Soil Mechanics-II

CE-324

Compressibility and Settlement

NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE)
 Compressibility of soil
• Soils have discrete particles which are arranged
together to form a soil structure
• When the stress conditions are changed the
particles tend to rearrange with respect to each
other and readjust according to the new stress
conditions
• The compression is primarily due to the
rearrangement of particles however, there might be
certain contribution by particle bending (such as
clay minerals) or particle breaking (such as angular
soil particles) 2
 Compressibility of soil
• The magnitude of compression is a function of
initial void ratio. A soil coming to equilibrium at high
void ratio (due to mineralogy or depositional
environment etc.) will have high compressibility and
vice versa
• All soils are compressible; however, depending
upon the permeability and nature of particles, the
process of compression my be very quick (as in the
case of sands) or time consuming (as in the case of
clays)
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 Compressibility of soil
• A stress increase caused by the construction of
foundations or other loads compresses soil layers.
• The compression is caused by
• Deformation of soil particles
• Relocation of soil particles
• Expulsion of water or air from void spaces.

• Soil settlement can be divided in three categories

• Immediate settlement (elastic settlement)
• Primary consolidation settlement
• Secondary consolidation settlement
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 Compressibility of soil

• Elastic settlement (or immediate settlement)

Is caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist
and saturated soils without any change in the moisture
content. It takes place during or immediately after the
construction of a structure. Elastic settlement calculations
generally are based on equations derived from the theory
of elasticity
• Primary consolidation settlement
Is the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive soils
because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void
spaces.
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 Compressibility of soil

• Secondary consolidation settlement

It is observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the result of
the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. Secondary
consolidation occurs after the completion of primary
consolidation and under sustained loading.

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Three phases of settlement for fine-grained soils

as a function of time
 Contact Pressure

• A foundation is the interface between structural load and

the ground.
• The pressure acting between the foundation base and the
soil below is referred as contact pressure.
• Contact pressure depends mainly on the stiffness of
foundation, types of soil, shape of foundation, etc.
• If the structure is assumed to apply uniform load through
the slab, the soil should also receive the same distribution.
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 Contact Pressure
• Let the soil mass is subjected to some
stresses transmitted through the footing.
• The pressure transmitted to the soil by
footing at z=0 is contact pressure.
• Let the underlying soil is elastic and the
footing is flexible.
• When the soil is subjected to load distribution over a
wider area, the change in stress is maximum at the centre
and reduces laterally. 9
 Contact Pressure
• Thus settlement at the centre of loaded area should
exceed settlement at the edges of the footing

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Contact pressure (Elastic material/clay)
Flexible foundation

Rigid foundation

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 Contact Pressure
Clay
In actual field conditions, the modulus
of elasticity of clay is relatively constant
and independent of the confining
pressure, therefore, la ’s ehavior is
more close elastic material
Sand
In case of sand, the modulus is
dependent on confining pressure which
is zero at zero confinement, therefore,
behavior of sand is quite different

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 Contact pressure (sand)

Flexible foundation

Rigid foundation

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 Contact pressure
Infinitely rigid foundation supported by a perfectly elastic material

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 Immediate settlement calculation
Based on
theory
of Elasticity

For F1 and F2 consult tables

given on pg. 298 to pg. 301
of the Principles of Geotech.
Engg. By B. M. Das (7th Ed.)
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Immediate settlement calculation

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Immediate settlement calculation

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 Immediate settlement calculation
For non-homogeneous soil deposit

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 Improved relationship for immediate settlement

• Mayne & Poulos (1999) presented an improved

relationship
• This relationship takes into account
– The rigidity of foundation
– The depth of embedment of foundation
– Increase in modulus of elasticity of soil with depth
– Location of rigid layers at limited depth

Mayne, P. W., Poulos, H. G. (1999) Approximate Displacement

Influence Factors for Elastic Shallow Foundations, ASCE
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
Vol. 125, No. 6, 453 – 460.
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 Mayne and Poulos (1999) Method
First step is to determine equivalent diameter of a
rectangular foundation, which is

For circular foundation,

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Mayne and Poulos (1999) Method

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Mayne and Poulos (1999) Method

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Influence factor IG

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Influence factor IF

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Influence factor IE

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 Consolidation settlement
• Consolidation refers to the compression or settlement
that saturated cohesive soils undergo as a response of
placing loads onto the ground.
• These loads produce corresponding increases in the
vertical effective stress (v’).
• Consolidation is a time-dependent process, in some soils it
may take long time (100 years ?) to achieve complete
settlement.
• The compression is caused by:
– Deformation of soil particles
– Relocations of soil particles
– Expulsion of water or air from void spaces
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 Consolidation settlement
• Clayey soils undergo consolidation settlement not
only under the action of external loads (surcharge
loads) but also under its own weight or weight of
soils that exist above the clay (geostatic loads).
• Clayey soils also undergo settlement when
dewatered (e.g., ground water pumping) – because
the effective stress on the clay increases.
• Coarse-grained soils DO NOT undergo consolidation
settlement due to relatively high hydraulic
conductivity (permeability) compared to clayey soils.
Instead, coarse-grained soils undergo IMMEDIATE
settlement
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 Primary Consolidation settlement
During consolidation, pore water or the water in the
voids of saturated clay gets squeezed out – reducing the
volume of the clay – hence causing settlement called as
consolidation settlement.

The spring analogy to consolidation. 29

Spring-cylinder model

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Spring-cylinder model

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Stress-time curve of spring-cylinder model
Valve is opened at this time
Initially
Finally
u = 
u = 0
’ = 0
’ = 
,u, ’

 = ’ + u

Time

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Fundamentals of consolidation



G.W.T Sand

Clay H

depth Sand

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Fundamentals of consolidation



G.W.T Sand

Clay H

depth Sand 34
Fundamentals of consolidation



G.W.T Sand

Clay H

depth Sand
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Fundamentals of consolidation



G.W.T Sand

Clay H

depth Sand
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 Consolidation

In a consolidation problem, we are interested in:

i. Magnitude of the settlement; determined by

compressibility and consolidation history of soils

ii. Rate of settlement; determined by compressibility

and permeability of soils as well as the drainage
boundary conditions

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 Behavior of sands

The settlements due to sand

compressibility are normally neglected in
foundation design.
 Consolidation vs. Compaction

Compaction Consolidation
Instantaneous process Time-dependent process
(applicable to all soils). (applicable to clayey soils
only).
Can occur over 100’s of year.
Applicable to unsaturated Applicable to saturated soils.
soils. Decrease in air voids (not Decrease in water voids (air
water voids) voids do not exist).

Dry density increases, water Dry density increases, water

content does not change content decreases.

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Oedometer test
Before compression

After compression

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Oedometer test

Water
Water

Solids Solids

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BACKUP SLIDES

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 Timoshenko and Goodier (1951) method
The settlement of the corner of rectangular base of dimensions
B’ L’ on the surface of an elastic half-space can be computed from
theory of elasticity [e.g. Timoshenko and Goodier (1951) as follows

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Timoshenko and Goodier (1951) method

Found. Analysis & Design

Bowles (5 ed) P-303

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 Timoshenko and Goodier (1951) method
This equation is strictly applicable to flexible bases on the half-
space.
The half-space may be either cohesionless materials of any water
content or unsaturated cohesive soils.
The soils may be either inorganic or organic; however, if organic,
the amount of organic material should be small, because both Es
and s are markedly affected by high organic content.
In practice, most foundations are flexible. Even very thick ones
deflect when loaded by the superstructure loads.
If the base is rigid, the settlement will be uniform, and the
settlement factor IS will be about 7 % less than computed by
equations.
If footing base is considered rigid, ISR = 0.931IS
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 Skempton and Bjerrum Method (1957)
According to Skempton and Bjerrum (1957), immediate settlement
(distortion settlement, or initial settlement) is cause by lateral
distortion of soil beneath the foundation as shown in Figure below.
Consolidation settlement, is caused by the change in volume of the
soil that results from change in the effective stress.

Foundation Design
Coduto P-224
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Skempton and Bjerrum Method (1957)

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Skempton and Bjerrum Method (1957)

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Skempton and Bjerrum Method (1957)

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Skempton and Bjerrum Method (1957)

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 Behavior of sands
Limit value of effective
vertical stress (’vm)
After ’vm the
deformation is due to
grain crushing.

In silica or quartz sand

(majority deposits) grain
crushing occurs at
around 10 MPa
Ortigao, P 103

The pressure applied by

foundation is well below
10 MPa
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 The compressibility
is very little
influenced by sand
relative density, as
opposite to ’vm

Sand compressibility
is important when
grains are weak and
Ortigao, P 104

crushing occurs at
low pressures, e.g.
calcareous sand
deposits

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Behavior of clays

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