Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering – II [Mechanical Properties of Soils]

C hapter 01
Soil Compressibility
& Settlement Analysis

1
Practical Situations

2
Con’t

3
Outline
Soil compressibility
Settlement components and Classical
Settlement Analysis
Immediate settlement
Primary consolidation
Secondary consolidation
Rate of consolidation
Oedometer testing & result interpretation
Introduction to Janbu’s Modulus Concept &
Settlement Analysis
 Soil Compressibility
Any structure built on the ground causes increase of pressures
on the underlying soil layers. The soil layers are unable to spread
laterally as they are confined by surrounding soil strata. Hence
they must adjust to the new pressures by vertical deformation
only.
The compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease in the
volume of the mass, which results in the settlement of the structure,
built on the mass.
Settlement is, therefore, the sinking of a structure due to a
compressive deformation of the underlying soil mass.
The vertical compression of a soil mass under increased pressures
is thus made up of the following components.
»Deformation of the soil grains (small, can be neglected)
»Compression of water and air within the voids
»An escape of water and air from the voids
 Con’t
The solid matter and the pore water relatively are incompressible
Compressible soil mostly found below water table, considered
fully saturated, and the change in volume of a mass under imposed
stresses is only due to the escape of water.
As pore fluid squeezed out:
 Soil grain rearrange themselves -stable & denser configuration
 Decrease in volume - surface settlement resulted
How fast? -depend on permeability of soil
-Compression of sand occurs instantly
-Consolidation of cohesive soil is very time depend process
How much rearrangement & compression?
-depend on the rigidity of soil skeleton
 i.e. A study of compressibility of soils is necessary to be able to
forecast the probable settlement of structures on different types of
soils.
 COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOILS

APPLICATION OF STRESSES TO ANY MATERIAL

CAUSES
STRAINS

In some material
In other materials strains are developed
a certain amount of time
instantaneously
required

Stress- strain- time Stress and strains are proportional and

relationships Independent of time

Non elastic
Theory of elasticity
materials

One-dimensional comp. Compression of granular

of clay soils
Components of Settlement
 Immediate settlement
Caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and moist saturated
soils after the application of a load without any change in the
moisture content .
Also referred to as the ‘elastic ‘ or distortion or contact
settlement'
Usually taken to occur immediately on application of the
foundation load (within about 7days) .
Calculation generally based on equations derived from the theory
of elasticity.
The vertical component of the foundation load Its causes a
vertical movement of the foundation (immediate settlement) that
in the case of a partially saturated soil is mainly due to the
expulsion of gases and to the elastic bending reorientation of the
soil particles.
With saturated soils immediate settlement effects are assumed to
be the result of vertical soil compression before there is any
change in volume.
Con’t
 Con’t
One can use the theory of elasticity to determine the immediate
or elastic settlement of shallow foundations. The vertical elastic
settlement at the ground surface under a rectangular flexible
surface load is:
qs B(1  v 2 )
Si  Is
E
where Is is a settlement influence factor that is a function of the
L/B ratio (L is length and B is width).
However, this equation do not account for the shape of the
footing and the depth of embedment, which significantly
influence settlement. To account for embedment.
qs B(1  v 2 ) '
Si   I s  emb Where  'emb  1  0.08
Df
[1 
4Br
]
E Br 3Lr

where Br and Lr are the actual width and length, respectively.

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Primary consolidation settlement
Consolidation is a gradual decrease of the volume of a soil at c
onstant load
Result of a volume change in saturated cohesive soil because of ex
pulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.
Occurs in clays where the value of permeability prevents the initia
l excess pore water pressures from draining away immediately.
The sudden application of a foundation load, besides causing elasti
c compression, creates a state of excess hydrostatic pressure in sat
urated soil.
These excess pore water pressure values can only be dissipated by
the gradual expulsion of water through the voids of the, soil, whic
h results in a volume change that is time dependent.
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Drainage Path
The distance of the longest vertical path taken by water to e
xit the soil is called the length of the drainage path. Because
we allowed the soil to drain on the top and bottom faces (do
uble drainage) , the length of the drainage path, Hdr, is

where Hav is the average height and H0 and Hf are the initial
and final heights, respectively, under the current loading.
If drainage were permitted from only one face of the soil, the
n Hdr=Hav . Shorter drainage paths will cause the soil to comp
lete its settlement in a shorter time than longer drainage pat
h.

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Effects of Loading History

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Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fi
ne-grained Soils
consider a site consisting of a normally consolidated soil o
n which we wish to construct a building.
We will assume that the increase in vertical stress due to t
he building at depth z, where we took our soil sample, is Δ
σz
The final vertical stress is

The increase in vertical stress will cause the soil to settle f

ollowing the NCL and the primary consolidation settlement
is

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6.2.3 Primary Consolidation Settlement of Over consolidated
Fine-grained Soils
Primary consolidation ends with ΔՍ =0 .
Secondary compression is the change in volume of fine-gr
ained soils caused by the adjustment of the soil fabric (int
ernal structure) after primary consolidation has been comp
leted.
The rate of settlement from secondary compression is very
slow compared with primary consolidation.
We have separated primary consolidation and secondary c
ompression. In reality, the distinction is not clear because
secondary compression occurs as part of the primary cons
olidation phase especially in soft clays.
The mechanics of consolidation is still not fully understood
and to make estimates of settlement, it is convenient to se
parate primary consolidation and secondary compression.

29
 Con’t
Primary consolidation ends with ΔՍ =0 .
Secondary compression is the change in volume of fine-gr
ained soils caused by the adjustment of the soil fabric (int
ernal structure) after primary consolidation has been comp
leted.
The rate of settlement from secondary compression is very
slow compared with primary consolidation.
We have separated primary consolidation and secondary c
ompression. In reality, the distinction is not clear because
secondary compression occurs as part of the primary cons
olidation phase especially in soft clays.

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Secondary Compression
Primary consolidation ends with ΔՍ =0 .
Secondary compression is the change in volume of fine-gr
ained soils caused by the adjustment of the soil fabric (int
ernal structure) after primary consolidation has been comp
leted.
The rate of settlement from secondary compression is very
slow compared with primary consolidation.
We have separated primary consolidation and secondary c
ompression. In reality, the distinction is not clear because
secondary compression occurs as part of the primary cons
olidation phase especially in soft clays.
The mechanics of consolidation is still not fully understood
and to make estimates of settlement, it is convenient to se
parate primary consolidation and secondary compression.

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Basic Concepts of Terzaghi’s Theory of
Consolidation
To understand the basic concepts of Terzaghi’s theory of
consolidation, consider a clay of thickness 2H located below the
ground water level and between two highly permeable sand layers
as shown in Fig below.

Load p per unit of area

G.W.T
Sand
A C
Hdr = H
2H t=t3
z Clay
t= t= t2
t= t
1
Hdr = H B D
Sand
Basic Concepts of Terzaghi’s Theory of
Consolidation
To understand the basic concepts of Terzaghi’s theory of
consolidation, consider a clay of thickness 2H located below the
ground water level and between two highly permeable sand layers
as shown in Fig below.

Load p per unit of area

G.W.T
Sand
A C
Hdr = H
2H t=t3
z Clay
t= t= t2
t= t
1
Hdr = H B D
Sand
 Con’t
 Progress of consolidation process at a given point in the
soil is indicated by Uz.

u u u
Uz = o  1
uo uo
where: Uz = percent of consolidation at a point
Uo = Initial hydrostatic excess pressure
u = hydrostatic excess pressure at time t

 The average percent consolidation of the entire layer at

any time is numerically equal to the percent change in th
ickness or settlement. Then to estimate the rate of settle
ment it is necessary to establish the variation of u with t
ime
 Con’t
• Mathematical Expression and Solution of Terzaghi’s
Theory of Consolidation

2 (Refer principles & practices of

du d u
 CV …..…4
soil Mechanics and Found.Eng.by
V.N.S.Murthy from page 255-257
dt dz 2 )

k k (1  e)
v  m   a
Where: C 
 v  v

Where : Cv = Coefficient of consolidation

K = Coefficient of permeability
mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility =av/(1+e)
av = Coefficient of compressibility
 Con’t
Boundary conditions
u = 0 at z = 0, u = 0 at z = 2H, at t = 0, u= uo = p
Equation 4 has been solved for the boundary conditions described
above and the solution is obtained by means of Fourier Series
and presented in the following form.

m 
2u o  Mz   M 2T
u sin e …..2

m 0 M  H 
Where: u = excess pore water pressure ,
m = is an integer ,
uo = initial excess pore water pressure ,

 T
Cvt
M ( 2m  1) , time factor (dimensionless)

2 H 2dr
 Con’t
• The average degree of consolidation U for the entire d
epth of the clay layer at any t can be written as
1
2H
U = Avg. degree of consolidation
St 2H  udz St = Settlement of the layer at time t
U  1  u / uo  1  o
S = ultimate settlement due to primary
S uo consolidation.

• Substitution of the expression for excess pore water

pressure u gives
m 
2
U  1  2
e  M 2T

m0 M

Often the first term(with m=0) provides a solution of sufficient precision for
practical purpose, and tabular values can be made once and for all in terms of
percent consolidation U and T by rearranging and solving the above equation for T ,
to obtain

T = ln(2/M2) – ln(1-U)
M2
 Con’t
• The average degree of consolidation U for the entire d
epth of the clay layer at any t can be written as
1
2H
U = Avg. degree of consolidation
St 2H  udz St = Settlement of the layer at time t
U  1  u / uo  1  o
S = ultimate settlement due to primary
S uo consolidation.

• Substitution of the expression for excess pore water

pressure u gives
m   M 2Tv
2
U  1  2
e
m 0 M
 Con’t
• The average degree of consolidation U for the entire d
epth of the clay layer at any t can be written as
1
2H
U = Avg. degree of consolidation
St 2H  udz St = Settlement of the layer at time t
U  1  u / uo  1  o
S = ultimate settlement due to primary
S uo consolidation.

• Substitution of the expression for excess pore water

pressure u gives
m   M 2Tv
2
U  1  2
e
m 0 M
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One-dimensional Consolidation Laboratory Test
The main purpose of the consolidation test on soil samples is
to obtain the necessary information about the compressibility
properties of a saturated soil for use in determining the
magnitude and rate of settlement of structures.
We want to find the following parameters to estimate the
amount and rate of consolidation settlement
Cc, Cr, Cα, mv, and  zc' .
Since the period over which consolidation takes place is
usually very long, it is important to measure the rate at
which the void ratio changes and also the final amount of
consolidation.
The consolidation test measures the rate and amount of
volume change with the application of load on a laboratory
specimen and the results thus obtained are used to calculate
the settlement of a foundation.
In this test a small representative sample of undisturbed soil
is carefully trimmed and fitted into a rigid metal ring
Equipment: Consolidometer (oedometer)
The ring containing the soil sample can be fixed to the
container by a collar (fixed ring cell, Figure b) or is
unrestrained (floating ring cell, Figure c).
 Con’t
The soil sample is mounted on a porous stone base, and a similar
stone is placed on top to permit water, which is squeezed out of the
sample to escape freely at the top and bottom.
Prior to loading, the height of the sample should be accurately
measured. Also, a micrometer dial is mounted in such a manner that
the vertical strains in the sample can be measured as loads are
applied.
Loads are applied in steps in such a way that the successive load
intensity, p, is twice the preceding one. The load intensities commonly
used being ¼,½,1,2,4,8 and 16 kg/cm2.
Each load is allowing to stand until compression has practically
finished. The dial readings are taken at elapsed times of 0, 1/4, 1/2, 1,2,4, 8,15,
30, 60, 120, 240, 480 and 1440 minutes from the time the new increment of load
is put on the sample (or at elapsed times as per requirements).
After the greatest load required for the test has been applied to the
soil sample, the load is removed in decrements to provide data for
plotting the expansion curves of the soil in order to learn its elastic
properties and magnitudes of plastic or permanent deformations.
 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
For a given load increment, the coefficient of consolidation, Cv,
can be determined from laboratory observation of time versus
dial reading.
There are two graphical procedures;
 the logarithm-of-time fitting method proposed by
Cassagrande and Fedum and
the square-root-of- time fitting method proposed by
Taylor.
 FINDING Cv USING CASAGRANDE AND FADUM (1940) METHOD
•
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Procedure FOR ROOT TIME METHOD
– Project the straight portions of the primary
consolidation and secondary compression to
intersect at A. The ordinate of A, d100, is the
displacement gage reading for 100% primary
consolidation.
– Correct the initial portion of the curve to
make it a parabola. Select a time t1, point B,
near the head of the initial portion of the
curve and then another time t2, point C, such
that t2 = 4t1
– Calculate the difference in displacement
reading, d = d2 – d1,between t2 and t1.
– Plot a point D at a vertical distance from B.
The ordinate of point D is the corrected initial
displacement gage reading, do, at the • Calculate
beginning of primary consolidation.
– Calculate the ordinate for 50% consolidation 0.197 H dr2
as d50 = (d100 + d0)/2. Cv 
t50
– Draw a horizontal line through this point to
intersect the curve at E. The abscissa of point
E is the time for 50% consolidation, t50.
 Square- root-of- time fitting method
(0.848)( H 2 dr )
d0 A Cv = t 90

Deformation di 1.Draw a line AB through the early portion of the cu

al reading rve

2. Next a straight line is drawn which at all points

has abscissa 1.15 times as great as those of the firs
t line. The intersection of this line and the laborator
y curve is taken as the 90 percent consolidation poi
nt. Its value may be read and is designated as t90

D
d90

O B C
t 90 Time
 Determination of the preconsolidation stress
Now that we have calculated e for each loading step, we can plot a graph of the void
ratio versus the logarithm of vertical effective stress as shown in Fig. below. We will
call Fig. below the e versus σ'zc curve. The method proposed by Casagrande (1936)

C D

Void ra 
tio, e

σ'zc
a. Select the point of max. curvature on the plot, say pt.C
b. Draw a tangent and horizontal line through pt. C
c. Bisect the angle formed by the tangent and horizontal line
d. Produce the straight portion of the curve to cut the bisector at D
e. The abscissa of Pt. D gives the pre-consolidation pressure, Pc
 C D

Void ra 
tio, e

pc/σcz
 Numerical Example
01. A stratum of normally consolidated clay of 8m thick is located at
a depth of 10m below ground level. The natural moisture content of
the clay is 40% and its liquid limit is 45%. The specific gravity of the
solid particle is 2.65. The water content is located at ground surface.
The soil is sand above the clay stratum. The submerged unit weight
of sand 13kN/m3. The average increase in pressure at the center of
the clay stratum is 200kN/m2 due to the weight of building that will
be constructed on the sand above the clay stratum. Estimate the
expected settlement of the structure.

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02

54
Con’t

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Con’t

56
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Con’t

58
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60
03

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Numerical Problems
01: The soil profile at a site for a proposed office building consist
s of a layer of fine sand 10.4 m thick above a layer of soft normal
ly consolidated clay 2 m thick. Below the soft clay is a deposit of
soft sand. The groundwater table was observed at 3 m below grou
nd level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76 and the water content
of the clay is 43%. The building will impose a vertical stress incr
ease of 140 kPa at the middle of the clay layer. Estimate the prim
ary consolidation settlement of the clay. Assume the soil above th
e water table to be saturated.

02: Assume the same soil stratigraphy as in Que.1. But now the cl
ay is overconsolidated with an OCR=2.5, w=38%, and Cr=0.05.
All other soil values given in Example 6.1 remain unchanged. De
termine the primary consolidation settlement of the clay

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03: A vertical section through a building foundation at a site is s
hown in Fig.below. The average modulus of volume compressib
ility of the clay is mv=5×10-5 m2/kN. Determine the primary con
solidation settlement.

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04: A laboratory test on a saturated clay taken at a depth of 10 m belo
w the ground surface gave the following results: Cc=0.3, Cr=0.08, O
CR=5, w=23%, and Gs=2.7. The groundwater level is at the surface.
Determine and plot the variation of water content and overconsolidati
on ratio with depth up to 50 m.

05: A soft clay layer 1.5 m thick is sandwiched between layers of san
d. The initial vertical total stress at the center of the clay layer is 200
kPa and the pore water pressure is 100 kPa. The increase in vertical s
tress at the center of the clay layer from a building foundation is 100
kPa. What is the vertical effective stress and excess pore water pressu
re at the center of the clay layer when 60% of consolidation occurs?

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06: At a vertical stress of 200 kPa, the void ratio of a saturated soil sa
mple tested in an oedometer is 1.52 and lies on the normal consolidati
on line. An increment of vertical stress of 150 kPa compresses the sa
mple to a void ratio of 1.43. Determine the compression index Cc of th
e soil.The sample was unloaded to a vertical stress of 200 kPa and the
void ratio increased to 1.45. Determine the slope of the recompression
index, Cr. What is the overconsolidation ratio of the soil at stage (2)?
If the soil were reloaded to a vertical stress of 500 kPa, what void rati
o would be attained?

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