI quih ZLWK FHUWDLQ FODXVHV KHDGHG E\ GHYHUEDO QRXQV i
7KH DUWLFOH quih LV KDV PRUH SKRQHWLF YDULDWLRQ WKDQ WKH RWKHU DUWLFOHV :KHQ LW LV XVHG SKUDVHPHGLDOO\ LW
LV D YHU\ ZHDNO\ DUWLFXODWHG [k] WKH XVH RI WKH IXOO ZULWWHQ IRUP quih IRU WKLV VLWXDWLRQ LV LQ IDFW D OHDUQHG
FRQYHQWLRQ :KHQ quih RFFXUV XWWHUDQFH᯳QDOO\ DV LV SRVVLEOH ZKHQ D GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVH LV ULJKWGLVORFDWHG LW LV
DOVR SURQRXQFHG TXLWH ZHDNO\ DV [k] RU SHUKDSV [kʔ] :KHQ LW SUHFHGHV D YRZHOLQLWLDO ZRUG RU D ZRUG EHJLQQLQJ
ZLWK D JORWWDO VWRS IROORZHG E\ D YRZHO WKLV DUWLFOH LV SURQRXQFHG [kʔ] DQG LW LV SURQRXQFHG ZLWK WKDW IROORZLQJ

7KLV LV D FRUUHFWLRQ IURP ZKDW LV IRXQG LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\

6HH WKH DUWLFOH quij DERYH IRU WKH PHDQLQJ head ZLWK WKLV QRXQ
§21.2.5 The article hac (loc) 567

ZRUG LW LV D JRRG H[DPSOH RI ංZURQJZD\ඃ FOLWLFL]DWLRQ 2QO\ LI WKH IROORZLQJ ZRUG EHJLQV ZLWK D FRQVRQDQW
HYHQ JORWWDO VWRS LI WKDW JORWWDO VWRS LV IROORZHG E\ D FRQVRQDQW GRHV WKLV DUWLFOH KDYH LWV IXOO SURQXQFLDWLRQ [kiʔ]

21.2.5 The article hac (loc)

7KH DUWLFOH hac LV XVHG ZLWK QRPLQDOV WKDW GHQRWH D ORFDWLRQ ZKLFK PD\ EH D QDPHG FDPS EXW QRW DQ HVWDEOLVKHG
VHWWOHPHQW ZLWK SHUPDQHQW EXLOGLQJV 6HH WKH H[DPSOH LQ 

 «¡Ctam hipcom isliicot hac hax xomasol oo!

   male px;hz 3.poss:upper_back def;loc intns em:yellow del
“The back of this male is really yellow!”bb &RQ3XP

 «He ipot iicp hac iicp hasom aha.

  1.pro 3.poss:bottom 3.poss:side def;loc 3.poss:side 1s.sbj:irr.ind:lie aux:dcl
“I'll lie down way in the back.bb &RQ3XP

 ..., Cyazim hapáh hac comcaac quih ano toii ma,

(name) sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;loc (Seri)_person\pl def;fl [3.poss:]in rlt:be.fl\pl ds
...

..., the people were at the camp called Cyazim, ….bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

7KH DUWLFOH RFFXUV ZLWK VRPH DEVWUDFW HOHPHQWV EDVHG RQ GHYHUEDO QRXQV VXFK DV VSHHFK YRLFH DQG ROG GD\V DV
LQ H[DPSOHV 

 cocsar iitom hac

Mexican 3.poss:[pon:]speak def;loc
6SDQLVK ODQJXDJH

 Cöihipon hac ziix z immís iha.

3.io:3.poss:pon:hv:voice def;loc thing indf;sg 3.sbj:rlmi:resemble dcl
The way in which he used his voice was very strange.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 ˻ Hantx cömiiha˼ hac …

   at_base 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move def;loc
In the old days ... bb &<+,

7KLV DUWLFOH LV WKH RQH XVHG ZKHQ UHIHUULQJ WR D QDPH DV LQ 

 Pedro quij cmaam yaazi íi zo toc cötiij ma, Juana hac

Pedro def;cm female [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry first indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit ds Juana def;loc
cöimataasitot.
3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:aug:[hv:]name
Pedro named his first daughter Juana.

 ˻ Ziix imiipla haa˼ com itaasi hac ziix

   thing 3.poss:[pon:]bad [sbj.nmlz:]:beLUUHJ def;hz 3.poss:name def;loc thing
hapeexem iha.
sbj.nmlz:pass:respect_by_not_saying dcl
The name of a deceased person is honored by not saying it. bb &<+,


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WKDW IROORZHG LW 7KLV FRQYHQWLRQ ZDV FKDQJHG LQ WKH ODWH ൿV

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EFKDSWHU  WKDW WKH XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP RI WKH DUWLFOH LV DFWXDOO\ /kʔ/ LQ PRGHUQ 6HUL DQG WKDW WKH i LV HSHQWKHWLF LQ DOO
LQVWDQFHV RI WKLV ZRUG
568 Chapter 21: Determiners

21.2.6 The plural articles

2I WKH SOXUDO DUWLFOHV VKRZQ LQ WDEOH  RQO\ coi LV FRPPRQO\ XVHG ,W RFFXUV ZLWK SOXUDO FRXQW QRXQV DQG DOVR
ZLWK PDVV QRXQV WKDW UHIHU WR ᯳QH SDUWLFOHV VXFK DV ˻ hapaha quis˼ ᯴RXU DQG VROLGV VXFK DV ipxasi 3.poss:flesh
meat ZKHQ QRW YLHZHG DV D FKXQN LQ ZKLFK FDVH quij ZRXOG FRPPRQO\ EH XVHG ,W GRHV QRW RFFXU ZLWK OLTXLGV
WKHVH WDNH cap RU JDVHV WKHVH DOVR WDNH cap 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Zaah quih coox cah caaytaj coi coccaa ha.

sun def;fl all def;fl:foc horse:pl def;pl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]look_for dcl
S/he comes every day to look for the horses.bb $/,0

 María quih Juan quih tom coi cöiyeesxö.

María def;fl Juan def;fl money def;pl 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:hide+io
María hid the money from Juan.

 Hintaac quih ool ipxasi coi

1.poss:mother’s_younger_sister def;fl Stenocereus_thurberi 3.poss:flesh def;pl

iyoocöim, ˻ hocö ine˼ pac isaai taa.

3.sbj:rlyo:grind_to_make_tar    pine 3.poss:mucus indf;pl 3.sbj:irr.ind:make rlt:aux
My aunt was grinding organ pipe cactus pulp to make tar.bb &<+,

21.3 Demonstrative adjectives

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§21.3 Demonstrative adjectives 569

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570 Chapter 21: Determiners

7DEOH bb'HPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV

this (proximal) that (medial) that (distal)

ᅬ YHUWLFDO VJ hipcap ~ hipcop ticap ~ ticop himcap ~ himcop
 OLTXLG hizcap ~ hizcop tacap ~ tacop himcap ~ himcop
 YHUWLFDO SO hizcoyolca tacoyolca himcoyolca
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ᅬ ᯴H[LEOH VJ hipquih tiquih himquih
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Dem

Loc Art

hip cop

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§21.3 Demonstrative adjectives 571

7DEOH bb/RFDWLYH HOHPHQWV

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FRPSOH[ GHPRQVWUDWLYH
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Puma was there passing a certain place.bb &RQ3XP

 Zixquisiil ctam tintica canoaa xepe quih iteel tintica caao tintica
child male md:aw boat sea def;fl 3.poss:edge md:aw sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pass_by md:aw
iiqui tpanzx, ititeel oo, tii ntiya.
3.poss:toward rlt:run 3.sbj:rlt:keep_up_with del dem;dt aw:rlyo:move
The boy was running after the boat that was going along the seashore and was keeping up with the
boat.bb &<+,

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 D zaah tintica the day

E iizax tintica the month
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 Iizax tintica tcooo ma, iti cöhayaticpan.

moon/month md:aw rlt:all ds 3.poss:on 3.io:1p.sbj:rlyo:work
We work all month.

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 Xepe com itacl tintica ah iti miihtolca.

sea def;hz 3.poss:surface md:aw foc 3.poss:on rlmi:be.fl\pl\impf
They go on the surface of the sea. bb &<+,

 Ctam tintica ˻ hehe án˼ tintica ano yeectim iti, ...

male md:aw    plant [3.poss:]area md:aw [3.poss:]in [3.poss:]pon: 3.poss:on
While the man was in the countryside, …bb &<+,D

 Poosj tintica yazazni.

cord md:aw rlyo:tangled_up
The fishing line got tangled up.

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xepe quih iteel seashore haaho road 6HH WKH H[SUHVVLRQ IRU seashore LQ  DERYH
572 Chapter 21: Determiners

21.3.1 Evidence for the phrasal structure

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D FRPPRQ VRXUFH 7KH ᯳UVW ZRUG LV D '313 DGYHUE ZLWKRXW D FOHDU PHDQLQJ VHH i ,I WKHUH LV QR
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 [ Zaah xah zo ] toc cötap, hax taa ma, ...

sun ? indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand just rlt:aux ds
One day, …

 … [ Tear xah quij ] quiicot yaaitim poho.

devil ? def;cm 3.poss:with\pl [3.poss:]pon:make:impf doubt
... maybe the Devil is helping them.bb 177 0W 

:KHQ WKLV ZRUG xah RFFXUV ZLWK D QRQPRWLRQ GHPRQVWUDWLYH LW RFFXUV between WKH ORFDWLYH HOHPHQW DQG WKH
DUWLFOH HOHPHQW DV VKRZQ LQ 

 Ox cöiiha hiz-xah-hac ...

thus 3.io:3.poss:pon:beLUUHJ px-?-loc
Nowadays ...bb 177 0W 

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FRRUGLQDWRU RFFXUV DW WKH HQG RI HDFK FRRUGLQDWHG HOHPHQW EXW WR WKH OHIW RI WKH DUWLFOH LI WKHUH LV D GHWHUPLQHU DV
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GHPRQVWUDWLYH 6HH 

 ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ hiz-xah-coi

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl px-crd-pl
and these people

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EHIRUH WKH HQWLUH GHPRQVWUDWLYH DV VKRZQ LQ 

 … icaaitom quih ihaaipot xah tintica ...

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:speak def;fl 3.poss:pon:pay ? md:aw
... and all his answers ...bb 177 /N 

21.3.2 Proximal demonstrative adjectives

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EH XVHG FDWDSKRULFDOO\ VHH i

Vertical orientation
6LQJXODU hipcap GLDOHFWDO YDULDQW hipcop ([DPSOHV haaco hipcap this house hehe hipcap this tree, this
stick LQ YHUWLFDO SRVLWLRQ cmaam hipcap this woman VWDQGLQJ $OVR XVHG ZLWK H[SUHVVLRQV RI WLPH zaah
hipcap today zaah quih ccooo hipcap sun def;fl sbj.nmlz:entire px;vt the whole day today ihamoc hipcap
tonight 2FFDVLRQDOO\ XVHG ZLWK QRPLQDOV UHIHUULQJ WR OLTXLGV cafee hipcap this coffee
6LQJXODU OLTXLG hizcap ([DPSOHV hax hizcap this water ˻ hasaaiti coozlil˼ hizcap this lubricating oil panaal
hizcap this honey
§21.3.2 Proximal demonstrative adjectives 573

3OXUDO hizcoyolca XQFRPPRQൻJLYHV WKH LGHD RI QRW JURXSHG ([DPSOHV zaah hizcoyolca *hizcoi these days
haacöt hizcoyolca these houses
*HQHUDO SOXUDO hizcoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOHV comcaac hizcoi these Seri people haacöt hizcoi these houses $OVR
PDVV QRXQV hocö hizcoi this wood ˻ xiica an icaai˼ hizcoi this sugar ˻ hapaha quis˼ hizcoi this flour

Compact
6LQJXODU hipquij ([DPSOHV trooqui hipquij this vehicle ˻ hant imaasij˼ hipquij this tire hast hipquij this stone
sahmees hipquij this orange haaonam hipquij this hat cmaam hipquij this woman VHDWHG $OVR PD\ EH
XVHG ZLWK H[SUHVVLRQV IRU OHVV WDQJLEOH WKLQJV hant hipquij this place pyeest hipquij this fiesta he hipi hisoj
hipquij 1.pro intns 1.poss-self/body px:cm I, me
3OXUDO hizcoxalca XQFRPPRQൻJLYHV WKH LGHD RI JURXSHG ([DPSOH sahmees hizcoxalca these oranges
*HQHUDO SOXUDO hizcoi YHU\ FRPPRQ ([DPSOHV sahmees hizcoi these oranges haaonatz hizcoi these hats
haxölinaail hizcoi these shelled mollusks RU these shells

Horizontal
6LQJXODU hipcom ([DPSOHV cmaam hipcom this woman O\LQJ GRZQ ˻ hehe iti icoohitim˼ hipcom this table
haxaaza hipcom this arrow hocö hipcom this board zixcám hipcom this fish hap hipcom this (dead) mule
deer $OVR PD\ EH XVHG ZLWK H[SUHVVLRQV IRU OHVV WDQJLEOH WKLQJV hant hipcom this place
3OXUDO hizcoitoj XQFRPPRQൻJLYHV WKH LGHD RI JURXSHG ([DPSOH zixcám hizcoitoj these fish
3OXUDO hizcoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOHV hocö hizcoi these boards hapxöl hizcoi these ears of corn zixcám hizcoi
these fish
3OXUDO YLHZHG DV D JURXS WKDW LV TXLWH LQFOXVLYH DQG QRW SDUWLFXODU hizcom ([DPSOHV xiica hizcom these things
˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ hizcom these people comcaac hizcom these Seris hast hizcom these stones ziix quih
hapahit hizcom thing def;fl sbj.nmlz:pass:eat px\pl:hz this food xiica ilitcoj cmasl hizcom these yellow-headed
gnats

Flexible
6LQJXODU hipquih ([DPSOHV hapaspoj° hipquih this paper ˻ hapaspoj° iiqui icaaca˼ hipquih this letter ˻ eenm
hacoaazj˼ hipquih this chain hataai° hipquih this cloth siimet hipquih this bread $OVR eenim hipquih this
metal DV RSSRVHG WR eenim hipcap this knife
3OXUDO hizcoi ([DPSOHV hapáspolca° hizcoi these papers hácalca hizcoi these clothes

Generic
8VHG DV VLQJXODU hizquih ([DPSOH oot hizquih the coyote VSHDNLQJ JHQHULFDOO\ $Q H[DPSOH LV JLYHQ LQ 

 Hant com tahizoj ma x, oot hizquih itaho x, hax xah tamoz

land def;hz rlt:be_mirage ds ut Canis_latrans px\pl:fl 3.sbj:rlt:see ut intns ? rlt:think

x, iiqui mpanzx.
ut 3.poss:toward rlmi:run
When there is a mirage, the coyote thinks it is water and runs toward it. bb &<+,
b
&RQ᯴DWHG ZLWK )RFXV ah hizcah ([DPSOH ziix hizcah just anything

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6XFK QRPLQDOV DV VXEMHFWV GHWHUPLQH SOXUDO LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE DV LQ L

L Comcaac hizcom miizj iyomaaj.

(Seri)_person\pl px:hz well 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know:pl
These Seri people don’t understand it.


7KH QRXQ hast KHUH LV DOVR LQ D VLQJXODU IRUP DV LV TXLWH FRPPRQ IRU WKLV QRXQ GHVSLWH WKH SOXUDOLW\ RI WKH UHIHUHQW
574 Chapter 21: Determiners

Departing
6LQJXODU hipintica ([DPSOHV cmaam hipintica this woman GHSDUWLQJ cocazni° hipintica this rattlesnake
GHSDUWLQJ ,W DOVR PD\ EH XVHG ZLWK D QRXQ WKDW LV WKH SDWK RI WKH PRYLQJ REMHFW hant hipintica this place
ZKHUH VRPHRQH RU VRPHWKLQJ LV PRYLQJ haaho hipintica this road WKDW LV DKHDG RI XV
3OXUDO hipinticat ([DPSOH cmajiic hipinticat these women GHSDUWLQJ

Approaching
6LQJXODU hipmoca ([DPSOHV cmaam hipmoca this woman DSSURDFKLQJ haxz° hipmoca this dog DSSURDFK
LQJ ,W PD\ DOVR EH XVHG ZLWK D QRXQ WKDW LV WKH SDWK RI WKH PRYLQJ REMHFW DV LQ hant hipmoca cötafp… land
px:twd 3.io:rlt:arrive s/he was arriving here, …
3OXUDO hizmocat ([DPSOH cmajiic hizmocat these women DSSURDFKLQJ

Location (and items that have vaguely defined limits)

$OZD\V " XVHG DV VLQJXODU hizac ([DPSOHV hayeen hizac this face hant hizac this place $OVR XVHG ZLWK OHVV
WDQJLEOH LWHPV HVSHFLDOO\ LQFOXGLQJ H[SUHVVLRQV RI VSHHFK hiitom hizac 1.poss:[pon:]speak  px:loc my words
ziix quih iti me hszaxö hizac thing def;fl  3.poss:on 2.io1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:discuss px:loc this thing that I will tell
you ziix quih hoaanloj hizac thing def;fl 1.poss:obj.nmlz:do\pl px:loc this work that we do

General plural (and mass)

hizcoi 7\SLFDOO\ XVHG DV WKH SOXUDO RI WKH YDULRXV QRQPRWLRQ GHPRQVWUDWLYHV VHH DERYH $OVR FRPPRQO\
XVHG ZLWK QRXQV WKDW PD\ EH YLHZHG DV QRQOLTXLG QRQJDVHRXV PDVVHV ziix ipxasi hizcoi thing 3.poss:flesh
px:pl this meat RU xiica ipxasi hizcoi thing\pl 3.poss:flesh px:pl this meat xiica hapahit hizcoi thing\pl
sbj.nmlz:pass:eat px:pl this food ˻ ziix hapahit˼ hizcoi this food hap ipxasi hizcoi Odocoileus_hemionus
3.poss:flesh px:pl this mule deer meat ˻ hant xnoois˼ hizcoi this garbage

21.3.3 Medial demonstrative adjectives

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GLVWDQFH IURP WKH VSHDNHU 7KH FKRLFH RI GHPRQVWUDWLYH LV EDVHG RQ UHDVRQV DQDORJRXV WR WKRVH XVHG IRU FKRRVLQJ
DQ DUWLFOH VHH i 7KHVH DGMHFWLYHV DUH DOVR XVHG DQDSKRULFDOO\ VHH i
b
Vertical orientation
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that stick VWDQGLQJ $OVR XVHG ZLWK H[SUHVVLRQV RI WLPHൻzaah ticop that day zaah quih iitax ticop sun
def;fl  3.poss:[pon:]go   md;vt that hour ihamoc ticop 3.poss:[pon:]become_night md:vt that nightൻDQG WR RWKHU
OHVV WDQJLEOH WKLQJV iquipon ticop 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:voice md:vt that voice
6LQJXODU OLTXLG tacop ([DPSOH ˻ ziix ccam˼ ihaaitloj tacop thing sbj.nmlz:alive 3.poss:blood:pl md:vt that
blood of animals
3OXUDO tacoyolca XQFRPPRQ ([DPSOHV zaah tacoyolca those days haacöt tacoyolca those houses
*HQHUDO SOXUDO tacoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOH haacöt tacoi those houses
b
Compact
6LQJXODU tiquij ([DPSOHV cmaam tiquij that woman VHDWHG ˻ azoj canoj˼ tiquij that star heezitim tiquij that
city $OVR PD\ RFFXU ZLWK D QRPLQDO WKDW UHIHUV WR VRPHWKLQJ OHVV WDQJLEOH pyeest tiquij that fiesta
3OXUDO tacoxalca XQFRPPRQ ([DPSOH sahmees tacoxalca those oranges
*HQHUDO SOXUDO tacoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOHV heezitim tacoi those cities sahmees tacoi those oranges
b
Horizontal
6LQJXODU ticom ([DPSOHV cmaam ticom that woman O\LQJ GRZQ zixcám ticom that fish $OVR PD\ EH XVHG
ZLWK D QRPLQDO WKDW UHIHUV WR VRPHWKLQJ OHVV WDQJLEOH hant ticom that place
3OXUDO tacoitoj XQFRPPRQ ([DPSOH zixcám tacoitoj those fish
*HQHUDO SOXUDO tacoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOHV cmajiic tacoi those women zixcám tacoi those fish
3OXUDO YLHZHG DV JURXS tacom ([DPSOHV xicaquiziil tacom those children hehet tacom plant\pl md;hz those
plants haso caacöl tacom net(s) sbj.nmlz:big;pl md;hz those big nets
§21.3.4 Distal demonstrative adjectives 575

b
Flexible
6LQJXODU tiquih ([DPSOHV hapaspoj° tiquih that paper hataai° tiquih that cloth ziix ipxasi tiquih thing
3.poss:flesh md;fl WKDW PHDW ziix quih hoohit tiquih thing def;fl 1.poss:obj.nmlz:eat md;fl that food that I eat
siimet tiquih that bread ˻ ziix ihasii quiipe˼ tiquih that incense
3OXUDO taquihtolca XQFRPPRQ ([DPSOH hapáspolca° taquihtolca those papers, those books
*HQHUDO SOXUDO tacoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOHV hapáspolca° tacoi those papers, those books hácalca tacoi those
clothes
b
Unidentified
8VHG DV VLQJXODU taquih 7KLV LV QRW D FRPPRQ GHPRQVWUDWLYH $Q H[SUHVVLRQ OLNH siimet taquih PHDQV VRPH
WKLQJ OLNH that other bread
b
Motion implied
8VHG DV VLQJXODU tiquihtim QRW FRPPRQ ([DPSOH ctam tiquihtim that man JRLQJ RU FRPLQJ VRPHZKHUH
b
Departing
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SDWK RI WKH PRYLQJ REMHFW hant tintica that place
3OXUDO tanticat ([DPSOH cmajiic tanticat those women GHSDUWLQJ
b
Approaching
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WKH SDWK RI WKH DSSURDFKLQJ REMHFW DV LQ hant timoca that place haaho timoca that road
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b
Location
6LQJXODU tahac ([DPSOH hant tahac that place $OVR XVHG ZLWK H[SUHVVLRQV RI VSHHFK iitom tahac 3.poss:[pon:]speak
md;loc his/her words/speech yaza tahac [3.poss:]pon:speak\pl their speech
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WKLQJV hameencoj tacahjoj those families
b
General plural (and mass)
tacoi 7\SLFDOO\ XVHG DV WKH SOXUDO RI WKH YDULRXV QRQPRWLRQ GHPRQVWUDWLYHV VHH DERYH $OVR FRPPRQO\ XVHG
ZLWK QRXQV WKDW PD\ EH YLHZHG DV QRQOLTXLG PDVVHV ziix  xiica ipxasi tacoi thing / thing\pl 3.poss:flesh md:pl
that meat xiica hapahit tacoi thing\pl sbj.nmlz:pass:eat md:pl that food hant xnoois tacoi that garbage

21.3.4 Distal demonstrative adjectives

7KH GLVWDO GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV XVXDOO\ LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH REMHFW LV SK\VLFDOO\ SUHVHQW DQG YLVLEOH DQG DW D
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QRW XVHG DQDSKRULFDOO\ WKH\ DUH PXFK OHVV FRPPRQ LQ QDUUDWLYHV WKDQ WKH PHGLDO GHPRQVWUDWLYHV

Vertical Orientation
6LQJXODU himcop GLDOHFWDO YDULDQW himcap $OVR XVHG IRU OLTXLGV ([DPSOHV xaasj himcop that sahueso
cactus hast himcop that mountain hehe hant quiti himcop plant land sbj.nmlz:connected dt:vt that tree
haaco himcop that house sooda coopol himcop that cola
3OXUDO himcoyolca XQFRPPRQ ([DPSOH haacöt himcoyola those houses
3OXUDO himcoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOHV ˻ xiica hacaapxom˼ himcoi those pigs haacöt himcoi those houses

Compact
6LQJXODU himquij ([DPSOHV tootar himquij that chicken ˻ haat hanoohcö˼ himquij Jatropha_cuneata sbj.
nmlz;pass:make_concave that pot-shaped basket
576 Chapter 21: Determiners

3OXUDO himcoxalca XQFRPPRQ ([DPSOHV tootar himcoxalca those chickens sahmees himcoxalca those or-
anges
3OXUDO himcoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOH cmajiic himcoi those women

Horizontal
6LQJXODU himcom ([DPSOH hateeya himcom that bottle O\LQJ GRZQ
3OXUDO himcoitoj XQFRPPRQ ([DPSOHV hateeyaj himcoitoj those bottles O\LQJ GRZQ canoaataj himcoi those
boats
3OXUDO himcoi FRPPRQ ([DPSOH canoaataj himcoi those boats

Flexible
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3OXUDO himquihtolca ([DPSOH ctamcö himquihtolca those men PRYLQJ DURXQG

Motion implied
6LQJXODU himquihtim ([DPSOH ctam himquihtim that man PRYLQJ DURXQG
3OXUDO himquihtolca ([DPSOH ctamcö himquihtolca those men PRYLQJ DURXQG

Departing
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himintica that woman haaho himintica that road (that is before us)
3OXUDO himinticat ([DPSOH cmajiic himinticat those women

Approaching
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3OXUDO himmocat QRW FRPPRQ ([DPSOH cmaam himmocat those women DSSURDFKLQJ IURP GLVWDQFH

Location
6LQJXODU himcac ([DPSOHV hant himcac that place mahyaai himcac that opposite coast
3OXUDO himcahjoj ([DPSOH hant himcahjoj those places

21.3.5 Cataphoric use of proximal demonstrative adjectives

7KH SUR[LPDO GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV DUH XVHG WR UHIHU WR VRPHWKLQJ \HW WR EH VDLG LQ WKH GLVFRXUVH 7KXV
icaaitom hizac this word/message LV IROORZHG VKRUWO\ E\ WKH FRQWHQW RI WKDW PHVVDJH

21.3.6 Anaphoric use of medial demonstrative adjectives

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)RU H[DPSOHV WKH SKUDVH icaaitom tahac that word/message UHIHUV EDFN WR VRPH XWWHUDQFH DOUHDG\ PHQWLRQHG
DQG cmaam ticop that woman WR VRPH ZRPDQ DOUHDG\ LQWURGXFHG LQ WKH QDUUDWLYH 7KH GLVWDO GHPRQVWUDWLYHV DUH
QRW XVHG WKLV ZD\
7KH FRQWH[W RI WKH VHQWHQFH LQ  LV DQ HVVD\ DERXW D SDUWLFXODU VSHFLHV RI ᯳VK

 Taax ah aa itáh ma, zixcám ticom zixcám quiipe zo

dem;dt;pl foc ? 3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds fish md:hz fish sbj.nmlz:good indf;sg

tomhaa ho.
rlt:neg:eq dcl
For that reason, that fish is not a good fish. bb (6 RRWBLFDDQM 
 22
Postpositions and Ps

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hino* mino* ano**, quino** in, to, on, from
iica† next to, beside
hiicx miicx iicx near
hiihax miihax iihax, quiihax with (sg.)
hiicot miicot iicot ~ quiicot with (pl.)
hiiqui miiqui iiqui quiiqui toward, against
itaai‡ to (meet)
hiti miti iti quiti on

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 D Hant com iti iyooquim.

land def;hz 3.poss:on 3.sbj:rlyo:put_items
S/he put them on the ground.

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,Q WKLV JUDPPDU WKDW WHUP LV XVHG IRU VRPHWKLQJ HOVH
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FRPSOHPHQW QRZ UHGXFHG )RU H[DPSOH paquiiqui backwards LV D EOHQGLQJ RI ipac 3.poss:back DQG iiqui 3.poss:toward 6HH
WKH H[DPSOH RI LWV XVH LQ L

L paquiiqui tjip, haa hant tahjiit, yoque.

backwards rlt:lie_face_up there land rlt:fall rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
he fell backwards.bb &RQ$VW

577
578 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

E Iti iyooquim.
3.poss:on 3.sbj:rlyo:put_items
S/he put them on it.

F Miti iyooquim.
2.poss:on 3.sbj:rlyo:put_items
S/he put them on you.

 D Ctam, tiix xepe com ano yiihtim.

male dem;dt;sg sea def;hz 3.poss:in rlyo:be.fl:mult
THAT MAN was walking out in the sea.

E Ctam, tiix áno yiihtim.

male dem;dt;sg 3.poss.in rlyo:be.fl:mult
THAT MAN was walking out in it.

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RI WKH IRUP > > '3 3 @ 1 @ DQ H[DPSOH LV caail° iti siml dry_lake_bed 3.poss:on barrel_cactus WKH QDPH IRU
Emory’s barrel cactus 6HH i IRU PRUH H[DPSOHV VRPH RI ZKLFK DUH QRW DV REYLRXVO\ OH[LFDOL]HG EXW ZKLFK
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 Zaah ipac hac cöcaap cop iti, ...

sun/day 3.poss:back/place_behind def;loc 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand def;vt 3.poss:on
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 Taax iti, María quih cöyoofp.

dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on María def;fl 3.io:rlyo:arrive
a. At that moment María arrived.
b. 2U Under those circumstances María arrived.

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, haa ntiihat iti,

   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds there aw:rlt:3.poss:pon:go:pl 3.poss:on
Then while they were going there,bb &RQ3XP

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§22.1 Morphology 579

22.1 Morphology
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 ¿Quiiqui hapácatx ya?

   unsp.sbj:3.poss:toward sbj.nmlz:pass:release qm
Is it permitted?

 ˻ ziix quiti quiih˼

   thing unsp.sbj:3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:be.fl
clothing

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22.2 Semantics
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 7KH VHQVH RI in, inside

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   plant [3.poss:]area def;hz [3.poss:]in rlmi.lie
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dog def;vt interior_of_house def;loc [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:stand dcl
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F Coopa quij án hac an iyooxquim.

cup def;cm [3.poss:]area def;loc [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlyo:put.hz
S/he put it into the glass.

 7KH VHQVH RI into

D Hoopatalca tanticat canoaa com ano tápxotim, ...
wave\pl md;aw;pl boat def;hz [3.poss:]in rlt:break:impf
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E Ctam tintica canoaa com ano siij taa ityaai, ...

male md:aw boat def;hz [3.poss:]in irr.ind:sit rlt:aux 3.sbj:rlt:go_to
As the man went to get into the boat, ... bb &<+,

7KH 3 quino SUHVXPDEO\ DOVR VWDUWHG RXW WKLV ZD\ EXW LW KDV VKLIWHG VHPDQWLFDOO\ 'HWDLOV DUH JLYHQ EHORZ
580 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

 7KH VHQVH RI to ORFDWLRQ

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 7KH VHQVH RI to SOXUDO DQLPDWH JRDO

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1.poss:in rlmi:arrive
S/he arrived to us. bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI to, about, regarding VRPHWKLQJ LQDQLPDWH

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coffee def;fl [3.poss:]in crazy dcl
S/he is addicted to coffee. bb &<+,

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[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:eat def;fl [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:speak;impf dcl
S/he complained about her/his food. bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI from SK\VLFDO ORFDWLRQ

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   plant [3.poss:]area indf;sg [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move there 3.io:twd:3.poss:pon:move 3.poss:on
He was coming from the countryside, while he was coming there,bb +LSRFDPSR

 7KH VHQVH RI from DEVWUDFW LGHD

Hapaspoj quih hocö quih ano moca ha.
sbj.nmlz:pass:write def;fl pine/wood def;fl [3.poss:]in/from twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
Paper is made from wood.bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI to D SOXUDO $GGUHVVHH

D ˻ Ziix cxatlc˼ quih hin itaaom, ...
   thing sbj.nmlz:thin def;fl 1.poss:in/from 3.sbj:rlt:request_gift
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E Comcaac himcoi ano hyoomx.

(Seri)_person\pl dt:pl [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:say
I said it to those people.

 7KH VHQVH RI onto SOXUDO DQLPDWHV RU LQDQLPDWHV

D Hanzaait. Hast quij mino spaainj aha.
im:careful stone def;cm 2.poss:in irr.ind:roll aux:dcl
Be careful! The rock will roll over onto you. bb &<+,

E Haaco quih isxáp hac hin hant yahjiit.

abs;house def;fl 3.poss:top_of_head/roof def;loc 1.poss:in land rlyo:fall
The roof of the house fell onto us. bb &<+,

$ VLQJXODU SHUVRQ LV H[SUHVVHG XVLQJ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ 6HH i

$QRWKHU ZD\ WR VD\ ZKDW LV H[SUHVVHG LQ D LV

L Cafee quih an isoj íi z imaa ha.

coffee def;fl [3.poss:]in 3.poss:body/self first indf;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:know dcl
S/he is addicted to coffee.


6HH WKH FRPSOLFDWLRQV LQ WKLV UHJDUG WKDW DUH H[SODLQHG LQ GHWDLO LQ i 7KLV LV D JUDPPDWLFDOL]DWLRQ RI WKH 3

$ VLQJXODU FRPSOHPHQW WDNHV WKH 3 iiqui RU iti LQ WKHVH FDVHV UHVSHFWLYHO\
§22.2.1 ano in, from, etc. 581

7KLV 3 DOVR KDV D JUDPPDWLFDO XVDJH OLQNHG WR SOXUDO QRPLQDOV ZKLFK LV GLVFXVVHG LQ i
7KH 3 ano LV LUUHJXODU LQ LWV PRUSKRORJ\ VLQFH LW GRHV QRW XVH WKH FRPPRQ SUH᯳[ i- IRU WKLUG SHUVRQ SRVVHVVRU
LQ WKH IRUP ano ,W DOVR REOLJDWRULO\ ORVHV LWV ᯳QDO YRZHO ZKHQ LW SUHFHGHV DQRWKHU YRZHO VXFK DV WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[
i- LQ  $ GL᯲HUHQFH LQ VWUHVV LV DOVR SRVVLEOH LQ FDVHV OLNH WKRVH LQ  ZKHUH QR RYHUW FRPSOHPHQW LV
H[SUHVVHG 6WUHVV LV PRUH H[SOLFLWO\ LQGLFDWHG LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV

 Áno hyooquim.
[3.poss:]in 1s.sbj:rlyo:put_items
I put them in.

 Àno hyooquim.
[3.poss:]in 1s.sbj:rlyo:put_items
I put them in it/them.

 Án iyooquim.
[3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlyo:put_items
S/he put them in.

 Àn iyooquim.
[3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlyo:put_items
S/he put them in it/them.

0RUHRYHU WKH 3 ano LV LUUHJXODU DQG XQLTXH LQ WKDW DOO IRUPV LQ WKH SDUDGLJP RWKHU WKDQ WKH DFWXDO ZRUG ano
PXVW KDYH plural FRPSOHPHQWV 7KH 3 ano DQG WKH 3 iti on IRUP DQ LQWHUHVWLQJ DQG VRPHZKDW FRPSOLFDWHG WULR
ZLWK LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ LQ WKH ZD\ WKH\ LQWHUDFW ZLWK FHUWDLQ YHUEV 6HH i IRU GHWDLOV
7KH ano SDUDGLJP KDV DQ DGGLWLRQDO WKLUG SHUVRQ IRUP quino :KLOH ano PD\ RFFXU ZLWK VLQJXODU RU SOXUDO
FRPSOHPHQWV quino RQO\ RFFXUV ZLWK plural FRPSOHPHQWV DQG LV OLPLWHG WR FODXVHV ZLWK FHUWDLQ YHUEV VXFK DV
√afp arrive LQ ZKLFK VLWXDWLRQV LW IUHHO\ DOWHUQDWHV ZLWK ano VHH i ([DPSOHV  VKRZ quino ZLWK
WKH SHUPLWWHG SOXUDO FRPSOHPHQWV DQG WKH XQJUDPPDWLFDOLW\ RI RWKHU FRQ᯳JXUDWLRQV

 comcaac coi quino tafp,

(Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.poss:in rlt:arrive
he arrived to the Seri people, bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 ..., cocsar coi ano / quino tafp, ...

Mexican def;pl [3.poss:]in 3.poss:in rlt:arrive
..., s/he/it arrived to/among the non-Indian Mexicans, ... bb +RPEUHB%DUULOB

 Háxaca° coi quino / ano miifp.

dog\pl def;pl 3.poss:in [3.poss:]in rlmi:arrive
S/he/it arrived to/among the dogs.

 Zaalca / hehet coi quino / ano yoofp.

eroded_area/cave;pl plant:pl def;pl 3.poss:in [3.poss:]in rlyo:arrive
S/he arrived to the caves / trees.

([DPSOHV  GHPRQVWUDWH WKDW quino FDQQRW WDNH D VLQJXODU FRPSOHPHQW

 * María tintica cmaam quij quino yoofp.

María md:aw female def;cm 3.poss:in rlyo:arrive
(María arrived to the woman.)

,Q WKLV UHVSHFW KRZHYHU LW UH᯴HFWV LWV SUHVXPHG HW\PRORJLFDO VRXUFH WKH QRXQ án ZKLFK PHDQV (its) area, (its) zone

,W DOVR FRPPRQO\ EXW OHVV UHJXODUO\ ORVHV WKDW YRZHO ZKHQ LW SUHFHGHV h JORWWDO VWRS IROORZHG E\ D YRZHO 7KLV VHHPV
WR EH D PDWWHU RI VSHHFK VW\OH LI QRW LGLROHFW
582 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

 Quino / ano miifp.

3.poss:in [3.poss:]in rlmi:arrive
a. S/he/it arrived to/among them.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (S/he arrived to him/her.)

 D ..., icaheme ihmaa° hac ano miifp.

camp other def;loc [3.poss:]in rlmi:arrive
..., s/he arrived to another camp. bb &<+,

E * ..., icaheme ihmaa° hac quino miifp.

camp other def;loc 3.poss:in rlmi:arrive
(..., s/he arrived to another camp.)

 D Ano yoofp.
[3.poss:]in rlyo:arrive
S/he arrived to it (e.g., camp).

E Quino yoofp.
3.poss:in rlyo:arrive
a. S/he arrived to them.
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ S/he arrived to it (e.g., camp).

 D Zaaj hac ano yoofp.

eroded_area/cave def;loc [3.poss:]in rlyo:arrive
S/he arrived to the cave.

E * Zaaj hac quino yoofp.

eroded_area/cave def;loc 3.poss:in rlyo:arrive
(S/he arrived to the cave.)

6HH i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH H᯲HFW RI WKH DWWHQXDWLQJ DGYHUE halx RQ WKH ZRUG ano

22.2.2 iicx near

7KH 3 iicx near LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK DQ DGYHUE WKDW KDV WKH VDPH PHDQLQJ DQG LQ IDFW WKH 3 iicx ZKLFK LQ᯴HFWV
IRU SHUVRQ DV VKRZQ LQ WDEOH  LV JHQHUDOO\ XVHG LQ FRPELQDWLRQ ZLWK WKH DGYHUE iicx ZKLFK LV LQYDULDQW VHH
i 7KUHH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ  WR GLVSOD\ FRPPRQ XVDJH

 Hiicx iicx hiij.

1.poss:near near im:sit
Sit nearer to me.bb &<+,

 Miicx iicx ihpsiij aha.

2.poss:near near 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:sit aux:dcl
I am going to sit closer to you. bb &<+,

 ..., ziix ticap iicx iicx toii, ...

thing md:vt 3.poss:near near rlt:stand\pl
..., they got closer to him, ... bb 177 -Q 


7KH VLQJXODU JRDO LV H[SUHVVHG ZLWK LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ VHH i
§22.2.3 iihax and iicot with, etc. 583

22.2.3 iihax and iicot with, etc.

7KH 3 iihax KDV D SOXUDO IRUP iicot ZKLFK KDV D YDULDQWൺSHUKDSV SUHIHUUHGൺRI quiicot ,W KDV WZR PDMRU
VHQVHV RQH RI ZKLFK LV with FRPLWDWLYH DQLPDWH FRPSOHPHQW ([DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Iihax yaticpan.
3.poss:with rlyo:work
S/he worked with him/her. bb &<+,

 He quiicot / iicot siij caha.

1.pro 3.poss:with\pl irr.ind:sit sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
I am going to go with them (as in a vehicle).

 Xiica tacoi quiicot / iicot quiij iha.

thing\pl md:pl 3.poss:with\pl sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
S/he is with those people.

 Quiicot / iicot quiij iha.

3.poss:with\pl sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
S/he is with them.

 Hiicot itoonec, ...

1.poss:with\pl 3.sbj:rlt:carry.mult\pl
They helped us carry them, ...
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ They carried them with us, ...

 Taax iicot tap, ...

dem;dt;pl 3.poss:with\pl rlt:stand
S/he was with them, ...

 Xicaquiziil ctamcö coi iicot / quiicot hamaalam.

child\pl male\pl def;pl 3.poss:with\pl 1p.sbj:rlmi:play\pl
We played with the boys.

$QRWKHU PHDQLQJ RI WKLV 3 LV the same as DV LQ 

 Miihax cösimoz caha.

3.poss:with 3.io:irr.ind:hv:heart sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he is going to think the same as you. bb &<+,

7KH ZRUG quiihax LV QRW D VLPSOH YDULDQW RI iihax LQ WKH ZD\ WKDW quiicot LV RI iicot ,W DOVR GRHV QRW LQGLFDWH
XQVSHFL᯳HG SHUVRQ :KLOH LWV GLVWULEXWLRQ LV QRW ZHOO XQGHUVWRRG LW LV YHU\ FRPPRQ DV SDUW RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ
PHDQLQJ be similar to

 Juan quij Pedro quij ihaa quih iihax coha ha.

Juan def;cm Pedro def;cm 3.poss:[pon:]eq def;fl 3.poss:with 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be dcl
Juan is like Pedro (e.g., with respect to his character).


%RWK ZRUGV DUH IUHTXHQW LQ WKH 177 DQG \HW quiicot VHHPV WR EH DERXW WKUHH WLPHV DV FRPPRQ ZLWK QR REYLRXV GLVWULEX
WLRQDO GL᯲HUHQFH 7KH ZRUG iicot LV DOVR D SRVVHVVHG QRXQ WKDW PHDQV a place between (plural items) ,Q  UHYLVLRQ
RI WKH 177 LQFOXGHG FKDQJLQJ E\ SUHIHUHQFH RI P\ FRQVXOWDQWV WKH LQVWDQFHV RI iicot WR quiicot
584 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

22.2.4 iiqui toward, etc.

7KH 3 iiqui KDV VHYHUDO GLVWLQJXLVKDEOH VHQVHV

 7KH VHQVH RI toward

D ... hant ihmaa° z iiqui iquiin ihyomamzo.
land other indf;sg 3.poss:toward inf.intr:go 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:want
... I don’t want to go anywhere else. bb &<+,

E ¡Hiiqui hsicxö!
  1.poss:toward 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:push
Push it toward me.

 7KH VHQVH RI onto VLQJXODU

Hast quij miiqui spaainj haa hi.
stone def;cm 2.poss:toward irr.ind:roll aux dcl
The rock may roll over onto you.

 7KH VHQVH RI for D SXUSRVH

Taax iiqui impaxi ha.
dem;dt;pl 3.poss:toward sbj.nmlz:neg:pass:finish dcl
It isn’t made for that use. bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI about

Yaticpan quih iiqui croocö iha.
rlyo:work def;fl 3.poss:toward sbj.nmlz:crazy dcl
He is a workaholic. bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI with QRW FRPLWDWLYH

D ¿Hax quih haa ya iiqui tpam?
   fresh_water def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq qm toward rlt:pass:swallow
Is it swallowed with water? bb &<+,

E ¡Hataai° iictim quih iiqui hipjc!

  cloth 3.poss:[pon:]be_cut def;fl 3.poss:toward im:grab
Grab it with the piece of cloth! bb &<+,

F ¡Iiqui caaitom!
  3.poss:toward im:speak
Go to the authorities!
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ Speak with them!bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI and

Haaco zo canoaa z iiqui hnyaa.
abs;house indf;sg boat indf;sg 3.poss:toward 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:own
I own a house and a boat. bb &<+,


,W DOVR RFFXUV LQ WKH FRPPRQ SKUDVH iiqui cöihiin hac with respect to in comparison to ZKHUH LW SUHFHGHV D QRQYHUEDO
KHDG

7KH SOXUDO FRXQWHUSDUW XVHV WKH 3 ano
§22.2.5 iti on, etc. 585

22.2.5 iti on, etc.

6HYHUDO VHQVHV RI iti DUH GLVWLQJXLVKDEOH on on top of in during while DQG from 7KH VHQVH while ZDV LOOXVWUDWHG
DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKLV FKDSWHU DQG WKH VHQVH from LV GLVFXVVHG LQ i

 7KH VHQVH RI on
¡Miizj hoocta! Miti hpsozám xo, taax.
  well im:look_at 2.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:unsp.obj:put.vt em dem;dt;pl
Be careful! I might step on you. bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI on top of

Icaaspoj com ˻ hehe iti icoohitim˼
3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:write def;hz    plant/wood 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:eat:impf

com iti coom iha.

def;hz 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:lie dcl
The pencil is on top of the table. bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI in ZLWK FHUWDLQ FRPSOHPHQWV SHUFHLYHG DV WZRGLPHQVLRQDO

Zaah quij hamiime com iti quiij iha.
sun def;cm sky def;hz 3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
The sun is in the sky. bb &<+,

 7KH VHQVH RI during

Ihamoc ccooo tintica iti cohpmiim.
3.poss:[pon:]become_night sbj.nmlz:entire md:aw 3.poss:on 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:sleep
I slept all night last night.

7KLV 3 LV DOVR XVHG ZLWK H[SUHVVLRQV VXFK DV zaah hipcop sun/day px:vt today moxhamt last year DQG ERUURZHG
QDPHV RI WKH GD\V RI WKH ZHHN WR EH DEOH WR LQFOXGH WKDW LQIRUPDWLRQ LQ WKH FODXVH 7KH ZRUG moxima yesterday
GRHV QRW XVH WKH 3

 Miércoles cop iti cösiifp caha.

Wednesday def;vt 3.poss:on 3.io:irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he/it will arrive on Wednesday.

 Jueves cop iti cösoos caha.

Thursday def;vt 3.poss:on 3.io:irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he will sing on Thursday.

 Hant haa moca cop iti cösihiimet caha.

land/year there twd:sbj.nmlz:move def;vt 3.poss:on 3.io:irr.ind:married sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he will get married next year.

 Moxhamt quih iti ˻ imiipla coha˼ ha.

last_year def;fl 3.poss:on    3.poss:[pon:]bad 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be dcl
S/he died last year.


7KH ZRUG hamiime FDQ PHDQ heavenൻD WKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO SODFHൻDQG WKH 3 XVHG LV ano DV LQ L

L Yooz quij hamiime com ano quiij iha.

God def;cm sky/heaven def;hz [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
God is in heaven.
586 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

22.2.6 itaai to (special)

7KH 3 itaai ZDV RQO\ UHFHQWO\ DGGHG WR WKH OLVW RI 3V LW LV QRW FRPPRQ DQG VHHPV WR EH KLJKO\ UHVWULFWHG LQ
LWV XVDJH 7KH GLFWLRQDU\ OLVWV LW DV RFFXUULQJ ZLWK WKUHH YHUEV VSHFL᯳FDOO\ LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQV itaai √afpbmeet
(someone or something that is arriving) itaai √ap travel by land parallel to a boat with respect to (someone)
DQG itaai √yaai meet (someone or some thing that is arriving) 7KH YHUEV LQ WKHVH H[SUHVVLRQV DUH √afp arrive
LQWUDQVLWLYH √ap stand LQWUDQVLWLYH DQG √yaai travel to (a place) WUDQVLWLYH UHVSHFWLYHO\ 7KH LQ᯴HFWLRQ RI
WKH 3 UH᯴HFWV WKH SHUVRQ RI WKH REMHFW RU SHUVRQ ZKR LV EHLQJ PHW 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ¡Canoaa quih itaai cafp!

  boat def;fl 3.poss:to im:arrive
Go meet the boat! bb &<+,

 ˻ Hant pofii˼ ta, he socaiitim caha. Hitaai masoii aha.

   land irr.dep:? ds 1.pro irr.ind:spearfish sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl 1.poss:to 2p.sbj:irr.ind:be.fl\pl aux:dcl
Tomorrow I am going spearfishing close to shore. You can follow me (along the shore) bb &<+,

 ¿Itaai nsyaai haa ya?

  3.poss:to 2s.sbj:irr.ind:travel aux qm
Are you going to go out and meet him/her/it? [Could be a boat, a car, or a person.]

7KLV LV WKH H[WHQW RI WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ WKDW KDV EHHQ FROOHFWHG DERXW itaai

22.2.7 iica next to

7KH 3 iica LV QRW FRPPRQ ,W PD\ LQ IDFW EH DQ DUFKDLF IRUP RI iiqui i 7KH GLFWLRQDU\ OLVWV H[DPSOHV
ZLWK WKUHH SRVLWLRQDO YHUEV √iij sit √ap stand DQG √oom lie DV ZHOO DV ZLWK WKH YHUE √jiit make fall

 ¿Me hamác iica siij quee ya?

  2.pro fire 3.poss:beside irr.ind:sit sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Are you going to sit beside the fire? bb &<+,

 ¿Hast com miica itjiit?

  stone def;hz twd:inf.intr:move 3.sbj:rlt:make_fall
Did s/he slam the rock down on you?
>7KH DFWLRQ LQYROYHV WKURZLQJ GRZQ UHOHDVLQJ WKH LWHP ZLWK IRUFH@bb &<+,

Iica DOVR RFFXUV ZLWK √iih DV H[DPSOH  LQ i LOOXVWUDWHV

22.3 Syntax
$ IDFW WKDW PD\ KDYH HVFDSHG WKH UHDGHUൿV QRWLFH GHVSLWH DOO RI WKH H[DPSOHV WKDW KDYH EHHQ JLYHQ LV WKDW WKH 3V DUH
YLUWXDOO\ REOLJDWHG WR DSSHDU LQ SUHYHUEDO SRVLWLRQ 7KLV EHFRPHV PRUH DSSDUHQW ZKHQ D ODUJH FRUSXV LV H[DPLQHG
7KH 3 DOZD\V DSSHDUV LQ D SUHYHUEDO SRVLWLRQ ZKHQ WKH 33 LV DQ DGMXQFW RI WKH YHUE ,W LV FODLPHG LQ FKDSWHU 
HVSHFLDOO\ i WKDW WKH 3 LV LQ WKH 93 WKDW LW PD\ EH VHSDUDWHG IURP WKH YHUE E\ FHUWDLQ RWKHU 93 FRQVWLWXHQWV
DQG WKDW WKHUH LV VRPH YHU\ OLPLWHG YDULDELOLW\ LQ ZRUG RUGHU 7KHVH GHWDLOV DUH QRW UHYLHZHG KHUH


,Q DGGLWLRQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQV iica √iij next_to sit iica √ap next_to stand DQG iica √oom next_to lie DUH OLVWHG DV PHDQLQJ
belong
§22.3.1 Discontinuity 587

22.3.1 Discontinuity
7KH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH 3 PD\ EH VHSDUDWHG IURP WKH 3 DSSHDULQJ HDUOLHU RU ODWHU LQ WKH FODXVH 7KLV LV DQ
H[WUHPHO\ FRPPRQ VLWXDWLRQ LQ IDFW RQH KDV WR ORRN TXLWH DVVLGXRXVO\ WR ᯳QG JRRG H[DPSOHV RI ZKHUH WKLV LV
QRW WKH FDVH $ VLPSOH H[DPSOH RI GLVFRQWLQXLW\ LV JLYHQ LQ  7KH FRPSOHPHQW EUDFNHWHG LV VHSDUDWHG IURP
ano E\ WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH VHQWHQFH

 [ Haas cop imocl hac ] haasax

Prosopis_glandulosa def;vt 3.poss:underside/place_under def;loc Neotoma_albigula_nest
z ano yiij.
indf;sg [3.poss:]in rlyo:sit
There is a pack rat nest under the mesquite tree. bb &<+,

6XFK H[DPSOHV LOOXVWUDWH WKH VWUXFWXUH SURSRVHG LQ FKDSWHU  VHH ᯳JXUH  D VWULQJ RI '3V IROORZHG E\ WKH 93
7KHUH LV QR HYLGHQFH IRUൺDQG WKHUH LV HYLGHQFH DJDLQVWൺDQ\ IXUWKHU UHDQDO\VLV RI WKH > 3 9 @ VHTXHQFH DV D YHUE
WKDW VXEFDWHJRUL]HV IRU DQ DGGLWLRQDO DUJXPHQW ([DPSOH  LV VWLOO DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVH E\ DOO DYDLODEOH WHVWV
2QH VXFK H[DPSOH LQ ZKLFK WKH FRPSOHPHQW LV FOHDUO\ QRW VHSDUDWHG IURP LWV FRPSOHPHQW LV JLYHQ LQ 
ZKLFK DSSHDUHG ᯳UVW LQ 0 0RVHU 

 Ctam tintica canoaa com ano siij taa ityaai, hant yahjiit.
male md:aw boat def;hz [3.poss:]in irr.ind:sit rlt:aux 3.sbj:rlt:travel_to land rlyo:fall
As the man was about to get into the boat, he fell.bb &<+,

2WKHU H[DPSOHV ZLWK GLVFRQWLQXRXV FRPSOHPHQWV DUH JLYHQ DV 

 ..., [ Tahejöc himquij ] comcaac quih iti toii, ...

Tiburon_Island dt:cm (Seri)_person\pl def;fl 3.poss:on rlt:be.fl/live\pl
..., the Seri people were on Tiburon Island, ... bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 [ Haso quih ] moosni quih ano tiij xox, ...

net def;fl Chelonia_mydas def;fl [3.poss:]in rlt:sit although
Although there was a turtle in the net, ... bb &<+,

 [ Haat hacazlil coi ah ] hatxiin quij ano

Jatropha_cuneata sbj.nmlz:pass:chew_flat def;pl foc abs:headring def;cm [3.poss:]in/from

moma.
twd:rlmi:move
A headring is made from limberbush that has been chewed flat. bb &<+,

 [ Hant iti hihiih zo ] ˻ ziix hapahit˼ z iti

land 3.poss:on 1.poss:pon:be.fl/live indf;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat indf;sg 3.poss:on
tmiih, ...
rlt:neg:be.fl
There isn’t any food at my place, ... bb %XUJRVB

 [ María quih ] comcaac quih iiqui yaanim.

María def;fl (Seri)_person\pl def;fl 3.poss:toward rlyo:be_closed
The people crowded around María. bb &<+,

 [ ¿Trooqui nyaa° hipquij ] hapaspoj° z iica tiih?

  vehicle yours px:cm paper indf;sg 3.poss:beside rlt:be.fl
Does your car have (registration) papers? bb &<+,
588 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

 [ Hitrooqui quij ] ˻ hasaaiti coozlil˼ quih ano

1.poss:vehicle def;cm    petroleum_oil sbj.nmlz:slippery def;fl [3.poss:]in
hsahaama aha.
1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_trickle aux:dcl
I am going to put oil in my car.bb &<+,

 [ Xicaquiziil tacoi ] hamt pac ano cohpyeenim.

child\pl md:pl soil indf;pl [3.poss:]in 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:splash
I threw dirt on those children. bb &<+,

 [ Siimet ihyaa° quih ] panaal quih iiqui cohyoneezj.

bread mine def;fl honey def;fl 3.poss:toward 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:spread
I spread the honey on my bread. bb &<+,

 [ Hast hax cooscl oo ticom, hant taax ] panaal z

stone/mountain intns sbj.nmlz:mottled del md:hz land dem;dt;pl honey indf;sg
ano tiij ma, hyaai.
[3.poss:]in rlt:sit ds 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:make/do
That speckled hill — I collected honey in that place.bb &<+,

7KH FRPSOHPHQW PD\ DOVR EH ULJKW GLVORFDWHG i WR IROORZ WKH YHUE DV VKRZQ LQ 

 ˻ Hasaaiti coozlil˼ quih áno hsahaama aha, trooqui

   petroleum_oil sbj.nmlz:slippery def;fl [3.poss]in 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_trickle aux:dcl vehicle
quij.
def;cm
I’m going to put oil in it — the car.

 Ctam ticop áno yiihtim, xepe com.

male md:vt [3.poss:]in rlyo:be.fl:impf sea def;hz
That man went on it—the sea.

7KH H[DPSOHV ZLWK D GLVFRQWLQXRXV IURQWHG FRPSOHPHQW DUH YHU\ FRPPRQ DQG WKHUH LV QR SDXVH RU RWKHU LQWR
QDWLRQDO GLYLVLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW DQG WKH UHVW RI WKH VHQWHQFH 7KLV VXJJHVWV WKDW WKHVH DUH QRW 7RSLF
&RPPHQW VWUXFWXUHV

22.3.2 Phonological properties

7KH 3V VRPHWLPHV KDYH D JUHDWHU GHJUHH RI SURVRGLF SURPLQHQFH WKDQ DW RWKHU WLPHV 7KXV WKH ZRUG ano LV
VRPHWLPHV SURQRXQFHG [ano] XQVWUHVVHG DQG VRPHWLPHV SURQRXQFHG [ˈanːoː] ZLWK VWUHVV DQG ZLWK WKH FRQVR
QDQW DQG YRZHO OHQJWKHQLQJ WKDW DUH FRQGLWLRQHG E\ WKH VWUHVV VHH i 7KHUH DUH WKUHH FRPPRQ SDWWHUQV
LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH VFKHPD LQ 

 D 3´VWSRVLWLRQ 9ªUE ERWK ZLWK UHGXFHG VWUHVV

E 3´VWSRVLWLRQ 9«UE RQO\ WKH 3 KDV UHGXFHG VWUHVV
F 3µVWSRVLWLRQ 9ªUE RQO\ WKH YHUE KDV UHGXFHG VWUHVV

,Q DGGLWLRQ DV VKRZQ EHORZ RQH FDQ FRQVWUXFW H[DPSOHV LQ ZKLFK VWUHVV LV GLVWLQFWLYH DQG PHDQLQJIXO ZKHUH WKH
VDPH OH[LFDO LWHPV DSSHDU LQ H[DPSOHV WKDW KDYH GL᯲HUHQW PHDQLQJV DV LOOXVWUDWHG VFKHPDWLFDOO\ LQ 

 D '3 '3 3´VWSRVLWLRQ 9«UE PHDQLQJ $

E '3 '3 3µVWSRVLWLRQ 9ªUE PHDQLQJ %

7KH ᯳UVW VLWXDWLRQ D ZKHUH ERWK 3 DQG 9 DUH XQVWUHVVHG LV IRXQG LQ DGYHUELDO FODXVHV LQ ZKLFK HYHU\WKLQJ
LQ WKH DGYHUELDO FODXVH LV VSRNHQ ZLWKRXW VWUHVV 7KHVH H[DPSOHV DUH WKHUHIRUH QRW DV LQWHUHVWLQJ DV FRQWH[WV ZKHUH
§22.3.2 Phonological properties 589

VRPH YDULDWLRQ LV IRXQG DV GHSLFWHG LQ E DQG F ,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR EH DZDUH RI WKLV FDVH KRZHYHU ZKHQ
ORRNLQJ DW H[DPSOHV H[WUDFWHG IURP ORQJ VHQWHQFHV
2QH JHQHUDO SULQFLSOH VHHPV WR EH WKDW WKH 3 LV stressed ZKHQ WKHUH LV LQWHQGHG IRFXV RQ D QRQRYHUW FRPSOH
PHQW $V D UHVXOW WKH 3 LV unstressed DV VKRZQ LQ E ZKHQ LWV RYHUW FRPSOHPHQW LPPHGLDWHO\ SUHFHGHV LW
LQ WKH VHQWHQFH 7KLV LV WUXH RI DOO RI WKH H[DPSOHV DERYH LQ ZKLFK WKLV FRQ᯳JXUDWLRQ LV IRXQG ([DPSOH D LV
UHSHDWHG DV  ZLWK WKH UHGXFHG VWUHVV RQ WKH 3 H[SOLFLWO\ VKRZQ

 bbbbb&RPSOHPHQW bbbbbbb3
[ Hant com ] ìti iyooquim.
land def;hz 3.poss:on 3.sbj:rlyo:put_items
S/he put them on the ground.

7KH RYHUW FRPSOHPHQW PD\ EH VHSDUDWHG IURP WKH 3 DQG PDUNHG ZLWK D IRFXV DGYHUE WKH 3 LQ WKLV VLWXDWLRQ LV
XQVWUHVVHG HYHQ WKRXJK LW LV VHSDUDWHG IURP LWV FRPSOHPHQW DV LQ 

 [ Haat hacazlil coi ah ] hatxiin quij àno

Jatropha_cuneata sbj.nmlz:pass:chew_flat def;pl foc abs:headring def;cm [3.poss:]in\from

moma.
twd:rlmi:move
A headring is made from limberbush that has been chewed flat. bb &<+,

7KH SUHVHQFH RI RWKHU SKUDVHV WKDW DUH LQ IRFXV PHDQV WKDW WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH 3 LV QRW LQ IRFXV WKHUHIRUH WKH
3 LV XQVWUHVVHG LQ WKHVH FDVHV DV ZHOO DV H[DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH

 ¿Hamt ya àno (*áno) conteenim?

  soil qm [3.poss:]in    3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:splash
Did you throw DIRT on them?

 Comcaii quij inol com itajíz, hast quij ìiqui

old_woman def;cm 3.poss:hand/arm def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:feel_pain_from stone def;cm 3.poss:toward
yásinan.
rlyo:press;impf
The old woman’s arm hurt, and she repeatedly pressed a stone against it. bb &<+,

 Hast quij ìiqui yásinan.

stone def;cm 3.poss:toward rlyo:press;impf
S/he repeatedly pressed a stone against it.

 ¡Ziix zo hìno camjc!

  thing indf;sg 1.poss:in im:deliver
Bring something to us!

,Q VRPH VLWXDWLRQV WKH 3 LV REOLJDWRULO\ VWUHVVHG ,Q H[DPSOHV  HDFK ZLWK WKH VXEMHFW UDWKHU WKDQ WKH
FRPSOHPHQW LPPHGLDWHO\ SUHFHGLQJ WKH 3 WKH 3 PXVW EH VWUHVVHG

Complement is explicit in the clause in question but separated from the P


)RFXV RQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH 3 LV LQGLFDWHG LQ RWKHU ZD\V )RU H[DPSOH WR SXW FRQWUDVWLYH IRFXV RQ WKH ᯳UVW SHUVRQ
SOXUDO FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH 3 LQ  RQH LQFOXGHV WKH SURQRXQ he DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKH VHQWHQFH DV VKRZQ LQ L

L ¡He ziix zo hino camjc!

  1.pro thing indf;sg 1.poss:in im:bring
Bring US something!
590 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

 Xepe ticom ctam ticop áno yiihtim.

sea md:hz male md:vt [3.poss:]in rlyo:be.fl:impf
That man was walking in the sea.

 Ctam ticop áno yìihtim, xepe com.

male md:vt [3.poss:]in rlyo:be.fl:impf sea def;hz
That man was walking in it—the sea.

 Cafee cop ˻ xiica an icaai˼ áno hyaai.

coffee def;vt    thing\pl [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:make [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:make/do
I put sugar in the coffee.

Complement is implicit in the clause in question

 Hacat timoca áno yoofp.

shark md:twd [3.poss:]in rlyo:arrive
The shark arrived among them.

 Quisiil° quih tipon, hax itacaaixaj oo ma, quiiquet

child def;fl rlt:hv:voice intns 3.sbj:rlt:make_strong del ds sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pregnant_with

quih íiqui yopanzx.

def;fl 3.poss:toward rlyo:run
The child yelled loudly and her/his mother ran toward her/him.

$V D UHVXOW RI WKLV VLWXDWLRQ ංPLQLPDO SDLUVඃ IRU VWUHVV RQ WKH 3 DUH HDVLO\ FRQVWUXFWHG ,Q WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV
WKH ZRUGV DQG WKH ZRUG RUGHU DUH LGHQWLFDO 7KH GL᯲HUHQW PHDQLQJV DUH VLJQDOHG XQDPELJXRXVO\ E\ WKH GL᯲HUHQFH
LQ WKH VWUHVV RQ WKH 3 6HH WKH SDLU RI H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D Quiiquet quih íiqui yopanzx.

sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pregnant_with def;fl 3.poss:toward rlyo:run
Her/his mother ran toward her/him.

E Quiiquet quih ìiqui yopanzx.

sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pregnant_with def;fl 3.poss:toward rlyo:run
S/he ran toward her/his mother.

,QWHUHVWLQJ SDLUV IRU VWUHVV RQ WKH 3 DUH DOVR IRXQG ZKHUH WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH 3 LV SUHVHQW EXW LQ ZKLFK WKH
GL᯲HUHQFH LV FOHDU WR VSHDNHUV VWUHVV RQ WKH 3 LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKHUH LV IRFXV RQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW VXFK DV FRQWUDVWLYH
IRFXV ZKLOH WKH ODFN RI VWUHVV RQ WKH 3 LV D VLPSOH VWDWHPHQW 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 ˻ Hant ihiipi˼ com íti hpyomatax.

   land 3.poss:pon:stand def;hz 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:go
I do not go on the GROUND. [I am a lizard that stays in trees.]bb 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD D

 D ˻ Hant ihiipi˼ com iti hpyootax.

   land 3.poss:pon:ground def;hz 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:go
I go on the ground.

E ˻ Hant ihiipi˼ com íti hpyootax.

   land 3.poss:pon:ground def;hz 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:go
I go on the GROUND.

0\ WKDQNV WR 5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD IRU GUDZLQJ P\ DWWHQWLRQ WR WKLV DV ZH GLVFXVVHG WKH QHHG WR LQGLFDWH VWUHVV LQ
H[DPSOH  DQG WR -XOLD 0RQWD³R %DUQHWW IRU KHU FRQ᯳UPDWLRQ
§22.3.2 Phonological properties 591

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WKHUH PD\ RU PD\ QRW EH IRFXV RQ WKH FRPSOHPHQW 7KLV LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH SDLU RI H[DPSOHV LQ 

 D ¿Hamt pac àno conteenim?

  soil indf;pl [3.poss:]in\from 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:splash
Did you throw dirt on them?

E ¿Hamt quih pac áno conteenim?

  soil def;fl indf;pl [3.poss:]in 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:splash
Did you throw dirt on THEM? (contrastive focus)

7KLV RSWLRQ KRZHYHU VHHPV WR EH PLWLJDWHG LQ LWV XVH E\ DQRWKHU SULQFLSOH ZKLFK LV IRU D 93LQLWLDO 3 WR EH
VWUHVVHG HYHQ WKRXJK LWV FRPSOHPHQW PD\ QRW EH HVSHFLDOO\ LQ IRFXV 7KHUHIRUH VRPH RI H[DPSOHV 
ZLWK DQ XQVWUHVVHG LQLWLDO 3 UHTXLUH YHU\ VSHFL᯳F FRQWH[WV WR EH DFFHSWDEOH WKHVH DUH PDUNHG ZLWK Σ

 ˻ Hant pofii˼ ta, ¡áno ( / *àno) cmiihtim!

   land irr.dep:? ds   [3.poss:]in im:neg:be.fl:impf
Tomorrow don’t walk in it!

 D Háxaca° pac toc cötoii, zixcám z itaaitoj, áno yaato.

dog\pl indf;pl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl fish indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:eat\pl [3.poss:]in rlyo:fight
There were dogs there eating a fish, another one came along and fought with them. bb &<+,

E * Háxaca° pac toc cötoii, zixcám z itaaitoj, àno

dog\pl indf;pl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl fish indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:eat\pl [3.poss:]in

yaato.
rlyo:fight
(There were dogs there eating a fish, another one came along and fought with them.)

 Hax cactim quij miiho isax, áno cmaalim. Áno

fresh_water sbj.nmlz:be_cut def;cm 2.poss:[pon:]see aux [3.poss:]in im:neg:play [3.poss:]in
cmaalim.
im:neg:play
If you see a puddle, don’t play in it. Don’t play in it.

 D Àno hsahaama aha.

[3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_trickle aux:dcl
I will put it in it.

E Áno hsahaama aha.

[3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:cause_trickle aux:dcl
I will put it IN IT.

 D ¡Àno cmíihtim!
  [3:poss:]in im:neg:be.fl:impf
Don’t walk in it! (such as the sea)

E ¡Áno cmìihtim!
  [3.poss:]in im:neg:be.fl:impf
Don’t walk IN IT! (such as the sea)

 D ¿Àno contéenim?
  [3:poss:]in 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:splash
Did you throw it on them?
592 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

E ¿Áno contèenim?
  [3.poss:]in 3.io:2s.sbj:rlt:splash
Did you throw it ON THEM?

 D Σ Ìti yomíih.
3.poss:on rlyo:neg:be.fl
It isn’t on it.

E Íti yomìih.
3.poss:on rlyo:neg:be.fl
It isn’t on it.

 D Ìiqui yopánzx.
3.poss:toward rlyo:run
S/he ran toward him/her/it.

E Íiqui yopànzx.
3.poss:toward rlyo:run
S/he ran toward him/her/it.

 D Σ ¿Àno móta?

  [3:poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move
Is it coming (out) from it?

E ¿Áno mòta?
  [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move
Is it coming (out) from it?

 D Σ Ìti nscámom aha.

3.poss:on 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:lie aux:dcl
You shouldn’t lie down on it.

E Íti nscàmom aha.

3.poss:on 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:lie aux:dcl
You shouldn’t lie down on it.

 D Σ Ìti yíih.

3.poss:on rlyo:be.fl
It is on it.

E Íti yìih.
3.poss:on rlyo:be.fl
It is on it.

,W LV SRVVLEOH DOWKRXJK OHVV FRPPRQ IRU WKH 3 WR EH VWUHVVHG WR VKRZ FRQWUDVWLYH IRFXV RQ WKH 3 LWVHOI DV LQ 

 ¡Xepe com áno cmiihtim!

  sea def;hz [3.poss:]in im:neg:be.fl:impf
Don’t go IN the ocean! [You can go near it.]

7KH 3 PD\ EH LQLWLDO LQ WKH 93 DQG \HW QRW EH LQ DEVROXWH FODXVHLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ 7KH GL᯲HUHQFH LV VLJQL᯳FDQW
IRU WKH DFFHQWXDO SURSHUWLHV RI WKH 3 ,Q H[DPSOHV  WKH VHQWHQFH EHJLQV ZLWK D WLPH DGYHUE RU WLPH
DGMXQFW 6LQFH WKH 3 LV LQ 93LQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ LW LV VWUHVVHG
§22.3.3 Grammaticalization 593

 ¿Cmaax áno mota?

  now [3.poss:]in/from twd:rlt:move
Now is it coming from it?

 ¿Cói áno oo mota?

  still [3.poss:]in/from del twd:rlt:move
Is it still coming from it?

 Moxima áno cohpyeenim.

yesterday [3.poss:]in 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:splash
Yesterday I threw it on them.

 Haptco áno cohpyeenim.

already [3.poss:]in 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:splash
I already threw it on them.

 ¡Zaah hipcop cmaax áno cmiihtim!

  sun/day px:vt now [3.poss:]in im:neg:be.fl:impf
Don’t walk in it today!

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7KLV PD\ EH DQ H[DPSOH RI D GRPDLQVSHFL᯳F DYRLGDQFH RI VWUHVV FODVK

 Anxö ìti yiih.

intns 3.poss:on rlyo:be.fl
S/he is on it a lot.

 ¿Miizj àno mota?

  well [3.poss:]in\from twd:rlt:move
Is it coming out from it well? (i.e., quickly, easily)

22.3.3 Grammaticalization
7ZR RI WKH 3V HQWHU LQWR WKH VXEFDWHJRUL]DWLRQ RI YHUEV WKH\ KDYH EHFRPH JUDPPDWLFDOL]HG DV PDUNHUV IRU
QRPLQDOV WKDW DUH UHFLSLHQWV DGGUHVVHHV HWF 7KHVH IDFWV DUH PRUH LQWHUHVWLQJ WKDQ WKH\ PD\ ᯳UVW DSSHDU WR EH
DQG VKRZ WKH GHJUHH RI JUDPPDWLFDOL]DWLRQ WKDW KDV WDNHQ SODFH
)LUVW WKHUH PD\ EH D UHFLSLHQWDGGUHVVHH WKDW LV QRW OLQNHG WR D V\QWDFWLF UHODWLRQ DV VKRZQ LQ  IRU WKH
YHUE √âaom request gift VHH i :KHQ WKLV LV WKH FDVH WKH UHFLSLHQWDGGUHVVHHൺZKHWKHU VLQJXODU RU
SOXUDOൺDSSHDUV DV WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI D SDUWLFXODU 3 iti on IRU VLQJXODU QRPLQDOV ano in IRU SOXUDO RQHV 6HH WKH
H[DPSOHV LQ 

     6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient (Addressee)

√âaom request Patient 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW ჳ 33LWL  33DQR ჳ
(from Addressee)

 D Siimet quih miti itaaom, ...

bread def;fl 2.poss:on 3.sbj:rlt:request_gift
S/he was asking for bread from you (sg.), ...

E Siimet quih min itaaom, ...

bread def;fl 2.poss:in 3.sbj:rlt:request_gift
S/he was asking for bread from you (pl.), ...

7KHVH IDFWV UHJDUGLQJ WKH LQWHUSOD\ EHWZHHQ DGYHUEV DQG VWUHVV RQ WKH 3 DUH YHU\ FOHDU 7KH LQWRQDWLRQDO SDWWHUQ RI WKH
FODXVH GHSHQGV YHU\ LPSRUWDQWO\ RQ WKHP
594 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

6RPH YHUEV VXEFDWHJRUL]H IRU DQ REOLTXH REMHFW WKDW ZKHWKHU VLQJXODU RU SOXUDO LV FURVVUHIHUHQFHG RQ WKH YHUE
ZLWK LQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ 2QH YHUE WKDW XVHV WKLV SDWWHUQ LV √cazit snatch, grab VHH i LOOXVWUDWHG LQ


     6HPDQWLFV Agent Theme/Patient (Recipient/Addressee)

√cazit snatch, grab 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW 2EOLTXH 2EMHFW

 D Tom quih he iyocazit.

money def;fl 1.io:3.sbj:rlyo:grab_away
S/he took the money away from me by force.

E Tom quih he iyocázitim.

money def;fl 1.io:3.sbj:rlyo:grab_away:impf
S/he took the money away from us by force.

$ WKLUG SDWWHUQ LV W\SLFDO RI VHYHUDO YHUEV DQG LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH YHUE √amjc bring VHH i ,Q WKLV
SDWWHUQ VLQJXODU DGGUHVVHHVUHFLSLHQWV DUH HQFRGHG REOLJDWRULO\ DV REOLTXH REMHFWV FURVVUHIHUHQFHG E\ LQGLUHFW
REMHFW PRUSKRORJ\ LOOXVWUDWHG E\ D ZKLOH SOXUDO DGGUHVVHHVUHFLSLHQWV DUH HQFRGHG E\ 33V ZLWK ano LO
OXVWUDWHG E\ E DQG 

     6HPDQWLFV Agent Patient (Recipient)

√amjc deliver 6\QWD[ 6XEMHFW 'LUHFW 2EMHFW 2EOLTXH 2EMHFWVJ  ჳ 33DQR ჳ

 D ¡He camjc!

  1.io:im:deliver
Bring it to me!

E ¡Hino camjc!
  1.poss:in im:deliver
Bring it to us!

 ¡Ziix zo hino camjc!

  thing indf;sg 1.poss:to/from im:deliver
Bring something to us!

6HH DOVR WKH YHUEV √amx say QR DGGUHVVHH RU RQO\ SOXUDO DGGUHVVHH DV FRPSOHPHQW RI ano DQG √aamx say
VLQJXODU DGGUHVVHH DV REOLTXH REMHFW GLVFXVVHG LQ i DQG i UHVSHFWLYHO\

22.3.4 Idiomatic expressions

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LQ 6HUL DV DUH H[SUHVVLRQV ZLWK VRFDOOHG SDUWLFOHV LQ (QJOLVK 7KH 3 LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV LV QRUPDOO\ VWUHVVHG 6HH
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22.3.5 Analysis
,W VHHPV FOHDU WKDW WKH FDWHJRU\ RI SRVWSRVLWLRQ KDV D SODFH LQ 6HUL JUDPPDU DW OHDVW EHFDXVH RI WKHLU OLPLWHG XVH
LQ QRXQ SKUDVHV DQG ZLWK FHUWDLQ VHQWHQFHLQLWLDO SKUDVHV VHH WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKLV FKDSWHU +RZHYHU WKH PRUH
LPSRUWDQW TXHVWLRQ LV ZKDW LV WKH VWDWXV RI WKHVH ZRUGV ZKHQ WKH\ RFFXU LQ VWDQGDUG FODXVHV ZKHUH WKH\ DOZD\V
RFFXU LQ SUHYHUEDO SRVLWLRQ ,Q WKH DEVHQFH RI HYLGHQFH WR WKH FRQWUDU\ WKH\ VKRXOG SUHVXPDEO\ EH DQDO\]HG DV
§22.3.5 Analysis 595

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UHIHUUHG WR DV 3 RU 3RVWSRVLWLRQ LQ WKLV JUDPPDU
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DQG LWV VHPDQWLF FRPSOHPHQW KDV EHHQ IRXQG $Q H[DPSOH VXFK DV  WKHUHIRUH VHHPV WR EH PRVW DSSURSULDWHO\
DQDO\]HG ZLWKRXW DQ\ VWUXFWXUDO 33 DQG ZLWK WKH 3 LQ WKH 93 DV VKRZQ LQ ᯳JXUH 

 Comcaii quij oop quih zaah cop iti iyooca.

old_woman def;cm [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:sew_basket def;fl sun def;vt 3.poss:on 3.sbj:rlyo:put.lq/lng
The old woman put her basket into the sunlight.

)LJXUH bb$QDO\VLV RI H[DPSOH 

S

DP DP DP VP

P V

comcaii quij oop quih zaah cop iti iyooca

the old woman her basket the sunlight on it s/he put it

$V WKH IDFWV LQ i KDYH VKRZQ WKH 3 IROORZV 93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV DQG VR LV QRW VLPSO\ DGMRLQHG WR WKH 93
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596 Chapter 22: Postpositions and Ps

 D bbb'36XEMHFW bbb'3'LUHFW 2EMHFW bbb'33FRPSOHPHQW bbb3 bbb9HUE

E bbb'36XEMHFW bbb'33FRPSOHPHQW bbb'3'LUHFW 2EMHFW bbb3 bbb9HUE
F '33FRPSOHPHQW bbb'36XEMHFW bbb'3'LUHFW 2EMHFW bbb3 bbb9HUE

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 D Juan quih cocazni° com ˻ hehe an

Juan def;fl Crotalus_spp. def;hz    plant/wood [3.poss:]in
icaaij˼ quij an iyooxquim.
3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water def;cm [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlyo:put.hz
Juan put the rattlesnake into the water drum.

E Juan quih ˻ hehe an icaaij˼ quij

Juan def;fl    plant/wood [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:[unsp.obj:]fetch_water def;cm
cocazni° com an iyooxquim.
Crotalus_spp. def;hz [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:rlyo:put.hz
Juan put the rattlesnake into the water drum.

F * ˻ Hehe an icaaij˼ quij Juan quih cocazni° com an iyooxquim.

(Juan put the rattlesnake into the water drum.)

G * ˻ Hehe an icaaij˼ quij ah Juan quih cocazni° com an iyooxquim.

foc
(Juan put the rattlesnake into the water drum.)
 23
Adjectives

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 D Canoaa quih quisil com, tiix ihsexl aha.

boat def;fl sbj.nmlz:small def;hz dem;dt;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy aux:dcl
I will buy the SMALL boat.

E Canoaa quih imisil com, tiix ihsexl aha.

boat def;fl sbj.nmlz:neg:small def;hz dem;dt;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy aux:dcl
I will buy the boat that is NOT small.

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 [ Quisil com ] ihsexl aha.

sbj.nmlz:small def;hz 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy aux:dcl
I will buy the small one.

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 D Canoaa com quisil iha.

boat def;hz sbj.nmlz:small dcl
The boat is small.

E Canoaa com imisil iha.

boat def;hz sbj.nmlz:neg;small dcl
The boat is not small.

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597
598 Chapter 23: Adjectives

7DEOH bb6LPSOH DGMHFWLYHV

0D\ IXQFWLRQ DV 0D\ EH XVHG

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ihmaa° other \HV "
tazo one \HV "
áa true QR QR
aapa strong, sturdy QR UDUHO\
íi first QR QR
xahxaii kind of like QR QR
xàpi any QR QR
zaac small QR QR

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 D * yotazo (there was one)

E * sihmaa (there will be another)
F * pozaac x, ... (if it is small, ...)

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 …, mos [ ihmaa° pac ] isiimlajc aha.

also other indf;pl 3.sbj:irr.ind:deliver\pl aux:dcl
…, they will bring others.bb &<+,E

 [ ¿Ihmaa° zo ] ntconyaa?
   other indf;sg 2s.sbj:rlt:neg:own
Don’t you have any more (another one)?bb &<+,

 [ Tazo cah ] siitom aha.

one def;fl:foc irr.ind:speak aux:dcl
ONE should talk.bb 177  &R 

 [ Tazo ipi ] tmahcaail, yoque.

one del rlt:neg:remain rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
There wasn’t even one left over, it is said.bb &<+,

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 D * [ zaac quij ]'3 (the small one)

E * [ aapa quij ]'3 (the strong one)
F * [ xàpi ]'3 (any)

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PDWLFDO H[DPSOH LV JLYHQ LQ 

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think him uninformed You strike me as cantankerous
§23.1 Discussion of specific adjectives 599

 * Minol cop zaac iha.

2.poss:hand/arm/finger def;vt small dcl
(Your finger is small.)

23.1 Discussion of specific adjectives

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23.1.1 Áa true, real, authentic

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(3.poss:[pon:]write real) pencil siml áa barrel_cactus real a variety of barrel cactus xcoomoj áa fly real common
housefly moosni áa black_sea_turtle real (a variety of?) black sea turtle ˻ ziix hapahit˼ áa thing sbj.nmlz:pass:eat
real solid meal, real food QRW MXQN IRRG cocsar áa non-Indian_Mexican real non-Indian Mexican XVHG LQ
VSHFLDO VLWXDWLRQV DQG cmiique áa (Seri)_person real clean-living person
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PHQWLRQHG

 Tiix cmiique ha xo cmiique áa z imhaa ha.

dem;dt;sg (Seri)_person dcl but (Seri)_person true indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
He was a Seri, but he wasn't a real Seri person.bb +LSRFDPSR

 ¡Hamt áa com an hant hiij!

  soil true def;hz [3.poss:]in land im:sit
Sit on the ground itself! bb 2᯲HUHG

23.1.2 Aapa strong, sturdy

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LQ FRPSRXQGV DQG OH[LFDOL]HG H[SUHVVLRQV
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 Trooqui aapa z an hasiihca aha.

vehicle strong indf;sg [3.poss:]in 1p.sbj:sit\pl aux:dcl
We will go in a heavy-duty vehicle. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Haaco aapa zo nsaai aha.

abs;house strong indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:make aux:dcl
You should make a sturdy house.

 Canoaa aapa ha.

boat strong/enormous dcl
It is an enormous boat.

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,W ZDV H[SODLQHG WKDW WKH TXLQWHVVHQWLDO H[DPSOH RI D trooqui aapa LV D +XPPHU
600 Chapter 23: Adjectives

7KLV VDPH DGMHFWLYH LV XVHG ZLWK WKH VHQVH RI correctly identified LQ H[DPSOHV 

 … hax tiix aapa haa, teete ma, …

intns dem;dt;sg strong/correctly_identified [sbj.nmlz:]eq rlt:say ds
… he said that he really was he, …bb 177 $F 

 Tiix aapa ha toc cömoma.

dem;dt;sg strong/correctly_identified foc there 3.io:twd:rlmi:move
That’s really him/her coming.bb 2᯲HUHG

23.1.3 Ihmaa° other

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3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:speak other indf;sg
another topicbb &<+,

 xicaquiziil ihmaa° coi

children other def;pl
the other childrenbb &<+,

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 ˻ xiica quih quiistox˼ hax ihmaa° cah

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl intns other def;fl:foc
one person after anotherbb 177 /N 

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XVHG SURQRPLQDOO\ UDWKHU WKDQ SUHGLFDWLYHO\

 He hiionam quih ihmaa° ha.

1.pro 1.poss:hat def;fl other dcl
My hat is another one.

23.1.4 Íi first
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 aal íi quij
3.poss;spouse first def;cm
his/her first spousebb &<+,

 Hipiix tax hitrooqui cheel íi quih haa ha.

dem;px;sg ? 1.poss:vehicle sbj.nmlz:red first def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
This is my first red vehicle.

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VWLOO RFFXUV 7KH WZR ZRUGV DUH ZULWWHQ GLVWLQFWO\ LQ FXUUHQW ZRUN ZLWK WKH YHUEDO IRUP NHHSLQJ WKH URRW √haa LQWDFW

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§23.1.5 Tazo one 601

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yaazi° íi his firstborn child [3.poss:]pon:carry first

23.1.5 Tazo one

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 DQG  ([DPSOH  LOOXVWUDWHV LWV DWWULEXWLYH XVH

 [ Hanso ziix tazo ] cahcaail iha, ...

just thing one sbj.nmlz:remain/lacking dcl
Just one thing is lacking, ...bb 177 0N 

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 ¿Tazo ya?
  one qm
Is there one?

23.1.6 Xahxaii kind of like

7KH FRPPRQO\ XVHG DGMHFWLYH xahxaii kind of like, somewhat resembling LV SUHVXPDEO\ GHULYHG KLVWRULFDOO\ IURP
D VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ EDVHG RQ WKH YHUE √Cii feel, sense QDPHO\ hax haii intns sbj.nmlz:pass:feel
ZLWK VRPH LUUHJXODU FKDQJHV LQ WKH FRQVRQDQWV 7KLV DGMHFWLYH PLJKW EH DQDO\]HG DV RQH WKDW UHTXLUHV DQ 13
FRPSOHPHQW ,I VR LW PRVW FRPPRQO\ PRGL᯳HV D QXOO KHDG RU IXVHV ZLWK WKH KHDG GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH DQDO\VLV
,Q VRPH FDVHV WKH HQWLUH SKUDVH >1RXQ xahxaii@ LV WUDQVODWHG ZHOO DV artificial N RU pseudo N DQG LW LV SRVVLEOH
WKDW LQ WKHVH FDVHV DW OHDVW WKH DGMHFWLYH PHDQV VLPSO\ artificial DQG GRHV QRW WDNH D FRPSOHPHQW 13

 …, ˻ zaxt quisil˼ xahxaii tiquij hax ipac oo cötayaxi, …

      ? sbj.nmlz:small sort_of md:cm intns 3.poss:back del 3.io:rlt:measure
… that to-all-appearances child grew bigger and bigger … [He was actually a giant.]bb *L
JDQWHB&RPHORQ

 itoaa xahxaii cap

3.poss:leg/foot sort_of def;vt
his/her artificial leg (prosthesis)bb &<+,

 … iquiisax tazo xahxaii ha.

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:hv:spirit one sort_of dcl
ඌ WKH\ DUH DV LI WKH\ ZHUH RQH SHUVRQbb 177 0W 

23.1.7 Xàpi any

7KH DGMHFWLYH xàpi any LV XVHG RQO\ LQ D FODXVH WKDW LV QHJDWLYH LQ VRPH ZD\ HLWKHU WKH PDLQ YHUE RU WKH GHYHUEDO
QRXQ WKDW WKH DGMHFWLYH PRGL᯳HV 7KH QRXQ LW PRGL᯳HV LV DOZD\V VLQJXODU 0RVW FRPPRQO\ WKH FODXVH LQ ZKLFK
LW RFFXUV LV SDUW RI D UHVSRQVH WR VRPHWKLQJ WKDW DQRWKHU SHUVRQ KDV VDLG *HQHUDOO\ XQVWUHVVHG ZKLFK LV XQXVXDO
IRU DQ DGMHFWLYH DQG HQFOLWLF xàpi LV QRW D FRPPRQ ZRUG

 Canoaa xàpi zo htcmaho ho.

boat any indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:see dcl
No, I’m not watching any boat.bb &<+,

7KH FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK WKH FRSXOD ZDV VWURQJO\ SUHIHUUHG IRU WKLV H[DPSOH

7KLV DGMHFWLYH ELQGV WLJKWO\ ZLWK WKH ZRUG SUHFHGLQJ LW :KHQ LW IROORZV hitrooqui my vehicle IRU H[DPSOH WKH UHVXOW
hitrooqui íi LV SURQRXQFHG ZLWK WKUHH V\OODEOHV LQ XQJXDUGHG VSHHFK DV LI LW ZHUH hitroquíi DQG QRW ZLWK IRXU V\OODEOHV 7KH
SULPDU\ VWUHVV RFFXUV RQ WKH ULJKW DV H[SHFWHG

7KLV ZRUG RFFXUV LQ WKH 177 PRUH WKDQ  WLPHV DW OHDVW EHIRUH WKH UHYLVLRQ RI 

:KHQ LW LV XVHG ZLWK D GHYHUEDO QRXQ RQH PLJKW WKLQN LW LV DQ DGYHUE RI VRPH VRUW EXW LW LV QRW XVHG ZLWK ᯳QLWH YHUEV
602 Chapter 23: Adjectives

 Sooda xàpi zo himasi ha.

soda_pop any indf;sg 1.poss:[pon:]drink dcl
I haven’t drunk any soda pop.bb 2᯲HUHG

 Tiix imoopis xàpi ha.

dem;dt;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:unsp.obj:suck/smoke any dcl
No, s/he has not smoked.bb &<+,

 Himiim xàpi ha.

1.poss:[pon:]neg:sleep any dcl
I haven’t even slept.bb 2᯲HUHG

23.1.8 Zaac small

7KH ZRUG zaac small LV SULPDULO\ LI QRW H[FOXVLYHO\ IRXQG LQ FRPSRXQGV DQG OH[LFDOL]HG H[SUHVVLRQV VXFK DV
inol zaac little finger EXW VHH DOVR mojepe zaac young sahuaro cactus RU DFFRUGLQJ WR RQH FRQVXOWDQW a small
but apparently full-grown sahuaro DQG xtiip zaac a young Laevicardium elatum giant egg cockle

23.1.9 Obsolete adjectives

6HYHUDO DGMHFWLYHV OLVWHG LQ WKH GLFWLRQDU\ DUH REVROHWH RU DUFKDLF DQG WKHUHIRUH OLWWOH LV NQRZQ DERXW KRZ WKH\
ZHUH UHDOO\ XVHG RWKHU WKDQ WKH DWWULEXWLYH XVH WKDW ZDV VRPHWLPHV GRFXPHQWHG LQ WKH GLFWLRQDU\ 7KHVH LQFOXGH
caaxöc belonging to someone else cool small mozaj dark-colored poot medium-sized XVHG RQO\ WR GHVFULEH D
PHVTXLWH WUHH tepo in useless condition DQG xcoctz old

23.2 Adjectives as morphologically defective verbs

6RPH DGMHFWLYHV PLJKW EH EHVW YLHZHG DV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\GHIHFWLYH VWDWLYH YHUEV 7KHVH DGMHFWLYHV DUH OLVWHG LQ
WDEOH 

7DEOH bb$GMHFWLYHV DV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ GHIHFWLYH YHUEV

$GMHFWLYH 9HUE URRW

caii VJ queeej SO mature √caii VJ √queeej SO
cazojeecoj VJ cazojeecöl SO unmarried and elderly √(C)azojeecoj VJ √(C)azojeecöl SO
heeque VJ heecto SO small (commonly young) √heeque VJ √heecto SO
hiitiscal arrogant √hiitiscal
pootsi stunted √pootsi
roocö VJ roocöxam SO crazy √roocö VJ √roocöxam SOXUDO

7KH URRWV RI WKHVH SDUWLFXODU DGMHFWLYHV DSSHDU LQ YHUE SDUDGLJPV ZKHUH WKH\ DUH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU PRRG QHJDWLRQ
SHUVRQ HWF 2QO\ RQH IDFW NHHSV WKHP IURP EHLQJ DQDO\]HG OLNH WKH YDVW PDMRULW\ RI VWDWLYH SUHGLFDWHV LQ WKH ODQ
JXDJH H[DFWO\ ZKHUH RQH H[SHFWV D VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ ZLWK WKH SUH᯳[ c- IRU DWWULEXWLYH RU SUHGLFDWH
DGMHFWLYDO XVH WKH IRUPV LQ WDEOH  DSSHDU ,Q WKLV UHJDUG H[DPLQH  WR FRPSDUH D SDUWLDO SDUDGLJP ZLWK
WKH VWDWLYH YHUE √heel red ZLWK D SDUWLDO SDUDGLJP ZLWK WKH VWDWLYH YHUE √heeque small, especially juvenile (and
by extension, toy) SOXUDO √heecto


2QH FRQVXOWDQW VXJJHVWHG WKDW LW PHDQV solitary DQG JDYH VRPH H[DPSOHV ZKHUH WKLV ZRXOG EH WUXH haxz zaac solitary
dog (out of its usual place) HWF 2WKHU FRQVXOWDQWV GLG QRW FRQ᯳UP WKLV
§23.2.1 Caii mature, grown up 603

 >FRPPRQ SUHGLFDWH@ LQ᯴HFWHG ංDGMHFWLYHඃ

red) small/juvenile)
5HDOLV yo- yo-heel yo-heeque
'HSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV po-heel po-heeque
,QGHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV s-heel s-heeque
5HDOLV t- t-heel t-heeque
6XEMHFW GHYHUEDO IRUP c-heel heeque

)RU WKDW UHDVRQ LW LV SRVVLEOH WR VXJJHVW WKDW D ZRUG OLNH heeque small, young SOXUDO heecto LV DFWXDOO\ WKH
GHYHUEDO QRXQ WKDW FRUUHVSRQGV WR sbj.nmlz:small/young DQG EORFNV ZKDW ZRXOG EH WKH UHJXODU FRQMXJDWHG IRUP
*c-heeque 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 ¿Heeque ya? ¿Caii ya?

  small/young qm    mature qm
Is it young? Is it grown?bb 2᯲HUHG

 trooquij heecto
vehicle:pl small/young\pl
toy trucksbb &<+,

7KUHH RWKHU DGMHFWLYHV EHKDYH LQ WKH VDPH ZD\ LQ WKDW WKH\ VLPSO\ UHSODFH WKH UHJXODUO\ FRQMXJDWHG VXEMHFW
RULHQWHG GHYHUEDO IRUPV RI WKH UHODWHG SUHGLFDWH hiitiscal proud arrogant, haughty pootsi stunted DQG roocö
crazy 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 Ctam roocö zo yoofp.

male crazy indf;sg rlyo:arrive
A crazy man arrived.bb &<+,

 ¿Me roocö ya?

  2.pro crazy qm
Are you crazy?bb &<+,

([DPSOH  LOOXVWUDWHV WKH YHUE ZLWK ZKLFK WKLV DGMHFWLYH LV DVVRFLDWHG

 ¡Xoroocöxam!
  em:crazy:pl
They are crazy!

23.2.1 Caii mature, grown up

7KH SUHGLFDWH √caii mature, grown up XVHG WR GHVFULEH SHRSOH DQG LWV VXSSOHWLYH SOXUDO URRW √queeej DUH YHU\
FRPPRQO\ DWWHVWHG LQ WKHLU LQ᯴HFWHG YHUE IRUPV DV LQ 

 D ¡Xocaii!
  em:mature
S/he has grown up!

7KLV ZRUG LV DSSDUHQWO\ D ORDQZRUG IURP D 8WR$]WHFDQ ODQJXDJH VHH DSSHQGL[ $ 7KLV IDFW VXJJHVWV WKDW LQ DW OHDVW
WKLV FDVH WKH SURFHVV LV RQH RI YHUEDOL]DWLRQ RI DQ DGMHFWLYH UDWKHU WKDQ D FRPSOLFDWLRQ RI WKH PRUSKRORJ\

7KH URRW √roocö GRHV KDYH WKH c- SUH᯳[ LQ WKH XVDJH iiqui croocö addicted to DV LQ L

L Hamaax quih iiqui croocö iha.

sbj.nmlz:pass:make_alcoholic_beverage def;fl 3.poss:toward sbj.nmlz:crazy dcl
S/he is an alcoholic.bb 2᯲HUHG


7KH QRXQ comcaii old woman SOXUDO comqueej LV REYLRXVO\ HW\PRORJLFDOO\ GHULYHG IURP cmaam caii woman mature
604 Chapter 23: Adjectives

E ¡Xoqueeej!
  em:mature\pl
They have grown up!

7KH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ GHIHFWLYH VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO IRUPV caii DQG queeej DUH XVHG LQ VRPH IDLUO\ ᯳[HG
H[SUHVVLRQV VXFK DV cmiique caii person mature adult DQG comcaac queeej (Seri)_person\pl mature\pl adults
6HH H[DPSOH 

 ... ziix cmiique caii ctam Coyote Iguana hapáh quij

thing (Seri)_person mature male Coyote Iguana sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm
iicp hac, ...
3.poss:side/about def:loc
... with respect to the (now deceased) adult Seri man named Coyote Iguana, ...bb /RODB&DVDQRYD 

7KH\ DUH DOVR XVHG LQ OHVV᯳[HG H[SUHVVLRQV DQG PD\ IXQFWLRQ DV IXVHG KHDGV DV LQ 

 [ Caii ] quij yihiimet.

mature def;cm rlyo:married
The older one got married.

7KH UHJXODUO\FRQMXJDWHG IRUPV ccaii sbj.nmlz:mature DQG cqueeej sbj.nmlz:mature\pl DUH IRXQG LQ D IHZ H[
SUHVVLRQV DOVR KRZHYHU VXFK DV ctam cmaa ccaii male now sbj.nmlz:mature young man SOXUDO ctamcö cmaa
cqueeej male\pl now sbj.nmlz:mature\pl DQG zacaam cmaapa ccaii young_woman right_now sbj.nmlz:mature
adolescent girl 7KHVH DUH REYLRXVO\ RQH LQ ZKLFK D FKDQJHRIVWDWH LV LQ YLHZ

23.2.2 Cazojeecoj unmarried and elderly

7KH DGMHFWLYH cazojeecoj unmarried and elderly SOXUDO cazojeecöl LV D FRPSRXQG DGMHFWLYH SUHVXPDEO\ EDVHG
KLVWRULFDOO\ RQ WKH UHJXODU YHUE √azoj alone DQG WKH FRPSRXQGLQJ URRW √eecoj ZKLFK LQGLFDWHV ODUJH VL]H FI
√aacoj large 7KH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ YHUEDO URRW ZDV GRFXPHQWHG LQ HDUOLHU ZRUN LQFOXGLQJ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\
DV EHLQJ √Cazojeecoj ZKLFK PHDQV WKDW LW FRQMXJDWHV OLNH WKH YHUE ccazoj ZKLFK RFFXUV LQ H[SUHVVLRQV OLNH full of
holes 6HH i IRU WKH FRQMXJDWLRQ SDWWHUQ RI &ൺHPSW\ FRQVRQDQWൺYHUEV $W OHDVW VRPH VSHDNHUV KRZHYHU
XVH WKH H[SHFWHG VWHP √azojeecoj 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 ctam cazojeecoj
male unmarried_and_elderly
elderly bachelor

 ¿Ttazojeecoj? / ¿Tazojeecoj?
  rlt:unmarried_and_elderly
Is s/he unmarried and elderly?

23.3 The quantifier coox all inside of a DP

7KH TXDQWL᯳HU coox all VRPHWLPHV EXW XQFRPPRQO\ RFFXUV before WKH GHWHUPLQHU RI D '3 ,Q WKLV SRVLWLRQ LW
HDVLO\ PRGL᯳HV D VLQJXODU QRXQ ZKLFK PD\ EH D GHYHUEDO QRXQ ,Q VRPH FDVHV VXFK DV  WKH UHIHUHQW LV
REYLRXVO\ QHFHVVDULO\ VLQJXODU DQG VR WKH FRPELQDWLRQ RI D VLQJXODU QRXQ ZLWK coox H[SUHVVHV WKH HQWLUHW\ RI WKDW
LWHP LQ VRPH GLVWULEXWLYH VHQVHൺQRW DOO RI WKH PHDW LQ H[DPSOH  EXW DOO NLQGV RI PHDW

 Hant quih coox com iti tatax, …

land def;fl all def;hz 3.poss:on rlt:go
S/he went over the whole world (everywhere), …

5HQ« 0RQWD³R +HUUHUD XVHV WKH UHJXODU FRQMXJDWLRQ IRU H[DPSOH

6HH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH TXDQWL᯳HU coox LQ PRUH FRPPRQ VLWXDWLRQV LQ i 7KH YHUE √cooo DOVR ᯳JXUHV LQWR WKH
SLFWXUH VHH i ,Q PDQ\ VLWXDWLRQV WKH SUHIHUUHG H[SUHVVLRQ IRU all XVHV WKLV YHUE LQ VRPH IRUP
§23.3 The quantifier coox all inside of a DP 605

 ¡Ziix quih iti cöiitom coox cah iti cöhaaizi!

  thing def;fl 3.poss:on 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]speak all def;fl:foc 3.poss:on 3.io:im:make/do\pl
Do everything that he says to do!bb 177 -Q 

 Ziix ipxasi quih coox cah iyoohit.

thing 3.poss:flesh def;fl all def;fl:foc 3.sbj:rlyo:eat
S/he/it eats all kinds of meat.

,Q RWKHU FDVHV DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\  WKH FRPELQDWLRQ LPSOLHV WKH HQWLUH set RI LWHPV LPSOLHG E\ WKH VLQJXODU QRXQ

 Zaah quih coox cah …

sun/day def;fl all def;fl:foc
a. Every day …
b. ,PSRVVLEOH UHDGLQJ (All day ...)

6XFK '3V GHWHUPLQH VLQJXODU QXPEHU PDUNLQJ RQ WKH YHUE ZKHQ WKH\ DUH WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH FODXVH VHH  
IRU H[DPSOH 1RWH WKDW QRQH RI WKH YHUEV LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV KDV DQ\ PDUNLQJ IRU SOXUDO WKH VWHPV DUH WKRVH XVHG
ZLWK VLQJXODU VXEMHFWV

 ˻ Ziix quih quiisax˼ coox cah isiiho aha.

   thing def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit all def;fl:foc 3.sbj:irr.ind:see aux:dcl
Everyone will see him/her/it.

 Haxz° quih coox cah yaxi.

dog def;fl all def;fl:foc rlyo:die
All of the dogs died.

 Zaah, tiix thaa ma x, cmiique coox cah ˻ iisax hant yaait˼.

sun/day dem;dt;sg rlt:eq ds ut (Seri)_person all def;fl:foc    3.poss:spirit land rlyo:arrive
On that day everyone is happy.bb 2᯲HUHG

7KH XVH RI coox ZLWK D plural QRXQ DQG D plural YHUE LV QRW LPSRVVLEOH KRZHYHU DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOH 

 Háxaca° coox cah yaxyat.

dog\pl all def;fl:foc rlyo:die\pl
All of the dogs died.

7KH IROORZLQJ H[SUHVVLRQV XVHG DV DGMXQFWV ZLWK YHUEV WR LQGLFDWH with gusto energetically DUH FRPPRQ KRZ
HYHU DQG SOXUDO QRXQV DOVR RFFXU ZLWK coox LQ WKHVH iisax RU ihiisax quih coox com 3.poss:spirit def;fl all
def;hz (with) all his/her heart iistox RU ihiistox quih coox com 3.poss:spirit:pl def;fl all def;hz (with) all their
hearts miisax RU mihiisax quih coox com (with) all your heart 7KHVH SKUDVHV XVHG DV DGMXQFWV GHWHUPLQH
REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ LQ H[DPSOHV  ZKHQ WKH\ DUH QRW SUHVHQW LQ WKHVH FODXVHV WKDW LQ᯴HF
WLRQ LV QRW SUHVHQW 6HH 

 … iisax quih coox com cöitatolec, ox imii: …

3.poss:spirit def;fl all def;hz 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:ask_for_help thus 3.sbj:rlmi:tell
… he begged him for help, and said to him: …bb 177 $F 

 Iistox quih coox com cöimqueept, comcaac coi, quino

3.poss:spirit:pl def;fl all def;hz 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:like\pl (Seri)_person\pl def;pl 3.poss:in

cöhiifp hac, hin taht.

3.io:1.poss:[pon:]arrive def;loc 1s.do:rlt:see\pl
The people received me very gladly when I arrived and they saw me.bb 2᯲HUHG

7KH PHDQLQJ S/he/it eats all of the meat FDQ EH H[SUHVVHG ZLWK WKH TXDQWL᯳HU coox IROORZLQJ WKH GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVH DV LQ
Ziix ipxasi quih coox iyoohit 2Q WKLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ VHH i
 24
Adverbs

7KH FODVV RI DGYHUEV LV LQWHUHVWLQJ LQ PDQ\ ZD\V GHVSLWH LWV UHODWLYHO\ VPDOO VL]H $QG QRW RQO\ LV WKH FODVV VPDOO
EXW LQ DGGLWLRQ WKHUH LV QR UHJXODU ZRUG IRUPDWLRQ SURFHVV WR FUHDWH PRUH ZRUGV RI WKLV FODVV 1HYHUWKHOHVV
DGYHUEV FRPELQH LQ VRPH FUHDWLYH ZD\V WR JLYH D YDULHW\ RI H[SUHVVLRQV VRPH RI ZKLFK PXVW EH OLVWHG LQ WKH
OH[LFRQ GXH WR WKHLU VHPDQWLF LGLRV\QFUDVLHV $ IHZ DGYHUEV KDYH REYLRXVO\ GHYHORSHG IURP D IXVLRQ RI D QRXQ
DQG 3 DV GLVFXVVHG EHORZ LQ i
7KH DGYHUEV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ VHYHUDO PDMRU JURXSV LQ WKLV FKDSWHU DOWKRXJK WKHUH LV VRPH RYHUODS '3LQLWLDO
DQG 13LQLWLDO DGYHUEV LQ i '3᯳QDO DQG 13᯳QDO DGYHUEV LQ i 93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV LQ i 93᯳QDO
DGYHUEV LQ i VHQWHQWLDO DGYHUEV LQ i DQG DGYHUEV WKDW PRGLI\ DGYHUEV LQ i )LUVW KRZHYHU LQ i
VRPH QRPLQDOV WKDW PRGLI\ SURSRVLWLRQV DUH GLVFXVVHG

24.1 Nominals with adverbial force

6RPH GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVHV DUH XVHG LQ ZD\V UHPLQLVFHQW RI DGYHUEV 2QH LV WKH SKUDVH ˻ iisax quihiih˼ quih ex-
treme degree 3.poss:spirit sbj.nmlz:remain_behind def;fl ZKLFK RFFXUV DV DQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW GHWHUPLQLQJ
LQGLUHFW REMHFW PRUSKRORJ\ i RQ WKH YHUE RI WKH FODXVH VHH i 7KLV SKUDVH LV RIWHQ UHQGHUHG
extremely RU very LQ IUHH WUDQVODWLRQ 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 ˻ Iisax quihiih quih˼ cötaacoj ma x, …

   3.poss:spirit sbj.nmlz:remain_behind def;fl 3.io:rlt:big ds ut
It gets extremely big, … bb 177 0W 

 Cocsar ctam zo toc cötiij, ˻ iisax quihiih quih˼ cöxaacoj.

Mexican male indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit    3.poss:spirit sbj.nmlz:remain_behind def;fl 3.io:em:big
A non-Indian Mexican man who was there is very big.

 ˻ Iisax quihiih cah˼ consaziim aha.

   3.poss:spirit sbj.nmlz:remain_behind def;fl 3.io:2s.sbj:irr.ind:pretty aux:dcl
You are going to be very pretty.

$QRWKHU QRPLQDO SKUDVH ZLWK DQ DGYHUELDO XVH LV WKH LQYDULDQW SKUDVH ˻ mos itacl oo˼ also 3.poss:surface del
once again 7KLV SKUDVH DOVR GHWHUPLQHV WKLUG SHUVRQ LQGLUHFWREOLTXH REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ RQ WKH YHUE DV VKRZQ LQ


 ˻ Mos itacl oo˼ ziix zo cöiyoohit.

   also 3.poss:surface del thing indf;sg 3.io:3.sbj:rlyo:eat
Once again s/he ate something.

 He cmaax ˻ mos itacl oo˼ ziix zo cösiihit caha.

1.pro now    also 3.poss:surface del thing indf;sg 3.io:irr.ind:eat sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
Once again I will eat something.

$ QRXQ WKDW LV XVHG DGYHUELDOO\ LV quipac unsp.sbj:3.poss:back OLWHUDOO\ one’s back LW DOVR GHWHUPLQHV WKLUG
SHUVRQ REOLTXHLQGLUHFW REMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ 2FFXUULQJ SULPDULO\ ZLWK VFDODU VWDWLYH SUHGLFDWHV LW LQGLFDWHV WKH JUHDW
HVW GHJUHH WKDW WKH SUHGLFDWH FDQ KDYH LQ RWKHU ZRUGV LW IXQFWLRQV DV D ZD\ WR H[SUHVV D VXSHUODWLYH 6HH WKH
H[DPSOHV LQ 

 Tiix quipac cösmiipe caha.

dem;dt;sg unsp.sbj:3.poss:back 3.io:irr.ind:neg:good sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
That one will be the worst.

606
§24.2 DP-initial and NP-initial adverbs 607

 Coocj coi quipac cöcaaixaj zo haa piij ta …

sbj.nmlz:two def;pl unsp.sbj:3.poss:back 3.io:sbj.nmlz:strong indf;sg there irr.dep:sit ds
Which of the two is the strongest …bb 9LHQWRB1RUWHB

6HH DOVR quipac cöquiipe unsp.sbj:3.poss:back 3.io:sbj.nmlz:good the best quipac cocheel unsp.sbj:3.poss:back
3.io:sbj.nmlz:red the reddest quipac cocxatcaj unsp.sbj:3.poss:back 3.io:sbj.nmlz:thin) the thinnest quipac coha
unsp.sbj:3.poss:back 3.io:sbj.nmlz:beLUUHJ  the highest ranking quipac ˻ iiha cöcapii˼ the fattest DQG quipac cö-
catxo unsp.sbj:3.poss:back 3.io:sbj.nmlz:many the most numerous 7KH SKUDVH quipac panaal cöcapii the most
honey-flavored unsp.sbj:3.poss:back honey 3.io:sbj:nmlz:taste_like LV LQWHUHVWLQJ VLQFH WKH H[SUHVVLRQ panaal cö-
capii honey-flavored VHH i DOUHDG\ KDV D SUHGLFDWH LQ᯴HFWHG IRU 3.io 7KH LQFOXVLRQ RI quipac GRHV QRW UHVXOW
LQ DQ H[WUD RFFXUUHQFH RI 3.io WKHUH LV QR VWDFNLQJ RI WKH LQ᯴HFWLRQDO PRUSKRORJ\
7KLV QRXQ LV XVHG LQ WKH IRUP ipac LQ H[DPSOH  LQ ZKLFK LW GRHV QRW LQGLFDWH D VXSHUODWLYH

 … haapa cap iixaj quih ipac cöimaai.

northwest_wind def;vt 3.poss:[pon:]strong def;fl 3.poss:back 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:make
… the North Wind did it even more strongly. bb 9LHQWRB1RUWHB

24.2 DP-initial and NP-initial adverbs

$Q DGYHUE PD\ SUHFHGH DQG PRGLI\ D QRPLQDO SKUDVH ,W DSSHDUV KRZHYHU WKDW RQH DGYHUE DFWXDOO\ PRGL᯳HV WKH
'3 hanso i ZKLOH WZR DGYHUEV PRGLI\ WKH 13 hax DQG hipimax VHH i DQG  UHVSHFWLYHO\
7KH UHDVRQ IRU FODLPLQJ D GL᯲HUHQFH LV WKDW WKHVH DGYHUEV W\SLFDOO\ FRRFFXU ZLWK D GHOLPLWLQJ FORVLQJ DGYHUE
WKDW LQGLFDWHV WKH VFRSH RI WKH DGYHUE 7KH GL᯲HUHQFHV DUH LOOXVWUDWHG LQ ᯳JXUHV  DQG  ,W LV DOVR SRVVLEOH
WKDW WKH VWUXFWXUH RI WKHVH SKUDVHV LV ᯴DWWHU WKDQ VKRZQ LQ WKHVH ᯳JXUHV &OHDU HYLGHQFH WR GHFLGH WKLV PDWWHU KDV
QRW EHHQ IRXQG

)LJXUH bb'3LQLWLDO DGYHUE

DP

Adv DP

DP Adv

hanso oo

)LJXUH bb13LQLWLDO DGYHUE

DP

NP D

Adv NP

NP Adv

hax xah
608 Chapter 24: Adverbs

24.2.1 Delimiting modifier hanso (DP)

7KH DGYHUE hanso just VRPHWLPHV hans EHIRUH D YRZHO ZKLFK PRVW FRPPRQO\ RFFXUV EHIRUH D YHUE VHH i
PD\ RFFXU DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI D '3 WR LQGLFDWH just, nothing more than 7KH GHOLPLWLQJ DGYHUE oo VHH i
W\SLFDOO\ IROORZV WKH '3 ZKHQ WKH DGYHUE hanso LV XVHG 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 [ Hanso hehe z oo ] cohpooh, ihsiicö aha.

just plant/stick indf;sg del 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:do/say/put.fl 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:kill aux:dcl
I will kill it with JUST A CLUB. bb &<+,

 [ Hanso hizaax oo ] cöhapacta.

just dem;px;pl del 3.io:im:perform
Do JUST THIS. bb 177 0W 

 ... [ hanso ˻ ziix ccam˼ quij itaasi hac oo ] itaaj iiha, ...
just    thing sbj.nmlz:alive def;cm 3.poss:name def;loc del 3.sbj:rlt:know:pl only
... they only know it as the animal’s name, ...bb )LORV E

 [ Hans itaasi hac oo ] cöimiih.

just 3.poss:name def;loc del 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:put/say/do.fl
S/he calls it by its own name. bb (6  [SDFDDIF

7KH H[DPSOHV LQ  KDYH 13V UDWKHU WKDQ '3V DQG GR QRW KDYH WKH GHOLPLWHU oo

 [ Hanso ziix tazo ] cahcaail iha, ...

just thing one sbj.nmlz:remain_behind/lack dcl
ONLY ONE THING is lacking, ... bb 177 0N 

 [ ¡Hanso tom me ihaaipot quih ] hexl!

  just money 2.io:3.poss:pon:pay def;fl im:take
Take JUST YOUR PAY! bb 177 0W 

24.2.2 Despecifying modifier hax (NP)

7KH ZRUG hax LV DQ LQWHQVL᯳HU EHIRUH YHUEV VHH i DQG LW PD\ KDYH WKDW PHDQLQJ LQ D IHZ FDVHV ZKHQ LW
SUHFHGHV D '3 VXFK DV WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ LQ 

 ... hax tiix áa haa ha.

intns dem;dt;sg true [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
... that’s him without a doubt. bb 177 -Q 

0RVW FRPPRQO\ KRZHYHU ZKHQ LW RFFXUV ZLWK D QRPLQDO JHQHUDOO\ LQGH᯳QLWH LW LV EHVW XQGHUVWRRG DV D GH
VSHFLI\LQJ DGYHUE WUDQVODWHG KHUH DV just any 7KH DGYHUE PDNHV LW FOHDU WKDW QR VSHFL᯳F UHIHUHQW LV LQWHQGHG
(YLGHQWO\ WKLV DGYHUE PRGL᯳HV WKH 13 FRPSOHPHQW RI WKH '3 LQ WKDW LW YHU\ FRPPRQO\ FRRFFXUV ZLWK HLWKHU WKH
GHOLPLWLQJ DGYHUE xah i RU WKH GHOLPLWLQJ DGYHUE oo i DSSHDULQJ before WKH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH
6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ  $ SURSRVDO IRU WKH VWUXFWXUH RI WKH '3 LQ  LV JLYHQ LQ ᯳JXUH 


7KH ZRUG xah LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK WKH FRRUGLQDWRU and i ,W KDV XQXVXDO V\QWDFWLF FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DQG WKHVH PDNH
LW XQVXLWDEOH IRU GHFLGLQJ LWV WUXH SRVLWLRQ ([DPSOHV OLNH  ZLWK oo DUH WKHUHIRUH YHU\ LPSRUWDQW

7KH VWUXFWXUH VKRZQ WKHUH SURSRVHV WKDW WKH DGYHUE LV DGMRLQHG WR WKH 13 DOWKRXJK DUJXPHQWV LQ IDYRU RI WKLV VWUXFWXUH
RYHU D ᯴DWWHU VWUXFWXUH KDYH QRW EHHQ IRXQG
§24.2.2 Despecifying modifier hax (NP) 609

)LJXUH bb'LDJUDP RI WKH '3 LQ H[DPSOH 

DP

NP D

Adv NP

NP Adv

DP N

NP D

hax Juan quih itaamt xah zo

 [ [ ¡Hax hamcanoiin xah ] zo ] camjc!

  dspf pan ? indf;sg im:deliver
Bring just any pan!

 [ [ ¡Hax haxölinaail cooxp xah ] zo ] camjc!

  dspf shelled_mollusk sbj.nmlz:white ? indf;sg im:deliver
Bring just any white shelled mollusk!

 [ [ ¡Hax Juan quih itaamt xah ] zo ] camjc!

  dspf Juan def;fl 3.poss:sandal(s) ? indf;sg im:deliver
Bring just any of Juan’s shoes!

 [ [ Hax hant xah ] zo ] hasoziit aha.

dspf land ? indf;sg 1p.sbj:irr.ind:go_to\pl aux:dcl
We are going to any one of those places. bb &<+,

 [ [ Hax cmiique ctam oo ] zo ] haquix piih ta, ...

dspf (Seri)_person male del indf;sg somewhere irr.dep:be.fl ds
If any Seri man is somewhere, ...

 [ [ Hax ziic xah ] zo ] miiho isax, ...

dspf bird ? indf;sg 2.poss:[pon:]see cncsv
Whatever bird you see, ...

 [ [ Hax trooqui oo ] zo miiho isax, áno hiij.

dspf vehicle del indf;sg 2.poss:[pon:]see cncsv [3.poss:]in im:sit
Get in just whatever car you see.

7KH H[DPSOH LQ  LV XQXVXDO LQ WKDW WKHUH LV QR KHDG QRXQൺWKH LQGH᯳QLWH zo LV EHLQJ XVHG SURQRPLQDOO\
KHUH DQG  LV XQXVXDO LQ WKDW WKH QRXQ SKUDVH KDV D GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH DOWKRXJK WKH QRXQ SKUDVH LV QRQVSHFL᯳F LQ
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ

7KH FRQFHVVLYH PHDQLQJ RI WKH VXERUGLQDWRU KHUH LV QRW VDOLHQW 7KH SHUVRQ PD\ EH JRLQJ RXW ZLWK WKH H[SOLFLW SXUSRVH
RI ᯳QGLQJ D ELUG
610 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 [ [ ¡Hax zo haa xah ] ] piih ta, camjc!

  dspf indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq ? irr.dep:be;fl ds im:deliver
Bring whichever one of them (cloth-like articles)!

 [ [ Hax ctam xah cah ] ] seehe cöocoaa ha.

dspf male ? def;fl:foc to_do_(it) 3.io:[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:know dcl
Any man can do/be it.

24.2.3 Hapimax even (NP)

7KH DGYHUE hapimax even RU LWV SHUKDSV OHVV FRPPRQ GLDOHFWDO YDULDQW hipimax RFFXUV DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI
DQ 13 WKDW LV PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQGH᯳QLWH DQG VLQJXODU WKH '3 KDV WKH DUWLFOH zo 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 
 %XW WKLV PRUSKRORJLFDO LQGH᯳QLWHQHVV PD\ EH GXH WR WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH QHJDWLYH YHUE UDWKHU WKDQ VHPDQWLF
LQGH᯳QLWHQHVV VHH i 7KLV DGYHUE DOVR VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ UHTXLUHV WKH 13᯳QDO LQWHQVLI\LQJ DGYHUE ipi EHIRUH
WKH LQGH᯳QLWH GHWHUPLQHU VHH i

 Iitxo cah [ [ hapimax hant iti isoii ipi ]

3.poss:[pon:]much/many def;fl:foc even land 3.poss:on 3.poss:irr.ind:be.fl\pl del
zo ] toc cöyomahca.
indf;sg there 3.io:rlyo:neg:be_located
There were so many of them that there wasn’t even a place for them to stand.bb 177 0N 

 [ [ Hapimax ziix mozaxö xah ipi ] zo ] htcmaa ho.

even thing 2.poss:obj.nmlz:discuss ? del indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know what you’re talking about. bb 177 /N 

 [ [ Hipimax isoj isaai ipi ] z ] itcmaa ho.

even 3.poss:body/self 3.sbj:irr.ind:make del indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:neg:know/be_able dcl
S/he just didn’t know what to do.

 ... ctam tiquij [ [ hapimax iicp miiha, taax ipi ] zo ]

male md;cm even 3.poss:side twd:3.poss:pon:move dem;dt;pl del indf;sg

himaaj iha.
1.poss:[pon:]neg:know:pl dcl
... that man—where he comes from, even that we don’t know. bb 177 -Q 

24.3 DP-final and NP-final adverbs

6RPH DGYHUEV IROORZ WKH '3 DQG VRPH IROORZ WKH 13 7KRVH WKDW IROORZ WKH '3 DUH WKRVH WKDW DSSHDU DIWHU D
SURQRXQ RU D GHWHUPLQHU
(YLGHQWO\ PRUH WKDQ RQH VXFK DGYHUE RI WKH VDPH FDWHJRU\ PD\ RFFXU 6RPH RI WKH FRPELQDWLRQV DWWHVWHG
LQFOXGH WKRVH VKRZQ LQ 


7KLV YDULDWLRQ LQ IRUP SDUDOOHOV WKDW RI WKH LQWHQVL᯳HU hapi GHVFULEHG LQ i ,W LV OLNHO\ WKDW hapimax LV D FRPSRXQG
IRUP +RZHYHU WKH HW\PRORJ\ LV XQFHUWDLQ

7KLV LV HVSHFLDOO\ HYLGHQW LQ WKH FDVH RI  ZKHUH WKH DGYHUE hapimax RFFXUV DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKH '3 DQG WKH DGYHUE
ipi IROORZV WKH IRFDO SURQRXQ DQG LV LQ WXUQ IROORZHG E\ WKH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH EHFDXVH RI WKH QHJDWLRQ
§24.3.1 Intensifier hapi (DP) 611

 &RPELQDWLRQ ([DPSOH
D hapi oo  hipi oo 
E hapi mos  hipi mos 
F hapi xah  hipi xah 
G ah oo 
H max íiqui 
I oo xox mos 

24.3.1 Intensifier hapi (DP)

7KH LQWHQVL᯳HU hapi RU LWV VRPHZKDW OHVV FRPPRQ GLDOHFWDO YDULDQW hipi FRPPRQO\ PRGL᯳HV D '3 LQFOXGLQJ DQ
RYHUW SURQRXQ RU D QRQRYHUW SURQRXQ ([DPSOHV  VKRZ LW ZLWK DQ DJHQWLYH VXEMHFW ZKLFK LV FRPPRQ
H[DPSOHV  VKRZ LW ZLWK QRQDJHQWLYH VXEMHFWV

 [ He hapi oo ] ma hpooh ta x, ...

1.pro intns del 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl ds ut
I MYSELF will cause you, ... bb 177 $F 

 [ He hapi mos ] siitax caha.

1.pro intns also irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
I myself will go also.

 [ He hapi ] hpanaaaij, ...

1.pro intns 1s.sbj:intr:irr.dep:return
I myself will return, ...

 [ Me hapi ] ziix zo cöhaaitoj.

2.pro intns thing indf;sg 3.io:im:cause_eat\pl
YOU give them something to eat! bb 177 0W 

 [ Me hapi ] pyeest quij contmisat aha.

2.pro intns fiesta def;cm 3.io:aw:2s.sbj:irr.ind:move:pl aux:dcl
YOU (pl.) should go to the fiesta.

 [ Tiix hapi ] siitax caha.

dem;dt;sg intns irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
THAT ONE will go.

 [ Taax hapi ] he cocaaaxoj iha.

dem;dt;pl intns 1.io:sbj.nmlz:follow;pl dcl
THEY follow me. bb 177 -Q 

 [ María quij hapi ] taaitom, ...

María def;cm intns rlt:speak
MARÍA spoke, ...

 [ Santaar coi hipi ] itíyala, yoque.

soldier def;pl intns 3.sbj:rlt:defend\pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
The soldiers themselves defended her. bb $SRVWDGRUB

 [ ˻ Xiica quiti cooyaj˼ tacoi hapi ] poozcam, ...

   thing\pl ?:3.poss:on sbj.nmlz:go_high;pl md:pl intns irr.dep:arrive\pl
The AUTHORITIES will come, ... bb 177 $F 

7KH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI WKH YDULDQWV KDV QRW EHHQ VWXGLHG ,W LV QRW FOHDU ZKHWKHU LW LV D JHQHUDWLRQDO GL᯲HUHQFH RU SHUKDSV D
FDUU\RYHU IURP SUHYLRXV JHRGLDOHFWDO GL᯲HUHQFHV
612 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 [ He hapi ] hpteejim, ...

1.pro intns 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:old
I am old, ...

 [ Hateeya com hapi ] hant cahjiit iha.

glass def;hz intns land sbj.nmlz:fall dcl
The bottle just fell [without anyone pushing it].

 ... [ cmaam hipcop hapi xah ] ziix comsisiin iha xo ...

female px:vt intns ? thing sbj.nmlz:pitiful/poor dcl but
... THIS woman is poor but ... bb 177 0N 

$ QRPLQDO SKUDVH PD\ FRQVLVW VROHO\ RI hapi LW LV DVVXPHG KHUH WKDW WKLV LV D FDVH RI D IXVHG KHDG VHH i
$V D UHVXOW RI WKH FRPPRQ ZRUG RUGHU ZLWK WKH YHUE LQ FODXVH᯳QDO SRVLWLRQ WKLV PHDQV WKDW YHU\ RIWHQ WKH
ZRUG hapi HQGV XS LQ SUHYHUEDO SRVLWLRQ ZKLFK LQ WXUQ PLJKW FDXVH RQH WR WKLQN LQFRUUHFWO\ WKDW LW LV D SUHYHUEDO
DGYHUE DOWKRXJK RI FRXUVH LW LV QRW DOZD\V LQ WKDW SRVLWLRQ 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Santaar coi hipi ] itíyala, cmaax [ hipi ] itoonec, ...

soldier def;pl intns 3.sbj:rlt:defend\pl now intns 3.sbj:rlt:carry.mult\pl
The soldiers themselves defended them, then they themselves took them, ... bb $SRVWDGRUB

 ..., [ hax hipi ] itahit, ...

intns intns 3.sbj:rlt:eat
…, he himself ate it, … bb +RPEUHB%DUULOB

 Hizcoi, taax [ hipi ] hsiihit aha.

px:pl dem;dt;pl intns 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
I will eat these myself. bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 ..., [ hipi ] hant com iti tiij, tsiijim x, ...

intns land def;hz 3.poss:on rlt:sit rlt:move ut
..., s/he could move about on the ground by himself, ... bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 [ Hapi ] ˻ hacx cmiih˼ iha.

intns    apart sbj.nmlz:not_be.fl dcl
S/he died (without sickness, without violence).

 [ Hipi ] sooxp taa cooxp iha.

intns irr.ind:white rlt:aux sbj.nmlz:white dcl
It’s always been white.

$WWHPSWV WR REWDLQ H[DPSOHV ZLWK SDVVLYH VXEMHFWV PRGL᯳HG ZLWK hapi ZHUH XQVXFFHVVIXO 6HH 

 * [ ¿Hapi ] ntpazt?
   intns 2s.sbj:rlt:pass:tattoo
(Were you tattooed?)

 * [ ¿Hapi ] ntahníp?
  intns 2s.sbj:rlt:pass:hit
(Were you hit?)

,Q IDFW WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ PLVWDNHQO\ OLVWV LW DV VXFK

([DPSOHV VXFK DV WKLV RQH PD\ EH FRQVLGHUHG LQDSSURSULDWH E\ PDQ\ VSHDNHUV WRGD\ EHFDXVH WKH HXSKHPLVP IRU die
XVHG KHUH LV QRZ QRW FRQVLGHUHG HXSKHPLVWLF HQRXJK LQ PRVW VLWXDWLRQV 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ LV QRZ E\ PDQ\ SHRSOH FRQVLGHUHG
DSSURSULDWH RQO\ IRU UHIHUHQFH WR DQLPDOV
§24.3.1 Intensifier hapi (DP) 613

7KH LQWHQVL᯳HU PD\ PRGLI\ D GLUHFW REMHFW RYHUW RU QRQRYHUW DV LQ H[DPSOHV 

 [ He hapi ] hizi cmis iha.

1.pro intns 1p.do:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]:resemble dcl
They resemble US. bb 177 $F 

 ... [ he hapi ] him payoozxam x, ...

1.pro intns 1s.do:irr.dep:worship:pl ut
... they will have ME as their God, ... bb 177 +H 

7KH DGYHUE hipi HDVLO\ RFFXUV ZLWK '3V WKDW DUH SRVVHVVRUV DV LQ 

 [ Juan hipi ] yaazi quih yoofp.

Juan intns [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry def;fl rlyo:arrive
Juan’s own child has arrived.

 [ hapi ] mito quij

intns 2.poss:eye def;cm
your own eye

 [ hapi ] ito quij

intns 3.poss:eye def;cm
his/her own eye

 [ hapi ] hyaazi quij

intns 1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry def;cm
my own child

 [ ¿Me hapi ] mata ya?

bb2.pro intns 2.poss:mother qm
Is it YOUR mother?

 Juan quih hiza tacsx, hipi yaazi cop iyoocta.

Juan def;fl toward_elsewhere rlt:wake_up intns [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry def;vt 3.sbj:rlyo:look_at
Juani looked to one side and looked at hisi,*j child. bb &<+,

 [ Hipi ] hyaa° ha yax ihmexl.

intns mine dcl since 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:take
Since it was MINE, I took it.

 [ he hipi ] hiitom hac

1.pro intns 1.poss:[pon:]speak def;loc
what I myself have said (my own words)

7KH FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK D SURQRXQ hipi DQG WKH QRXQ IRU body/being LV DQ LPSRUWDQW SHULSKUDVWLF H[SUHVVLRQ WR
UHIHU WR D SHUVRQ 6HH  DQG i IRU PRUH H[DPSOHV DQG GLVFXVVLRQ 6HH DOVR WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI hipi
LQ UHODWLRQ WR WKH UH᯴H[LYH SURQRXQV LQ i

 [ he hipi ] hisoj hipquij

1.pro intns 1.poss:body/self px:cm
I myself

 [ me hipi ] mísolca coi

2.pro intns 2.poss:body/self\pl def;pl
you yourselves

7KH ZRUG hipi LV TXLWH FRPPRQO\ XVHG LQ FODXVHV ZLWK WKH FRPSRXQG 3 ptiiqui toward each other VHH 
614 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 [ xiica tacoi hipi ] ptiiqui titooij/ tiin, ...

thing\pl md:pl intns together;3.poss:with rlt:go\pl rlt:go
those people met together, ...

24.3.2 Focus ah / ha (DP)

7KH IRFXV DGYHUE KDV WZR PDMRU DOORPRUSKV ,W LV ha DIWHU SHUVRQDO SURQRXQV i DV LQ 

 [ Me ha ] ntahtxima, xah nyoomoz.

2.pro foc 2s.sbj:rlt:rich ? 2s.sbj:rlyo:think
YOU just think you’re rich. bb 2᯲HUHG

 [ He ha ] hpmahiti.
1.pro foc 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:begin
I was the one who began. bb &<+,

 [ Ee ha ] quipac cota xah yoomoz.

3.pro foc unsp.sbj:3.poss:back 3.io:rlt:happen ? rlyo:think
S/HE thinks s/he’s better than they. bb 2᯲HUHG

 [ Me ha ] ma hnzaxö.
2.pro foc 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:discuss
I’m talking to YOU.

,W LV ah HOVHZKHUH LQFOXGLQJ DIWHU WKH GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV i 6HH 

 Hoocta, [ tiix ah ] ma macoene.

im:look_at dem;dt;sg foc 2s.do:rlmi:curse
Look, THAT ONE has put a curse on you. bb &<+,

 Xiica taax cömocat, taax hant ihiyaxi cmajiic

thing\pl dem;dt;pl 3.io:twd:sbj.nmlz:move\pl dem;dt;pl land 3.poss:3.pon:? female\pl
hapáh, taax ah pac toc cömotat, yoque.
sbj.nmlz:pass:say dem;dt;pl foc indf;pl there 3.io:twd:rlt:move:pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
Those things [giant women] were coming, they were called women from the edge of the world, some of
them were coming, it is said.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 [ Taax ah ] aa itáh ma, ...

dem;dt;pl foc ? 3.sbj:rlt:do/say/put.fl ds
For THAT REASON, ...

 [ Tiix ah ] hap z imiicö.

dem;dt;sg foc Odocoileus_hemionus indf;sg 3.sbj:rlmi:kill
S/HE killed a mule deer.

 [ ˻ Ziix coqueht˼ hanípatim, tiix ah ] hamacaalam.

   thing sbj.nmlz:bounce sbj.nmlz:pass:hit:impf dem;dt;sg foc 1p.sbj:rlmi:play_with
We played VOLLEYBALL.

2QH FRQVXOWDQW IRU WKLV JUDPPDU JHQHUDOO\ XVHV aha LQVWHDG RI ah
§24.3.2 Focus ah / ha (DP) 615

 Hap com tooxi ma x, ano caafajquim

Odocoileus_hemionus def;hz rlt:die ds ut [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:[tr:]pound.impf
hapáh quij hant zo cötiij x, isct xah imoz
sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm land indf;sg 3.io:rlt:sit ut 3.poss:lung crd 3.poss:heart

xah, taax ah imexl.

crd dem;dt;pl foc 3.sbj:rlmi:take
When(ever) a mule deer is killed, the person who is called "ano caafajquim" takes the lungs and heart.bb
&<+,

7KH IRFXV DGYHUE LV ah DIWHU '3V WKDW DUH DOZD\V GH᯳QLWH DQG KDYH RYHUW GHWHUPLQHUVൺGHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV
RU PRUH FRPPRQO\ GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOHV VHH 

 Hahoot hac ah contita, cömiizquim.

 abs:entrance def;loc foc 3.io:aw:rlt:move 3.io:rlmi:enter
S/he entered by the door. bb &<+,

 He hásalca coi ah cohpmitalhaa iiha.

1.pro flat_basket:pl def;pl foc 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:buy/sell only
I sold only the flat baskets.bb &<+,

 [ Haat hacazlil coi ah ] hatxiin quij ano

Jatropha_cuneata sbj.nmlz:pass:chew_flat def;pl foc abs:headring def;cm [3.poss:]in/from

moma.
twd:rlmi:move
A headring is made from limberbush that has been chewed flat. bb &<+,

 Comcaac xeele quih quisyoj quih [ Tahejöc quij ah ]

(Seri)_person\pl fog def;fl sbj.nmlz:tr:drink;pl def;fl Tiburon_Island def;cm foc
iti moii.
3.poss:on rlmi:stand\pl
The Seris who drank the dew water lived on TIBURON ISLAND. bb &<+,

 Juan quih [ hap cop ah ] imiicö.

Juan def;fl Odocoileus_hemionus def;vt foc 3.sbj:rlmi:kill
Juan killed the MULE DEER. (contrastive focus)

 [ ˻ Haxöl Iihom˼ (hac) ah ] ano miizcam.

   Leukoma_grata 3.poss:pon:lie def;loc foc [3.poss:]in rlmi:arrive\pl
They arrived to DESEMBOQUE. (contrastive focus)

 Xepe com itacl tintica ah iti miihtolca.

sea def;hz 3.poss:surface md:aw foc 3.poss:on rlmi:be.fl\pl\impf
They go on the surface of the sea. bb &<+,

 [ Pablo cap ah ] iitom hac toox itahiyat ma, ...

Paul def;vt foc 3.poss:[pon].speak def;loc far 3.sbj:rlt:make_extend ds
PAUL talked for a long time, ... bb 177 $F 

 itaamalca tiquij ah hehe cop ano cöitqueetij ma x,

3.poss:horn(s)/antlers md.cm foc plant def;vt [3.poss]:in 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:pull_to_side ds ut
the bush pulled the antlers to one side,bb &RQ$VW

7KH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH quih i IXVHV ZLWK ah WR JLYH WKH FRQWUDFWHG IRUP cah DV VKRZQ LQ 

7KH VHTXHQFH tintica ah LQ  FRPHV RXW DV RQO\ WKUHH V\OODEOHV [tintikaʔ]
616 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 Juan cah yoofp.

Juan def;fl:foc rlyo:arrive
JUAN arrived.

 Xiica hizcoi — loomz cah tihiiha ma, imiimlajc.

thing\pl px:pl baby_mussel(s) def;fl:foc rlt:pure ds 3.sbj:rlmi:deliver\pl
These people have brought just BABY MUSSELS.bb (6  ORRP]B

 ˻ Ziix quiisax˼ coox cah iitax isax, ...

   thing sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit all def;fl:foc 3.poss:[pon:]go cncsv
Although every person may go, ...

7KLV DGYHUE LV VRPHWLPHV IROORZHG E\ WKH DGYHUE oo i DV LQ 

 [ Taax ah oo ] cötpacta ma x, ...

dem;dt;pl foc del 3.io:rlt:be_in_appearance ds ut
THAT’s why, ... bb (6  OLLWUR 

 Xazoj cop [ inooslca coi ah oo ] cöitáh x, ...

Puma_concolor def;vt 3.poss:fingernail/claw;pl def;pl foc del 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:do ut
The puma did it with its CLAWS, ... bb &<+,

7KH IRFXV DGYHUE ha  ah LV PRVW FRPPRQO\ IRXQG LQ UHDOLV FODXVHV ,Q LUUHDOLV FODXVHV WKH LQGHSHQGHQW SURQRXQ
PD\ EH XVHG WR LQGLFDWH HPSKDVLV &RQWUDVW H[DPSOHV 

 D Me ha Juan quih ma nzaxö.

2.pro foc Juan def;fl 2s.do:rlmi:discuss
Juan is talking to YOU.

E Juan quih me ha ma nzaxö.

Juan def;fl 2.pro foc 2s.do:rlmi:discuss
Juan is talking to YOU.

 D He me ma szaxö caha.
1.pro 2.pro 2s.do:irr.ind:discuss sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
I will talk to YOU.

E * Me ha he ma szaxö caha.
2.pro foc 1.pro 2s.do:irr.ind:discuss sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
(I will talk to YOU.)

F * Me ha ma hszaxö aha.
2.pro foc 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:discuss aux:dcl
(I will talk to YOU.)

 D * Me ha Juan quih ma szaxö aha.

2.pro foc Juan def;fl 2s.do:irr.ind:discuss aux:dcl
(Juan will talk to YOU.) >᯳QLWH LUUHDOLV@

E * Me ha Juan quih ma szaxö caha.

2.pro foc Juan def;fl 2s.do:irr.ind:discuss sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
(Juan will talk to YOU.) >GHYHUEDO LUUHDOLV@

7KLV IRFXV DGYHUE PD\ KDYH DQ HW\PRORJLFDO DV ZHOO DV IXQFWLRQDO UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ XVHG WR
TXHVWLRQ D QRPLQDO LQ IRFXV DV LQ  7KH IRUP haa JORVVHG AUX WKDW DSSHDUV LQ ᯳QLWH LQWHUURJDWLYH
LUUHDOLV FODXVHV i LV LGHQWLFDO WR WKH HTXDWLYH YHUE i
§24.3.3 Focus on indefinite h (DP) 617

 ¿Caamiz quih haa ya him miite?

  shirt def;fl aux qm 1s.do:2s.sbj:rlt:give
Was it THE SHIRT that you gave me? (contrastive focus)

 ¿Luis quih haa ya toos?

   Luis def;fl aux qm rlt:sing
Was it LUIS who sang? (contrastive focus)

 ¿Me haa ya ntahcazni?

  2.pro aux qm 2s.sbj:rlt:pass:bite
Was it YOU who was bitten? (contrastive focus)

24.3.3 Focus on indefinite h (DP)

$ QRPLQDO WKDW LV LQWHUSUHWHG DV LQGH᯳QLWH RU QRQVSHFL᯳F DQG ZKLFK GRHV QRW KDYH DQ RYHUW GHWHUPLQHU PD\ EH
IROORZHG E\ WKH DGYHUE h 7KHVH QRPLQDOV DSSHDU in situ LQ WKH FODXVH 7KH DGYHUE h ZKLFK KDV WKH DOORPRUSK
ih DIWHU D FRQVRQDQW RWKHU WKDQ h PLJKW EH WKRXJKW RI DV D SRUWPDQWHDX RI DQ LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH VLQJXODU zo RU
SOXUDO pac DQG WKH IRFXV DGYHUE ah i ,W LV JORVVHG indf;foc KHUH 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Cocazni° h ] hin yocazni.

Crotalus_spp. indf;foc 1s.do:rlyo:bite
A RATTLESNAKE bit me. (simple focus)

 — Comcaac xahxaii hoox oo quizil ih hamiiht.

(Seri)_person\pl sort_of em del sbj.nmlz:little\pl indf.foc 1p.sbj:rlmi:see;pl
“We have found SOME VERY LITTLE PEOPLE-LIKE THINGS.bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 [ Eenim ih ] ititaamt, yoque.

metal indf;foc 3.sbj:rlt:hv:sandals rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
It is said that he wore METAL sandals. bb $SRVWDGRUB

 Zixquisiil cmaam cop [ hateepen ih ] imaazi.

child female def;vt basket indf;foc 3.sbj:rlmi:carry
The girl has A (NON-INDIAN-STYLE) BASKET in her hand. bb +( 

 [ Caaytaj quih coocj hax quiteexolcoj oo h ] imiimlajc.

horse:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:two intns sbj.nmlz:thin\pl del indf;foc 3.sbj:rlmi:deliver\pl
They brought TWO SKINNY HORSES.


7KH DQVZHU LQFOXGHV WKH IRFXV DGYHUE ah

L Yohaa. Caamiz caha ma hiime.

rlyo:eq shirt def;fl:foc 2s.do:1s.sbj:rlmi:give
Yes, I gave you THE SHIRT.


7KH DQVZHU PLJKW EH

L Yohaa. Luis caha yas.

rlyo:eq Luis def;fl:foc [3.poss:]pon:sing
Yes, it was Luis who sang.


7KH DQVZHU PLJKW EH

L Yohaa. He ha hpmahcazni.
rlyo:eq 1.pro foc 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:pass:bite
Yes, I was the one who was bit.
618 Chapter 24: Adverbs

24.3.4 Contrastive focus hi (DP)

7KH IRFXV DGYHUE hi ZLWK DOORPRUSK ihi IROORZLQJ D FRQVRQDQW RWKHU WKDQ h VHHPV WR JHQHUDOO\ LQGLFDWH FRQ
WUDVWLYH IRFXV $Q DWWHPSW WR XVH WKLV IRFXV DGYHUE LQ D TXHVWLRQ ZDV UHMHFWHG 1RWH WKDW H[DPSOHV 
DUH DOO GHFODUDWLYH VHQWHQFHV

 [ Caaytaj ihi ] miizcam.

horse:pl cntr;foc rlmi:arrive\pl
HORSES arrived. (contrastive focus)

 [ Caay quih tazo hi ] miifp.

horse def;fl one cntr;foc rlmi:arrive
ONE horse arrived.

 [ Cocazni° hi ] hin yocazni.

Crotalus_spp. cntr;foc 1s.do:rlyo:bite
A RATTLESNAKE bit me. [That is, It was a rattlesnake that bit me.]
>7R DQVZHU ¿Áz haxeheya ma tcazni? What bit you?@

 D [ Caaytaj quih coocj ihi ] miizcam.

horse:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:two cntr;foc rlmi:arrive\pl
TWO HORSES arrived.

E Caaytaj quih coocj miizcam.

horse:pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:two rlmi:arrive\pl
Two horses arrived! [no emphasis on the number, but surprise at the arrival]

F * Caaytaj coocj miizcam.

horse:pl sbj.nmlz:two rlmi:arrive\pl
(Two horses arrived.)

24.3.5 Specifier íiqui (DP)

7KH VWUHVVHG DGYHUE íiqui LQGLFDWHV WKH LQFOXVLRQ RI WKH QRPLQDO LQ D SDUWLFXODU VHW 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Zaah quih íiqui ] xoosim.

sun def;fl even em:laugh
Even the sun laughed.

 [ Tiix íiqui ] z imiihit.

dem;dt;sg even indf;sg 3.sbj:rlmi:eat
Even s/he ate one.bb 2᯲HUHG

 [ Haxz° cap íiqui ] z imiihit.

dog def;vt even indf;sg 3.sbj:rlmi:eat
Even the dog ate one. bb &<+,

,Q  WKLV DGYHUE FRRFFXUV ZLWK DQRWKHU '3᯳QDO DGYHUE max i

 Maal quih taanpx ma, [ iicto coi max íiqui ] 

2.poss:spouse def;fl rlt:return_home ds 3.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with def;pl even even

imiiht.
3.sbj:rlmi:see\pl
Your spouse went home, even her children saw her.
§24.3.6 Additive mos (DP) 619

24.3.6 Additive mos (DP)

7KH DGYHUE mos also PD\ LQGLFDWH DQ DGGLWLYH IDFWRU DOWKRXJK LQ VRPH FDVHV LWV PHDQLQJ LV D ELW OHVV FOHDU 6HH
H[DPSOHV  1RWH WKDW LW IROORZV WKH GH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV

 Tiix mos tcmiiquet, toc cöquiihtim iha.

dem;dt;sg also rlt:be_person there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be.(fl):impf dcl
He also was a person there.bb +LSRFDPSR

 [ Hehe is quih cacat quih mos ] imiihit.

plant 3.poss:fruit def;fl sbj.nmlz:bitter/salty def;fl also 3.sbj:rlmi:eat
Another thing it eats is bitter seeds.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD 

 ˻ Ziix yacoso caaixaj˼ cmaam cap itoonec,

   thing [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:carry_on_back sbj.nmlz:strong female def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:carry_mult\pl
[ quisil cap mos ] itoonec, Jesús quij cöimiimlajc.
   sbj.nmlz:small def;vt also 3.sbj:rlt:carry_mult\pl Jesus def;cm 3.io:3.sbj:rlmi:deliver\pl
They took the female donkey, they took also its foal, they brought them to Jesus.bb 177 0W 

 [ Hasahcapjö cop mos ] iif com cöitníp x, imiisi.

Lophocereus_schottii def;vt also 3.poss:nose def;hz 3.io:3.sbj:rlt:hit ut 3.sbj:rlmi:drink
It stabs the senita cactus with its beak and drinks it.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD 

:KHQ WKHUH LV QR RYHUW QRPLQDO WR IROORZ WKH DGYHUE mos DSSHDUV DORQH DV LQ  7KH XQJUDPPDWLFDO
H[DPSOHV VKRZ WKDW LW GRHV QRW RFFXU LQ WKH 93

 D [ Mos ] toc cömoii.

also there 3.io:rlmi:stand\pl
They also were there.

E * Toc mos cömoii.

there also 3.io:rlmi:stand\pl

 D [ Mos ] ˻ hacx sooit˼ aha.

also    apart irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl
It is also going to be wasted.

E * ˻ Hacx mos sooit˼ aha.

   apart also irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl

 D [ Mos ] miizj iti miistox.

also well 3.poss:on rlmi:hv:spirit:pl
They also did it with gusto.

E * Miizj mos iti miistox.

well also 3.poss:on rlmi:hv:spirit:pl

 [ Mos ] yoopca. [ Mos ] imcozim.

also rlyo:rain also rlmi:hot_(weather)
It also rained. It was also hot.

,Q DGGLWLRQ ZKHQ mos RFFXUV ZLWK DQ LQGH᯳QLWH '3 WKDW KDV HLWKHU WKH VLQJXODU LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH zo RU WKH SOXUDO
LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH pac LW PRVW FRPPRQO\ RFFXUV before WKH LQGH᯳QLWH DUWLFOH DOWKRXJK H[DPSOHV REWDLQHG WKURXJK
GLUHFW HOLFLWDWLRQ RI WKH RUGHU … zo mos … DQG … pac mos … ZHUH DOVR MXGJHG JUDPPDWLFDO 6HH 
620 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 D [ Mojet mos zo ] Tahejöc quij iti tmiih iho.

Ovis_canadensis also indf;sg Tiburon_Island def;cm 3.poss:on rlt:not_be.fl dcl
There also weren’t bighorn sheep on Tiburon Island.bb (6 +DSMB

E [ Mojet zo mos ] Tahejöc quij iti tmiih iho.

Ovis_canadensis indf;sg also Tiburon_Island def;cm 3.poss:on rlt:not_be.fl dcl

 Hant tintica cömihaait hac ziix an iquitóm

land md:aw 3.io:2.poss:pon:pass_by def;loc thing [3.poss:]in 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.subj:hv:money
mapomoonec, ... [ tom mos zo ] mapomoonec, [
2p.sbj:irr.dep:neg:carry_items\pl money also indf;sg 2p.sbj:irr.dep:neg:carry_items\pl

caamiz hacx quiih mos zo ] mascmoonec aha.

shirt apart sbj.nmlz:be.fl also indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:carry;pl aux:dcl
Take nothing with you for the trip: no purse, ... no money, not even an extra shirt. bb 177 /N 

 D [ Zixcám heecto mos pac ] toc cömoii.

fish small/young\pl also indf;pl there 3.io:rlmi:stand\pl
There were also some small fish. bb 177 0N 

E [ Zixcám heecto pac mos ] toc cömoii.

fish small/young\pl indf;pl also there 3.io:rlmi:stand\pl

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, [ cmajiic mos pac ] toc cötoii, ...
   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds female\pl also indf;pl there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl
Then some women also were there, ... bb 177 0N 

24.3.7 Intensifying modifiers max and xox (DP)

7KH DGYHUE max even DQG LWV DSSDUHQW EXW LQIUHTXHQW V\QRQ\P xox PD\ PRGLI\ D '3 VHH  IRU max
DQG  IRU xox ,Q H[DPSOH  DERYH WKH ZRUG max FRRFFXUV ZLWK WKH DGYHUE íiqui

 ..., [ taax max ] imaaj iha.

dem;dt;pl even sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:know:pl dcl
..., even they don’t know it. bb 177 0W 

 ... xo [ he max ] himaa ha.

but 1.pro even 1.poss:[pon:]neg:know dcl
... but even I don’t know it. bb 177 0W 

 ... [ hoox cöiiha hizac max ] ...

intns 3.io:3.poss:pon:beLUUHJ px:loc even
... to this very day ... bb 177 0W 

 ... [ hai xah hax caacoj xah quij max ] itaaal?
wind crd fresh_water sbj.nmlz:big crd def;cm even 3.sbj:rlt:command
... he commands even the wind and the lake? bb 177 /N 

 [ Azlc canl com max ] taa oo cöhapacta ha.

star\pl sbj.nmlz:burn\pl def;hz even dem;dt;sg del 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be_in_appearance dcl
Even the stars are like that. bb 177  &R 

 [ Haxz° cap max ] tootar coi iyoocotim, itamzo x.

dog def;vt even chicken def;pl 3.sbj:rlyo:kill:impf 3.sbj:rlt:want ut
Even the DOG killed chickens if it wanted to. bb &<+,

7KH  GLFWLRQDU\ IDLOHG WR LQFOXGH WKH DGYHUE xox
§24.3.8 Delimiter oo (NP and DP) 621

 [ hast hizcoi max ]

stone px:pl even
even these stones

 [ Ziicalc com xox ]

bird:pl def;hz even
even the birds (in general)

 [ Cocsar coi xox ] cöpiih oo ta, masiyoj aha.

Mexican def;pl even 3.io:irr.dep:be.fl del ds 2p.sbj:irr.ind:give_food;pl aux:dcl
You (pl.) should distribute even to the non-Indian Mexicans. bb 2᯲HUHG

 [ Comcaii hipcop xox ] soos caha.

old_woman px:vt even irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
Even this woman will sing.

24.3.8 Delimiter oo (NP and DP)

7KH DGYHUE oo PD\ RFFXU DW WKH HQG RI DQ 13 RU '3 RIWHQ LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK DQRWKHU SUHQRPLQDO DGYHUE VHH
i DQG i DQG VHHPV WR GHPDUFDWH WKH '3 RU HPSKDVL]H WKH '3 D ELW PRUH VWURQJO\ 7KH VDPH
DGYHUE RFFXUV DIWHU D YHUE i ,Q H[DPSOHV  LW IROORZV D SURQRXQ RI RQH W\SH RU DQRWKHU

 [ He oo ] ma hmiih.
1.pro del 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:do/say/put.fl
I did it to you.

 [ ¿Tiquij oo ] haa ya?

bbmd:cm del [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
Is it THAT ONE?

,Q  LW IROORZV D EDUH QRXQ ZKLFK PD\ EH RI WKH VSHFLDO W\SH GLVFXVVHG LQ i

 [ ¿Hant oo ] tap?

  land del rlt:stand
Did s/he travel on foot?

 [ Hast oo ] quíh ...

stone del sbj.nmlz:[tr:]do/say/put.fl
S/he who goes for (does) stone ...

,Q  LW IROORZV DQ 13 RU '3

 [ Zaah quih quipxa oo ] iti toofin ma, ...

sun/day def;fl sbj.nmlz:few/little_bit del 3.poss:on rlt:pass ds
Just a few days later, ...

 ˻ alo quicös˼ com, tiix [ xepe quih cxatlc quih cmeque
   ? sbj.nmlz:hv:thorn def;hz dem;dt;sg sea def;fl sbj.nmlz:thin def;fl sbj.nmlz:warm
com, tiix oo ] ano calx iha.
def:fl dem;dt;sg del [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:go\pl dcl
Juvenile mullets go in the WARM SHALLOW WATER. bb (6 DOR TXLF¸V

7KLV XQVWUHVVHG PRUSKHPH ZDV ZULWWHQ LQ HDUOLHU GHFDGHV DV LI LW ZHUH D VX᯵[ DQG ZLWK D VLQJOH o 'XULQJ WKH SUHSDUDWLRQ
RI WKH ᯳UVW HGLWLRQ RI WKH GLFWLRQDU\ VRPHRQH RQ WKH FRPPLWWHH VXJJHVWHG WKDW LW EH ZULWWHQ DV D VHSDUDWH ZRUG DQG DV D GRXEOH
YRZHO DQG WKDW KDV EHHQ WKH SUDFWLFH VLQFH WKDW WLPH 7KH IDFW WKDW LW KDV QR REYLRXV VHPDQWLF FRQWHQW PDNHV LW D FKDOOHQJH
IRU QHZ ZULWHUV EXW SHRSOH DUH YHU\ DZDUH RI LW
622 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 [ Hant com oo ] iti moca ha.

land def;hz del 3.poss:on twd:sbj.nmlz:move dcl
It comes from the earth.

 [ ¿Ihamoc tazo cap oo ] haa ya?

  3.poss:[pon:]become_night one def;vt del [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm
Was it for one night? bb 0XOWLWRSLFB

,I WKH '3 LV ULJKWGLVORFDWHG WKH DGYHUE oo DSSHDUV LQ VHQWHQFH᯳QDO SRVLWLRQ RI FRXUVH DV LQ 

 ... icaaitom quih ihaaipot xah tintica, [ coox oo. ]

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:speak def;fl 3.poss:pon:pay ? md:aw all del
... and his replies, all of them. bb 177 /N 

([DPSOH  GRFXPHQWV WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKUHH DGYHUEV DW WKH HQG RI D '3 RI ZKLFK oo LV WKH ᯳UVW

 [ Zixcám heecto tacoi oo xox mos ] ihsiihit aha.

fish small/young\pl md:pl del even also 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
I am also going to eat even the little fish.

6HH DOVR WKH HQG RI i IRU WKH H᯲HFW RI WKLV DGYHUE IROORZLQJ WKH TXDQWL᯳HU coox all

24.3.9 Adverb tax (DP)

7KH PHDQLQJ DQG IXQFWLRQ RI WKH DGYHUE tax LV XQFOHDU ,W RFFXUV RQO\ ZKHQ WKH YHUE RU GHYHUEDO QRXQ LV IROORZHG
E\ WKH DGYHUE íi first VHH i DOWKRXJK WKH DGYHUE íi GRHV QRW UHTXLUH D QRPLQDO WR EH VR PDUNHG LQ WKH FODXVH
6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Ctam ticop tax ] isiihit íi aha.

male md:vt ? 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat first aux:dcl
That man will be the first one to eat it. bb &<+,

 [ He tax ] caafp íi ha.

1.pro " sbj.nmlz:arrive first dcl
I was the first to arrive. bb &<+,

 [ Sahmees hipquij tax ] ihpoohit íi, cmaax mos ˻ ziix is

Citrus_x_sinensis px:cm ? 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:eat first now also    thing 3.poss:fruit
cooil˼ quij mos ihsiihit aha.
sbj.nmlz:green/blue def;cm also 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat aux:dcl
First I’m going to eat this orange and then I’ll eat the watermelon. bb &<+,

 [ Tiix tax ] iyooho íi.

dem;dt;sg ? 3.sbj:rlyo:see first
That one was the first one to see it.

 [ Iyas quih tax ] hayoiitoj íi.

3.poss:liver def;fl ? 1p.sbj:rlyo:eat\pl first
We ate its liver first. bb 7RSHWHB
§24.3.10 Adverb haxehe (DP) 623

24.3.10 Adverb haxehe (DP)

7KH LQWHQVLI\LQJ DGYHUE haxehe FRPPRQO\ IROORZV WKH LQWHUURJDWLYH SURQRXQV áz what? DQG quíih who? DV LQ
H[DPSOHV 

 Intisil, haquix immiih tax, ¿áz haxehe quih haa ya,
2s.sbj:rlt:small somewhere rlmi:not_be.fl sbrd   what? intns def;fl [sbj.nmlz:]eq qm

ntahit?
2s.sbj:rlt:eat
When you were little, what did you eat?

 ¿Áz haxehe me saai quee ya?

  what? intns 2.pro irr.ind:make sbj.nmlz:aux qm
What are you going to make? bb $/,0B

 ..., tiix ¿quíih haxehe chaa ya?

dem;dt;sg   who? intns sbj.nmlz:eq qm
..., who is it? bb 177 /N 

24.3.11 Intensifier ipi (NP)

7KH LQWHQVL᯳HU ipi LV UHVWULFWHG WR '3V LQ QHJDWLYH FODXVHV 7KHVH SDUWLFXODU '3V KDYH QR GHWHUPLQHU QRWH WKDW LQ
QRQH RI H[DPSOHV  LV WKHUH D GHWHUPLQHU EHIRUH ipi %XW WKH '3 ZLWK ipi PD\ EH WKH FRPSOHPHQW RI D
SDUWLWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ iൺVHH H[DPSOHV  IRU WKH PRVW REYLRXV LOOXVWUDWLRQVൺDQG WKH\ WKHPVHOYHV
PD\ EH WKH KHDG RI D SDUWLWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQൺVHH H[DPSOHV  DQG  ZLWK WKH SURQRXQ zo DIWHU WKH '3
ZLWK ipi

 [ Hap tazo ipi ] hyomaho.

Ococoileus_hemionus one del 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:see
I didn’t see even ONE mule deer. bb &<+,

 [ Tom quisil ipi ] hyonyaa.

money sbj.nmlz:small intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:own
I don’t have A BIT of money. bb $/,0B

 [ [ Xicaquiziil coi ] quisil ipi ] immoqueepe ha.

child\pl def;pl sbj.nmlz:small intns sbj.nmlz:neg:sick dcl
Not even ONE of the children is sick. bb $/,0B

 ... xicacaziil ˻ cmaa quiih˼ hizi quiinim hizcom [ tazo ipi ] zo ...
child\pl    now sbj.nmlz:be.fl 1p.do:sbj.nmlz:tr:mix_with px:cm one intns indf;sg
... not even one of the children of our generation ... bb (6 ODP]B

 ... hax cpaaisx, [ taax ipi ] z imasi ha.

intns sbj.nmlz:be_clean dem;dt;pl intns indf;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]neg:drink dcl
... it does not drink A BIT of clean water.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD BE


,W LV SKRQHWLFDOO\ YHU\ VLPLODU WR LI QRW LQGLVWLQJXLVKDEOH IURP WKH ,QWHQVL᯳HU hipi a hapi i DOWKRXJK LW GRHV QRW
KDYH D YDULDQW ZLWK WKH YRZHO a

7KLV LV V\QRQ\PRXV WR [ xicacaziil coi tazo ipi ]  child\pl def;pl one even
624 Chapter 24: Adverbs

24.3.12 xah (NP and DP)

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GLQDWRU xah i RFFXUV LQIUHTXHQWO\ ZLWK D '3 -XVW OLNH WKH FRRUGLQDWRU xah KRZHYHU LW KDV WKH XQXVXDO
FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI RFFXUULQJ MXVW WR WKH left RI WKH GHWHUPLQHU DQG DSSHDUV ංLQVLGHඃ FRPSOH[ GHPRQVWUDWLYHV DV LQ
 DOWKRXJK QRW LQ  ,W GRHV QRW KDYH D FOHDU WUDQVODWLRQ 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 [ Zaah xah zo ] toc cötap, ...

sun/day ? indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand
One day, ...

 [ Hant xah zo ] toc cötap, ...

land/year ? indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:stand
One year, ...

 Ziix hipxahcop haa poho, ox tee yoque.

thing px;?;vt [sbj.nmlz:]eq doubt thus rlt:say rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
Might this be him, she asked.bb &<+,

 [ Hast caacoj xah zo ] cfizo hi haa miip.

stone sbj.nmlz:big ? indf;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]lift dcl there rlmi.stand
S/he must be lifting a heavy rock. [One hears him grunting.]

 [ Cxonala xah ] haa moom.

sbj.nmlz:have_nightmare ? there rlmi.lie
S/he must be having a nightmare. [One hears the sounds.]

 [ Quiim xah ] haa moom.

sbj.nmlz:sleep ? there rlmi.lie
S/he must be sleeping.

 [ Zixcám xah zo ] quihit ih haa miij.

fish ? indf;sg sbj.nmlz:tr:eat foc there rlmi:sit
S/he must be eating a fish.

 [ Cmaam ticap hapi xah ] ziix comsisiin iha xo ...

female md:vt intns ? thing sbj.nmlz:pitiful/poor dcl but
This woman is poor but ... bb 177 0N 

 [ Hapi xah ] ziix comsisiin iha, cmaam hipcop.

intns ? thing sbj.nmlz:pitiful/poor dcl female px:vt
She’s just a poor thing, this woman [There are others who are poorer.]

 Hapi xah ooque ha.

intns ? sbj.nmlz:cause/say dcl
S/he’s lying―s/he’s just saying that.

 Hapi xah htamzo, hpyootax.

intns ? 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:want 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:go
I just went on my own.

24.4 VP-initial and general VP adverbs

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§24.4.1 Intensifying and attenuating adverbs 625

24.4.1 Intensifying and attenuating adverbs

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WKH DGYHUE oo i 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 «¡Ctam hipcom isliicot hac hax xomasol oo!

   male px;hz 3.poss:upper_back def;loc intns em:yellow del
“The back of this male is really yellow!”bb &RQ3XP

 Hinaail com [ hax toopol oo ], mos coospoj iha.

1.poss:skin def;hz intns rlt:black del also sbj.nmlz:spotted dcl
My skin is black and spotted.bb /DJDUWLMDVB

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DFWLRQ WDNHV SODFH 6HH 

 Hant cmatj com iti hatom x, [ hax ihpmozácanim oo.   ]

land sbj.nmlz:hot def;hz 3.poss:on 1s.sbj.rlt:lie ut intns 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:do_pushups del
When I am on hot ground, I do push-ups.bb /DJDUWLMDVB

 Haxz° cop hax yamasij oo. ¡Ma scatxla aha!

dog def;vt intns rlyo:show_teeth del   2s.do:irr.ind:bite aux:dcl
The dog is showing its teeth. It is going to bite you.

 Hax ihpyocaptim oo.

intns 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:fly:impf del
I just jumped. (like in fright, one foot at a time)

24.4.1.2. Intensifier hoox. 7KH DGYHUE hoox DOVR LQWHQVL᯳HV WKH YHUE 7KH DGYHUE LWVHOI LV RIWHQ IROORZHG E\ WKH
DGYHUE oo i

 Hisoj com hoox tsoop, hax cömiin oo.

1.poss:body def;hz intns rlt:thick intns 3.io:rlmi:short del
My body is thick and short.bb /DJDUWLMDVB

 itooctam ma, hoox oo tizil,

3.sbj:rlt:look_at:pl ds intns del rlt:small\pl
they looked at them, they were so little,bb 'RVB+HUPDQRV

 Caanj xah, zixcám coospoj xah, hoox miitxo.

Mycteroperca_jordani crd Epinephelus_analogus crd intns rlmi:many/much
Gulf groupers and spotted cabrillas are numerous. bb (6 ODP]B

 ..., hipi hoox oo tazoj, coox itahit ma x, ...

intns intns del rlt:alone all 3.sbj:rlt:eat ds ut
..., he ate all of it BY HIMSELF, ...bb +RPEUHB%DUULOB

 Me hoox oo ntazoj ma, ma hxamsisiin.

2.pro intns del 2s.sbj:rlt:alone ds 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:em:love
I love ONLY YOU.

 He hoox hitoj cohmiiho.

1.pro intns 1.poss:eye:pl 3.io.1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:see
I saw it with my OWN eyes.
626 Chapter 24: Adverbs

7KH DGYHUE hoox ZLWK FHUWDLQ YHUEV LQGLFDWHV TXDQWLW\ RU LGHQWLW\

 Comcaac hoox taa yoozcam.

(Seri)_person\pl intns rlt:aux rlyo:arrive\pl
LOTS of people arrived.

 Taax ah oo cötpacta ma, hoox cöiiha hizac max, ...

dem;dt;pl foc del 3.io:rlt:be_in_appearance ds intns 3.io:3.poss:pon:beLUUHJ px:loc even
For that reason, to this very day, ... bb 177 0W 

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or less somewhat ,Q WKHVH FRQWH[WV WKH DGYHUE VWLOO JORVVHG just WRJHWKHU ZLWK WKH FKDQJH RQ WKH IROORZLQJ
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D PRQRPRUDLF RU ELPRUDLF QXFOHXV D ඌˈVCCඌ E ඌˈVCVCඌ F ඌˈV(C)ඌ G HOVHZKHUH ,I D FRQVRQDQW
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JUDYH DFFHQW

 ZLWKRXW PRGL᯳FDWLRQ ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

D ¡Halx aanpx! E ¡Halx aanàpx!
  just        [im:]return_home   just       [im:]return_home:<mod>
Just go home! Go home for a while!

 D * Halx maapl. E Halx maapàl.

      just       rlmi:cold just       rlmi:cold:<mod>
It’s kind of cold.

 D ¡Halx casyoj! E ¡Halx cásàyoj!

  just       im:drink:pl   just      im:drink:pl:<mod>
Just drink (pl.) it! Drink (pl.) some of it!

 D * Halx yootxo. E Halx yootàxo.

      just      rlyo:much/many just      rlyo:much/many:<mod>
There were some.

 ZLWKRXW PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

D ¿Halx icaticpan itá?
  just inf.intr:work 3.sbj:rlt:know
Can s/he work sometimes?

E ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ
¿Halx icatícàpan itá?
  atten inf.intr:work:<mod> 3.sbj:rlt:know
Does s/he know something of how to work? bb &<+,

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VLPXOWDQHLW\ RI DFWLRQ 6HH i
§24.4.1.3 Halx 627

 ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

Halx yaasàtim.
just rlyo:deflate:impf:<mod>
It deflates every little while. (< √aas-tim)

 ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

Halx yásàtim xo mos iyoocatx.
just rlyo:sing:impf:<mod> but also 3.sbj:rlyo:release
S/he was singing every little while but then s/he stopped. (< √oos-tim)

 ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

Halx itaatàtim, ... 
just 3.sbj:rlt:cook_under_coals:impf:<mod>
S/he was cooking it under the coals, ... (< √aat-tim)

 ZLWKRXW PRGL᯳FDWLRQ ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

D * Halx yaxp. E Halx yaxàp.
      just     rlyo:white just      rlyo:white:<mod>
It’s whitish.

 D ¡Halx ihqueecöl! E ¡Halx ihqueecöàl!

  just      im:listen   just      im:listen:<mod>
Just listen to it! Listen a bit!

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 ZLWKRXW PRGL᯳FDWLRQ ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

D ¡Halx catax! E ¡Halx catááx!
  just      im:go   just      im:go:<mod>
Go! Just go!

 D ¡Halx caho! E ¡Halx cahóó!

  just      im:see   just      im:see:<mod>
Just look at it! Just take a look at it!

 D * ¡Halx ihyoosi! E ¡Halx ihyoosíí!

       just      1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:drink   just      1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:drink:<mod>
I almost drank it!

 D * Halx yiipe. E Halx yiipéé.

      just      rlyo:good just      rlyo:good:<mod>
S/he got a bit better.


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RI WKH ZRUG caattim sbj.nmlz:[tr:]cook_in_coals:impf LV [ˈkaatˑim]  ZKLFK LV LQGLVWLQJXLVKDEOH IURP D ZRUG WKDW PLJKW EH
DQDO\]HG DV caat-im VLQFH WKH OHQJWKHQLQJ RI WKH t LV LQGXFHG E\ WKH VWUHVV RQ WKH ᯳UVW V\OODEOH VHH i

7KH OHQJWKHQLQJ LV ZULWWHQ EXW LW SUREDEO\ LV D UHVXOW RI WKH LQWRQDWLRQDO FRQWRXU 7KH YRZHO ZULWWHQ DV oo LQ WKH ZRUG
ihyoosíí LV VOLJKWO\ VKRUWHQHG SKRQHWLFDOO\ EXW LW LV ZULWWHQ ORQJ WR SUHVHUYH VRPH YLVXDO UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK WKH ZRUG ihyoosi
DQG DYRLG FRQIXVLRQ ZLWK ihyosii I smelled it ZLWK ZKLFK LW FRQWUDVWV SKRQHWLFDOO\
628 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 D * Halx cacat iha. E Halx cacáát iha.

      just     sbj.nmlz:bitter/salty dcl just      sbj.nmlz:bitter/salty:< mod> dcl
It is kind of salty/bitter.

 D * Halx imcozim. E Halx imcozíím.

      just     rlmi:hot_(weather) just     rlmi:hot_(weather):<mod>
It is kind of hot (weather).

 D ZLWKRXW PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

Mitrooqui quij halx ano hpsiij aha.
2.poss:vehicle def;cm just [3.poss:]in 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:sit aux:dcl
I am going to sit in your car for a while [like perhaps a half hour].

E ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ
Mitrooqui quij halx anóó hpsiij aha.
2.poss:vehicle def;cm just [3.poss:]in:<mod> 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:sit aux:dcl
I am going to sit in your car for a short while [shorter time than a half hour].

 ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

Halx ˻ himóóz yomeet˼.
just    1.poss:heart:<mod> rlyo:?
I was a bit sad.

 ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

Halx ˻ iisááx hant yaait˼.
just    3.poss:spirit:<mod> land rlyo:arrive
S/he was a little bit happy.

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 ZLWKRXW PRGL᯳FDWLRQ ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

D ¡Halx hiim! E ¡Halx hiimà!
  just      im:sleep   just     im:sleep:atten
Just sleep! Just sleep a while!

 D ¡Halx as! E ¡Halx asà!

  just      [im;]sing   just      [im;]sing:atten
Just sing! Sing a bit!

 D * Halx yoheel. E Halx yohéél.

      just     rlyo:red just      rlyo:red:<mod>
It’s reddish.

 D ¡Halx ihfain! E ¡Halx ihfááin!

  just      im:tie_up   just      im:tie_up:<mod>
Just tie him/her/it up! Tie it up for a bit!

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GHWHFWDEOH RQO\ E\ D VOLJKWO\ ORQJHU QXFOHXV LQ WKH FDVH RI DWWHQXDWLRQ LQGLFDWHG KHUH ZLWK WZR DFXWH DFFHQWV RQ
WKH UHOHYDQW V\OODEOH 6HH H[DPSOHV 
§24.4.1.4 Hanso just 629

 ZLWKRXW PRGL᯳FDWLRQ ZLWK PRGL᯳FDWLRQ

D ¡Halx hii! E ¡Halx híí!
  just      im:hear   just      im:hear:<mod>
Just hear it! Hear it a bit!

 D ¡Halx ihpooin! E ¡Halx ihpóóin!

  just      im:close   just      im:close:<mod>
Just close it! Close it for a moment!

7KH DGYHUE halx FDQ EH PRGL᯳HG E\ WKH DWWHQXDWLQJ DGYHUE xah i DQG WKH UHVXOW LV DQ LQWHQVLI\LQJ
DGYHUELDO SKUDVH WKDW PHDQV XQH[SHFWHGO\ VRPHWKLQJ OLNH so (very) DV VKRZQ LQ 

 Halx xah maapl.

just atten rlmi:cold
It is so cold! bb &<+,

 Halx xah mcozim.

just atten rlmi:hot_(weather)
It is so hot (weather)!

24.4.1.4. Hanso just. 7KH DGYHUE hanso OLPLWV WKH DFWLRQ LQ VRPH ZD\ ,W LV JORVVHG just KHUH DV LW LV ZLWK LWV XVHV
ZLWK QRPLQDOV i EXW LW KDV WKH LGHD RI just anyway GHVSLWH REMHFWLRQV GHVSLWH QHJDWLYH FRQVHTXHQFHV
HWF

 ¡Hanso cácatx!

  just im:release
Just let him/her/it go anyway. [Don’t try to do anything to detain him/her/it.]

 ¡Hanso catax!

  just im:go
Just go anyway! [e.g. over my objections]

 D Zixcám ixamataj cop hanso nsiisi aha.

fish 3.poss:broth def;vt just 2s.sbj:irr.ind:drink aux:dcl
You should drink the fish broth anyway.

E Hanso zixcám ixamataj cop insiisi aha.

just fish 3.poss:broth def;vt 2s.sbj:irr.ind:drink aux:dcl
You should drink the fish broth anyway.

 Hanso moopol.

just rlmi:black
It’s just black.

 Hanso miteejöc.

just rlmi:thin
It/she/he’s just thin.

7KLV DGYHUE FRPELQHV ZLWK WKH LQWHQVLI\LQJ DGYHUEV áa i DQG hax i WR JLYH WKH LQWHQVL᯳HG H[
SUHVVLRQ hansaa hax

 Hehe cop hansaa hax maacoj áa yax, ...

plant def;vt just intns rlmi:big true since
The tree is VERY big, ... bb &<+,
630 Chapter 24: Adverbs

24.4.1.5. Intensifier mos áno. 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ ˻ mos áno˼ LQGLFDWHV D VXSHULRU GHJUHH DQG PRVW IHOLFLWRXVO\
FROORFDWHV ZLWK OHVV DJHQWLYH SUHGLFDWHV 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ ˻ mos áno˼ anxö D SKUDVH FRQVWUXFWHG RQ WKH LQWHQVL᯳HU
anxö VHH i IRU H[DPSOHV LV PRVW HDVLO\ XVHG ZLWK PRUH DJHQWLYH SUHGLFDWHV 6RPH RI WKH H[DPSOHV
EHORZ VKRZ VSHFL᯳FDOO\ WKDW WKH XVH RI ˻ mos áno˼ anxö LV LQDSSURSULDWH

 ˻ Mos áno˼ (*anxö) siipe caha.

   also [3.poss:]in intns irr.ind:good sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
It’s going to be excellent. bb &<+,

 ˻ Mos áno˼ (*anxö) sheel caha.

   also [3.poss:]in intns irr.ind:red sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
It’s going to be extremely red.

 He ˻ mos áno˼ (*anxö) hpyocám.

1.pro    also [3:poss:]:in intns 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:full
I’m the fullest.

 ˻ Mos áno˼ yoheemt.

   also [3.poss:]in rlyo:stink
It really stank.

 ˻ Mos áno˼ scozim caha.

   also [3.poss:]in irr.ind:hot_(weather) sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
It is going to be really hot (weather)!

 ..., ˻ mos áno˼ hiicp hac iti masiistox aha.

    also [3.poss:]in 1.poss:place_next_to def;loc 3.poss:on 2p.sbj:irr.ind:hv:spirit:pl aux:dcl
..., you (pl.) will really believe in me.bb 177 -Q 

'HVSLWH WKH WHQGHQF\ IRU WKH SUHGLFDWHV WR XVH RQH LQWHQVLI\LQJ H[SUHVVLRQ RU WKH RWKHU VRPH SUHGLFDWHV DOORZ
ERWK ZLWK VOLJKWO\ GL᯲HUHQW LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV DV VKRZQ EHORZ 7KH SKUDVH ˻ mos áno˼ anxö LQGLFDWHV D JUHDWHU
GHJUHH ZLWK UHVSHFW WR VRPH XQH[SUHVVHG VWDQGDUG RI FRPSDULVRQ

 ˻ Mos áno˼ yoopca.

   also [3.poss:]in rlyo:rain
It rained hard!

 ˻ Mos áno anxö˼ yoopca.

   also [3.poss:]in intns rlyo:rain
It rained even harder!

 ˻ Mos áno˼ ˻ iisax yoheemt˼.

    also [3.poss:]in    3.poss:spirit rlyo:stink
S/he was very angry.

 ˻ Mos áno anxö˼ ˻ iisax sheemt˼ caha.

   also [3.poss:]in intns 3.poss:spirit irr.ind:stink sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he’s going to be very angry.

 ˻ Mos áno˼ yeenj.

   also [3.poss:]in rlyo:unsp.obj:yell_at
S/he yelled hard.

,W LV XQFOHDU WR PH KRZ RU ZK\ WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ FDPH WR EH ZULWWHQ DV WZR ZRUGV 2QH FRQVXOWDQW TXLWH LGLRV\QFUDWLFDOO\
EXW FRQVLVWHQWO\ SURQRXQFHV WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ monsano
§24.4.1.6 Intensifier anxö 631

 ˻ Mos áno anxö˼ seenj caha.

   also [3.poss:]in intns irr.ind:unsp.obj:yell_at sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he is going to shout more energetically.

7KH XVH RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ˻ mos áno˼ ZLWK YHUEV VXFK DV √apaaisx clean (trans.) DQG √ahooxp make white ERWK
PRUSKRORJLFDO FDXVDWLYHV LV JUDPPDWLFDO EXW UHIHUV WR WKH UHVXOW DQG QRW WR WKH DFWLRQ LWVHOI

 ˻ Mos áno˼ isapaaisx aha.

   also [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:irr.ind:cause_be_clean aux:dcl
S/he is going to make it really clean.

 ˻ Mos áno˼ isahooxp aha.

    also [3.poss:]in 3.sbj:irr.ind:make_white aux:dcl
S/he is going to make it really white.

24.4.1.6. Intensifier anxö. 7KH V\QWD[ RI WKH DGYHUE anxö much, with force LV GLVFXVVHG LQ i ,W LV HVWDEOLVKHG
WKHUH WKDW LW LV D 93 DGYHUE DQG QRW D TXDQWL᯳HU LQ WKH QRPLQDO SKUDVH +RZHYHU DV H[DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH
WKH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ FRPPRQO\ LV UHODWLYH WR WKH TXDQWLW\ RI WKH VXEMHFW RU GLUHFW REMHFW

 Cpoot quih anxö popén, ...

Scomberomorus_spp. def;fl intns irr.dep:pass:carry_items
If lots of mackerel are taken, ...

 Ziicalc quih anxö hacx immiihtoj.

bird:pl def;fl intns apart rlmi:not_be.fl:pl
Many birds have died.

 Tiix tootar heecto quih anxö inyaa.

dem;dt;sg chicken small/young\pl def;fl intns 3.sbj:rlmi:own
S/he has lots of baby chicks.

 Zixcám quih anxö xoheemt.

fish def;fl intns em:stink
Most of the fish stink.

,W LV QRW NQRZQ ZK\ WKLV DGYHUE FDQQRW PRGLI\ DQ LPSHUVRQDO YHUE VXFK DV √cozim (be) hot (weather) VHH H[DPSOH


 * Anxö scozim caha.

intns irr.ind:hot_(weather) sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
(It will be very hot weather!)

Anxö FDQ EH PRGL᯳HG E\ WKH LQWHQVL᯳HU ˻ mos áno˼ LQGLFDWLQJ D VXSHULRU GHJUHH i WR JLYH WKH SKUDVH
˻ mos áno˼ anxö ,Q VRPH VLWXDWLRQV WKDW DUH QRW ZHOO XQGHUVWRRG WKLV SKUDVH PD\ PRGLI\ D QRQDJHQWLYH H[
SUHVVLRQ 6HH H[DPSOHV  6HH DOVR RWKHU H[DPSOHV LQ i WKDW DUH FRQWUDVWHG ZLWK ˻ mos
áno˼

 ˻ Ox tpacta ma˼, Juan quij ˻ mos áno˼ anxö ˻ imoz tmeet˼, toc
   thus rlt:be_in_appearance ds Juan def;cm    also [3:poss] intns    3.poss:heart rlt:? there
cömiij.
3.io:rlmi:sit
Then Juan was even sadder.

,W GRHV QRW FROORFDWH ZLWK D YHUE VXFK DV √cozim be hot weather IRU H[DPSOH QRU ZLWK √aapl cold
632 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 ˻ Mos áno˼ anxö siim caha.

   also [3.poss:]in intns irr.ind:sleep sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he is going to sleep even more.

 ˻ Mos áno˼ anxö ihyoaa.

   also [3.poss:]in intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:know
I have learned more.

 ˻ Mos áno˼ anxö ihyoyaa.

   also [3.poss:]in intns 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:own
I have (own) more (now than I had).

0RVW FRPPRQO\ KRZHYHU WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ FROORFDWHV ZLWK NLQHWLF DJHQWLYH SUHGLFDWHV DV LQ 

 ˻ Mos áno˼ anxö yopanzx.

   also [3.poss:]in intns rlyo:run
S/he/it ran really hard.
8QDFFHSWDEOH ZLWKRXW anxö

 ˻ Mos áno˼ anxö saticpan caha.

   also [3.poss:]in intns irr.ind:work sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
S/he is going to work more.
8QDFFHSWDEOH ZLWKRXW anxö

7KH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ FDXVDWLYH YHUEV PHDQLQJ clean DQG make white KDYH D GL᯲HUHQW LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ ZKHQ XVHG
ZLWK WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ UDWKHU WKDQ ˻ mos áno˼ FRPSDUH  DQG  ZLWK H[DPSOHV  DQG  DERYH

 ˻ Mos áno˼ anxö isapaaisx aha.

   also [3.poss:]in intns 3.sbj:irr.ind:cause_be_clean aux:dcl
S/he is going to clean even more of them.

 ˻ Mos áno˼ anxö isahooxp aha.

   also [3.poss:]in intns 3.sbj:irr.ind:make_white aux:dcl
S/he is going to make more of them white.

24.4.2 Location adverbs

93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV WKDW LQGLFDWH ORFDWLRQ LQFOXGH aamo far VHH DOVR i IRU LWV XVH DV D WLPH DGYHUE LWV
DQWRQ\P LV hantaxl cola high colx way up high DQWRQ\P RI hantx haa there hacx apart, alone hantaxl
near DQWRQ\P RI aamo hantx at the base DQWRQ\P RI colx hapx out haquix there himo elsewhere hiza
elsewhere towards elsewhere hizx aside iicp towards iicx near iij otherwise, apart toii toward somewhere else
toox far 7KHVH DGYHUEV DSSHDU WR EH DOO RI WKH FODVV SUHVHQWHG LQ WDEOH  LQ FKDSWHU  6HH DOVR WKH ZD\V LQ
ZKLFK WKH\ PD\ EH PRGL᯳HG E\ WKH DWWHQXDWLQJ DGYHUE xah i
2WKHU 93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV DUH REYLRXVO\ FRQ᯴DWLRQV RI DQ DGYHUE DQG D 3 VHH FKDSWHU  RU D QRXQ DQG D 3
coleequi XSZDUGV paquiiqui EDFNZDUGV 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Trooqui quij cói aamo oo miij.

vehicle def;cm still far del rlmi:sit
It is still a bit in the distance.

7KH DQWRQ\P LV WKH H[SUHVVLRQ hant ihiipi land 3.poss:pon:stand

7KLV ZRUG LV DOVR D ORFDWLRQ QRXQ VHH i

7KLV ZRUG KDV WKH IRUP him EHIRUH D YRZHO ,W LV SUHVXPDEO\ WKH HW\PRORJLFDO VRXUFH RI WKH GLVWDO HOHPHQW him LQ WKH
GLVWDO GHPRQVWUDWLYH DGMHFWLYHV i )XUWKHUPRUH WKLV DGYHUE LV SUHVHQWO\ OLPLWHG WR XVH ZLWK RQO\ D IHZ YHUEV

7KH DQWRQ\P LV WKH H[SUHVVLRQ hant iiqui land 3.poss:toward
§24.4.2 Location adverbs 633

 Ziic quij cola quiij iha.

bird def;cm high sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
The bird is sitting up high.

 Cola nsiixquim aha.

high 2s.sbj:irr.ind:put.hz aux:dcl
You should put it up high.

 ˻ Hehe iti icoohitim˼ com coleequi hqueetx.

   plant/wood 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:unsp.obj:eat:impf def;hz upwards im:raise
Raise the table!

 Ziic tintica colx xeectim.

bird md:aw high em:travel
The bird is flying way up high.

 mojepe cöcootij quih ano quiij iha — taax ah zo

Carnigiea_gigantea 3.io:sbj.nmlz:dry def;fl 3.poss:in sbj.nmlz:sit dcl dem;dt;pl foc indf;sg

haa mota ma,

there twd:rlt:move ds
it is found in dry sahuaro cactuses —bb &RQ3XP

 Caay cop hacx caap oo ha.

horse def;vt apart sbj.nmlz:stand del dcl
The horse is loose. bb &<+,

 Haxz° cop hahoot hac hantaxl cöcaap iha.

dog def;vt abs:entrance def;loc near 3.io:sbj.nmlz:stand dcl
The dog is near the doorway.

 Hantx xeectim.

at_base em:travel
It’s traveling very low to the ground.

 Hita quih cafee ooztoj quij hapx itaca,

1.poss:mother def;fl coffee [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:cook_in_water def;cm outside 3.sbj:rlt:put.lq/lng

iyoozaj, isahaapl taa.

3.sbj:rlyo:do_back_and_forth 3.sbj:irr.ind:make_cold rlt:aux
My mother poured the coffee back and forth to cool it down. bb &<+,

 Haquix coom iha.

somewhere sbj.nmlz:lie dcl
It is there (lying, stretched out). bb &<+,

 ... himo hmiicatx.

elsewhere 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:abandon
... I threw it out. bb &<+,

 ... hiza yopanzx.

towards_elsewhere rlyo:run
... it ran in a different direction.bb &<+,

 ¡Hizx caca!

  aside im:put.lq/lng
Take it away!
634 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 Hax hapasi hizcap iicp me hsaaix aha.

fresh_water sbj.nmlz:pass:drink px\pl:vt 3.poss:side 2s.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:fetch_water aux:dcl
I will take this water to you to drink. bb &<+,

 ¡Hantx iicx hoom!

  at_base 3.poss:near im:lie
Stoop down! bb &<+,

 Iij hant iyooh.

otherwise/apart land 3.sbj:rlyo:do/say/put.fl
S/he turned it over. bb &<+,

 Cmaacoj tintica paquiiqui yootax.

old_man md:aw backwards rlyo:go
The old man moved backwards.

 Toii ntimat.

rlt:stand\pl away:rlmi:move:pl
They went away.

 Toox miihca.

far rlmi:be_located
It is far away. bb &<+,

24.4.3 Time adverbs

$GYHUEV DQG DGYHUE SKUDVHV WKDW LQGLFDWH WLPH LQFOXGH aamo long time VHH DOVR LWV XVH DV DQ DGYHUE LQGLFDWLQJ
GLVWDQFH cmaax now cói still haptco already haptco mos once again hax cmaapa just now xaa soon
DQG zimjöc long time 6RPH RI WKHVH DGYHUEV PD\ FRRFFXU 6RPH RI WKHP DOVR HDVLO\ RFFXU EHIRUH WKH '3V RI D
FODXVH ZKHQ WKH\ GR DQ H[DPSOH LV LQFOXGHG KHUH 7KH LQWHUURJDWLYH DGYHUE zímjöc when? LV SUHVHQWHG LQ i
6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Aamo cömahiyat áa.

far 3.io:rlmi:last true
It lasted a long time. bb &<+,

 ¿Me cmaax siitax quee ya?

  2.pro now irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Are you going to go now?bb &<+,

 Cmaax eenim ihyaa° zo cohpscmaasot haa hi.

now metal/knife mine indf;sg 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:lend aux dcl
Now I won’t lend my knife.

 Trooqui quij cói aamo oo miij.

vehicle def;cm still far del rlmi:sit
The truck is still a bit in the distance.

 Cói haaco cap toox oo tap ma, ...

still abs;house def;vt far del rlt:stand ds
While he was still a distance from the house, ... bb 177 /N 

7KH DGYHUE cói almost DOZD\V RFFXUV ZLWK WKH DGYHUE oo i RU ZKHQ WKH FODXVH LV QHJDWLYH WKH DGYHUE ipi
i ,W PD\ EH RQO\ D FRLQFLGHQFH EXW RQH RI WKH ZRUGV IRU not yet LQ 2ൿRGKDP DQG 3LPD LV koi 6HH ' 6D[WRQ
/ 6D[WRQ (QRV  DQG 3HQQLQJWRQ  UHVSHFWLYHO\

7KH H[SUHVVLRQ haptco mos itacl oo already also 3.poss:surface del IRU once again LV DOVR XVHG
§24.4.3 Time adverbs 635

 Minl coi cói zixcám oo yasii.

2.poss:hand/arm/finger\pl def;pl still fish del rlyo:smell_like
Your fingers still smell like fish.

 Juan xah Pedro xah cói pti iyonípatim oo.

Juan crd Pedro crd still rcp 3.sbj:rlyo:hit:impf del
Juan and Pedro are still hitting each other.

 * Juan xah Pedro xah pti cói iyonípatim oo.

Juan crd Pedro crd rcp still 3.sbj:rlyo:hit:impf del
(Juan and Pedro are still hitting each other.)

 Cói ziix chaa oo z itcmaa, teete, ...

still thing sbj.nmlz:eq del indf;sg 3.sbj:rlt:neg:know rlt:say
He said that he still didn’t recognize him, ... bb $SRVWDGRUB

 Cocazni° com ilít quij cactim iha xo isoj com cói
Crotalus_spp. def;hz 3.poss:head def;cm sbj.nmlz:be_cut dcl but 3.poss:body def;hz still
csiijim oo ha.
sbj.nmlz:move del dcl
The head of the rattlesnake was cut off, but its body was still moving.bb &<+,

 He mos Lola hapáh quij ˻ iyat cöcoocapoj˼ coi, he

1.pro also Lola sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;cm    3.poss:tip 3.io:sbj.nmlz:grow\pl def;pl 1.pro

zo haa ha.
indf;sg [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl
I also am one of the descendants of Lola (Casanova).bb &<+,

 ˻ Ziix is cooil˼ quij cói tooil oo ma x,

   thing 3.poss:fruit sbj.nmlz:green/blue def;cm still rlt:green/blue del ds ut
ipahit iic cöimiipe ha.
3.poss:[pon:]pass:eat 3.poss:toward 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:good dcl
When a watermelon is still green, it isn’t good to eat it.

 Cöitacozxot ma, haptco tátaxim, ...

3.io:3.sbj:rlt:hand_over ds already rlt:go:impf
He gave it to him, he was already walking, ...bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 Haptco cmiique caii quih chaa ha.

already (Seri)_person grown/older def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq dcl
He is already an adult. bb 177 -Q 

 Me haptco mos cmoqueepe ya?

2.pro already also sbj.nmlz:sick qm
Are you sick again? bb &<+,

 ..., ... haptco mos hast pac itexaj, ...

already also stone indf;pl 3.sbj:rlt:take\pl
..., ... once again they took stones, ... bb 177 -Q 

 Xaa xixonla.

soon em:lose_liquid
It [crab] quickly lost liquid.
636 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 He zimjöc oo min icaafp quimzo ha xo ...

1.pro long_time_ago del 2.poss:in inf.intr:arrive sbj.nmlz:tr:want dcl but
For a long time I have wanted to arrive to you (pl.) but ...bb 177 5P 

24.4.4 Manner adverbs

93LQLWLDO DGYHUEV DQG H[SUHVVLRQV WKDW LQGLFDWH PDQQHU EURDGO\ VSHDNLQJ DUH cooc almost VHH i ihaamac
alone XQDFFRPSDQLHG miizj well VHH i DQG ox thus VHH i

 ¿Me hoox oo ihaamac poop, siitax quee ya?

  2.pro intns del alone irr.ind:stand irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Are you going unaccompanied?bb &<+,

 Miizj ihmiya.

well 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:know
I know it well. bb &<+,

7KH DGYHUE cooc almost VRPHWLPHV RFFXUV LQ WZR GLVWLQFW SURVRGLF SDWWHUQV ZLWK D GL᯲HUHQFH LQ PHDQLQJ DV
LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV  RQH ZLWK D UHGXFHG VWUHVV LQGLFDWHG E\ D EUHYH DQG RQH ZLWK D PRUH HYHQ
VWUHVV LQGLFDWHG E\ DQ DFXWH DFFHQW KHUH

 Cŏoc áno ntama ho.

almost [3.poss:]in/from aw:rlt:neg:move dcl
It takes a long time to come out of it.

 Cóoc áno ntama ho.

almost [3.poss:]in/from aw:rlt:neg:move dcl
It almost doesn’t come out.

7KH LGLRPDWLF SKUDVH hax hamaco little by little LV DOVR DWWHVWHG 6SHDNHUV YDU\ RQ WKH SURQXQFLDWLRQ RI WKLV
H[SUHVVLRQ VRPH XVLQJ hax hamaaco DQG VRPH XVLQJ hax hahmaaco

 ... ˻ hax hahmaco˼ hax com contima.

   intns ? fresh_water def;hz 3.io:aw:rlmi:move
... little by little it sank.

0DQ\ PDQQHUOLNH QRWLRQV DUH H[SUHVVHG DV LQGHSHQGHQW FODXVHV XVLQJ D YHUE VHH i

24.5 VP-final adverbs

6RPH DGYHUEV DUH IRXQG LQ D SRVLWLRQ IROORZLQJ WKH YHUE EHIRUH WKH 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW PDUNHUV i DQG DOVR
EHIRUH HPSKDWLF xo i

24.5.1 Intensifying adverbs áa and aapa

7KH DGYHUEV áa very, really DQG aapa very LQWHQVLI\ VRPH DVSHFW RI WKH YHUE 7KH DGYHUE áa FRPPRQO\ RFFXUV
LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK VRPH RWKHU LQGLFDWRU RI LQWHQVLW\ LQ WKH VHQWHQFH DV ZHOO 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Poyaai áa hax yoma.

irr.dep:costly true intns rlyo:neg:beLUUHJ
It wasn’t very expensive. bb &<+,

7KH ZRUG hax fresh water LQ WKLV H[DPSOH FRXOG EH UHSODFHG E\ xepe sea LQ WKH FDVH RI D VKLS LQ WKH ZDWHU EXW LW QHHG
QRW EH hax LV VWLOO DSSURSULDWHO\ XVHG WKHUH ,I WKH DUWLFOH com def;hz ZHUH UHSODFHG E\ cap RU cop def;vt WKH VLWXDWLRQ
GHVFULEHG ZRXOG EH RQH LQ ZKLFK WKH ZDWHU LV HQWHULQJ WKH FRQWDLQHU
§24.5.1 Intensifying adverbs áa and aapa 637

 Ziix chaa áa zo htcmaa ho.

thing sbj.nmlz:eq true indf;sg 1s.sbj:rlt:neg:know dcl
I don’t know what/who it really is.

 Hehe cop hansaa hax maacoj áa yax, ...

plant def;vt just intns rlmi:big true since
The tree is very big, ... bb &<+,

 Hammotómanoj áa.

1p.sbj:rlmi:weak\pl true
We are very weak. bb &<+,

 [ ¡Saticpan áa ] xo!

  irr.ind:work true em
S/he’s really going to work!

 [ Hax toox toom áa ], ...

intns far rlt:lie true
It was very far away, ...

 [ Siifp taa teepe áa ] siifp aha.

irr.ind:arrive rlt:aux irr.dep:say true irr.ind:arrive aux:dcl
If s/he really said s/he was coming, s/he will come.

 Soqueht áa que immís.

irr.ind:bounce/flexible true sbj.nmlz:aux 3.sbj:rlmi:resemble
It appears that it will be flexible.

7KH LQWHQVL᯳HU aapa KDV WZR PDMRU FRQGLWLRQV RQ LWV XVDJH )LUVW WKH YHUE PXVW EH LQ WKH VRFDOOHG SUR[LPDO
UHDOLV IRUP i DQG VHFRQG WKH YHUE PXVW EH DQ LPSHUVRQDO RU VWDWLYH YHUE DQG PRVW FRPPRQO\ D VFDODU
SUHGLFDWH ,I ERWK FRQGLWLRQV DUH QRW PHW aapa LV QRW DSSURSULDWHO\ XVHG DV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ H[DPSOHV 

 D Maziim aapa.

rlmi:pleasant strong
It is absolutely beautiful. bb &<+,

E * Yaziim aapa.
rlyo:pleasant strong
(It was absolutely beautiful.)

F * Saziim aapa aha.

irr.ind:pleasant strong aux:dcl
(It will be absolutely beautiful.)

G * Caziim aapa ha.

sbj.nmlz:pleasant strong dcl
(It is absolutely beautiful.)

 D Maapl aapa.

rlmi:cold strong
It is really cold.

E Imcozim aapa.
rlmi:hot_(weather) strong
It is really hot (weather)!
638 Chapter 24: Adverbs

F Imheel aapa.
rlmi.red strong
It is really red!

G Miicat aapa.
rlmi:bitter/salty strong
It is really salty!

H Moqueht aapa.
rlmi:bounce/flexible strong
It is really flexible!

I Moaatjö aapa.
rlmi:sweet strong
It is really sweet!

J Imcomca aapa.
rlmi:noisy strong
It is really noisy!

 D * Mozt aapa.

rlmi:loose strong
(It got completely loose!)

E * Miim aapa.
rlmi:sleep strong
(S/he is completely asleep!)

F * Miipxölim aapa.
rlmi:break strong
(It is completely broken!)

G * Imcón aapa.
rlmi:stink strong
(It stinks a lot!)

H * Mipon aapa.
rlmi:hv:voice strong
(It’s making a lot of vocal noise!)

I * Immáh aapa.
rlmi:vocalize strong
(It is making a lot of sounds!)

2WKHU NLQGV RI YHUEV RU RWKHU PRRGV KDYH DOWHUQDWLYH ZD\V RI LQGLFDWLQJ D KLJK GHJUHH RI LQWHQVLW\ 6HH H[DPSOHV


 D Hansaa hax mozt áa.

just intns rlmi:loose true
It got completely loose.

E Hansaa hax miim áa.

just intns rlmi:sleep true
S/he is fast asleep.
§24.5.2 Other postverbal adverbs 639

F Hansaa hax miipxölim áa.

just intns rlmi:break true
It broke completely apart.

G Hansaa hax imcón áa.

just intns rlmi:stink true
It really stinks.

H Hansaa hax moaatjö áa.

just intns rlmi:sweet true
It is too sweet.

I Hansaa hax yaticpan áa.

just intns rlyo:work true
He has really worked!

 D Ctoozi ha xo cmaax hansaa hax moqueht áa.

sbj.nmlz:stiff dcl but now just intns rlmi:bounce/flexible true
It was stiff but now it is flexible.

E Ctoozi ha xo cmaax moqueht aapa.

sbj.nmlz:stiff dcl but now rlmi:bounce/flexible strong
It was stiff but now it is flexible.

24.5.2 Other postverbal adverbs

7KUHH RWKHU SRVWYHUEDO DGYHUEV DUH iiqui even iis RU VRPHWLPHV s of course, sure ZLWK VHQVH RI HPRWLRQDO
GLVWDQFH DQG WKH GHOLPLWHU ipi 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Iti cminol iiqui ipi.

3.poss:on im:neg:hv:hand/arm/finger 3.poss:toward del
Don’t even touch it/her/him!

 Moxima cmaacoj quih isooit iiqui haa ha xo ...

yesterday old_man def;fl 3.poss:irr.ind:dance 3.poss:toward [sbj.nmlz:]eq dcl but
Yesterday the old man should have danced, but ... bb &<+,

 Saato iis.

irr.ind:fight of_course
Sure he’ll fight.

 Móteja s.
rlmi:stagger of_course
Of course s/he staggers!

:H KDYH VRPHWLPHV UHFRUGHG WKH DOORPRUSK s DIWHU D YRZHO᯳QDO ZRUG 7KHVH IDFWV LQ SDUWLFXODU DQG WKLV DGYHUE LQ
JHQHUDO KDYH QRW EHHQ DGHTXDWHO\ VWXGLHG

6RPH H[DPSOHV RI WKH DGYHUE ipi IROORZLQJ QRPLQDOV DUH JLYHQ LQ i ,W DOVR IROORZV DQ DGYHUE DV LQ L

L Iizax quij hapx ipi tmap ma, miilx.

moon def;cm outside intns rlt:neg:stand ds rlmi:go\pl
Before the moon came up, they went.


7KH PHDQLQJ KHUH LV GHRQWLF
640 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 Hin ntcmapatjc iis.

1s.do:2s.sbj:sbjv:untie of_course
Okay, untie me!

 Ihsiihit iis.

1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat of_course
I’ll just have to eat it. bb &<+,

 ¡Ihsiihit xo s!
b 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:eat em of_course
Of course I will eat it! [but not because I really want to]

7KH DGYHUE ipi FRPPRQO\ IROORZV QHJDWLYH YHUEV WKDW DOVR KDYH WKH SUHYHUEDO DGYHUE cói still EXW LW DOVR RFFXUV
ZLWK D VLPLODU PHDQLQJ RI (not) yet ZKHQ cói LV QRW SUHVHQW 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Ihptcmiim ipi ma, miizcam.

1s.sbj.intr:rlt:neg:sleep del ds rlmi:arrive\pl
Before I had slept, they arrived.

 ¿Cói cötmitalhaa ipi?

  still 3.io:rlt:neg:buy/sell del
Hasn’t s/he sold it yet?

 Cói tommám ipi ho.

still rlt:neg:ripe del dcl
It’s still not cooked.

 Cói hptcmiim ipi, hpmoohitim.

still 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:neg:sleep del 1s.sbj.intr:rlmi:unsp.sbj:eat:impf
Before sleeping, I was eating.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ While I still had not slept, ...bb &<+,

 Coqué coi cói imheel ipi ha.

chile(s) def;pl still sbj.nmlz:neg:red del dcl
The chilies aren’t red yet. bb $/,0 

 ˻ Eenm haacni˼ com itcmexl ipi, haaco cap imiiix.

   metal abs;bow def;hz 3.sbj:rlt:neg:take del abs;house def;vt 3.sbj.rlmi:leave_behind
Before taking the rifle, he left the house. bb &<+,

 Hax cap ihpomasi ipi, he soos caha.

fresh_water def;vt 1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:neg:drink del 1.pro irr.ind:sing sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
Before drinking the water, I am going to sing. bb &<+,

 He cói smaahit ipi caha.

1.pro still irr.ind:neg:1s.sbj.em.tr.em:eat del sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
I’m not going fishing yet.

24.5.3 VP-final time adverbs

7ZR VPDOO ZRUGV WKDW UHODWH WR WLPH IROORZ WKH YHUE 7KH DGYHUE íi first LV DOVR IRXQG PRGLI\LQJ GHYHUEDO QRXQV
,W SUHFHGHV WKH 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW PDUNHU i ZKHQ RQH LV SUHVHQW 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 He siim íi caha.

1.pro irr.ind:sleep first sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
I’m going to be the first to sleep.
§24.5.3 VP-final time adverbs 641

 ihyaazi° íi
1.poss:obj.nmlz:carry first
my first child

 Xepe ntiin íi ma, ...

sea aw:rlt:return first ds
When the tide first started to rise, ...

 zixcám ihmaa° hoicötoj íi, caanlca tacoi, ...

fish other 1.poss:obj.nmlz:kill\pl first Mycteroperca_jordani\pl md:pl
the fish that we killed first, the Gulf groupers, ...

 Meaacalca coi nsoon íi aha.

2.poss:clothing def;pl 2s.sbj:irr.ind:carry_items first aux:dcl
First (before doing something else) you should take your clothes. bb &<+,

7KH DGYHUE x RFFXUV PDLQO\ RQ WKH YHUEV RI GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV DQG VHHPV WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH VSHFL᯳FLW\ RI
WKH WLPH DW ZKLFK WKH HYHQW KDV WDNHQ RU ZLOO WDNH SODFH LV HLWKHU QRW UHOHYDQW RU QRW NQRZQ ,Q UHDOLV GHSHQGHQW
FODXVHV WKH ODFN RI x JHQHUDOO\ DOORZV D WUDQVODWLRQ After …, RU When … DQG WKH SUHVHQFH RI x DOORZV D WUDQVODWLRQ
Whenever … ,Q LUUHDOLV GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV WKH ODFN RI x JHQHUDOO\ DOORZV D WUDQVODWLRQ When … DQG WKH SUHVHQFH
RI x DOORZV D WUDQVODWLRQ If … 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 D ZLWK x
Txtamt ma x, pac ihyoomjc.
rlt:abundant ds ut indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:deliver
When there are many, I bring some.

E ZLWKRXW x
Txtamt ma, pac ihyoomjc.
rlt:abundant ds indf;pl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:deliver
Because there were so many, I brought some.

 Minl quih pozatx ta x, insooha aha.

2.poss:hand/arm/finger def;fl irr.dep:have_glochids ds ut 2s.sbj:irr.ind:cry aux:dcl
If your hands get glochids in them, you will cry.

7KH DGYHUE x IROORZV WKH 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW PDUNHU i LI RQH LV SUHVHQW 1R RWKHU HOHPHQW RI D FODXVH
HYHU IROORZV WKH DGYHUE x 0RUH H[DPSOHV RI x DW WKH HQG RI GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV DUH JLYHQ LQ i
7KH ZRUG x PD\ DOVR RFFXU IROORZLQJ WKH 3 iti FI i RU WKH IRFXV DUWLFOH cah FI i ZKHQ D
FODXVH LV QRPLQDOL]HG DV LQ  UHVSHFWLYHO\ 6XFK RFFXUUHQFHV KDYH QRW EHHQ VWXGLHG

 Hihiim iti x, ihpatj ta x, hasiilx aha.

1.poss:pon:sleep 3.poss:on ut 1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:arise ds ut 1p.sbj:irr.ind:go\pl aux:dcl
When I have slept, when I get up, we’ll go.

 Ox ipacta, ox ipacta cah x, ...

thus 3.poss:[pon:]be_in_appearance thus 3.poss:[pon:]be_in_appearance def;fl:foc ut
It was like that, it was like that ...; i.e., It was like that for a long time, ...
642 Chapter 24: Adverbs

24.5.4 Delimiter oo
7KH ZRUG oo RFFXUV DIWHU YHUEV DQG RWKHU ZRUGV i PRVW FRPPRQO\ LQ FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK DQRWKHU DGYHUE
VXFK DV hax i cói still i DQG mos also i 6HH WKH UHIHUHQFHG VHFWLRQV IRU H[DPSOHV ,W
GRHV QRW KDYH DQ\ REYLRXV PHDQLQJ DQG LW LV SURSRVHG WKDW LWV SULPDU\ SXUSRVH LV WR LQGLFDWH WKH VFRSH RI DQRWKHU
DGYHUE $ IHZ H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Cói cpanzx oo ha.

still sbj.nmlz:run del dcl
S/he is still running.

 ¡Mos camx oo!

b also im:say del
Say it again!

 ¡Hax hiim oo!

b intns im:sleep del
Just close your eyes a bit!

 ¡Haxz° ctam cop poozoj oo ta, he camjc!

  dog male def;vt irr.dep:alone del ds 1.io:im:deliver
Bring me only the MALE dog! bb &<+,

 Ctam fariseo quih chaa cap tfit oo, toc cötap, ...
male Pharisee def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq def;vt rlt:stand_up del there 3.io:rlt:stand
The Pharisee stood there, ... bb 177 /N 

 Iisax iizc com hax mooxp oo.

3.poss:spirit 3.poss:front def;hz intns rlmi:white del
Its breast is white.bb (6 DFDDPBFFDD 

,Q VRPH FDVHV LW PXVW RFFXU DIWHU D ZRUG LQ WKH 93 WKDW SUHFHGHV WKH YHUE DV LQ 

 ¿Cói toox oo tahca?

  still far del rlt:be_located
Is it still far away?

,W REOLJDWRULO\ RFFXUV ZLWK WKH YHUE IRU do continually VHH i IRU H[DPSOHV


7KLV PRUSKHPH GRHV QRW LQWHUDFW SKRQRORJLFDOO\ ZLWK WKH YHUE VWHP ZKLFK LV VRPH HYLGHQFH WKDW LW LV QRW D VX᯵[
7KHUH LV SDUDGLJPDWLF HYLGHQFH WKDW WKH ᯳QDO i RI WKH VWHP √neepni stooped LV LQVHUWHG EHFDXVH WKH GHOHWLRQ RI WKH URRW YRZHO
EHIRUH n WKH XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP RI WKH URRW LV √neepen UHVXOWHG LQ D ᯳QDO FRQVRQDQW FOXVWHU WKDW LV GLVDOORZHG V\OODEOH᯳QDOO\
7KH HSHQWKHVLV RI i LV QRW EORFNHG E\ WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH DGYHUE oo DV VKRZQ E\ H[DPSOH L

L Cói cneepni oo ha.

still sbj.nmlz:stooped del dcl
S/he is still stooped

6LPLODUO\ H[DPSOH LL VKRZV WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH i LQ WKH FDVH RI WKH YHUE √nexöni WKH XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP RI WKH URRW LQ WKLV
FDVH EHLQJ √nexon

LL Cói cnexöni oo ha.

still sbj.nmlz:hold_in_lap del dcl
S/he is still holding it/her/him in his/her lap
§24.5.5 Iiha only 643

24.5.5 Iiha only

7KH DGYHUE iiha only just KDV D VHPDQWLF UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RU LQGLUHFW REMHFW UDWKHU WKDQ WR WKH
VXEMHFW XQOHVV WKHUH LV QR REMHFW

 Quisiil° ctam z isiiho iiha aha.

child male indf;sg 3.sbj:irr.ind:see only aux:dcl
S/he will have only a male child.

 Ctam ih imiiho iiha.

male foc 3.sbj:rlmi:see only
S/he has only a son.

 Quisiil° ctam zo hasiiht iiha aha.

child male indf;sg 1p.sbj:irr.ind:see\pl only aux:dcl
We will only have a male child.

 Hap yaao tazo hamiiht iiha.

Odocoileus_hemionus [3.poss:]obj.nmlz:[unsp.obj:]pass_by one 1p.sbj:rlmi:see\pl only
We saw one MULE DEER’S TRACKS and nothing else. bb &<+,

 Tii toc cöquiij iiha ha.

dem;dt;sg there 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sit only dcl
It’s the only one.

24.6 Sentential adverbs

6HQWHQWLDO DGYHUEV ZKLFK DUH QRW QXPHURXV DUH SUHVHQWHG DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH FDWHJRU\ RI PHDQLQJ WKDW WKH\ KDYH
7KHLU SRVLWLRQ LQ WKH VHQWHQFH VKRZV VRPH ᯴H[LELOLW\

24.6.1 Epistemic adverbs matix and poho

7KH LQIUHTXHQWO\ XVHG HSLVWHPLF DGYHUE matix perhaps RFFXUV FODXVHLQLWLDOO\ LQ ᯳QLWH FODXVHV ZLWK D YHUE LQ
᯴HFWHG IRU HPSKDWLF UHDOLV EXW LQWHUSUHWHG YHU\ LQWHUHVWLQJO\ DV D VXSSRVLWLRQ DERXW WKH LPPHGLDWH IXWXUH 6HH
H[DPSOHV 

 Matix ˻ áno tooit˼ ma, hpxoofp.

perhaps    [3.poss:]in rlt:arrive ds 1s.sbj.intr:em:arrive
Maybe I’ll arrive in the afternoon.

 D Juan quih matix hap z ixoocö.

Juan def;fl perhaps Odocoileus_hemionus indf;sg 3.sbj:em:kill
Maybe Juan will kill a mule deer. bb H[SDQGHG IURP &<+,

E Matix Juan quih hap z ixoocö.

perhaps Juan def;fl Odocoileus_hemionus indf;sg 3.sbj:em:kill
Maybe Juan will kill a mule deer.

F * Juan quih hap zo matix ixoocö.

Juan def;fl Odocoileus_hemionus indf;sg perhaps 3.sbj:em:kill
(Maybe Juan will kill a mule deer.)

 Juan quih Hezitmisoj quij iti siih caha. Matix ˻ ziix
Juan def;fl Hermosillo def;cm 3.poss:on irr.ind:be.fl sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl perhaps    thing
hapámalim˼ z ixooho.
sbj.nmlz:pass:observe:impf indf;sg 3.sbj:em:see
Juan will be in Hermosillo. Perhaps he will see a clown.
644 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 Juan xah Pedro xah Hezitmisoj quij iti soii caha; Pedro
Juan crd Pedro crd Hermosillo def;cm 3.poss:on irr.ind:stand\pl sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl Pedro
quih matix ziix hapámalim z ixooho.
def;fl perhaps thing sbj.nmlz:pass:observe:impf indf;sg 3.sbj:em:see
Juan and Pedro will be in Hermosillo. Perhaps Pedro will see a clown.

7KH FRXQWHUSDUW WR matix LQ LUUHDOLV FODXVHV ZKLFK LV poho LV YHU\ FRPPRQ LW RFFXUV IROORZLQJ WKH LQ᯴HFWHG
LUUHDOLV IRUP VHH i DV D VSHFLDO PRGDO 6HH H[DPSOH 

 Cofteecöl himcap cöhasitooij poho.

San_Esteban_Island dt:vt 3.io:1p.sbj:irr.ind:go\pl doubt
Maybe we should return to San Esteban Island.

7KH ZRUG poho LV DOVR XVHG LQ OLHX RI D VLPSOH D᯵UPDWLYH PRGDO DIWHU UHDOLV GHYHUEDO QRXQV DV LQ 

 Zozni haa poho x, Coniic haa poho.

(placename) [sbj.nmlz:]eq doubt ut (placename) [sbj.nmlz:]eq doubt
Maybe it was Zozni, or maybe it was Coniic.bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 «Tiix taax czaxö poho» ox mooza.

  dem;dt;sg dem;dt;pl sbj.nmlz:[tr:]:discuss doubt thus rlmi:speak\pl
Maybe he’s talking about that,” they said. bb 177 0W 

24.6.2 Attitudinal adverbs mos and hacöa

7KH DGYHUE mos ZKLFK XVXDOO\ KDV WKH PHDQLQJ also VHH i VRPHWLPHV RFFXUV VHQWHQFH᯳QDOO\ ZLWK WKH
PHDQLQJ so, then DV LQ 

 ¿Zaah ihyaa° quih imhaa ya mos?

  sun/watch mine def;fl sbj.nmlz:neg:eq qm also
So it’s not my watch? bb &<+,

7KH VRPHZKDW XQFRPPRQ DGYHUE hacöa LQGLFDWHV VXUSULVH RU VDGQHVV ,W RFFXUV VHQWHQFH᯳QDOO\ IROORZLQJ
D FODXVH WKDW KDV WKH PDLQ YHUE LQ WKH UHDOLV IRUP ZLWK t- DQG D FODXVH ZLWK WKH UDUH DQG RWKHUZLVH XQGHVFULEHG
DGYHUE a DV LQ 

 Tacohot a, hacöa.

rlt:marvelous ? (surprise/sadness)
How wonderful! bb 2᯲HUHG

 Taax oo cötquimjöc, ox tcooza a, hacöa, ox

dem;dt;pl del 3.io:rlt:unsp.sbj:hv:spirit:pl thus rlt:unsp.sbj:speak\pl ? (surprise/sadness) thus

xah yee, ...

? rlyo:say
Oh my, they say they are making such plans, ...bb &R\RWHB3LQDFDWHBBD

24.6.3 Exocomparative matix xah

7KH SKUDVH (hax) matix xah intns perhaps atten occasionally, once in a while LV DQ DGYHUELDO SKUDVH WKDW PRGL᯳HV
WKH VHQWHQFH DV LQ 

 D ˻ Hax matix xah˼ tootar quih hyoohit.

   intns perhaps atten chicken def;fl 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:eat
I occasionally eat chicken.bb &<+,

7KLV LV VRPHZKDW UHPLQLVFHQW RI WKH FROORTXLDO 6SDQLVK pues LW LV UHPRWHO\ SRVVLEOH WKDW WKLV XVH RI mos KDV EHHQ
LQ᯴XHQFHG E\ 6SDQLVK
§24.7.1 Attenuator xah 645

E Tootar quih ˻ hax matix xah˼ hyoohit.

chicken def;fl    intns perhaps atten 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:eat
I occasionally eat chicken.

 ˻ Matix xah˼ xepe quih iteel com iti siifp taa x, ...
   perhaps atten sea def;fl 3.poss:edge def;hz 3.poss:on irr.ind:arrive rlt:aux ut
Once in a while it comes toward shore, ... bb (6BFDDQM 

24.7 Adverb phrase adverbs

6RPH DGYHUEV PD\ EH PRGL᯳HG E\ RWKHU DGYHUEV

24.7.1 Attenuator xah

7KH XQVWUHVVHG ZRUG xah LV XVHG DV DQ DWWHQXDWLQJ PRGL᯳HU ZLWK FHUWDLQ DGYHUEV 7KH H᯲HFWV RI LWV XVH ZLWK
WKHVH DGYHUEVൺERWK VHPDQWLFDOO\ DQG PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ൺDUH SUHVHQWHG LQ WDEOH  7KH ᯳UVW JURXS LQ WKH WDEOH
GRHV QRW VKRZ DQ\ PRUSKRORJLFDO FKDQJH ZKHQ XVHG ZLWK xah 7KH DGYHUE halx LV XQXVXDO LQ WKLV UHVSHFW
ERWK VHPDQWLFDOO\ DQG PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ ZKHQ RQH FRPSDUHV LW ZLWK ZKDW KDSSHQV ZLWK RWKHU DGYHUEV WKDW KDYH D
FRQVRQDQW FOXVWHU 7KH VHFRQG JURXS GLVSOD\V WKH VKLIW RI VWUHVV RQWR WKH VHFRQG V\OODEOH LQGLFDWHG E\ WKH GRXEOH
YRZHO ZLWK WKH DFXWH DFFHQW RQ HDFK RU WKH EUHDNLQJ XS RI WKH FRQVRQDQW FOXVWHU ZLWK WKH LQ᯳[ -à- 6HH H[DPSOHV


7DEOH bb$GYHUEV PRGL᯳HG ZLWK DWWHQXDWLQJ PRGL᯳HU xah

xaa soon bbbbbbb xaa xah fairly soon

toox far toox xah fairly far
halx just halx xah so

aamo far aamóó xah fairly far

cola high coláá xah fairly high
colx high colàx xah fairly high
zimjöc long time ago zimàjöc xah fairly long time ago
anxö intns anàxö xah fairly  intns
hantaxl near hantaxàl xah fairly near
miizj well, carefully miizàj xah fairly well, fairly carefully

 ¡Xaa xah he camjc!

  soon atten 1.io:im:deliver
Bring it to me fairly soon. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Toox xah caahca ha.

far atten sbj.nmlz:be_located dcl
It is fairly distant. bb 2᯲HUHG

 Toox xah cayaxi ha.

far atten sbj.nmlz:measure dcl
It wasn’t a long time ago. bb 2᯲HUHG

 ... toox xah tayaxi ma, ...

far atten rlt:measure ds
... not for a long time, ...bb *LJDQWHB&RPHORQB

 Halx xah maapl.

just atten rlmi:cold
It is so cold! bb &<+,
646 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 Halx xah mcozim.

just atten rlmi:hot_(weather)
It is so hot (weather)!

 Aamóó xah yoohca.

far:<mod> atten rlyo:be_located
It is fairly far away. bb &<+,

 Zimàjöc xah yoofp.

long_ago:<mod> atten rlyo:arrive
S/he arrived quite a while ago. bb 2᯲HUHG

7KHUH LV DQ LQWHUHVWLQJ XVH RI WKLV DGYHUE ZLWK WKH SKUDVHV WKDW EHJLQ DQG HQG TXRWDWLRQV )RU H[DPSOH UDWKHU
WKDQ VLPSOH ox mee thus rlmi:say thus s/he said RQH XVHV ox xah mee ZKHQ WKH TXRWDWLRQ JLYHQ LV UHSUHVHQWHG
DV KDYLQJ EHHQ XWWHUHG TXLWH D ZKLOH DJR
7KH DGYHUE xah VRPHWLPHV IROORZV QRQDGYHUEV LQ D VHQWHQFH DV LQ  DVVXPLQJ WKDW hacx LV QRW DQ DGYHUE

 D Juan quih hacx xah zo ntica ha.

Juan def;fl apart ? indf;sg aw:inf:move dcl
Juan must be far away now.

E Juan quih hacx xah zo cazquim iha.

Juan def;fl apart ? indf;sg sbj.nmlz:enter dcl
Juan must be far away now.

7KH SKUDVH cmaa iiquíí xah recently LV D FRPELQDWLRQ RI WKH DWWHQXDWRU xah ZLWK WKH SKUDVH cmaa iiqui QRW HDVLO\
WUDQVODWHG QRU FOHDUO\ XQGHUVWRRG 6HH H[DPSOH 

 ˻ Cmaa iiquíí xah˼ Hant Ihiin ihyoyaai.

   now 3.poss:toward:<mod> atten Baja_California 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:travel_to
I recently went to Baja California. bb &<+,

2WKHU FRPELQDWLRQV RI DGYHUEV DUH JLYHQ LQ WDEOH  7KH PRGLI\LQJ DGYHUE SUHFHGHV WKH KHDG FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK
WKH KHDG᯳QDO VWUXFWXUH RI WKH ODQJXDJH 7ZR H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

7DEOH bb2WKHU FRPELQDWLRQV RI DGYHUEV

0RGL᯳HU %DVH &RPELQDWLRQ

D hax intns cmaa now hax cmaa right now
E halx just cooc almost halx cooc soon
F haptco already mos also haptco mos again already
G hoox intns miizj well hoox miizj precisely
H hoox intns anxö intns hoox anxö so much
I zóo how much anxö intns zóo anxö (not) so much

 ¿˻ Zó tpacta ma˼ ˻ hoox anxö˼ intoohit?

    how? rlt:be_in_appearance ds    intns intns 2s.sbj:rlt:unsp.obj:eat
Why do you eat so much?

7KLV ZDV SRLQWHG RXW WR PH E\ D JURXS RI UHDGHUV LQ  ZKHQ , KHDUG RQH RI WKHP DGGLQJ WKH ZRUG xah ZKHUH LW ZDV
QRW ZULWWHQ ,W LV QRW FOHDU WR PH \HW KRZ FRQVLVWHQW LV WKH XVDJH EXW VHYHUDO RWKHU SHRSOH FRQ᯳UPHG WR PH WKDW LW LV VR

7KLV JORVV GRHV QRW DGHTXDWHO\ GHVFULEH WKH UDQJH RI PHDQLQJV WKDW WKLV H[SUHVVLRQ KDV QRU WKH UHVWULFWLRQV RQ LWV XVDJH
§24.8 Interrogative adverbs 647

 ¡˻ Zóo anxö˼ casi! coox insiisi xo tax.

     how_much! intns im:drink all 2s.sbj:irr.ind:drink em sbrd
Don’t drink so much! You’re going to drink all of it!

7KH LQWHQVLI\LQJ DGYHUE ipi KRZHYHU follows WKH DGYHUE WKDW LW PRGL᯳HV DV LQ  7KLV DGYHUE LV GLVFXVVHG LQ
PRUH GHWDLO LQ i

 Cói miizj ipi icaatax iyomaa.

still well del inf.intr:go 3.sbj:rlyo:neg:know
S/he still can’t walk very well.

24.8 Interrogative adverbs

7ZR LQWHUURJDWLYH DGYHUEV RFFXU LQ TXHVWLRQV zímjöc when? DQG zó how? 7KHVH DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i DQG
i UHVSHFWLYHO\

24.9 Periphrastic adverbial expressions

%HVLGHV VLPSOH DGYHUEV WKHUH DUH FRPPRQ EXW FRPSOLFDWHG ZD\V WR PRGLI\ YHUEV XVLQJ FODXVDO H[SUHVVLRQV 6HH
WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 without permission

˻ Hans isoj itcazit˼, haaco cop án cöyoozquim.
   just 3.poss:body 3.sbj:rlt:grab abs;house def;vt [3.poss:]area 3.io:rlyo:enter
S/he entered the house without permission.

 surreptitiously
˻ Misoj intcooz˼, án conyoozquim.
   2.poss:body/being/self 2s.sbj:rlt:steal [3.poss:]area 3.io:2s.sbj:rlyo:enter
You entered the house surreptitiously.

 surreptitiously
˻ Isoj itcooz˼, án cöyoozquim.
   3.poss:body 3.sbj:rlt:steal [3.poss:]area 3.io:rlyo:enter
S/he entered the house surreptitiously.

 quickly
˻ Hax íiqui pajoz˼ ta x, spaxi caha.
    intns even irr.dep:flee ds ut irr.ind:pass:finish sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
It will be finished quickly.

2WKHU H[SUHVVLRQV RI WKLV W\SH LQFOXGH Tinzaait, … rlt:careful_with Carefully… Hax tmaai oo, … intns
rlt:silent del Silently, … Hax taafzx oo, … intns rlt-fast del Quickly ..., Suddenly …
([SUHVVLRQV IRU always DQG never DUH PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG 7KHUH DUH QR VLPSOH DGYHUEV WKDW FRUUHVSRQG WR WKHVH
ZRUGV GL᯲HUHQW W\SHV RI FUHDWLYH FLUFXPORFXWLRQV DUH HPSOR\HG 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 always >WKH XVH RI WKH ,QWHQVL᯳HU SOXV WKH ORFDWLYH FRQVWUXFWLRQ@
He hax taticpan oo, hant zo cöquiij iha.
1.pro intns rlt:work del land indf;sg 3.io:sbj.nmlz:sit dcl
I am always working.

 always >WKH XVH RI WKH ,QWHQVL᯳HU DQG WKH HPEHGGHG FODXVH@
Hipi sooxp taa cooxp iha.
intns irr.ind:white rlt:aux sbj.nmlz:white dcl
It’s always been white.
648 Chapter 24: Adverbs

 never >WKH XVH RI WKH QHJDWLYH QRPLQDOL]HG FODXVH@

He hicmiiquet cah, ˻ hant ihyomaamac˼.
1.pro 1.poss:[pon:]be_person def;fl:foc    land 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:?
I have never cooked century plant.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ In my life I have not cooked century plant. bb &<+,

$GYHUELDO QRWLRQV PD\ DOVR EH H[SUHVVHG ZLWK 33V RU PDLQ YHUEV DV H[DPSOHV  LOOXVWUDWH ZLWK WKH
UHOHYDQW SDUWV XQGHUVFRUHG

 quickly
Hai cop intooit ma, cöihaafzx hac iti hoocala
wind def;vt twd:rlt:arrive ds 3.io:3.poss:pon:fast def;loc 3.poss:on cloud
cötaanim ma, hant com tcooo yicopol.
3.io:rlt:closed/covered ds land def;hz rlt:all rlyo:dark
When the wind came, it quickly got cloudy and all the earth became dark. bb &<+,

 with force, hard

Hast quij cöiixquim hac imacaaixaj.
stone def;cm 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]put.hz def;loc 3.sbj:rlmi:make_strong
S/he threw the stone hard.

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7KHVH DUH HYLGHQWO\ IRUPV RI WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ go aw:irr.dep:move DQG aw:rlt:move UHVSHFWLYHO\ 7KH QHJDWLRQ
XVXDOO\ UHTXLUHV WKH LUUHDOLV IRUP EXW LI LW LV QRW LPPHGLDWHO\ DGMDFHQW WKH UHDOLV IRUP PD\ DSSHDU DV LQ 

 He ˻ ziix ccam˼ intìta ma hapaho zo he imhaa ha.

1.pro    thing sbj.nmlz:alive aw:rlt:move ds sbj.nmlz:pass:see indf;sg 1.pro sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
I am an animal that is seldom seen.bb /DJDUWLMDV 

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H[DPSOHV 

 Intìpa ta nyompaho.

aw:irr.dep:move ds 2s.sbj:rlyo:neg:pass:see
You are seldom seen.

 Intìpa ta ma hyomaho.

aw:irr.dep:move ds 1s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:see
I don’t see you very often.

 Intìpa ta hpyomiim.

aw:irr.dep:move ds 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:sleep
I seldom sleep.

 Intìpa ta nyomiim.

aw:irr.dep:move ds 2s.sbj:rlyo:neg:sleep
You seldom sleep.

 Intìpa ta yomiim.

aw:irr.dep:move ds rlyo:neg:sleep
S/he seldom sleeps.

 Intìpa ta yomcozim.

aw:irr.dep:move ds rlyo:neg:hot_(weather)
It is hardly ever hot (weather).
§24.9 Periphrastic adverbial expressions 649

 He ziix intìpa ta quiim z imhaa ha.

1.pro thing aw:irr.dep:move ds sbj.nmlz:sleep indf;sg sbj.nmlz:neg:eq dcl
I am one who seldom sleeps.
 25
Coordinators and subordinators

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25.1 Nominal coordinator xah

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 H[DPSOHV ZLWK FRPPRQ GHWHUPLQHU SKUDVHV DUH SUHVHQWHG ODWHU

 1DPHV
Andrés xah, Pedro xah quih mos, taa ano coii ha.
Andrew crd Peter crd def;fl also dem;dt;pl [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:be.fl\pl dcl
Andrew and also Peter lived there.bb 177 -Q 

 3URQRXQV
Me xah, he xah, he smalx caha.
1.pro crd 2.pro crd 1.pro irr.ind:neg:go\pl aux.sbj.nmlz:dcl
You (sg. or pl.) and I/we will not go.

 3URQRXQV
Tiix xah, he xah, he smalx caha.
dem;dt;sg crd 2.pro crd 1.pro irr.ind:neg:go\pl aux.sbj.nmlz:dcl
S/he and I/we will not go.

 &ODXVHV KHDGHG E\ GHYHUEDO QRXQV

˻ Xiica quiistox˼ coi tcooo imiiht, hant com iti
   thing\pl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;pl rlt:all 3.sbj:rlmi:see:pl land def;hz 3P:on
cöihiihtim xah, Yooz quij cöihacooyam xaha.
3.io:3.poss:pon:be.fl:impf crd God def;cm 3.io:3.poss:pon:honor crd
All the people saw him walking and praising God.bb 177 $F 

7KH 3 iiqui 3.poss:toward PLJKW EH WUDQVODWHG DV and LQ D IUHH WUDQVODWLRQ DV LQ L EXW WKH QRXQ SKUDVHV LQ WKLV
H[DPSOH DUH QRW DFWXDOO\ FRRUGLQDWHG

L Haaco zo canoaa z iiqui hnyaa.

abs:house indf;sg boat indf;sg 3.poss:toward 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:own
I have a house and a boat.


7KH FRRUGLQDWRU xah QHYHU MRLQV FODXVHV RU YHUE SKUDVHV

L * Yoofp xah yas.

rlyo:arrive crd rlyo:sing
(S/he arrived and sang.)

LL * Hiiqui miipca xah he cmaax hataap coha ha.

1.poss:toward rlmi:rain crd 1.pro now abs:mucus 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be dcl
(It rained on me and now I have a cold.)

650
§25.1 Nominal coordinator xah 651

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 IRU FRRUGLQDWHG SURQRXQV

)LJXUH bb&RRUGLQDWHG SURQRXQV

Coordinated DP

DP DP

DP Coord DP Coord

Pronoun xah Pronoun xah

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 Comitin xah, haas xah, taax ah iti hamom.

Olneya_tesota_(dry) crd Prosopis_glandulosa crd dem;dt;pl foc 3.poss:on 1s.sbj:rlmi:lie
I am on the IRONWOOD tree and the MESQUITE tree.bb /DJDUWLMDVB

 Juana xah, Roberto xah, taax cöhacaailajc.

Juana crd Roberto crd dem;dt;pl 3.io:im:make_strong\pl
Greet (pl.) JUANA and ROBERTO!bb &<+,

 ... hantíp xah, icaaisx° xah, taax mos tom cah

salt crd 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:clean crd dem;dt;pl also money def;fl:foc

cöhamaaipt.
3.io:1p.sbj:rlmi:pay\pl
... we also pay for SALT and SOAP with money.bb +( B

 ˻ Zixcám cheel˼ xah, ˻ zixcám coospoj˼ xah, caanj xah, taax

   Lutjanus_peru crd Epinephelus_analogus crd Mycteroperca_jordani crd dem;dt;pl
immís iha, ...
3.sbj:rlmi:resemble dcl
It does not resemble that of the RED SNAPPER, the SPOTTED CABRILLA or the GULF GROUPER, ...bb (6
[SHH]RM

 Xaasj xah, ool xah, coox oo cmiique ha.

Pachycereus_pringlei crd Stenocereus_thurberi crd all del (Seri)_person dcl
the sahueso and organ pipe cactus and all of them were Seris, they were there.bb +LSRFDPSR

7KH FRRUGLQDWHG QRPLQDO PD\ EH ULJKWGLVORFDWHG i DV LQ 

 Ano siizcam aha, zixcám cacöla xah, caanlca xah.

[3.poss:]in irr.ind:arrive\pl aux:dcl Totoaba_macdonaldi crd Mycteroperca_jordani\pl crd
Totoabas and Gulf groupers will arrive among them (other fish).bb )LVKLQJB

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i IRU H[LVWHQWLDO FDVHV ZKHUH LW FDQQRW EH SUHVHQW

&RQVXOWDQWV LQGLFDWH WKDW LW LV XQXVXDO RU VXUSULVLQJ WKDW WKH IRUP cmiique LV XVHG LQ  7KH\ ZRXOG KDYH XVHG WKH SOXUDO
comcaac LQVWHDG
652 Chapter 25: Coordinators and subordinators

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 Hehe hasitlca xah, haasman xah, taax iti

plant/wood sbj.nmlz:pass:tie_sticks_for_cradleboard\pl crd woven_mat crd dem;dt;pl 3.poss:on
imiicmolca.
3.sbj:rlmi:put_items\pl:impf
They put them on BEDS and MATS.bb 177 $F 

$ FRRUGLQDWHG SKUDVH WKDW LV WR EH LQWHUSUHWHG DV D FRQMXQFWLRQ WKH and PHDQLQJ UHTXLUHV SOXUDO DJUHHPHQW
RQ WKH UHOHYDQW SUHGLFDWH 1RWH WKDW LQ  DERYH IRU H[DPSOH WKH YHUEV KDYH SOXUDO VWHPV ([DPSOH 
GHPRQVWUDWHV WKH XQJUDPPDWLFDOLW\ RI XVLQJ D VLQJXODU VWHP

 * Me xah he xah siitax caha.

2.pro crd 1.pro crd irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
(You and I will go.)

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JLYHQ LQ WKH VHQWHQFH WR LQGLFDWH WKDW PHDQLQJ )RU H[DPSOH LQ H[DPSOHV  WKH ZRUGV háqui quij which
one? DQG zo one DUH XVHG ,Q WKHVH VLWXDWLRQV WKH YHUE LV VLQJXODU DJUHHLQJ ZLWK WKH VLQJXODU VXEMHFW

 ¿He xah, me xah, háqui quij siitax quee ya?

 1.pro crd 2.pro crd which_one? def;cm irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz:aux qm
Which of us (you or I) is going to go?

 He xah me xah zo haa piij x, siitax caha.

1.pro crd 2.pro crd indf;sg there irr.dep:sit ut irr.ind:go sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
One of us (you or I) will go.

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 * Miist xah zo haxz° xah zo toc cötoii, ...

cat crd indf;sg abs:pet crd indf;sg there 3.io.rlt:stand\pl
(There was a cat and a dog, ...)

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 Haxz° heeque zo ˻ ziix canaao˼ heeque zo cötiih (*ma),

abs:pet small/young indf;sg    thing sbj.nmlz:meow small/young indf;sg 3.io:rlt:be.fl      ds

˻ hehe zamij˼ com án hac ano moii.

   plant/wood palm_tree def;hz [3.poss:]area def;loc [3.poss:]in rlmi:stand\pl
A puppy and a kitten are in the box.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ A puppy is with a cat, they are in the box.

,Q IDFW RQH PLJKW DUJXH KHUH WKDW H[DPSOHV  DUH DFWXDOO\ LQWHUSUHWHG DV FRQMXQFWLRQV LQ D SDUWLWLYH H[SUHVVLRQ
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§25.1 Nominal coordinator xah 653

 Moxima ctam zo cmaam zo cötiih (*ma), xepe an hant yahjcooil.

yesterday male indf;sg female indf;sg 3.io:rlt:be.fl      ds sea [3.poss:]in land rlyo:fall\pl
Yesterday a man and a woman fell into the sea.

([DPSOHV  VKRZ WKDW WKLV VDPH FRQVWUXFWLRQ PD\ EH XVHG ZLWK GH᯳QLWH QRPLQDOV

 Juan quih haxz° iixz quih cötiih (*ma), miilx.

Juan def;fl abs:pet 3.poss:pet def;fl 3.io:rlt:be.fl      ds rlmi:go\pl
Juan went with his dog.

 Zixcám coospoj quih, caanlca quih, zixcám caacöl quih

Epinephelus_analogus def;fl Mycteroperca_jordani\pl def;fl Stereolepis_gigas\pl def;fl
cötiih, iti moii, xatj quij.
3.io:rlt:be.fl 3.poss:on rlmi:stand\pl reef def;cm
Spotted cabrillas, Gulf groupers and giant sea bass were in the fishing spot.

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H[SHFWDWLRQV DERXW 'L᯲HUHQW 6XEMHFW PDUNLQJ i '6 PDUNLQJ GRHV not RFFXU RQ WKH GHSHQGHQW FODXVH LQ
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 He xah Pedro quij iiqui cohpiih, hasaanipxat

1.pro crd Pedro def;cm 3.poss:toward 3.io:1s.sbj.intr:irr.dep:be.fl 1p.sbj:irr.ind:return_home\pl

aha.
aux:dcl
Peter and I will return home.

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WKH VHFRQG QRPLQDO DV ZHOOൺVHH  EHORZ LV SUHVHQWHG ZLWK WKH FRRUGLQDWRU xah DV WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH GHSHQGHQW
FODXVH 6HH H[DPSOHV  DERYH DQG  EHORZ

 Canoaa xah com cyaa quih cötiih, Xnapofc ano moii.

boat crd def;hz sbj.nmlz:[tr:]own def;fl 3.io:rlt:be.fl (place_name) [3.poss:]in rlmi:stand\pl
The boat and its owner are at Xnapofc.

 Heecot hatìihtoj, toc conthamat, cmiique Roberto xah, Pedro

countryside 1p.sbj:rlt:be.fl:pl there 3.io:aw:1p.sbj:rlmi:move:pl (Seri)_person Roberto crd Pedro
xah, Juan xah, he xah cöhatìih.
crd Juan crd 1.pro crd 3.io:1p.sbj:rlt:be.fl
We were hunting in the countryside—Roberto, Pedro, Juan, and I.

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 ˻ Hant pofii ta˼, ˻ hehe it iicom˼ zo hpexl,

   land irr.ind:? ds    plant/wood 3.poss:on 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:lie indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.dep:take/buy
˻ ziix icacötim˼ mos zo hsexl aha.
   thing 3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:cover_oneself also indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:take/buy aux:dcl
Tomorrow I will buy a bed and a blanket.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ Tomorrow I will buy a bed, I will also buy a blanket.

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7KH 3 iiqui 3.poss:toward DOVR RFFXUV LQ WKLV H[DPSOH 6HH DOVR QRWH  RI WKLV FKDSWHU

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654 Chapter 25: Coordinators and subordinators

 Canoaa com ihtcmaho, cyaa quij mos ihtcmaho ho.

boat def;hz 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:see sbj.nmlz:[tr:]own def;cm also 1s.sbj.tr:rlt:neg:see dcl
I didn’t find either the boat or its owner.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ I didn’t find the boat, I also didn’t find the owner.

25.1.1 Position of the coordinator

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Coordinated DP

DP DP

DP Coord DP Coord

NP D NP D

xah quij xah coi

 ˻ Xiica quih quiistox˼ quih ˻ hantx mocat˼ xah, ˻ xiica quih

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl    at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move:pl crd    thing\pl def;fl
quiistox˼ quih ˻ cmaa quiih˼ quih chaa xah com,    ...
sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl    now sbj.nmlz:be.fl def;fl sbj.nmlz:eq crd def;hz
The ancestors and the people of today, ...bb (6 [SHH]RMB

 Jesús xah quij, ˻ xiica ziix quih cöiyacoaatim˼ xah coi

Jesus crd def;cm    thing\pl thing def;fl 3.io:3.poss:obj.nmlz:cause_know:impf crd def;pl
cötiih, Mateo quih yaaco cap ano toii, ...
3.io:rlt:be.fl Matthew def;fl [3.poss]:house def;vt [3.poss:]in rlt:stand\pl
Jesus and his disciples were in Matthew’s house, ...bb 177 0W 

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FRPELQDWLRQ RI D ORFDWLYH SOXV DUWLFOH VHH i WKH FRRUGLQDWRU LQWHUSRVHV EHWZHHQ WKH ORFDWLYH DQG WKH DUWLFOH
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XQDFFHSWDEOH

 Zaah hipxahcap, hant ifii xah cap, hant z iiqui

sun/day px;crd;vt land 3.poss:[pon:]? crd def;vt land indf;sg 3.poss:toward
hapitooij, ...
1p.sbj:irr.dep:go\pl
Today or tomorrow we will travel somewhere, ...bb 177 -D 

 Cmiique Roberto himxahquij, cmiique Martín xah quij coox oo

(Seri)_person Roberto dt:crd:cm (Seri)_person Martín crd def;cm all del

cöicaahit hac ...

3.io:3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:fish def;loc
Both Roberto and Martin, with respect to fishing ...
§25.1.2 Existential interpretation 655

 ... zixquisiil tixahcom, cmaam ata xah quij iiqui cötiih ma, ...
child md:crd:hz female 3.poss:mother crd def;cm 3.poss:toward 3.io:rlt:be.fl ds
... that child and his mother, ...bb 177 0W 

25.1.2 Existential interpretation

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 ¿Háqui quij me siihit quee ya? ¿Sahmees xah quij,

 where? def;cm 2.pro irr.ind:eat sbj.nmlz:aux qm Citrus_x_sinensis crd def;cm
˻ xonj itaast cmis˼ xah com?
   Proboscidea_altheifolia 3.poss:tooth sbj.nmlz:[tr:]resemble crd def;hz
Which are you going to eat? The orange or the banana?

 ... ixaap° capxa xah, ixaap° czooxöc xah,

3.poss:[pon:]spend_night sbj.nmlz:three crd 3.poss:[pon:]spend_night sbj.nmlz:four crd

taax ...
dem;dt;pl
... for three or four days or so, ...bb (6  RRW KDQW LPD[TXLPB

 ˻ Xiica quih quiistox˼ quih ˻ hantx mocat˼ xah, ˻ xiica quih

   thing\pl def;fl sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl at_base twd:sbj.nmlz:move:pl crd thing\pl def;fl
quiistox˼ quih ˻ cmaa quiih˼ xah com cöpaticpan,
sbj.nmlz:hv:spirit:pl def;fl now sbj.nmlz:be.fl crd def;hz 3.io:irr.dep:work

ipoocötoj, cöimitalhaajö iha.

3.sbj:irr.dep:kill;pl 3.io:sbj.nmlz:neg:buy/sell:pl dcl
Neither the ancestors nor the people of the present generation fish for it, kill it or sell it.bb (6
[SHH]RMB

 ¡Sahmees quih coocj xah capxa xah, camjc!

Citrus_x_sinensis def;fl sbj.nmlz:two crd sbj.nmlz:three crd im:deliver
Bring two or three (viz., a few) oranges!

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 ¡Sahmees quih coocj xah capxa camjc!

Citrus_x_sinensis def;fl sbj.nmlz:two crd sbj.nmlz:three im:deliver
Bring two or three (no more and no less) oranges!

 Hasaamilc czooxöc xah cooitom xah ˻ isnaap cazoj˼ quih

sbj.nmlz:pass:roll_up\? sbj.nmlz:four crd sbj.nmlz:five crd   3.poss:breast sbj.nmlz:alone def;fl

tpazyax, ...
rlt:pass:cut;impf
When four, five, or six bundles (exactly) of limberbush have been cut, ...

 ... hant tazo xah hant coocj itaao ma, ...

land/year one crd land/year sbj.nmlz:two 3.sbj:rlt:pass ds
... he traveled for one or two years, ...bb $SRVWDGRUB HGLWHG

7KLV LV DQRWKHU H[DPSOH WKDW FRPELQHV WKH XVH RI xah DQG DOVR WKH iiqui SOXV YHUE FRQVWUXFWLRQ VHH DERYH
656 Chapter 25: Coordinators and subordinators

 Ziix quih hasaii hapáh quih, tiix

thing def;fl sbj.nmlz:pass:remove_with_pole sbj.nmlz:pass:do/say/put.fl def;fl dem;dt;sg
hacaaiz xah, hehe quih cacösxaj quih áno
abs:fishing_spear crd plant/stick def;fl sbj.nmlz:tall/long def;fl [3.poss:]in/from

cötpaii ma, ...

3.io:rlt:pass:make ds
What is called “hasaii” is what one takes out with a fishing spear or a long pole, ...bb (6
VDWRMBKDVDLLWDMB

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LV WKH VXEMHFW RI WKH VLQJXODU YHUE √yaai ,Q  WKH FRQMRLQHG QRPLQDOV DUH WKH GLUHFW REMHFW RI WKH YHUE

 Xavier xah, Pedro xah, zo Hezitmisoj syaai caha.

Xavier crd Pedro crd indf;sg Hermosillo irr.ind:travel_to sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
Either Xavier or Pedro will travel to Hermosillo.

 Zixcám xah, ziix ipxasi xah, zo nsiihit poho.

fish crd thing 3.poss:flesh crd indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:eat doubt
Maybe you will eat fish, or maybe you will eat meat.

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FODXVH FRQVWUXFWLRQ VHH ᯳JXUH  DV LQ  DERYH 6HH ᯳JXUH 

 Icaaitom quih imiipe quih ˻ iti miiha˼ cmaam

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:speak def;fl sbj.nmlz:neg:good def;fl    3.poss:on twd:3.poss:pon:move female

xah, ctam xah, quij coczaxö zo haquix piih ta x, ...

crd male crd def;cm 3.io:sbj.nmlz:[tr:]discuss indf;sg somewhere irr.dep:be;fl ds ut
If there is someone who curses his mother or father, ...bb 177 0N 

)LJXUH bb&RRUGLQDWHG 13 PRGL᯳HU LQ H[DPSOH 

DP

S D

DP Coordinated NP

NP NP NP

N NP Coord NP Coord

N N

iti miiha cmaam xah ctam xah quij

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LQGLFDWHV DQ DGGLWLRQ WKDW ZRXOG EH XQJUDPPDWLFDO

&RPSDUH FRRUGLQDWLRQ RXWVLGH RI WKH SRVVHVVRU SKUDVH
§25.2 Clausal coordinator xo 657

 [ Tosni xah honc (*xah) ] ina quih ano

Pelecanus_occidentalis crd Larus_spp.    crd 3.poss:fur/feather def;fl [3.poss:]in

cötahníp ma x, ...
3.io:rlt:pass:hit ds ut
A pelican or gull feather was put into it, ...bb (6 KD[¸OLQDDLOFBE

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 Hant tintica cömihaait hac, ˻ tom cooxp˼ zo

land md:aw 3.io:2.poss:pon:pass def;loc    money sbj.nmlz:white indf;sg
mapomoonec, hooro zo mapomoonec, ˻ tom
2p.sbj:irr.dep:neg:carry_items\pl gold indf;sg 2p.sbj:irr.dep:neg:carry_items\pl money

cheel˼ zo mascmoonec aha.

sbj.nmlz:red indf;sg 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:carry;pl aux:dcl
When you (pl.) travel, don’t carry any silver or gold or copper.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ When you (pl.) travel, you should not take silver, you should not take gold, you should not
take copper.bb 177 0W 

 Miist zo toc cötiij (*ma), haxz° mos zo toc cötiij, yoque.

cat indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit       ds abs:pet also indf;sg there 3.io:rlt:sit rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
There once was a cat and a dog.
0RUH OLWHUDOO\ There was a cat, there was a dog, it is said.

25.2 Clausal coordinator xo

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FRXOG EH DQ LQGHSHQGHQW VHQWHQFH DQG FRXOG FRQWDLQ PXOWLSOH FODXVHV E\ WKH SULQFLSOHV RXWOLQHG LQ FKDSWHU  6HH
H[DPSOHV 

 Misil xo maziim.
rlmi:small but rlmi:pleasant
It is small but it is pretty.bb &<+,

 Cmaacoj iha xo hoox oo misil.

old_man dcl but intns del rlmi:small
He was an adult man but he was very small.bb HGLWHG YHUVLRQ RI 0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[SB

 ..., eenim ih ititaamt, yoque xo tascax, yoque.

metal foc 3.sbj:rlt:hv:sandals rlyo:unsp.sbj:say but rlt:tear;pl rlyo:unsp.sbj:say
..., he wore metal sandals, it is said, but they ripped, it is said.bb $SRVWDGRUB

L Tosni ina xah, honc ina xah quih ano

Pelecanus_occidentalis 3.poss:fur/feather crd Larus_spp 3.poss:fur/feather crd def;fl [3.poss:]in
cötahníp ma x, ...
3.io:rlt:pass:hit ds ut
A pelican feather or a gull feather was put into it, ...
658 Chapter 25: Coordinators and subordinators

 Xapoo quih imiitoj xo xapoo quih iti

Zalophus_californicus def;fl 3.sbj:rlmi:eat\pl but Zalophus_californicus def;fl 3.poss:on
coom com mos iteemet ma, tójocam, hast ihmaa
sbj.nmlz:lie def;hz also 3.sbj:rlt:cause_depleted:pl ds rlt:flee\pl stone/mountain other

himcap iiqui mitooij.

dt:vt 3.poss:toward rlmi:go
They were eating sea lions, but they depleted the sea lions that were there, they [the remaining sea lions]
fled and went toward that other mountain.bb 0XHUWHB&¸TXLPD[S B

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Coordinated S

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XO

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 Xo miixaj.
but rlmi:strong
But it’s strong.

25.3 Clausal coordinator x (tx)

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LQ PDQ\ FDVHV WKH xo LV FOHDUO\ SDUW RI WKH VDPH LQWRQDWLRQDO SKUDVH DV ox oo mpacta

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WKDW ZHUH ZULWWHQ ZLWK LQLWLDO xo PXFK OLNH WKH RQH LQ  +H UHPDUNHG WKDW WKLV ZDV SRRU VW\OH IRU 6HUL DQG WKDW LW PLJKW
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§25.4 Subordinators 659

)LJXUH bb$OWHUQDWLYH FRRUGLQDWLRQ ZLWK (t)x

Coordinated S

S S

S Coord S Coord

(t)x (t)x

 ˻ Hai xepe imac quiij˼ xah quih immooit x; haapa xah quih
   wind sea 3.poss:midst sbj.nmlz:sit crd def;fl twd:rlmi:arrive or northwest_wind crd def;fl
immooit x.
twd:rlmi:arrive or
The west wind comes or the northwest wind comes.bb (6 KDQWBTXL[RDDB

 Cmiique caii quij isiihit taa x, imamaai x, imiiznij x.

(Seri)_person mature def;cm 3.sbj:irr.ind:eat rlt:aux or 3.sbj:rlmi:roast or 3.sbj:rlmi:stew or
To eat it, an adult cooks it with a fire on top or stews it.bb (6 VDWRMBKDVDLLWDMB

 Ihpsiitax poho tx, ihpscmatax poho.

1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go doubt or 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:go doubt
Maybe I’ll go or maybe I won’t go.

 ¿Me nsiitax haa ya tx? ¿Juan quih siitax haa ya?

  2.pro 2s.sbj:irr.ind:go aux qm or Juan def;fl irr.ind:go aux qm
Are you going or is Juan going?

 ¿Hipcom haa ya tx? ¿Himcom haa ya?

   px:hz aux qm or    dt:hz aux qm
Is it this one or is it that one?

25.4 Subordinators
:KLOH DGYHUELDO FODXVHV FRPPRQO\ GR QRW KDYH DQ\ RYHUW VXERUGLQDWRU VHH i VRPH FODXVHV RFFXU ZLWK RYHUW
VXERUGLQDWRUV 7KH FODXVHV ZLWK VXERUGLQDWRUV PD\ EH KHDGHG E\ ᯳QLWH YHUEV i RU E\ GHYHUEDO QRXQV
i

25.4.1 Subordination of independent or finite clauses

7KUHH VXERUGLQDWRUV DUH FRPPRQO\ XVHG ZLWK FODXVHV KHDGHG E\ ᯳QLWH YHUEV yax because, since tax QR JRRG
WUDQVODWLRQൻJORVVHG KHUH ZLWK sbrd DQG xox although
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SHQGHQW FODXVHV PD\ KDYH RQH RU PRUH GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKHP WKHVH VXERUGLQDWRUV SRWHQWLDOO\
UHODWH RQH FRPSOH[ VHW RI FODXVHV WR DQRWKHU VHW
$ FODXVH VXERUGLQDWHG E\ yax JHQHUDOO\ JLYHV WKH FLUFXPVWDQFHV WKDW DUH D UHDVRQ IRU WKH VLWXDWLRQ GHVFULEHG
LQ WKH LQGHSHQGHQW FODXVH 6RPH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ 

 Cmiique cmaam quij haptco moos yax, hant z iiqui miin.

(Seri)_person female def;cm already rlmi:sing since land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlmi:go
Because the Seri woman had already sung, she left.
660 Chapter 25: Coordinators and subordinators

 Hipi hyaa° ha yax, ihmexl.

intns mine dcl since 1s.sbj.tr:rlmi:take
Since it was mine, I took it.bb &<+,

 Caay cop catol iha yax, hehe iiqui yahahizj.

horse def;vt sbj.nmlz:afraid/wild dcl since plant/stick 3.poss:toward rlyo:pass:cause_be_tied_up
The horse was tied to the post because it is wild.bb &<+,

 Roberto quih siifp caha yax, comcaac coi hax caaha

Roberto def;fl irr.ind:arrive sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl since (Seri)_person\pl def;pl intns ?
iyoaaj.
3.sbj:rlyo:know:pl
Since Roberto will arrive, the people are getting ready.

7KH VXERUGLQDWH FODXVH LV RFFDVLRQDOO\ SRVWSRVHG WR VHQWHQFH᯳QDO SRVLWLRQ DV LQ 

 Tiix iiquet quih itaho, ˻ iisax cöxooptxö˼,

dem;dt;sg 3.poss:obj.nmlz:pregnant_with def;fl 3.sbj:rlt:see    3.poss:spirit 3.io:em:open_with_holes

cooc imaho ha yax.

almost sbj.nmlz:neg:see dcl since
When she saw her child, she was very happy because it had been a long time since she had seen her/him.bb
&<+,

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H[DPSOHV 

 Hamaticpan tax, tom coi he quiizitoj iha.

1p.sbj:rlmi:work sbrd money def;pl 1.pro sbj.nmlz:[tr:]defeat/earn dcl
We work and earn money.

 Hai quih taaixaj, halx xah xajoeene tax, haaco cop ano
wind def;fl rlt:strong just crd em:raise_dust sbrd abs;house def;vt [3.poss:]in
scoii.
irr.ind:1.sbj.em:be.fl\pl
The wind is strong and is raising lots of dust; let’s stay in the house.

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taax WKDW LV SURQRXQFHG ZLWK D YHU\ ORZ GHJUHH RI VWUHVV WKDW DFFRXQWV IRU WKH ORVV RI YRZHO OHQJWK 7KH [taχ] LQ WKHVH
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L ¡Xcoomoj quij ihsáp. Xomiipla, taax.

bbMusca_spp. def;cm im:shoo em:bad dem;dt;pl
Shoo away the fly! It’s so nasty!

LL Zixquisiil quij hizac iti hcaaix, saalim. Him xomasnaapitim, taax.

child def;cm px:loc 3.poss:on im:put.cm irr.ind:play 1s.do:em:neg:bother:impf dem;dt;pl
Put the child here to play. S/he doesn’t bother me. [Revised punctuation.]bb &<+,

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ZLWK D SURQRXQ taax WKDW PD\ HYHQ EHJLQ WKH QH[W VHQWHQFH WKH UHIHUV JHQHUDOO\ WR WKH VLWXDWLRQ GHVFULEHG LQ WKH SUHFHGLQJ
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§25.4.1 Subordination of independent or finite clauses 661

 Hácalca quih anxö imxanoocaj tax, pac

abs:personal_items def;fl intns 2s.sbj:em:carry_in_arms sbrd indf;pl

ma hsaconxot.
2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:help_carry
You are carrying lots of clothing; I’ll help you carry it.bb &<+,

 &RQHMRB3XPD 
D «Xazoj ilit zo toc cöyiij tax,
  Puma_concolor 3.poss:head indf;sg there 3.io:rlyo:sit sbrd
“There is a puma's head there,bb &RQ3XP

E hapx ihcaaitajc.
outside im:put.cm;pl
toss it out!bb &RQ3XP

 Intisil, haquix immiih tax, ¿áz haxehe chaa ya ntahit?

2s.sbj:rlt:small somewhere 2s.sbj:rlmi:be.fl sbrd what? intns sbj.nmlz:eq qm 2s.sbj:rlt:eat
When you were a child, what did you eat?

7KH VXERUGLQDWRU xox although JHQHUDOO\ IROORZV FODXVHV WKDW DUH LQ WKH GHSHQGHQW UHDOLV PRRG UDWKHU WKDQ
LQGHSHQGHQW YHUE IRUPV XQOLNH WKH RWKHU VXERUGLQDWRUV DQG FRRUGLQDWRUV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV FKDSWHU 7KH FODXVH
WKDW LV VXERUGLQDWHG ZLWK xox H[SUHVVHV FLUFXPVWDQFHV IRU XQH[SHFWHG UHVXOWV WKDW DUH H[SUHVVHG LQ WKH PDLQ FODXVH
6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Anxö toohit xox, miteejöc.

intns rlt:unsp.sbj:eat although rlmi:thin
Although s/he eats a lot, s/he is thin.

 Tisil xox, yiipe.

rlt:little although rlyo:good
Although it was small, it was good.

 Quiho cop itcmeque xox, hipi caaitom íi quih haa

sbj.nmlz:tr:see def;vt 3.sbj:rlt:neg:give_gift although intns sbj.nmlz:speak first def;fl there

ntita x, tiix oo yaa° ha.

aw:rlt:move ut dem;dt;sg del his/hers dcl
Although the finder doesn’t give it to him/her, the first to speak (claiming it)—it is his/hers.

 Intiim xox, iquiim miimzo quih ma tcmácatx iho.

2s.sbj:rlt:sleep although inf.intr:sleep 2.poss:[pon:]want def;fl 2s.do:rlt:neg:release dcl
Although you had/have already slept, you were/are still sleepy.

 Hatasjoj xox, hatcmasjoj, hacx miih.

1p.sbj:rlt:paddle\pl although 1p.sbj:rlt:neg:paddle\pl apart rlmi:be.fl
Sometimes we paddled; sometimes we didn’t paddle.

([DPSOH  LOOXVWUDWHV WKH OHVV FRPPRQ VLWXDWLRQ LQ ZKLFK WKLV VXERUGLQDWRU IROORZV D FODXVH KHDGHG E\ D
GHYHUEDO QRXQ

 Ox cöiiha hizac xox,

thus 3.io:3.poss:pon:beLUUHJ px.loc although
Aunque así ws hoy día,
Although that's the way it is nowadays,bb 0RV+XP

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662 Chapter 25: Coordinators and subordinators

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25.4.2 Subordinate clauses with deverbal nouns

7KH VXERUGLQDWRUV isax DQG piquix RFFXU SULPDULO\ ZLWK FODXVHV KHDGHG E\ GHYHUEDO QRXQV

25.4.2.1. Concessive isax. $ FRQFHVVLYH FODXVH LV SUHVHQWHG ZLWK isax WKH FODXVH W\SLFDOO\ KDV D UHDOLV SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH
RULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ DV KHDG HYHQ ZKHQ WKH DFWLRQ LV XQUHDOL]HG 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Itápolquim isax, ¡camjc!

3.poss:[pon:]broken cncsv   im:deliver
Although it may be broken, bring it!bb &<+,

 Poosj quih xepe an hant inscmácatx aha, inyaahit isax.

cord def;fl sea [3.poss:]in land 2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:leave aux:dcl 2.poss:pon:fish cncsv
You shouldn’t leave the line in the sea, even if you are fishing.

 Mihacaacat isax, insiisi aha.

2.poss:pon:find_salty/bitter cncsv 2s.sbj:irr.ind:drink aux:dcl
Although you may find it salty, you should drink it.

 Miica mpoomzo x, immisa miixaj quih

twd:inf.intr:move 2s.sbj:irr.dep:want ut twd:2s.sbj:irr.ind:move rlmi:strong def;fl

ihinej isax, cmiique zo ma sconsacj aha.

3.poss:pon:empty cncsv (Seri)_person indf;sg 2s.do:irr.ind:neg:carry_on_hip aux:dcl
You can come if you want, but even if you get tired, no one is going to carry you.

,Q VRPH VHQWHQFHV VXFK DV  WKH PHDQLQJ LV OHVV VWURQJO\ FRQFHVVLYH DQG VHHPV WR EH PRUH VLPSO\ WHPSRUDO

 Xepe ano nyaalim isax, mazcz ano

sea [3.poss:]in 2.poss:pon:play cncsv 2.poss:younger_brother.me [3.poss:]in
nscontiis aha.
2s.sbj:irr.ind:neg:push_under_water aux:dcl
When you play in the sea, don’t push your little brother under the water.

Isax DOVR WDNHV LUUHDOLV FRPSOHPHQWV ZLWK D YHUE LQ WKH GHSHQGHQW LUUHDOLV IROORZHG E\ h RU ih DERXW ZKLFK OLWWOH
LV NQRZQ VHH  7KLV FRQVWUXFWLRQ LV IDU OHVV FRPPRQ DQG UHSRUWHGO\ FRQQRWHV PXFK PRUH HPRWLRQ
WKDQ WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ XVLQJ GHYHUEDO QRXQV

 Impomoos ih isax, ...

2s.sbj:irr.dep:neg:sing ? cncsv
Even if you don’t sing, ...

 Juan quih canoaa z ipooxi h isax, he hpscmaahit aha.

Juan def;fl boat indf;sg 3.sbj:irr.dep:finish ? cncsv 1.pro 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:fish aux:dcl
Even if Juan makes a boat, I WILL NOT go fishing.

7KH H[DPSOHV LQ  DUH FRQVLGHUHG QHDU SDUDSKUDVHV DOWKRXJK DV MXVW SRLQWHG RXW WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK
WKH ᯳QLWH YHUE LQ D LV PXFK PRUH HPRWLYHൺLQ WKLV FDVH IRU H[DPSOH LW ZRXOG LPSO\ WKDW LW LV D TXHVWLRQ RI
OLIH RU GHDWK DQG WKDW WKH SHUVRQ ZLOO JR GHVSLWH WKH UDLQ IRU WKDW UHDVRQ F LV XQXVXDO LQ WKDW LW KDV DQ LUUHDOLV
GHYHUEDO QRXQ

7KH\ DUH FODVVL᯳HG DV ංDX[ඃ DX[LOLDU\ RU ංY DX[ඃ LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ 6HH RWKHU ZRUGV RI WKLV FDWHJRU\ LQ FKDSWHU
 7KH H[DFW FODVVL᯳FDWLRQ LV GHEDWDEOH
§25.4.2.2 Hypothetical or contrafactual piquix 663

 D Poopca h isax, cói hpsiitax oo aha.

irr.dep:rain ? cncsv still 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go del aux:dcl
Although it may be raining, I will go.

E Iipca isax, cói hpsiitax oo aha.

3.poss:[pon:]rain cncsv still 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go dl aux:dcl
Although it may be raining, I will go.

F Isiipca isax, cói hpsiitax oo aha.

3.poss:irr.ind:rain cncsv still 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go del aux:dcl
Although it may be raining, I will go.

25.4.2.2. Hypothetical or contrafactual piquix. 7KH ZRUG piquix VXERUGLQDWHV D FODXVH WKDW LV KLJKO\ K\SRWKHWL
FDO DQG XVXDOO\ EXW QRW QHFHVVDULO\ FRQWUDIDFWXDO 7KDW FODXVH LV W\SLFDOO\ KHDGHG E\ D UHDOLV SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXH
RULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ i DV LQ 

 [ Siimet zo hiyaa ] piquix, ma hsiye aha.

bread indf;sg 1.poss:[pon:]own hypoth 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:give_food aux:dcl
If I had any bread, I would give you some.bb &<+,

 [ Icaticpan zo hiz cöiihca ] ihpsaticpan aha.

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:work indf;sg px 3.io:3.poss:[pon:]be_located 1s.sbj:irr.ind:work aux:dcl
If there were work, I would work.

 [ Hiiho ] piquix, ˻ eenim caacoj˼ cop cohsmiiit aha.

1.poss:[pon:]see hypoth    metal/knife sbj.nmlz:big def;vt 3.io:1s.sbj.tr:irr.ind:ask aux:dcl
If I were to see him/her, I would ask him/her for the machete.bb $/,0B

 [ Pedro quih iifp ] piquix, sahmees coi anxö isiimjc

Pedro def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]arrive hypoth Citrus_x_sinensis def;pl intns 3.sbj:irr.ind:deliver

aha.
aux:dcl
If Pedro comes, he will bring lots of oranges. [but we don’t know he is coming]

 [ Pedro quih iifp ] piquix, sahmees coi anxö isiimjc

Pedro def;fl 3.poss:[pon:]arrive hypoth Citrus_x_sinensis def;pl intns 3.sbj:irr.ind:deliver

aha xo yomafp.
aux:dcl but rlyo:neg:arrive
If Pedro had come, he would have brought many oranges, but he didn’t come.bb DGDSWHG IURP &<+,

+RZHYHU WKH FODXVH ZLWK WKH VXERUGLQDWRU piquix PD\ DOVR EH KHDGHG E\ D VXEMHFWRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO QRXQ i
LI WKH WLPH LV PRUH UHPRWH DV LQ 

 [ He siimet zo cyaa ] piquix, ...

1.pro bread indf;sg sbj.nmlz:[tr:]own hypoth
If I had had any bread, ...

 [ Icaticpan zo hiz cöcaahca ] piquix, ihpsaticpan aha.

3.poss:[pon:]unsp.sbj:work indf;sg 3.io:sbj.nmlz:be_located hypoth 1s.sbj:irr.ind:work aux:dcl
If there had been work, I would have worked.
 26
Interjections

0RVW RI WKH ZRUGV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV FKDSWHU DUH WUHDWHG DV LQWHUMHFWLRQV VLQFH WKH\ GR QRW FRPELQH SKUDVDOO\ ZLWK
RWKHU ZRUGV RU SKUDVHV LQ WKHLU QRUPDO XVDJH ,Q ii D IHZ H[SUHVVLRQV DUH GLVFXVVHG WKDW DUH ZRUGV
RU SKUDVHV XVHG LQ H[FODPDWLRQV ZLWK PHDQLQJV WKDW DUH TXLWH GL᯲HUHQW IURP WKHLU OH[LFDO FRQWHQW i SUHVHQWV
WKH QXPEHU ZRUGV WKDW DUH XVHG LQ FRXQWLQJ EXW QRW RWKHUZLVH DQG i SUHVHQWV VRPH OH[LFDO ZRUGV WKDW DUH
XVHG DV LQWHUMHFWLRQV LQ VSHFLDO FLUFXPVWDQFHV ,Q i WKH XVH RI WKH UKHWRULFDO HQFOLWLF a ZLWK QRXQV WR H[SUHVV
VDUFDVP LV GLVFXVVHG

26.1 Interjections to express awareness of mis-speaking

7KH DGYHUE haxehe VHH i LV XVHG WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH VSHDNHU LV DZDUH RI WKH IDFW WKDW WKH SUHFHGLQJ ZRUG
RU SKUDVH ZDV D PLVWDNH HYHQ ZLWKRXW PDNLQJ WKH FRUUHFWLRQ DV LQ 

 Juan — haxehe — hant z iiqui miin.

Juan intns land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlmi:go
Juan —I mean, someone else— went away.bb &<+,

,I WKH VSHDNHU NQRZV WKDW WKH HUURU KDV EHHQ PDGH WKH PLVWDNH FDQ EH UHSHDWHG ZLWK WKH UKHWRULFDO HQFOLWLF a VHH
i DIWHU LW EHIRUH WKH FRUUHFWHG VHQWHQFH LV JLYHQ DV LQ 

 Juan a. Pedro cah hant z iiqui miin.

Juan rhet Pedro def;fl:foc land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlmi:go
Not Juan. PEDRO went away.

$QRWKHU ZD\ WR LQGLFDWH RQHൿV HUURU ZLWKRXW DQ LQWHUMHFWLRQ LV E\ XVLQJ WKH ZRUG xoocyo em-unsp.sbj-say\pl
they (unspecified) said ZLWK D VSHFLDO ULVLQJ LQWRQDWLRQ DV LQ  7KLV LV HVSHFLDOO\ XQXVXDO EHFDXVH QRQ
LQWHUURJDWLYH ZRUGV OLNH xoocyo GR QRW RFFXU ZLWK LQWHUURJDWLYH LQWRQDWLRQ LQ VWDQGDUG FODXVHV

 ¿Juan, xoocyo? Pedro cah hant z iiqui miin.

  Juan em:unsp.sbj:say\pl Pedro def;fl:foc land indf;sg 3.poss:toward rlmi:go
Did one say Juan? (I was wrong.) PEDRO went away.

26.2 Interjections to gain attention

$ IHZ LQWHUMHFWLRQV DUH XVHG SULPDULO\ WR JDLQ VRPHRQHൿV DWWHQWLRQ 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 Aih, ¡hoocta!
hey!   im:look_at
Hey, look!bb &<+,

 ¡Aih!
  hey!
Watch out!bb &<+,

 Ctam, ¡aih!
male   hey!
Hey, man!bb &<+,

 ¡Haah, haah, haah!

Watch out! Watch out!

664
§26.3 Interjections to induce action 665

 ¡Ha, ha, ha, ha, haah!

Watch out! Watch out!

 Yoo, ¡moha! ¡Scaalx!

hey!   twd:im:move   irr.ind:1.sbj.em.intr:go\pl
Hey, come here! Let’s go!bb &<+,

26.3 Interjections to induce action

6RPH LQWHUMHFWLRQV DUH SULPDULO\ XVHG WR LQGLFDWH WKH GHVLUH RI WKH VSHDNHU WKDW DQRWKHU SHUVRQ RU DQLPDO PRYH
RU GR VRPHWKLQJ 0HQ PD\ XVH WKH LQWHUMHFWLRQ hoca ZKHQ UHDG\ WR GR D MRLQW H᯲RUW LQ VRPH DFWLYLW\ VXFK DV
PRYLQJ D ERDW DV LQ 

 ¡Hoca!
All together now! [men]bb &<+,

7KH PRVW FRPPRQO\ XVHG LQWHUMHFWLRQ RI WKLV JURXS LV WKH RQH XVHG IRU LQGLFDWLQJ WR D VPDOO DQLPDO WKDW LW
VKRXOG JR DZD\ IURP WKH VSHDNHU RU IURP VRPH REYLRXV UHIHUHQW VXFK DV D SODWH RI IRRG EHFDXVH WKH VSHDNHU
GRHV QRW ZDQW LW WR EH SUHVHQW 6HH H[DPSOH 

 ¡Hizt! ¡Hizt!
Scram! Scram!bb 2YHUKHDUG RIWHQ

7KH LQWHUMHFWLRQ leque XVHG WR FDOO D GRJ DV LQ  XWLOL]HV WKH YRLFHG ODWHUDO DSSUR[LPDQW ZKLFK LV TXLWH
UDUHO\ XVHG LQ WKH ODQJXDJH ,W KDV EHHQ VXJJHVWHG WKDW WKLV LQWHUMHFWLRQ LV GHULYHG IURP WKH ZRUG quisil sbj.nmlz:
small small ZLWK WKH UHSODFHPHQW RI WKH YRLFHOHVV ODWHUDO IULFDWLYH ZLWK WKH YRLFHG ODWHUDO DSSUR[LPDQW LQ D ZD\
UHPLQLVFHQW RI VSHHFK XVHG E\ DGXOWV WRZDUG VPDOO FKLOGUHQ 7KH YRZHO LV DOVR D ELW PRUH FHQWUDOL]HG WKDQ LQ
FRPPRQ ZRUGV

 Leque, leque, leque, leque.

Come here, doggie!bb 2YHUKHDUG RIWHQ

7KH LQWHUMHFWLRQ XVHG WR HQFRXUDJH D GRJ WR FKDVH VRPH RWKHU EHLQJ DOVR XVHV WKH UDUH YRLFHG ODWHUDO DSSUR[L
PDQW 6HH H[DPSOH 

 ¡Hoozila! ¡Hoozila!
Sic ’em.bb &<+,

7KH LQWHUMHFWLRQ XVHG IRU FDOOLQJ D FDW LV RQRPDWRSRHWLF DQG LV DOVR WKH URRW RI WKH FRPPRQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU cat
ziix canaao thing sbj.nmlz:meow 6HH H[DPSOH 

 Naao, naao.
Come here, kitty!bb 2YHUKHDUG RIWHQ

26.4 Interjections to express feelings

$ IHZ LQWHUMHFWLRQV SULPDULO\ LQGLFDWH HPRWLRQV RU IHHOLQJV RI WKH VSHDNHU LQFOXGLQJ PLOG VXUSULVH RU DGPLUDWLRQ
DV LQ  VXGGHQ VXUSULVH DW VRPHWKLQJ XQH[SHFWHG DV LQ  KDSSLQHVV DV LQ  ULGLFXOH DV LQ
 DQG JULHI DV LQ  6RPH RI WKHP DUH OLPLWHG WR WKH VSHHFK RI RQH VH[ RU WKH RWKHU

 Ziix cmiipla zo toc cöyiih.

thing sbj.nmlz:bad indf;sg there 3.io:rlyo:be.fl
Hey, there’s something bad there!bb 9LJQHWWHV %XUJRV 5RPHUR

7KH ZRUG yoo PD\ EH D ORDQZRUG EXW WKLV LV QRW HQWLUHO\ FOHDU
666 Chapter 26: Interjections

 Haaah, ¡taziim ih!

oh!   rlt:pleasing foc
Oh, how cute! [women’s speech]bb &<+,

 Haaah yoo, ¡haptco xoozcam!

oh! hey! already   em:arrive\pl
Oh, they arrived! [women’s speech]bb &<+,

 ¡Hocáh!
Whoops! (indicating one’s inadvertent action or an unexpected accidental action of an object) [Used by
men.]bb &<+,

 Hina hina hina, ¡cooc hant ihpxahjiit!

whoops whoops whoops   almost land 1s.sbj.intr:em:fall
Whoops, I almost fell! [Used by women.]bb &<+,

 ¡Hii na, hii na, hii na

(compassion or happiness) [women’s speech]bb 2᯲HUHG

 Ta ca ta ca ta ca.
Ha ha ha! (indication of derision, by women, regarding some out-of-the-ordinary action)bb 2YHUKHDUG

 ¡Hii na paa!
(Indication of grief with respect to a tragedy.) [Used by women.]bb &<+,

7KH IROORZLQJ FRPELQDWLRQV RI ZRUGV WKDW LQGLFDWH DPD]HPHQW FRQWDLQ VRPH LGHQWL᯳DEOH SDUWV tamoz rlt:think
s/he thinks xah atten DQG SHUKDSV IRUPV RI WKH YHUE be EXW WKH SKUDVHV DUH YLUWXDOO\ IUR]HQ saa ha tamoz
ah saa xah ha tamoz ah DQG saa xah ha ta )XUWKHUPRUH WKH\ UHTXLUH D SKUDVH ZLWK D GHQRPLQDO YHUE RI WKH
SURSRVLWLRQRULHQWHG W\SH VHH i DV KHDG WR IROORZ WKHP 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 ˻ Saa ha tamoz ah˼ — ihaacoj áa xah hac.

   (wow!) 3.poss:pon:big true atten def;loc
Wow! How big it is!bb &<+,

 ˻ Saa xah ha tamoz ah˼ — xaa iifp áa xah hac.

   (wow!) soon 3.poss:[pon:]arrive true atten def;loc
Wow! How quickly s/he arrived!

 ˻ Saa xah ha tamoz ah˼ — anxö miihit áa xah hac.

   (wow!) intns 2.poss:[pon:]eat true atten def;loc
My, you eat a lot!

26.5 Interjections to express agreement or disagreement

7ZR LQWHUMHFWLRQV LQGLFDWH DQ D᯵UPDWLYH DQVZHU WR D TXHVWLRQ DV VKRZQ LQ  7KH ZRUG asa VHHPV D
ELW PRUH LQIRUPDO DQG W\SLFDOO\ PRUH HQWKXVLDVWLF WKDQ WKH ZRUG yohaa %HFDXVH RI WKH LQWRQDWLRQ WKDW RQH KHDUV
ZLWK WKHVH ERWK RI WKHVH ZRUGV VHHP WR EH PRVW DSSURSULDWHO\ YLHZHG DV VWDQGDORQH VHQWHQFHV DQG QRW DV SDUW
RI RWKHU VHQWHQFHV

 Yohaa. Yoofp.
yes rlyo:arrive
Yes, s/he arrived.

%RWK PD\ HW\PRORJLFDOO\ EH SDUW RI SDUDGLJPV RI YHUEV PHDQLQJ be 7KH VDPH LV WUXH RI WKH RWKHU LQWHUMHFWLRQV LQ WKLV
VHFWLRQ 7KH ZRUG yohaa ZDV UHFRUGHG E\ %DUWOHWW LQ  VHH LWHP  LQ 0DUOHWW E ,Q WKH IDOO RI  , ZDV WROG
E\ D PDQ LQ KLV PLGൿV WKDW SHRSOH KLV DJH DQG \RXQJHU DW OHDVW GR QRW XVH WKH ZRUG yohaa EXW UDWKHU RQO\ asa
§26.6 Interjection to express wishes 667

 Asa. Yoofp.
sure! rlyo:arrive
Yes, s/he arrived.

 Asa. Ihpsiitax xo.

sure! 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:go em
Sure. Of course, I’ll go.

2QH LQWHUMHFWLRQ LQGLFDWHV D QHJDWLYH DQVZHU WR D TXHVWLRQ saat ~ saate /LNH WKH D᯵UPDWLYH ZRUGV LW VHHPV
WR EH D FRPSOHWH VHQWHQFH 6HH H[DPSOHV 

 Saate. Icaatax ihxomamzo.

no inf.intr:go 1s.sbj.tr:em:neg:want
No, I don’t want to go.bb &<+,

 Saat. Pedro quih smatax caha.

no Pedro def;fl irr.ind:neg:go sbj.nmlz.aux:dcl
No, Pedro will not go.bb &<+,

7KH ZRUG cotas LQGLFDWHV RQHൿV LJQRUDQFH RI D FRUUHFW DQVZHU DV VKRZQ LQ  ,W LV QRW XWWHUHG ZLWK
LQWHUURJDWLYH LQWRQDWLRQ

 Cotas.
a. Who knows?
b. 2U I don’t know.

7KH ᯳QDO LWHPV LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ DUH D ELW PRUH XQXVXDO LQ WKHLU SURQXQFLDWLRQ DQG PXFK OLNH WKH QRQOH[LFDO
H[SUHVVLRQV RI DJUHHPHQW DQG GLVDJUHHPHQW LQ (QJOLVK DUH XQXVXDO SKRQHWLFDOO\ 7KH ᯳UVW WZR LQ  DQG 
KDYH VOLJKWO\ QDVDOL]HG YRZHOV 7KH VSHOOLQJ RI WKHVH ZRUGV LQ WKH SUDFWLFDO RUWKRJUDSK\ LV XQFHUWDLQ VLQFH WKH
SURQXQFLDWLRQ LV XQXVXDO

 Iinhah.
[ˈĩĩʔaʔ]
(Expression of confirmation.)

 Jiii.
[ˈxĩĩĩ]
(Expression that one is following the conversation; it does not necessarily indicate agreement.)

7KH LQWHUMHFWLRQ haanh VKRZQ LQ  LV XVHG E\ FKLOGUHQ WR LQGLFDWH WKHLU XQZLOOLQJQHVV WR GR VRPHWKLQJ
7KH V\OODEOH HQGV ZLWK D FRPSOLFDWHG JHVWXUH WKDW LQFOXGHV JORWWDO FORVXUH DV ZHOO DV D YHODU QDVDO

 Haanh!
[ʔaaʔŋ]
= I don’t want to do it. [children’s speech]

26.6 Interjection to express wishes

7KH LQWHUMHFWLRQ faa W\SLFDOO\ UHSHDWHG LV FRPPRQO\ XVHG ZKHQ DGGUHVVLQJ WKH QHZ PRRQ DQG PDNLQJ D ZLVK


7KH t LQ WKLV ZRUG GRHV QRW OHQJWKHQ VHH i ZKLFK LV SX]]OLQJ 7KH YDULDQW saat ZDV QRW UHFRUGHG LQ WKH 
GLFWLRQDU\ 7KH QHJDWLYH LQWHUMHFWLRQ HOLFLWHG E\ %DUWOHWW LQ  ZDV hohom VHH LWHP  LQ 0DUOHWW E 7KDW ZRUG
ZDV LQGHSHQGHQWO\ YHUL᯳HG EXW OLVWHG DV DUFKDLF LQ WKH  GLFWLRQDU\

7KLV PD\ EH VRPHKRZ UHODWHG WR WKH LUUHJXODU YHUE coha 3.io:sbj.nmlz:beLUUHJ  be with, happen

,W ZDV DOVR VDLG LQ XQLVRQ WR WKH VKDPDQ cacaaso
668 Chapter 26: Interjections

26.7 Interjections to indicate pain

$ IHZ LQWHUMHFWLRQV DUH XVHG WR LQGLFDWH SDLQ WKH RQH LQ  E\ ZRPHQ DQG WKH RQH LQ  E\ PHQ DV ZHOO

 ¡Haa ni ni ni!
Ouch! [used by women]

 ¡Hax ax áx!
Ouch! [used by men and women]

7KH LQWHUMHFWLRQ haa ni ni LV DOVR XVHG ZKHQ VRPHWKLQJ LV JRLQJ WR DFFLGHQWDOO\ IDOO IURP RQHൿV KDQGV

26.8 Numbers for counting

7KH QXPEHU H[SUHVVLRQV LQ WKH FHQWHU FROXPQ RI WDEOH  ZHUH XVHG ZKHQ FRXQWLQJ 7KH\ DOO DUH VWUHVVHG
RQ WKH ᯳UVW V\OODEOH DQG WKXV FDQ EH SURQRXQFHG ZLWK D FDGHQFH WKDW LV DSSURSULDWH IRU FRXQWLQJ LWHPV 7KHVH
ZRUGV KDYH VRPH UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH PRGHUQ ZRUGV XVHG IRU WKHVH QXPEHUV DV VKRZQ 7RGD\ WKH\ DUH FRQVLGHUHG
REVROHWH DOWKRXJK ROGHU SHRSOH UHPHPEHU WKHP 7KH\ FRXOG EH XVHG IRU FRXQWLQJ ODUJHU TXDQWLWLHV E\ SUHVHQWLQJ
PXOWLSOHV LQ HDFK JURXS 7KHUHIRUH LI SDLUV ZHUH FRXQWHG RQH FRXOG DUULYH DW WZHQW\ DQG LI WULSOHV ZHUH FRXQWHG
RQH FRXOG DUULYH DW WKLUW\

7DEOH bb&RXQWLQJ ZRUGV FRPSDUHG ZLWK PRGHUQ SUHGLFDWHV

,QWHUMHFWLRQ 0RGHUQ SUHGLFDWH

one toojom √azoj DQG DGMHFWLYH tazo
two cajcom √oocj
three pxaahom √apxa
four zoxcom √zooxöc
five xöaitom ~ xöaaitom √ooitom
six napzoj isnaap √azoj
seven cajcöi tomcoj √iih
eight pxajcöi √zooxolcam
nine csooxhanl csooi √hanl
ten xohnal ~ xóhanl √hanl

26.9 Some other expressions used as interjections

6RPH ZRUGV DQG SKUDVHV DUH XVHG LQ ZD\V WKDW PLJKW EH YLHZHG DV LQWHUMHFWLRQOLNH VLQFH WKH OH[LFDO PHDQLQJ RI
WKH ZRUG LV VXEVLGLDU\ WR WKH H᯲HFW WKDW WKH ZRUG KDV ([DPSOHV LQFOXGH WKH QRQQHJDWLYH LPSHUDWLYH IRUPV RI
√oocta look at VLQJXODU hoocta im:look_at SOXUDO hooctam im:look_at:pl 7KHVH DUH XVHG LQ GLVFRXUVH DV D ZD\
RI GUDZLQJ DWWHQWLRQ WR DQ LPSRUWDQW SRLQW ([DPSOHV LQ WKH WUDQVODWLRQ RI WKH 1HZ 7HVWDPHQW DUH QXPHURXV DQG
WKH\ DUH DOVR KHDUG LQ PDQ\ RWKHU FRQWH[WV
,W LV RIWHQ UHPDUNHG WKDW ZRPHQ KDYH FRORUIXO VSHHFK ZKHQ LW FRPHV WR WKH H[SUHVVLRQV WKDW WKH\ XVH DV LQWHU
MHFWLRQV LQ DGGLWLRQ WR WKRVH LQ WKH SUHFHGLQJ VHFWLRQV RI WKLV FKDSWHU
:RPHQ PD\ UHSHDW WKH H[SUHVVLRQ hiiquet aapa 1.poss:[obj.nmlz:]pregnant_with strong my strong (?) child LQ
UHVSRQVH WR QHZV RI D PRUWDO WUDJHG\ 6HH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH PHDQLQJV RI aapa LQ i

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§26.10 Rhetorical a and the infix -a- (à) 669

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26.10 Rhetorical a and the infix -a- (à)

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 D ¡Pedro a!
  Pedro rhet
Pedro, ha!

E ¡Marta a!
  Marta rhet
Marta, ha!

F ¡Haxz° a!
  dog rhet
Dog, ha!

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 ¡¡Pedàro a!!
   Pedro<mod> rhet
Pedro! (I doubt it!)

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 0RQRV\OODELF ZRUGV
D &9& ¡¡Nop a!! bobcat
E &99 ¡¡Hee a!! antelope jackrabbit
F &99& ¡¡Zaap a!! roadrunner
G &&9& ¡¡Ctam a!! man

 'LV\OODELF ZRUGV
D &9&9 ¡¡Cosi a!! thorn
E &9&9& ¡¡Hapaj a!! octopus
F &99&9 ¡¡Haaho a!! road
G &99&9& ¡¡Seenel a!! butterfly
670 Chapter 26: Interjections

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 D caziim ¡¡Caziim a!! pretty sbj.nmlz:pleasant)

E quisil ¡¡Quisil a!! small sbj.nmlz:small)
F cmasol ¡¡Cmasol a!! yellow sbj.nmlz:yellow)

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 D hast ¡¡Hasàt a!! stone

E zamt ¡¡Zamàt a!! swimming crab
F coftj ¡¡Cofàtj a!! western coral snake
G hapxöl ¡¡Hapàxöl a!! corn
H ptcamn ¡¡Ptcamàn a!! lobster
I Tahejöc ¡¡Tahejöàc a!! Tiburon Island
J cmasl ¡¡Cmasàl a!! yellow (pl.) sbj.nmlz:yellow\pl)
K tosni ¡¡Tosàni a!! pelican

 D zoozj ¡¡Zoozàj a!! burlap bag

E yaanj ¡¡Yaanàj a!! its poisonous sap
F xooml ¡¡Xoomàl a!! crucifixion thorn
G saacj ¡¡Saacàj a!! large horse mussel
H haajöc ¡¡Haajöàc a!! moray
I haaxt ¡¡Haaxàt a!! walking stick
J coocj ¡¡Coocàj a!! two sbj.nmlz:two)
K cooxp ¡¡Cooxàp a!! white sbj.nmlz:white)
L moosni ¡¡Moosàni a!! sea turtle

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 D cpaaisx ¡¡Cpaaisx a!! sbj.nmlz:clean (intr.)

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F cooisnan ¡¡Coiisnan a!! sbj.nmlz:slouch
G cmooilc ¡¡Cmooilc a!! sbj.nmlz:grouped\pl
H cmaaitx ¡¡Cmaaitx a!! sbj.nmlz:tender

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§26.10 Rhetorical a and the infix -a- (à) 671

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 D coaanj ¡¡Coaanàja!! sbj.nmlz:poisonous

E coaatjö ¡¡Coaatàjöa!! sbj.nmlz:sweet
F aaitz ¡¡Aaitàz a!! 3.poss:father’s_younger_brother
G cooipj ¡¡Cooipàj a!! sbj.nmlz:oval
H ctooicj ¡¡Ctooicàj a!! zebra-tailed lizard
 27
Allomorphy in verb inflection for mood

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yopanzx s/he/it ran {yo‑panzx} rlyo:run 5HDOLV UG VXEMHFW
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27.1 Consonant-initial stems

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 3UH᯳[ pinch look for

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5HDOLV mi- mi- intiip [inˈtiːp] imcaa [iŋˈkaː]

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27.1.1 i-Epenthesis
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§27.1.1 i-Epenthesis 673
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√panzx √tiip √caa √Camjö √Cactim
run pinch look for shiny use
t- tpanzx ittiip itcaa ttamjö ittactim
tm- tompanzx itcontiip itcomcaa tommamjö itcommactim
po- popanzx ipotiip ipocaa poaamjö ipoaactim
yo- yopanzx iyotiip iyocaa yoaamjö iyoaactim
xo- xopanzx ixotiip ixocaa xoaamjö ixoaactim
si- spanzx istiip iscaa ssamjö issactim
mi- (i)mpanzx intiip imcaa (i)mmamjö immactim

1DVDO FRQVRQDQW 3DODWDO DSSUR[LPDQW *ORWWDO VWRS

√masol √mis √yaai √yaa √heel
yellow resemble be worth own red
t- tmasol itmís tyaai ityaa theel
tm- tommasol itcommís tonyaai itconyaa tomheel
po- pomasol ipomís poyaai ipoyaa poheel
yo- yomasol iyomís yoyaai iyoyaa yoheel
xo- xomasol ixomís xoyaai ixoyaa xoheel
si- smasol ismís syaai isyaa sheel
mi- (i)mmasol immís (i)nyaai inyaa (i)mheel

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 D >YRZHO RI zo GHOHWHV EHIRUH XQGHUO\LQJ YRZHO i-@

Haxz° z imcaa.
dog indf;sg 3.sbj:rlmi:look_for
A dog is looking for it/her/him/them.

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* Haxz° zo imcaa.

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Haxz° zo mpanzx.
dog indf;sg rlmi:run
A dog ran.

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674 Chapter 27: Allomorphy in verb inflection for mood

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* Haxz° z impanzx.

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27.1.2 i-Deletion
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ctiip who pinches it/him/her LV GHULYHG IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {c-i-tiip} sbj.nmlz-tr-pinch
,W GRHV QRW HYHU DSSO\ WR WKH SUH᯳[ 3.sbj i- i HYHQ ZKHQ WKDW SUH᯳[ LV SUHFHGHG E\ WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ
LQGLUHFW REMHFW SUH᯳[ cö– ZKLFK LV XQGHUO\LQJO\ co– 7KLV IDFW VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH DWWHPSW KHUH WR FDVW WKH GHOHWLRQ
DV D SKRQRORJLFDO UXOH LV OLNH PDQ\ VXFK FDVHV PLVJXLGHG
7KH VHFRQG FRQVRQDQW LQ WKH FRQWH[W QHHG QRW EH D URRWLQLWLDO FRQVRQDQW LW PD\ EH WKH QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ RU
WKH SDVVLYH SUH᯳[ IRU H[DPSOH %XW LW GRHV QHHG WR EH SDUW RI D YHUE 7KH i RI mi-lít your head/hair GRHV QRW
GHOHWH WKH URRW LV D QRXQ URRW 7KH i RI D SRVVHVVLYH SUH᯳[ DOVR GRHV QRW GHOHWH EHIRUH D QRPLQDOL]HG YHUE
VHH mitiip your pinching it ZKLFK LV VWUXFWXUDOO\ 1 >mi൹1 >Ø൹9 >tiip@@@ 2.poss-pon-pinch 7KH YHUEDOL]HU i ZKLFK
RFFXUV LQ GHQRPLQDO YHUEV VXFK DV titaamt is s/he wearing sandals? GRHV QRW GHOHWH EHWZHHQ FRQVRQDQWV $JDLQ
WKH PRUSKRORJLFDO VWUXFWXUH DSSHDUV WR EH UHOHYDQW >t൹9 >i൹1 >taamt@@@ rlt-hv-sandal

27.1.3 o-Epenthesis
7KH XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP RI WKH 6XEMXQFWLYH ,UUHDOLV SUH᯳[ LV tm- WKLV LV FOHDU ZKHQ YRZHOLQLWLDO VWHPV DUH H[DPLQHG
VHH ODWHU VHFWLRQV RI WKLV FKDSWHU VXFK DV ii 7KH DOORPRUSK tom- RFFXUV EHIRUH FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO
VWHPV :KLOH RQH PLJKW H[SHFW DQ i WR EH HSHQWKHVL]HG LQ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI WKH 6XEMXQFWLYH ,UUHDOLV IRUPV RI WKH
FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO YHUEV LQ WDEOH  EHFDXVH RI WKH HSHQWKHVLV UXOH SUHVHQWHG LQ i WKLV GRHV QRW KDSSHQ
,QVWHDG DQ o LV HSHQWKHVL]HG &RQVLGHU WKH ZRUG tompanzx IRU H[DPSOH IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {tm-panzx} sbjv-run
7KH FRQWH[W LQ ZKLFK o UDWKHU WKDQ i DSSHDUV WR SHUPLW V\OODEL᯳FDWLRQ LV ZKHQ WKUHH FRQVRQDQWV WKH VHFRQG
RI ZKLFK LV D VRQRUDQW ZRXOG RWKHUZLVH DSSHDU ZRUGLQWHUQDOO\ 7KH ᯳UVW FRQVRQDQW LV XVXDOO\ RQH RI WKH PRRG
SUH᯳[HV EXW LW PD\ DOVR EH DQRWKHU FRQVRQDQW VXFK DV WKH VXEMHFW QRPLQDOL]HU c- i DV VKRZQ LQ E


7KH VHTXHQFH mh LV SURQRXQFHG DV LI WKH VRXQGV ZHUH PHWDWKHVL]HG 6HH i
§27.1.4 c-Epenthesis 675

 8QGHUO\LQJ IRUP
D tomsisiin is s/he/it cute? {t-msisiin} rlt-pitiable/cute
E comsisiin who is cute {c-msisiin} sbj.nmlz-pitiable/cute
F momsisiin s/he/it is cute {mi-msisiin} rlmi-pitiable/cute
G somsisiin s/he/it will be cute {si-msisiin} irr.ind-pitiable/cute
H icamsisiin to be cute {ica-msisiin} inf.intr-pitiable/cute

7KH VRQRUDQW LQ WKH FRQWH[W &6RQRUDQW& PD\ HLWKHU EH IURP WKH SUH᯳[ tm- DV VKRZQ LQ WKH WDEOHV LQ WKLV
FKDSWHU WKH QHJDWLYH SUH᯳[ VHH i RU WKH VWHPLQLWLDO QDVDO RI WKH YHUE {√msisiin} pitiable, cute 6HH WKH
SDUWLDO SDUDGLJP LQ  ([DPSOH H LV D VLWXDWLRQ ZKHUH WKH SUH᯳[ KDV D YRZHO WKDW PDNHV WKH LQVHUWLRQ RI DQ
HSHQWKHWLF YRZHO XQQHFHVVDU\ DQG PDNLQJ LW FOHDU WKDW WKH VWHP GRHV QRW EHJLQ ZLWK o VLQFH LI LW GLG WKH a RI WKH
SUH᯳[ ZRXOG KDYH GHOHWHG VHH i DQG i
7KH HSHQWKHVLV RI o LV DOVR VHHQ LQ RWKHU FRQWH[WV LQFOXGLQJ QHJDWLYH LPSHUDWLYHV VHH i 8QGHUO\LQJ
{c-m-panzx} im-neg-run EHFRPHV companzx Don’t run!
7KH UXOH LV JLYHQ LQIRUPDOO\ LQ  7KH SURVH UHVWULFWLRQ LV QHFHVVDU\ WR SUHYHQW WKLV UXOH IURP DSSO\LQJ LQ
WKH VLWXDWLRQ ZKHUH WKH ᯳UVW FRQVRQDQW LV SDUW RI D VXEMHFW DJUHHPHQW SUH᯳[ DV LQ ihpimpanzx GLVFXVVHG DERYH
LQ i 7KLV IRUPXODWLRQ PDNHV WKH IHDWXUHV RI WKH LQVHUWHG YRZHO HQWLUHO\ H[SOLFLW DOWKRXJK LW PD\ QRW EH
FRLQFLGHQWDO WKDW WKH QDVDO LQ WKHVH FRQWH[WV LV DOZD\V XQGHUO\LQJO\ m ZKLFK DUJXDEO\ LV KRZHYHU WKH XQPDUNHG
QDVDO LQ WKH ODQJXDJH DV VKRZQ LQ i 7KLV HSHQWKHVLV UXOH LV OLNH WKH i(SHQWKHVLV UXOH GLVFXVVHG LQ i
LQ WKDW LW UHODWHV WR V\OODEL᯳FDWLRQ LW DSSOLHV LQ D PRUH LQQHU GRPDLQ WKDQ WKH i(SHQWKHVLV UXOH D IDFW WKDW LV KLQWHG
DW LQGLUHFWO\ E\ WKH SURVH UHVWULFWLRQ LQ 

 o(SHQWKHVLV
Ca C C
↑ [+son]
o
where Ca is not part of a person prefix

7KH IRUPV LQ  DUH SUHVHQWHG WR PDNH H[SOLFLW WKDW VRPH LQVWDQFHV RI o DUH QRW GXH WR HSHQWKHVLV DW DOO

 (SHQWKHWLF o tomsisiin rlt-…) somsisiin irr.ind-…) momsisiin rlmi-…)

o IURP SUH᯳[ pomsisiin irr.dep-…) yomsisiin rlyo-…) xomsisiin em-…)

27.1.4 c-Epenthesis
$ c WKDW LV /k/ LV LQVHUWHG LQ D YHU\ SDUWLFXODU FRQWH[W WKDW LV RQO\ SDUWLDOO\ LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH SDUDGLJP LQ WDEOH
 7KH FRQWH[W IRU WKH UXOH LQVHUWLQJ c KDV WKUHH LPSRUWDQW FRQGLWLRQV
)LUVW D QDVDO FRQVRQDQW PXVW EH SUHVHQW WKLV QDVDO DOZD\V KDSSHQV WR EH XQGHUO\LQJ m
6HFRQG WKDW QDVDO PXVW EH D SUH᯳[ DQG QRW D URRWLQLWLDO FRQVRQDQW 7KLV LV FOHDU VLQFH LQ IRUPV VXFK DV itmís
3.sbj:rlt:resemble s/he resembled him/her IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-t-mis} c(SHQWKHVLV GRHV QRW DSSO\

7KH i'HOHWLRQ UXOH  DSSOLHV ᯳UVW IHHGLQJ WKH UXOH RI o(SHQWKHVLV LQ WKLV IRUP DV ZHOO DV WKH QH[W

&DUH PXVW EH WDNHQ WR QRW FRQIXVH ,PSHUDWLYH c- IROORZHG E\ HSHQWKHWLF o ZLWK WKH IXOO DOORPRUSK co- RI WKH WKLUG SHUVRQ
LQGLUHFW REMHFW DJUHHPHQW SUH᯳[ i

8QGHUO\LQJ {hp-mi-panzx} 1s.sbj.intr-rlmi-run I run ORVHV WKH i RI WKH SUH᯳[ JLYLQJ WKH VHTXHQFH pmp ZKLFK VHHPV
WR SUHFLVHO\ EH WKH FRQWH[W IRU o(SHQWKHVLV 1HYHUWKHOHVV o(SHQWKHVLV GRHV QRW DSSO\ ,QVWHDG i(SHQWKHVLV DSSOLHV WKH
VXUIDFH IRUP LV ihpimpanzx

'H /DF\  GLVFXVVHV WKHVH IDFWV EULH᯴\ DQG VXJJHVWV WKDW ංLW LV SRVVLEOH WKDW HSHQWKHWLF [o] LV QRW HSHQWKHWLF
DW DOO EXW SDUW RI WKH LQSXWඃ EHFDXVH RI WKH SUREOHP WKDW WKH IDFWV SUHVHQW IRU KLV WKHRUHWLFDO SURSRVDO EDVHG RQ H[WHQVLYH
FURVVOLQJXLVWLF VWXG\ WKDW HSHQWKHWLF YRZHOV DUH DOZD\V >URXQG@ 7KH IDFWV SUHVHQWHG LQ WKLV FKDSWHU VKRXOG PDNH LW FOHDU WKDW
WKH HSHQWKHVLV VROXWLRQ LV QRW LQ GRXEW )RU PRUH GLVFXVVLRQ VHH 0DUOHWW F

'H /DF\  DOVR GLVFXVVHV WKHVH IDFWV EULH᯴\ DQG VWDWHV WKDW ං6HUL [k] GRHV QRW DFW OLNH DQ HSHQWKHWLF HOHPHQW
LWV GLVWULEXWLRQ PD\ UHDVRQDEO\ FDOOHG LGLRV\QFUDWLF PXFK OLNH D PRUSKHPHൿVඃ +LV H[WHQVLYH FURVVOLQJXLVWLF VWXG\ OHDGV KLP
WR SURSRVH WKDW HSHQWKHWLF YHODU FRQVRQDQWV GR QRW H[LVW )RU PRUH GLVFXVVLRQ VHH 0DUOHWW F
676 Chapter 27: Allomorphy in verb inflection for mood

7KLUG WKH QDVDO FRQVRQDQW PXVW EH SUHFHGHG E\ WZR HOHPHQWV D FRQVRQDQW ZKLFK KDSSHQV WR DOZD\V EH D
FRURQDO EXW WKLV PD\ QRW EH UHOHYDQW DQG VRPHWKLQJ HOVH D YRZHO RU D FRQVRQDQW SUHFHGLQJ WKDW 7ZR FODVVHV RI
SUH᯳[HV KRZHYHU GR QRW SURYLGH WKH FRQWH[W IRU WKH UXOH WKH GLUHFWLRQDO SUH᯳[HV i DQG WKH LQGLUHFW REMHFW
LQ᯴HFWLRQ SUH᯳[HV i 7KHVH SUH᯳[HV DUH LQ WKH RXWHUPRVW OD\HU RI WKH YHUE LQ᯴HFWLRQ DQG DSSDUHQWO\
RXWVLGH WKH GRPDLQ RI WKLV UXOH
7KH YHODU VWRS LV LQVHUWHG EHIRUH WKH QDVDO 7KLV UXOH LV VKRZQ LQIRUPDOO\ LQ  ZKHUH ; LQGLFDWHV WKDW HLWKHU
D FRQVRQDQW RU D YRZHO PXVW SUHFHGH WKH VHFRQG HOHPHQW WKH & DQG WKH ᯳QDO OHIW EUDFNHW LQGLFDWHV D PRUSKHPH
ERXQGDU\

 c(SHQWKHVLV
X C C [
↑ [+nas]
c
where X may be a consonant or vowel

,Q WKH H[DPSOHV LQ WDEOH  WKLV UXOH DOZD\V LQWHUDFWV ZLWK o(SHQWKHVLV EXW WKH YRZHOLQLWLDO VWHPV VHH i
DQG WDEOH  DOVR i DQG WDEOH  VKRZ WKDW LW LV DQ LQGHSHQGHQW UXOH

27.2 Long vowel-initial stems

9HUE URRWV WKDW EHJLQ ZLWK ORQJ YRZHOV DUH YHU\ VWDEOH LQ WKHLU LQWHUDFWLRQ ZLWK WKH SUH᯳[HV DQG VR WKH\ DUH
SUHVHQWHG EHIRUH RWKHU YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV DUH SUHVHQWHG 7KH IRUPV LQ WDEOH  DUH HQWLUHO\ UHSUHVHQWDWLYH
2QH FDQ VHH WKDW c(SHQWKHVLV i DSSOLHV LQ WKH 6XEMXQFWLYH ,UUHDOLV IRUPV RI WKH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV H[DFWO\
DV H[SHFWHG 7KHUHIRUH XQGHUO\LQJ {i-tm-ii} 3.sbj-sbjv-hear EHFRPHV itcmii

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI YHUEV ZLWK VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK ORQJ YRZHO

√aacoj √eetol √ii √oos √ooseta √oocta

big push hear sing jiggle look at
t- taacoj iteetol itii toos tooseta itoocta
tm- tmaacoj itcmeetol itcmii tmoos tmooseta itcmoocta
po- paacoj ipeetol ipii pas péseta ipoocta
yo- yaacoj iyeetol iyii yas yéseta iyoocta
xo- xaacoj ixeetol ixii xöas xöéseta ixoocta
si- saacoj iseetol isii soos sooseta isoocta
mi- maacoj imeetol imii moos mooseta imoocta

27.2.1 Vowel elision

,W LV QRW SRVVLEOH WR PRWLYDWH WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH YRZHOV RI WKH SUH᯳[HV E\ WKHVH IRUPV 6LQFH ZH NQRZ WKDW WKH
SUH᯳[ YRZHOV H[LVW EHFDXVH RI RWKHU IDFWVൺWKH oൿV IURP WKH FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO VWHPV VKRZQ LQ WDEOH  DQG WKH
iൿV IURP WKH VKRUW ORZ YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV LQ WDEOH ൺWKH ORVV RI WKH SUH᯳[ YRZHO EHIRUH WKH ORQJ YRZHOLQLWLDO
URRWV PXVW EH DFFRXQWHG IRU 7KLV PD\ EH PRWLYDWHG E\ D ODFN RI KLDWXV VLQFH RQH FDQ DUJXH EXW QRW HDVLO\
WKDW QRQLQLWLDO V\OODEOHV LQ 6HUL GLVIDYRU WKH ODFN RI DQ RQVHW $W DQ\ UDWH ZRUGLQWHUQDO YRZHO VHTXHQFHV DFURVV
PRUSKHPH ERXQGDULHV DUH H[WUHPHO\ VSHFLDO VHH i 7KH UXOH LV VRPHWKLQJ OLNH 

7UDQVLWLYH URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK oo DUH YHU\ XQFRPPRQ 0RVW YHUEV WKDW EHJLQ ZLWK o RU oo DUH LQWUDQVLWLYH 0DQ\ GHULYHG
YHUE VWHPV DOVR EHJLQ ZLWK o EHFDXVH RI WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG REMHFW SUH᯳[ i

6WUXFWXUH 3UHVHUYDWLRQ .LSDUVN\  DOVR DUJXDEO\ SUHYHQWV WKLV UXOH IURP DSSO\LQJ WR PRUSKHPHLQWHUQDO VHTXHQFHV
§27.2.2 o-Coalescence 677

 9RZHO (OLVLRQ
V V
↑
∅

7KH HOLVLRQ RI D YRZHO EHIRUH D YRZHO LV VHHQ LQ YDULRXV RWKHU FRQWH[WV DV ZHOO 7KH o RI WKH GLUHFWLRQDO SUH᯳[
mo- i DQG i GHOHWHV EHIRUH D YRZHO IRU H[DPSOH miica to come IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {mo-ica-a} twd-
inf.intr-move

27.2.2 o-Coalescence
6RPHWKLQJ UDWKHU FXULRXV YHU\ UHJXODUO\ KDSSHQV ZKHQ DQ o᯳QDO SUH᯳[ po- yo- RU xo- LPPHGLDWHO\ SUHFHGHV
DQ oLQLWLDO URRW 5DWKHU WKDQ VLPSO\ GURS RXW DV KDSSHQV ZKHQ WKH URRW LV WUDQVLWLYH VXFK DV ZLWK √oocta look at
WKH VHTXHQFH o+ooൺDQG DV LV VHHQ EHORZ DOVR o+oൻLV UHSODFHG E\ VKRUW a )XUWKHUPRUH ZKHQ WKLV KDSSHQV
WR WKH o RI WKH (PSKDWLF SUH᯳[ xo- WKH x LV VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ ODELDOL]HG $QWLFLSDWLQJ WKH IDFWV IURP WKH IROORZLQJ
VHFWLRQ WKH UXOH LV SUHVHQWHG LQ  7KH SUHVHQWDWLRQ LV YHU\ LQIRUPDO WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH XYXODU IULFDWLYH LV
QRW UHTXLUHG IRU WKH UXOH WR DSSO\ REYLRXVO\

 o&RDOHVFHQFH
(x) o o(o)
↑ ↑ ↑
(xö) a
if and only if the verb form is intransitive

2QH JURXS RI H[FHSWLRQV WR WKLV UXOH LV NQRZQ WKH IRUPV RI WKH SRVLWLRQDO YHUE √oom lie VHH poom irr.dep-lie
yoom rlyo-lie xoom em-lie

27.2.3 Low vowel harmony

7KH UXOH RI o&RDOHVFHQFH IHHGV D UXOH WKDW KDUPRQL]HV D VWUHVVHG a ZLWK DQ e WKDW IROORZV LPPHGLDWHO\ RU LQ WKH
QH[W V\OODEOH 6HH WKH IRUPV RI √ooseta LQ WDEOH  8QGHUO\LQJ {po-ooseta} IRU H[DPSOH EHFRPHV LQWHUPHGLDWH
(páseta) E\ o&RDOHVFHQFH DQG WKHQ péseta E\ /RZ 9RZHO +DUPRQ\

 /RZ 9RZHO +DUPRQ\

↑á C0 e
é

$ URRW VXFK DV √oeepx flap LOOXVWUDWHV WKH KDUPRQ\ DV ZHOO 7KH IRUPV FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR WKRVH LQ WDEOH  DUH
toeepx tmoeepx peepx yeepx xöeepx soeepx moeepx 7KH SUHVHQFH RI WKH URXQGHG FRQVRQDQW xö LQ xöeepx
VKRZV WKDW o&RDOHVFHQFH  KDV DSSOLHG ,W LV DVVXPHG KHUH WKDW VRPH UXOH QRW IRUPXODWHG KHUH DGMXVWV WKH
YRZHO OHQJWK RI WKH UHVXOWLQJ FOXVWHU RI YRZHOV WR DFFRXQW IRU ZK\ LW VHHPV WR EH yeepx DQG QRW yeeepx IRU
H[DPSOH
7KHUH DUH GHULYHG YHUEV VXFK DV √o-queeex unsp.obj-cut_hair WKDW VKRZ WKH QHHG WR VSHFLI\ WKDW WKH KDUPRQL]
LQJ YRZHO PXVW EH VWUHVVHG 7KH IRUPV FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR WKRVH LQ WDEOH  DUH toqueeex tmoqueeex paqueeex
yaqueeex xöaqueeex soqueeex moqueeex :KLOH o&RDOHVFHQFH  KDV REYLRXVO\ DSSOLHG WKHUH LV QR YRZHO
KDUPRQ\ LQ WKHVH IRUPV


7KLV LV RQH RI WKH YHUEV ZLWK D GLSKWKRQJ WKDW LV SUHVHQWHG KHUH ZLWK D ORQJ ee DOWKRXJK LW ZDV SUHVHQWHG ZLWK D VKRUW e
LQ 0DUOHWW D 2Q VRPH RI WKH SUREOHPV UHODWLQJ WR GLSKWKRQJV VHH i
678 Chapter 27: Allomorphy in verb inflection for mood

27.3 Short vowel-initial stems

5RRWV WKDW EHJLQ ZLWK VKRUW YRZHOV YDU\ LQ WKHLU EHKDYLRU LQ UDWKHU UHJXODU ZD\V 7DEOH  SUHVHQWV WKH VWDQGDUG
SDWWHUQV ZLWK YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV WKDW KDYH SURVRGLF VWUHVV RQ WKH LQLWLDO YRZHO

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI YHUEV ZLWK VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK VKRUW ORZ YRZHO

√am √esijc √is √otj √óteja

swallow probe for thorn raw stand up from horizontal tilt, lean
t- itám itésijc tis totj tóteja
tm- itcmám itcmésijc tmis tmotj tmóteja
po- ipoom ipoosijc pis patj péteja
yo- iyoom iyoosijc yis yatj yéteja
xo- ixoom ixoosijc xis xöatj xöéteja
si- isiim isiisijc sis sotj sóteja
mi- imiim imiisijc mis motj móteja

,W EHFRPHV FOHDU IURP WKH GDWD LQ WDEOH  WKDW WKH YRZHOV LQ WKH SUH᯳[HV po- yo- DQG xo- DUH ZHOOPRWLYDWHG
7KH HYLGHQFH LV DOVR VHHQ KHUH IRU WKH YRZHOV RI WKH SUH᯳[HV si- DQG mi- 7KH FRQMXJDWLRQ RI WKH URRWV EHJLQQLQJ
ZLWK i RU o ORRN QR GL᯲HUHQW WKDQ WKHLU FRXQWHUSDUWV ZLWK ORQJ YRZHOV WKXV SURYLGLQJ DGGLWLRQDO HYLGHQFH RI 9RZHO
(OLVLRQ  o&RDOHVFHQFH  DQG /RZ 9RZHO +DUPRQ\  7KH URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK WKH YRZHOV a DQG e
DUH WKRVH ZKHUH DOO RI WKH DFWLRQ KDSSHQV 5RRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK e DUH UDUH H[FHSW ZKHQ WKH VHFRQG V\OODEOH DOVR
KDV e DV LQ √emen toss into the air (as to winnow) iiqui √emetx screw √épeza lick lips √eque give as a gift
√éselax pick at (something teensy) √ete cure (by healer) 7KH SUHFHGLQJ OLVW PD\ EH H[KDXVWLYH
7KH GDWD LQ WDEOH  VKRZ WKDW URRWV ZLWKRXW SURVRGLF VWUHVV RQ WKH ᯳UVW YRZHO FRQMXJDWH IRU PRRG LQ WKH
VDPH ZD\ DV WKH URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK ORQJ YRZHOV 7KH FUXFLDO SRLQWV RI FRPSDULVRQ DUH WKH VKRUW ORZ YRZHOV
7KH\ GR QRW XQGHUJR WKH DVVLPLODWLRQGHOHWLRQ WKDW LV FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI VWUHVVHG VKRUW ORZ YRZHOV 7KH UHOHYDQW
UXOHV IRU WKH DOORPRUSK\ GLVSOD\HG DUH 9RZHO (OLVLRQ i DQG o&RDOHVFHQFH i

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI YHUEV ZLWK VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK LQLWLDO XQVWUHVVHG YRZHO

√omihj √azaplc √ifohzx

smooth paralyzed in legs cough with hacking cough
t- tomihj tazaplc tifohzx
tm- tmomihj tmazaplc tmifohzx
po- pamihj pazaplc pifohzx
yo- yamihj yazaplc yifohzx
xo- xöamihj xazaplc xifohzx
si- somihj sazaplc sifohzx
mi- momihj mazaplc mifohzx

27.3.1 Short low vowel assimilation

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o ,Q RQH SRVVLEOH DQDO\VLV WKH VKRUW ORZ YRZHOV DVVLPLODWH WR WKH SUHFHGLQJ YRZHO ,Q DQRWKHU SRVVLEOH DQDO\VLV
WKH VKRUW ORZ YRZHO ORVHV LWV GLVWLQFWLYH IHDWXUHV DQG WKH IHDWXUH RI WKH SUHFHGLQJ YRZHO VSUHDGV WR LW :LWK
HLWKHU DQDO\VLV WKHUH LV VRPH FRPSOLFDWLRQ DV LV VKRZQ EHORZ
,W LV XQFOHDU ZKHWKHU WKHUH LV DVVLPLODWLRQ RI D VKRUW ORZ YRZHO WR D ORZ YRZHO 7KH SHUWLQHQW H[DPSOHV DUH
IRXQG LQ IRUPV VXFK DV WKH LQ᯳QLWLYHV i ZKHUH LW LV KRZHYHU XQFOHDU ZKHWKHU WKH OHQJWK LQ LQ᯳QLWLYHV LV

0DUOHWW D DQG 0DUOHWW 6WHPEHUJHU  SRVLWHG D UXOH RI 6KRUW /RZ 9RZHO 'HOHWLRQ ZLWK OHQJWKHQLQJ RI WKH
SUH᯳[ YRZHO DV D FRQFRPLWDQW H᯲HFW
§27.3.2 Stems of derived verbs 679

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SRVVLEOH LQ WKH FDVHV XQGHU FRQVLGHUDWLRQ KHUH
7KH ORQJ YRZHO WKDW UHVXOWV LV QRW GLVWLQJXLVKDEOH IURP DQ XQGHUO\LQJ ORQJ YRZHO $V D UHVXOW PDQ\ SDUDGLJPV
FRQWDLQ ZRUGV WKDW DUH SKRQHWLFDOO\ LGHQWLFDO WR ZRUGV LQ RWKHU SDUDGLJPV 7KH ZRUG imiim s/he swallows/swal-
lowed it IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-mi-am} 3.sbj-rlmi-swallow LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK imiim who does not sleep IURP
XQGHUO\LQJ {i-m-iim} sbj.nmlz-neg-sleep 7KH ZRUG imiih s/he did it IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-mi-ah} 3.sbj-rlmi-
do/say/put.fl LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK imiih s/he/it does not live IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-mi-iih} sbj.nmlz-neg-be.fl
7KHUH LV D FRPSOLFDWLRQ ZLWK WKH IRUPXODWLRQ RI WKLV UXOH WKDW LV HYLGHQW ZKHQ GLSKWKRQJLQLWLDO URRWV DUH H[
DPLQHG VHH i 6HWWLQJ DVLGH WKHVH FRPSOLFDWLRQV D VLPSOH SURVH IRUPXODWLRQ RI WKH UXOH LV JLYHQ LQ 

 6KRUW /RZ 9RZHO $VVLPLODWLRQ

$ VKRUW ORZ YRZHO DVVLPLODWHV WR WKH IHDWXUHV RI DQ LPPHGLDWHO\ SUHFHGLQJ YRZHO

27.3.2 Stems of derived verbs

7DEOH  SUHVHQWV D VDPSOLQJ RI WKH SRVVLEOH W\SHV RI GHULYHG YHUE VWHPV DQG VKRZV KRZ WKH YHUEV FRQMXJDWH
IRU PRRG ,W LV VHHQ WKDW GHULYHG YHUEV GR QRW FRQMXJDWH GL᯲HUHQWO\ IURP WKRVH VKRZQ LQ WDEOHV   DQG
 7R EH PRUH VSHFL᯳F WKH FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO GHULYHG YHUE VWHPV FRQMXJDWH MXVW OLNH FRQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV
'HULYHG YHUE VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK ORQJ YRZHOV FRQMXJDWH MXVW OLNH URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK ORQJ YRZHOV 'HULYHG
YHUE VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK XQVWUHVVHG YRZHOV FRQMXJDWH MXVW OLNH URRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK XQVWUHVVHG YRZHOV 'HULYHG
YHUEV GR QRW EHJLQ ZLWK D VWUHVVHG VKRUW YRZHO

27.4 Diphthongs
6RPH YHUE URRWV EHJLQ ZLWK GLSKWKRQJV 5RRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK GLSKWKRQJV VXFK DV oii DUH FRPSOHWHO\ XQSUREOHP
DWLF DV WKH\ FRQMXJDWH MXVW OLNH QRUPDO YRZHOLQLWLDO URRWV 'LSKWKRQJV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK a RU aa KRZHYHU DSSHDU
WR EH RI WZR W\SHV WKDW FRUUHVSRQG WR WKH GL᯲HUHQFH EHWZHHQ VKRUW YRZHOV DQG ORQJ YRZHOV
7KH VLPSOHVW GLSKWKRQJV WR GHVFULEH DUH WKRVH WKDW DUH FOHDUO\ XQGHUO\LQJ ORQJ YRZHOV IROORZHG E\ DQ XQGHUO\LQJ
VKRUW YRZHO 7KLV W\SH LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH YHUEV VKRZQ LQ WDEOH  WKH\ FRQMXJDWH LQ YLUWXDOO\ WKH VDPH ZD\ DV
WKH YHUEV LQ WDEOH  6LQFH WKH ZRUG imii s/he told him/her IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-mi-ai} 3.sbj-rlmi-tell VHH WDEOH
 LV KRPRSKRQRXV ZLWK imii s/he heard it IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-mi-ii} 3.sbj-rlmi-hear` WKH UXOH RI 6KRUW /RZ
9RZHO $VVLPLODWLRQ PXVW EH FRPSOLFDWHG VOLJKWO\ RU VRPH RWKHU DGMXVWPHQW PXVW EH PDGH WR DYRLG WKH LQFRUUHFW
RXWSXW IRU WKLV YHUE *imiii
680 Chapter 27: Allomorphy in verb inflection for mood

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI YHUEV ZLWK GHULYHG VWHPV

√queejc √apasi √aapxa √inaail √iip

make explode wrinkle put three have skin have tail
 qu$EODXW -iijc < a-pasi < a-apxa < i-naail < i-VVp
aug-explode aug-wrinkled aug-three hv-skin hv-tail
t- itqueejc itapasi itaapxa tinaail tiip
tm- itcomqueejc itcmapasi itcmaapxa tminaail tmiip
po- ipoqueejc ipapasi ipaapxa pinaail piip
yo- iyoqueejc iyapasi iyaapxa yinaail yiip
xo- ixoqueejc ixapasi ixaapxa xinaail xiip
si- isqueejc isapasi isaapxa sinaail siip
mi- imqueejc imapasi imaapxa minaail miip

√ocazni √oop
bite (like snake) sew basket
< o-cazni < o-ap
unsp.obj-bite unsp.obj-sew_basket
t- tocazni toop
tm- tmocazni tmoop
po- pacazni poop
yo- yacazni yoop
xo- xöacazni xoop
si- socazni soop
mi- mocazni moop

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI YHUEV ZLWK VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK UHJXODU GLSKWKRQJV

√aai √aaipot √aao √ai √oii

make pay pass by tell be.fl\pl
t- itaai itaaipot itaao itai toii
tm- itcmaai itcmaaipot itcmaao itcmai tmoii
po- ipaai ipaaipot ipaao ipoi paii
yo- iyaai iyaaipot iyaao iyoi yaii
xo- ixaai ixaaipot ixaao ixoi xöaii
si- isaai isaaipot isaao isii soii
mi- imaai imaaipot imaao imii moii

7KH PRUH GL᯵FXOW YHUEV WR GHVFULEH DUH WKRVH WKDW DUH DUJXDEO\ KLVWRULFDOO\ DQ XQGHUO\LQJ VKRUW a IROORZHG E\
DQRWKHU YRZHO ORQJ RU VKRUW 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ WDEOH  6RPH SKRQHWLF OHQJWK DGMXVWPHQW WDNHV SODFH DQG
FDXVHV DW OHDVW PDQ\ LQ WKH FXUUHQW JHQHUDWLRQ RI VSHDNHUV WR SHUFHLYH YRZHO OHQJWK WR EH VXSHU᯳FLDOO\ MXVW OLNH LQ
YHUEV VXFK DV √aao pass by DQG √aai make DOWKRXJK WKH YHUEV LQ TXHVWLRQ FRQMXJDWH HQWLUHO\ GL᯲HUHQWO\ 7KH\
FRQMXJDWH PXFK DV RQH ZRXOG H[SHFW YHUEV ZLWK VKRUW a WR FRQMXJDWH

7KH ංSUREOHPඃ ZLWK WKHVH YHUEV ZDV GLVFRYHUHG VKRUWO\ DW WKH YHU\ HQG RI WKH WLPH RI SUHSDUDWLRQ RI WKH  GLFWLRQDU\
7KH GDWD LQ WKDW ZRUN ZHUH SULPDULO\ IURP WKH OH[LFDO ᯳OHV RI (GZDUG 0RVHU ZKR WUDQVFULEHG WKHP ZLWKRXW WKH DGGLWLRQDO
OHQJWK WKDW WKH \RXQJHU FRQVXOWDQWV LQVLVWHG ZDV WKHUH 6LQFH 0RVHUൿV WUDQVFULSWLRQV ZHUH XVXDOO\ H[WUHPHO\ DFFXUDWH WKLV
FRQVLVWHQW GL᯲HUHQFH ZDV HQLJPDWLF DW ᯳UVW
:ULWHUV WRGD\ FRQWLQXH WR JUDSSOH D ELW ZLWK WKH GLSKWKRQJV 7KH SKRQHWLF VLPLODULW\ EHWZHHQ D YHUE VXFK DV itai s/he said
to him DQG itaai s/he made it LV VXFK WKDW WKH IRUPHU LV VRPHWLPHV ZULWWHQ OLNH WKH ODWWHU 7KH SOXUDO VWHP RI WKH YHUE √ah
do/say/put.fl ZKLFK LV √aii SKRQRORJLFDOO\ FRQMXJDWLQJ OLNH D YHUE WKDW EHJLQV ZLWK D VKRUW ORZ YRZHO EXW FORVHU WR √aai
SKRQHWLFDOO\ DGGV DQRWKHU LWHP WR FRPSDUH VSHFL᯳FDOO\ WKH IRUP itaai RU KRZHYHU LW VKRXOG EH ZULWWHQ 1DWLYH VSHDNHUV
§27.5 Empty-consonant initial stems 681

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI YHUEV ZLWK VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK LUUHJXODU GLSKWKRQJV

√âaiscan √ooil
hard blue/green
t- taaiscan tooil
tm- tmaaiscan tmooil
po- pooiscan paail
yo- yooiscan yaail
xo- xooiscan xöaail
si- siiscan sooil
mi- miiscan mooil

27.5 Empty-consonant initial stems

$ VPDOO QXPEHU RI YHUEV OHVV WKDQ  GLVSOD\ D GL᯲HUHQW FRQMXJDWLRQ SDWWHUQ WKDQ DOO RI WKH H[DPSOHV GHVFULEHG
DERYH VHH WDEOH  7KH YHUEV DUH ZULWWHQ KHUH ZLWK WKH DGGLWLRQDO OHQJWK RQ WKH YRZHO D DV SUHIHUUHG E\ P\
FXUUHQW FRQVXOWDQWV

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI YHUEV ZLWK VWHPV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK HPSW\ FRQVRQDQWV

√Cah √Caxz √Col √Cotz √Cihjö

vocalize hit argue suck red
t- ttah ittaxz ttol ittotz ttihjö
tm- tommáh itcommaxz tommól itcommotz tommihjö
po- poáah ipoáaxz poól ipoótz ipóihjö
yo- yoáah iyoáaxz yoól iyoótz iyóihjö
xo- xoáah ixoáaxz xoól ixoótz ixóihjö
si- ssah issaxz ssol issotz ssihjö
mi- immáh immaxz immól immotz immihjö

7KHVH YHUEV KDYH EHHQ DQDO\]HG DV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK D FRQVRQDQW SRVLWLRQ WKDW LV HPSW\ RI IHDWXUHV UHSUHVHQWHG
DV & LQ XQGHUO\LQJ IRUPV :KHQ WKLV FRQVRQDQW IROORZV D FRQVRQDQW LW DVVLPLODWHV FRPSOHWHO\ WR WKDW SUHFHGLQJ
FRQVRQDQW :KHQ LW IROORZV D YRZHO LW GRHV QRW DFTXLUH DQ\ IHDWXUHV DQG WKXV KLDWXV RFFXUV 7KH H[DFW SODFHPHQW
RI VWUHVV RQ WKH UHVXOWLQJ VHTXHQFH RI YRZHOV VHHPV WR YDU\ IURP VSHDNHU WR VSHDNHU 9DULRXV RWKHU IDFWV LQ WKH
ODQJXDJH VXSSRUW WKLV SDUWLFXODU W\SH RI DQDO\VLV WKHVH YHUEV DFW LQ DOO ZD\V DV LI WKH\ EHJDQ ZLWK D FRQVRQDQW LQ
XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP
7KH YHUEV √aCa know DQG √eCe give (food) DUH VRPHZKDW VLPLODU LQ WKDW XQGHU FHUWDLQ FRQGLWLRQV QR FRQVRQDQW
DSSHDUV EHWZHHQ WKH YRZHOV DQG XQGHU RWKHU FRQGLWLRQV WKH FRQVRQDQW y DSSHDUV EHWZHHQ WKHP itaa 3.sbj-rlt-
know IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-t-aCa} spaa irr.ind-pass-know IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {si-p$EODXW -aCa} iyoaa 3.sbj-rlyo-
know IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-yo-aCa} DQG isiya 3.sbj-irr.ind-know IURP XQGHUO\LQJ {i-si-aCa} 7KH FRQVRQDQW
y WKDW DSSHDUV FDQ EH H[SODLQHG E\ VSUHDGLQJ WKH IHDWXUHV RI i WR WKH HPSW\ FRQVRQDQW SRVLWLRQ LQ WKH URRW 7KLV
FRQVRQDQW LV SKRQHWLFDOO\ ORQJ VHH i 7KH IHDWXUHV RI o GR QRW VSUHDG LQ D VLPLODU IDVKLRQ WKHUH LV QR
SKRQHPH /w/ QRU D SKRQHWLF [w] LQ WKH ZRUG iyoaa
ZLWK ZKRP , KDYH GLVFXVVHG WKHVH ZRUGV DOVR UHFRJQL]H WKH GL᯵FXOW\ RI WKHVH FDVHV 7KH YRZHO OHQJWK RQ WKH /a/ LV QRW MXVW
SKRQHWLF EXW UDWKHU SKRQRORJLFDO LW VHHPV <RXQJHU VSHDNHUV ZKR SURQRXQFH /aii/ DV [ɛii] SURQRXQFH WKLV ZRUG DV [itaai] DQG
QRW DV [itɛii]

7KHVH YHUEV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ 0DUOHWW D DQG 0DUOHWW EFKDSWHU  7KH PRVW IRUPDO DQDO\VLV DSSHDUHG LQ
0DUOHWW 6WHPEHUJHU  $Q DGGLWLRQDO YHUE RI WKLV VPDOO FODVV ZDV GLVFRYHUHG LQ HDUO\  LQ DQ HVVD\ FRPSRVHG DW
WKDW WLPH E\ ;DYLHU 0RUHQR 8VHG RQO\ ZLWK D SOXUDO VXEMHFW WKH URRW √Colcö PHDQV crowd in around (someone)

6HH 0DUOHWW 6WHPEHUJHU  IRU D FRPSOHWH SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI WKH HYLGHQFH

7KH ORQJ YRZHO LQ WKLV ZRUG LV QRW GLUHFWO\ H[SODLQHG
682 Chapter 27: Allomorphy in verb inflection for mood

27.6 Irregular verbs both ways

7KH SDWWHUQV SUHVHQWHG DERYH DUH ZKDW VHHP WR EH WKH VWDQGDUG RQHV LQ WKH ODQJXDJH 7KHUH DUH D IHZ H[FHSWLRQDO
YHUEV RI WZR GL᯲HUHQW W\SHV
)LUVW VRPH YHUEV KDYH LQLWLDO VWUHVVHG VKRUW ORZ YRZHOV WKDW DFW MXVW DV LI WKH\ ZHUH long LQ HYHU\ ZD\ WKDW LV
DOO IDFWV DERXW WKHLU FRQMXJDWLRQ LQFOXGLQJ IDFWV QRW SUHVHQWHG LQ WKLV FKDSWHU H[FHSW WKDW WKH\ DUH SKRQHWLFDOO\
short 6HH WKH YHUE IRU swim LQ WDEOH  DV DQ LOOXVWUDWLRQ 7KDW URRW LV PDUNHG ZLWK D PDFURQ RYHU WKH YRZHO
LQ WKH XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP RI WKH URRW WR LQGLFDWH WKLV NLQG RI LUUHJXODULW\ 2WKHU YHUEV ZLWK WKLV W\SH RI LUUHJXODULW\
LQFOXGH √āii wake up partially √ācötim cover oneself as with a blanket √āsaquim comb one’s hair ZKLFK FRQWUDVWV
FRQMXJDWLRQDOO\ ZLWK Çsaquim brush (something)

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI LUUHJXODU YHUEV DFWLQJ OLNH ORQJ YRZHOV

FRPSDUHG ZLWK UHJXODU YHUEV ZLWK VKRUW YRZHOV

LUUHJXODU UHJXODU
√ā cat √acat
swim bitter, salty
t- tacat tacat
tm- tmacat tmacat
po- pacat poocat
yo- yacat yoocat
xo- xacat xoocat
si- sacat siicat
mi- macat miicat

6HFRQG DQRWKHU NLQG RI LUUHJXODULW\ LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH YHUE IRU reside LQ WDEOH  7KH URRW FRQMXJDWHV LQ
HYHU\ ZD\ DV LI WKH URRW EHJDQ ZLWK D short ORZ YRZHO LQFOXGLQJ ZLWK YRZHO DVVLPLODWLRQ EXW WKH ORZ YRZHO LV
DOZD\V SKRQHWLFDOO\ long ZKHQ LW LV SUHVHQW 7KLV W\SH RI URRW LV PDUNHG ZLWK D FLUFXP᯴H[ RYHU WKH YRZHO LQ WKH
XQGHUO\LQJ IRUP RI WKH URRW WR LQGLFDWH WKLV NLQG RI LUUHJXODULW\

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI VRPH LUUHJXODU YHUEV DFWLQJ OLNH VKRUW YRZHOV
FRPSDUHG ZLWK UHJXODU YHUEV ZLWK ORQJ YRZHOV

LUUHJXODU UHJXODU
√âama √aalim
reside play
t- taama taalim
tm- tmaama tmaalim
po- pooma paalim
yo- yooma yaalim
xo- xooma xaalim
si- siima saalim
mi- miima maalim

27.7 Highly irregular verbs

6HYHUDO KLJKO\ LUUHJXODU YHUEV H[LVW WKDW KDYH LQWHUHVWLQJ V\VWHPDWLF SURSHUWLHV ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKHLU LUUHJXODULWLHV
$OO RI WKHVH DUH QRW GLVFXVVHG KHUH 7DEOH  SUHVHQWV QRQQHJDWLYH DQG QHJDWLYH PRRG IRUPV DV D ZD\

6HH SDJHV  RI WKH  GLFWLRQDU\ DOWKRXJK WKHVH SDJHV LQFOXGH LUUHJXODU YHUEV RI PRUH W\SHV WKDQ WKH RQHV
SUHVHQWHG LQ WKLV VHFWLRQ
§27.7 Highly irregular verbs 683

WR SDUWLDOO\ LOOXVWUDWH WKH IDFWV 7KH NH\ IHDWXUH RI WKHVH LUUHJXODU YHUEV LV WKH IDFW WKDW YHU\ XQXVXDOO\ IRU WKH
ODQJXDJH VWUHVV UDUHO\ RFFXUV RQ WKHLU URRWV DW DOO 8QGHUO\LQJ IRUPV RI WKH URRWV DUH QRW JLYHQ IRU WKHVH YHUEV
,W FDQ EH VHHQ IURP WKH GDWD LQ WDEOH  WKDW WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH 3.sbj SUH᯳[ i- i LV YHU\ LPSRUWDQW
LQ WKH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV VLQFH LW UHFHLYHV WKH VWUHVV LQ WKHVH YHUEV XQOLNH DQ\ZKHUH HOVH LQ WKH ODQJXDJH ([FHSW IRU
WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ be LQ WKLV WDEOH LI WKHUH LV QR SUH᯳[ YRZHO D YRZHO LV HSHQWKHVL]HG DQG LV WKHQ VWUHVVHG 7KLV
HSHQWKHWLF YRZHO LV HLWKHU a e RU ee WKH YRZHOV e DQG ee DUH XVHG ZKHQ WKH YHUE URRW KDV e WKLV IDFW LV UHODWHG
WR WKH YRZHO KDUPRQ\ VHHQ HOVHZKHUH i ,Q WKH YHUE PHDQLQJ say DQ H[FUHVFHQW t DOVR RIWHQ DSSHDUV
,W LV DOVR VHHQ WKDW c(SHQWKHVLV i DSSOLHV LQ WKHVH IRUPV DV LW GRHV LQ UHJXODU YHUEV
)LQDOO\ LW LV W\SLFDO RI WKHVH KLJKO\ LUUHJXODU YHUEV WKDW WKH WULR RI SUH᯳[HV po- yo- DQG xo- GR QRW SDWWHUQ DOLNH
XQOLNH HOVHZKHUH 7R EH VSHFL᯳F IRUPV ZLWK WKH SUH᯳[ xo- ORRN TXLWH GL᯲HUHQW WKDQ WKRVH ZLWK WKH SUH᯳[HV po-
DQG yo-

7DEOH bb0RRG IRUPV RI YHUEV RI VRPH KLJKO\ LUUHJXODU YHUEV

accompany say LQWU grind (dry item) give

t- ital teete ita iite
t-m- itcamal teme itcmaha itqueme
tm- itcamal teme itcmaha itqueme
po- ipal teepe ipa iipe
po-m- ipomal pome ipoma ipome
yo- iyal teeye iya iiye
yo-m- iyomal yome iyoma iyome
xo- ixoal xoe ixoa ixoe
xo-m- ixomal xome ixoma ixome
si- isal teese isa iise
si-m- iscamal seme iscama isqueme
mi- imal teeme ima iime

come go be be with
ZLWK mo- twd ZLWK nt- aw ZLWK co-
t- mota (i)ntita taa cota
t-m- (i)ntama tama cötama
tm- (i)ntama tama
po- mopa (i)ntipa ipa copa
po-m- (i)mpoma (i)ntpoma poma cöpoma
yo- moya (i)ntiya iya coya
yo-m- (i)nyoma (i)ntyoma yoma cöyoma
xo- (i)mxoaa (i)ntxoaa xoaa cöxoaa
xo-m- (i)mxoma (i)ntxoma xoma cöxoma
si- mosa (i)ntisa saa cosa
si-m- (i)nsama (i)ntsama sama cösama
mi- moma (i)ntima maa coma


0DUOHWW EFKDSWHU  FDOOHG WKHP VWUHVVUHWUDFWLQJ YHUEV
 28
Phonology

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RI WKH PLQLPDO ZRUG i DQG WKH SKRQHWLF GHWDLOV WKDW DUH QRW XVXDOO\ UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WKH SUDFWLFDO RUWKRJUDSK\
i 7KLV FKDSWHU FRQWLQXHV WR XVH WKH SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI GDWD XVLQJ WKH ංHYHU\GD\ XVHඃ SUDFWLFDO RUWKRJUDSK\
XVLQJ WKH FRQYHQWLRQV GHYHORSHG VLQFH DERXW  DV H[SODLQHG LQ i EXW LW DOVR SUHVHQWV GDWD XVLQJ WKH
FRQYHQWLRQV RI WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 3KRQHWLF $VVRFLDWLRQൻWKH WHFKQLFDO RUWKRJUDSK\ LQ WDEOH 

28.1 Phonemes
7KHUH DUH  RU  SKRQHPHV GHSHQGLQJ RQ KRZ RQH FRXQWV WKH YRZHOV DV VKRZQ LQ WDEOH  IRXU YRZHOV
ZKLFK PD\ EH VKRUW RU ORQJ DQG HLJKWHHQ FRQVRQDQWV IRXU RUDO VWRSV HLJKW IULFDWLYHV WZR QDVDOV D FHQWUDO
DSSUR[LPDQW D JORWWDO VWRS D ODWHUDO DSSUR[LPDQW WKDW LV XQFRPPRQ LQ WKH ODQJXDJH DQG D WDS WKDW RFFXUV RQO\
LQ ORDQZRUGV 2WKHU VRXQGV IURP 6SDQLVK RFFXU LQ PXFK PRUH UHFHQW DQG REYLRXV ORDQZRUGV EXW WKHVH DUH QRW
LQFOXGHG LQ WKH GLVFXVVLRQ KHUH $ IHZ RWKHU VRXQGV RFFXU LQ KLJKO\ XQXVXDO ZRUGV LQFOXGLQJ [w] LQ cargüéyotim
[kaɾˈwejotim] sbj.nmlz:wander IURP 6SDQLVK vagar DQG [v] LQ yova [ˈjova] a breed of dog with long ears

7DEOH bb3KRQHPHV

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9RZHOV i ɛ o a DQG OHQJWK i e o a (ii ee oo aa)
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1DVDOV mn mn
&HQWUDO DSSUR[LPDQW j y
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/DWHUDO DSSUR[LPDQW lආ l
7DS ɾඇ r

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EDFN YRZHOV DQG FRQVRQDQWV 6HH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH DOSKDEHW LQ 0DUOHWW E
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9HU\ UDUH
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DOO YRLFHOHVV DQG WKH VRQRUDQWV YRZHOV QDVDOV ODWHUDO DSSUR[LPDQW WDS DQG JORWWDO VWRS ZKLFK DUH DOO YRLFHG
ZLWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI WKH JORWWDO VWRS 7KH JORWWDO VWRS SDWWHUQV ZLWK WKH VRQRUDQWV ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKH VRQRULW\
VFDOH DQG V\OODEL᯳FDWLRQ VHH i


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sbj.nmlz[;tr]-dig_up
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sbj.nmlz-tr-dig (√ap)
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sbj.nmlz-tr-bite (√ap)
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sbj.nmlz-tr-carry_on_head (√ip)
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sbj.nmlz-[tr:]straighten (√iip)
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rlt-juicy
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rlt-inflated


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sbj.nmlz-cry
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paaza /ˈpaaʃa/ Gila monster
taca /ˈtaka/ finescale triggerfish
caanj /ˈkaanx/ Gulf grouper
cöihiin /kʷiˈɁiin/ sanderling

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xepe /ˈχɛpɛ/ sea
coote /ˈkootɛ/ teddybear cholla
taca /ˈtaka/ finescale triggerfish
c-aacöim /ˈkaakʷim/ who prepares a reed watercraft for carrying cargo
sbj.nmlz-[tr:]prepare_reed_watercraft_to_carry_cargo

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hap /ˈɁap/ mule deer
xat /ˈχat/ hail
ziic /ˈʃiik/ bird
sacö /ˈsakʷ/ toadfish

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feel /ˈɸɛɛɬ/ mallard
siml /ˈsɪmɬ/ barrel cactus
—
zaah /ˈʃaaɁ/ sun
joeene /ˈxoɛɛnɛ/ dust
—
xat /ˈχat/ hail
xöas /ˈχʷas/ s/he sang! em:sing)

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hapefe /Ɂaˈpɛɸɛ/ harpoon point barb
cosi /ˈkosi/ thorn
xeele /ˈχɛɛɬɛ/ fog
cozi /ˈkoʃi/ bitter condalia Condalia globosa
mojet /ˈmoxɛt/ bighorn sheep
t-ajöamz /taˈxʷamʃ/ it squirted out rlt-squirt_out)
haxoj /ˈɁaχox/ shore
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cof /ˈkoɸ/ San Juanico WUHH Jacquinia pungens
cos /ˈkos/ a coastal shrub Maytenus phyllanthoides
ool /ˈooɬ/ organ pipe cactus
xpaaz /ˈχpaaʃ/ basalt
zaaj /ˈʃaax/ cave
caajö /ˈkaaxʷ/ seep willow Baccharis salicifolia
iizax /ˈiisaχ/ moon
i-t-ixö /iˈtiχʷ/ s/he/it jumped over him/her/it
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28.1.4 Nasals
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mas /ˈmas/ olive shell
nas /ˈnas/ a milkweed vine


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cama /ˈkama/ big skate
hanaj /ˈɁanax/ raven

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xam /ˈχam/ squash
haan /ˈɁaan/ smooth Pacific venus clam

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I in-nopin rlmi-convex {mi-nopin}
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28.1.5 Central approximant and glottal stop

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 ,QLWLDO
haso /ˈɁaso/ fishing net
yeen /ˈjɛɛn/ his/her/its face [3.poss:]face)

 0HGLDO
haaho /ˈɁaaɁo/ road
iyas /ˈijas/ his/her/its liver [3.poss:]liver)

 )LQDO
zaah /ˈʃaaɁ/ sun
caay /ˈkaaj/ horse

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DV D V\OODEOH RQVHW WKH DSSUR[LPDQW y DV GLVFXVVHG LQ i 7KH ZRUG caay horse D ORDQZRUG LQ  LV DQ
XQXVXDO H[DPSOH


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WKH VHFRQG SHUVRQ VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ m- WR IRUP D VLQJOH QDVDO

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VSHHFK FRPPXQLW\
§28.2 Stress 691

28.1.6 Lateral approximant and tap

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ORDQZRUGV IURP 6SDQLVK DQG 8WR$]WHFDQ ODQJXDJHV VHH DSSHQGLFHV $ DQG %

 ,QLWLDO
lamz /ˈlamʃ/ large goliath grouper
roocö /ˈɾookʷ/ crazy

 )LQDO
xalaa /χaˈlaa/ cactus wren
pareen /paˈɾɛɛn/ reins and bit

 )LQDO
—
tootar /ˈtootaɾ/ chicken

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28.2 Stress
6WUHVV LV D SURSHUW\ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK QRXQV SURQRXQV DGMHFWLYHV YHUEV PRVW DGYHUEV DQG 3V DOWKRXJK VWUHVV RQ
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RQO\ LGLRV\QFUDWLFDOO\ )RU H[DPSOH PRVW DX[LOLDULHV DUH XQVWUHVVHG EXW VRPH DUH VWUHVVHG VHH FKDSWHU 
6WUHVV LV JHQHUDOO\ OLPLWHG WR VRPH V\OODEOH RI WKH URRW :LWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI D IHZ KLJKO\ LUUHJXODU YHUEV VHH
i RU DV D UHVXOW RI YRZHO IXVLRQ VHH i VWUHVV GRHV QRW IDOO RQ D PRUSKHPH RWKHU WKDQ D URRW YRZHO
6WUHVV W\SLFDOO\ LV WKH SHUFHLYHG H᯲HFW RI KLJKHU SLWFK RQ WKH YRZHO RI WKH VWUHVVHG V\OODEOH JUHDWHU LQWHQVLW\ RQ
WKH VWUHVVHG V\OODEOH DQG D OHQJWKHQLQJ H᯲HFW ZKHQ FRQGLWLRQV DUH PHW RQ WKH IROORZLQJ FRQVRQDQW DQG ZKHQ
WKH FRQGLWLRQV DUH PHW RQ WKH YRZHO DIWHU WKDW FRQVRQDQW VHH i
6WUHVV RQ ZRUGV LQ FODXVHV FDQ EH TXLWH FRPSOLFDWHG ,W LV YHU\ FRPPRQO\ WKH FDVH WKDW GHSHQGHQW FODXVHV
KDYH UHGXFHG VWUHVV RQ WKH YHUE DQ\ RWKHU DFFHQWXDWLRQ LV UHMHFWHG 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ ;; LQ ZKLFK WKH
ංVWUHVVHGඃ ZRUGV ZLWK UHGXFHG VWUHVV DUH ZULWWHQ ZLWK JUDYH DFFHQWV

 Hànt com cmáa ipàxi quih ìihax còta ma,

land def;hz now 3.poss:[pon:]finish def;fl 3.poss:with 3.io:rlt:happen ds
When the earth was just newly made,bb 0RVFDB+XPR 

 hànt com ìti tàhca ma,

land def;hz 3.poss:on rlt:be_located ds
it happened;bb 0RVFDB+XPR 

 hánt quih ìti tàhca ma x,

land def;fl 3.poss:on rlt:be_located ds ut
it happened,bb 0RVFDB+XPR 

 háa tmàco xox,

there rlt:? although
although may not be visible,bb 0RVFDB+XPR 

 hàp itáamalca itmìs,

Odocoileus_hemionus 3.poss:horn(s)/antlers 3.sbj:rlt:resemble
they resembled mule deer antlers,bb &RQHMRB&XHUQRV 
692 Chapter 28: Phonology

 Ox ìsoj isíih xah tàa tàmoz,

thus 3.poss:body 3.sbj:irr.ind:do/say/put.fl ? rlt;aux rlt:think
When he went to do as was his custom,bb &RQHMRB&XHUQRV 

7KLV WRSLF KDV QRW EHHQ H[SORUHG ZLWK DQ\ V\VWHPDWLFLW\

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i
([WUD VWUHVV LV JLYHQ WR WKH VWUHVVHG V\OODEOH FDXVLQJ FRQFRPLWDQW H[WUD VWUHQJWKHQLQJ RI WKH IROORZLQJ FRQ
VRQDQWV DV GLVFXVVHG LQ i ZKHQ RQH LV DGGLQJ H[WUD HPSKDVLV DV VKRZQ LQ  DQG  LQ QDUURZ
WUDQVFULSWLRQ LQ WKH VHFRQG OLQH

 Quisil iha.
''kɪsːːiːːɬ ɪʔa
It is (very) small.

 Xiipe s.
''χiːpːːɛːː s
Of course it’s good!

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FRQYHQWLRQV DUH SDUWLDOO\ EDVHG RQ WKH SKRQRORJLFDO DQDO\VLV EXW QRW HQWLUHO\ VR VLQFH WKH SKRQRORJLFDO DQDO\VLV
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7KLV VHFWLRQ GLVFXVVHV ZKHUH SULPDU\ VWUHVV RFFXUV )HZ ZRUGV DUH WUXO\ ORQJ HQRXJK WR FRQVLGHU ZLWK UHVSHFW
WR VHFRQGDU\ VWUHVV EXW IRXU V\OODEOH ZRUGV VXFK DV tacazáca inchworm DQG cozihaamaj a small non-flying bit-
ing insect KDYH GHWHFWDEOH KLJKHU SLWFK DQG JUHDWHU LQWHQVLW\ RQ WKH ᯳UVW V\OODEOHV WKDQ RQ WKH VHFRQG V\OODEOHV
[ˌtakaˈʃaka] DQG [ˌkoʃiˈʔaamax] ,Q D YHU\ IHZ FDVHV D SKRQHWLF IDFW EORFNLQJ RI QDVDO DVVLPLODWLRQ PD\ EH
UHODWHG WR WKH SUHVHQFH RI VHFRQGDU\ VWUHVV VHH i

28.2.1 Basic trochaic pattern

7KH JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ LQ  LV WKH EDVLF VWUHVV UXOH

 6WUHVV UXOH &RQVWUXFW D WURFKDLF IRRW RQ WKH ULJKW HGJH RI WKH URRW

6RPH UHSUHVHQWDWLYH H[DPSOHV DUH JLYHQ LQ  LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV OLNH DOO RWKHUV LQ ii VWUHVV
LV H[SOLFLWO\ VKRZQ XVLQJ DQ DFXWH DFFHQW LQ RUGHU WR EH FRPSOHWHO\ FOHDU 7KHVH H[DPSOHV DUH DOO QRXQV YHUEV DUH
GLVFXVVHG LQ i

 )RXUV\OODEOH URRWV
tacazáca inchworm
xlapaquíta an unidentified species of fish
cascamáma a stinkbug
coziháamaj a small non-flying biting insect
a-catazáta his older brother’s wife 3.poss-older_brother’s_wife.me)


7KH OHQJWKHQLQJ H᯲HFWV GHVFULEHG LQ i DUH QRW LQFOXGHG LQ WKHVH WZR SKRQHWLF UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV

7KLV VHFWLRQ UHSULVHV 0DUOHWW F E

7KHVH DUH QRW FRPPRQ WKLV OLVW PD\ EH H[KDXVWLYH
§28.2.1 Basic trochaic pattern 693

 7KUHHV\OODEOH URRWV
6KRUW SHQXOWLPDWH YRZHO bbbbb /RQJ SHQXOWLPDWH YRZHO
coníjoj Craveri’s murrelet jomxéeziz ocotillo
xpasípip dragonfly hamquíife a burning stick
comíma Coulter brickell-bush contéetxyat stinkbug
casópaj Panamic pearl oyster comáanal yerba mansa (a plant)
zicázijc red-billed tropicbird conzéezla a small unidentified ant
catámax cup-and-saucer limpet jomxéeziz ocotillo
xamátaj broth camáaina an unidentified manta ray
mojépe sahuaro cactus hamíime sky
moxíma yesterday xasáacoj sina (cactus)
sayána common olive (snail) a-cmajéete 3.poss-wife’s_older_sister
canócni Heermann’s gull a-comíique 3.poss-stepchild
tozípla side-blotched lizard
camázjij a Venus clam
zacápnij ball of dirt or fruit
i-sajápo 3.poss-stomach (of mullet)
i-tamócni 3.poss-chin
yacótni [3.poss:]poisonous_barb
capóclim chiton
a-maquéte 3.poss-wife’s_younger_sister
yahípxat [3.poss:]ink (from octopus)
hacálco dolls and related items that
are played with

 7ZRV\OODEOH URRWV
6KRUW SHQXOWLPDWH YRZHO /RQJ SHQXOWLPDWH YRZHO
cáma big skate séeten pen shell
cómot a milkweed vine nóoni pupa
héhe plant (generic) páaza Gila monster
cópas Panamic pearl oyster sáapom purple prickly pear
cósi thorn téepol black-tailed jackrabbit
héme a century plant nóosi mourning dove
mójet bighorn sheep quéepoj horn shark
hápaj octopus séenel butterfly

&RQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRW ZLWK VKRUW SHQXOWLPDWH YRZHO &RQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRW ZLWK ORQJ SHQXOWLPDWH YRZHO
a-cámaz 3.poss-daughter-in-law a-cáasac 3.poss-son’s_child
a-máhaj 3.poss-father’s_older_brother a-cóome 3.poss-younger_sister.me
a-tcmáhaj 3.poss-ygr_sister’s_child_fe a-quéemez 3.poss-mother-in-law_fe
i-téepni 3.poss-front_tooth

5RRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK 9 5RRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK 99

ámaz 3.poss:grandmother.me áacaz 3.poss:ygr.brother.fe
ápaz 3.poss-grandfather.me íifnij 3.poss:nostril
ápxaz 3.poss-ol.sister’s_child.fe íime 3.poss:home/nest
áta 3.poss:mother íipajö 3.poss-tail (of fish, bird)
ípot 3.poss:calf_of_leg íipni 3.poss-forehead
ítac 3.poss:bone íixax 3.poss:snout
íto 3.poss:eye íixquij 3.poss-cartilage


6HH i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKLV FRQMXJDWLRQ SDWWHUQ
694 Chapter 28: Phonology

 0RQRV\OODELF URRWV
6KRUW YRZHO bbbbb /RQJ YRZHO RU GLSKWKRQJ
cóf San Juanico (tree) háan smooth Pacific Venus clam
cós Maytenus phyllanthoides háap wild tepary
pát southern cattail záah sun
háp mule deer péen carrying pole
stácj a rock oyster háait blood

&RQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV ZLWK D VKRUW YRZHO &RQVRQDQWLQLWLDO URRWV ZLWK D ORQJ

YRZHO RU GLSKWKRQJ
a-ctám 3.poss-sister’s_husband.me a-cáac 3.poss-daughter’s_child.fe
i-cáp 3.poss-stalk (of century plant) a-máac 3.poss-older_brother_fe
i-lít 3.poss-head a-ntáac 3.poss-mother’s_ygr_sister
a-quéetz 3.poss-husband’s_ygr_brother
i-háait 3.poss-blood

5RRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK 9 5RRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK 99

ís 3.poss:seed íif 3.poss:nose
ám 3.poss:father.fe áac 3.poss:father’s.sister

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URRW LV H[FHSWLRQDOO\ H[WUDPHWULFDO

 :RUGV ZLWK DQWHSHQXOWLPDWH VWUHVV

cótotaj boojum tree bbbbb cahícosa a variety of mule deer
hásotoj grunt (fish) catápora robber fly
háacala bedrock mortar Honápota (place name)
háamoja antelope satómatox mesquite driftwood
sóocajam winged pearl oyster i-táamalca 3.poss-horn(s)/antler(s)
cáamopxa sphinx moth xahícosa Haustellum elenensis (a snail)

5RRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK 9 5RRWV EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK 99

íleca 3.poss:drool íinepoj 3.poss:marrow
íiseja 3.poss:wing/branch
íipajöam 3.poss:dry_flower_on_cactus

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VSRQGLQJ SOXUDOV LQ  LW LV REYLRXV WKDW VWUHVV GRHV QRW VKLIW WR WKH ULJKW 6LQFH WKH FRPSOLFDWLRQV LQYROYHG
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 6LQJXODU 3OXUDO
háaho háaho-lcam road
comítin comítij-a desert ironwood (living tree)
hacázol hacázol-cam piece of cloth
haitámoc haitámo-joj a small wood-boring insect
hatépen hatépej-a Mexican basket with handles
hatxánoj hatxánol-oj cradle, swing
hazípop hazípop-oj immature century plant
cascamáma cascamáma-toj a stinkbug
tacazáca tacazáca-taj inchworm
zóozj zóozal-ca sack
hást hásat-oj stone

6HH i IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKLV FRQMXJDWLRQ SDWWHUQ
§28.2.2 Quantity sensitivity 695

quéelx quéelex-olca short paddle

hamcáaxat hamcáaxat-alca smoke
hóopatj hóopat-alca wave

28.2.2 Quantity sensitivity

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V\OODEOH DV VKRZQ LQ 

 comcáac Seri people mentoxíil a hydrozoan

pajíi obsidian xomcahíift oregano
maxáa sand snake xomcahái a small round flounder
mahyáai opposite coast xomcahóij Grusonia VSS (cactus)
conée grass patpayóo juvenile zebra-tailed lizard
copsíij by-the-wind-sailor a-tcmajéem 3.poss-younger_sister’s_husband.fe
(hydrozoan)

6LPLODUO\ VWUHVV RFFXUV RQ WKH ᯳QDO V\OODEOH LI WKH ZRUG HQGV LQ D FRQVRQDQW FOXVWHU DV VKRZQ LQ  7KH
UHJXODULW\ RI WKLV SDWWHUQ VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH ᯳QDO FRQVRQDQW LV XVXDOO\ H[WUDPHWULFDO IRU WKH SXUSRVH RI FDOFXODWLQJ
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ZHLJKW

 hamácj cliff spurge hanzajípj plate

hamísj ashy limberbush hasahcápjö sinita (cactus)
mojéptxö curve-billed thrasher icocáxz gypsum
cacájöc bagworm moth cocásjc tropical beach-grass
moxhámt last year conámj a large grasshopper
sapátx sweetbush xazépl a porpoise
i-hiscácj 3.poss-scab yacácj [3.poss:]gall_bladder

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 †
coláxö goliath grouper hamíp spiderling (a plant)
joját saya (a plant) hamác fire
coqué chili haznám a very large totoaba (fish)
saxáp a bittersweet clam a-cacám 3.poss-son-in-law
xojmás a land snail yamác [3.poss:]blow (as of whale)
najmís a desert phacelia i-mozít 3.poss-half
otác frog, toad

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 hápats Apache hóopatj wave

xnícatl Colorado snapper íiholx 3.poss:cud
tajísipl Panamic sergeant major xpaléemelc olive shell; cone shell
xpanómalc octopus (coyote’s speech) xpasíiticl Harris’s antelope squirrel
tojquítajc great horned owl
zicázijc red-billed tropicbird
yasámict [3.poss:]tail (of sea turtle)
ítizx 3.poss:penis
696 Chapter 28: Phonology

28.2.3 Stress on verbs

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SODFHPHQW H[FHSW IRU D KDQGIXO RI KLJKO\ LUUHJXODU YHUEV VHH i )RU H[DPSOH WKH PRQRV\OODELF URRW √zam
put (vertical item) attack ZLOO DOZD\V EHDU WKH VWUHVV QR PDWWHU ZKDW D᯵[HV RFFXU DV VKRZQ LQ 

 in-t-con-zám 2s.sbj-rlt-neg-put.vt
i-t-zám-lcam 3.sbj-rlt-put.vt-pl
mazi t-zám-lcam 2p.do-rlt-put.vt-pl
mazi t-con-zám-lcam 2p.do-rlt-neg-put.vt-pl

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PHQW RI VWUHVV &RQVLGHU WKH SOXUDO VWHP RI √cázit take away forcibly √cázit-olca ZKLFK KDV SHQXOWLPDWH VWUHVV
RQ WKH URRW GHVSLWH WKH V\OODEOHV WKDW WKH QXPEHU PDUNLQJ LQWURGXFHV
9HUE URRWV DUH RIWHQ PXOWLV\OODELF 0DQ\ ORVH D SRVWWRQLF YRZHO DV SDUW RI WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI WKH VLQJXODU RU
SOXUDO VWHP VHH i DQG DV D UHVXOW WKH OHQJWK RI WKH URRW YDULHV ZLWKLQ WKH SDUDGLJP 1HYHUWKHOHVV VWUHVV
UHPDLQV RQ WKH VDPH YRZHO LQ DOO RI WKH SDUDGLJP

28.2.3.1. Trochaic pattern. 7ULV\OODELF VWHPV KDYH HLWKHU ᯳QDO VWUHVV QRW FRPPRQ EXW GXH WR D KHDY\ V\OODEOH
RU SHQXOWLPDWH VWUHVV DV VKRZQ LQ 

 )LQDO VWUHVV
√ihicóomzj have a kind of skin lesion
√italháa buy/sell
√ihicáai have abcess

 3HQXOWLPDWH VWUHVV
√apámiz rock √acáaso see (by power of shaman)
√amátis put to burn in the fire √atáaca send
√asápot knock out of one’s hand √aláahi want to have
√ozáca move a boat with a pole √acáatol dangerous
√mozíme drunk √iháasoj have pocket
√ihíiha pure
√ihíihyo pretend
√imáaxat gray-brown
√imóoni dance victory dance
√oquéepe comfortable
√moquéepe sick

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YHUEV XQOLNH WKDW ZKLFK DSSHDUV RFFDVLRQDOO\ LQ QRXQV 7KUHH YHUEV DSSHDU WR KDYH DQWHSHQXOWLPDWH VWUHVV EXW
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QRW WKH FRUUHFW DQDO\VLV VWUHVV PXVW EH OH[LFDOO\ PDUNHG LQ WKHVH FDVHV

 6LQJXODU 6LQJXODU ,PSHUIHFWLYH 3OXUDO

√opísi-ca √opísij-oj unusually small [opening]
√otísin-an √otísin-im √otísij-am babble
√imónalc-a √imónalc-oj become tangled up with feet

7KH PRUSKHPH mazi LQ WKHVH H[DPSOHV LV D SUH᯳[ DOWKRXJK LW LV ZULWWHQ ZLWK D VSDFH LQ WKH SUDFWLFDO RUWKRJUDSK\ 6HH
i
§28.2.3.2 Quantity sensitivity 697

0DQ\ URRWV LQ WKH ODQJXDJH DFWXDOO\ DSSHDU WR EH GLV\OODELF DQG PRVW KDYH SHQXOWLPDWH VWUHVV 7KH OLVW LQ 
LV RQO\ UHSUHVHQWDWLYH DV WKH\ DUH YHU\ QXPHURXV

 Çtax go Çaco build house

Çmzo want Çacoj big
√ásim laugh √tóojoj grow in one place
√cánaj chew with back teeth √péetij circular
Îmen shake from side to side Òitij curve upwards
Òmoz think Òixaz make clinking sounds
√másij burst open √méesom intact
Òxoz scrape (to clean hide) ×opol black

6RPH GLV\OODELF YHUE URRWV KDYH D ᯳QDO FRQVRQDQW FOXVWHU DQG \HW VWLOO KDYH SHQXOWLPDWH VWUHVV VHH 

 Îmetx turn with screwing motion

Çcatx abandon
Îsijc probe for thorn VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP Îsijqu-im
Çtajc vomit VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP Çtalqu-im
√hóopatj be wavy [sea]
Òitilc curled up at the edges
√quésejc gnaw

28.2.3.2. Quantity sensitivity. 0RVW YHUEV ZLWK D ᯳QDO FRQVRQDQW FOXVWHU KDYH ᯳QDO VWUHVV &RPSDULVRQ ZLWK WKH
LPSHUIHFWLYH i RU SOXUDO VWHP i RIWHQ VKRZV WKDW LQ WKHVH IRUPV WKH VWUHVV LV DFWXDOO\ SHQXOWLPDWH
EHFDXVH WKHUH LV DQ DGGLWLRQDO YRZHO LQ WKHVH IRUPV WKDW LV GURSSHG LQ WKH VLQJXODU 6HH WKH H[DPSOHV LQ 

 )LQDO VWUHVV RQ KHDY\ V\OODEOH ZLWK FRQVRQDQW FOXVWHU

√acóml pierce SOXUDO VWHP √acómal-oj
√acóxl tend VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √acóxal-im
√ahntáxl be near SOXUDO VWHP √ahntáxax
√ahpízl have projection VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ahpízal-im
√ahzínz immature [mesquite pod] SOXUDO VWHP √ahzínaz-oj
√ajcápt shoot at close range VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ajcápot-im
√ajöázp mushy [fruit] VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ajöázip-im
√apópt throw off sparks VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √apópat-im
√apxázl cover VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √apxázal-im
√atáxl catch up with VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √atáxal-im
√azáplc paralyzed (in the legs) VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √azápalqu-im
√icótj rancid VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √icótal-im
√ifáhzx make a short sob to indicate unhappiness VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ifáhazx-im
√ifóhzx cough with hacking cough SOXUDO VWHP √ifóhazx-oj
√ihízj connected VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ihízal-im
√ihízlc dirty VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ihízalqu-im
√ihócl protrude VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ihócal-oj
√ijcácz form ball on bone SOXUDO VWHP √ijcácaz-oj
√inápt curve down sharply with short radius
√ocásjc walk with high steps VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ocáslc-oj
√ojást hop VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ojásit-im
√omíhj slippery VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √omíhil-im
√oquéht bounce VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √oquéhet-im
√otófz close up [round thing] VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √otófaz-im
698 Chapter 28: Phonology

√ozáclc stand on tiptoes VLQJXODU LPSHUIHFWLYH VWHP √ozácalqu-im

√motómn weak SOXUDO VWHP √motóman-oj

 )LQDO VWUHVV RQ KHDY\ V\OODEOH ZLWK QR HYLGHQFH RI GLV\OODELFLW\

√acápjc hurry to do
√ixónj become loose
√anámj hurry to do something carelessly
√ihímz have ringworm
√imázc mangy
√ixósjc messy

9HUEV ZLWK D ORQJ YRZHO RU GLSKWKRQJ LQ WKH ᯳QDO V\OODEOH RI WKH URRW KDYH VWUHVV RQ WKDW V\OODEOH DV VKRZQ LQ


 √acáaix carry with yoke

√amáai roast with fire on top
√acáant counsel
√ahái cause rippling on the surface of the sea [generally fish]
√ihíiin protected from the wind
√icséenpx carry a large thing under the arm
√oféaa have good eyesight
√onáaaij return
√onéaax wash one’s hands

$ IHZ GLV\OODELF YHUE URRWV KDYH ᯳QDO VWUHVV RQ D OLJKW V\OODEOH 7KH OLVW LQ  PD\ EH H[KDXVWLYH

 √acáp be able to pick up (something heavy)

√amác blow [whale or dolphin]
√amós squint
√apát make meat-drying rack
hant √atín crouch down
√atóm make noise in the water with strikes
†
√axát hold breath
√ayáx be out of shape physically
√oqué hear well SOXUDO VWHP LV √oquée

28.2.4 Stress in compounds

,Q V\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV WKRVH ZULWWHQ DV VLQJOH ZRUGV DV ZHOO DV DQDO\WLF FRPSRXQGV WKRVH ZULWWHQ DV PRUH
WKDQ RQH ZRUG WKH ODVW SULPDU\ ZRUG VWUHVV LV UHWDLQHG PDUNHG H[SOLFLWO\ LQ H[DPSOHV 
§28.2.5 Stress in phrases 699

 xóop + ínl > xopínl

Bursera microphylla 3.poss:finger\pl Bursera hindsiana

 xóop + cáacöl > xopcáacöl

Bursera microphylla sbj.nmlz:big\pl Bursera laxiflora

 zíix páaij ano cóom > ziix paaij ano cóom

thing driftwood [3.poss:]in sbj.nmlz:lie striped tail scorpion

 zíix hapx cóom > ziix hapx cóom

thing outside sbj.nmlz:lie whale

9RZHO OHQJWK LV ORVW LQ WKH V\QWKHWLF FRPSRXQGV RU JUHDWO\ UHGXFHG LQ WKH DQDO\WLF FRPSRXQGV RQ WKH V\OOD
EOHV WKDW GR QRW KDYH SULPDU\ VWUHVV )RU H[DPSOHV RI FRPSRXQGV WKDW XVH WKH FRPSRXQGLQJ IRUP RI DGMHFWLYHV
VHH i 7KHVH DOVR UHWDLQ WKH ODVW SULPDU\ VWUHVV

28.2.5 Stress in phrases

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RI ORQJ YRZHOV LV UHGXFHG DV ZHOO ,Q D SKUDVH OLNH xiica comcaac cmis indigenous people things (Seri)_person\pl
sbj.nmlz:[tr:]resemble SULPDU\ VWUHVV RFFXUV RQ cmis :LWK WKH UHGXFWLRQ RI VWUHVV LQ WKH RWKHU V\OODEOHV YRZHO
OHQJWK LV DOVR VXSHU᯳FLDOO\ ORVW WR D VLJQL᯳FDQW GHJUHH 7KH OH[LFDOL]DWLRQ RI D SKUDVH WKHUHIRUH LV D GLUHFW SDWK WR
FRPSRXQGV VLQFH WKH VWUHVV SDWWHUQV DUH WKH VDPH ,Q WKH YHUE SKUDVH LWVHOI VWUHVV PRVW FRPPRQO\ RFFXUV RQ WKH
YHUE EXW LQ VRPH VSHFLDO VLWXDWLRQV WKH SULPDU\ VWUHVV RFFXUV RQ WKH SUHYHUEDO 3 VHH iDQG i

28.3 Syllable structure

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WKH PD[LPDO V\OODEOH KDV WZR FRQVRQDQWV LQ WKH RQVHW DQG WKUHH LQ WKH FRGD 6HH ᯳JXUH 

)LJXUH bb7KH PD[LPDO V\OODEOH WHPSODWH

Syllable

Rime

Onset Nucleus Coda

C C V V V C C C

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EHWZHHQ WKHVH FRQVWLWXHQWV RI WKH V\OODEOH LV NQRZQ WR H[LVWൻQR FRQVWUDLQWV WKDW RQH LPSRVHV RQ WKH RWKHU IRU
H[DPSOH

7KLV FRPSRXQG LV XVXDOO\ SURQRXQFHG ZLWK WKH ᯳UVW ZRUG WUXQFDWHG DV [ʃiʔapχˈkoom]

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WKDW HLWKHU RI WKHVH DVVXPSWLRQV LV QHFHVVDU\

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WKLV H[DPSOH LV VHW DVLGH KHUH

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DQG WKH VL]H RI WKH FRGD LV SUREDEO\ HSLSKHQRPHQDO
700 Chapter 28: Phonology

7KH PD[LPDO V\OODEOH WHPSODWH PDNHV WKH FRUUHFW SUHGLFWLRQ WKDW WKH PD[LPXP QXPEHU RI FRQVRQDQWV DOORZHG
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 D ihps.cmá.tax a.ha 1s.sbj.intr:irr.ind:neg:go aux:dcl I will not go

E ihpt.cmá.tax ... 1s.sbj.intr:rlt:neg:go I didn’t go ...

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᯳QDO SRVLWLRQ DOWKRXJK WKH FRGD RI quihtj sbj.nmlz:cone_shaped LV DQDORJRXV WR hps $ FRGD hVWRSVWRS LV QRW
RWKHUZLVH IRXQG KRZHYHU
:RUGLQWHUQDO YRZHO FOXVWHUV DV LQ caii mature c-aai sbj.nmlz-[tr:]make DQG c-aai-zi sbj.nmlz-[tr:]make-
pl DUH DQDO\]HG DV WDXWRV\OODELF 7KH ZRUGV caii DQG caai DUH SURQRXQFHG DQG SHUFHLYHG DV PRQRV\OODELF QRW
GLV\OODELF DQG caaizi DV GLV\OODELF QRW WULV\OODELF ,W PLJKW EH GLVSXWHG ZKHWKHU VRPH YRZHO FOXVWHUV DUH WDXWR
V\OODELF RU QRW EXW H[DPSOHV VXFK DV WKHVH WKUHH ZKLFK FDQ EH VXSSOHPHQWHG ZLWK PDQ\ PRUH H[DPSOHV MXVWLI\
WKH FRPSOH[ QXFOHXV VKRZQ LQ WKH PD[LPDO V\OODEOH WHPSODWH

28.3.1 Onsets
7KH RQVHW LV DQ REOLJDWRU\ FRQVWLWXHQW RI WKH V\OODEOH H[FHSW LQ ZRUGLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ :RUGV ZLWKRXW RQVHWV LQ WKH
LQLWLDO V\OODEOH DUH LOOXVWUDWHG LQ 

 D am 3.poss:father.fe bbbb E is 3.poss:immature_fruit

F ilít 3.poss:head bbbb G asaac 3.poss:son.me
H ac canvasback (duck) bbbb I ool organ pipe cactus
J oot coyote K eenim knife, metal
L aal 3.poss:spouse M as [im;]sing

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EHWZHHQ ᯳UVW SHUVRQ SRVVHVVRU hi- DQG WKLUG SHUVRQ SRVVHVVRU i- hi-lít 1.poss-head my head i-lít 3.poss-head
her/his/its head
:LWK UHVSHFW WR FRQVRQDQWV LQ ZRUGLQLWLDO DQG ZRUGPHGLDO RQVHWV VHH ii DERYH
7ZRFRQVRQDQW RQVHWV PD\ LQFOXGH FRPELQDWLRQV RI FRQVRQDQWV WKDW DUH QRW FRPPRQ FURVVOLQJXLVWLFDOO\ DO
WKRXJK VRPH RI WKHVH DUH IRXQG RQO\ DV WKH UHVXOW RI ZRUGIRUPDWLRQ UXOHV *HPLQDWH FOXVWHUV RFFXU RQO\
ZLWK DQ LQWHUYHQLQJ PRUSKHPH ERXQGDU\ 7KH H[DPSOHV EHORZ VKRZ WKHVH FOXVWHUV LQ ZRUGLQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ
ZKHQ SRVVLEOH 7KH SDUHQWKHVL]HG H[DPSOHV VKRZ WKHVH FOXVWHUV LQ ZRUGPHGLDO SRVLWLRQ RQ WKH DVVXPSWLRQ
WKDW WKH RQVHW RI D VWUHVVHG V\OODEOH LV PD[LPL]HG 7KLV DVVXPSWLRQ UHFHLYHV VXSSRUW IURP WKH IDFWV GLVFXVVHG
LQ i 6RPH RI WKHVH DUH LQ WXUQ LQVWDQFHV LQ ZKLFK WKH LQ᯳[ -coo- SDUW RI SOXUDOL]DWLRQ PRUSKRORJ\
i DSSHDUV i-h-a-pcooyo 3.poss-pon-aug-taste\pl FRPSDUH i-h-a-pii 3.poss-pon-aug-taste DQG i-fcoocl
3.poss-[pon]-wear_as_blouse\pl FRPSDUH i-ficj 3.poss-[pon]-wear_as_blouse


$V , KDYH QRWHG HOVHZKHUH \RXQJHU SHRSOH WRGD\ XVH heenim IRU WKLV ZRUG ZLWK DQ LQLWLDO JORWWDO VWRS

6HH 0RUHOOL   IRU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH WZRFRQVRQDQW RQVHWV LQ WKLV DQG RWKHU ODQJXDJHV

/DELDOL]HG FRQVRQDQWV DUH RPLWWHG KHUH EHFDXVH RI WKHLU OLPLWHG RU VSHFLDO GLVWULEXWLRQ
§28.3.1 Onsets 701

 6WRS6WRS bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb 6WRS)ULFDWLYH

pp — bbbb pf —
pt ptaact Colubrina viridis bbbb ps psaac hunger (in idiom)
pc (i-h-apcooyo) 3.poss-pon- bbbb pz —
aug:taste\pl
bbbb pj —
bbbb px pxaahom three (interjection)
bbbb pl (c-aplaactim) sbj.nmlz-make_
slapping_sound_
by_hitting_water
bbbb
tp t-panzx rlt-run bbbb tf t-fit rlt-stand_up
tt t-tapjö rlt-disintegrated bbbb ts t-saamij rlt_curled_up
tc t-cam rlt-full bbbb tz tzih bullseye puffer
bbbb tj tjamoja Gulf opaleye
bbbb tx t-xana rlt-flavorless
bbbb tl (i-tleen) 3.poss-palm_of_hand
bbbb
cp cpoot sierra mackerel bbbb cf c-fit sbj.nmlz:stands_up
ct ctam male, man bbbb cs cset magnificent frigatebird
cc c-cam sbj.nmlz:full bbbb cz c-zaz sbj.nmlz:dive_into_sea
bbbb cj c-jip sbj.nmlz:flat
bbbb cx c-xap sbj.nmlz-[tr:]dig
bbbb cl —
bbbb

 )ULFDWLYH6WRS bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb)ULFDWLYH)ULFDWLYH
fp — bbbb f  )ULFDWLYH ൺ
ft — bbbb
fc (i-fcoocl) 3.sbj-[pon:]wear_blouse\pl bbbb
bbbb
sp spitj coastal saltbush bbbb sf s-fit irr.ind-stand_up
st stac coral bbbb ss s-saamij irr.ind-curled_up
sc s-cozim irr.ind-hot_(weather) bbbb sz s-zaahox irr.ind-shine
bbbb sj s-jip irr.ind-flat
bbbb sx s-xana irr.ind-flavorless
bbbb sl sleecoj heron
bbbb
zp — bbbb zf —
zt — bbbb zs —
zc † zcapcoj a small manta ray bbbb zz —
bbbb zj —
bbbb zx (i-zxóca-tim) 3.poss-pon-chop-impf
bbbb zl —
bbbb
jp — bbbb j  )ULFDWLYH ൺ
jt — bbbb
jc jcoa globemallow bbbb
bbbb


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LUUHDOLV SUH᯳[ po- +RZHYHU WKLV VHTXHQFH RI JHPLQDWHV XQOLNH PRVW RWKHUV LV VLPSOL᯳HG WR D VLQJOH ELODELDO VWRS

7KLV LV DQ DUFKDLF YDULDQW RI WKH ZRUG zacz a cockle
702 Chapter 28: Phonology

xp xpaaz basalt bbbb xf —

xt xtaasi estuary bbbb xs —
xc xcoctz burro-weed Ambrosia VS bbbb xs —
bbbb xz —
bbbb xj xjii bottle gourd
bbbb xx —
bbbb xl —
bbbb
l  6WRS bbbb lf —
bbbb ls —
bbbb lz —
bbbb lj —
bbbb lx Lxeecoj (name of a mountain)
bbbb ll —

2WKHU VHTXHQFHV RI FRQVRQDQWV LQ DQ RQVHW VKRZ DQ LQFUHDVH RI VRQRULW\ WRZDUG WKH QXFOHXV RI WKH V\OODEOH
&RPSOH[ RQVHWV PD\ QRW EHJLQ ZLWK D QDVDO DSSUR[LPDQW RU JORWWDO VWRS WKH ODWWHU EHLQJ WDNHQ DV D VRQRUDQW LQ
SDUW EHFDXVH RI WKLV IDFW :KHQ VXFK RQVHWV PLJKW DULVH WKURXJK D᯵[DWLRQ DQG WKH VHTXHQFH LV QRW SUHFHGHG E\
D YRZHO ZKHWKHU LQ WKH VDPH ZRUG RU LQ WKH LPPHGLDWHO\ SUHFHGLQJ ZRUG D YRZHO LV HSHQWKHVL]HG {m-po-caa}
2s.sbj-irr.dep-look_for ! impocaa LI \RX ORRN IRU LW

 6WRS1DVDObbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb6WRS$SSUR[LPDQW*ORWWDO
pm — bbbb py pyooque a sun star Heliaster kubiniji
tm t-mam rlt-cooked/ripe bbbb ty t-yeeno rlt-[hv:]face
cm cmaam female, woman bbbb cy c-yeeno sbj.nmlz-[hv:]face
pn pnaacoj mangrove bbbb ph —
tn t-nopin rlt-convex bbbb th t-heemt rlt-stink
cn c-nopin sbj.nmlz-convex bbbb ch c-heemt sbj.nmlz-stink

 )ULFDWLYH1DVDObbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb)ULFDWLYH$SSUR[LPDQW*ORWWDO
sm s-mam irr.ind-cooked/ripe bbbb sy s-yeeno irr.ind-[hv:]face
zm (a-zmii) 3.poss-maternal_uncle bbbb zy —
jm — bbbb jy —
xm — bbbb xy —
lm — bbbb ly —
sn snaazx a shrub bbbb sh s-heemt irr.ind-stink
zn znapxöl Mexican palo verde bbbb zh —
jn — bbbb jh —
xn xnoois eelgrass grain bbbb xh (moxhamt) last year
ln — bbbb lh —

 D 1DVDO$SSUR[LPDQW ൺ
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6HH DOVR i-lxaai (3.poss-lower_part_of_back_of_head

7KH ODWHUDO DSSUR[LPDQW XQGHUVFRUHG l LQ WKH SUDFWLFDO RUWKRJUDSK\ ZKHQ PDGH H[SOLFLW LV YHU\ UDUH DQG LV QRW LQFOXGHG
LQ WKLV GLVFXVVLRQ 7KH WDS RFFXUV RQO\ LQ D IHZ ORDQZRUGV DQG LV DOVR RPLWWHG IURP WKLV GLVFXVVLRQ

7KLV YRZHO LV PRVW FRPPRQO\ i EXW LW LV o LQ RQH VLWXDWLRQ 6HH i DQG i

7KLV RQVHW PD\ EH DWWHVWHG LQ xojmás a land snail 6RPH ZRUGV OLNH WKLV KRZHYHU DUH FOHDUO\ FRPSRXQGV 7KH V\OODEL
᯳FDWLRQ RI WKH FOXVWHUV LQ WKHVH FDVHV PD\ EH XQFHUWDLQ DQG IRU WKDW UHDVRQ KDYH QRW EHHQ LQFOXGHG LQ WKH H[DPSOHV OLVWHG
§28.3.3 Codas 703

I *ORWWDO$SSUR[LPDQW ൺ
J *ORWWDO*ORWWDO ൺ

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VRPHWKLQJ OLNH 

 2EVWUXHQW2EVWUXHQW LV SHUPLWWHG

28.3.2 Extrametricality on the left

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SHUPLWV RQO\ WZR 7KH ᯳UVW FRQVRQDQW LQ WKHVH ZRUGV PD\ EH FRQVLGHUHG H[WUDPHWULFDO ptcamn Cortez spiny
lobster DQG xptacamn slipper lobster GLDOHFWDO YDULDQW RI tacamn
7KH H[WUDPHWULFDO FRQVRQDQW PD\ EH IRXQG DV WKH UHVXOW RI PRUSKRORJ\ 6RPH XQXVXDO URRWV EHJLQ ZLWK WZR
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 sbj.nmlz-[tr:]... irr.ind-... (3.sbj-)rlt-...

D c-zxoc s-zxoc i-t-zxoc hack off
E c-xnoois s-xnoois t-xnoois characterized by small garbage
F c-xtamt s-xtamt t-xtamt abundant
G c-jcooil s-jcooil i-t-jcooil make fall (plural subject)
H c-xtoopc s-xtoopc t-xtoopc spend the night (plural subject)
I c-zcoomt s-zcoomt i-t-zcoomt appreciate (plural subject)

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 D cö-t-c-aahit 3.io-rlt-unsp.sbj-fish
E cö-t-pacta 3.io-rlt-be_in_appearance
F cö-s-m-aacoj 3.io-irr.ind-neg-big
G cö-t-p-aii 3.io-rlt-pass-make
H cö-s-m-oii 3.io-irr.ind-neg-be.fl\pl

 D cö-s-zxoc 3.io-irr.ind-hack_off
E cö-s-m-oii 3.io-irr.ind-neg-appreciate\pl

28.3.3 Codas
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 6WRS6WRSbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb6WRS)ULFDWLYH
pp — bbbb pf —
pt coeept Gambel’s quail bbbb ps cops lightning bug
pc †
xlequipc fog bbbb pz c-xapz sbj.nmlz-congeal
pcö c-mapcö sbj.nmlz:burst_open bbbb pj yanopj [3.poss:]fist/hoof
bbbb pjö c-tapjö sbj.nmlz-disintegrated
bbbb px hapx place outside
bbbb pxö iipxö desert Christmas cholla
bbbb pl c-aapl sbj.nmlz:cold
bbbb
tp i-t-atp 3.sbj-rlt-spit_out bbbb tf —
tt bbbb ts c-oots sbj.nmlz:sizzle
tc caatc grasshopper bbbb tz aaitz 3.poss:ygr_paternal_uncle
tcö tatcö leopard grouper bbbb tj cotj round stingray
bbbb tjö c-motjö sbj.nmlz-tender
bbbb tx cotx brittlebush
bbbb txö quitxö a species of fish
bbbb tl xnícatl Colorado snapper
bbbb
cp c-oocp sbj.nmlz-emerge bbbb cf —
ct aact 3.poss:mother’s_motherbbbb cs tacs iodine bush
cc — bbbb cz zacz pink cockle
ccö — bbbb cj c-oocj sbj.nmlz-two
bbbb cjö —
bbbb cx hacx apart, alone
bbbb cxö —
bbbb cl heecl a limberbush
bbbb
cöp — bbbb cöf —
cöt haacö-t house-pl bbbb cöf aniicös snake-eyes (a shrub)
cöc — bbbb cöz xazacöz prickly poppy
cöcö — bbbb cöx c-sicöx sbj.nmlz-[tr:]rock
bbbb cöl pnaacöl jojoba

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fp t-afp rlt-arrive bbbb ff —
ft coaaft whirlwind bbbb fs —
fc c-aafc sbj.nmlz-[tr:]pound bbbb fz c-nifz sbj.nmlz-[tr:]kick
fcö — bbbb fj qu-ifj sbj.nmlz-have_constipation
bbbb fjö —
bbbb fx —
bbbb fxö —
bbbb fl —
bbbb
sp — bbbb sf —
st hast stone bbbb ss —
sc hasc abs:body_louse bbbb sz —
scö †
xatoscö eared grebe bbbb sj haasj spiny lizard
bbbb sjö qu-eesjö sbj.nmlz-barefoot
bbbb sx c-paaisx sbj.nmlz-be_clean
bbbb sxö i-t-isxö 3.sbj-rlt-hide
bbbb sl c-masl sbj.nmlz-yellow\pl
bbbb
§28.3.3 Codas 705

zp xtoozp desert ground‑cherry bbbb zf —

zt c-ozt sbj.nmlz-loose bbbb zs —
zc iizc 3.poss-front bbbb zz —
zcö — bbbb zj miizj well, correctly
bbbb zjö —
bbbb zx itcazx 3.sbj-rlt-rip
bbbb zxö —
bbbb zl c-cozl sbj.nmlz:smell_like_rancid_oil
bbbb
jp t-cojp rlt-jump bbbb j  )ULFDWLYH —
jt — bbbb
jc c-aajc sbj.nmlz-yawn bbbb
jcö cacajöc bagworm moth bbbb
bbbb
jöp — bbbb jö  )ULFDWLYH RQO\ jöz
jöt — bbbb jöz c-ojöz sbj.nmlz-round
jöc Tahejöc Tiburon Island bbbb
jöcö — bbbb
bbbb
xp c-ooxp sbj.nmlz-white bbbb x  )ULFDWLYH RQO\ xz DQG xl
xt c-axt sbj.nmlz�young/tender bbbb xz haxz° dog
xc — bbbb xl hantaxl near
xcö — bbbb
bbbb
xöp heexöp musical rasp bbbb xö  )ULFDWLYH RQO\ xöl
xöt iixöt sea current bbbb xöl haxöl Leukoma grata (clam)
xöc c-zooxöc sbj.nmlz-four bbbb
xöcö — bbbb
bbbb
lp haalp Randia thurberi bbbb l  )ULFDWLYH RQO\ lx
(shrub)
lt yaolt [3.poss:]muscle bbbb lx colx very high up
lc t-masilc rlt-burst_open\pl bbbb
lcö — bbbb

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[3.poss:]obj.nmlz:hold_in_lap del dcl S/he is still cuddling him/her/it (something small) while lying down
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 *ORWWDOB6WRS6WRS 1DVDO6WRS
c-oqueht sbj.nmlz-bounce bbbbb c-heemt sbj.nmlz-stink
qu-i-h-t sbj.nmlz-tr-see-pl hant land
c-noohcö sbj.nmlz-concave Cmaamc a constellation

 *ORWWDOB6WRS)ULFDWLYH 1DVDO)ULFDWLYH
hahjö desert wolfberry bbbbb siml barrel cactus
c-omihj sbj.nmlz-slippery caamjö° screech-owl
†
qu-ihs sbj.nmlz-be_firstborn_child cö-c-aamx 3.io-sbj.nmlz-[tr:]say+ io
anxö intns
c-anj sbj.nmlz-thunder

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atcz 3.poss:younger_sister.fe bbbbb —
c-aptxö sbj.nmlz-punctured
c-aptj sbj.nmlz-wide
c-maptx sbj.nmlz-burst_open
i-t-actz 3.sbj-rlt-sift
xcoctz burro-weed Ambrosia VS

 )ULFDWLYH6WRS)ULFDWLYH )ULFDWLYH6WRS6WRS
azcz 3.poss:younger_brother_me bbbbb isct 3.poss:lung
c-ooscl sbj.nmlz-gray bbbb t-oizct rlt-enter\pl
izcl 3.poss:gonads_of_fish
c-apazpx sbj.nmlz-defecate_from_fear
c-noftj sbj.nmlz-jagged
istj 3.poss:leaf
i-t-axpx 3:3-rlt-be_mad_at

 6WRS)ULFDWLYH)ULFDWLYH bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb6WRS)ULFDWLYH6WRSb
c-acsx sbj.nmlz-wake_up bbbbb c-oopxöt sbj.nmlz-loose
c-capxöl sbj.nmlz-brittle c-tiipjöc sbj.nmlz-[tr:]squeeze_with_hand
c-capxl sbj.nmlz-sour c-taaplc sbj.nmlz-be_early_in_day
c-apzx sbj.nmlz-chipped
c-matsj sbj.nmlz-tell_lies
hacözj sea catfish
yatootxöl [3.poss:]kidney
qu-icsj sbj.nmlz-unripe_(fruit)
i-t-acösj 3.sbj-rlt-shake
t-itxl rlt-disintegrate
slenapzj little blue heron

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§28.3.4 Nuclei 707

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c-aafzx sbj.nmlz-fast bbbbb cocasjc tropical beach-grass
c-aazxl sbj.nmlz-cough iflc 3.poss:knee
Hastoosxöl (name of a mountain) haxlc arrow:pl
najcaazjc reedstem milkweed
qu-ihizlc sbj.nmlz-dirty
i-t-azjc 3.sbj-rlt-pile_up

 *ORWWDOB6WRS)ULFDWLYH6WRS bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb*ORWWDOB6WRS)ULFDWLYH)ULFDWLYHb
cö-c-aahjöc 3.io-sbj.nmlz- bbbbb c-aahzx sbj.nmlz-sneeze
sit_with_knees_raised
comihlc mesquite_seed_embryo\pl c-peehzx sbj.nmlz-concave_&_shallow

 *ORWWDOB6WRS6WRS)ULFDWLYH bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb*ORWWDOB6WRS6WRS6WRSb
qu- sbj.nmlz-cone_shaped bbbbb —
ihtj

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i-t-amjc 3.sbj-rlt-deliver bbbbb t-panzx rlt-run
t-amjöc rlt-think\pl t-ihicoomzx rlt-have_skin_lesion
t-monlc rlt-curly t-inlx rlt-return_empty_handed
t-pamlc rlt-form_into_balls

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c-omtxö sbj.nmlz-straight bbbbb —
c-aanpx sbj.nmlz-return_home
c-ancl sbj.nmlz-pitted
c-asoompx sbj.nmlz-[tr:]carry_under_arm_hz
imtj 3.poss:vein/artery
hantx at base

28.3.4 Nuclei
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o9
J c-oalali sbj.nmlz-flap
K toerc willet
L xomcahoij a cactus Grusonia reflexispina

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ii — — íio √ziiom singe
oo — — óoi

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a ൺ áii — caii mature
e éaa éii — √oféaa have good eyesight
i — — — c-oáan sbj.nmlz-murky
o oáa oée óii coéept quail
c-oíi sbj.nmlz-be.fl\pl
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K √neeej curled_up
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M √neeen blunt and unusable
N √queeex cut_hair
O √cooo entire, whole
P √miiit ask
Q √siiin sit_near
R √iii hear\pl FI √ii hear

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710 Chapter 28: Phonology

28.4 Minimal word

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 7ZR PRUDV LQ WKH QXFOHXV 2QH PRUD LQ QXFOHXV RQH PRUD LQ FRGD
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G hai wind, air N hax (fresh) water
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I cói still P tom money
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R taca finescale triggerfish
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U hehe plant
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28.5 Phonological processes

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§28.5.1.1 Morphological condition 711

28.5.1 Lengthening
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G quicöt sbj.nmlz:tr:kill:pl quicöàt a [kʷː]

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712 Chapter 28: Phonology

 D Hap iha. [ˈɁapː iɁa] It is a mule deer.

E Ctam iha. [ˈktamː iɁa] It is a man.
F Cmaam iha. [ˈkw̃ ããmˑ iɁa] It is a woman.

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 D mo-c-a-t [ˈmokːaːt] twd-sbj.nmlz:move-pl ones who come

E mo-h-a [ˈmoɁːaː] twd-im-move Come!
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G co-t-om [ˈkotːoːm] 3.io-rlt-lie it was lying there ...

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 D cootaj [ˈkootˑaˑx] ant

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E Coo ha. [ˈkooɁa] Rhinobatos productos dcl It is a guitarfish.

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28.5.2 Nasal Assimilation

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 D comcaac Seri people [koŋˈkaak]

E comcaii old woman [koŋˈkaii]
F hamcanoiin pan [ʔaŋkanoˈiin]
G xomcahiift oregano [χoŋkaˈʔiiɸt]
H xomcahai an unidentified species of flounder [χoŋkaˈʔai]
I xomcahoij a cactus Grusonia spp.) [χoŋkaˈʔoix]
J Xomcataaij a camp on Tiburon Island [χoŋkaˈtaaix]

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K c-sanj sbj.nmlz-[tr:]carry_child_on_back
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E teem-yo rlmi:say-pl

 3RO\PRUSKHPLF H[DPSOHV ZLWK n [n]

D an-coj [3.poss;]area-pl
E c-pancojc sbj.nmlz:run\pl

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 D i-m-caa 3.sbj-rlmi-look_for [iŋˈkaa]

E im-xapz rlmi-freeze/harden [iɴˈχapʃ]
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G i-n-tís 3.sbj-rlmi-point_at [inˈtis]
H i-n-yaa 3.sbj-rlmi-own [iɲˈjaa]

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 D m-im-panzx 2s.sbj-rlmi-run [mimˈpanʃχ]

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§28.5.2 Nasal Assimilation 715

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E in-s-iin a-ha twd-irr.ind-go aux-dcl [inˈsiin aʔa]
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  Opisthonema_libertatebqm [ˈkootpaɲja] [ˈkootpamja]
Is it a herring?


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716 Chapter 28: Phonology

 ¿Caalim ya? [ˈkaaɬiɲja] [ˈkaaɬimja]

  sbj.nmlz:play qm
Is s/he playing?

 ¿Caaitom ya? [ˈkaaitoɲja] [ˈkaaitomja]

  sbj.nmlz:speak qm
Is s/he talking?

 ¿Hepem ya? [ˈʔɛpɛɲja] [ˈʔɛpɛmja]

Odocoileus_virginianus  qm
Is it a white-tailed deer?

 cootpam com [ˈkootpaŋ kom] [ˈkootpam kom]

Opisthonema_libertate  def;hz
the herring

 hepem cop [ˈʔɛpɛŋ kop] [ˈʔɛpɛm kop]

Odocoileus_virginianus  def;vt
the white-tailed deer

 S-aalim caha. [ˈsaaɬiŋ kaʔa] [ˈsaaɬim kaʔa]

irr.ind-play aux.sbj.nmlz:dcl
S/he will play.

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irr.ind-play rlt:aux
she was going to play ...

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irr.dep:laugh ds
s/he will laugh, ...

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sbj.nmlz;aux;dcl
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G seeten quij pen_shell def;cm the pen shell
H hesen pac dry_Olneya_tesota some some dry ironwood
I zazan quij Quiscalus_mexicanus def;cm the grackle

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28.5.3 Nasal Velarization before pause

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F i-yo-nípa-tim 3.sbj-rlyo-hit-impf [ijoˈnipatiŋ] [ijoˈnipatim]

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G y-aticpan [3.poss:]pon.intr-work
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 D ctam man

E cmaam woman
F m-iim rlmi-sleep
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28.5.4 Nasal Lenition

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H acmahaj [aˈkw̃ ãʔax] 3.poss-younger_brother’s_child_me

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L ¡¿Ctam hi[ŋ]-a-cop a?!

    man dt-rhet-vt aux
That man, my eye!

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acmajeete [akmaˈxeete] 3.poss-wife’s_older_sister

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28.5.5 Nasal Syllabification

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 D ma h-n-zaxö [maʔɲ̩ˈʃaχʷ] 2s.do 1s.sbj.tr-rlmi-discuss

E ih-m-pii [iʔm̩ ˈpii] 1s.sbj.tr-rlmi-taste
F ih-m-caa [iʔŋ̩ˈkaa] 1s.sbj.tr-rlmi-look_for
G ... xah m-p-ah [χaʔm̩ ˈpaʔ] atten rlmi:pass:do/say/put.fl

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28.5.6 Labialization
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 D anxö c-aticpan [χZ kʷ] intns  sbj.nmlz-work

E cö-c-aticpan [kZ kʷ] 3.io-sbj.nmlz:work
F c-zooxöc [χZ kʷ] sbj.nmlz-four
G cö-xo-panzx [kZ χʷ] 3.io-em-run
H ha-quejöc [xZ kʷ] abs-firewood
I Tahejöc [xZ kʷ] Tiburon Island
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K ¿zímjöc xepe iti …? [xZ kZ χʷ] when? sea [3.poss:]on
L mayoocö quij [kZ kʷ] Nyctanassa_violacea def;cm
M anxö qu-i-ya [χZ kʷ] intns  sbj.nmlz-tr-know

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 D ¡¿Ha-quejö-à-c a ya?! Firewood, my eye! abs-firewood<rhet> aux qm

E ¡¿Tahejö-à-c a ya?! Tiburon Island, my eye! Tiburon_Island<rhet> aux qm

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28.5.7 Velarization of p
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Loanwords from Uto-Aztecan languages

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723
724 Chapter A: Loanwords from Uto-Aztecan languages

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Loanwords from Spanish

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 icatoomec week icatoomec caacoj sbj.nmlz:big Sunday 6SDQLVK domingo FI <DTXL Lomiinko Sunday
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 panaal [paˈnaaɬ] honey 6SDQLVK panal FI 2ൿRGKDP pa-nahl sit’ol
 pareen reins and bit 6SDQLVK rienda
 pazaato shoe 6SDQLVK zapato

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725
726 Chapter B: Loanwords from Spanish

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 pyeest party 6SDQLVK fiesta FI 2ൿRGKDP piast 3LPD %DMR piéesch
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 raama checkers 6SDQLVK damas
 reali real FRLQ 6SDQLVK real FI 2ൿRGKDP lial money
 ret lariat 6SDQLVK reata FI <DTXL reata 2ൿRGKDP liat
 roocö crazy 6SDQLVK loco FI 2ൿRGKDP lohgo
 saaco long blouse 6SDQLVK saco FI 2ൿRGKDP sahgo
 santaar soldier 6SDQLVK soldado FI <DTXL sontao 2ൿRGKDP shontal 3LPD %DMR sontao +XDULMLR soon-
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 seaato goat 6SDQLVK chivato FI 2ൿRGKDP siwat 6HH DOVR <XPDQ ODQJXDJHV :DODSDL saváːtoʔ DQG
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 soaano bed sheet 6SDQLVK sábana FI <DTXL savana 2ൿRGKDP sahwano +XDULMLR sawana
 soeroj spurs 6SDQLVK espuelas FI <DTXL ijpuelam2ൿRGKDP ispul
 Tear Devil 6SDQLVK Diablo FI 2ൿRGKDP jiawul 3LPD %DMR yáawely
 toaaz handkerchief 6SDQLVK toalla towel FI 2ൿRGKDP towash
 tom money 6SDQLVK tomín a silver coin FI <DTXL tomi tomin coin 2ൿRGKDP lial 3LPD %DMR tomíny
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 trooqui vehicle UHJLRQDO 6SDQLVK troque IURP (QJOLVK truck
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 C
Tests for transitivity

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UHODWLQJ WR WKH SUHVHQFH RU DEVHQFH RI D GLUHFW REMHFW 7KH WHVWV DUH EDVHG RQ WKH DOORPRUSK\ RI FHUWDLQ SUH᯳[HV
& WKH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI D SKRQRORJLFDO UXOH WKDW UHODWHV WR WKH DOORPRUSK\ RI RQH JURXS RI SUH᯳[HV & WKH
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UHVWULFWLRQV RQ LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQWV RI WKH YHUE √queepe like & 7KHVH DUH LQ DGGLWLRQ WR WKH YHU\ REYLRXV
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VLQFH WKDW LV W\SLFDOO\ XQPDUNHG

C.1 Allomorphy
6RPH SUH᯳[HV KDYH VXSSOHWLYH DOORPRUSK\ WKDW LV GHWHUPLQHG LQ ZKROH RU LQ SDUW E\ WKH VXUIDFH WUDQVLWLYLW\ RU
LQWUDQVLWLYLW\ RI WKH FODXVH

C.1.1 First person singular subject inflection

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WUDQVLWLYH DV LQ  DQG h- LI LW LV WUDQVLWLYH DV LQ  7KH SUHFHGLQJ i LV HSHQWKHWLF )RU PRUH GHWDLOV VHH
i

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
D ihpyomafp E ihpyompazt
1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:arrive 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo:neg:pass:tattoo
I didn’t arrive I wasn’t tattooed

 7UDQVLWLYH
D ihyomaho E ma hyomaho
1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:see 2s.do:1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:neg:see
I didn’t see him/her/it I didn’t see you (sg.)

C.1.2 First person emphatic subject inflection

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LQWUDQVLWLYH DV LQ  DQG a- LI LW LV WUDQVLWLYH DV LQ  7KLV SUH᯳[ RFFXUV LQ D GL᯲HUHQW SRVLWLRQ LQ WKH ZRUG
WKDQ WKH QRUPDO VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQDO D᯵[HV DQG VXEVWLWXWHV IRU WKH QRUPDO ᯳UVW SHUVRQ VXEMHFW LQ᯴HFWLRQ )RU PRUH
GHWDLOV VHH i

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
D Hatee somcaatax aha.
1.em.pro irr.ind:neg:1.sbj.em.intr:go aux:dcl
I won’t go.bb &<+,

E Hatee scapazt aha.

1.em.pro irr.ind:1.sbj.em.intr:pass:tattoo aux:dcl
I will be tattooed.

F ¡Scaalx!
  irr.ind:1.sbj.em.intr:go\pl
Let’s go!

 7UDQVLWLYH
727
728 Chapter C: Tests for transitivity

D Hatee smaahit aha.

1.em.pro irr.ind:neg:1.sbj.em.tr:eat aux:dcl
I will not eat it.bb &<+,

E Hatee yasi.
1.em.pro rlyo:1.sbj.em.tr:drink
I drank it.

F ¡Saaitoj!
  irr.ind:1.sbj.em.tr:eat\pl
Let’s eat it!

C.1.3 Infinitival prefix

7ZR VXSSOHWLYH DOORPRUSKV IRU WKH LQ᯳QLWLYDO SUH᯳[ H[LVW ica- LI WKH FODXVH LV LQWUDQVLWLYH DV LQ  DQG iha$EODXW -
LI LW LV WUDQVLWLYH DV LQ  )RU PRUH GHWDLOV VHH i

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
D icapanzx E icapazt
inf.intr:run inf.intr:pass:tattoo
to run to be tattooed

 7UDQVLWLYH
D ihapii E ma ihasanj
inf.tr:taste 2s.do:inf.tr:carry_on_back
to taste it to carry you (sg.) on my back

C.1.4 Imperative
7KH LPSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ KDV VHYHUDO VXSSOHWLYH DOORPRUSKV WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI ZKLFK LV SUHGLFWDEOH EDVHG SULPDULO\
RQ WKH SKRQRORJLFDO VKDSH RI WKH IROORZLQJ PRUSKHPH EXW DOVR RQ FHUWDLQ RWKHU IDFWRUV LQFOXGLQJ WKH VXUIDFH
WUDQVLWLYLW\ RI WKH FODXVH LQ OLPLWHG VLWXDWLRQV ,I WKH PRUSKHPH IROORZLQJ WKH LPSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ EHJLQV ZLWK D
YRZHO RWKHU WKDQ i ii VKRUW a RU VKRUW e WUDQVLWLYLW\ LV UHOHYDQW ,QWUDQVLWLYH IRUPV WDNH WKH SUH᯳[ Ø$EODXW - DV
VKRZQ LQ  WUDQVLWLYH IRUPV WDNH WKH SUH᯳[ h DV VKRZQ LQ  )RU PRUH GHWDLOV VHH i

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
D asanj
[im;]unsp.obj;carry_on_back
carry (unspecified) on your back!
 VWHP √osanj

E as
[im;]sing
sing!
 URRW √oos

F aanpx
[im:]return_home
go home!
 URRWb√aanpx

 7UDQVLWLYH

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§C.2 Phonological rule 729

D hoocta
im:look_at
look at her/him/it!
 VWHPb√oocta

E haai
im:make
make it!
 URRWb√aai

C.1.5 Realis proposition/oblique deverbal nouns

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LV SUHGLFWDEOH EDVHG SULPDULO\ RQ WKH SKRQRORJLFDO VKDSH RI WKH IROORZLQJ PRUSKHPH EXW WKH VXUIDFH WUDQVLWLYLW\
RI WKH FODXVH LV DOVR VRPHWLPHV UHOHYDQW ,I WKH PRUSKHPH IROORZLQJ WKH LPSHUDWLYH SUH᯳[ EHJLQV ZLWK DQ\ YRZHO
RWKHU WKDQ a e i RU ii WUDQVLWLYLW\ LV UHOHYDQW ,QWUDQVLWLYH IRUPV WDNH WKH SUH᯳[ y$EODXW - DV VKRZQ LQ  ZKLOH
WUDQVLWLYH IRUPV WDNH WKH SUH᯳[ h- DV VKRZQ LQ  )RU PRUH GHWDLOV VHH i 7KH IRUPV EHORZ DUH DOO FLWHG
LQ WKLUG SHUVRQ VXEMHFWSRVVHVVRU IRUPV IRU WKH VDNH RI VLPSOLFLW\

 'HYHUEDO QRXQV EDVHG RQ LQWUDQVLWLYH VWHPV

D yasanj  VWHP √osanj carry (unspecified) on back
[3.poss:]pon.intr:unsp.obj:carry_on_back
E yas  URRW  √oos sing
[3.poss:]pon.intr:sing
F yaanpx  URRW b√aanpx go home
[3.poss:]pon.intr:return_home
G yeemej  URRW  √eemej move slowly (intr.)
[3.poss:]pon.intr:move_slowly

 'HYHUEDO QRXQV EDVHG RQ WUDQVLWLYH VWHPV

D ihoocta  URRW  √oocta look at
[3.poss:]pon:look_at
E ihaai  URRW  √aai make
[3.poss:]pon:make
F iheetol  URRW  √eetol push
[3.poss:]pon:push

C.2 Phonological rule

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yo- i 7KH\ LQWHUDFW GL᯲HUHQWO\ ZLWK D oLQLWLDO VWHPV LQ LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVHV WKDQ WKH\ GR ZLWK oLQLWLDO
VWHPV LQ WUDQVLWLYH FODXVHV ,Q WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH FODXVHV WKH oൿV PHUJH DQG FKDQJH WR a DV VKRZQ LQ  ,Q WKH
WUDQVLWLYH FODXVHV WKH o RI WKH SUH᯳[ LV GHOHWHG DV VKRZQ LQ  7KHVH IDFWV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ i

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
D pas  {po-oos} irr.dep;sing
E xöas  {xo-oos} em;sing
F ihpyás  {hp-yo-oos} 1s.sbj.intr:rlyo;sing

 7UDQVLWLYH
D ipoocta  {i-po-oocta} 3.sbj:irr.dep:look_at
E ixoocta  {i-xo-oocta} 3.sbj:em:look_at
F ihyoocta  {h-yo-oocta} 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:look_at
730 Chapter C: Tests for transitivity

C.3 Passive vs. Unspecified Subject

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UHIHUHQFH WR WKH DJHQW RI D WUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKH SDVVLYH IRUP LV XVHG VHH i :KHQ RQH ZLVKHV WR GR WKH VDPH
IRU DQ LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUE WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ LV XVHG i 3DVVLYH PRUSKRORJ\ LV QRW SHUPLWWHG RQ
LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV DQG XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW PRUSKRORJ\ LV QRW SHUPLWWHG RQ WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV 7KHUHIRUH WUDQVLWLYH
YHUEV DUH VWUDLJKWIRUZDUGO\ GLVWLQJXLVKDEOH IURP LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV EHFDXVH WKLV XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW SUH᯳[ PD\ QRW
EH XVHG ZLWK WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV 7KH IRUPV LQ  DUH DOO FLWHG LQ WKH SURSRVLWLRQREOLTXHRULHQWHG GHYHUEDO
QRXQ IRUP i LQ WKLUG SHUVRQ 1RWH WKDW WKH LQWUDQVLWLYH YHUEV GR QRW SHUPLW WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH SDVVLYH
SUH᯳[ DQG WKH WUDQVLWLYH YHUEV GR QRW SHUPLW WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH XQVSHFL᯳HG VXEMHFW PRUSKHPH

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
D  icaafp E *  ipafp
{i-Ø-ca-afp}   {i-Ø-p-afp}
  3.poss-pon-unsp.sbj-arrive       3.poss-pon-pass-arrive
one’s arriving

 ,QWUDQVLWLYH
D  icapanzx E * ihapanzx
{i-Ø-ca-panzx}   {i-h-ah-panzx}
  3.poss-pon-unsp.sbj-run       3.poss-pon-pass-run
one’s running

 7UDQVLWLYH
D  ihacazni E *  icacazni
{i-h-ah-cazni}   {i-Ø-ca-cazni}
  3.poss-pon-pass-bite       3.poss-pon-unsp.sbj-bite
his/her being bitten (one’s biting him/her/it)

 7UDQVLWLYH
D  ipaho E * icaaho
{i-Ø-p-aho}   {i-Ø-ca-aho}
  3.poss-pon-pass-see       3.poss-pon-unsp.sbj-see
his/her/its being seen (one’s seeing him/her/it)

C.4 Third person subject prefix i-

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PRUH GHWDLOV VHH i 7KHUHIRUH LW GRHV QRW RFFXU LQ  EHFDXVH WKH YHUE LV LQWUDQVLWLYH QRU LQ 
EHFDXVH WKH GLUHFW REMHFW LV QRW WKLUG SHUVRQ QRU LQ  EHFDXVH WKH VXEMHFW LV QRW WKLUG SHUVRQ %XW LW GRHV RFFXU
LQ  EHFDXVH WKH SURSHU FRQGLWLRQV DUH PHW

 Yoofp.
rlyo:arrive
S/he/it arrived.

 Hin yooho.
1s.do:rlyo:see
S/he/it saw me.

 Zo hyooho.
indf;sg 1s.sbj.tr:rlyo:see
I saw one.
§C.5 Restrictions on infinitival complements of √queepe like 731

 Iyooho.
3.sbj:rlyo:see
S/he/it saw it/her/him.

C.5 Restrictions on infinitival complements of √queepe like

7KH YHUE √queepe like SHUPLWV LQ᯳QLWLYDO FRPSOHPHQWV EXW VXFK D FRPSOHPHQW PXVW EH LQWUDQVLWLYH VHH i
7KXV  LV ᯳QH EXW  LV QRW

 Icoop ixoqueepe.
inf.intr:unsp.obj:sew_basket 3.sbj:em:like
S/he likes to sew baskets.

 * [ Satoj (quih) ihaahit ] ixoqueepe.

Modiolus_capax def;fl inf.tr:eat 3.sbj:em:like
(She likes to eat mussels.)
732 Chapter C: Tests for transitivity
 References
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3UHVV
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$QGUHZV $YHU\ '  5HODWLYH FODXVHV ,Q 7LPRWK\ 6KRSHQ HGLWRU Language typology
and syntactic description,  &DPEULGJH &DPEULGJH 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV
%DKUH &RQUDG -  The reduction of the Seri Indian range and residence in the state of
Sonora, Mexico (1536-present). 0$ WKHVLV 7XFVRQ 8QLYHUVLW\ RI $UL]RQD
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Society Papers 
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734 References

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%ULJKW :LOOLDP HG  International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2[IRUG 2[IRUG
8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV
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Linguistics 
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8QLYHUVLW\ RI $UL]RQD 3UHVV
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Indians. 7XFVRQ 7UHDVXUH &KHVW %RRNV
%XUFNKDOWHU 'DYLG  7KH 6HUL ,QGLDQV WRGD\ Journal of the Southwest 
&DPSEHOO /\OH  American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of native
America. 2[IRUG 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV
&DPSEHOO /\OH ,YHV *RGGDUG  6XPPDU\ UHSRUW $PHULFDQ ,QGLDQ ODQJXDJHV DQG
SULQFLSOHV RI ODQJXDJH FKDQJH ,Q %DOWLQ &ROOLQV HGLWRUV 
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&ROODUG +RZDUG (OLVDEHWK 6FRWW &ROODUG  Vocabulario mayo. 0H[LFR &LW\ ,QVWLWXWR
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&XOLFRYHU 3HWHU : 5D\ -DFNHQGR᯲  Simpler syntax. 2[IRUG 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\
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*DWVFKHW $OEHUW 6  7KH :DLNXUX 6HUL DQG <XPD ODQJXDJHV Science 
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