MANAGEMENT

GUIDELINES
Raising Commercial Turkeys

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Aviagen Turkeys is the premier
supplier of turkey breeding
stock worldwide, supporting
the world-class brands of B.U.T.
and Nicholas. We provide our
customers with choice, presenting
an extensive product portfolio.
Unique among turkey primary
breeders, Aviagen Turkeys is
a truly global supplier, with
pedigree breeding programs in
the USA (Aviagen Turkeys, Inc.)
and Europe (Aviagen Turkeys,
Ltd.).

Multiple breeding programs and

production centers provide a
more secure, global supply source
and the opportunity to maximize
product improvement and new
product development. Aviagen
Turkeys utilizes innovative
technologies and maintains
diverse genetic lines to enable
selection of turkeys that give the
best performance in a wide range
of environments. Investment and AVIAGEN TURKEYS, INC.
innovation are key to product 31186 Midland Trail, East
development, producing the Lewisburg, West Virginia 24901• USA
turkeys of the future. Tel: +1 304 793 2680
Fax: +1 304 793 2684
turkeysinc@aviagen.com

AVIAGEN TURKEYS LTD

Chowley Five, Chowley Oak Business Park
Tattenhall, Cheshire CH3 9GA • UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1829 772020
Fax: +44 (0) 1829 772059
turkeysltd@aviagen.com

Visit
www.AviagenTurkeys.com
for the latest performance goals and a
complete library of technical bulletins.

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Management Guidelines for Raising
Commercial Turkeys
Contents
Introduction and Animal Welfare ................................................................................................................. 4

Biosecurity .................................................................................................................................................... 5

Cleaning and Disinfection ............................................................................................................................. 7

Brooding........................................................................................................................................................ 9

Growing....................................................................................................................................................... 12

Feeding and Nutrition ................................................................................................................................. 14

Ventilation................................................................................................................................................... 16

Water Vaccination ...................................................................................................................................... 21

Pest Management ....................................................................................................................................... 22

Water .......................................................................................................................................................... 25

Post Mortem Examination .......................................................................................................................... 31

Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 34

3
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I n t r o d u c t i o n & A n i m a l We l f a r e

Introduction and Animal Welfare

Aviagen Turkeys is a primary breeding company While every attempt has been made to ensure the
developing pedigree lines of birds for the global accuracy of the information presented, Aviagen
turkey industry. Through the application of Turkeys accepts no liability for the consequences of
advanced technologies and unique systems in the using this turkey management information.
breeding program, Aviagen is able to utilize a
For further information on raising Nicholas turkeys,
balanced approach to genetic progress.
contact your local technical service representative
This allows for continuous improvement in both or an Aviagen Turkeys sales office.
commercial traits such as live weight, feed efficiency
and meat yield, as well as welfare traits such as Animal Welfare
robustness, cardiovascular fitness and leg strength. Aviagen Turkeys is committed to the proper care of
Achieving this genetic potential depends on: our animals. We developed this Best Management
Practices guide to encourage and assist the industry
 An appropriate environment, including
as they develop their own management programs.
temperature and air quality, which meets the
Responsible management and good stockmanship
birds’ requirements.
are essential to good animal welfare practices.
 A dietary regime that provides nutrients, in both
feed and water. The environment in which turkeys are grown must
 An effective biosecurity and disease control take into account their needs and protect them from
program. physical and thermal discomfort, fear and distress.
Continuing education of personnel who have daily
All of these are interdependent. If any of these
contact with turkeys is one of the most important
elements are sub-optimal, performance will suffer.
ways to ensure proper behaviors that support and
The aim of this booklet is to assist producers of promote good animal welfare practices.
Nicholas turkeys to achieve optimum performance
Good management practices that avoid destructive
from their birds. It draws attention to essential
behavior, prevent disease, and promote good health
management issues, which if overlooked may
and production as set forth in this manual, are
depress flock performance.
consistent with the generally accepted practices of
These management techniques will help maintain animal welfare. At its basis are the five freedoms of
bird health and welfare, allowing your turkeys to animal welfare:
perform well in both live and processing
 Freedom from thirst and hunger
characteristics.
 Freedom from discomfort
Information presented in this booklet combines the  Freedom from pain, injury and disease
collective data derived from internal research trials,  Freedom to express normal behavior
published scientific knowledge, and the expertise,  Freedom from fear and distress
practical skills and experience of the Aviagen
Turkeys’ technical service team.
2

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Biosecurity

Biosecurity
Producers must have a strict set of rules designed to Sanitation Procedures
prevent poultry from being exposed to infectious
diseases to safeguard the health of the turkeys and  Employees or growers
must wear poultry house
consumers. An effective biosecurity program requires
the identification of the most likely sources of disease, designated clean clothing
and the establishment of practices designed to and footwear.
 Visitors must wear clean
suppress the introduction and spread of these
pathogens into the flock. It is important to educate coveralls, boots and
employees regarding sanitation procedures and disease hairnets.
 If a shower is provided,
risks.
enter the shower room and shower (pay special
Anyone who will be entering the facility should avoid attention to washing hair, hands and finger nails).
contact with chickens, waterfowl, quail, wild turkeys, Then enter clean room and put on clothing
pheasants, companion birds, fighting cockerels, etc. He provided by the farm and re-wash hands.
/ she should not visit live bird markets (flea markets),  After entering the farm, at no time should the
pet stores, zoos, livestock labs, processing plants, etc. person return to the dirty room nor should any
or those people in contact with them. items such as towels, clothing or personal effects
be transferred between the dirty and clean areas.
Do not share staff between different species farms and  Before entering and exiting turkey buildings, wash
preferably not even between poultry farms. and disinfect boots and hands.
 Sanitize all items before entering the farms.
Employees & Visitors  Wash hands after breaks and lunch.

Maintain a Secure Facility

 Secure farm with a fence Vehicles & Equipment

 Keep gates and buildings  Limit traffic onto
locked at all times facilities as much as
 Post signs to prevent possible.
entry by unauthorized  Avoid using any
visitors equipment that has
 Do not allow any visitors been used on other
inside the secured area farms to prevent
without approval from the farm owner or cross-contamination.
company. Persons coming from areas known to be  Locate feed bins, gas tanks, propane tanks,
a high risk disease area should not be allowed to generators, etc., such that they can be serviced
enter the farm. from outside the farm.
 Anyone entering the facility must adhere to all  Provide a vehicle disinfection area at the gate
sanitation procedures. entering the facility.
 All visitors must sign visitor log indicating date and  Thoroughly disinfect all vehicles, equipment and
place of last livestock contact. tools entering the farm and before use.

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 Birds, Rodents, Insects, Mammals  Put out rodenticides and insecticides.
Biosecurity

 Do not allow the accumulation of materials, trash  Continually be on the alert for pests and eliminate
or other debris in and around the farm. them when seen.
 Maintain a “vegetation-free” zone at least 36  Do not allow pets or other animals to enter the
inches (1 meter) around all barns and control all barns.
grass and weed growth.
 Avoid and immediately clean-up any feed spills.
 Avoid and repair leaking plumbing or other sources
of standing water.
 Eliminate holes, cracks and other openings where
rodents or birds might enter houses.
 Eliminate nesting areas and destroy any nests that
are found.
 Pest proof buildings as much as possible.

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Cleaning and Disinfection
An essential element to keeping your farm free of drinkers after every flock. Flush lines and drinkers
disease is the proper cleaning and disinfection of your (dump 2 – 3 times) with fresh, chlorinated water
barns between flocks. Diseases and other pathogens after line cleaning. (See Water Line Cleaning, page
26.)
can be introduced in numerous ways. Taking the time
 Do not enter clean building without proper

Cleaning & Disinfection

to clean and properly disinfect can help to reduce this
biosecurity procedures. Keep doors closed and
risk and break disease cycles.
locked to keep unauthorized visitors and animals
from entering barn.
 Bring shavings into the house after it is thoroughly
Brooder House
dry. Applying shavings to a wet floor can promote
 Bait for rats and mice. Rotate types of baits used the growth of mold.
quarterly.
 Empty feed pans, hoppers, and feed bins.
 Remove litter, dust and debris from barn. Growout - Total Cleanout
 Scrape/sweep floor down to bare floor. Total litter removal is recommended every 12 to 18
 Dry clean house using backpack blower or broom months or after any disease issues.
paying special attention to screens, fan housing,
 Bait for rats and mice. Rotate types of baits used
vents, and louvers.
quarterly.
 Wash house down with water, preferably hot, and a
 Empty feed pans, hoppers, and feed bins.
detergent product using a pressure washer.
 Remove all litter.
 After barn is dry, disinfect using an approved
disinfectant. Spray to the point of run-off.  Scrape/sweep floor down to bare floor.
Remember, cleaning, washing and disinfection are  Dry clean house using backpack blower or broom
three separate steps. paying special attention to screens, fan housing,
 Wash and disinfect any supplemental brooding vents, and louvers.
equipment before bringing it back into the barn.  Wash house with water and detergent product using
 Treat for insects, e.g. flies, darkling beetles, etc., as a pressure washer.
required. Rotate insecticide products to avoid  After barn is dry, disinfect using an approved
building resistance. disinfectant. Spray to the point of run-off.
 Clean and disinfect waterlines and any supplemental Remember, cleaning, washing and disinfection are
three separate steps.

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  Treat for insects, e.g. flies, darkling beetles, etc., as  Till up and level remaining litter. Top-dress with
required. Rotate insecticide products to avoid either new shavings or recycled brooder litter.
building resistance.  Treat for insects, e.g. flies, darkling beetles, etc., as
 Keep doors closed and locked to keep unauthorized required. Rotate insecticide products to avoid
visitors and animals from entering barn. building resistance.
Cleaning & Disinfection

 Clean and disinfect waterlines after every flock. (See  Clean and disinfect waterlines after every flock. (See
Water Line Cleaning, page 26) Water Line Cleaning, page 26)
 Remove drinkers from the barn to clean and sanitize  Consider treating litter with acid type of litter
them separately from the house wash down and treatment. This type of treatment can be effective in
disinfection process. reducing such pathogens as E.Coli, salmonella and
 Consider treating dirt or clay pad with acid type of clostridium.
litter treatment. This type of treatment can be
effective in reducing such pathogens as E.Coli,
salmonella and clostridium. In-house Composting
 Bring all cleaned and disinfected equipment back When a total clean out
into barn. is not feasible, in-house
 Add new litter onto dry pad. composting is a cost-
effective method of
reducing disease risk for
Growout – Non-Total Cleanout the next flock. When
(NOT recommended for regions or farms with previous done properly it will
health issues) help to ensure a healthy
environment.
 Bait for rats and mice. Rotate types of baits used
quarterly.  A 14 day down time is needed to properly execute
 Dry clean house using backpack blower or broom this procedure.
paying special attention to screens, fan housing,  Litter should have a minimum of 25% moisture.
vents, and louvers.  Create windrows of litter 24 to 48 inches (60 – 120
 Wash and disinfect barns annually following above cm) high.
wash-down and disinfection procedures, even if litter
 Treat the windrows with insecticide for darkling
is not being removed.
beetles as soon as beetles start to appear, usually
 If time allows, litter can be composted in-house for
within the first few hours after creating windrows.
pathogen reduction. (See In-house Composting,
page 7)  Ensure temperature reaches a minimum of 130˚F
 If not, remove all caked and wet litter. Tractor for three days for maximum pathogen kill.
mounted litter forks work exceptionally well to  In most situations, temperature will peak three to
remove caked litter and leave dry loose material four days after pile creation.
underneath.  Piles should be turned three times to achieve
optimum results and avoid excess ammonia.
 Peak temperature should be reached again within
two days after turning.

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Brooding
After hatch a poult has basic needs that must be Feed
satisfied if it is to survive and become a quality finished
 Pre-starter crumble should be good and consistent in
product. These basic needs are fresh air, clean water, size with minimal fines.
quality feed, good litter and heat. To improve their  Provide one 48 inch (1.2m) trough-type feeder per
chances of survival, the poults should be confined to an 100 poults to equal 1 linear inch (25mm) per poult;
area where feed, water and heat are readily available. or provide a combination of 18 inch (0.5m) red
feeders and bucket type - 100 poults per one bucket
This can be done by using a variety of brooder set-ups. and one 18inch (0.5m) red feeder.
The actual brooder ring setup will vary depending on  If using brooder rings, position feeders at least 12

Brooding
house, stove type, brooding equipment, past inches (30 cm) from edge of stove and brooder
experience, company preference and the time of year. guard.
 Fill feeders with fresh feed immediately prior to
Shavings placement.
 Use a clean, dry mixture of coarse and fine softwood  Consider supplementing 48 inch (1.2m) trough-type
shavings. Avoid hardwoods and wet sawdust. feeders with 18 inch (0.5m) red feeders while poults
 New shavings are recommended for every flock. are in rings for optimum feed consumption. Meat
 Spread evenly at 3 to 4 inches (7.5 to 10 cm) depth. trays or egg flats may also be used.
 Smooth to level within rings prior to setting up  Keep feed clean and free from shavings, debris and
equipment. manure.

Conventional Jet Brooder Stoves

Water  Confirm that each stove is operating properly.
 Water lines should be  Stoves should be lit 24 hours prior to poult arrival to
cleaned prior to warm room and shavings. A minimum of 12 hours
placement (See Water prior to poult arrival, set stoves to reach starting
Line Cleaning, page 26) target temperature.
 No vitamins or  Target a 3 – 4 foot (1.0-1.3m) “hot spot” of 100–105°
antibiotic should be F (38-40° C) in the center of the ring.
added at placement
 Adjust all stoves to 24 inches (60 cm) above the
(unless for a specific
litter.
known problem as prescribed by a veterinarian).
Always use clean sanitized water.  Confirm that the cycling of each stove provides a hot
spot of no less than 100° F (38° C) and no more than
 Provide one bell-type drinker per 100 poults.
115° F (46° C) at any time.
 If using nipple drinkers follow the manufacturer
 Set zone controlled systems so that the majority of
recommendations.
stoves are within target range. Stoves that are
 Level drinkers to avoid floods while making sure hotter or cooler than target should be physically
poults have good access to drinkers. raised or lowered to achieve the desired
 Adjust automatic depth to ¾ inch (20mm); hand fill temperatures.
to lip prior to placement.  Use one 75-100 watt incandescent brooder light per
 If using nipple drinkers, double rings are stove to prevent shadows and draw poults to heat
recommended. source. Use only while poults are in rings.
 Check propane level in tank.
8

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 Ventilation and Temperature Control  Place a maximum of 350 tom poults or 400 hen
 Confirm that stoves are properly set and that all poults per stove.
ventilation equipment is operational.  Feeders – For every 100 poults use one 48 inch
 Calibrate all thermostats to enable accurate settings. (120 cm) feeder, or one bucket feeder, or two 24
 Set fan thermostats according to target temperature. inch (60 cm) plastic feeders.
 Adjust ventilation to provide the minimum CFM’s  Drinkers – For every 100 one Plasson bell or mini
required according to the lowest anticipated outside drinker. Follow manufacturer’s recommendation
temperatures. when using nipple drinkers.
 Adjust all vents to the same opening. For wintertime  After three days combine rings to include up to
ventilation a portion of vents may need to be closed four stoves.
off completely.  After five to seven days poults can be released
 Use mixing fans to reduce temperature stratification from rings.
and improve heating efficiency. Small 18-24 inch /
45-60cm fans are recommended hanging close to
ceiling at approximately 50-60 feet (15-18m) apart. Multi-Stove Brooder Rings
Brooding

 Seal cracks and areas where air can leak in causing  Brooder rings should include no more than four
drafts and heat loss. Pay close attention to end brooder stoves.
doors and curtains.
 Rings should be at least 2 feet (60 cm) away from
Lighting the wall.
 Make rings with cardboard brooder guard 12-18
 Provide a minimum of 8 footcandles (80 lux) of light
in house. inches (30 – 45 cm) high. When the barn
 Provide poults with full light for the first one to three temperature is expected to drop below 70˚F (21˚C)
days. Afterwards, poults should have 8-10 hours of or the barn is drafty, use 18 inch (45 cm) brooder
continuous darkness per night. Heavy hens require guard.
step down lighting. (See Heavy Hen Lighting  Place a maximum of 350 tom poults or 400 hen
Program, page 13) poults per stove.
 Feeders - For every 100 poults use one 48 inch (120
cm) feeder, or one bucket feeder, or two 24 inch
Single Brooder Rings
(60 cm) plastic feeders.
 Brooder rings
 Drinkers - For
should be 12-15
Feed

every 100 one

feet (4-5 meters) Water Water
plasson bell or
in diameter
mini drinker.
 Rings should be Feed Heat Feed
Source Follow
at least 2 feet
manufacturer’s
(60 cm) away
Water Water recommendation
from the wall.
Feed

when using nipple

 Make rings with
drinkers.
cardboard
 After five to seven days poults can be released
brooder guard 12-18 inches (30-45 cm) high. When
from rings.
the barn temperature is expected to drop below
70˚F (21˚C) or the barn is drafty, use 18 inch (45
cm) brooder guard.

9
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Large Ring or Whole House Brooding necessary. Careful observation of the poults behavior
 One 80,000 BTU and barn conditions will determine what adjustments
stove per 1,500 sq. should be made. (See Figure 1)
ft. (460 sq.m)
In addition to visual examination, it is very important to
 Two stoves are
listen to the poults. Excessive noise may indicate
recommended per
wrong temperature or lack of water or feed. Avoid
ring, with both
exposure of the poults to sudden temperature or
stoves not being on
environmental changes.
the same circuit. It works best to have all even
stoves on one circuit and all odd stoves on another Figure 1. Poult Distribution Under Brooders
circuit.
 Stoves work best on 40 foot (12 m) centers to
prevent cold spots.
 Houses should be pre-warmed a minimum of 24
hours prior to poult placement and 48 hours ahead

Brooding
during cold months of the year.
 Stoves should ideally be located 7-8 feet (2.0 – Temperature Correct Temperature Too High
Poults evenly spread Poults away from brooder
2.5m) off of the shavings, with floor temp under Noise level indicates contentment Poults make no noise
heater at 110-115˚F (43 - 46˚C) for day of Poults pant, head and wings droop

placement; floor temperature near side walls on

inside edge of cardboard should be 90˚F (32˚C).
 If piling becomes an issue, it is possible that more
heat may be required. Let the flock dictate where
the proper starting temperature needs to be.
 Rings should be at Temperature Too Low Draft
Poults crowd to brooder Poults move to avoid draft
least 2 feet (60 cm) Poults noisy, distress-calling Poults noisy, distress-calling
away from the wall.
 Make rings with
cardboard brooder
guard 12-18 inches
(30 – 45 cm) high. If
the house is drafty,
use 18 inch (45 cm) brooder guard. Temperature Correct Temperature Too Low
 All feeders and drinkers should be down and
accessible to the poults.
For a weekly target temperature profile see Table 2 on
 Utilize supplemental feeders and drinkers as
page 12.
necessary.
Once the poults are placed in the barn, they should be
allowed a minimum of one hour to acclimate
themselves to their new environment. After this time,
further adjustment of the ventilation, stove height,
stove temperature, drinkers or feeders may be

10
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 Growing
Litter
 Ensure a minimum litter depth of 4-5 inches (10-
13cm).
 Tilling weekly or as needed during the flock will
optimize foot pad and leg integrity.
 Consider using a litter amendment for ammonia
control in extremely cold weather conditions.
 Do NOT compromise litter conditions for fuel
savings.

Water
 Provide a bell type drinker per 100 - 150 birds.
 For bell type drinkers maintain depth at ½ to ¾ inch
(12-20mm), depending on drinker style, drinking
activity, ambient temperature and litter conditions. Feed
Growing

 For bell type drinkers maintain lip of drinker even  Ensure quality feed is available when the birds are
with height of the average birds’ backs. delivered.
 Continue to chlorinate to target 3 – 5 PPM free  When birds arrive have cones adjusted to flood feed
chlorine in the drinker furthest from the source. level.
 Clean drinkers daily.  Provide a minimum of one (1) feed pan per 50 toms
 During hot weather, flush overhead lines to provide and 60 hens.
fresh, cool water.  Maintain lip of feed pan even with the height of the
average birds’ backs.
 Check bins, augers, hoppers, etc. regularly for moldy
feed.
 In extreme heat conditions consider withdrawing
feed during the hottest part of the day to lower
metabolic temperature and allow birds to handle
heat better.

Lighting
 Toms and light hens should have a minimum of 4
hours of continuous darkness in a 24 hour time
period, as per National Turkey Federation Animal
Welfare Guidelines. Periods of 8-10 hours of
darkness are recommended for optimum
performance.

11

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 Heavy hens require a step down lighting program.  If power ventilating, adjust fan thermostats
(See Table 1) according to target temperature. Thermostat fans
should begin to come on 2°F (1°C) above target
Table 1. Heavy Hen Lighting Program temperature.
Spring and Summer  Utilize heat as needed to reduce litter moisture (with
Days 0-3 24 hours on increased ventilation).
Days 4-7 4 hours darkness  Do NOT compromise air quality for fuel savings.
Weeks 2-6 4 hours darkness
Week 7 5 hours darkness Temperature
Week 8 6 hours darkness Target environmental temperatures for commercial
Week 9 7 hours darkness stock are detailed in Table 2.
Week 10 8 hours darkness
Week 11 9 hours darkness
10 hours darkness/or as natural day Table 2. Target Environmental Temperatures
Week 12-mkt
length allows Large Ring /
Conventional Whole House
Brooding Brooding
Fall & Winter Age Sex °F °C °F °C

Growing
Days 0-3 24 hours on Day 1 M+F 86 30 94 34
Days 4-7 4 hours darkness M+F
Week 1 83 28 88 31
Weeks 2-6 4 hours darkness
Week 7 5 hours darkness Week 2 M+F 80 27 84 29
Week 8 5.5 hours darkness Week 3 M+F 77 25 82 28
Week 9 6 hours darkness
Week 4 M+F 74 23 76 24
Week 10 6.5 hours darkness
Week 11 7 hours darkness Week 5 M+F 72 22 72 22
Week 12-mkt 8 hours darkness Week 6 M+F 70 21 70 21

 Lighting can be increased to 24 hours during the Week 7 M+F 68 20 68 20

week prior to market to prepare birds for loading.
Week 8 M+F 66 19 66 19
 During periods of extreme heat, lighting should be
monitored to make sure birds have adequate time to Week 9 M+F 64 18 64 18
recover from the heat of the day.
Week 10 M+F 62 17 62 17
 During periods of extreme cold, lighting should be
monitored on younger flocks so that the Week 11 M+F 60 16 60 16
temperature is not dropping too low in the barn.
Week 12 M+F 58 14 58 14
 Light intensity and day length will influence activity,
feed consumption, and cannibalism; adjust as Week 13 + Females 58 14 58 14
needed.
Week 13 Males 56 13 56 13

Week 14 + Males 55 13 55 13
Ventilation
 Confirm that all ventilation equipment is operational.
 Calibrate all thermostats to enable accurate settings.
12
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 Feeding and Nutrition
Aviagen Turkeys is the industry leader in part because Flocks with weights close to target coming out of the
of its turkeys’ commercial growth rate and feed brood barn do not have the same period of accelerated
efficiency. This bird has a strong appetite and needs to growth following the move and there are fewer
achieve its early growth potential in order to develop resulting problems with late mortality. Turkeys that are
the skeletal and cardiovascular systems necessary to closer to their genetic potential have less physiological
support growth later in life. push to alter their growth rate and consequently have a
steadier growth pattern and stronger overall
Our technical team has evaluated different growth development.
patterns to develop an understanding of the
relationship between performance in the brooder stage
and final flock results. Following are some of our Weigh Birds at Transfer
observations and conclusions. To achieve the best results when growing turkeys it is
important to establish benchmarks to evaluate how
flocks are performing. It is crucial to get accurate
Minimize Stress during Brooding weights at transfer from the brooder barn. Ideally all
Results show that getting birds off to a good start flocks should be weighed at the same age and the
produces the best final results. During the first six sample size should be large enough to be meaningful –
weeks of a bird’s life the fundamental development of
at least 50 birds.
the skeleton, immune system and cardiovascular
Feeding & Nutrition

system takes place. Exposure to stress during this Weighing all flocks allows a company to determine
period compromises the development of these vital what birds typically weigh at transfer in its unique
systems. Good health status, housing, bird operation. Comparing flocks with an established
management, feed quality and feed intake allow birds benchmark is an essential tool to evaluate
to establish the foundation required to carry them management, health and nutrition programs.
through the finishing barn.

Identify Reasons for Under-Weight

Achieve the 6 Week Target Weight Flocks
Birds that are below the weight target at the end of the If the target weight is not being achieved, the big
brooding period tend to go through a rapid recovery challenge is to identify why and to make modifications
phase in the finishing barn where there is typically to ensure goals are met. If an individual flock is
more space and greater access to feed. Research underperforming, conditions on the farm should be
indicates that slow early growth followed by a rapid reviewed. If flocks throughout the company are not
growth period may result in a weakness in respiratory meeting objectives then an evaluation of the overall
or skeletal development in a percentage of the flock. management, health and nutrition programs is
Stress later in life can then result in increased late required.
mortality in this portion of the population. This late
mortality can show up as leg weakness, cull birds and Management practices in the brood barn can be as
respiratory problems. important as nutrition in achieving target weights.
Therefore, conduct a thorough review of health,
vaccination and cleaning programs, feed quality, feed
13

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texture and gut health. Additionally, environmental Manage Transition to Pellet Feed
factors like air quality, humidity and temperature The transition from crumbled to pelleted feed must be
regimes should be examined. Any of these factors or a managed to ensure that the early benefits are not lost.
combination of several can have a severe detrimental Birds may back off feed if pellets are too large or too
effect on growing birds. long as they may not be ready for the larger size. If
feed intake is reduced for 12 to 24 hours birds can lose
up to a day’s growth and will be more susceptible to
Encourage Feed Consumption
enteric challenges.
The nutritional package that is fed also has a great deal
of influence on weights at the end of the brood period. Changing from first feed crumbles to second feed
However, in the first weeks of life the amount of feed pellets at the same time as the move to the finisher
birds consume is even more critical. Diets with high barn can stress birds and reduce feed consumption.
levels of available energy allow the bird to get off to a Therefore, it is best to wait for a few days after moving
good start; this can be achieved by adding at least 4-5% birds before changing feed presentation.
of good quality fat. This added fat increases the energy
level and improves the feed form and palatability.

A consistent crumb size with less dust will improve feed

consumption. In the early stages the crumble quality
needs to be small enough to encourage consumption.

Feeding & Nutrition

Corn particle size should also be small enough to be
edible but large enough to stimulate gizzard function.
(See Table 3)

Table 3 Poult Feed Particle Size

Particle
Size (mm) %
<0.5 20
1.0 – 0.5 20
1.5-1.0 25
2.0-1.5 15
3.15-2.0 15
>3.15 5

14
— 15 —
 Ventilation
Ventilation control is Continued exposure to contaminated and moist air may
the principle means of trigger respiratory disease, reduce performance, affect
controlling bird temperature regulation and contribute to poor litter
environment. It is quality.
essential to deliver a
constant and uniform Target levels to maximize bird performance:
supply of good quality Carbon dioxide concentrations below 3,500 ppm
air at bird level. Fresh air is required at all stages of Carbon monoxide concentrations below 35 ppm
growth to allow the bird to remain in good health and Relative humidity 50% - 70%
achieve full potential. Ammonia concentrations below 25 ppm
Ventilation helps to maintain in-house temperatures
within the birds’ comfort zone. During the early part of
the production period keeping birds warm is the Housing and Ventilation Systems
primary concern, but as they grow keeping them cool There are two basic types of ventilation system: natural
becomes the main objective. and power.

The housing and ventilation systems used will depend Natural (Open-sided Housing), which can be:
upon climate, but in all cases effective ventilation
• Non-mechanically assisted
should remove excess heat and moisture and improve
air quality by removing harmful gases and dust. • Mechanically assisted
Sensors that monitor ammonia, carbon dioxide, relative
humidity and temperature are available commercially Power (Controlled Environment Housing), which can
be:
Ve n t i l a t i o n

and can be used to monitor the ventilation system.

• Minimum
As turkeys grow they consume oxygen and produce • Transitional & Tunnel
carbon dioxide and water vapor. Combustion by stoves • Evaporative Pad
contributes additional harmful gases in the turkey • Fogging/Misting
house. The ventilation system must remove these
harmful gases from the house and deliver good quality Natural Ventilation:
air. Open-Sided Housing

Natural ventilation
Air Quality refers to an open-
The main contaminants of air within the house sided house with
environment are dust, ammonia, carbon dioxide, curtains. Natural
carbon monoxide and excess water vapor. These ventilation involves
contaminants can damage the respiratory tract, opening and closing the curtains to control the air flow
decreasing the efficiency of respiration and reducing and environment inside the house.
bird performance.

15

— 16 —
Curtain ventilation requires diligent management if Negative pressure ventilation can be operated in three
house environment is to be satisfactorily controlled. different modes according to the ventilation needs of
The monitoring of conditions and adjustment of the birds:
curtains is required to compensate for changes in
• Minimum ventilation
temperature, humidity, wind velocity and wind
• Transitional ventilation
direction.
• Tunnel ventilation
The air exchange rate depends on outside winds, and
With any powered system, a standby emergency
fan assistance improves the efficacy of air circulation.
generator is required.
On warm to hot days with little wind, fans provide a
wind chill cooling effect. Foggers, misters or sprinklers Minimum Ventilation Systems
should be used with circulation fans to add a second Minimum ventilation is used for cooler weather and for
level of cooling. young birds. The aim of minimum ventilation is to
maintain required air temperature, bring in fresh air
In cold weather, when curtain openings are small,
and remove excess moisture and harmful gases.
heavy outside air enters at low speed and drops
immediately to the floor which can chill the birds and The key to successful minimum ventilation is creating a
create wet litter. At the same time, warmer air escapes partial vacuum (negative pressure) so air comes
from the house which can result in large temperature through all vents and is directed across the ceiling. This
swings. This can be reduced by using circulation fans will ensure that incoming air is mixed with warm in-
help to mix incoming cold air with warm in-house air. house air above the birds rather than dropping directly
onto the birds and chilling them (see Figure 2). This
Power Ventilation Systems: Controlled Environment type of ventilation is preferably timer-driven.
Housing
Figure 2. Optimal Air Flow Pattern
Power or negative pressure ventilation systems are
becoming more popular for controlling house

Ve n t i l a t i o n
environment. Better control over air exchange rates
and airflow patterns provide more uniform conditions 60˚F
80˚F
25%
throughout the house. 50˚F 50%
75%

Power ventilated systems use exhaust fans to draw air

Optimal
This optimal air flow pattern keeps the air away from the birds as
out of the house and create a lower pressure within the long as possible. It maximizes heating and the moisture holding
ability of the air and it minimizes drafts.
house. This creates a partial vacuum (negative or static
pressure) inside the house so that outside air can pass
in through controlled vent openings. The speed at
which air enters the house is determined by fan
capacity and vent area.
Undesirable
Matching the vent openings to the number of exhaust With this air pattern, cold air drops to the floor chilling the birds
and causing wet floors.
fans in operation is the key to achieving correct
negative (static) pressure. Mechanical controls will
automatically adjust vent openings to the number of
fans running. The amount of negative pressure
generated can be monitored by a static pressure gauge.

16

— 17 —
 Transitional Ventilation Systems Evaporative cooling is best implemented to maintain a
Transitional ventilation operates using two ventilation required temperature in the house, rather than to
principles based on the outside temperature and the reduce temperatures that have already become
age of the birds. It is used where both hot and cold stressfully high.
periods are experienced. Whereas minimum
ventilation is timer-driven, transitional ventilation is The three factors which directly affect evaporative
temperature-driven. Transitional ventilation begins cooling are:
when a higher than minimum air exchange rate is
• Outside air temperature
required. That is, whenever temperature sensors or
• Relative humidity (RH) of outside air
thermostats override the minimum ventilation timer to
• Evaporation efficiency
keep fans running.
There are two primary types of evaporative cooling
Transitional ventilation works in the same way as
systems; pad cooling with tunnel ventilation and
minimum ventilation, but a larger fan capacity gives a
foggers, misters and sprinklers.
larger volume of air exchange. Successful transitional
ventilation requires vents linked to a static pressure
Pad Cooling with Tunnel Ventilation
controller so heat can be removed without switching to
Pad cooling systems cool air by drawing it through
tunnel ventilation.
wetted cellulose pads (See Figure 3). The dual effect of
pad cooling and air speed allows control of the
Tunnel Ventilation Systems
environment when house temperatures are above 85°F
Tunnel ventilation keeps birds comfortable in warm to
(30˚C). Excessively high house humidity can be
hot weather and where large birds are being grown by
minimized by making sure that evaporative cooling
using the cooling effect of high-velocity airflow. Air
pads/fogging systems do not operate at temperatures
movement is one of the most effective methods of
below 80°F (27˚C) in areas where the ambient humidity
cooling birds during hot weather. As air moves over a
is high (greater than 80%).
Ve n t i l a t i o n

bird’s hot body, heat is removed from the bird, making

it feel cooler. The greater the amount of air
Figure 3: Pad Cooling with Tunnel Ventilation
movement, the greater the cooling effect produced.
Birds will feel cooler when exposed to air movement
during hot weather, and will continue to eat and grow.

Evaporative Cooling Systems

Tunnel ventilation is well-suited to the addition of an
evaporative cooling system. Evaporative cooling is used
to improve environmental conditions in hot weather
and enhances the efficiency
of tunnel ventilation.
Evaporative cooling systems
use the principle of water
evaporation to reduce the
temperature in the house.

17

— 18 —
Fogging/Misting Following are some tips to ensure proper ventilation
Fogging systems cool incoming air by evaporation of during cold weather.
water created by pumping water through fogger
nozzles.  Maintain ammonia level below 25 ppm. If
ammonia levels become too high, increase
There are three types of fogging systems: minimum ventilation level. At times it may
 Low pressure, 100–200 psi; droplet size up to 30 become necessary to add heat depending on age of
microns. flock and outside temperature. The amount of
ammonia produced is a function of factors such as
 High pressure, 400–600 psi; droplet size 10–15
age of litter, litter moisture, amount of caked litter
microns. and length of downtime between flocks.
 Ultra high pressure, 700–1,000 psi; droplet size 5
 Maintain relative humidity between 50% and 70%.
microns.
If the barn becomes dusty add moisture. When
humidity reaches 60% begin to increase minimum
Pressure PSI Droplet Size
ventilation rates. At times it may become
Low Pressure 100 - 200 Up to 30 Microns necessary to add heat depending on age of flock,
High Pressure 400 - 600 10 – 15 Microns outside temperature and humidity.
Ultra High Pressure 700 - 1000 5 Microns  Ensure house tightness, there should be no air
leaks. The best way to evaluate house tightness is
with a static pressure test. (See Figure 4) Seal all
With low pressure systems, larger particle sizes can cracks with caulk or foam insulation as needed. A
cause wet litter if house humidity is high. High pressure smoke emitter will be useful to identify leaks.
systems minimize residual moisture giving an extended
 Maintain minimum ventilation rate regardless of
humidity range. Fine droplet size will help avoid wet the inside or outside conditions. Without at least
litter. the minimum ventilation rate the inside air quality
will deteriorate and litter moisture and ammonia
Cold Weather problems will occur. If wet litter or ammonia
becomes a problem, increase the minimum

Ve n t i l a t i o n
During cold weather primary consideration should be
given to the control of ammonia and humidity. ventilation rate.
Ventilating too little can lead to poor air and litter  Ensure that incoming air is mixed with warm in-
quality, resulting in bird health and performance issues. house air above the birds rather than dropping
Ventilating too much can lead to drafty conditions and directly onto the birds and chilling them. This
requires matching the number of vents and fans to
high heating costs.
maintain static pressure.

Figure 4. Procedures for Static Pressure Test

Static Pressure Test

1. Close all vents, doors, curtains, etc.
2. Turn on enough fans to equal 1 CFM per square foot (1.7 cubic meters per hour per
0.093 square meters)
3. Static pressure should be 0.2 or better.
4. If the number is lower than 0.2, too much air is coming in through leaks and cracks.
The higher the number, the better the tightness.

18

— 19 —
  Use stir fans to reduce temperature stratification.  Test alarms weekly.
Do not direct airflow onto the birds.
 Properly set thermostats on both fans and curtain
 Make sure fans are well maintained and working machines according to flock age and outside
properly. Fan belts should be tight and louvers temperature considerations.
should be clean and free of dust. Replace belts
 Direct hanging fans so air flows across the birds and
annually.
not up to the ceiling.
 If the house gets too warm, check the thermostat
 In open sided housing sidewall screens and end door
setting not the fan timer setting.
screens should be kept clean at all times to
 Maintain cables to ensure proper opening and maximum air flow.
closing of vents.
 For static pressure barns, remember the goal is to
 Maintain heaters to ensure efficient operation and pull enough static pressure to eliminate dead air
to reduce carbon monoxide. spots in the center of the barn while still increasing
air volume. Not all barns are the same width and
 Check plumbing fixtures for leaks.
will have different requirements. Check with your
 Upgrade insulation if needed. Heavy condensation service technician on recommendations for your
can indicate areas of poor insulation. barn.
 During down time, empty water lines to avoid  Set up tunnel ventilated barns in stages based on
freezing and breakage. outside temperatures and bird requirements.
 For curtain sided barns, keep screens clean of dust
and feathers. Keep perimeter of building clear of
Hot Weather Ventilation
tall grass, equipment and any other air flow
When turkeys are obstructions.
exposed to excessive
 Test any foggers, misters or sprinklers prior to use
heat they begin to
each summer. Nozzles can become clogged; hoses
suffer from heat stress. and pipes can become cracked. Dripping nozzles will
Some signs of heat reduce mist onto birds and create wet spots. Watch
Ve n t i l a t i o n

stress are decreased for drips and repair as needed.

feed consumption,  Do not run foggers, misters or sprinklers without
increased water also using fans.
consumption, gasping, open mouth panting, wing
spreading, stupor, slowness and lethargy. The longer
the flock is exposed to high temperatures, the greater Generators, Alarms and Curtain Drops
the stress and its effects. Generators should be
tested weekly, serviced
Following are some ventilation techniques to help and maintained as per
control house temperature during hot weather. manufacturer’s
recommendations. Both
 Ensure all fans are in working order, belts are
tightened and fan housings are kept free of dust. a service log and test log
Clean louvers and vent openings frequently as any should be kept on site
dust accumulation will reduce air flow. with equipment.
 Set and activate alarms. This is especially critical for Additionally, alarms and curtain drops are to be tested
barns using tunnel and static pressure ventilation. weekly with logs kept.

 Temperature targets will vary with flock age.

19

— 20 —
Water Vaccination
Prior to Vaccinating  Two hours prior to lights coming on (or prior to
 Consult your veterinarian or flock supervisor for a normal chore activities):
vaccination schedule for your flock. o Flush water lines with clean water
 Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations o Raise the drinkers
regarding transport, storage and disposal of vaccine
o Turn off the water
and containers.
 Mix correct number of vaccine doses into enough
 Remove chlorine, antibiotics, disinfectants and
water to last 3-4 hours.
other additives from the water. Presence of these
materials will interfere with the vaccine.  Add vaccine stabilizer (with blue dye).
o Two days prior to scheduled vaccination,  Flush the water lines, ensuring that all the drinkers
turn off chlorine. in the house have water with blue dye. Drinkers
must be emptied to get vaccine water started.
o If water is chlorinated from the supply
source use a charcoal filter to remove  Lower the drinkers.
chlorine or let water stand in holding tank  Walk through the barn every 20-30 minutes.
for two days.
 Resume chlorination 4 – 6 hours after all the
o Test water to ensure chlorine is removed. vaccine is consumed.
It may take longer than two days.
 Rinse and flush water tank or ensure you have a
clean medication bucket for proportioner. Please note vaccination alone cannot protect flocks
against overwhelming disease challenges and poor
 Wash drinkers the day before vaccination. management practices. Develop programs for birds in
 One day prior to scheduled vaccination, run vaccine consultation with a trained poultry veterinarian.
stabilizer. Vaccination is more effective when disease challenges
are minimized; good management and biosecurity will
help reduce these challenges. Base your vaccination
Day of Vaccination programs on local disease challenges and remember
every bird must receive the intended dose of vaccine.
 Only vaccinate healthy birds.

Wa t e r Va c c i n a t i o n
 Restrict water intake to ensure birds are thirsty for
the vaccine water.

20

— 21 —
 Pest Management
Controlling pests requires an Integrated Pest more beetles when they have an acid added to the
Management (IPM) system and utilizes multiple tools tank mix.
to manage pests. It includes planning and  If using a Spinosad, add 1-2 ounces of clear
implementing proper sanitation practices, mechanical household ammonia per gallon of tank mix (8-16
devices, pest behavior and pesticides to provide a ml/liter).
foundation to prevent pest outbreaks and predict when  If using a neo-nicotinoid class of insecticide, such as
and what types of treatment are most economically Imidacloprid no tank additives are necessary.
beneficial to the grower.  Rotate products utilizing a minimum of four different
classes of insecticide per year.
The primary pests that impact poultry production are
darkling beetles, rodents, flies, wild birds and worms.  Apply the insecticide using as little water as possible,
as recommended by the manufacturer.
Controlling weeds is a key part of a pest management
program due to the impact on pest behavior.  Change nozzle tips to a flat fan, 04-08 nozzle tip, to
get a fine mist instead of a coarse spray application.
 Do not apply insecticide to the entire house.
Darkling Beetles
 Focus the insecticide applications to the areas where
Darkling beetles are best controlled with the beetles are living when the birds are in the house
insecticide. for much better control:
› 3 foot (1 meter) wide band under the feed lines
› 3 foot (1 meter) wide band along the walls,
including the footing
› 2 feet (60 cm) up onto the wood above the
footing
 Apply the insecticide on top of fresh shavings after
clean out or on top of the litter after caking out. The
beetles crawl on top of the litter as they are making
their way to the feed line areas after bird placement.
Results are not as good if insecticide is applied on the
bare floor.
 Apply the label recommended amount of each
Pest Management

 Prior to clean out apply a wall treatment such as

insecticide. Using less than the recommended
Permethrin 10% to prevent beetles from retreating
amount will lead to increased resistance to the to the walls during clean out.
insecticide.
 After clean out or caking out, apply the insecticide
 If large populations of beetles are present, apply currently used in rotational program to any litter
insecticide before placement of each flock to keep stored in the stacking shed. This will prevent the
the beetle populations under control. beetles from migrating back into the houses.

 If using an Organophosphate or Pyrethroid when the  The number of beetles killed in the first 24 hours is
pH of the water is above 6, add 1 packet of Citric not the best indication of the insecticide’s efficiency.
Acid or another acidifier to each insecticide tank mix Some insecticides may not work as quickly but have
before applying the material. These insecticides kill more long term consistent results.
21

— 22 —
 In many situations it may be necessary to use  Maintain a “vegetation-free” zone at least 36 inches
insecticide combinations in order to combat (1 meter) around all barns and control all grass and
resistance issues in darkling beetles. Contact an weed growth.
expert for selection of the most effective
 Rotate bait using different active ingredients at least
combinations for your situation.
three times per year to keep rodents from becoming
“bait shy”.
Rodents Rodent Bait Station Placement
Control Procedures at Cleanout  For all turkey houses, place outside bait stations one
every 40 - 60 feet (12-18 meters) and two on each
 Immediately after depopulating the houses: end.
› Use the most attractive baits in combination
with a fast acting Bromethalin product for this
process. The use of meal bait top-dressed with
a small amount of Bromethalin based product
has been very successful. Check with an expert
to get specific instructions for this process.
› Place shallow trays (egg flats work well) 40 feet
(12 meters) apart along the walls.
› Place one tray at each end door.
› Put bait in each tray as recommended by the
manufacturer.
 If cool cells are being used, place 2 stations in each
 Check and replenish the bait in the trays every day access area.
for at least 5 days.
 Attach outside stations in an upright position to the
 At any time during cleanout place bait in the attic footings or walls, ¾ inch (2 cm) above the ground.
space of the house. This keeps the stations in the most advantageous
 Liquid bait can be used if no water is present in the spots and allows them to be cleaned with a portable
house during down time. power washer.

 Just prior to bird placement, pressure wash all bait  Place inside stations one for every 20 feet (6 meters)
stations, allow them to dry and replenish with fresh of exposed wall.
bait.

Pest Management
 Place stations in each building / room where rodents
could enter, e.g. equipment room, storage shed,
Rodent Prevention entry building, break room, etc.

 Do not allow the accumulation of materials, trash or Rodent Bait Station Maintenance
other debris in and around the farm.
 Avoid and immediately clean-up any feed spills.  Treat bait stations as if they are harboring disease –
they should only be handled at the end of the day
 Avoid and repair leaking plumbing or other sources and when wearing gloves.
of standing water.
 Keep bait stations clean and free of insects and
 Eliminate holes, cracks and other openings where excessive dirt.
rodents might enter houses.
 Keep bait fresh and dry.

22
— 23 —
  Check stations at least monthly and keep a record of Chemical Measures
rodent activity and bait consumption.  Apply an approved residual fly spray around
 Monthly cleaning – caution should be used during perimeter and in the houses according to
cleaning, as rodents can carry salmonella and other manufacturer’s recommendations.
diseases. Contents should never be emptied where it  Use bait stations or traps in areas of heavy
can come in contact with birds. infestation, such as corners and around doors.
› Open all bait stations and remove the bait. Ensure they are out of birds’ reach.
 Apply larvacides directly to manure according to
› Clean the inside of the bait stations using a dry rag
or a stiff bristled paintbrush. manufacturer’s recommendation to control fly
larva.
› Contain and carefully dispose of removed contents
to avoid spreading disease.
› Replenish with fresh bait as necessary to maintain Worms
manufacturer’s recommended supply.
Worms can have a significant detrimental effect on
 All bait stations should be thoroughly cleaned or performance, including poor weight gain, increased
pressure washed at least once per year.
feed conversion and increased mortality. Therefore
worming should be done on a routine basis using a
Fly Control veterinary approved turkey worming program. The life
cycle of a worm is 28 days, so worming should be done
Management Techniques a minimum of every four weeks.
 Clean up feed and water spills.
 Properly store feed.
 Dispose of dead birds promptly.
 Keep outside clear of any manure.
 Maintain a “vegetation-free” zone at least 3 feet (1
meter) around all barns and control all grass and
weed growth.
 Keep perimeter vegetation short and tidy.
 Manage drinkers to minimize wet cake underneath
drinkers and nipple lines.
 Maintain dry litter conditions.
Pest Management

Acknowledgement: Aviagen Turkeys thanks Robert Rowland from Ivesco, LLC for his contribution to this chapter.

23

— 24 —
Water

Wa t e r
Water is an essential ingredient for life. Water supplied to turkeys should not contain
excessive amounts of minerals and should not be contaminated with bacteria. Test the water
supply to check the level of calcium salts (water hardness), salinity and nitrates. After the
house has been cleaned and before the birds have arrived, sample water for bacterial
contamination at the source, at the storage tanks and at the last drinker. (See Table 4)

Table 4. Acceptable Concentrations of Minerals and Organic Matter in Water Supply

Levels Maximum
Contaminant,
Considered Acceptable Comments
Mineral or Ion
Average Level
Bacteria Total Bacteria is used as an indicator of system cleanliness, high
numbers do not necessarily mean the bacteria present is harmful
Total Bacteria 0 CFU/ml 1000 CFU/ml but it does mean that the system is capable of harboring
(TPC) CFU/ml pathogenic organisms. High bacteria levels can impact taste of
water resulting in reduced consumption.
Total Coliforms 0 CFU/ml 50 CFU/ml Treatment-Shock well, then implement sanitation program such as
chlorine, hydrogen peroxide or other sanitizers. Maintain a residual
Fecal Coliforms 0CFU/ml 0 CFU/ml level of sanitizer.
Presence of any fecal coliform means water is unfit for
consumption.
pH 6.5-7.8 5-8 pH below 5 can be harmful to drinker equipment-causing corrosion
to metal components with long term exposure.
Treatment-If pH is lower than 5 use soda ash or caustic soda
injection to raise pH.
pH above 8- impacts effectiveness of most water sanitizers. High
pH associated with high alkalinity, may result in reduced water
consumption due to “bitter” taste.
Treatment- If pH is high acid injection will be required.
Total Hardness 60-180 mg/l 110 mg/l Total Hardness (Calcium plus Magnesium) causes scale which
reduces pipe volume and causes drinkers to be hard to trigger or
leak.
Treatment- Softeners can reduce hardness up to a practical limit of
100 gpg or 1710 ppm/mg/l. If the hardness is above 30 gpg or the
sodium to hardness ratio is greater than 33% then the sodium level
will be high after softening and reverse osmosis may be required.

Natural Elements
Calcium 60 mg/l Birds are very tolerant of calcium but values above 110 mg/l may
(Ca) require water softener, polyphosphates or acidifier to prevent
scaling. In areas of high calcium care must be taken to ensure
proper calcium/phosphorus ratios for egg production.
Magnesium 14 mg/l 125 mg/l Higher levels of magnesium may cause flushing due to laxative
(Mg) effect particularly if high sulfate is present.

24

— 25 —
 Levels Maximum
Wa t e r

Contaminant,
Considered Acceptable Comments
Mineral or Ion
Average Level
Iron 0.2 mg/l 0.3 mg/l Birds are tolerant of the metallic taste of iron. Iron can cause
(Fe) leaking drinkers and promote the growth of E coli and
pseudomonas. Iron is linked to thick slime producing bacteria such
as crenoforms.
Treatment- Includes oxidation with chlorine, chlorine dioxide or
ozone followed by filtration.
Manganese 0.01 mg/l 0.05 mg/l Manganese can result in black grainy residue on filters and in
(Mn) drinkers.
Treatment- Includes oxidation with chlorine, chlorine dioxide or
ozone then filtration. Green sand filtration and softeners will
remove manganese. Pay close attention to pH when deciding what
method to use. Farms with manganese in the water have been
problematic.
Chloride 50 mg/l 150 mg/l Chloride, when combined with high sodium levels, creates salty
(Cl) water that can act as a laxative causing flushing. Salty water can
promote the growth of Enterococci organisms that can lead to
enteric issues.
Treatment- Reverse Osmosis, anion exchange resin, lower dietary
salt levels, blend source with non-saline water. Keep water clean
and use daily sanitizers such as hydrogen peroxide or iodine to
prevent microbial growth.
Sodium 50 mg/l 150 mg/l Sodium, when combined with high chloride levels, creates salty
(Na) water that can act as a laxative causing flushing. Salty water can
promote the growth of Enteroccoci organisms that can lead to
enteric issues or possibly kinky back.
Treatment- Reverse Osmosis; lower dietary salt level; blend source
with non-saline water; Keep water clean and use daily sanitizers
such as hydrogen peroxide or iodine to prevent microbial growth.
Sulfates 15-40 mg/l 200 mg/l Sulfates can cause flushing in birds. If rotten egg odor is present,
(SO4) then bacteria producing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are present.
Treatment- System will require shock chlorination plus
establishment of good daily water sanitation program, sulfates can
be removed by reverse osmosis or anion resin. If H2S is present (the
rotten egg smell) then aerate water into a holding tank, treat with
sanitizers then filtration.
Nitrates 1-5 mg/l 25 mg/l High nitrate levels can result in poor growth and feed conversion.
Presence of nitrates may also indicate fecal contamination
therefore testing for bacteria is recommended.
Treatment- Reverse Osmosis or anion exchange resin.
Lead 0 mg/1 0.014 mg/l Long term exposure to lead can cause weak bones and fertility
problems.
Treatment- Reverse osmosis, softener or activated carbon will
greatly reduce lead.
Copper 0.002 mg/l 0.6 mg/l
Zinc 1.5 mg/l

25
— 26 —
Water may have excessive nitrate levels and high within the house environment particularly with open

Wa t e r
bacterial counts. Where bacterial counts are high, drinker systems, (See Figure 5). To maintain clean
determine the cause and correct the problem. Bacterial water, clean and sanitize drinkers daily and keep free
contamination can often reduce performance. chlorine levels between 3-5ppm at last drinker. The
chart below demonstrates the importance of keeping
Water that is clean at the point of entry to the house the water system clean through frequent drinker
can become contaminated by exposure to bacteria cleaning and water sanitation.

Figure 5: Increase in Bacterial Count in Open Drinkers

40,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
Bacterial Count

25,000
20,000
15,000
15,000
KEY
10,000
10,000 Total Count
5,000 S.aureous
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 E.coli

After Clean-Out Day-Old 5 Days Old

26
— 27 —
 Water Line Cleaning Clean the Lines
Wa t e r

It takes 8-10 gallons (30 – 37 liters) of water to fill and

Successful water sanitation begins with a thorough clean 100 feet (30 meters) of ¾ inch (20 mm) water
water line cleaning program. The variability and line. If your building is 500 feet (150 meters) long and
dynamics of water systems can create cleaning has two water lines you should make up a minimum of
challenges, but these can be overcome with proper 100 gallons (370 liters) of cleaning solution.
water analysis, a little effort and the right tools.
Water lines should be designed so that they can be
Choose a Cleaner opened to drain completely when the cleaning is
Have water analyzed for scale-causing minerals: complete.
calcium, magnesium and manganese. If the water
contains more than 90 ppm combined calcium and Follow these steps to clean the water lines:
magnesium or 0.05 ppm manganese, you will need to 1) Open water lines and drain completely.
include a “descaler” or an acid in your cleaning 2) Begin pumping the cleaner through the water lines.
program. These products will dissolve the mineral 3) Watch the water as it leaves the drain line for signs
deposits in water lines and fittings. of the product such as foaming or suds.
4) Once water lines are filled with the cleaner, close
Choose a cleaner that can effectively dissolve any bio-
film or slime in the system. Some of the best products the tap and leave product in the lines for as long as
the manufacturer recommends (over 24 hours if
for this job are concentrated hydrogen peroxides.
possible).
Prior to using any strong cleaners, make sure 5) Additionally, it is recommended that all regulators
standpipes are working properly so air pressure buildup be taken apart and cleaned at this point.
in the lines will be released. Consult equipment 6) Flush cleaner from the water lines after the holding
suppliers before using products to prevent unnecessary period. Water used to flush the lines should contain
damage and always follow manufacturer’s the level of sanitizer normally used in the drinking
recommendation. water.

Prepare the Cleaning Solution In the absence of a standard water sanitation

For best results, use cleaning products at the strongest program add 4 ounces of 5% bleach per gallon (32
concentration recommended on the label. Most ml / liter) of stock solution and proportion at a rate
proportioners will only allow concentrations between of 1 ounce per gallon of water (0.8% or 1:128). This
0.8 and 1.6% of the original material. will provide approximately 3–5 ppm of free
chlorine in the final rinse water.
If you need to use higher concentrations it is better to
mix the stock solution in a large tank and then 7) Water lines from the source to the turkey barns
distribute without use of a proportioner. For example, should also be cleaned and sanitized between
if a 3% solution is required, mix three volumes of the flocks. Do not flush the outside water lines through
cleaner with 97 volumes of water for the final solution. the water lines inside the buildings. Connect a
water hose to the medicator faucet to drain the
An excellent cleaning solution can be made up by using outside lines
35% hydrogen peroxide solution. Mix this as described
for a 3% solution.

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Remove Mineral Build-up The objective is to provide a clean source of drinking
After lines are cleaned, use a descaler or acid product water with a continuous level of sanitizer (3-5 ppm of

Wa t e r
to remove the mineral build-up. Use product according free chlorine) at the last drinker without over sanitizing
to the manufacturer’s recommendation. Citric acid is the drinkers at the front of the barn.
one option:

1) Make a stock solution by mixing 4 – 6 packs of citric Water Sanitation

acid in one gallon of water. Proportion at one Utilization of sanitizers approved for use in the drinking
ounce per gallon (0.8% or 1:128). Fill water lines water of food animals provides protection from
and let stand for 24 hours. It is critical that the pathogens that may be naturally occurring in water
water pH is below 5 for optimum scale removal. sources or which get seeded into water systems by sick
birds and other vectors. By maintaining residual levels
2) Empty the water lines. Then refill the lines with
appropriate for the different types of sanitizers
clean water containing 8-12 ounces of 5% bleach
commonly used, many operations can effectively limit
per gallon (64-95 ml / liter) of stock solution
disease challenges.
proportioned at one ounce per gallon (0.8% or
1:128). Leave in the water lines for four hours. Chlorine is the most popular sanitizer because it is
This concentration of chlorine will kill any residual inexpensive to use and widely available. The three
bacteria, and further remove bio-film residue. most commonly used forms are gas chlorine, sodium
hypochlorite (liquid bleach) and calcium hypochlorite
3) Perform a final flush of the water lines using water
(dry or tablet form). Chlorine is most effective in the
with a normal drinking water level of sanitizer (4 to
hypochlorus form which is the most prevalent when
6 ounces of 5% bleach per gallon (32 – 48 ml / liter)
the pH is between 4 and 7. Therefore, optimal
of stock solution proportioned at one ounce per
sanitation with chlorine typically requires additional
gallon). Continue flushing until chlorine smell is
injection with an acid.
gone. Test the water in the lines to make sure it
contains no more than 5 ppm of free chlorine. Other commonly used water sanitizers are chlorine
dioxide, iodine and hydrogen peroxide (See Table 5,
page 29).

Keep the System Clean

Once the system has been cleaned, it is important to
keep it sanitized. Develop a good daily water sanitation
program for your birds. The ideal water line sanitation
program should include optimizing sanitizer residual
which requires injecting an acid if chlorine is used. It is
important to note that the procedure requires two
injectors since acids and bleach should never be mixed
in the same stock solution.

If only one proportioner or injector is available, then

inject bleach (concentration of 5%) at a rate of 4 to 6
ounces per gallon (32 – 48 ml / liter) stock solution;
proportion at 1 ounce of stock solution per gallon of
drinking water.
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 Table 5. Commonly Used Water Sanitizers

Sanitizer Common Forms Target Residual Comments

Wa t e r

Chlorine Gas-(Cl2) 3-5 ppm free chlorine Chorine is most effective when water pH is adjusted
to 5-7. Effective in oxidizing manganese, iron and
Sodium sulfur. Some pathogens are resistant to chlorine.
hypochlorite
Inexpensive
(NaOCl)

Calcium
Hypochlorite
(Ca(OCl)2
Chlorine Generated by 0.8-2.0 ppm Effective against chlorine resistant pathogens and
Dioxide reacting liquid Per product effective over a wide pH range (5-9). Also effective in
sodium chlorite recommendations oxidizing iron and manganese. Expensive
with an acid
Iodine Sodium Iodate- 1-2 ppm Not as effective as chlorine as a virucide. More
NaIO3 effective at pH neutral to slightly basic.
Expensive
Hydrogen H2O2 25-50 ppm Not as effective in oxidizing iron and manganese.
Peroxide Stabilized products provide residual longer than non-
stabilized forms.
Expensive
Ozone O3 Unstable so must be generated at point of use. No
residual. Very effective germicide and virucide.
Must filter water post-ozonation.
Expensive

Additional Considerations:
Drinker valves and pipes may become blocked if the
water is hard and contains high levels of calcium salts
or iron. If sediment blocks the pipes, filter the supply
with a mesh of 40–50 microns.

Do not use acid as the sole method of water treatment

since acids alone can cause bacterial or fungal growth
in water systems.

When administering other products to your birds it is a

good idea to stop the inclusion of chlorine (and other
sanitizers) in the drinking water. Chlorine will
inactivate vaccines, and reduce the effectiveness of
some medications. Resume use of chlorine and/or
other sanitizers after treatment is finished.

Aviagen Turkeys thanks Dr. Susan Watkins from the University of Arkansas for her contribution to this chapter and for her work with
the turkey industry on developing water sanitation programs.

29

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Post Mortem Examination
The objective of post mortem examination in the field Digestive signs: Diarrhea, soiled vent, excessive
(field necropsy) is to provide information that can be chirping.
combined with flock history and field observations to
Nervous signs: Head and neck held in an abnormal
help to determine the causes of performance
manner, tremors, spasms, paralysis, circling motion.

Post Morten Examination

problems, clinical signs and mortality.
Locomotive signs: Unable to stand or walk, limping,
Field necropsy should be backed up with laboratory
poor gait, inability to use one or both legs, lying on
diagnostic investigations on tissue samples, serology side, swollen foot pads and swollen joints.
and live/dead mortality specimens, especially if the
field problem persists. The technique of turkey Observe the Bird in Question
necropsy in the field can vary, but the following can Examine the exterior surface of the bird and note the
serve as a general guideline. following:

Case History of the Flock General condition: Thin, good flesh, trauma,
A key to identifying health problems is understanding dehydrated.
the flock history. Accurate records are important and
should include the following information: Examine the head: Eyes, sinus, eye lids, oral cavity.

 Age Examine the legs, hocks and note mobility: Palpate

 Flock size legs, joints and feet.
 Morbidity (sick birds and mortality numbers)
Examine the skin for external parasites, particularly
 Principal clinical signs noted and duration of clinical
beneath the vent: Lice and mites.
signs
 Previous flock/farm history Post Mortem Examination
 Management factors:
There are a number of procedures used. What is
o Feeding & water systems
important is to make sure that one proceeds with the
o Housing
o Ventilation necropsy in an orderly fashion. This will reduce the
o Litter conditions chance of overlooking something.
o Vaccination/medication program
 Unusual management changes Necropsy Equipment to Have on Hand
 Last handling of birds
• Sharp knife • Whirl packs for tissue
 Performance records (egg production and weight samples
• Scissors (blunt point)
gains) • 10% buffered formalin
• Bone shears
 Breeder flock source • Forceps solution in a wide-mouth
 Feeding regime plastic container
• Disposable or rubber
gloves • Sterile swabs for bacterial
Observe Clinical Signs of Disease culture
• Vacutainers or plastic
Monitor the flock and note any abnormal behavior such tubes for blood collection • Disinfectant to clean and
disinfect equipment
as:
Respiratory: Gasping, nasal discharge, snicking, swollen 1. Euthanize the bird according to your company’s
sinuses, mouth breathing, coughing, blood in mouth. approved welfare standards.

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 2. Place bird on its back. Incise the loose skin on the 11. Hold the gizzard and pull, along with the intestines,
inside of each thigh. Grab the leg in one hand and to the bird’s right side.
holding the body with the other hand, pull the leg
12. Examine the spleen and air sacs. Take bacterial
down and outward from the body until the hip joint
cultures from spleen and/or air sacs, if necessary.
is disarticulated.
13. Remove the lungs and examine. Note the
3. Cut the skin across the lower abdomen. Pull the
consistency and color. Make several transecting
skin over the breast, sternum and crop. Examine
cuts over the lung and examine lung tissue.
Post Morten Examination

the breast muscle and subcutaneous tissue for any

abnormal appearances such as blisters, 14. Hold proventriculus, cut esophagus near
hemorrhage, dehydration (darkening of the proventriculus junction and then pull out the entire
muscle), etc. digestive system including liver, spleen and small
intestines and lay small intestines out.
4. Poults, 1-7 days of age: Fold both wings over the
breast muscle and hold both with one hand. With 15. Examine liver, kidneys, pancreas, surface of the
the other hand, hold the neck and work the thumb intestines and gonads.
down between the crop and breast muscle to the 16. Examine the stifle, hock joints and tendons.
thoracic inlet.
17. Examine leg bones (tibiotarsus) for rigidity by
5. Pull the wings and breast muscle back towards the bending and breaking the bone to check for
tail with one hand while the other hand holds the nutritional deficiencies in young poults (rickets). A
neck with the thumb pushing down against the healthy bone should make a snap when it breaks.
thoracic inlet and cervical vertebrae, separating the
18. Examine the tibia (growing birds) by cutting
breast muscle and wings away from the back bone. longitudinally on the medial inside surface through
6. Poults can also be opened by cutting the clavicular the epiphysis to examine for abnormalities (TD,
and coracoid bones (the thoracic inlet, wish bone osteomyelitis and others).
area) and then through the rib cage and abdominal 19. Examine costochondral junctions (ribs) for
wall. The bird should then be opened by pulling on enlargements (beading).
the wings and neck separating the breast from the
20. Cut through the left lateral commissure of the
back bone.
mouth (use heavy scissors) and continue the
7. Using bone shears, cut through the ribs and under incision through the skin and esophagus to the
the clavicle and coracoid bones (on older birds, two thoracic inlet and pull the skin laterally.
cuts can be made above the shoulder area down 21. Examine oral cavity and organs of the neck region
through the breast muscle to the shoulder joint). (thymus, thyroids and parathyroids).
This will assist you when reflecting the keel.
22. Make a longitudinal cut through the larynx and
8. For fresh dead, break down the adhesions between trachea. Examine for blood, congestion, etc.
the heart and breast bone prior to lifting up on the
23. Examine esophagus and crop. Note any
keel bone.
abnormalities in esophagus and crop such as crop
9. Pull the keel forward to allow access to the internal mycosis (candidiasis), trichomoniasis or capillaria
organs. Examine liver, heart, gizzard, intestines and worms.
air sacs without touching them. 24. Make a lateral incision through the wall of the
10. Take bacterial cultures (liver, pericardial sac) or infraorbital sinus and examine for exudates, etc.
tissue samples and the whole bird for virus
isolation and additional investigations.

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25. To examine the brain (poults), remove the skin on 27. Examine the intestines by making a longitudinal cut
the skull. Then remove the skull bone by cutting through the wall of the intestines continuing to cut
the bone all the way around the periphery of the in order to inspect the bird for worms
cranial cavity with heavy scissors or heavy bone
shears. Lift the loosened portion of the bony skull In order to make the best use of information derived
with forceps or scissors. from field post mortem examinations, field
supervisors/ managers should routinely post the flock
26. Examine the digestive system by making a
mortality to gain experience in detecting the normal

Post Morten Examination

longitudinal cut through the proventriculus,
gizzards, small intestines, cecum, colon and rectum. from abnormal tissue/ organ conditions.

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 Appendix
Stocking Density
Age Square Feet / Bird Birds / Square Meter
Weeks Hens Toms Hens Toms
0-6 1.0 1.0 11.0 11.0
7-12 2.0 2.0-2.5 5.5 4.0-4.5
13-16 2.3 2.5-3.0 5.0 3.0-3.5
17 to end 2.5 3.0-4.0 4.5 2.5-3.0

Daily Water Consumption based on 1,000 Turkeys

(weight, diet & health may affect consumption)
Gallons Liters
Age Up to 75°F 75 to 90°F Over 90°F Up to 75°F 75 to 90° Over 90°F
Weeks Up to 24°C 24 to 32°C Over 32°C Up to 24°C Up to 32°C Over 32°C
1 11 11 11 40 42 42
2 23 28 28 87 107 107
Appendix

3 35 39 44 131 147 167

4 47 57 61 179 215 231
5 58 67 86 219 254 326
6 75 89 108 282 338 409
7 90 105 124 342 397 469
8 111 137 141 421 517 533
9 139 163 182 525 616 688
10 149 173 207 564 656 783
11 166 205 234 628 775 886
12 191 219 263 723 831 994
13 196 254 278 743 962 1053
14 205 261 295 775 990 1117
15 207 265 299 783 1002 1133
16 209 267 300 791 1010 1137
17 210 269 302 795 1018 1145
18 213 272 307 807 1029 1161
19 215 275 310 815 1041 1173
20 217 277 313 823 1049 1184
21 221 280 316 835 1061 1196

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CONVERSION DATA
WEIGHT LENGTH

1 ounce = 28.35 grams 1 centimeter = 0.3937 inches

1 pound = 16 ounces 1 meter = 3.2808 feet

1 pound = 453.6 grams 1 foot = 0.3048 meters

1 pound = 7,000 grains 1 kilometer = 0.6214 mile

1 ton (USA) = 2,000 pounds 1 mile = 5,280 feet

1 metric ton = 2,204.62 pounds 1 mile = 1.609 kilometers

1 long ton = 2,240 pounds

TEMPERATURE
1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds
⁰Fahrenheit = (⁰Celsius X 9/5) + 32
1 gram = 1,000 milligrams
⁰Celsius = (⁰Fahrenheit - 32) X 5/9
1 milligram = 1,000 micrograms

1 microgram/gram = 1 part per million

FLUID MEASURE

Appendix
1 bushel of wheat = 61 pounds / 0.0272 metric tons
1 fluid ounce = 30 ml
1 bushel of corn = 56 pounds / 0.0254 metric tons
1 pint (U.S.) = 473 ml
1 bushel of soybeans = 60 pounds / 0.0272 metric tons
1 quart (U.S.) = 946 ml

1 liter = 1,000 ml
AREA
1 square 0.093 square 1 liter = 1.057 quarts (U.S.)
=
foot meters 1 gallon (U.S.) = 3.785 liters
1 square
= 10.764 square feet 1 part per million = 0.0001%
meter
1 acre = 43,560 square feet = 0.405 hectare
VOLUME
10,000 square
1 hectare = = 2.471 acres
meters 1 ml = 0.061 cubic inches
1 square 2.6 square 1 cubic meter = 35.3145 cubic feet
=
mile kilometers

34
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www.AviagenTurkeys.com | 304.793.2680 | turkeysinc@aviagen.com
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