See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235985084

The impact of storytelling on the consumer

Article in Journal of Brand Management · March 2013

CITATIONS READS

36 5,092

4 authors, including:

Veronica Liljander Johanna Gummerus

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Allard van Riel

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Relationship Marketing View project

Service Innovation View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Johanna Gummerus on 27 October 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

of a firm-originated story

Anna Lundqvist, Veronica Liljander, Johanna Gummerus and Allard

van Riel

This is a pre-print of an article (prepared by the authors prior to review)

published in Journal of Brand Management. The definitive publisher-

authenticated version Lundqvist, A., Liljander, V., Gummerus, J. and van Riel,

A. (2013), “The impact of storytelling on the consumer brand experience: the

case of a firm-originated story”, Journal of Brand Management 20, 283-297

(February/March 2013), doi:10.1057/bm.2012.15

is available online at: http://www.palgrave-

journals.com/bm/journal/v20/n4/full/bm201215a.html

Abstract

Stories fascinate people and are often more easily remembered than facts. Much has been

written about the power of stories in branding, but very little empirical evidence exists of their

effects on consumer responses. In the present study, we investigate how a firm-originated

story influences consumers’ brand experience, by comparing the brand experiences of two

groups of consumers. One group was exposed to the story and one group was not. An existing

brand was used in the study, which had not been launched in the focal country. In-depth

interviews were conducted with individuals in the two experimental conditions. The

1
comparison revealed remarkable differences between the two groups. Consumers who were

exposed to the story described the brand in much more positive terms and were willing to pay

more for the product. The study contributes to brand management research and practice by

demonstrating the power of storytelling on consumer experiences. The results are also

important from a managerial point of view. They demonstrate how brand stories can be used

to create and reinforce positive brand associations. A review of past research in combination

with the findings demonstrates that more research is needed on the effect of stories on

consumer brand responses.

Keywords: Storytelling, Brand experience, Brand associations, Brand value, Qualitative

method, Experiment

2
Introduction

Stories have always fascinated people and are more easily remembered than facts. Well-told

stories regarding a brand appear to have the potential to influence consumers’ brand

experience, which consists of all the “sensations, feelings, cognitions, and behavioral

responses evoked by brand-related stimuli that are part of brand’s design and identity,

packing, communications, and environment” (Brakus et al, 2009 , p. 52).

Consumer-originated stories about brands circulate widely, but firms can also create

their own stories. The use of such firm-originated brand stories is esteemed to be influential,

especially in services (e.g., Mossberg and Nissen Johansen, 2006). Consequently, there has

recently been an increase in storytelling research (Adaval and Wyer, 1998, Benjamin, 2006,

Mattila, 2000, Mossberg and Nissen Johansen, 2006, Woodside et al, 2008). Most brand story

research investigates consumer experiences, consequences of product use (Chang, 2009,

p.22), or story content in advertising (Stern, 1994). Furthermore, a wide variety of sources

have been analyzed for brand story content, including travel blogs (Hsu et al, 2009, Woodside

et al, 2008), Harry Potter (Brown and Patterson, 2010) and consumer blogs and discussions

on DNA tests (Hirschman, 2010). However, firm-originated stories have not been widely

investigated. Case descriptions and some examples can be found in the literature, but very

little empirical evidence exists of their effects on consumer responses. A notable exception is

Merchant et al. (2010), who studied the effects of firm-originated stories on donors’

(negative) emotions and intentions, and concluded that story content affected both.

The present study investigates if brand experiences differ between consumers who are

introduced to a brand with a firm-originated story and consumers who get to know the same

brand without the story. We investigate if a well told, firm-originated brand story could make

the brand more attractive to consumers.

3
 The present study contributes to brand management literature by providing empirical

evidence of the effects of company generated and communicated brand stories on consumers’

brand experience. Clear differences were found between the groups in how they responded to

the brand.

The article is structured as follows. In a literature review storytelling is analyzed and an

overview is provided of effects on consumers’ brand experiences. Thereafter, the method and

empirical results are presented. The study was conducted as a between-subject experiment

with twenty qualitative interviews. The article concludes with a discussion of the results,

managerial implications, limitations and future research directions.

Storytelling

The essence of stories

A story has a structure that keeps it together and engages the listener. Brand stories

resemble traditional fairy tales (Twitchell, 2004), and narratives, and answer questions like:

who, what, why, where, when, how and with the help of what (Shankar et al, 2001). They

have a beginning, middle and end, and events unfold in a chronological sequence, which,

when causal, is called a plot (Stern, 1993, p.604). Stories always make a point that is valued

(positively or negatively) by the audience (Shankar et al, 2001), and include a message, a

conflict, a role distribution and action (Stern et al, 1998). Brand stories need to be credible

and well executed to be successful. The audience should be able to identify with its characters

and the message should put the brand in a positive light (Mossberg and Nissen Johansen,

2006). Each story should convey only one single message (Fog et al, 2005), which is clearly

focused, so that it can be summarized in only one or two sentences (Twitchell, 2004). Stories

are often used to convey brand values. In his book, The Dream Society, Jensen (1999, p. 52)

4
even defines stories as value statements (emphasis in the original), and lists various values

that could form the basis of stories.

A conflict often propels the story, in addition to a quest for restoring harmony (Fog et

al, 2005). The solution to the conflict, which needs not be very dramatic, is the central

message (Mossberg and Nissen Johansen, 2006). It is important that the action raises interest

from the beginning and that the message is clear. A compelling story typically includes an

unexpected or unusual twist (Peracchio and Escalas, 2008). Finally, the end, which is often

best remembered, should emotionally satisfy the audience (Fog et al, 2005, Guber, 2007,

Mossberg and Nissen Johansen, 2006).

Storytelling and brands

Stories have caught people’s attention since the beginning of time. People want to

believe in myths and stories (Jensen, 1999, Kelley and Littman, 2006), while brands

communicate myths (Holt, 2003, Holt and Thompson, 2004). Brands also play an important

role in consumers’ life stories (Fournier, 1998, Gabriel and Lang, 1995, Woodside et al,

2008). Moreover, a company can tell its own story to communicate the brand values and what

the company stands for (Fog et al, 2005). Whether real or fictional, stories provide meaning

to brands (Halliday, 1998, Salzer-Mörling and Strannegård, 2004, Simmons, 2006). They can

be thought of as frameworks in which brands can be embedded (Kozinets et al, 2010), for

instance by coupling luxury brands with archetypal stories

Consumer stories have been studied in the form of narratives (Delgadillo and Escalas,

2004, Escalas, 2004b, Megehee and Woodside, 2010, Schembri et al, 2010), associations and

collages (Koll et al, 2010), nethnography (Hsu et al, 2009), and memorable incidents

(Durgee, 1988). Studies on storytelling from a management perspective, however, tend to be

either purely conceptual or conceptual combined with anecdotes and case descriptions.

5
 The scarceness of empirical studies regarding firm-originated stories should not be

interpreted as a lack of managerial interest in the subject. An increasing number of companies

have realized the value of stories and express intentions to make more use of storytelling in

marketing. Mossberg and Nissen Johansen (2006) provide numerous examples of how

marketers have used real or invented stories to create an atmosphere and enhance the

uniqueness of service brands. Story-based messages are assumed to be particularly well-suited

for the promotion of services due to their ability to communicate both symbolic and

experiential components (Padgett and Allen, 1997). However, since comparative studies on

goods are lacking, it is too early to draw conclusions regarding differences in story

effectiveness between goods and services.

Positive consequences of brand stories

Consumers seek experiences appealing to their emotions and dreams, and stories help to

create such experiences (Fog et al, 2005, Silverstein and Fiske, 2003). Stories have heroes

and marketers can turn the brand, the employees, or the customers into heroes with positive

effects on both internal and external brand perceptions (Guber, 2007, Kelley and Littman,

2006).

Stories catch consumers’ interest (Escalas, 2004a, Mossberg and Nissen Johansen,

2006) and convince by what is called narrative transportation - after being immersed in a

story the reader is left changed (Escalas, 2004a, Green and Brock, 2000). Stories also help

consumers understand the benefits of the brand (Kaufman, 2003), are less critically analyzed

and provokes less negative thoughts than regular advertisements (Escalas, 2004a, p. 38).

Storytelling generates positive feelings in customers and is perceived as more

convincing than facts, increasing brand trust, raising awareness and making the brand unique

(Kaufman, 2003, Kelley and Littman, 2006, Mossberg and Nissen Johansen, 2006).

Advertising research has shown that advertisements with story content increase positive

6
emotions, such as feeling upbeat or warm(Escalas, 2004a). Stories are stored in memory in

multiple ways, factually, visually and emotionally, making it highly likely that the consumers

will remember them (Mossberg and Nissen Johansen, 2006).

A story also creates expectations (Rosen, 2000), which affect subsequent evaluations of

the brand. The story can convey positive features of a good or service, without being

perceived as commercial. The ice cream brand Ben & Jerry’s may serve as an example. On

their homepage (www.benjerry.com) the brand’s story is presented. In the story, the idea of

high quality has been weaved in by describing ingredients and queuing customers.

Based on the above, it can be assumed that stories may add favorable and unique

associations to a brand, which can increase customer brand equity (Keller, 1993, Leone et al,

2006, Wood, 2000). A story may become a value adding asset, as described in Aaker’s (1991,

p. 15) definition of brand equity as “a set of brand assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its

name and symbol, that add or subtract from the value provided by a product or service to a

firm and/or to that firm’s customers”.

The episodic nature of a story increases the likelihood that consumers will pass it along

(Fog et al, 2005, Mossberg, 2008). The story makes the brand more interesting to talk about

and consumers are more likely to become ambassadors of the brand (Guber, 2007, Mossberg

and Nissen Johansen, 2006).

To achieve these positive consequences, the brand and the story must be perceived as

authentic, because many consumers are critical of what they perceive as manipulative

marketing (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995, Holt, 2002). The story need not be based on real

events, as long as the consumer perceives the story to be real. People enjoy made up tales, as

long as they can relate to the characters (Mossberg and Nissen Johansen, 2006). Often it is

enough that the relationship between the brand and the story appears authentic. A story that is

meant to entertain need not be true, but stories should never be perceived as deceptive.

7
Pretending that fiction is reality will eventually lead to loss of trust in the brand (Mossberg

and Nissen Johansen, 2006).

Method

The empirical study was conducted as an experimental case study of an international

cosmetics brand. Although findings from case studies cannot be generalized directly to other

cases (Stake, 2000), they provide in-depth information that can be used for theory building

purposes (Eisenhardt, 1989), and for further research directions (Patton, 1990). As will be

demonstrated, we found that the story indeed affected the consumer brand experience,

including brand associations and willingness to pay for the brand.

The chosen cosmetics brand was suitable for the study for several reasons. Cosmetics

and health products often use stories to enhance perceptions of their products. Typically,

someone has encountered a problem, but through innovation and persistence the hero (a

person or company) has found a remedy (usually a nature-based ingredient) that solves the

problem (Mossberg and Nissen Johansen, 2006). In addition to representing an industry

where storytelling is often used, the chosen brand has built its marketing strategy around a

company brand story and individual cosmetic product stories, which are told to customers by

the salespeople. The packaging of the products is plain, coherent with the story. Labels on

bottles and tubes only contain a logo and the ingredients. The brand relies on word-of-mouth

and PR. A policy of generously sampling products encourages trial and reduces the threshold

of repeat purchases. The brand is sold mainly through stores designed to support and enhance

the story. The story and brand values are actively communicated through the stores’

servicescape (Bitner, 1992). The brand has been on the market for many decades and is now

owned by a global cosmetics company, which seeks to further expand the market. The

products are rather expensive, in line with other exclusive cosmetics brands. Since the brand

8
has not been launched in Finland, it was possible to study a real brand with a real story, rather

than an invented brand and story.

Research design

The study was conducted in cooperation with the company owning the brand. For

competitive reasons, we cannot reveal the name of the brand. According to the brand manager

in Sweden, a neighbor Nordic country, typical customers are young, urban, and trendy. Eighty

percent are women. When the brand is first introduced to a market, it tends to appeal to

young, trendy customers. Through them it spreads to a wider customer base. Based on this

information, the study was limited to urban women who had no previous knowledge of the

brand. A market research agency recruited 20 participants. They were informed that it was a

market research on cosmetics and were rewarded for participation. Ages ranged between 25

and 40 with a mean of 31.4 years. The participants represented a wide range of professions,

for example, hair dresser, lawyer, psychologist, entrepreneur, nurse, boat seller, sales

secretary, and customer manager.

Individual thematic interviews were conducted of about 60 minutes. The interviews

were conducted at the market research company’s facilities in Helsinki, Finland. The

interviews confirmed that none of the respondents had any previous knowledge of the brand.

Participants were randomly allocated to one of the two experimental conditions and

individually interviewed. Half of the participants were asked to first read a 3-page story about

the company brand, including the company values, where after they were shown a slide show

of a shop where the products were sold. They were also told the story of one of the cosmetics

products, a facial cream of which they were asked to express the monetary value later in the

interview. The other half of the participants was exposed neither to any stories nor to the

slideshow.

9
 Each participant was then invited to investigate and test a selection of 15 products of the

brand and to express their thoughts aloud. The packaging of the products can be described as

plain, as they are modeled from reusable plastic. Participants were asked what they thought of

the products (probing, if necessary, their feelings, thoughts on the content, smell, form),

which associations they experienced in connection with the brand, whether it evoked interest,

what they liked or didn’t like, their overall perceptions. They were also asked to describe the

brand with three adjectives. The interviewer then picked out one of the products, a facial

cream, and asked the participant how much they thought it would cost in retail and if they, in

general, would be prepared to pay the expected price for a good facial cream. Six cost ranges

were provided to cover a wide range of brands of cosmetics on the market, from cheap retail

brands to luxury brands: 1) <10€, 2) 10-20€, 3) 20-30€, 4) 30-40€, 5) 40-50€, and 6) >50€.

Thereafter the price of the cream (31€) was revealed and the respondents were asked if they

would pay that price for this cream. Last, participants were asked if they had anything else to

add regarding their perception of the brand.

The analysis followed common procedures in a qualitative study. The data were

organized according to themes, which were coded and categorized (Spiggle, 1994). The

interviews were analyzed according to the similarities and differences between the two groups

of respondents on how they perceived the brand. The presentation of the findings is organized

according to 1) packaging associations, 2) other brand-related experiences, and 3) willingness

to pay for the brand.

Findings

Associations related to the packaging

The two groups differed clearly in their perceptions of the packaging. The findings are

summarized in Table 1, with examples of quotes for each category.

10
Table 1. Associations to the package (respondent identification in parenthesis)
Non-story group Story group
Amount of text Amount of text
An awful lot of text, which could be on the back of the jar. I like that there is a lot of text. They don’t say
Gives a feeling of ecological product. The text makes it things that they can’t keep. No statements that you
look like it tries to be scientific. (R1) will become one thousand years younger, but
…that oh no, I can’t be bothered to find out what they are saying what it is about. Informative (R15)
for and what is in them. Like they are trying to be so First when you look at it you may think that ”what
scientific when there is so much of that text. (R4) a lot of text”. But then when you start looking you
understand, its idea opens up for you, that they
really want to tell you what is in them. They have
nothing to hide. And that is really good (R14)
Ecological Ecological
It looks like that kind of ecological store products. Not Well, first of all it is really good that one sees, that
very interesting. I would walk right by it at [department they can be recycled. That they are plastic and not a
store] if they had it. (R2) combination of plastic and glass. The jar does not
have to be so great if the content is good. It is really
positive that they are so simple. It gave a positive
reaction immediately. (R14)
Cheap product Simple elegance
A bit cheapish. Brings to mind some [grocery store private One can really see that they have put a lot of effort
label] bottle. (R3) into the appearance. Wonderful! Really nice. (R11)
Clearly cheap, so that you might perhaps find it in some These bottles are charming—their simplicity
ecological store. (R6) appeals to me. (R13)
Nice smell but the neutrality of that packaging and sort of I was thinking that, wonderful simple elegance.
modesty makes one doubt whether they can be good. (R8) (R17)
Conservative Interest in values
Looks Swiss or German. Alps-thing. Pretty conservative. Well, I got interested in what they are really like.
Looks more like some kind of network marketing product That how caring they are. I would like to get to
line that something that would be on a store shelf. (R1). know them better (R11)
A feeling of old-fashion. Old Spice has something like it.
Could be the kind of every man’s product. (R7
Confusion Story-enhanced image
And then in some [products] there is this [picture].Like I think it is really charming! They have kept the
why is it, it is not in those. That like makes one wonder -- old style. One can see that it has its own history and
It doesn’t look very uniform. (R4) that it has been there for a long time. It works.
The product is probably good but the bottles not…a bit (R17)
mixed. If there was some uniformity it would be like My favorite is this... Now that one knows its story
easier to find a kind of… that now it’s just like… quite it becomes nice somehow (R11)
difficult—Sense tells that the plastic bottles are quite It is surely to a large extent the story that raised my
good but…still (R5). interest. I immediately forgot the modest outlook.
But I don’t like get it why so much text is needed? Like The story clearly affects you. (R12)
what’s the point? (R3)
Underestimating customers
Well, perhaps I perceive it so that they underestimate the
customer when they don’t put any effort into the look of
it. They don’t even want the customer to buy it with the
help of how it looks. That they are somehow
underestimating the customer. Almost saying F--- you.
(R3)

The group that was not exposed derived only negative associations from the packaging

style. They perceived the brand as cheap, mundane, boring, old-fashioned, and conservative.

The large amount of text on the packaging was perceived as irritating. The brand was

11
perceived as pretending to be scientific although it was not. Packaging was perceived to look

eco-friendly, but this was expressed in a slightly negative tone, perceiving the brand as naïve

or bohemian, and the plastic bottles as cheapish. One respondent complained that “the

modesty [of the packaging] kind of goes against the use of cosmetics” (R8), finding the

packaging design ill-suited to the product category. Some participants showed outright

contempt towards the brand and one thought that it misjudged its customers. It was perceived

as a brand that could be found in grocery stores, perhaps a retail brand. In addition,

respondents found the brand image confusing, and complained that they had difficulty

understanding why the products looked like they did.

By contrast, participants exposed to the story developed much more positive and

uniform associations with the brand. The relatively simple packaging style did not appear to

disturb them. The story seemed to more than compensate for the packaging’s lack of visual

extravagance. As a result, the style was interpreted as radiating simple elegance. The

respondents repeatedly, and unprompted, mentioned the story.

“I became interested in a completely new way, now that I have heard and seen a

bit more. My interest in these products rose with that story in a totally different

way. I now have a completely different view, compared to what I had before you

told me the story. Back then I thought that they were just a bunch of products.

They all look a bit different, but on the other hand it kind of brings out the feeling

of the origin of them [referring to the story]. They are not in a negative way like –

maybe that is the wrong word - but like ‘branded’ as so many cosmetics brands

are nowadays” (R11).

The packaging style was perceived as honest, supporting the contents, while the

historic outlook and text made the products look trustworthy. The ecological, reusable plastic

of the bottle was perceived positively. Overall, the products were perceived as attractive.

12
Other brand associations

When the participants were asked to use adjectives to describe the brand, further

differences became apparent. Those who had not been exposed to the story described the

brand as traditional (5), clean (3), ordinary (3), ecological (2), but also as high quality (2).

Other associations included old-fashioned, safe, multifaceted, informative, cheap, and

inconsistent. As one participant said, “more a utilitarian, not a trendy product…it doesn’t

raise my interest. One gets the feeling that this is not at all for you. Made for someone

different” (R1). However, those who heard the story chose adjectives that described the brand

as a sympathetic and high quality humane brand with a long history. They used terms as

friendly/sympathetic/warm (5), traditional (5), high quality (4), natural (3), interesting (2), as

well as trendy, valuable, and elegant. Only positive associations were made with the brand.

“Those values are very important to me. Really. Today when you don’t know where these

products come from and like that. That they take part in projects and those ethical principles.

Today it feels like they are decreasing. It feels like there are very few companies that really

care. Nice if some cosmetic brand manages to naturally combine good values in its work”

(R11).

Different aspects of the story seemed to appeal to different people. Some picked out the

environmental aspects, others social responsibility, service, or the history as a family owned

company.

“When I read the story I thought it was a really good choice not to make ads, that

it is the service that is important. That it is important to meet the customer.

Perhaps because of my profession [Educator in a company] I value that and pay

attention to it, but even as a customer it is nice that they make an effort with

customers” (R15)

13
 “… somehow the story brought a lot into the picture. I am definitely impressed by

those ethical values. Environment, welfare and work with developing countries –

that is the ethical values. That it is not only profit maximization, it can be

something else, something softer.” (R18)

“You see that it has its own history and it has been going on for so long. It

works.” (R14)

One participant spontaneously said that she would talk about the story and the brand to

others: “It would certainly raise discussion! If you would replace the brands you use with this

one, you could start telling these stories they are based on. I think that would be fun. If there

are wonderful stories behind some product it is good when they are spread around…This

document made me think ‘cool’. I could imagine that when I sit with friends I could talk

about these products.” (R15)

Willingness to pay

To establish if hearing the story would increase the perceived value of the brand, the

participants were asked what they would be prepared to pay for a specific product. They were

asked to inspect a facial cream of 125ml and say what they thought its approximate retail

price was. They were then asked if they would be willing to pay that price for a good facial

cream (in general). The real price of the product (31€) was then revealed to the participants,

who were asked if they were prepared to pay that price for the product. The results are

summarized in Table 2

14
Table 2. Willingness to pay for the brand (number of observations in parenthesis).
Non story Story
Own price estimate of the 10-20 euro (7) 10-20 euro (3)
shown face cream 20-30 euro (3) 20-30 euro (3)
30-40 euro (2)
>50 euro (2)

Willingness to pay own price Yes (10) Yes (10)

Willingness to pay Yes (5) Yes (10)

The results show that the respondents in the non-exposed group estimated the price to

be between 10 and 30€, while a majority chose the lower price range of 10-20€. In the story

group the price range was broader, from 10 to more than 50€, evenly spread over four price

ranges. In both groups, all the participants were willing to pay the estimated price range for a

good facial cream. In the non-exposed group, only half the respondents were willing to pay

the product’s real price, 31€, for this product. By contrast, all respondents in the exposed

group were willing to buy the cream at the real retail price.

Conclusions

The study demonstrates that a well-crafted story may create positive associations with a

brand and ultimately increase consumers’ willingness to pay for it. Consumers in the two

conditions perceived the brand attributes quite differently and developed different brand

attitudes. Specific features were interpreted differently, such as the amount of text on the

packaging, and the groups also developed distinct product associations. The difference

between the two conditions and their impact on participants were also evidenced by the

atmosphere during the interviews. Consumers who were exposed to the story talked more

about the brand and behaved much livelier when making associations. Their voice and facial

expressions were more positive towards the brand and they often related it to themselves.

15
Respondents who were not exposed to the story were more impatient and showed a relatively

negative attitude towards the brand, not only by their choice of words but also through their

tone of voice, and by being more critical towards it.

The story did indeed create high quality expectations, based on genuine values, which,

according to Rosen (2000), is one of the most important aspects of stories. The group that was

not exposed to the story developed expectations regarding functional benefits mainly based

upon the packaging and to some extent upon inspecting the content. They also experienced

difficulties in making sense of the brand, and expressed confusion about the packaging design

and the brand’s overall message. In the other group, however, the story took over the visual

role of the packaging, and the brand associations appeared to be developed based on the story,

as evidenced by the following quote: “It was to a large extent the story that made me

interested. I immediately forgot the modest outlook” (R12). It could be said that the

personality of the brand (Aaker, 1997) changed from sincerity to excitement in the group that

was exposed to the story.

In essence, the story had a filtering effect, changing the evaluation of the brand, raising

its value. This effect is illustrated in Figure 1, showing that consumers in the non-exposed

group based their brand associations solely on the packaging, whereas those who heard the

story related all their associations to the story.

Figure 1. The effect of storytelling on brand experience

16
 The stories were backed up by the servicescape, which forms part of the consumer’s

brand experience (Brakus et al, 2009 ). When asked to what extent the pictures of the store

had influenced them, respondents said things like: “It was the worldview that was most

important” (R5), “The story itself had the biggest impact” (R16), and “The story impacted

more than the pictures… even if the store was exactly like the story” (R17).

We conclude that storytelling is an effective way of communicating brand values to

consumers. A story can embrace the core values of a brand in ways that traditional marketing

communication cannot. Hence, storytelling deserves a more prominent place in the brand

management literature. Apart from books with practical advice and case examples (Fog et al,

2005, Vincent, 2002), storytelling has been scarcely discussed in the brand management

literature (Aaker, 1991, Kapferer, 2008, Keller, 1998, Keller et al, 2008).

Managerial implications

Stories add symbolic value to goods and services, and can be used to sell a broad array

of products, ranging from antiques to everyday goods. A good story may engage consumers

to become ambassadors of the brand, spreading positive word-of-mouth and recommending

the brand to others. Due to its relationship-building elements, storytelling is also well suited

for customer-to-customer marketing. First, however, the story, or stories must be

communicated to potential customers. Stories can be incorporated into TV commercials as ad

vignettes or plots (Stern, 1994), into online advertising, as exemplified by the ice-cream brand

Ben & Jerry’s, or they can be told interactively to customers who enter a specially designed

store to inspect products. The servicescape can then be used to support and strengthen the

image of the story and the brand.

We would like to caution brand managers against being too optimistic regarding the

effects of introducing firm-originated storytelling into their marketing efforts. There are no

17
studies to show what kinds of story work and when, and a sudden surge of brand related

stories could cause consumer irritation. Furthermore, consumers cannot identify themselves

equally well with all brands or become immersed into every brand story. For some brands,

consumers’ own stories might be more effective communicators of brand benefits and brand

values than a firm-originated story. Indeed, research has reported some commonalities

between firms that generate stories among consumers (Solnet and Kandampully, 2008). An

engaging, funny, fanciful TV-ad plot that only remotely relates to the brand could also be

more effective than a true story that does not engage the customer. When the company has a

good story to tell, however, our study shows that it is worth telling it.

Limitations and future research directions

Based on the previous discussion, it can be observed that this study has some

limitations, some of which lead to suggestions for further research. One limitation is that the

study was performed on a relatively small sample, thereby limiting the generalizability of

conclusions that can be drawn from the study. Small samples are common in qualitative

studies and many recent studies on consumer brand stories have used even smaller samples

(Hirschman, 2010, Schembri et al, 2010, Woodside et al, 2008). To be able to generalize the

results, there is a need for further tests of the effect of stories on consumer brand experiences.

In our study, the servicescape appeared to add little to the formation of brand

associations. This may be due to the experimental design, where participants could not

actually visit the store. The role of the store atmosphere and the way it conveys the story may

be more important in reality, as part of the full brand experience. It is also possible that the

sevicescape plays a smaller role in goods retailing than in a pure service environment, like in

hotels and restaurants (cf., Mossberg, 2008). This consideration warrants further studies.

Some caution should be taken when transferring the results of this study to other

contexts or other types of stories. Our study was limited to one brand, which markets itself

18
with a claimed authentic story about the history of the brand. No traditional marketing

channels are used, with the exception of online sales in selected countries. Word-of-mouth

marketing and handing out samples form the basis of brand marketing. This is not a concept

that suits all brands. Therefore further research is needed on different types of stories.

Distinctions could be made between authentic and non-authentic stories, or stories based on

the history of the product vs. stories about consumers using the product.

Of particular interest appear consumer reactions to made-up stories when the story is

revealed to be non-authentic. Mossberg and Nissen Johansen (2006) tell the story of a

woman who swore never to return when the story of a restaurant was revealed to her as

invented. Furthermore, it seems that many brand stories have been created early on in a

brand’s life. One could wonder whether it is possible to add stories later on, when remodeling

the market communication of an existing brand.

Moreover, stories and storytelling have been interpreted in a number of different ways

(Gabriel and Lang, 1995), comprising any type of story related to the use of a product, or

claim about a brand, making comparisons between studies extremely difficult. Comparative

studies regarding stories around a variety of goods and services should be performed to

answer the question if storytelling works equally well for all types of products and price

ranges. One might also ask if some products are particularly well suited for storytelling. Is

storytelling, for example, better suited for ego-involving and self-expressive products than for

utility goods? Furthermore, could stories add to the value of business-to-business products?

Although benefits were not expressed as such in the study, consumers in the group that

was exposed to the story expressed an emotional enthusiasm for the story, which may

ultimately develop into emotional and symbolic benefits of the brand. We therefore suggest

that future studies should look closer at what types of benefits storytelling may bring to

consumers’ brand experiences.

19
 Finally, a consumer perspective was taken in this study, but there is also a need to study

companies’ views of the role of storytelling in brand building. Of primary interest is studying

how stories are related to other brand building elements, whether there is a fit between them,

and how that fit affects consumers, employees and company performance.

20
 REFERENCES

Aaker, D. A. (1991). Managing brand equity: Capitalizing on the value of a brand name,

New York, The Free Press.

Aaker, J. L. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34 (3

(August)), 347-56.

Adaval, R. and Wyer, R. S. (1998). The role of narratives in consumer information

processing. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 7 (3), 207-245.

Benjamin, B. (2006). The case study: Storytelling in industrial age and beyond. On the

Horizon, 14 (159-164).

Bitner, M. J. (1992). Servicescapes: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and

employees. Journal of Marketing, 56 (2), 57-71.

Brakus, J. J., Schmitt, B. H. and Zarantonello, L. (2009 ). Brand experience. What is it? How

is it measured? Does it affect loyalty? 73 (3 (May)), 52-68.

Brown, S. and Patterson, A. (2010). Selling stories: Harry potter and the marketing plot.

Psychology&Marketing, 27 (6), 541-556.

Chang, C. (2009). Being hooked” by editorail content: The implications for processing

narrative advertising. Journal of Advertising, 38 (3), 51-65.

Delgadillo, Y. and Escalas, E. J. Year. Narrative word-of-mouth communication: Exploring

memory and attitude effects of consumer storytelling. In: KAHN, B. E. & LUCE, M.

F., eds. Advances in Consumer Research Vol. 31, 2004. Association for Consumer

Research Valdosta, GA, 186-192.

Durgee, J. F. (1988). Commentary. On cézanne, hott bottons and interpreting consumer

storytelling. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 5 (4), 47-51.

21
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of

Management Review, 14 (4), 532-550.

Escalas, J. E. (2004a). Imagine yourself in the product. Mental simulation, narrative

transportation, and persuasion. Journal of Advertising, 33 (2), 37-48.

Escalas, J. E. (2004b). Narrative processing: Building consumer connections to brands.

Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14 (1/2), 168-180.

Firat, F. A. and Venkatesh, A. (1995). Liberatory postmodernism and the reenchantment of

consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 22 (3), 239-267.

Fog, K., Budtz, C. and Yakaboylu, B. (2005). Storytelling. Branding in practice, Berlin,

Springer.

Fournier, S. (1998). Consumers and their brands: Developing relationship theory. Journal of

Consumer Research, 24 (March), 343-373.

Gabriel, Y. and Lang, T. (1995). The unmanageable consumer. Contemporary consumption

and its fragmentation., London, SAGE Publications.

Green, M. and Brock, T. (2000). Transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 (5), 701-721.

Guber, P. (2007). The four truths of the storyteller. Harvard Business Review, 85 (12), 52-59.

Halliday, J. (1998). Ford division expands storytelling ads for '99. Automotive News, 72 (5781

(08/24/98)).

Hirschman, E. C. (2010). Evolutionary branding. Psychology & Marketing, 27 (6), 568-583.

Holt, D. B. (2002). Why do brands cause trouble? A dialectical theory of consumer culture

and branding. Journal of Consumer Research, 29 (1 (June)), 70-90.

Holt, D. B. (2003). What becomes an icon most? Harvard Business Review, 81 (3), 43-49.

22
Holt, D. B. and Thompson, C. J. (2004). Man-of-action heroes: The pursuit of heroic

masculinity in everyday consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (2 (Sept)),

425-440.

Hsu, S.-Y., Dehuang, N. and Woodside, A. G. (2009). Storytelling research on consumers'

self-reports of urban tourism experiences in china. Journal of Business Research, 62,

1223-1254.

Jensen, R. (1999). The dream society: How the coming shift from information to imagination

will transform your business, New York, McGraw-Hill.

Kapferer, J.-N. (2008). Strategic brand management. Creating and sustaining brand equity

long term, London, Kogan Page.

Kaufman, B. (2003). Stories that sell, stories that tell. Journal of Business Strategy, 24 (2),

11-15.

Keller, K. L. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand

equity. Journal of Marketing, 57 (January), 1-22.

Keller, K. L. (1998). Strategic brand management: Building, measuring, and managing brand

equity, Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall.

Keller, K. L., Aperia, T. and Georgson, M. (2008). Strategic brand management. A european

perspective, Harlow, Pearson Education Limited.

Kelley, T. and Littman, J. (2006). The ten faces of innovation: Strategies for heightening

creativity., London, Profile Books.

Koll, O., Von Wallpach, S. and Kreutzer, M. (2010). Multi-method research on consumer-

brand associations: Comparing free associations, storytelling, and collages. Psychology

& Marketing, 27 (6), 584-602.

23
Kozinets, R. V., Valck De , K., Wojnicki, A. C. and Wilner, S. J. S. (2010). Networked

narratives: Understanding word-of-mouth marketing in online communities. Journal of

Marketing, 74 (2), 71-89.

Leone, R. P., Rao, V. R., Keller, K. L., Luo, A. M., Mcalister, L. and Srivastava, R. (2006).

Linking brand equity to customer equity. Journal of Service Research, 9 (2), 125-138.

Mattila, A. S. (2000). The role of narratives in the advertising of experiential services.

Journal of Service Research, 3 (1), 35-45.

Megehee, C. M. and Woodside, A. G. (2010). Creating visual narrative art for decoding

stories that consumers and brands tell. Psychology & Marketing, 27 (6), 603-622.

Merchant, A., Ford, J. B. and Sargeant, A. (2010). Charitable organizations’ storytelling

influence on donors’ emotions and intentions. Journal of Business Research, 63, 754-

762.

Mossberg, L. (2008). Extraordinary experiences through storytelling. Scandinavian Journal of

Hospitality and Tourism, 8 (3), 195-210.

Mossberg, L. and Nissen Johansen, E. (2006). Storytelling: Marknadsföring i

upplevelseindustrin (storytelling: Marketing in the experience industry), Göteborg,

Studentlitteratur.

Padgett, D. and Allen, D. (1997). Communicating experiences: A narrative approach to

creating service brand image. Journal of Advertising, 26 (4), 49-62.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods, London, Sage

Publications.

Peracchio, L. and Escalas, E. J. (2008). Tell me a story: Crafting and publishing research in

consumer psychology ournal of Consumer Psychology, 18 (3), 197-204.

Rosen, E. (2000). The anatomy of buzz: How to create word-of-mouth marketing, London,

Harper Collins Business.

24
Salzer-Mörling, M. and Strannegård, L. (2004). Silence of the brands. European Journal of

Marketing, 83 (1/2), 224-238.

Schembri, S., Merriless, B. and Kristiansen, S. (2010). Brand consumption and the narrative

of the self. Psychology & Marketing, 27 (6), 623-637.

Shankar, A., Elliot, R. and Goulding, C. (2001). Understanding consumption: Contributions

from a narrative perspective. Journal of Marketing Management, 17 (3/4), 429-453.

Silverstein, M. J. and Fiske, N. (2003). Luxury for the masses. Harvard Business Review, 81

(4), 48-57.

Simmons, J. (2006). Guinnes and the role of strategic storytelling. Journal of Strategic

Marketing, 14 (March), 11-18.

Solnet, D. and Kandampully, J. (2008). How some service firms have become part of “service

excellence” folklore: An exploratory study. Managing Service Quality, 18 (2), 179-193

Spiggle, S. (1994). Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data in consumer research.

Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (December), 491-503.

Stake, R. E. 2000. Case studies. In: DENZIN, N. K. & LINCOLN, Y. S. (eds.) Handbook of

qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Stern, B. B. (1993). Classical and vignette television advertising dramas: Structural models,

formal analysis and consumer effects. Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (4), 601-615.

Stern, B. B. (1994). Classical and vignette television advertising dramas: Structural models,

formal analysis and consumer effects. Journal of Consumer Research, 20 (4 (March)),

601-615.

Stern, B. B., Thompson, C. J. and Arnould, E. J. (1998). Narrative analysis of a marketing

relationship: The consumer´s perspecitve. Psychology&Marketing, 15 (3), 195-214.

25
 Twitchell, J. B. (2004). An english teacher looks at branding. Journal of Consumer Research,

32 (2), 484-489.

Vincent, L. (2002). Legendary brands: Unleashing the power of storytelling to create a

winning marketing strategy, New york, Dearborn Trad Publishing.

Wood, L. (2000). Brands and brand equity: Definition and management. Management

Decision, 38 (9), 662-669.

Woodside, A. G., Sood, S. and Miller, K. E. (2008). When consumers and brand talk:

Storytelling theory and research in psychology and marketing. Psychology&Marketing,

25 (2), 97-145.

WWW.CDBENJER.COM, History of Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream, http://www.dcbenjer.com/,

retrieved on June 10, 2010.

26

View publication stats