HUMAN

Biology

PART 1
st
1 edition

WAHID WANIS

Human biology 1 Wahid Wanis

 Introduction
- This book is designed in a well organised pattern to be an exciting guide to
O- level that you can study easily.

- It includes all the topics required in the new syllabus.

- It includes practical work which contains the basic facts and techniques that
open the door to answer any question.

- The important scientific terms are written italic and underlined.

How to use this book for highest achievement

- Read carefully the topic for understanding.

- Rewrite the main scientific terms which are written in italic, bold and underlined, so that
you can remember the correct spelling.

- On a paper write the main titles of the topic, then try to write the points covering each title
from your own mind, if are written well this means that this topic is well studied as a first
step, if not, restudy the weak points and repeat the last step.

- Use the book ( answers to past papers, prepared by WAHID WANIS) to find out the
questions related to this topic , try to answer the questions by yourself, recheck the
answer.

I hope that it will help to maintain your interest in biology, and that it will play a valuable
role in developing your knowledge and understanding.

WAHID WANIS

Human biology 2 Wahid Wanis

 Contents
Topic page
1- Characteristics of living organisms 6
2- Cell structure and organisation 7
3- Levels of organization……………………………… 8

4- Size of specimens. 9
5- Diffusion………………………………………………. 11
Active transport……………………………………… 12
Osmosis………………………………………………. 13
6- Nutrition ……………………………………………… 17
Carbohydrates ……………………………………... 17
Fats…………………………………………………… 18
Proteins……………………………………………… 19
Vitamins……………………………………………… 19
Mineral ions…………………………………………. 21
Roughages …………………………………………… 22
Water…………………………………………………... 22
Energy value………………………………………….. 22
Food test……………………………………………… 24

7- Enzymes and metabolism……………………….. 26

8- Photosynthesis …………………………………….. 32
Leaf structure ………………………………………. 38
Green house ………………………………………… 43
Mineral requirements………………………………. 45
9-
10- Diet……………………………………………………... 46
Mechanical and physical digestion ( teeth)……. 48
Human alimentary canal…………………………… 51
11- Transport in plants…………………………………. 61
Transpiration………………………………………… 65
Translocation………………………………………… 66
12- Transport in humans……………………………….. 69
Blood………………………………………………….. 69
Blood vessels………………………………………… 72
Heart……………………………………………………. 74
13- Respiration……………………………………………. 84
Respiratory 86
system………………………………….. 94
Practical applications………………………………
14- Excretion in humans ……………………………….. 96
Homeostasis …………………………………………. 102

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 The Main Characteristics Of
Living Organisms

Respiration : Chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living

cells to release energy which is needed for different functions.

: Taking nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions

Nutrition to be used in growth, tissue repair, development and
production of energy.

Excretion : Removal of toxic materials , waste products of metabolism

( metabolism means chemical reactions in cells including

respiration) and substances in excess of requirements.

: Permanent increase in size and dry mass (dry mass means mass
Growth of the organism after removal of all its water content) by an
increase in cell number or cell size or both.

Reproduction :The processes that make more of the same kind of organism.

:(or locomotion)
Movement
An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a
change of position or place.

:(or irritability)
Sensitivity
Ability to detect or sense changes in the external or internal
environment ( stimuli) and to make responses.

Stimuli
 Singular is stimulus

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 A stimulus is a change in the external or internal environment of an organism such as heat, light , pain
…etc.

CELL STRUCTURE
plant cell animal cell

structure properties functions

Cell wall -Found in plant cells only. -Supports, protects and gives the cell
-Made of cellulose (non its shape.
living). -Allows the freely movement of the different
-Fully permeable (mans molecules
allow different molecules to
pass through it freely) .
Cell membrane -Found in both plant and -Surrounds the cell contents.
animal cells -Controls the movement of different molecules
-Made of carbohydrates, into and out the cell.
proteins and fats.
-Semi-permeable (partially
or selectively permeable)
Nucleus Contains DNA which is the -Controls the activities of the cell.
genetic material. -Carries the inherited information.

Cytoplasm Consists mainly of proteins . -Contains and supports the cell organelles.
-May contain stored food
Chloroplasts Contain chlorophyll. -Absorbs light energy and converts it to chemical
or energy in photosynthesis.
chloroplastids

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Mitochondria Are very small organelles. Site of production of energy by the process of
(singular: aerobic respiration.
Mitochondrion)
Vacuole Consists of fluid surrounded - It helps in supporting the cell
by a membrane. - Regulates absorption of water
The fluid is called sap -Contains stored food.
,consists of nutrients and
ions
Ribosomes -Found on the rough Used in synthesis (formation) of protein.
endoplasmic reticulum(ER).
-May be found free in
cytoplasm
Rough Membranes that form sacs. -Carry ribosomes for protein synthesis.
endoplasmic (network of membranes) -Transport the formed protein
reticulum
vesicles Small vacuoles. Transport of materials.

Notice
Cells with high rate of m.etabolism require large number of mitochondria to provide enough energy for
this metabolism.

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From the diagram below it is needed to know only the shape of

 Ribosomes
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) as membranes carry ribosomes.
 Vesicles which are spherical in shape formed of fluid surrounded by a membrane
(they are labeled as lysosomes in the figure shown below)
 Cell membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Nucleus.
 Mitochondria ( singular is mitochondrion)

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From the diagram below it is needed to know only the shape of

 Ribosomes
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) as membranes carry ribosomes.
 Vesicles which are spherical in shape formed of fluid surrounded by a membrane
(they are labeled as lysosomes in the figure shown below)
 Cell membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Nucleus.
 Mitochondria ( singular is mitochondrion)
 Chloroplast.
 vacuole

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Similarities in both plant and animal cells
Both have:

cell membrane. cytoplasm. nucleus.

mitochondria. ribosomes. ER.

Differences between plant and animal cells

plant cell animal cell

Has a cell wall made of cellulose. Has no cell wall

Has a large permanent sap vacuole. Has no vacuole or temporary small vacuoles
known as (vesicles).

Usually contain chloroplasts No chloroplasts.

Usually contains stored starch. usually contains stored glycogen.

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 Levels of organization
1-Organelle
is a living structure in a cell such as nucleus, chloroplast, vacuole and mitochondria.

2-Cell
the structural and functional unit of all living organisms

3-Tissue
A group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a specific functions.

(examples: bone, muscle ,blood, and nervous tissue.)

4-Organ
A structure made up of a group of tissues working together to perform specific functions.

5-Organ system or system

A group of organs with related functions, working together to perform body functions.

Notice
Not all plant cells are identical and not all animal cells are identical but many cells differ in shape
and structure to perform certain function, these cells are known as modified cells.

Modified cell : means a cell changed in shape or structure or both than the typical form to be adapted
to perform a particular function.

Practical work
Preparing a sample of plant cells for light microscope
1- Cut a piece from an onion bulb, peel a piece of its thin skin using a forceps.
2- Add a drop of water onto a centre of a clean microscope slide, put the piece of onion skin onto it.
( Water is added to avoid dryness of the sample and to keep it turgid enough to be seen easily)

3- Gently lower a coverslip onto it as shown below to avoid trapping any

air bubbles that may affect viewing by formation of dark areas.

4- Use a filter paper to clean up the slide .

5- Look at the sample using the low power lens of
the microscope.

Preparing a sample of animal cells for light microscope

1- Gently rub off a little of your cheek cells using your finger nail or a tooth brush.
2- Put the obtained cells on a clean microscope slide, and gently spread them out.
3- Put on few drops of methylene blue to stain the cells to see the different parts easily.
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4- Gently lower a coverslip onto it to avoid trapping any air bubbles that may affect viewing by formation
of dark areas.
5- Use a filter paper to clean up the slide .
6- Look at the sample using the low power lens of the microscope.

Onion cells as seen using light microscope

cheek cells as seen using light microscope

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 Diffusion
The net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower
concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.

Down and up or against concentration gradient

 Down a concentration gradient means from higher concentration to lower concentration
 Up or against concentration gradient means from lower concentration to higher concentration

What causes diffusion

1- Random movement of the different molecules that provides energy for diffusion.
2- Presence of a difference in concentration of a certain substance.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

1- Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion as it increases the kinetic energy of the
molecules.
(If you hold a tube containing a substance such as ammonia in your hand, rate of
diffusion increases as the molecules of the substance gain heat from your hand)

2- Distance of diffusion
The longer the distance, the longer the time taken for diffusion and vice versa.

3-Air current
If the direction of current is similar to that of diffusion, it increases the rate of diffusion and vice versa.

4-Stirring
It increases the rate of diffusion as it increases the kinetic energy of molecules.

5-Size of molecules
Increase in size of molecules decreases the rate of diffusion and vice versa.

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6-Surface area to volume ratio
When increases , it leads to an increase in rate of diffusion.

7-Concenteration gradient ( difference in concentration)

Increase in difference of concentration leads to an increase in rate of diffusion

Importance of diffusion of gases

1- Necessary for exchange of gases in all living organisms.
2- Necessary for obtaining carbon dioxide and release of oxygen in the process of photosynthesis.

Active transport or active uptake

Definition
Movement of particles in or out of a cell through the cell membrane, from a region of their lower
concentration to a region of their higher concentration against a concentration gradient, using energy
released during respiration

Carrier proteins
 Protein found in cell membranes that force particles against their concentration gradient.
 Carrier proteins are specific ( means each type of carrier has a specific precise shape that can bind with
specific particle).

How carrier proteins act

 The solute( molecule or ion) is taken in the binding site of the carrier
molecule.
 The carrier molecule rotates using energy to transfer the solute from
region of its lower concentration to region of its higher concentration.

Factors affecting active uptake:

1- Number of mitochondria as in the mitochondria energy is

released by the process of aerobic respiration, this energy is used
in active uptake.

2- Concentration of oxygen:
Increase in oxygen concentration increases rate of aerobic respiration,
as a result of this more energy is produced to be used in increasing
rate of active uptake .

3-Number of carrier proteins in the membrane.

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 OSMOSIS
What is osmosis
Net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential ( dilute solution)to a region of
lower water potential ( concentrated solution) through a partially permeable membrane.

Plant cells and osmosis

If a plant cell is placed in high If a plant cell is placed in low

potential of water (e.g. distilled potential of water (e.g. high
water or diluted solution.) concentrated solution of salt or
sugar).

The cell loses water by osmosis

The cell gains water by osmosis - If it loses a small amount of water The
- The vacuole enlarges and the cell vacuole shrinks, and the cell becomes
becomes turgid.
flaccid, but the cell membrane remains
(Turgor pressure is the pressure acting
attached to the cell wall.
against an inelastic cell wall.)

- If the cell gains water, it gains its turgidity

- The turgidity is necessary for supporting
once more ( reversible process)
the plant.

- If it loses more water, the cell membrane

- The pressure inside the plant cell can be
increased due to absorption of water separates away from the cell wall and the
without being burst as it is surrounded by cell becomes plasmolysed.
a rigid cellulose cell wall.
(the space labeled X in the above figure is
occupied by the surrounding solution.)

-
-
-

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-
Plsmolysis

 It is the shrinkage of cytoplasm of a plant cell ,so that the cell membrane begins to tear away from the
cell wall .
 It is an irreversible condition because it damages the cell membrane when it tears away from the cell
wall .
 It is a condition caused by the process of osmosis .

Animal cells and osmosis

If an animal cell is placed in higher water potential

- The cell gains water and bursts, therefore the pressure inside the animal cell cannot be higher than that
inside the plant cell.

If an animal cell is placed in lower water potential

- Cytoplasm shrinks and the cell shrivels up.

( It is not plasmolysed as plasmolysis includes separation of the cell membrane away from the cell wall
and the animal cell has no cell wall.)

Comparison

Diffusion Osmosis

1- It is applied for movement of any type of -It is applied for the movement of
molecules molecules of water only.

2- A partially permeable membrane is not - A partially permeable membrane must be

always involved involved .

The differences between uptake of water and uptake of minerals by the root
hair cells
1- Uptake of water takes place by the process of osmosis which is a passive process (does not need
energy) while uptake of minerals takes place by the process of active uptake which is an active process
(needs energy).
2- In uptake of water, the molecules of water move from regions of their higher concentration (potential),
while in uptake of minerals the molecules move from regions of their lower concentrations to regions of
their higher concentrations (against their concentration gradient).

Remember that

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No active transport for water or gases

Turgid and plasmlysed onion cells

Importance of osmosis to plants

 Absorption of water by the root hair cells.
 Prevents wilting of the plant and provides support by turgidity.

Turgor pressure

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Water pressure acting against an inelastic cell wall

Practical work
1- If a piece of plant such as potato tuber is placed in a concentrated solution of salt or
sugar its length decreases
This due to loss of water from the cells where water potential is higher to the surrounding solution where
the water potential is lower.

( Decrease in length is represented as a negative value e.g. –1, -2 …etc.)

2- In the above condition

If a weight is hanged to the potato tuber as in figure below , the tuber becomes unable to support the
weight as its cells become flaccid)

3- If a piece of plant such as potato tuber is placed in distilled water or a dil. solution of salt
or sugar its length increases
This is because it gains water from the surrounding solution where water potential is
higher than that of potato tissues.
(Increase in length is represented as a positive value e.g. +1, +2 …etc.)

4- In the above condition

If a weight is hanged to the potato tuber as in figure below, the tuber becomes able to support the
weight as its cells become turgid.

5- Salting (e.g. salting of fish) or sugaring of food (e.g. making jam) are important ways in
food preservation. Explain why.
As most microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi cannot live in media of high concentration of salt or
sugar, because such media have low water potential, as a result of this microorganisms lose water by
osmosis and then die.

6-Plants die as a result of irrigation with sea water .

Sea water has high concentrations of salts i.e. low water potential therefore water molecules move by
osmosis from plant roots (where water potential is higher) to the outside (where the water potential is
lower) as a result of this plants wilt and die.

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7- Mean or average length of samples = The total length of the samples divided by the number of
samples.

Example

If 5 potato strips of the same length (e.g. 30 mm) are used and are placed in the same dish of water for
the same period of time and then final length is measured, the results are, 31,32,31,33and 37, to
calculate the mean add the lengths then divide the produced value by 5.

In the above example how to get a more reliable value

Exclude the value 37 as it seems to be anomalous ( wrong or abnormal) and calculate the mean of the
other 4 values.

8- Why repeating an experiment several times is important before taking a conclusion

For more reliable results as taking the average reduces the effect of errors that may be produced due
to defect in one or more of the samples or as a result of personal errors in measurements.

9- How to determine glucose concentration in potato

Put potato rods of the same length and obtained from the same potato in different concentrations of
glucose , the concentration of glucose that result in no change in length of potato is equal to that in
potato because at this concentration net movement of water is zero ( means that the amount of water
lost is equal to that gained)

10-If a plant stem is cut vertically as shown and each of the produced parts is placed in a
different concentration of sugar

The outer layer is a waxy , waterproof layer therefore it is not affected by changes in water potential and
therefore it does not change in length , but the inner soft tissue in the one placed in high concentrated
sugar solution lost water by osmosis causing cells to shrink or become plasmolysed, therefore it decreases
in length than its outer waxy layer while the other one placed in distilled water (zero sugar) gained water
by osmosis therefore its cells become turgid and increase in length.

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 Nutrition And Nutrients
Importance of food
1-For growth .
2-For tissue repair.
3-For production of energy.
4-For protection against diseases.

Classes of food :
1- proteins. 2- fats or lipids. 3- carbohydrates or saccharides
4- vitamins. 5- minerals. 6- roughages.
7- water .

Carbohydrates or Saccharides
Chemical structure
Composed of the three elements only which are carbon , hydrogen ,and oxygen , in the ratio 1: 2: 1.

Importance of carbohydrates
1- Production of energy by the process of respiration .
( One gram of carbohydrates produces about 17 kJ )
2- Stored in the cells:
- in plant cells it is stored in the form of starch .
- in animal cells it is stored in the form of glycogen .
3- Cellulose is used in formation of cell walls of plant cells .

Groups of carbohydrates

Name Examples Sources Formula Properties

Monosaccharides glucose grapes C6H12O6 1- Are the basic units of
carbohydrates.
fructose fruits 2- Are called simple sugars .

galactose 3- Are soluble in water .

4- Have sweet taste .

1- Can be found in the form of

crystals or white powder .
Disaccharides maltose Barley milk C12 H22O11 1- Each molecule can be
decomposed into two
lactose sugar cane molecules of
monosaccharides.

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 sucrose 2- Soluble in water.
3- Sweeter than monosaccharides.

4- Can be found in the form of

crystals or white powder.

Polysaccharides starch potatoes (C12H22O11)n 1- Each molecule can be

decomposed into many
cellulose vegetables n = many
molecules of mono and
glycogen liver disaccharides.

2- Insoluble in water .

3- No sweet taste.

4- Only starch is a white powder .

Storage of carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are stored in the form of polysaccharides because this insoluble form has no
osmotic effect.
 In mammals excess carbohydrates are stored in liver and muscles in the form of glycogen.
 Excess carbohydrates are also converted into fats to be stored under the skin and around certain
organs such as kidney

Notice
starch, glycogen and cellulose are formed of glucose.

LIPIDS
Chemical structure : are composed of the three elements which are carbon , hydrogen , and oxygen
.But the amount of oxygen in fats is less than that in carbohydrates

The basic units : fatty acids and glycerol .

Lipids are fats and oil

- Fat is a lipid which is solid at room temperature such as butter.
- Oil is a lipid which is liquid at room temperature
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Importance of fats
1- Release of energy by the process of respiration .
(The energy produced by fats is nearly double that produced by carbohydrates, it is about 39 kJ/gram)

2- Form a part of the cell membrane .

3- Stored in the body:

- as a food reserve .
- to protect and support certain organs such as kidneys.
- to act as an insulating layer that reduces the rate of heat loss.

4-Form a water proof layer for skin, fur, and feathers.

Sources of fats

Animal sources : meat, milk, cheese, butter and eggs

Plant sources : palm oil, maize, and cotton seed oil.

Carbohydrates are used as a source of energy for players and not fats although the energy
produced by fats is more than that produced by carbohydrates because the metabolism of
fats takes longer time

PROTEINS
Chemical structure : it is formed of the following elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sometimes sulphur.

The basic units : are known as amino acids.

Sources of proteins
Animal sources : meat, milk, fish, and eggs.
Plant sources : leguminous plants such as beans and lentils.

Importance of proteins
1- As a source of energy in case of starvation .
( one gram of proteins produces 17kJ)
2- Growth and tissue repair .
3- Formation of enzymes and hormones.
4- Protection against diseases as antibodies produced by white blood cells are made of proteins .

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5- Formation of haemoglobin which is found in red blood cells to transport oxygen.

VITAMINS
Are organic substances only needed in small amounts in the body to perform specific function .

Vitamin Sources Importance Deficiency symptoms Properties

C (also -Citrus fruits such -Helps wounds to - Its lack causes a disease -Water soluble vitamin
as orange and heal. known as scurvy. therefore it cannot be stored
known lemon. in the body.
as
ascorbic -Keeps blood
acid) -Fresh fruits and
vessels healthy.
vegetables - Spoils if food is heated or
canned.
-Keeps cement of Symptoms of scurvy
teeth healthy.
1- Pain in joints and -Destroyed by being exposed to
muscles.
air e.g. if food is grated or
2- Bleeding from gum and
-Keeps gum and other parts of the body. minced as this activates
3- Delayed healing of enzymes in food which destroy
teeth healthy. wounds. vitamin C.

- Helps the body - Refrigeration keeps the

to use iron. vitamin C content of the food
but to a certain limit.

- Stimulates the
immune system.

D - Butter, eggs -Helps -Rickets in children. -Fat soluble vitamin,

absorption
(also and cod- liver oil. Causes bones to be soft and therefore it can be stored in the
known of calcium and deformed body (in liver).
as
phosphorus.
calcifer- -Can be formed
ol) in the skin by
being exposed -Helps the -Soft bones or

to sun rays. deposition of osteomalicia in adults.

calcium and

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 phosphorus in -Slow dentition

bones and teeth.

A Liver and fish oil Healthy skin and Night blindness which is Fat soluble vitamin
epithelial tissues inability to see in dim light
Milk and eggs
Good vision Dryness of cornea leading
Green leafy plants to complete blindness.
carrots

Notice
1- Sailors are liable to be infected by scurvy because they use stored or canned food.

2- It is important to expose children to sun rays to avoid rickets, because vitamin D can be formed in their
bodies by the effect of the ultra violet rays of the sun.

Scurvy Rickets
Bleeding in gum , fall of teeth

scurvy Anaemia
Bleeding under skin

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Test for vitamin C

When added to a blue dye known as DCPIP it decolorizes it ( causes it to be colourless)

How to compare vitamin C content of two types of juice

1-In two test tubes put equal volumes of DCPIP of the same concentration.

2-Using a graduated dropper, pipette or a syringe, add the juice drop by drop on the DCPIP until it

becomes colourless, the one that requires smaller volume or number of drops to decolorize DCPIP is the
one that contains higher conc. of vitamin C.

How to investigate the effect of storage on the vitamin C ( ascorbic acid ) content of a fruit
juice for example lemon juice

1-Take two equal samples of lemon juice , use one sample to determine the number of drops needed to
decolorize certain volume of DCPIP.

2-Leave the other samples stored in lab. for 12 hours, then determine the number of drops needed to
decolorize the same volume of DCPIP.

3-Larger number of drops needed in the sample which is stored indicating that conc. of vitamin C
decreased after being stored.

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Mineral Sources Importance Deficiency symptoms

Calcium -Milk and its 1) Necessary for 1- Brittle (soft) bones .

products. formation of
bones and
teeth
2) Necessary for
-Many fruits blood clotting.
2- Brittle teeth.
and 3) Necessary for
vegetables. lactation.

3- Slow dentition in children.

Iron -Liver. - Necessary for - Anaemia

formation of
-Egg yolk. haemoglobin of (it is rapid tiredness and shortness of breathing due
red blood cells. to lack of haemoglobin which is used to carry
- Red meat.
oxygen to the different parts of the body to be used
-Leafy in production of energy by the process of aerobic
vegetables. respiration)

MINERAL SALTS

More mineral salts are needed

a- In hot days or in case of carrying out strenuous exercise because perspiration(sweat) rate is higher
leading to loss of salts in sweat.
b- In cases of diarrhea due to rapid loss of mineral salts.

More mineral salts are needed

c- In hot days or in case of carrying out strenuous exercise because perspiration(sweat) rate is higher
leading to loss of salts in sweat.
d- In cases of diarrhea due to rapid loss of mineral salts.

WATER
Importance of water
1-It is the main component of the blood plasma.

2-Water secreted in the form of sweat is necessary for cooling down the body during hot days.

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3-Environment for marine organisms.

Importance of water as a solvent

 Dissolved oxygen in water is necessary for respiration of marine organisms.
 Excretory products can not be excreted except dissolved in water.
 Enzymes and hormones cannot be secreted and work except dissolved in water.
 Digested food can not be absorbed except dissolved in water.
 Plants can not absorb mineral ions from soil except dissolved in water.

ROUPHAGES (FIBERS)
Definition : fibrous, indigestible food (mostly cellulose). It stimulates the muscles of the
digestive system to move the food by a movement known as peristalsis .

Importance of rouphages

1- Stimulates peristalsis in the digestive system therefore it prevents constipation.

(because the muscles of the digestive system work more when there is harder, less digestible food)

2- Reduce the risk of cancer of colon because cancer can be started off by certain chemicals in food ,if this
food remains for a long time in the alimentary canal. These chemicals remain stuck to the fibers
without affecting the alimentary canal.

3- Helps in diet by providing feel of stomach fullness.

Sources of rouphages

1- All plant foods ( as their cell walls contain the indigestible cellulose).

2- Cereal grains and barley.

3-The whole meal bread (bread contains bran).

4- Brown or unpolished rice.

ENERGY VALUE OF FOOD

Definition : it is the amount of energy produced by complete combustion of a unit mass of food .

Units of measuring energy :

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Joules (J) ,kilo joules (kJ), and calories

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Units of measuring energy value of food :

joule per gram ( J/g ) , kilo joule per grams (kJ /g) and calorie per gram.

One calorie = 4.2 joules

One kilo-joule = 1000 joules

Practical work

Comparing energy values of two types of food

1- Two equal samples (one of each type of food) are burnt to
be used in heating water in the test tube as in figure.
2- By comparing the increase in temperature in the two tubes
we can conclude which one of the two foods has a higher
energy value than the other.

Practical precautions:

1- For fair comparison

a- The two pieces of food must be equal.
b- The volume of water in the two tubes must be equal.
c- The distance between the piece of food and the test tube must be equal, as increase in distance
increases the amount of heat lost to the surrounding air .
d- Two similar tubes must be used, as the difference in surface area exposed to the flame affects the
amount of heat gained by water, also the thickness of the wall of the tube or its material affect the
amount of heat that passes to the water.

2- Not all the heat produced by the food is recorded by the thermometer, because:
a- An amount of heat is lost to the surrounding air.
b- An amount of heat is gained by the needle or any other object used in holding the piece of food.
c- An amount of heat gained by the glass of the tube.
d- An amount of heat lost during evaporation of water.

3- How to reduce heat loss in this experiment?

a- Put a stopper or a cotton wool in the top of the test tube.
b- Insulate the sides of the container using a substance such as aluminum foil.
c- Use a flat bottomless container under which the flame can spread out to reduce rate of heat loss in
the surrounding air.

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 FOOD TEST
Positive Negative
Type of food Method
observation observation

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1-Starch -Add iodine solution -Blue black or -The colour remains
yellow brown
( has a yellow brown color ) dark blue colour

2-Reducing - Add Benedict's solution and heat. -Orange red or - The color
sugar or brick red
(it has a blue colour as it contains Remains blue.
precipitate is
simple sugar copper salts)
formed
(e.g. lucose) Precautions
(the gradual
1- Hold the tube with a holder. change in colour
from blue to green,
2- Direct the opening of the tube yellow, orange
away then red)
from your face.

3- Do not fill more than half of the

tube to avoid splashes when the
solution boils.

4- It is preferable to use a water bath

.

3- Proteins (This test is known as biuret test) -Purple color -The colour remains
blue.
- Add potassium hydroxide, then add ( mauve or lilac)

drops of copper sulphate, the

colour

becomes blue.

4- Fats or (This test is known as ethanol or -Milky emulsion -The solution

lipids. emulsion test)
or turbid solution remains clear
- Add ethanol, fats dissolve in is formed.
ethanol forming clear solution.
- Add drops of water to the clear
solution.

Enzymes are proteins therefore anything that contains enzymes gives positive result with biuret test.

How to compare fat in two samples of food such as leaves and meat

Human biology 30 Wahid Wanis

prepare equal masses of leaves and meat, grind up each, put each in a beaker, add equal volumes of
ethanol of the same concentration to dissolve fats, add equal volumes of water, the more cloudy the
medium ,the more fat is present.

How to compare reducing sugar concentration in two samples of food

Get equal masses of the two fruits, crush each one and put the product of crushing of each fruit in a test
tube, add equal volumes of water and equal volumes of Benedict’s solution in each test tube, put the
tubes in a water bath, the one which becomes orange or orange red first contains a higher concentration
of reducing sugar.

The safety precautions in this experiment is to wear goggles, lab coat and to hold tubes using a holder and
to keep opening of the tube away from your face to avoid splashes during heating.

How to compare protein concentration in two samples of food such as two

different beans
Soak seeds of the two different types of beans , weigh equal masses of each type.

For each type grind up the seeds and dissolve as possible as you can, Add equal volumes of potassium
hydroxide followed by equal drops of copper sulphate, compare the produced colours, the darker the
purple ,the more protein is present.

( also a colourmeter can be used to compare the degree of the produced coloures.)

Human biology 31 Wahid Wanis

 Practical applications
The dialysis or visking tubing

- A tube made of artificial fibres or cellulose.

- It is partially permeable, this means that it allows small molecules to pass through it but prevents the
large ones.

Examples

- It allows sugar molecules to pass and

prevents starch molecules.

- It allows amino acids to pass and

prevents protein molecules.

In the front figure

after time sugar can be found in the surrounding water because amylase can act on starch to be digested
into sugar that can diffuse out the tubing.

Human biology 32 Wahid Wanis

 Metabolism
- All the chemical changes that take place within an organism .

Types of metabolism
1- Catabolism : are the metabolic reactions through which complex substances are broken into simpler
ones.

Examples : digestion and respiration.

2- Anabolism : are the metabolic reactions through which complex substances are built from simpler
ones.

Example : photosynthesis.

Glands

- Are the organs or cells which produce certain chemicals (secretions)

Types of glands:

1- Exocrine or ductile glands

- Have ducts (tube- like structures through which their secretions pass).

- Their secretions are called enzymes.

2- Endocrine or ductless glands

- Have no duct .

- Their secretions are called hormones, that reach their target organs through blood.

Human biology 33 Wahid Wanis

 Enzymes
Protein that acts as biological catalyst .

Biological catalysts

- Are the substances which speed up a metabolic reaction without being changed or change the
products.

Substrate :

- Is the substance on which an enzyme acts .

- Each enzyme has a certain substrate on which it acts .

Examples :

1- The enzyme pepsin which is secreted by the walls of the stomach its substrate is protein

Protein Pepsin polypeptides

2- The enzyme amylase which is secreted by salivary glands its substrate is starch.

Starch Amylase maltose ( a type of sugar )

The main characteristics of enzymes

- Enzymes are specific in their function

- Means that each enzyme speeds up a certain reaction only because

each enzyme has a region called the active site where its substrate
fits exactly, and this allows the enzyme to act on a certain substrate
or substrates , this means that the enzyme acts as a lock while its
substrate acts as a key.

Human biology 34 Wahid Wanis

When enzyme binds to its substrate the structure is enzyme substrate complex

Notice
Different sequences and number of different types of amino acids are responsible for giving protein a
certain shape, for example it gives the shape of the active site.

Why enzymes are needed

Temperature in body is low, therefore the reactions cannot be

fast enough, when enzyme bind to its substrate, it lowers
the energy needed for the reaction to start.

Extra cellular enzymes

Enzymes that the cell secrete to act on substrates outside the
cell

Intracellular enzymes
which are formed inside the cell to act on substrates inside the
cell.

Enzymes are affected by temperature

-The activity of most enzymes increases by the increase in

temperature till about 35oC to 40 oC then any increase in temperature
leads to a decrease in the activity of the enzyme.
- Increase in temperature increases rate of reaction as it increases
kinetic energy of molecules of both enzyme and its substrate making
them move around faster and this increases frequency of effective
collisions which increases the chance to bind together.
-Above 50oC the enzyme denature ( means that it loses its activity and
can not regain it even if the temperature changes to its optimum)
Optimum temperature of an enzyme

It is the temperature at which the enzyme works best.

Human biology 35 Wahid Wanis

Enzymes are affected by the pH value

Each enzyme has a certain pH at which it works best .

Any increase or decrease around this pH decreases the activity of the

enzyme.

Extremes of pH changes may denature some enzymes.

Optimum pH of an enzyme

It is the pH value at which an enzyme works best .

Examples

The optimum pH of amylase is about 7 to 7.5

The optimum pH of pepsin is about 2 to 2.5.

Many fruits such as apple change colour when cut open and left exposed to air

Enzymes in apple cells catalise the reaction between oxygen in air and substances ( such as iron) in the
apple cells causing change in colour therefore changing pH or being exposed to heat caused enzyme to be
denatured so this reaction cannot take place and therefore no change in colour occurs.

How to investigate the effect of pH on colour change in apple

 Prepare solutions of different pH values such as 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 using buffer solutions.

 Cut pieces of equal volume from the same apple.
 Put two pieces in each Petri dish and add to its surface a pH solution (not to immerse it) . Measure the
length of time needed to start changing colour of apple surface, repeat and take the average then plot
the results in a graph.
 The shorter the time needed to change colour, the optimum the pH.

Notice
Enzymes are important in all living organisms to speed metabolic reaction at a rate which is
necessary to sustain life

Human biology 36 Wahid Wanis

 Practical work
1- If a dropper is used in obtaining different samples
It has to be washed and dried each step to avoid mixing of different samples affecting the results.

2- A control experiment
An experiment contains all the conditions except the factor under investigation
Example :
If an experiment is set up to investigate the effect of a certain enzyme on milk, its control experiment is
the same experiment without adding the enzyme or adding denatured enzyme.
The aim of the control experiment to ensure that the changes that take place during the experiment are
due to the factor under investigation (the factor in the above example is the enzyme) .

3- To obtain extract of plant leaves

The leaf is cut into pieces and then ground in a mortar with sand and water.
Sand : to help in damaging the cells by its sharp edges so the extract can flow out the cells.
Water : to dissolve the extract.

4- If starch is added to agar jelly

 The jelly becomes cloudy.
 If a germinating seed is placed on this jelly, the enzymes of the germinating seed will act on the
starch to be digested into simple sugars, therefore if iodine solution is added, the region around the
seed will remain yellow brown.

5- If an enzyme is added to a sample at 20 oC and then the temperature is raised to 30 oC,

the rate of the reaction will increase because;
a- The activity of the enzyme at 30 oC is higher than that at 20 oC.
b- The rate of diffusion of the enzyme among the molecules of the substrate is higher at 30 oC than that
at 20 oC

6- If a Petri dish containing - non sterile or non disinfected - agar jelly is left in air for about
two days, colonies of microorganisms can be seen on the jelly because:
a- There is enough food substance in the jelly.
b- There is suitable temperature.

7-How to determine the time needed for digestion of a certain volume of starch using
amylase
Each minute take a drop of the mixture, add to it a drop of iodine solution, observe the colour formed,
repeat several times until no change in the colour of iodine solution takes place indicating that all starch
is digested into maltose.

8-How to investigate the effect of pH on activity of amylase

Put equal volumes of identical starch solutions in 4 test tubes, adjust the pH values in the test tubes as
follows 2, 4, 6 and 8 with the help of pH indicator or buffers , add equal volumes of amylase (the
same conc.). Keep the temperature constant test for starch at intervals of 1 min to determine the time
taken for complete breakdown of starch at each pH. repeat the same experiment , calculate the average ,
plot a graph to determined the optimum pH.

Human biology 37 Wahid Wanis

To calculate rate of the reaction
Volume of starch/time taken for its digestion

9-How to investigate the effect of temperature on activity of amylase

Put equal volume of identical starch solutions in 8 test tubes, put each in a water bath of one of the
following temperatures 20,25,30,35,40,45,60 and 65.
Add equal volumes of amylase (the same conc.).
test for starch at intervals of 1 min to determine the time taken for complete breakdown of starch at each
temperature. repeat the same experiment , calculate the average , plot a graph to determined the
optimum temperature.

10-Catalase enzyme

It is present in all living cells, it speeds up

breakdown of hydrogen peroxide ( H2O2 )

which is a toxic material produced in living

cells into oxygen and water.

The filter paper soaked in catalase rises

because hydrogen peroxide is broken down
into water and oxygen , this oxygen evolves forcing the filter paper upwards, the higher the rate of the
reaction , the shorter the time needed for filter paper to rise to the surface.

Human biology 38 Wahid Wanis

 Balanced diet
Balanced diet

The daily intake of food containing all the food stuffs in right proportions according to age ,sex ,work ,and
climate .

Special requirements

1- Babies need: 1-Females: Heavy workers need In cold countries

more fats and people need more fats
- calcium , phosphorus - need more iron to carbohydrates to and carbohydrates to
and vitamin D for replace the blood they produce the energy produce enough
required for this work .
building their bones . lose during energy to maintain
- proteins for rapid menstruation. their body temperature
growth. - during pregnancy they and to form an
- no need for iron in need more calcium insulating layer under
their skin to reduce
the early age as the ,iron ,phosphorus and heat loss.

baby is born with proteins for growth of

stored iron in his embryo .

liver. 2- Males :

2- Young children: - need more proteins

as
- need high energy
they build more
food for their
muscles.
muscular activity.

- need proteins for

Human biology 39 Wahid Wanis

 growth .

3- Old people need:

- fruits and vegetables

for vitamins.

- rouphages to

activate their
intestines.

- less fats to avoid

their precipitation in

their blood vessels.

Notice
- If a person is transferred from a light work to a heavy work, he loses weight, because he has to break
down amounts of the stored food to produce the energy required for the heavy work.

Malnutrition

A condition caused by eating an unbalanced diet (food lacking one or more types of food or an increase in
quantities of one or more types of food )

Starvation
An expression refers to massive lack of food of all types .

Effects of malnutrition

Malnutrition and heart disease

- Eating too much fats which are rich in saturated fatty acids and cholesterol, may lead to heart attack.

Human biology 40 Wahid Wanis

Malnutrition and constipation
- Lack of rouphages in food causes constipation because rouphages being indigestible they form bulks,
the friction between these bulks and walls of intestine stimulate the peristalsis, that pushes the food
remains to be egested.

Malnutrition and obesity

(obesity means over weight .)

- Eating too much fats and carbohydrates leads to their storage in the body mainly in the form of fats
and this causes increase in the body weight.

Harms of obesity
1- Gets tired more quickly .

2- Unattractive feature ,which leads to psychological problems .

3- Heart diseases and high blood pressure .

4- Increase in liability to diabetes .

5- Increase in liability to cancer .

How to avoid obesity

1- Eating more rouphages gives the sensation of fullness ,and this decreases the feel of being hungry .

2- Decrease in the amount of carbohydrates and fats in food .

3- Regular exercise .

Human biology 41 Wahid Wanis

Effects of protein-energy malnutrition

Kwashiorkor
 Caused due to lack of protein.
 Children seen underweight or look fat due to eating mainly carbohydrates.
 If start eating protein they can grow normally.

Marasmus
Severe shortage in energy food causing the body mass to be lower than 60% of the normal

Marasmus Kwashiorkor

Human biology 42 Wahid Wanis

 TEETH
Each tooth consists of two regions

1- Root : the part of the tooth embedded in the gum .

2- Crown : the part of the tooth found above the gum.

Structure of a tooth

1- Enamel

- It is the outer layer of the tooth.

- It is the hardest substance made by the body .

- Can be dissolved by acids .

2- Dentine

- living regions contains channels of cytoplasm .

- It is quite hard but not as hard as enamel.

Human biology 43 Wahid Wanis

3- Pulp (cavity)

- Contains nerves for sensation .

- Contains blood vessels to supply food and oxygen .

- Contains cells which make dentine .

4- Cement

- It is a bone - like substance .

- Have fibres growing out of it to attach the tooth to the jaw bone , and to allow the tooth to move
slightly.

Types of teeth

incisors canines premolars molars

- Have sharp edges for - Are more pointed to - Are four in each - Larger and broader
tear food. jaw, two in each than premolars.
cutting and biting of
side.
food.

- Found in the front of - Are two in each jaw. - Each has four or
the mouth. - Each has one or more cusps.
two cusps.
- Are four in each jaw - Used for crushing
- Broad for grinding and grinding.
and crushing food.

Human biology 44 Wahid Wanis

Function of cusps
- When the jaws close, the cusps interlock and slide against each other for grinding and crushing of food.

Arrangement of teeth in humans

General functions of teeth

1- Help with the ingestion and mechanical digestion of food.
2- Bite off pieces of food.
3- Chop, crush or grind food into smaller pieces and this gives the food a larger surface area, which make
it easier for the enzymes to work, and helps to dissolve the soluble parts of food, it also facilitates
swallowing of food.

Wisdom teeth:
- Are the teeth found at the back of the jaw.

- Are so called because they grow later than others .

Two sets of teeth in the life of humans

Milky or deciduous teeth Permanent teeth

- Begin to grow when the child is 5 months - Are 32 teeth , 16 in each jaw .

- By the age of 18 to 20 months most - By 18 years old most people have them all.
children have a set of 20 teeth.

- They begin to fall when the child is about

- Harder than the milky teeth .
seven years old ,to be replaced by

Human biology 45 Wahid Wanis

 permanent teeth. - Cannot be replaced .

Herbivores (plant eaters)pend more time eating more than carnivores(meat eaters)

because plant leaves contain less fats and protein therefore herbivores need to obtain more food to get
enough protein and the required energy as energy value of carbohydrates is smaller than that of fats also
because longer time is needed for chewing fibres that are found in leaves.

What is meant by dental decay ?

- The dissolving of a hole in enamel and dentine by the effect of the acids produced by certain bacteria
that feed on the food remains in mouth especially sugars .
- Infection may reach pulp where nerves are found, and this is very painful.
- Infection can spread rapidly through the pulp , and may form an abscess at the root of the tooth.

What is plaque?
- Some bacteria with substances from saliva form a sticky film over the teeth, especially next to the gum
and between the teeth, this is the (plaque.)

- Bacteria in plaque may infect the gum, which swell and becomes inflamed and bleed.

- Bacteria may work around the root and makes the tooth fall out.
- It accumulates on the teeth surface especially near gum.

How to determine pH of plaque

Take a sample of plaque, dissolve it as you can, test for pH using universal indicator to determine its pH
using universal indicator colour chart.

Dental hygiene (care of teeth)

1- Do not eat much sugar

( because bacteria feed on sugar producing acids which dissolve the enamel .)

2- Use a fluoride tooth paste because:

- fluoride makes your teeth more resistant to decay.

- fluoride helps in healing by formation of new enamel .

- regular brushing helps to remove plaque .

Human biology 46 Wahid Wanis

3- Make regular visits to a dentist .

4- Your food should contain enough calcium , phosphorus and vitamin D which are necessary for
formation of enamel

5- Take enough vitamin C which makes the cement substance healthy .

Chewing process

Importance of chewing:
1- Facilitates swallowing .

2- Increases the surface area of food for the enzymes to act .

Mechanism of chewing :
1- The chewing muscles contract and relax to move the lower jaw up and down .
2- This movement makes the food squeezed by teeth to be cut and crushed.
3- Tongue helps chewing by moving food between teeth.
4- Mucus in saliva facilitates movement of teeth against cheek.

The Human Digestive System

It consists of :
1- The human alimentary canal ( gut )

includes :

a- mouth b- pharynx

c- oesophagus d-stomach

e- small intestine f- large intestine

2- The associated organs or the

digestive glands :

a- liver b- pancreas

c- salivary glands.
Human biology 47 Wahid Wanis
Definitions

1- Ingestion
It is the process of taking food and drink into a living
organism through the mouth.

2- Chemical digestion
It is the breaking down of large insoluble food
molecules into small water soluble molecules using
mechanical and chemical processes to be easily
absorbed and transported.

3-Mechanical digestion
Breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change of food molecules

4- Absorption of food
Movement of digested food molecules or ions through the wall of the small intestine into the blood or
lymph.

5- Assimilation of food
It is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are used and
becoming part of the cells.

5- Egestion:
It is the passing out of food that has not been digested, as feces, through the anus .

The human alimentary canal is lined with

1- Epithelial cells

- Small soft cells able to divide rapidly to replace the worn out cells due to the friction with food.

2- Goblet cells

- Secrete mucus to reduce the friction between food and the alimentary canal.

3-Muscles

- Mainly circular and longitudinal to contract and relax in a movement called peristalsis.

Human biology 48 Wahid Wanis

Peristalsis

- It is the rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the

walls of tubes such as the alimentary canal to
squeeze the contents along .

Action of peristalsis:
When a piece of food ( bolus ) reaches a part of the
alimentary canal such as oesophagus or intestine:

- Above the piece of food the circular muscles contract

while the longitudinal muscles relax.

- The opposite takes place around the bolus.

- As a result the food is pushed along the alimentary

canal

1- MOUTH

It contains :
1- Tongue

- Necessary for swallowing .

- It is the organ of taste .

- Moves the food between teeth .

- Mixes food with saliva.

2-Teeth

- For chewing food .

3- Salivary glands

- Are three pairs .

- They secrete a juice known as saliva.

Human biology 49 Wahid Wanis

Components of saliva
1- Water and mucus

- Moistens food to be easily chewed and swallowed .

- Decreases friction between teeth and cheek cells.

- Help to get rid of the food remains found between teeth .

2- Amylase enzyme

- Acts on starch to be broken down into maltose sugar .

- It acts in a neutral or slightly alkaline medium

3- Bicarbonate or hydrogen carbonate

- Creates a suitable pH value for the enzyme amylase to act .

- Protects the teeth against decay by neutralizing the acids produced by bacteria in mouth

Notice

Amylase cannot finish its work because food is not kept in the mouth for long time.

2-Pharynx
- It is the common passage for both food and air.

- The effect of salivary amylase continues in the pharynx.

- It contains a part known as soft palate to close the nasal cavity during swallowing.

- It contains a piece of cartilage known as epiglottis to close trachea during swallowing to avoid the flow of
food into the respiratory system.

3- Oesophagus
- It transfers food from the pharynx to the stomach by peristalsis.

- Effect of salivary amylase on starch continues in oesophagus.

Human biology 50 Wahid Wanis

4- Stomach
- It is the widest part in the alimentary canal .

- It is controlled by two sphincter muscles :

A- Cardiac sphincter : when it relaxes food passes to the stomach .

B- Pyloric sphincter : when it relaxes food leaves the stomach to the small intestine .

- It secretes a juice known as gastric or stomach

juice .

Components of the gastric juice

1-Hydrochloric acid

- To kill microbes that may enter with the food as it

denature their enzymes by lowering pH .

- To activate the enzyme pepsinogen into the active form

pepsin .

2-Pepsinogen

- An inactive enzyme.

- It is activated by hydrochloric acid to form pepsin .

- Pepsin acts on proteins to be digested into polypeptides .

3-Mucus:

To protect the wall of the stomach against hydrochloric acid and pepsin.

Mechanical digestion in the stomach

- Churning movement (contraction and relaxation of the stomach muscles) makes the food semi- fluid

Human biology 51 Wahid Wanis

Notice
1- Stomach digests proteins but doesn't digest itself because :

- pepsin is secreted in an inactive form .

- stomach secretes a protective layer of mucus .

2- The enzymes that digest proteins are known as proteases .

3- Proteases are secreted in an inactive form in order not to digest the cells producing them as the cells
are made of proteins .

4- The effect of salivary amylase stops in the stomach as it acts in slightly alkaline medium while the
stomach is acidic .

5- The food mixed with the gastric juice and that leaving the stomach is known as chyme, it is acidic .

Peptic ulcer or stomach ulcer

- It is an ulcer in the wall of the stomach when it is attacked by the gastric juice .

-This takes place due to the excessive secretion of gastric juice and lack of secretion of mucus.

- Smoking , alcoholic drinks and nervous stress are the main causes .

5-Small intestines

- It is the longest part in the alimentary canal .

Its functions

a- complete digestion of food .

b- absorption of digested food .

Juices received by the small intestine

 Bile from liver
 Pancreatic juice from pancreas

Human biology 52 Wahid Wanis

 Intestinal secretions from the walls of intestine

Bile

- Greenish yellow .

- Formed in the liver .

- It is stored in the gall bladder .

- It is not considered as an enzyme as it does not act as a catalyst for metabolic reaction .

Its components:
A- Bile pigment
- Formed in the liver due to the destruction of dead red blood cells.

- Excreted with faeces giving its characteristic colour .

B-Bile salts

- Are used to emulsify fats

( Means breaks down the large droplets of fats into smaller droplets )

- Also it contains bicarbonates to neutralize the acidity of chyme and to create a slightly alkaline
medium as the enzymes of this part work in a slightly alkaline medium .

Pancreatic juice

A- Bicarbonates
- To neutralise the acidity of chyme .,and to create a slightly alkaline medium because the enzymes in the
small intestine act in a slightly alkaline medium.

B- Pancreatic amylase

- Like salivary amylase it acts on starch to be digested into maltose sugar .

C- Lipase

- Acts on lipids ( fats ) to be digested into fatty acids and glycerol .

Human biology 53 Wahid Wanis

D- Trypsinogen
- An inactive enzyme .

- It is activated by certain chemical secreted by the walls of intestine forming the active trypsin

- Like pepsin it acts on proteins to be digested into polypeptides.

( pepsin and trypsin are called proteases as they act on proteins )

Intestinal enzymes

1- Lipase :

- Like the pancreatic lipase it acts on lipids to be digested into fatty acids and glycerol .

2- Peptidase:

- Acts on polypeptides to be digested into amino acids .

3- Maltase ( found on memebranes of smallintestine)

- Acts on maltose to be digested into glucose .

Summary of digestion of the different food materials

starch salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase maltose maltase of intestine glucose

protein pepsin of stomach and trypsin of pancreas polypeptides peptidase of intestine amino acids

or
protein proteases amino acids

Fats ( lipids ) bile emulsified fats lipase of pancreas and lipase of intestine fatty acids and glycerol .

Human biology 54 Wahid Wanis

 Absorption of digested food
-Takes place mainly in ileum .

Cross section (T. S) in ileum Structure of a villus

Human biology 55 Wahid Wanis

Adaptation of ileum for absorption

1- Long to provide a large surface area for absorption .

2- Narrow to slow down the movement of food and this increases the rate of absorption .

3- Lined with villi which are adapted for absorption as follows :

a- Lined with epithelial cells with thin walls to make food pass easily .
b- Contain digestive enzymes to complete digestion of food before being absorbed .
c- Contain a network of capillaries to transport the absorbed food .
d- Contain lacteal vessels to carry the absorbed fatty acids and glycerol .
e- The epithelial cells of villi contain microscopic projections known as micro-villi to increase the
surface area of absorption .
f- Its cells contain a lot of mitochondria to produce the energy required for absorption by active
uptake .

Villi contain muscles to move villus so that it affects its surface area to be exposed to more food and this
increases rate of absorption of food, also this helps movement of blood in blood vessels that carry
digested food and lacteal vessels that carry absorbed fatty acids and glycerol.

Mechanism of absorption of digested food

1- Amino acids, monosaccharides, water, minerals and water soluble vitamins:

- pass through the epithelial cells of villi into the blood capillaries .

- blood capillaries of villi join together forming a blood vessel known as hepatic portal vein.

- hepatic portal vein carries the absorbed food to the liver .

- liver is the first organ that receives the absorbed food because of the following reasons:

a- To store the excess glucose in the form of glycogen

b- To break down the toxic materials by a process known as detoxification .

c- To break down the excess amino acids by a process known as deamination

producing urea.

Human biology 56 Wahid Wanis