Fundamentals of Information Technology (IT)

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY is an innovation that merges computing with high-speed

communications links carrying data, sound and video. The most important consequence of information
technology is that it is producing a gradual fusion of several important industries in a phenomenon that
has been called “technological convergence”.

TECHNOLOGICAL CONVERGENCE, also known as digital convergence is the technological

merger of several fields through various devices that exchange information in the electronics, or digital,
format used by computers. The fields are computers, communications, consumer electronics,
entertainment, and mass media.

Technological Convergence is derived from a combination of two recent technologies: computers

and communications.

Computer-&-Communications System

Computer is an electronic device capable of accepting data (input), manipulating data

arithmetically and logically (process), producing results (output) and storing output for future use
under the control of instructions stored in its own memory.

Communications (or telecommunications) technology consists of electromagnetic devices

and systems communicating over long distances.

Main aspects of computing:

1. Input : In the input phase, data is entered or otherwise captured electronically and is
converted to a form that can be processed by the computer.
2. Process: In the process phase, the data is manipulated or transformed into information.
3. Output: In the output phase, the information, which is processed data, is produced in a form
usable by people.
4. Store: In the store phase, data, information, or programs are stored in computer-processable
form.

 Communications is an extension capability of each phase.

Elements of Computer-&-Communications System:

The elements of computer and communication system are hardware, software, data/information,
people, procedure and communication.

Element 1: HARDWARE
- Components or physical pieces that make up the computer. Hardware are those things you can
touch.

Hardware Categories:

The element responsible for the main operations of the computer is the hardware.

Hardware Categories
1. Input hardware
2. Processing and memory hardware
3. Output hardware
4. Secondary storage hardware
5. Communications hardware
 Regardless of the operations they perform, external devices that are connected to the main
computer (CPU and memory) are referred to as “peripheral devices”, or simply “peripherals”. A peripheral
is any piece of hardware that is connected to the main computer. Examples are the keyboard, monitor,
and printer.

INPUT Hardware consists of all devices that allow people to enter data and program (a set of instructions
that tells the computer what to do) into the computer. An input device accepts data and converts it into
computer-readable form ready for processing or storage. Input devices can be categorized as keyboard
entry device and source data entry device.

Keyboard entry device is a device used to encode data by key depression.

Example of keyboard entry devices:
1. Computer keyboards
2. Terminals - ex.: ATM(automated teller machine), POS (Point Of Sale Terminals)
3. Touch devices - ex.: express banking (customers use the telephone to transact
business with the bank where a recorded instruction guides the user from the
beginning up to the end of the transaction.
4. Set-top boxes (also called information appliance or communication appliance or
telecomputer ) - ex.: TV cable box, TV/pc smart box

Source data entry device is a special equipment that collects data at its origin and sends it directly
to the computer.
Examples of Source data entry devices:
1. Pointing devices – Ex.: mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen
2. Scanning devices - Ex.: bar code reader, MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition),
OMR (Optical Mark Recognition), OCR (Optical Character Recognition), Fax
machines, image scanner or graphics scanner.
3. Voice recognition devices – convert human speech into digital form.
4. Audio input devices - record music and other sound signals and transform them into
digital format to be used as input for multimedia PC’s.
5 Video input devices - transform video or films into digital format
6. Electronic cameras
7. Sensors - collect specific kinds of data from the environment and convert it into
computer-readable data. Examples are temperature, humidity, smoke, gas and light
sensors.

PROCESSING and MEMORY hardware consists of the Central Processing Unit (CPU), this hardware is
considered as the “brain” of the computer.

CPU or Central Processing Unit is the processor. It controls and manipulates data to produce
information. In a microcomputer the CPU is usually contained on a single integrated circuit or chip. The
single chip is called a microprocessor.

Memory is the working storage or the computer’s “work space”, where data and programs for
immediate processing are held. It is also known as main memory or primary storage or RAM (Random
Access Memory). The size of the memory is important. Memory size determines how much data can
be processed at once and how big and complex a program may be used to process it.

OUTPUT Hardware consists of devices that transform information processed by the computer into a form
that humans can understand. An output machine is the medium used by the computer in displaying its
responses to the user’s requests and instructions.

Principal forms of output

1. screen display
2. printed
3. Sound
Types of Outputs
1. Softcopy output refers to output that is in the form of sound or displayed on a computer
screen.
2. Hardcopy output refers to printed output.

SECONDARY STORAGE HARDWARE consists of all devices that may store data and programs
permanently. This is sometimes called “storage media”. Media refers to the material that stores data,
such as magnetic disk or magnetic tape.

Memory or primary storage is internal storage and it works with the CPU on the system board.
Secondary storage is external storage and it is outside the system board (although it may still be inside
the system unit or cabinet).

Backing storage
The difference between internal memory and backing storage:
Backing storage (also known as secondary storage) means data storage that retains its contents when
the computer is switched off. It can be used to hold both programs and data. When you run a program or
load a file they are copied from the backing store into the internal memory. When you save a file it is
copied from the internal memory to the backing store.
- It is always slower to access data from backing storage than from internal memory.
- Data stored in backing storage is permanent so it is NOT lost when the computer is turned off.
- Data stored in internal memory is lost when the computer is turned off.
COMMUNICATIONS Hardware consists of devices used for communications. Examples of
communication devices are the modem, cable, and fax modem.

 Modem (modulator/demodulator) is an electronic device that allows computers to

communicate with each other over telephone lines.
 Cable is used in local area networks.
 Fax modem is a modem with fax capability that enables to send signals directly from
computer to someone else’s fax machine or computer fax modem. The fax modem allows
you to transmit information much more quickly than if it had to feed i page by page into a fax
machine.

Element 2: SOFTWARE

Software refers to the programs, routines, and symbolic languages that control the functioning of the
hardware and direct its operation.

Categories of Software:

A. Application software
B. System software

APPLICATION SOFTWARE is a program that can be used to solve a particular problem or to

perform a particular task.

Types of Application Software:

1. Customized (or User-developed) software - are programs designed for a particular customer
or tailored to fit a specific organization.
Ex.: Payroll System of a particular company
Student Registration System of a particular school
2. General-purpose or Productivity or Packaged software - are productivity tools developed
for sale to the general public (ready-made application programs). These are programs that can
perform useful work on general-purpose tasks.

The types of packaged software that you will most likely encounter are the following:
 1. Word processing is the creation, input, editing, and production of documents and texts
by means of computer systems..
Ex.: Microsoft Word, MacWrite, Word Perfect, Writer

2. Spreadsheet software allows a person to use the computer to use rows, columns, and
formulas to display, analyze, and summarize data (mostly numerical data).
Ex.: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro, Calc

3. Database Management System (DBMS) is a program used to manage multiple data

files. It enables users to create and maintain a database (collection of data) and to
extract information from the database.
Ex.: Microsoft Access, Paradox, dBase, SQL, Oracle

4. Desktop Publishing is the design and production of publications using personal

computers with graphics capability.
Ex.: Adobe Pagemaker, Microsoft Publisher

5. Presentation is software that allows users to use the computer for presentation
purposes.
Ex.: Microsoft PowerPoint, Impress, Storyboard, Flash

6. Graphics software enables users to present information in the form of charts and
graphs or to create complex freehand artwork.
Ex.: Hollywood, Harvard Graphics, Adobe Illustrator, Fireworks, Cold Fusion,
Flash

7. Communications software manages the transmission of data between computers

over wired or wireless channels.
Ex.: ProComm, SmartCom, Crosstalk

Some kinds of programs integrate all these functions to one software package, called integrated
software. There are many other application programs such as personal information managers, hypertext,
multimedia programs and scheduling programs.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System Software are programs designed to manage the functions of the computer. It enables the
application software to interact with the computer. Examples of system software are operating systems,
language processors, utility programs, and performance-monitoring software.

 Operating System acts as the master control program that runs the computer. This
program acts as an interface between the user of the computer and the hardware. It
oversees the flow of program and data through the computer system.
Examples:
DOS, WINDOWS, UNIX, LINUX, OS/2,
Macintosh Operating System

 Language Processors or Translators are programs that convert human readable

programming languages into machine level instruction and vice versa. There are three
types of language processors: the ASSEMBLER, COMPILER, and INTERPRETER.

 Utility systems are programs developed for frequently used task. These are service
routines commonly used in computer operations such as copying, merging and sorting.

 Performance- monitoring software is a program used to monitor, analyze and report the
performance of the overall computer system and the computer components.
Element 3: DATA/INFORMATION

Data versus Information. The word data is the plural of datum, though data commonly represents both
singular and plural forms. Data are raw facts or observations, typically about phenomena or business
transactions. More specifically, data are objective measurements of attributes (the characteristics) of
entities (such as people, places, things and events).

People often use the terms data and information interchangeably. However, it is better to view data
as raw material resources that are processed into finished information products. Information is data that
have been converted into a meaningful and useful context for specific end users. Information is processed
data placed in its proper context to give it value for specific end users. Thus, data are usually subjected to
a value-added process (called data processing or information processing) where:
a. its form is aggregated, manipulated and organized
b. its content is analyzed and evaluated
c. it is placed in a proper context for human user

Hierarchy of Data Organization:

In electronic form, data can be organized as bits, bytes, fields, records, files, and databases.

 BIT: Computers deal with “on” and “off” electrical states, which are represented as 0’s and
1’s. Each 0 or 1 is called a bit – short for binary digit. The bit is the smallest unit of
information inside the computer memory.

 BYTE or CHARACTER: A group of 8 bits is called a byte. A byte holds the equivalent of a
character. A character is a single letter, number, or special symbol (such as a comma or
dollar sign).
Ex.: Of character: A 5 *

Bits and bytes are what the computer hardware deals with. People, using software, deal
with characters, fields, records, files, and databases.

 FIELD: A field is a unit of data consisting of one or more characters.

Ex.: name of a student
Address of a student
Age of a student

 RECORD: A record is collection of related fields.

Ex.: name, address, and age of a student

 FILE: A file is a collection of related records.

Ex.: collection of all student records

Note: In word processing, “file” has another meaning entirely. The word processing
file is a text document stored under one particular name. That kind of file is broken down into
pages and words (rather than records and fields).

DATABASE: A database is a collection of interrelated files.

Ex.: A collection of students register file, students grades file, and Students
personal data file
Units of Measurement of Storage Capacity:

1. Kilobyte (K or KB) - equivalent to 1,024 bytes.

2. Megabyte (M or MB) - about 1 million bytes
3. Gigabyte (G or GB) - about 1 billion bytes
4. Terabyte ( T or TB) - about 1 trillion bytes
Element 4: People

People or Peopleware refers to IT Professionals who provide computer-&-communications

systems, and the users, who are the beneficiaries of the systems. People are the most important part of,
and the beneficiaries of, a computer and communications system

The IT Professionals are the trained workers in the Information Technology field. Basically the
Computer Professionals are the following:

1. Data Encoder or Data Entry Operator - prepares/enters data for processing

2. Computer Operator - monitors and run the computer equipment.
3. Computer Programmer - designs, writes, tests, implements and maintains computer
programs
4. Systems Analyst - plans and designs the entire systems of programs
5. IT Manager - coordinates the IT organization

Other IT Professionals:

 Computer Librarian
 Computer Technician
 Computer Hardware Engineer
 Software Engineer
 Systems Administrator
 Database Administrator
 Network Administrator
 Computer Support Specialist
 Telecommunication Specialist
 Computer Security Specialist
 Web Developer/Web Master
 Application Specialist
 Application Architect

Element 5: Procedures

Procedures are descriptions of how things are done, steps for accomplishing a result. Some
procedures may be expressed in manuals. Manuals, called Documentation, contain instructions, rules, or
guidelines to follow when you use hardware or software.

Element 6: Communications

Communications is defined as the electronic transfer of data or information from one place to
another. Communications has two components: digital and analog communications.

 Digital or Data communication consists of digital transmission – 0’s and 1’s. This is the
method of transmission by which computers communicate with each other. This is also
called “computer communications”.

Components of Data Communication System:

1. Transmitter - any circuit or electronic device designed to send electronically

encoded data to another location. This can also be called the source.

2. Transmission path or channel is the path or link through which information

passes. This is also known as a line or circuit.
 3. Receiver is any device designed to receive any conveyed message from the
transmitter or the source. This is also known as the sink.

 Analog communication consists of non digital forms of transmission, including voice and
svideo. In the past, analog communications has been the method by which telephone,
radio, television, and cable-TV have transmitted.

Overview Of Developments In Computer And Communication Technology

The Three Directions in Computer Technology

 Smaller size: Everything has become smaller. ENIAC’s old-fashioned vacuum tubes gave
way to the smaller, faster, more reliable transistor. The next step was the development of tiny
integrated circuits. Integrated circuits (IC’s) are entire collections of electrical circuits or pathways
etched on tiny squares of silicon half the size of your thumbnail. Silicon is a natural element found
in sand that is purified to form the base materials for making computer processing devices.

 More power: In turn, miniaturization of hardware components made more power into the
computer machines, providing faster processing speed and more data storage capacity.

 Less expensive: The miniaturized processor in a personal desktop computer performs

the same sort of calculations once performed by a computer that filled an entire room.

Important Developments in Communication Technology

Better Communication Channels

The old kinds of telephone connections – that is, copper wire – have begun to yield to the more
efficient wired forms, such as coaxial cable and, more important, fiber optic cable, which can transmit vast
quantities of information in both analog and digital form.
Even more interesting has been the expansion of wireless communication. Federal regulators have
permitted existing types of wireless channels to be given over to new uses, as a result of which we now
have many more kinds of two-way radio, cellular telephone, and paging devices than we had previously.

Communications Networks

Connect one or more telephones and computers and associated devices. The principal difference
is that broadcast networks transmit messages in only one direction, whereas communications networks
transmit in both directions. Communications networks are crucial to technological convergence, for they
allow information to be exchanged electronically.
A communications network may be large or small, public or private, wired or wireless or both.
Smaller networks may be connected to larger ones. A local area network (LAN) may be used to connect
users located near one another, as in the same building.

New Sending and Receiving Devices

Examples of new devices for sending and receiving information:
 Cellular phone: Cellular telephones use a system that divides a geographical service into a grid
of “cells”. In each cell, low powered, portable, wireless phones can be accessed and connected to
the main (wire) telephone network. The significance of the wireless portable phone is its effect on
worldwide communication.
 Fax machines: Fax stands for “facsimile” which means a “copy”. More specifically, fax stands
for “facsimile transmission”. A fax machine scans an image and sends a copy of it in the form of
electronic signals over transmission lines to a receiving fax machine. The receiving machine re-
creates the image on paper0. Fax messages may also be sent to and from microcomputers.