Victor Saouma - Matrix Structural Analysis PDF

Draft
DRAFT
Lecture Notes in:
MATRIX STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

with an
Introduction to Finite Elements
CVEN4525/5525
c VICTOR E. SAOUMA,
Fall 1999
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
August 26, 1999
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0{2
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Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

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Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1{1
1.1 Why Matrix Structural Analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{1
1.2 Overview of Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{2
1.3 Structural Idealization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{4
1.3.1 Structural Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{5
1.3.2 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{6
1.3.3 Sign Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{6
1.4 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{9
1.5 Course Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{11
I Matrix Structural Analysis of Framed Structures 1{15

2 ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX 2{1
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{1
2.2 In uence Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{1
2.3 Flexibility Matrix (Review) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{2
2.4 Stiness Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{4
2.5 Force-Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{7
2.5.1 Axial Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{7
2.5.2 Flexural Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{7
2.5.3 Torsional Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{9
2.5.4 Shear Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{10
2.6 Putting it All Together, [k] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{13
2.6.1 Truss Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{14
2.6.2 Beam Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{14
2.6.2.1 Euler-Bernoulli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{15
2.6.2.2 Timoshenko Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{15
2.6.3 2D Frame Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{17
2.6.4 Grid Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{18
2.6.5 3D Frame Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{18
2.7 Remarks on Element Stiness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{19
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3 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I: ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES 3{1
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{1
3.2 The Stiness Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{2
3.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{4
E 3-1 Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{4
E 3-2 Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{6
E 3-3 Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{9
3.4 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{13
4 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES 4{1
4.1 Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{1
4.1.1 [ke ] [Ke ] Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{1
4.1.2 Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{2
4.2 Transformation Matrices For Framework Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{6
4.2.1 2 D cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{6
4.2.1.1 2D Frame, and Grid Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{6
4.2.1.2 2D Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{8
4.2.2 3D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{8
4.2.2.1 Simple 3D Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{9
4.2.2.2 General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{12
4.2.3 3D Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{15
5 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part II 5{1
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{1
5.2 [ID] Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{2
5.3 LM Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{3
5.4 Assembly of Global Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{3
E 5-4 Global Stiness Matrix Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{4
5.5 Skyline Storage of Global Stiness Matrix, MAXA Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{6
5.6 Augmented Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{9
E 5-5 Direct Stiness Analysis of a Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{14
E 5-6 Assembly of the Global Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{19
E 5-7 Analysis of a Frame with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{21
5.7 Computer Program Flow Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{25
5.7.1 Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{26
5.7.2 Element Stiness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{26
5.7.3 Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{29
5.7.4 Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{32
5.7.5 Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{32
5.7.6 Backsubstitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{32
5.7.7 Internal Forces and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{32
5.8 Computer Implementation with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{36
5.8.1 Program Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{36
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5.8.1.1 Input Variable Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{37
5.8.1.2 Sample Input Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{38
5.8.1.3 Program Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{40
5.8.2 Program Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{40
5.8.2.1 Main Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{40
5.8.2.2 Assembly of ID Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{43
5.8.2.3 Element Nodal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{44
5.8.2.4 Element Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{45
5.8.2.5 Element Stiness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{45
5.8.2.6 Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{46
5.8.2.7 Assembly of the Augmented Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . 5{47
5.8.2.8 Print General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{48
5.8.2.9 Print Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{49
5.8.2.10 Load Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{50
5.8.2.11 Nodal Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{52
5.8.2.12 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{53
5.8.2.13 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{54
5.8.2.14 Sample Output File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{55
6 EQUATIONS OF STATICS and KINEMATICS 6{1
6.1 Statics Matrix [B] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{1
E 6-8 Statically Determinate Truss Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{2
E 6-9 Beam Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{4
E 6-10 Statically Indeterminate Truss Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{6
6.1.1 Identication of Redundant Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{9
E 6-11 Selection of Redundant Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{9
6.1.2 Kinematic Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{12
6.2 Kinematics Matrix [A] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{12
E 6-12 Kinematics Matrix of a Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{14
6.3 Statics-Kinematics Matrix Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{15
6.3.1 Statically Determinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{15
6.3.2 Statically Indeterminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{16
6.4 Kinematic Relations through Inverse of Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{16
6.5 Congruent Transformation Approach to [K] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{17
E 6-13 Congruent Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{18
E 6-14 Congruent Transformation of a Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{20
7 FLEXIBILITY METHOD 7{1
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{1
7.2 Flexibility Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{2
7.2.1 Solution of Redundant Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{3
7.2.2 Solution of Internal Forces and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{3
7.2.3 Solution of Joint Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{3
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E 7-15 Flexibility Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{3
7.3 Stiness Flexibility Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{5
7.3.1 From Stiness to Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{6
E 7-16 Flexibility Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{6
7.3.2 From Flexibility to Stiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{7
E 7-17 Flexibility to Stiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{8
7.4 Stiness Matrix of a Curved Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{9
7.5 Duality between the Flexibility and the Stiness Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{11
II Introduction to Finite Elements 7{13

8 REVIEW OF ELASTICITY 8{1
8.1 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{1
8.1.1 Stress Traction Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{2
8.2 Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{3
8.3 Fundamental Relations in Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{4
8.3.1 Equation of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{4
8.3.2 Compatibility Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{5
8.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{6
8.5 Strain Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{7
8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{7
9 VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY METHODS 9{1
9.1 y Variational Calculus; Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{1
9.1.1 Euler Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{1
9.1.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{5
E 9-18 Extension of a Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{5
E 9-19 Flexure of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{7
9.2 Work, Energy & Potentials; Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{8
9.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{8
9.2.2 Internal Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{8
9.2.2.1 Internal Work versus Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{10
9.2.3 External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{11
9.2.3.1 y Path Independence of External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{12
9.2.4 Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{13
9.2.4.1 Internal Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{13
9.2.4.1.1 Elastic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{14
9.2.4.1.2 Linear Elastic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{15
9.2.4.2 External Virtual Work W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{16
9.2.5 Complementary Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{16
9.2.5.1 Internal Complementary Virtual Strain Energy U . . . . . . . 9{16
9.2.5.1.1 Arbitrary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{16

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9.2.5.1.2 Linear Elastic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{17
9.2.5.2 External Complementary Virtual Work W . . . . . . . . . . . 9{18
9.2.6 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{18
9.2.6.1 Potential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{18
9.2.6.2 Potential of External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{19
9.2.6.3 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{19
9.3 Principle of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . 9{19
9.3.1 Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{20
9.3.1.1 y Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{20
E 9-20 Tapered Cantiliver Beam, Virtual Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{23
9.3.2 Principle of Complementary Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{25
9.3.2.1 y Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{25
E 9-21 Tapered Cantilivered Beam; Virtual Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{27
E 9-22 Three Hinged Semi-Circular Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{29
E 9-23 Cantilivered Semi-Circular Bow Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{31
9.4 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{32
9.4.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{32
9.4.2 zEuler Equations of the Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{35
9.4.3 Castigliano's First Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{37
E 9-24 Fixed End Beam, Variable I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{37
9.4.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{40
E 9-25 Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam; Polynomial Approximation . 9{41
E 9-26 Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam; Fourrier Series . . . . . . . . 9{43
E 9-27 Tapered Beam; Fourrier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{44
9.5 y Complementary Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{46
9.5.1 Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{46
9.5.2 Castigliano's Second Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{46
E 9-28 Cantilivered beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{47
9.5.2.1 Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{47
E 9-29 De ection of a Uniformly loaded Beam using Castigliano's Theorem . . . 9{48
9.6 Comparison of Alternate Approximate Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{48
E 9-30 Comparison of MPE Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{48
9.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{49
10 INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 10{1
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{1
10.2 Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{1
10.2.1 Axial/Torsional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{2
10.2.2 Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{3
10.2.3 Flexural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{4
10.2.4 Constant Strain Triangle Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{7
10.3 Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{8

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10.3.1 C 0 : Lagrangian Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{8
10.3.1.1 Constant Strain Quadrilateral Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{9
10.3.1.2 Solid Rectangular Trilinear Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{11
10.3.2 C 1 : Hermitian Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{11
10.4 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series . . . . . . . . . 10{12
10.5 Characteristics of Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{12
11 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION 11{1
11.1 Strain Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11{1
11.1.1 Axial Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11{1
11.1.2 Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11{2
11.2 Virtual Displacement and Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11{2
11.3 Element Stiness Matrix Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11{2
11.3.1 Stress Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11{4
12 SOME FINITE ELEMENTS 12{1
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{1
12.2 Truss Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{1
12.3 Flexural Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{2
12.4 Triangular Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{3
12.4.1 Strain-Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{3
12.4.2 Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{4
12.4.3 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{4
12.4.4 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{5
12.5 Quadrilateral Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12{5
13 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY 13{1
13.1 Strong Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{1
13.1.1 Lower Order Dierential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{1
13.1.2 Higher Order Dierential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{3
13.1.3 Slenderness Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{5
13.2 Weak Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{6
13.2.1 Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{6
13.2.2 Euler Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{9
13.2.3 Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{9
13.3 Elastic Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{11
E 13-31Column Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{12
E 13-32Frame Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{15
13.4 Geometric Non-Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{18
E 13-33Eect of Axial Load on Flexural Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{18
E 13-34Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{22
13.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . {25

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CONTENTS 0{7
A REFERENCES A{1
B REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA B{1
B.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B{1
B.2 Elementary Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B{3
B.3 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B{4
B.4 Singularity and Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B{5
B.5 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B{5
B.6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B{5
C SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS C{1
C.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{1
C.2 Direct Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{2
C.2.1 Gauss, and Gaus-Jordan Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{2
E C-35Gauss Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{2
E C-36Gauss-Jordan Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{3
C.2.1.1 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{4
C.2.2 LU Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{4
C.2.2.1 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{5
E C-37Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{6
C.2.3 Cholesky's Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{7
E C-38Cholesky's Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{8
C.2.4 Pivoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{9
C.3 Indirect Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{9
C.3.1 Gauss Seidel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{9
C.4 Ill Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{10
C.4.1 Condition Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{10
C.4.2 Pre Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{10
C.4.3 Residual and Iterative Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C{10
D TENSOR NOTATION D{1
D.1 Engineering Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D{1
D.2 Dyadic/Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D{2
D.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D{2
E INTEGRAL THEOREMS E{1
E.1 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E{1
E.2 Green-Gradient Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E{1
E.3 Gauss-Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E{1

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0{8 CONTENTS

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List of Figures
1.1 Global Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{7
1.2 Local Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{8
1.3 Sign Convention, Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{9
1.4 Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{10
1.5 Independent Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{11
1.6 Examples of Global Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{13
1.7 Organization of the Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{14
2.1 Example for Flexibility Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{3
2.2 Denition of Element Stiness Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{5
2.3 Stiness Coecients for One Dimensional Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{6
2.4 Flexural Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{7
2.5 Torsion Rotation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{9
2.6 Deformation of an Innitesimal Element Due to Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{11
2.7 Eect of Flexure and Shear Deformation on Translation at One End . . . . . . . 2{13
2.8 Eect of Flexure and Shear Deformation on Rotation at One End . . . . . . . . . 2{14
3.1 Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{3
3.2 *Frame Example (correct K23 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{6
3.3 Grid Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3{10
4.1 Arbitrary 3D Vector Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{2
4.2 3D Vector Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{4
4.3 2D Frame Element Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{7
4.4 Grid Element Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{7
4.5 2D Truss Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{8
4.6 Simple 3D Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{10
4.7 Arbitrary 3D Rotation; Rotation with respect to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{10
4.9 Special Case of 3D Transformation for Vertical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{12
4.11 Rotation of Cross-Section by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{14
4.12 Arbitrary 3D Element Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4{15
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0{2 LIST OF FIGURES
5.1 Example for [ID] Matrix Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{5
5.2 Flowchart for Assembling Global Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{5
5.3 Example of Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{7
5.4 Numbering Schemes for Simple Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{7
5.5 Beam Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{10
5.6 ID Values for Simple Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{20
5.7 Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{20
5.8 Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{22
5.9 Program Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{27
5.10 Program's Tree Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{28
5.11 Flowchart for the Skyline Height Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{30
5.12 Flowchart for the Global Stiness Matrix Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{31
5.13 Flowchart for the Load Vector Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{33
5.14 Flowchart for the Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{34
5.15 Flowchart for the Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{35
5.16 Structure Plotted with CASAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5{56
6.1 Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{3
6.2 Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{5
6.3 Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Indeterminate Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{7
6.4 *Examples of Kinematic Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{13
6.5 Example 1, Congruent Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{19
6.6 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{21
7.1 Stable and Statically Determinate Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{6
7.2 Example 1, [k] ! [d] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7{7
8.1 Stress Components on an Innitesimal Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{1
8.2 Stress Traction Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{2
8.3 Equilibrium of Stresses, Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{4
8.4 Fundamental Equations in Solid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8{8
9.1 Variational and Dierential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{2
9.2 *Strain Energy and Complementary Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{9
9.3 Eects of Load Histories on U and Wi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{11
9.4 Torsion Rotation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{14
9.5 Flexural Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{15
9.6 Tapered Cantilivered Beam Analysed by the Vitual Displacement Method . . . . 9{23
9.7 Tapered Cantilevered Beam Analysed by the Virtual Force Method . . . . . . . . 9{28
9.8 Three Hinge Semi-Circular Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{30
9.9 Semi-Circular Cantilevered Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{31
9.10 Single DOF Example for Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{34
9.11 Graphical Representation of the Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{35

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LIST OF FIGURES 0{3
9.12 Variable Cross Section Fixed Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{38
9.13 Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam Analysed by the Rayleigh-Ritz Method9{42
9.14 Example xx: External Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{44
9.15 Summary of Variational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{50
9.16 Duality of Variational Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{51
10.1 Axial Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{2
10.2 Flexural Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{4
10.3 Shape Functions for Flexure of Uniform Beam Element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{6
10.4 *Constant Strain Triangle Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{7
10.5 Constant Strain Quadrilateral Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{10
10.6 Solid Trilinear Rectangular Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{11
13.1 Euler Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{1
13.2 Simply Supported Beam Column; Dierential Segment; Eect of Axial Force P . 13{4
13.3 Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged
Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{6
13.4 Critical lengths of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13{7
13.5 Summary of Stability Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . {26

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0{4 LIST OF FIGURES

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List of Tables
1.1 Example of Nodal Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{5
1.2 Example of Element Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{5
1.3 Example of Group Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{6
1.4 Degrees of Freedom of Dierent Structure Types Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1{12
2.1 Examples of In uence Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2{2
6.1 Internal Element Force Denition for the Statics Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6{2
6.2 Conditions for Static Determinacy, and Kinematic Instability . . . . . . . . . . . 6{13
9.1 Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{5
9.2 Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . 9{20
9.3 Comparison of 2 Alternative Approximate Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9{49
9.4 Summary of Variational Terms Associated with One Dimensional Elements . . . 9{52
10.1 Characteristics of Beam Element Shape Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10{6
10.2 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series (1D & 2D) . . . 10{12
10.3 Polynomial Terms in Various Element Formulations (1D & 2D) . . . . . . . . . . 10{12
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0{2 LIST OF TABLES

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LIST OF TABLES 0{3
NOTATION
a Vector of coeccients in assumed displacement eld
A Area
A Kinematics Matrix
b Body force vector
B Statics Matrix, relating external nodal forces to internal forces
[B0 ] Statics Matrix relating nodal load to internal forces p = [B0 ]P
[B] Matrix relating assumed displacement elds parameters to joint displacements
C Cosine
[C 1jC 2] Matrices derived from the statics matrix
fdg Element exibility matrix (lc)
f dc g
[D] Structure exibility matrix (GC)
E Elastic Modulus
[E] Matrix of elastic constants (Constitutive Matrix)
fFg Unknown element forces and unknown support reactions
fF0 g Nonredundant element forces (lc)
fFxg Redundant element forces (lc)
fFeg Element forces (lc)
FEA Fixed end actions of a restrained member
G Shear modulus
I Moment of inertia
[L] Matrix relating the assumed displacement eld parameters
to joint displacements
[I] Idendity matrix
[ID] Matrix relating nodal dof to structure dof
J St Venant's torsional constant
[k] Element stiness matrix (lc)
[p] Matrix of coecients of a polynomial series
[kg ] Geometric element stiness matrix (lc)
[kr ] Rotational stiness matrix ( [d] inverse )
[K] Structure stiness matrix (GC)
[Kg ] Structure's geometric stiness matrix (GC)
L Length
L Linear dierential operator relating displacement to strains
lij Direction cosine of rotated axis i with respect to original axis j
fLM g structure dof of nodes connected to a given element
fNg Shape functions
fpg Element nodal forces = F (lc)
f Pg Structure nodal forces (GC)
P; V; M; T Internal forces acting on a beam column (axial, shear, moment, torsion)
R Structure reactions (GC)
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0{4 LIST OF TABLES
S Sine
t Traction vector
t
b Specied tractions along ;t
u Displacement vector
u~ Neighbour function to u(x)
ub (x) Specied displacements along ;u
u; v; w Translational displacements along the x, y, and z directions
U Strain energy
U Complementary strain energy
x; y loacal coordinate system (lc)
X; Y Global coordinate system (GC)
W Work
Coecient of thermal expansion
[;] Transformation matrix
f g Element nodal displacements (lc)
f g Nodal displacements in a continuous system
f g Structure nodal displacements (GC)
Strain vector
0 Initial strain vector
f g Element relative displacement (lc)
f 0 g Nonredundant element relative displacement (lc)
f x g Redundant element relative displacement (lc)
rotational displacement with respect to z direction (for 2D structures)
Variational operator
M Virtual moment
P Virtual force
Virtual rotation
u Virtual displacement
Virtual curvature
U Virtual internal strain energy
W Virtual external work
Virtual strain vector
Virtual stress vector
; Surface
;t Surface subjected to surface tractions
;u Surface associated with known displacements
Stress vector
0 Initial stress vector
Volume of body
lc: Local Coordinate system

GC: Global Coordinate System
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LIST OF TABLES 0{5

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0{6 LIST OF TABLES

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why Matrix Structural Analysis?
1 In most Civil engineering curriculum, students are required to take courses in: Statics,
Strength of Materials, Basic Structural Analysis. This last course is a fundamental one which
introduces basic structural analysis (determination of reactions, de ections, and internal forces)
of both statically determinate and indeterminate structures.
2 Also Energy methods are introduced, and most if not all examples are two dimensional. Since
the emphasis is on hand solution, very seldom are three dimensional structures analyzed. The
methods covered, for the most part lend themselves for \back of the envelope" solutions and
not necessarily for computer implementation.
3 Those students who want to pursue a specialization in structural engineering/mechanics, do
take more advanced courses such as Matrix Structural Analysis and/or Finite Element Analysis.
4 Matrix Structural Analysis, or Advanced Structural Analysis, or Introduction to Structural
Engineering Finite Element, builds on the introductory analysis course to focus on those meth-
ods which lend themselves to computer implementation. In doing so, we will place equal
emphasis on both two and three dimensional structures, and develop a thorough understanding
of computer aided analysis of structures.
5 This is essential, as in practice most, if not all, structural analysis are done by the computer
and it is imperative that as structural engineers you understand what is inside those \black
boxes", develop enough self assurance to be capable of opening them and modify them to
perform certain specic tasks, and most importantly to understand their limitations.
6 With the recently placed emphasis on the nite element method in most graduate schools,
many students have been tempted to skip a course such as this one and rush into a nite element
one. Hence it is important that you understand the connection and role of those two courses.
The Finite Element Method addresses the analysis of two or three dimensional continuum. As
such, the primary unknowns is u the nodal displacements, and internal \forces" are usually
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1{2 INTRODUCTION
restricted to stress . The only analogous one dimensional structure is the truss.
7 Whereas two and three dimensional continuum are essential in civil engineering to model
structures such as dams, shells, and foundation, the majority of Civil engineering structures
are constituted by \rod" one-dimensional elements such as beams, girders, or columns. For
those elements, \displacements" and internal \forces" are somehow more complex than those
encountered in continuum nite elements.
8 Hence, contrarily to continuum nite element where displacement is mostly synonymous with
translation, in one dimensional elements, and depending on the type of structure, generalized
displacements may include translation, and/or exural and/or torsional rotation. Similarly,
\internal forces" are not stresses, but rather axial and shear forces, and/or exural or torsional
moments. Those concepts are far more relevant in the analysis/design of most civil engineering
structures.
9 Hence, Matrix Structural Analysis, is truly a bridge course between introductory analysis
and nite element courses. The element stiness matrix [k] will rst be derived using methods
introduced in basic structural analysis, and later using energy based concepts. This later
approach is the one exclusively used in the nite element method.
10 An important component of this course is computer programing. Once the theory and the
algorithms are thoroughly explained, you will be expected to program them in either Fortran
(preferably 90) or C (sorry, but no Basic) on the computer of your choice. The program
(typically about 3,500 lines) will perform the analysis of 2 and 3 dimensional truss and frame
structures, and many students have subsequently used it in their professional activities.
11 There will be one computer assignment in which you will be expected to perform sim-
ple symbolic manipulations using Mathematica. For those of you unfamiliar with the Bechtel
Laboratory, there will be a special session to introduce you to the operation of Unix on Sun
workstations.
1.2 Overview of Structural Analysis

12To put things into perspective, it may be helpful to consider classes of Structural Analysis
which are distinguished by:
1. Excitation model
(a) Static
(b) Dynamic
2. Structure model
(a) Global geometry
small deformation ( = @@ux )
Draft
1.2 Overview of Structural Analysis 1{3

large deformation ("x = du 1 dv 2 , P- eects),
dx + 2 dx chapter 13
(b) Structural elements element types:
1D framework (truss, beam, columns)
2D nite element (plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric, plate or shell ele-
ments), chapter 12
3D nite element (solid elements)
(c) Material Properties:
Linear
Nonlinear
(d) Sectional properties:
Constant
Variable
(e) Structural connections:
Rigid
Semi- exible (linear and non-linear)
(f) Structural supports:
Rigid
Elastic
3. Type of solution:
(a) Continuum, analytical, Partial Dierential Equation
(b) Discrete, numerical, Finite ELement, Finite Dierence, Boundary Element
13 Structural design must satisfy:
1. Strength ( < f )
2. Stiness (\small" deformations)
3. Stability (buckling, cracking)
14 Structural analysis must satisfy
1. Statics (equilibrium)
2. Mechanics (stress-strain or force displacement relations)
3. Kinematics (compatibility of displacement)

Draft
1{4 INTRODUCTION
1.3 Structural Idealization
15 Prior to analysis, a structure must be idealized for a suitable mathematical representation.
Since it is practically impossible (and most often unnecessary) to model every single detail,
assumptions must be made. Hence, structural idealization is as much an art as a science. Some
of the questions confronting the analyst include:
1. Two dimensional versus three dimensional; Should we model a single bay of a building,
or the entire structure?
2. Frame or truss, can we neglect exural stiness?
3. Rigid or semi-rigid connections (most important in steel structures)
4. Rigid supports or elastic foundations (are the foundations over solid rock, or over clay
which may consolidate over time)
5. Include or not secondary members (such as diagonal braces in a three dimensional anal-
ysis).
6. Include or not axial deformation (can we neglect the axial stiness of a beam in a build-
ing?)
7. Cross sectional properties (what is the moment of inertia of a reinforced concrete beam?)
8. Neglect or not haunches (those are usually present in zones of high negative moments)
9. Linear or nonlinear analysis (linear analysis can not predict the peak or failure load, and
will underestimate the deformations).
10. Small or large deformations (In the analysis of a high rise building subjected to wind
load, the moments should be amplied by the product of the axial load times the lateral
deformation, P ; eects).
11. Time dependent eects (such as creep, which is extremely important in prestressed con-
crete, or cable stayed concrete bridges).
12. Partial collapse or local yielding (would the failure of a single element trigger the failure
of the entire structure?).
13. Load static or dynamic (when should a dynamic analysis be performed?).
14. Wind load (the lateral drift of a high rise building subjected to wind load, is often the
major limitation to higher structures).
15. Thermal load (can induce large displacements, specially when a thermal gradient is
present.).
16. Secondary stresses (caused by welding. Present in most statically indeterminate struc-
tures).
Draft
1.3 Structural Idealization 1{5
1.3.1 Structural Discretization
16 Once a structure has been idealized, it must be discretized to lend itself for a mathematical
representation which will be analyzed by a computer program. This discretization should
uniquely dene each node, and member.
17 The node is characterized by its nodal id (node number), coordinates, boundary conditions,
and load (this one is often dened separately), Table 1.1. Note that in this case we have two
Node No. Coor. B. C.
X Y X Y Z
1 0. 0. 1 1 0
2 5. 5. 0 0 0
3 20. 5. 0 0 0
4 25. 2.5 1 1 1
Table 1.1: Example of Nodal Denition

nodal coordinates, and three degrees of freedom (to be dened later) per node. Furthermore,
a 0 and a 1 indicate unknown or known displacement. Known displacements can be zero
(restrained) or non-zero (as caused by foundation settlement).
18 The element is characterized by the nodes which it connects, and its group number, Table
1.2.
Element From To Group
No. Node Node Number
1 1 2 1
2 3 2 2
3 3 4 2
Table 1.2: Example of Element Denition
19 Group number will then dene both element type, and elastic/geometric properties. The
last one is a pointer to a separate array, Table 1.3. In this example element 1 has element code
1 (such as beam element), while element 2 has a code 2 (such as a truss element). Material
group 1 would have dierent elastic/geometric properties than material group 2.
20 From the analysis, we rst obtain the nodal displacements, and then the element internal
forces. Those internal forces vary according to the element type. For a two dimensional frame,
those are the axial and shear forces, and moment at each node.
21 Hence, the need to dene two coordinate systems (one for the entire structure, and one for

Draft
1{6 INTRODUCTION
Group Element Material
No. Type Group
1 1 1
2 2 1
3 1 2
Table 1.3: Example of Group Number
each element), and a sign convention become apparent.

1.3.2 Coordinate Systems
22We should dierentiate between 2 coordinate systems:
Global: to describe the structure nodal coordinates. This system can be arbitrarily selected
provided it is a Right Hand Side (RHS) one, and we will associate with it upper case axis
labels, X; Y; Z , Fig. 1.1 or 1,2,3 (running indeces within a computer program).
Local: system is associated with each element and is used to describe the element internal
forces. We will associate with it lower case axis labels, x; y; z (or 1,2,3), Fig. 1.2.
23 The x-axis is assumed to be along the member, and the direction is chosen such that it points
from the 1st node to the 2nd node, Fig. 1.2.
24 Two dimensional structures will be dened in the X-Y plane.
1.3.3 Sign Convention

25 The sign convention in structural analysis is completely dierent than the one previously
adopted in structural analysis/design, Fig. 1.3 (where we focused mostly on exure and dened
a positive moment as one causing \tension below". This would be awkward to program!).
26 In matrix structural analysis the sign convention adopted is consistent with the prevailing
coordinate system. Hence, we dene a positive moment as one which is counter-clockwise, Fig.
1.3
27 Fig. 1.4 illustrates the sign convention associated with each type of element.
28 Fig. 1.4 also shows the geometric (upper left) and elastic material (upper right) properties
associated with each type of element.

Draft
1.3 Structural Idealization 1{7
Figure 1.1: Global Coordinate System

Draft
1{8 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.2: Local Coordinate Systems

Draft
1.4 Degrees of Freedom 1{9
Figure 1.3: Sign Convention, Design and Analysis
1.4 Degrees of Freedom

29 A degree of freedom (d.o.f.) is an independent generalized nodal displacement of a node.
30 The displacements must be linearly independent and thus not related to each other. For
example, a roller support on an inclined plane would have three displacements (rotation , and
two translations u and v), however since the two displacements are kinematically constrained,
we only have two independent displacements, Fig. 1.5.
31 We note that we have been referring to generalized displacements, because we want this term
to include translations as well as rotations. Depending on the type of structure, there may
be none, one or more than one such displacement. It is unfortunate that in most introductory
courses in structural analysis, too much emphasis has been placed on two dimensional structures,
and not enough on either three dimensional ones, or two dimensional ones with torsion.
32 In most cases, there is the same number of d.o.f in local coordinates as in the global coordinate
system. One notable exception is the truss element. In local coordinate we can only have one
axial deformation, whereas in global coordinates there are two or three translations in 2D and
3D respectively for each node.
33 Hence, it is essential that we understand the degrees of freedom which can be associated
with the various types of structures made up of one dimensional rod elements, Table 1.4.

Draft
1{10 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.4: Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements

Draft
1.5 Course Organization 1{11
Figure 1.5: Independent Displacements
34 This table shows the degree of freedoms and the corresponding generalized forces.
35 We should distinguish between local and global d.o.f.'s. The numbering scheme follows the
following simple rules:
Local: d.o.f. for a given element: Start with the rst node, number the local d.o.f. in the same
order as the subscripts of the relevant local coordinate system, and repeat for the second
node.
Global: d.o.f. for the entire structure: Starting with the 1st node, number all the unrestrained
global d.o.f.'s, and then move to the next one until all global d.o.f have been numbered,
Fig. 1.6.
1.5 Course Organization

Draft
1{12 INTRODUCTION
Type Node 1 Node 2 [k] [K]

(Local) (Global)
1 Dimensional
fpg Fy1 , Mz2 Fy3 , Mz4
Beam 44 44
f g v1 , 2 v3 , 4
2 Dimensional
fpg Fx1 Fx2
Truss 22 44
f g u1 u2
fpg Fx1 , Fy2 , Mz3 Fx4 , Fy5 , Mz6
Frame 66 66
fg u1, v2, 3 u4 , v5 , 6
fpg Tx1, Fy2 , Mz3 Tx4, Fy5 , Mz6
Grid 66 66
f g 1 , v2, 3 4, v5 , 6
3 Dimensional
fpg Fx1 , Fx2
Truss 22 66
f g u1 , u2
fpg Fx1, Fy2 , Fy3 , Fx7 , Fy8 , Fy9 ,
Tx4 My5 , Mz6 Tx10 My11 , Mz12
Frame 12 12 12 12
f g u1 , v2, w3 , u7 , v8 , w9 ,
4, 5 6 10, 11 12
Table 1.4: Degrees of Freedom of Dierent Structure Types Systems

Draft
1.5 Course Organization 1{13
Figure 1.6: Examples of Global Degrees of Freedom

Draft
1{14 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.7: Organization of the Course

Draft
Part I
Matrix Structural Analysis of
Framed Structures
Draft
Draft
Chapter 2
ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX
2.1 Introduction
1 In this chapter, we shall derive the element stiness matrix [k] of various one dimensional
elements. Only after this important step is well understood, we could expand the theory and
introduce the structure stiness matrix [K] in its global coordinate system.
2 As will be seen later, there are two fundamentally dierent approaches to derive the stiness
matrix of one dimensional element. The rst one, which will be used in this chapter, is based on
classical methods of structural analysis (such as moment area or virtual force method). Thus,
in deriving the element stiness matrix, we will be reviewing concepts earlier seen.
3 The other approach, based on energy consideration through the use of assumed shape func-
tions, will be examined in chapter 11. This second approach, exclusively used in the nite
element method, will also be extended to two and three dimensional continuum elements.
2.2 In uence Coecients

4 In structural analysis an in uence coecient Cij can be dened as the eect on d.o.f. i due to
a unit action at d.o.f. j for an individual element or a whole structure. Examples of In uence
Coecients are shown in Table 2.1.
5 It should be recalled that in uence lines are associated with the analysis of structures sub-
jected to moving loads (such as bridges), and that the exibility and stiness coecients are
components of matrices used in structural analysis.
Draft
2{2 ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX
Unit Action Eect on
In uence Line Load Shear
In uence Line Load Moment
In uence Line Load De ection
Flexibility Coecient Load Displacement
Stiness Coecient Displacement Load
Table 2.1: Examples of In uence Coecients
2.3 Flexibility Matrix (Review)

6 Considering the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 2.1, and using the local coordinate
system, we have ( ) " #( )
1 = d11 d12 p1 (2.1)
2d d p
21 22 2
Using the virtual work, or more specically, the virtual force method to analyze this problem,
(more about energy methods in Chapter 9), we have:
Z l M dx = P + M
M EI (2.2)
0 z| {z }
| {z External
}
Internal
where M , EIMz , P and are the virtual internal force, real internal displacement, virtual
external load, and real external displacement respectively. Here, both the external virtual force
and moment are usualy taken as unity.
Virtual Force:
Z 9 9
U = x "x dvol >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> >
>
x = I M x y >
>
> >
>
My
= Z l
M dx
U = M EI
>
>
>
Z "x = E = EI
x
> 0
>
>
=Z l M dx = P
y2 dA = I
>
>
>
>
M EI (2.3)
>
>
>
>
>
> 0
; >
dvol = dAdx >
>
>
>
>
V = P >
>
>
>
U = V ;

Draft
2.3 Flexibility Matrix (Review) 2{3
Figure 2.1: Example for Flexibility Method

Draft
Hence: L 2
1 ; L dx = L3
x
Z
EI |{z} d11 =
1 |{z} (2.4)
0
M | {z }
M M
Similarly, we would obtain:
Z L x 2 L
EId22 = dx = (2.5)
0 L 3
Z L
EId12 = x
1 ; L L dx = ; L6 = EId21
x (2.6)
0
7 Those results can be summarized in a matrix form as:

" #
L
[d] = 6EI 2 ;1 (2.7)
z ;1 2
8 The exibility method will be covered in more detailed, in chapter 7.
2.4 Stiness Coecients

9 In the exibility method, we have applied a unit force at a time and determined all the
induced displacements in the statically determinate structure.
10 In the stiness method, we
1. Constrain all the degrees of freedom

2. Apply a unit displacement at each d.o.f. (while restraining all others to be zero)
3. Determine the reactions associated with all the d.o.f.
fpg = [k]f g (2.8)
11 Hence kij will correspond to the reaction at dof i due to a unit deformation (translation or
rotation) at dof j , Fig. 2.2.
12 The actual stiness coecients are shown in Fig. 2.3 for truss, beam, and grid elements in
terms of elastic and geometric properties.
13 In the next sections, we shall derive those stiness coecients.

Draft
2.4 Stiness Coecients 2{5
Figure 2.2: Denition of Element Stiness Coecients

Draft
Figure 2.3: Stiness Coecients for One Dimensional Elements

Draft
2.5 Force-Displacement Relations 2{7
Figure 2.4: Flexural Problem Formulation
2.5 Force-Displacement Relations

2.5.1 Axial Deformations
14 From strength of materials, the force/displacement relation in axial members is
= E
A = AE
|{z} L
|{z} (2.9)
P 1
Hence, for a unit displacement, the applied force should be equal to AE
L . From statics, the force
at the other end must be equal and opposite.
2.5.2 Flexural Deformation
15 Our objective is to seek a relation for the shear and moments at each end of a beam, in terms
of known displacements and rotations at each end.
V1 = V1 (v1 ; 1 ; v2 ; 2) (2.10-a)
M1 = M1 (v1 ; 1 ; v2 ; 2 ) (2.10-b)
V2 = V2 (v1 ; 1 ; v2 ; 2) (2.10-c)
M2 = M2 (v1 ; 1 ; v2 ; 2 ) (2.10-d)
16We start from the dierential equation of a beam, Fig. 2.4 in which we have all positive
known displacements, we have from strength of materials
d2 v = M ; V x
M = ;EI dx (2.11)
2 1 1

Draft
17 Integrating twice
;EIv0 = M1 x ; 21 V1x2 + C1 (2.12)
;EIv = 12 M1 x2 ; 16 V1x3 + C1x + C2 (2.13)
18 Applying the boundary conditions at x = 0

) (
v0 = 1 ) CC12 == ;;EI 1 (2.14)
v = v1 EIv1
19 Applying the boundary conditions at x = L and combining with the expressions for C1 and
C2 ) (
v 0 = 2 ) ;;EIv
EI2 = M1 L ; 21 V1 L2 ; EI1 (2.15)
v = v2 2 = 12 M1 L2 ; 16 V1 L3 ; EI1 L ; EIv1
20 Since equilibrium of forces and moments must be satised, we have:

V1 + V2 = 0 M1 ; V1L + M2 = 0 (2.16)
or
V1 = (M1 +
L
M2 ) V2 = ;V1 (2.17)
21 Substituting V1 into the expressions for 2 and v2 in Eq. 2.15 and rearranging
(
M1 ; M2 = 2EI
L
z 1 ; 2EIz 2
L (2.18)
2M1 ; M2 = 6EI
L
z 1 + 6EI2 z v1 ; 6EI2 z v2
L L
22 Solving those two equations, we obtain:

M1 = 2EI
L
z (2 + ) + 6EIz (v ; v ) (2.19)
1 2 L2 1 2
M2 = 2EIz ( + 2 ) + 6EIz (v ; v ) (2.20)
L 1 2 L2 1 2
23 Finally, we can substitute those expressions in Eq. 2.17
V1 = 6EI z ( + ) + 12EIz (v ; v )
L 1 2
2 L3 1 2 (2.21)
V2 = ; 6EI z 12EIz
L2 (1 + 2 ) ; L3 (v1 ; v2) (2.22)

Draft
Figure 2.5: Torsion Rotation Relations
2.5.3 Torsional Deformations

24 From Fig. 2.2-d. Since torsional eects are seldom covered in basic structural analysis, and
students may have forgotten the derivation of the basic equations from the Strength of Material
course, we shall brie y review them.
25 Assuming a linear elastic material, and a linear strain (and thus stress) distribution along
the radius of a circular cross section subjected to torsional load, Fig. 2.5 we have:
T =
Z
dA (2.23)
max
A |c {z } |{z} |{z}
area arm
|
stress
{z }
|
Force{z }
torque
= max Z 2 dA (2.24)
c | A{z }
J
max = Tc J (2.25)
Note the analogy of this last equation with = Mc
Iz .
Z
26 2 dA is the polar moment of inertia J . It is also referred to as the St. Venant's torsion
A
constant. For circular cross sections
Z Z c 2
J = 2 dA = (2d)
A 0
4 4
= c2 = d 32 (2.26)
For rectangular sections b d, and b < d, an approximate expression is given by
J = kb3 d (2.27-a)
Draft
k = 0:3 (2.27-b)
2
1 + db
For other sections, J is often tabulated.
27 Note that J corresponds to Ix where x is the axis along the element.
28 Having developed a relation between torsion and shear stress, we now seek a relation between
torsion and torsional rotation. In Fig. 2.5-b, we consider the arc length BD
9 9
max dx = dc >
= >
= d = T
) ddx = max d = max (2.28)
c
max > dx Gc > dx GJ
max = G
;
max = TC
J
;
Z Z
29 Finally, we can rewrite this last equation as Tdx = Gjd and obtain:
T = GJ
L
(2.29)
Note the similarity between this equation and Equation 2.9.

2.5.4 Shear Deformation
30 In general, shear deformations are quite small. However, for beams with low span to depth
ratio, those deformations can not be neglected.
31 Considering an innitesimal element subjected to shear, Fig. 2.6 and for linear elastic ma-
terial, the shear strain (assuming small displacement, i.e. tan ) is given by
tan = dvs = (2.30)
dx
|{z} G
|{z}
Kinematics Material
where dvdxs is the slope of the beam neutral axis from the horizontal while the vertical sections
remain undeformed, G is the shear modulus, the shear stress, and vs the shear induced
displacement.
32 In a beam cross section, the shear stress is not constant. For example for rectangular sections,
it varies parabolically, and in I sections, the ange shear components can be neglected.
= VIbQ (2.31)
where V is the shear force, Q is the rst moment (or static moment) about the neutral axis of
the portion of the cross-sectional area which is outside of the section where the shear stress is
Draft
τ
γ dvs
γ=
y dx
τ τ
γ
τ
x
Figure 2.6: Deformation of an Innitesimal Element Due to Shear
to be determined, I is the moment of inertia of the cross sectional area about the neutral axis,
and b is the width of the rectangular beam.
33 The preceding equation can be simplied as
= AV (2.32)
s
where As is the eective cross section for shear (which is the ratio of the cross sectional area
to the area shear factor)
34 Let us derive the expression of As for rectangular sections. The exact expression for the
shear stress is
= VIbQ (2.33)
where Q is the moment of the area from the external bers to y with respect to the neutral
axis; For a rectangular section, this yields
= VIbQ (2.34-a)
!
V Z h=2
V h 2
= Ib by0dy0 = 2I 4 ; y2 (2.34-b)
y
!
6 V h 2
= bh3 4 ; 4 (2.34-c)
and we observe that the shear stress is zero for y = h=2 and maximum at the neutral axis
where it is equal to 1:5 bhV .

Draft
To determine the form factor of a rectangular section
VQ 9
= 9
2ZI 4 ; y
Ib >
> k = A h2 2 >
= kZ VA !
>
= >
=
= 1:2 (2.35)
h=2 0 0 b h2 ; y2 > |{z}
bh = k2 dydz >
Q = by dy = 2 4
>
>
; A A >
;
y
Thus, the form factor may be taken as 1.2 for rectangular beams of ordinary proportions,
and As = 1:2A
For I beams, k can be also approximated by 1.2, provided A is the area of the web.
35 Combining Eq. 2.31 and 2.32 we obtain
dvs = V (2.36)
dx GAs
Assuming V to be constant, we integrate
V x+C
vs = GA (2.37)
1
s
36If the displacement vs is zero at the opposite end of the beam, then we solve for C1 and
obtain
V (x ; L)
vs = ; GA (2.38)
s
37 We dene
def
= GA12EI (2.39)
sL2
2
= 24(1 + ) AA Lr (2.40)
s
Hence for small slenderness ratio Lr compared to unity, we can neglect .
38 Next, we shall consider the eect of shear deformations on both translations and rotations
Eect on Translation Due to a unit vertical translation, the end shear force is obtained from
Eq. 2.21 and setting v1 = 1 and 1 = 2 = v2 = 0, or V = 12LEI3 z . At x = 0 we have, Fig.
2.7 VL 9
vs = GA s >
=
12 EI
V = L3 > vs =
z (2.41)
= GA 12EI2 ;
sL
Hence, the shear deformation has increased the total translation from 1 to 1+. Similar
arguments apply to the translation at the other end.

Draft
2.6 Putting it All Together, k [ ] 2{13
12EI
6EI
L3
L2
1
6EI
L2
12EI
L3
Figure 2.7: Eect of Flexure and Shear Deformation on Translation at One End
Eect on Rotation Considering the beam shown in Fig. 2.8, even when a rotation 1 is
applied, an internal shear force is induced, and this in turn is going to give rise to shear
deformations (translation) which must be accounted for. The shear force is obtained from
Eq. 2.21 and setting 1 = 1 and 2 = v1 = v2 = 0, or V = 6EI L2 . As before
z
9
vs = VL >
GAs =
V = 6EIz vs = 0:5L (2.42)
L2EI
12 >
= GAs L2
;
in other words, the shear deformation has moved the end of the beam (which was supposed
to have zero translation) by 0:5L.
2.6 Putting it All Together, [k]

39 Using basic structural analysis methods we have derived various force displacement relations
for axial, exural, torsional and shear imposed displacements. At this point, and keeping in
mind the denition of degrees of freedom, we seek to assemble the individual element stiness
matrices [k]. We shall start with the simplest one, the truss element, then consider the beam,
2D frame, grid, and nally the 3D frame element.
40 In each case, a table will cross-reference the force displacement relations, and then the element
stiness matrix will be accordingly dened.

Draft
6EI
θ1
L2
4EI 2EI
L L
6EI
L2
θ1=1
0.5βLθ1
0.5βLθ1
Figure 2.8: Eect of Flexure and Shear Deformation on Rotation at One End
2.6.1 Truss Element

41 The truss element (whether in 2D or 3D) has only one degree of freedom associated with
each node. Hence, from Eq. 2.9, we have
2 u1 u2 3
[kt ] = AE
p 14 1 ; 15 (2.43)
L p 2 ; 1 1
2.6.2 Beam Element

42There are two major beam theories:
Euler-Bernoulli which is the classical formulation for beams.
Timoshenko which accounts for transverse shear deformation eects.

Draft
2.6.2.1 Euler-Bernoulli
43Using Equations 2.19, 2.20, 2.21 and 2.22 we can determine the forces associated with each
unit displacement.
2
v1 1 v2 2 3
V1 Eq. 2.21(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.21(1 = 1) Eq. 2.21(v2 = 1)
2.21(2 = 1) Eq.
[kb ] = VM1664 Eq.
Eq. 2.19(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.19(1 = 1) Eq. 2.19(v2 = 1)
2.19(2 = 1) 777
Eq.
6
2 2.22(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.22(1 = 1) Eq. 2.22(v2 = 1)

2.22(2 = 1) 5 Eq.
M2 Eq. 2.20(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.20(1 = 1) Eq. 2.20(v2 = 1)
2.20(2 = 1) Eq.
(2.44)
44 The stiness matrix of the beam element (neglecting shear and axial deformation) will thus
be
2
v1 1 v2 2 3
V166 12LEI3 z 6EIz

L2 ; 12LEI3 z 6EIz 7
L2 7
M166 6EI z 4EI z
LEI ; 6EI z 2EI z 7
LEI 7 (2.45)
[kb ] = L2
V266 ; L3
6 12EIz
; L2 z
6 L2
12EI z ; L2 z 777
6
L3
M24 6EIL2
z 2EIz
L ; 6EI
L2
z 4EIz 5
L
2.6.2.2 Timoshenko Beam

45If shear deformations are present, we need to alter the stiness matrix given in Eq. 2.45 in
the following manner
1. Due to translation, we must divide (or normalize) the coecients of the rst and third
columns of the stiness matrix by 1 + so that the net translation at both ends is unity.
2. Due to rotation and the eect of shear deformation
(a) The forces induced at the ends due to a unit rotation at end 1 (second column)
neglecting shear deformations are
V = ;V = 6EI1 2
L2 (2.46-a)
M1 = 4EI L (2.46-b)
M2 = 2EI L (2.46-c)
(b) There is a net positive translation of 0:5L at end 1 when we applied a unit rotation
(this \parasitic" translation is caused by the shear deformation) but no additional
forces are induced.

Draft
(c) When we apply a unit rotation, all other displacements should be zero. Hence,
we should counteract this parasitic shear deformation by an equal and opposite
one. Hence, we apply an additional vertical displacement of ;0:5L and the forces
induced at the ends (rst column) are given by
V1 = ;V2 = 12LEI 1
3 1 + (|;0:{z
5L}) (2.47-a)
| {z } vs
bt
k11
M1 = M2 = 6LEI2 1 +1 (|;0:{z5L}) (2.47-b)
| {z } vs
bt
k21
Note that the denominators have already been divided by 1 + in kbt .

(d) Summing up all the forces, we have the forces induced as a result of a unit rotation
only when the eects of both bending and shear deformations are included.
V1 = ;V2 = 6EI + 12EI 1 (;0:5L) (2.48-a)
|L L3 {z1 + } | {z }
2
{z } | vs
Due to Unit Rotation bt
k11
| {z }
Due to Parasitic Shear
= ; 6LEI2 1 +1 (2.48-b)
M1 = 4EI + 6EI 1 (;0:5L) (2.48-c)
L}
| {z |
L2 {z1 + } | {z }
vs
k21
| {z }
= 41 + EI (2.48-d)
+ L
M2 = 2EI + 6LEI2 1 +1 (|;0:{z5L}) (2.48-e)
L | {z } | {z }
vs
k21
| {z }
= 21 ; EI
+ L (2.48-f)

Draft
46 Thus, the element stiness matrix given in Eq. 2.45 becomes
2
v1 1 v2 2 3
V166 L312(1+EIz
y)
6EIz
L2 (1+y ) ; L312(1+
EIz
y)
6EIz 7
L2 (1+y ) 7
6 6 EI
M166 L2 (1+y )z (4+y )EIz ; L2(1+y )
6 EIz (2;y )EIz 7
(1+y )L L(1+y ) 7 (2.49)
[kbV ] = V2666 ; L312(1+
EIz ; L26(1+
EIz 12EIz ; L26(1+
EIz 7
7
y) y) L3 (1+y ) y) 7
EIz
M264 L26(1+ (2;y )EIz ; L26(1+
EIz (4+y )EIz 7 7
y) L(1+y ) y) L(1+y ) 5
2.6.3 2D Frame Element

47 The stiness matrix of the two dimensional frame element is composed of terms from the
truss and beam elements where kb and kt refer to the beam and truss element stiness matrices
respectively.
u1 v1 1 u2 v2 2
t 2 t 3
P1 k11 0 0 k12 0 0
V16 0 k11
6 b b
k12 0 b kb 7
k13 14 7
b b b kb 7
[k2dfr ] = M 0 k21 k22 0 k23
6
16
6 t 24 7 (2.50)
P266 k21 0 t
0 k22 0 7
0 7
V24 0 k31b b
k32 0 b k
k33 b 7
34 5
M2 0 k41 b b
k42 0 b kb
k43 44
Thus, we have:
2 u1 v1 1 u2 v2 2 3
P16 EA
L 0 0 ; EA
L 0 0 7
V1666 0 12EIz
L3
6EIz
L2 0 ; 12LEI3 z 6EIz
L2
7
7
7
M 1 6 0 6EI z 4EI
L
z 0 ; 6EI z 2EI
L
z 7 (2.51)
[k2dfr ] = P2666 ; EA L
0
2
0 EA L2
0 0
7
7
L L 7
V266 0 ; L3 ; EI
6 12 EI z 6
L2
z 0 12EIz
L3 ;6EI 77
4EILz 7
2
M24 0 6 EI
L2
z 2 EI
L
z 0 ; 6EI
L2
z
L 5
48Note that if shear deformations must be accounted for, the entries corresponding to shear
and exure must be modied in accordance with Eq. 2.49

Draft
2.6.4 Grid Element
49The stiness matrix of the grid element is very analogous to the one of the 2D frame element,
except that the axial component is replaced by the torsional one. Hence, the stiness matrix is
1 1 u1 2 2 u2
2 3
T1 Eq. 2.29 0
Eq. 2.29 0 0 0
M166 0 b
k22 ;k21b 0 b
k24 ;k23b 777
;k12 k11
b
[kg ] = VT1666 Eq. 02.29
6 b 0 ;k14b k13b 77 (2.52)
26 0 0 Eq. 2.29 0 0 7
M24 0 b
k42 ;k41b 0 b
k44 ;k b 7
43 5
V2 ;k32 k31
0 b b 0 ;k34 k32b
b
Upon substitution, the grid element stiness matrix is given by
2 1 1 v1 2 2 v2 3
T166 GIx
L 0 0 ; GILx 0 0 7
M16 06 4 EI
L
z ; EI
6
L2
z 0 2EIz
L
6EIz
L2
7
7
7
V 0 ; L2
6 6 EI z 12 EI z 0 ; 6EI z ; 12LEI3 z 7 (2.53)
[kg ] = T21666 ; Gix 0
L3
0 GIx L2
0 0
7
7
L L 7
M266 0
6 2 EI
L
z ; EI
6
LEI
2
z 0 4EIz
L
6EIz 77
12LEIz 7
2
V24 0 6 EI
L2
z ; L3 z
12 0 6EI
L2
z
L3 5
2.6.5 3D Frame Element
2
u1 v1 w1 x1 y1 z1 u2 v2 w2 x2 y2 z 2 3
Px1 t
k11 0 0 0 0 t
0 k21 0 0 0 0 0
Vy1666 0 b
k11 0 0 0 b b
k12 0 k13 0 0 0 kb14 777
V z16 0 0 b
k11 0
g
;k12b 0 0 0 b
k13 0
g
;k14b 0 77
Tx1666 0 0 0 k11 0 0 0 0 0 k12 0 0 77
My166 0 0 b
k32 0 b
k22 0 0 0 b
k12 0 b
k24 0 77
[k3dfr ] = M z16
6
0 b
k21 0 0 0 b
k22 0 ;k12b 0 0 0 b
k24 7
7
t
Px2666 k21 0 0 0 0 0 t
k22 0 0 0 0 0 7
7
b b b b 7
Vy266 0 k13 0 0 0 k14 0 k33 0 0 0 k34 7
7
V z266 0 0 b
k13 0
g
;k14b 0 0 0 b
k33 0
g
;k34b 0 7
7
Tx2666 0 0 0 k12 0 0 0 0 0 k22 0 0 7
7
My24 0 0 b
k12 0 b
k24 0 0 0 ;k43b 0 b
k44 0 7
5
Mz2 0 ;k12b 0 0 0 b
k24 0 b
k43 0 0 0 b
k44
(2.54)
Draft
2.7 Remarks on Element Stiness Matrices 2{19
For [k311D ] and with we obtain:
2 u1 v1 w1 x1 y 1 z 1 u2 v2 w2 x2 y 2 z2 3
Px1 EA l 0 0 0 0 0 ; EA
L 0 0 0 0 0
Vy16 0 12EIz 0 0 0 6EIz 0 ; 12EIz 0 0 0 6EIz 7
6 L 3
12EIy
L 2 L 3 L 2 7
Vz16
6
0 0 L3 0 ; 6EI
L 2
y 0 0 0 ; 12LEI3 y 0 ;6 EI
L
y
2 0 7 7
Tx16 0 0 0 GIx 0 0 0 0 0 ; GILx 0 0 7
6 6EIy L 4EIy 6EIy 2EIy
My61 0 0 ; L2 0 L 0 0 0 L2 0 L 0 7 7
6
M1 0 6 EI z 0 0 0 4 EI z 0 ; L2
6 EI z 0 0 0 2EI z 7
[k3dfr ] = P z6 L 2 L L 7
x26 ; EA
L 0
EI
0 0 0 0
EI
EA
L 0
EI
0 0 0 0 7
EI
6
Vy26 0 ; L312 z 0 0 0 ; L2
6 z 0 12 z 0 0 0 ; L2 7
6 z
12EIy EIy L3 12EIy 6EIy
7
Vz26
6 0 0 ; L3 0 6 L 2 0 0 0 L 3 0 L 2 0 7 7
Tx26 0 0 0 ; GILx 0 0 0 0 0 GIx
L 0 0 7
6 6EIy 2EIy 6EIy 4EIy
My42 0 0 ; L2 0 L 0 0 0 L2 0 L 0 7 5
EI z EI z EI z EI
Mz2 0 ; L2 Lz
6 0 0 0 2 0 6 0 0 0 4
L2 L
(2.55)
2.7 Remarks on Element Stiness Matrices

Singularity: All the derived stiness matrices are singular, that is there is at least one row and
one column which is a linear combination of others. For example in the beam element,
row 4 = ;row 1; and L times row 2 is equal to the sum of row 3 and 6. This singularity
(not present in the exibility matrix) is caused by the linear relations introduced by the
equilibrium equations which are embedded in the formulation.
Symmetry: All matrices are symmetric due to Maxwell-Betti's reciprocal theorem, and the
stiness exibility relation.
52 More about the stiness matrix properties later.

Draft

Draft
Chapter 3
STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I:
ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES
3.1 Introduction
1 In the previous chapter we have rst derived displacement force relations for dierent types
of rod elements, and then used those relations to dene element stiness matrices in local
coordinates.
2 In this chapter, we seek to perform similar operations, but for an orthogonal structure in
global coordinates.
3 In the previous chapter our starting point was basic displacement-force relations resulting in
element stiness matrices [k].
4 In this chapter, our starting point are those same element stiness matrices [k], and our
objective is to determine the structure stiness matrix [K], which when inverted, would yield
the nodal displacements.
5 The element stiness matrices were derived for fully restrained elements.
6 This chapter will be restricted to orthogonal structures, and generalization will be discussed
later.
The stiness matrices will be restricted to the unrestrained degrees of freedom.
7 From these examples, the interrelationships between structure stiness matrix, nodal dis-
placements, and xed end actions will become apparent. Then the method will be generalized
in chapter 5 to describe an algorithm which can automate the assembly of the structure global
stiness matrix in terms of the one of its individual elements.
Draft
3{2 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part I: ORTHOGONAL STRUCTURES
3.2 The Stiness Method
8 As a \vehicle" for the introduction to the stiness method let us consider the problem in Fig
3.1-a, and recognize that there are only two unknown displacements, or more precisely, two
global d.o.f: 1 and 2 .
9 If we were to analyse this problem by the force (or exibility) method, then
1. We make the structure statically determinate by removing arbitrarily two reactions (as
long as the structure remains stable), and the beam is now statically determinate.
2. Assuming that we remove the two roller supports, then we determine the corresponding
de ections due to the actual laod (B and C ).
3. Apply a unit load at point B , and then C , and compute the de ections fij at note i due
to a unit force at node j .
4. Write the compatibility of displacement equation
" #( ) ( ) ( )
fBB fBC RB ; 1 = 0 (3.1)
fCB fCC RC 2 0
5. Invert the matrix, and solve for the reactions
10 We will analyze this simple problem by the stiness method.
1. The rst step consists in making it kinematically determinate (as opposed to statically
determinate in the exibility method). Kinematically determinate in this case simply
means restraining all the d.o.f. and thus prevent joint rotation, Fig 3.1-b.
2. We then determine the xed end actions caused by the element load, and sum them for
each d.o.f., Fig 3.1-c: FEM1 and FEM2 .
3. In the third step, we will apply a unit displacement (rotation in this case) at each degree
of freedom at a time, and in each case we shall determine the reaction forces, K11 , K21 ,
and K12 , K22 respectively. Note that we use [K], rather than k since those are forces
in the global coordinate system, Fig 3.1-d. Again note that we are focusing only on the
reaction forces corresponding to a global degree of freedom. Hence, we are not attempting
to determine the reaction at node A.
4. Finally, we write the equation of equilibrium at each node:
( ) ( ) " #( )
M1 = FEM1 + K 11 K12 1 (3.2)
M2 FEM2 K21 K22 2

Draft
3.2 The Stiness Method 3{3
Figure 3.1: Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. 1 and 2

Draft
11 Note that the FEM being on the right hand side, they are detemined as the reactions to the
applied load. Strictly speaking, it is a load which should appear on the left hand side of the
equation, and are the nodal equivalent loads to the element load (more about this later).
12 As with the element stiness matrix, each entry in the global stiness matrix Kij , corresponds
to the internal force along d.o.f. i due to a unit displacement (generalized) along d.o.f. j (both
in global coordinate systems).
3.3 Examples
Example 3-1: Beam

Considering the previous problem, Fig. 3.1-a, let P1 = 2P , M = PL, P2 = P , and P3 = P ,
Solve for the displacements.
Solution:
1. Using the previously dened sign convention:
FEM1 = ; P81 L + P82 L = ; 2PL
8 + PL = ; PL
8 8 (3.3)
| {z } | {z }
BA BC
FEM2 = ; PL
8 (3.4)
| {z }
CB
2. If it takes 4EI
L
AB ) to rotate AB (Eq. 2.45) and 4EI (kBC ) to rotate BC , it will take a
(k44 L 22
total force of 8EI
L to simultaneously rotate AB and BC , (Note that a rigid joint is assumed).
3. Hence, K11 which is the sum of the rotational stinesses at global d.o.f. 1. will be equal to
K11 = 8EI 2EI BC
L ; similarly, K21 = L (k42 ) .
4. If we now rotate dof 2 by a unit angle, then we will have K22 = 4EIL
BC ) and K12 = 2EI
(k22 L
BC ) .
(k42
5. The equilibrium relation can thus be written as:
( ) ( ) " #( )
PL = ; PL 8EI 2EI
L 4EIL 1
; PL8 + (3.5)
8 2EI
0 L {z L 2
| {z } | {z } | } | {z }
M FEM K
or ( ) " #( )
PL + PL
8 =
8EI
L
2EI
L 1 (3.6)
+ PL
8
2EI
L
4EI
L 2

Draft
3.3 Examples 3{5
6. The two by two matrix is next inverted
( ) " #;1 ( ) ( )
1 8EI 2EI PL + PL 17 PL2
= L
2EI L
4EI 8 = 112 EI 2 (3.7)
2 L L + PL
8 ; 1125 PL
EI
7. Next we need to determine both the reactions and the internal forces.
8. Recall that for each element fpg = [k]f g, and in this case fpg = fPg and f g = fg for
element AB . The element stiness matrix has been previously derived, Eq. 2.45, and in this
case the global and local d.o.f. are the same.
9. Hence, the equilibrium equation for element AB, at the element level, can be written as:
8 9 2 38 9 8 9
> p1 > 12EI 6EI ; 12EI 6EI > 0 > > 2P >
6LEI
3
4LEI ; 6LEI
2 3
2LEI
>
> >
> 2 > > > 2 >
7> > > 2PL >
<
p2 = 6
= 664 L2 L L2 L 7
< 0 = <
+>
=
(3.8)
> p3 > ; 12LEI3 ; 6LEI2 12LEI3 ; 6LEI2 7
5> 0 > 28P >
>
> >
> 2EI ; 6EI
>
> >
17 PL2 >
>
> 2 >
>
:
p4
;
| {z } |
6EI
L2 L {z L2
4EI
L
:
}| 112{zEI
;
}
:
|
; {z2PL
8
;
}
fpg [k] f g FEM
solving
b p1 p2 p3 p4 c = b 107 P
56
31 PL 5 P
56 56
5
14 PL c (3.9)
10. Similarly, for element BC :
8 9 2 38 9 8 9
> p1 > 12EI 6EI ; 12LEI3 6EI > 0 > > P >
6LEI
3
4LEI
2
2LEI
> > 2 > > > 2 >
>
<
p2 >
= 6
L2 L ; 6LEI2 L
7>< 17 PL2
112 EI
>
= >
< PL >
=
= 664 +> P8 (3.10)
7
>
>
>
p3 >
>
>
; 12LEI3 ; 6LEI2 12EI
L3 ; 6LEI2 7
5>>
>
0 >
> > 2 >
>
:
p4 ; 6EI 2EI ; 6LEI2 4EI :
; 1125 EI PL2 >
; >
:
; PL8 >
;
L2 L L
or
b p1 p2 p3 p4 c = b 87 P 9
14 PL ; P7 0 c (3.11)
11. This simple example calls for the following observations:
1. Node A has contributions from element AB only, while node B has contributions from
both AB and BC .
12. We observe that pAB3 6= p1 eventhough they both correspond to a shear force at
BC
4 6= p2
node B, the dierence betweeen them is equal to the reaction at B. Similarly, pAB BC
due to the externally applied moment at node B.
2. From this analysis, we can draw the complete free body diagram, Fig. 3.1-e and then the
shear and moment diagrams which is what the Engineer is most interested in for design
purposes.

Draft
Figure 3.2: *Frame Example (correct K23 )
Example 3-2: Frame

Whereas in the rst example all local coordinate systems were identical to the global one,
in this example we consider the orthogonal frame shown in Fig. 3.2,
Solution:
1. Assuming axial deformations, we do have three global degrees of freedom, 1 , 2 , and 3 .
2. Constrain all the degrees of freedom, and thus make the structure kinematically determinate.
3. Determine the xed end actions for each element in its own local coordinate system:
b P1 V1 M1 {zP2 V2 M2 c} = b 0
|
P
2
PL
8 8 c
0 P2 ; PL (3.12)
AB
Draft
3.3 Examples 3{7
b P1 V1 M1 {zP2 V2 M2 c} = b 0
|
wH
2
wH 2
12 2 ; 12 c
0 wH wH 2 (3.13)
BC
(3.14)
4. Summing the xed end actions at node B in global coordinates we have
b P1 P2 P3 c = b wH
2
P
2 ; PL8 + wH12 2 c (3.15)
5. Next, we apply a unit displacement in each of the 3 global degrees of freedom, and we seek
to determine the structure global stiness matrix. Each entry Kij of the global stiness matrix
will correspond to the internal force in degree of freedom i, due to a unit displacement in degree
of freedom j .
6. Recalling the force displacement relations derived earlier, we can assemble the global stiness
matrix in terms of contributions from both AB and BC:
Ki1 Ki2 Ki3
1 2 3
K1j AB EA 0 0
Lc
12EI 6EI c
BC H3 0 H2 b
b
K2j AB 0 12EI
L 3 ; 6EI
L2
BC 0 EA 0
H b
K3j AB 0c ; 6EI 4EI b
6EI L2 Lc
4EI
BC H2 0 H
7. Summing up, the structure global stiness matrix [K] is:
1 2 3
P1 L + 12HEI3 c
2EA 0 6EI2 c
H b
3
[K] = P264 0 12EI b + EA ; 6EI 7

(3.16-a)
c L3 H
b L 2 5
M3 6 EI ; 6EI 4EI b + 4EI c
H2 L2 L H
2
1 2 3 3
AB
P16 k44 + k22 BC AB
k45 + k21BC AB + kBC
k46 23
= P24 kAB + kBC AB + kBC
k55 11
AB + kBC 7
k56 13 5 (3.16-b)
M3 k64AB + kBC AB + kBC
k65 AB + kBC
k66
32 31 33
8. The global equation of equilibrium can now be written

8
> ; P2
9
>
8
> wH 9
>
2 EA + 12EI3 c 0 6EI2c 38
> 1
9
>
L H H b
P2
< = < = < =
b
>
0 >
=> 2 >
+ 64 0 12EI
L3 + H
EA ;b 6EI
L2
7
5
>
2 >
(3.17)
: M ; :
|
; PL8 {z+ wH12 2 ;
}
6EI c
H2 ; 6{zEI
L2
b 4EI + 4EI c
L H
: 3 ;
| }
FEA [K]

Draft
9. Solve for the displacemnts
8 9 2 EA + 12EI3 c 6EI2 c 3;1 8 9
>
< 1 >
= L H b
0 H b >
< ; P2 ; wH2 >
=
>
2 >
= 6
4 0 12EI
L3 + H
EA ;b 6EI
L2
7
5
>
; P2 2 >
8 ; 12
: 3 ; 6EI2 c ; 6EI b 4EI + 4EI c :
M + PL wH ;
8 H L2 9
L H
>
>
;(L3 (84Ib+19AL2 )P ) >
>
>
>
< 32E (3Ib+AL2 )(12Ib+AL2 ) >
>
=
= ;(L3 (12Ib+13AL2 )P ) (3.18)
>
> 32E (3Ib+AL2 )(12Ib+AL2 ) >
>
>
>
: L2 (12Ib+AL2 )P >
>
;
64EIb(3Ib+AL2 )
10. To obtain the element internal forces, we will multiply each element stiness matrix by the
local displacements. For element AB, the local and global coordinates match, thus
8 9
8 9 2 EA 0 0 ; EA 0 0 3>> 0 >
>
> p1 > L 12EIy 6EIy L >
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> p2
>
>
>
>
>
6
6 0 L3 L2 0 ; 12LEI3 y 6EIy
L2
7>
7>
7>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
p3 >
= 6
0 6EI y 4EI y 0 ; 6EI y 2EI y 7<
> >
=
=
6
6 L2 L L2 L 7 ;(L3 (84Ib+19AL2 )P )
>
>
>
p4 >
>
>
6
6 ; EA
L 0 0 EA
L 0 0 7>
7>
7>
32E (3Ib+AL2 )(12Ib+AL2 )
;(L3 (12Ib+13AL2 )P )
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
p5 >
>
>
>
;
6
4 0 ; 12LEI3 y ; 6EI
L 2
y 0 12EIy
L3 ; 6LEI2 5>
>
>
>
> 32E (3Ib+AL2 )(12Ib+AL2 )
>
>
>
>
>
p6 0 6EIy
L2
2EIy
L 0 ; 6EI
L2
y 4EIy
L
>
>
>
: L2 (12Ib+AL2 )P >
>
>
;
64EIb(3Ib+AL2 )
8 9
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
> P >
>
>
>
>
<
2
PL
>
>
=
+> 0 8
>
(3.19)
>
> >
>
>
>
>
P >
>
>
> 2 >
:
; PL8 ;
11. For element BC, the local and global coordinates do not match, hence we will need to
transform the displacements from their global to their local coordinate components. But since,
vector (displacement and load), and matrix transformation have not yet been covered, we note
by inspection that the relationship between global and local coordinates for element BC is
Local 1 2 3 4 5 6
Global 0 0 0 2 ;1 3
and we observe that there are no local or global displacements associated with dof 1-3; Hence

Draft
3.3 Examples 3{9
the internal forces for element BC are given by:
8 9
3> 0 >
8
> p1 9
>
2 EA
L 0 0 ; EA
L 0 0
>
>
>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
>
> >
0 12EIy 6EIy 0 ; 12LEI3 y 6EIy 7> >
>
>
>
> p2 >
>
>
>
6
6 L3 L2 L2 7>
>
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
<
p3 >
= 6
6 0 6EI y 4EI y 0 ; 6EI y 2EI y 7>
7< ;(L3 (12I b +13AL2 )P ) >
=
= 6 L2 L L2 L 7
32E (3I b +AL2 )(12I b +AL2 )
>
>
>
p4 >
>
>
6
6 ; EA
L 0 0 EA
L 0 0 7>
7>
7> (L3 (84I b +19AL2 )P )
>
>
>
>
>
> p5 >
>
>
6
4 0 ; 12LEI3 y ; 6EI y 0 12EIy ; 6LEI2 5>
>
>
32E (3I b +AL2 )(12I b +AL2 )
>
>
>
2EILy
>
: >
; 2 L3 >
> >
>
p6 0 6EIy
L2 L 0 ; 6EI
L2
y 4EIy
L
>
>
>
> L2 (12I b +AL2 )P
>
>
>
>
: ;
64EI b (3I b +AL2 )
8 9
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
> wH >
>
>
>
> 2 >
>
< wH 2 >
=
+> 12 (3.20)
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
wH > >
>
>
> 2 2 >
>
:
; wH > ;
12
Mathematica:
Ic=Ib
M= 0
w= 0
H= L
alpha=
K={
{E A /L + 12 E Ic /H^3, 0, 6 E Ic/H^2},
{0, 12 E Ib/L^3 + E A/H, -6 E Ib/L^2},
{6 E Ic/H^2, -6 E Ib/L^2, 4 E Ib/L + 4 E Ic/H}
}
d=Inverse[K]
load={-P/2 - w H/2, -P/2, M+P L/8 -w H^2/12}
displacement=Simplify[d . load]
Example 3-3: Grid

Draft
Figure 3.3: Grid Example

Draft
3.3 Examples 3{11
Analyse the orhtogonal grid shown in Fig. 3.3. The two elements have identical exural
and torsional rigidity, EI and GJ .
Solution:
1. We rst identify the three degrees of freedom, 1 , 2 , and 3 .
2. Restrain all the degrees of freedom, and determine the xed end actions:
8 9 8 9 8 9
>
< T1 >
= >
< 0 >
= >
< 0 >
=
V2 = > P2 = > P2 (3.21)
>
: M3 >
; : PL >
8
;
| {z }
:
|
;{zPl8 >
;
}
@node A @node B
3. Apply a unit displacement along each of the three degrees of freedom, and determine the
internal forces:
1. Apply unit rotation along global d.o.f. 1.
(a) AB (Torsion) K11AB = GJ AB AB
L , K21 = 0, K31 = 0
(b) BC (Flexure) K11BC = 4EI BC 6EI BC
L , K21 = L2 , K31 = 0
4. Apply a unit displacement along global d.o.f. 2.
(a) AB (Flexure): K12AB = 0, K22AB = 12LEI3 , K32 = ; L2
AB 6EI
(b) BC (Flexure): K12BC = 6LEI2 , K22BC = 12LEI BC
2 , K32 = 0
5. Apply unit displacement along global d.o.f. 3.

(a) AB (Flexure): K13AB = 0, K23AB = ; 6LEI2 , K33AB = 4EI
L
BC BC
(b) BC (Torsion): K13 = 0, K23 = 0, K33 = L BC GJ
4. The structures stiness matrix will now be assembled:

2 3 2 3 2 3
K 11 K12 K13
GJ 0 0 4EI 6EI 0
L 12EI ; 6EI 7 L
6 6EI 12EIL 2
4 K21 K22 K23 5 = 4 0 L2 5 + 4 L2 0 75
6 7 6
L62EI 4EI L2 GJ
K31 K32 K33 0 ; L2 L } | 0 0 L
| {z {z }
[KAB ] [KBC ]
2 3 2 3
EIL 2 0 0 4 L 2 6L 0
= EIL 3
6
4 0 12 ; 6 L 7 EI 6
5 + 3 4 6L 12
L 0 7
5
0 ;6L 4L2 0 0 EIL2
2 3
(4 + EI )L 2 6L 0
= EIL3 4
6
6L 24 ;6L 75 (3.22)
0 ;6L (4 + EI )L 2
| {z }
[KStructure]
Draft
2 3
AB + kBC kAB + kBC kAB + kBC
k44 55 46 56 45 54
= 6 AB + kBC kAB + kBC kAB + kBC
k64 7
(3.23)
4 65 66 66 65 64 5
AB + kBC kAB + kBC kAB + kBC
k54 45 56 46 55 44
where = GJ
EI , and in the last equation it is assumed thatfor element BC, node 1 corresponds
to C and 2 to B.
5. The structure equilibrium equation in matrix form:
8 9 8 9 2 38 9
>
< 0> = >
< 0 >= EI (4 + )L2 6L 0 >
< 1 >
=
P
0 = > 2 > + L3 4 6L
6
24 ;6L 7
5 2 (3.24)
>
: 0 > ; :
; PL ;
8 } | 0 ; 6 L (4 + )L2 >
:
3 >
;
| {z } | {z {z } | {z }
f Pg FEA @B [K] f g
or 8 9
8 9 PL2 5+2
>
< 1 >
=
>
>
< 16EI (1+3 )(4+) >
>
=
>
2 >
=> ; 96PL 5+2
EI 1+ >
(3.25)
: 3 ; >
: ; 316PLEI (1+)(4+
2 1
)
>
;
6. Determine the element internal forces. This will be accomplished by multiplying each element
stiness matrix [k] with the vector of nodal displacement f g. Note these operations should
be accomplished in local coordinate system, and great care should be exercized in writing the
nodal displacements in the same local coordinate system as the one used for the derivation of
the element stiness matrix, Eq. 2.53.
7. For element AB and BC, the vector of nodal displacements are
8
>
> 1 9
>
>
8
>
> 0 9
>
>
8
>
> ;3 9
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;1 >
>
>
>
>
<
3 =
=>
<
0 =
= > 02
< =
(3.26)
>
>
>
4 >
>
> >
> 1 >
>
> >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
5 >
>
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
;3 >
>
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
0 >
>
>
>
;
6 2 0
| {z } | {z }
AB BC
8. Hence, for element AB we have
8
> p1 9
>
2 GIx
L 0 0 ; GILx 0 0 38
0 9
> >
0 4EIy ; 6EI y 0 2EIy 6EIy 7 > > >
>
>
>
>
> p2 >
>
>
>
6
6 L L2 L L 2 7>
>
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
<
p3 >
= 6
6
= ; Gix
6 0 ; 6EI
L2
y 12EI
L3
y 0 ; 6EI
L2
y ; 12EIy 7
L 73 7
>
<
0
>
=
= (3.27)
> p4 > 6 0 0 GIx 0 0 7> 1 >
>
> >
> 6 L L 7>> >
>
>
>
>
>
:
p5 >
>
>
>
;
6
4 0 2EIy
L ; 6EI
LEI
2
y 0 4EIy
L
6EIy 7
L 2 5
>
>
>
>
:
;3 >
>
>
>
;
p6 0 6EI
L2
y 12
; L3 y 0 6EI
L2
y 12EI
L3
y 2

Draft
3.4 Observations 3{13
9. For element BC:
8
> p1 9
>
2 GIx
L 0 0 ; GILx 0 0 38
;3 9
> > 4EIy ; 6EI 2EIy 6EIy 7 > > >
>
>
>
>
> p2 >
>
>
>
6
6 0 L L2
y 0 L L 2 7>
>
>
12EIy 7 >
;1 >
>
>
>
>
<
p3 >
= 6
6 0
= ; Gix
6 ; 6EI
L2
y 12EIy
L3 0 ; 6EI
L2
y ; L3 7
7 >
<
2
>
=
(3.28)
> p4 > 6 0 0 GIx 0 0 7> 0 >
>
> >
> 6 L 2EIy L 7>> >
>
>
>
>
>
:
p5 >
>
>
>
;
6
4 0 L ; 6EI
L 2
y 0 4EIy
L
6EIy 7
L2 5 >
>
>
>
:
0 >
>
>
>
;
p6 0 6EI
L2
y ; 12LEI3 y 0 6EI
L2
y 12EIy
L3
0
3.4 Observations
13 On the basis of these two illustrative examples we note that the global structure equilibrium
equation can be written as
fPg = fFEAg + [K]fg (3.29)
where [K] is the global structure stiness matrix (in terms of the unrestrained d.o.f.) fPg the
vector containing both the nodal load and the nodal equivalent load caused by element loading,
fg is the vector of generalized nodal displacements.
14 Whereas the preceding two examples were quite simple to analyze, we seek to generalize the
method to handle any arbitrary structure. As such, some of the questions which arise are:
1. How do we determine the element stiness matrix in global coordinate systems, [Ke ],
from the element stiness matrix in local coordinate system [ke ]?
2. How to assemble the structure [KS ] from each element [KE ]?
3. How to determine the fFEAg or the nodal equivalent load for an element load?
4. How to determine the local nodal displacements from the global ones?
5. How do we compute reactions in the restrained d.o.f?
6. How can we determine the internal element forces (P , V , M , and T )?
7. How do we account for temperature, initial displacements or prestrain?
Those questions, and others, will be addressed in the next chapters which will outline the
general algorithm for the direct stiness method.

Draft

Draft
Chapter 4
TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
4.1 Derivations
4.1.1 [ke ] [Ke] Relation
1 In the previous chapter, in which we focused on orthogonal structures, the assembly of the
structure's stiness matrix [Ke ] in terms of the element stiness matrices was relatively straight-
forward.
2 The determination of the element stiness matrix in global coordinates, from the element
stiness matrix in local coordinates requires the introduction of a transformation.
3 This chapter will examine the 2D and 3D transformations required to obtain an element
stiness matrix in global coordinate system prior to assembly (as discussed in the next chapter).
4 Recalling that
fpg = [ke]f g (4.1)

fPg = [Ke]fg (4.2)
5 Let us dene a transformation matrix [;] such that:

fg = [;]fg (4.3)
fpg = [;]fPg (4.4)
Note that we use the same matrix ; since both f g and fpg are vector quantities (or tensors
of order one).
6 Substituting Eqn. 4.3 and Eqn. 4.4 into Eqn. 4.1 we obtain
[;]fPg = [ke ][;]fg (4.5)

Draft
4{2 TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
Figure 4.1: Arbitrary 3D Vector Transformation
premultiplying by [;];1
fPg = [;];1 [ke][;]fg (4.6)
7 But since the rotation matrix is orthogonal, we have [;];1 = [;]T and
fPg = [|;]T [{zke][;}]fg (4.7)
[Ke]
[Ke ] = [;]T [ke ][;] (4.8)
which is the general relationship between element stiness matrix in local and global coordi-
nates.
4.1.2 Direction Cosines
8 The problem confronting us is the general transfoormation of a vector V from (X; Y; Z)
coordinate system to (X; Y; Z), Fig. 4.1: where:
8 9 2 38 9
>
< Vx >
= lxX lxY lxZ >
< VX >
=
>
Vy >
= 4 lyX lyY lyZ
6 7
5
>
VY >
(4.9)
: Vz ; lzX lzY lzZ : VZ ;
| {z }
[ ]

Draft
4.1 Derivations 4{3
where lij is the direction cosine of axis i with respect to axis j , and thus the rows of the
matrix correspond to the rotated vectors with respect to the original ones corresponding to the
columns.
9 Transformation can be accomplished through simple rotation matrices of direction cosines.
10 We dene the rotated coordinate system as x; y; z relative to original system X; Y; Z , in terms

of direction cosines lij where:
lij direction cosines of rotated axis i with respect to original axis j .
lxj = (lxX ; lxY ; lxZ)direction cosines of x with respect to X; Y and Z
lyj = (lyX ; lyY ; lyZ)direction cosines of y with respect to X; Y and Z
lzj = (lzX ; lzY ; lzZ )direction cosines of z with respect to X; Y and Z
and thus 8 9 2 38 9
>
< Vx >
= lxX lxY lxZ >
< VX >
=
>
Vy >
= lyX lyY lyZ
6
4
7
5
>
VY >
(4.10)
: Vz ; lzX lzY lzZ : VZ ;
| {z }
[ ]
and the rows of the matrix correspond to the rotated vectors with respect to the original ones
corresponding to the columns.
11 Note that with respect to Fig. 4.2, lxX = cos ; lxY = cos , and lxZ = cos or
Vx = VX cos + VY cos + VZ cos (4.11)

12Recalling that the dot product of two vectors
A~ B~ = jAj:jBj cos (4.12)
~ , and is the angle between the two vectors. If we write
where jjAjj is the norm (length) of A
V~ = Vx~i + Vy~j + Vz ~k (4.13)
The vector can be normalized
V~n = jVVxj~i + jVVyj~j + jVVzj ~k (4.14)
~ we simply take the dot product of
and hence the to get the three direction cosines of vector V
its normalized form with the thrre unit vector forming the orthogonal coordinate system
V~n ~i = x2 ;L x1 = lvx (4.15-a)
V~n ~j = y2 ;L y1 = lvy (4.15-b)
V~n ~k = z2 ;L z1 = lvz (4.15-c)
Draft
Figure 4.2: 3D Vector Transformation
13 If we use indecis instead of cartesian system, then direction cosines can be expressed as
Vx = VX l11 + VY l12 + VZ l13 (4.16)
or by extension: 8 9 2 38 9
>
< Vx >
= l11 l12 l13 >
< VX >
=
>
Vy >
= 64 l21 l22 l23 7
5
>
VY >
(4.17)
: Vz ; l31 l32 l33 : VZ ;
| {z }
[ ]
Alternatively, [ ] is the matrix whose columns are the direction cosines of x; y; z with respect
to X; Y; Z : 2 3
l11 l21 l31
[ ]T = 64 l12 l22 l32 7
5 (4.18)
l13 l23 l33
The transformation of V can be written as:
fvg = [ ] fVg (4.19)
where: fvg is the rotated coordinate system and fVg is in the original one.
Draft
4.1 Derivations 4{5
14 Direction cosines are unit orthogonal vectors
3
X
lij lij = 1 i = 1; 2; 3 (4.20)
j =1
i.e:
2 + l2 + l2 = 1
l11 (4.21)
12 13
cos2 + cos2 + cos2 = 1 = 11 (4.22)
and
8
3
X
>
< i = 1; 2; 3
lij lkj = 0 k = 1; 2; 3 (4.23)
j =1 >
: i 6= k
l11 l21 + l12 l22 + l13 l23 = 0 = 12 (4.24)
15 By direct multiplication of [ ]T and [ ] it can be shown that: [ ]T [ ] = [I] ) [ ]T =

[ ];1 ) [ ] is an orthogonal matrix.
16 The reverse transformation (from local to global) would be
fVg = [ ]T fvg (4.25)
17 Finally, recalling that the transofrmation matrix [ ] is orthogonal, we have:

8 9 2 38 9
>
< VX >
= lxX lyX lzX >
< Vx >
=
>
VY >
= 4 lxY lyY lxY
6 7
5
>
Vy >
(4.26)
: VZ ; lxZ lyZ lzZ : Vz ;
| {z }
[ ];1 =[ ]T

Draft
4.2 Transformation Matrices For Framework Elements
18 The rotation matrix, [;], will obviously vary with the element type. In the most general case
(3D element, 6 d.o.f. per node), we would have to dene:
8 9 2 38 9
>
>
>
Fx1 >
>
>
>
> FX 1 >
>
>
> Fy1 >
> 6 [ ] 7>> FY 1 >
>
>
> >
> 6 7>> >
>
7> >
>
>
>
>
>
Fz1 >
>
>
>
>
6
6
6
7>
7>
>
>
>
FZ 1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> Mx1 >
>
>
>
6
6
7>
7>
>
> MX 1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
My 1 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 [ ] 7>
7>
>
> MY 1 >
>
>
>
7> >
<
Mz1 =
=
6
6
6
7
7
<
MZ 1 =
(4.27)
>
>
>
Fx2 >
>
>
6
6
7>
7>>
FX 2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
Fy2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 [ ] 7>
7>
>
> FY 2 >
>
>
>
>
> Fz2 >
> 6 7>> FZ 2 >
>
>
> >
> 6 7>> >
>
7> >
>
>
>
>
>
Mx2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6
6
7>
7>
>
>
>
MX 2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> My 2 >
>
>
>
4 [ ] 5>>
>
> MY 2 >
>
>
>
:
Mz2 ; :
MZ 2 ;
| {z }
[;]
and should distinguish between the vector transformation [ ] and the element transformation
matrix [;].
19 In the next sections, we will examine the transformation matrix of each type of element.
4.2.1 2 D cases
4.2.1.1 2D Frame, and Grid Element
20 The vector rotation matrix [ ] is identical for both 2D frame and grid elements, Fig. 4.3,
and 4.4 respectively.
21 From Eq. 4.10 the vector rotation matrix is dened in terms of 9 direction cosines of
9 dierent angles. However for the 2D case, we will note that four angles are interrelated
(lxX ; lxY ; lyX ; lyY ) and can all be expressed in terms of a single one , where is the direction
of the local x axis (along the member from the rst to the second node) with respect to the
global X axis. The remaining 5 terms are related to another angle, , which is between the
Z axis and the x-y plane. This angle is zero because we select an orthogonal right handed
coordinate system. Thus, the rotation matrix can be written as:
2 3 2 3 2 3
l xX lxY lxZ cos cos( 2 ; ) 0 cos sin 0
[ ] = 64 lyX lyY lyZ 75 = 64 cos( 2 + ) cos 0 75 = 64 ; sin cos 0 75 (4.28)
lzX lzY lzZ 0 0 1 0 0 1
and we observe that the angles are dened from the second subscript to the rst, and that
counterclockwise angles are positive.
Draft
4.2 Transformation Matrices For Framework Elements 4{7
Figure 4.3: 2D Frame Element Rotation
Figure 4.4: Grid Element Rotation

Draft
Figure 4.5: 2D Truss Rotation
22 The element rotation matrix [;] will then be given by

8 9 2 38 9
>
> p1 >
> cos sin 0 0 0 0 >
> P1 >
>
>
> p >
> 6 ; sin cos 0 0 0 0 7>> P2 >
>
>
>
> 2 >
>
> 6 7>> >
>
7> >
<
p3 = 66
= 6
0 0 1 0 0 0 7
7
<
P3 =
(4.29)
>
>
>
p4 >
>
>
6
6
0 0 0 cos sin 0 7>
7>>
P4 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
p5 >
>
>
>
4 0 0 0 ; sin cos 0 5>>
>
> P5 >
>
>
>
p6 ; 0 0 0 0 0 1 :
P6 ;
| {z }
[;]
4.2.1.2 2D Truss
23For the 2D truss element, the global coordinate system is two dimensional, whereas the local
one is only one dimensional, hence the vector transformation matrix is, Fig. 4.5.
h i h i h i
[ ] = lxX lxY = cos cos( 2 ; ) = cos sin (4.30)
24 The element rotation matrix [;] will then be assembled from the vector rotation matrix [ ].
8 9
( ) " # " #>
> P1 >
>
= [ 0 ] [ 0 ] = cos0 sin0 cos0 sin0
> >
p1 <
P2 =
(4.31)
p2 >
> P3 >
>
| {z }>
:
P4
>
;
[;]
4.2.2 3D Frame
25GIven that rod elements, are dened in such a way to have their local x axis aligned with
their major axis, and that the element is dened by the two end nodes (of known coordinates),
Draft
then recalling the denition of the direction cosines it should be apparent that the evaluation
of the rst row, only, is quite simple. However evaluation of the other two is more complex.
26 This generalized transformation from X; Y ; Z to x; y; z was accomplished in one step in the
two dimensional case, but intermediary ones will have to be dened in the 3D case.
27 Starting with a reference (X1 ; Y1 ; Z1 ) coordinate system which corresponds to the global
coordinate system, we can dene another one, X2 ; Y2 ; Z2 , such that X2 is aligned along the
element, Fig. ??.
28 In the 2D case this was accomplished through one single rotation , and all other angles
where dened in terms of it.
29 In the 3D case, it will take a minimum of two rotations and , and possibly a third one
(dierent than the one in 2D) to achieve this transformation.
30 We can start with the rst row of the transformation matrix which corresponds to the
direction cosines of the reference axis (X1 ; Y1 ; Z1 ) with respect to X2 . This will dene the
rst row of the vector rotation matrix [ ]:
2 3
CX CY CZ
[ ] = 4 l21 l22 l23
6 7
5 (4.32)
l31 l32 l33
q
where CX = xj L;xi , CY = yj ;L yi , CZ = zj ;L zi , L = (xj ; xi )2 + (yj ; yi )2 + (zj ; zi )2 .
31 Note that this does not uniquely dene the new coordinate system. This will be done in two
ways: a simple and a general one.
4.2.2.1 Simple 3D Case
32 We start by looking at a simplied case, Fig. 4.6, one in which Z2 is assumed to be horizontal
in the X1 ; Z1 plane, this will also dene Y2 . We note that there will be no ambiguity unless
the member is vertical.
33 This transformation can be used if:
1. The principal axis of the cross section lie in the horizontal and vertical plane (i.e the web
of an I Beam in the vertical plane).
2. If the member has 2 axis of symmetry in the cross section and same moment of inertia
about each one of them (i.e circular or square cross section).
34The last two rows of Eq. 4.32 can be determined through two successive rotations (assuming
that (X1 ; Y1 ; Z1 and X2 ; Y2 ; Z2 are originally coincident):

Draft
Figure 4.6: Simple 3D Rotation
Figure 4.7: Arbitrary 3D Rotation; Rotation with respect to

Draft
1. Rotation by about the Y1 axis, 4.7 this will place the X1 axis along X . This rotation
[R ] is made of the direction cosines of the axis (X ; Y ; Z ) with respect to (X1 ; Y1 ; Z1 ):
2 3
cos 0 sin
[R ] = 64 0 1 0 75 (4.33)
; sin 0 cos
q
we note that: cos = CCXZ
X , sin = CZ , and CXZ =
CXZ CX2 + CZ2 .
2. Rotation by about the Z2 axis 4.8
2 3
cos sin 0
[R ] = 4 ; sin cos
6
0 7
5 (4.34)
0 0 1
where cos = CXZ , and sin = CY .
35 Combining Eq. 4.33 and 4.34 yields:
2 3
CX CY CZ
[ ] = [R ][R ] = 64 ;CCXXZCY ; C
CXZ CXZ Y CZ 7
5 (4.35)
;CZ 0 CX
CXZ CXZ
Draft
Figure 4.9: Special Case of 3D Transformation for Vertical Members
36 For vertical member the preceding matrix is no longer valid as CXZ is undened. However
we can obtain the matrix by simple inspection, Fig. 4.9 as we note that:
1. X2 axis aligned with Y1
2. Y2 axis aligned with -X1
3. Z2 axis aligned with Z1
hence the rotation matrix with respect to the y axis, is similar to the one previously derived
for rotation with respect to the z axis, except for the reordering of terms:
2 3
0 CY 0
[ ] = 64 ;CY 0 0 7
5 (4.36)
0 0 1
which is valid for both cases (CY = 1 for = 90 deg, and CY = ;1 for = 270 deg).
4.2.2.2 General Case
37 In the most general case, we need to dene an additional rotation to the preceding trans-
formation of an angle about the X axis, Fig. 4.10. This rotation is dened such that:
1. X is aligned with X2 and normal to both Y2 and Z2

2. Y makes an angle 0, and = 2 ; , with respect to X2 , Y2 and Z2 respectively
Draft

Draft
Figure 4.11: Rotation of Cross-Section by
3. Z makes an angle 0, 2 + and , with respect to X2 , Y2 and Z2 respectively

38 Noting that cos( 2 + ) = ; sin and cos = sin , the direction cosines of this transforma-
tion are given by: 2 3
1 0 0
[R ] = 64 0 cos sin 75 (4.37)
0 ; sin cos
causing the Y2 ; Z2 axis to coincide with the principal axes of the cross section, Fig. 4.12.
This will yield:
[ ] = [R ][R ][R ] (4.38)
2 3
CX CY CZ
[ ] = 64 ;CX CY cos
C
;CZ sin C cos ;CY CZ cos +CX sin
XZ C
7
5 (4.39)
CX CY sin XZ
;CZ cos ;C sin CY CZ sin XZ
+CX cos
CXZ XZ CXZ
39As for the simpler case, the preceding equation is undened for vertical members, and a
counterpart to Eq. 4.36 must be derived. This will be achieved in two steps:
1. Rotate the member so that:
(a) X2 axis aligned with Y1
(b) Y2 axis aligned with -X1
(c) Z2 axis aligned with Z1

Draft
Figure 4.12: Arbitrary 3D Element Transformation
this was previously done and resulted in Eq. 4.36

2 3
0 CY 0
[R ] = 64 ;CY 0 0 7
5 (4.40)
0 0 ;1
2. The second step consists in performing a rotation of angle with respect to the new X2
as dened in Eq. 4.37.
3. Finally, we multiply the two transformation matrices [R ][R ] given by Eq. 4.40 and 4.37
to obtain: 2 3
0 C Y 0
[;] = [R ][R ] = 64 ;CY cos 0 sin 75 (4.41)
CY sin 0 cos
Note with = 0, we recover Eq. 4.36.
4.2.3 3D Truss
40With reference to the rst part of the derivation of the transformation of 3D frame element,
the transformation matrix of 3D truss elements is
" #
C X C Y
[;3D T ] = 0 0 0 C C C CZ 0 0 0 (4.42)
X Y Z

Draft

Draft
Chapter 5
STIFFNESS METHOD; Part II
5.1 Introduction
1 The direct stiness method, covered in Advanced Structural Analysis is brie y reviewed in
this lecture.
2 A slightly dierent algorithm will be used for the assembly of the global stiness matrix.
Preliminaries: First we shall

1. Identify type of structure (Plane stress/strain/Axisymmetric/Plate/Shell/3D) and
determine the
(a) Number of spatial coordinates (1D, 2D, or 3D)
(b) Number of degree of freedom per node
(c) Number of material properties
2. Determine the global unrestrained degree of freedom equation numbers for each node,
to be stored in the [ID] matrix.
Analysis :
1. For each element, determine
(a) Vector LM relating local to global degree of freedoms.
(b) Element stiness matrix [Ke ]. This may require a numerical integration
2. Assemble the structure stiness matrix [KS ] of unconstrained degree of freedom's.
3. Decompose [KS ] into [KS ] = [L][L]T where [L] is a lower triangle matrix1 .
4. For traction, body forces, determine the nodal equivalent load.
5. Assemble load vector fPg
1 More about these operations in chapter C.
Draft
5{2 STIFFNESS METHOD; Part II
6. Backsubstitute and obtain nodal displacements
7. For each element, determine strain and stresses.
8. For each restrained degree of freedom compute its reaction from
fRg = # i=1
of elem. [Ki ]fg
3 Some of the prescribed steps are further discussed in the next sections.
5.2 [ID] Matrix

4 Because of the boundary condition restraints, the total structure number of active degrees of
freedom (i.e unconstrained) will be less than the number of nodes times the number of degrees
of freedom per node.
5 To obtain the global degree of freedom for a given node, we need to dene an [ID] matrix
such that:
ID has dimensions l k where l is the number of degree of freedom per node, and k is the
number of nodes).
ID matrix is initialized to zero.
1. At input stage read ID(idof,inod) of each degree of freedom for every node such that:
(
;
ID(idof inod) =
0 if unrestrained d.o.f. (5.1)
1 if restrained d.o.f.
2. After all the node boundary conditions have been read, assign incrementally equation
numbers
(a) First to all the active dof
(b) Then to the other (restrained) dof.
(c) Multiply by -1 all the passive dof.
Note that the total number of dof will be equal to the number of nodes times the number
of dof/node NEQA.
3. The largest positive global degree of freedom number will be equal to NEQ (Number Of
Equations), which is the size of the square matrix which will have to be decomposed.
6 For example, for the frame shown in Fig. 5.1:
1. The input data le may contain:

Draft
5.3 Vector
LM 5{3
Node No. [ID]T
1 000
2 110
3 000
4 100
2. At this stage, the [ID] matrix is equal to:
2 3
0 1 0 1
ID = 64 0 1 0 0 7
5 (5.2)
0 0 0 0
3. After we determined the equation numbers, we would have:
2 3
1 ;10 5 ;12
ID = 64 2 ;11 6 8 75 (5.3)
3 4 7 9
5.3 LM Vector
7 The LM vector of a given element gives the global degree of freedom of each one of the element
degree of freedom's. For the structure shown in Fig. 5.1, we would have:
bLMc = b ;10 ;11 4 5 6 7 c element 1 (2 ! 3)
bLMc = b 5 6 7 1 2 3 c element 2 (3 ! 1)
bLMc = b 1 2 3 ;12 8 9 c element 3 (1 ! 4)
5.4 Assembly of Global Stiness Matrix
8 As for the element stiness matrix, the global stiness matrix [K] is such that Kij is the force
in degree of freedom i caused by a unit displacement at degree of freedom j .
9 Whereas this relationship was derived from basic analysis at the element level, at the structure
level, this term can be obtained from the contribution of the element stiness matrices [Ke ]
(written in global coordinate system).
10 For each Kij term, we shall add the contribution of all the elements which can connect degree
of freedom i to degree of freedom j , assuming that those forces are readily available from the
individual element stiness matrices written in global coordinate system.
11 Kij is non-zero if and only if degree of freedom i and degree of freedom j are connected by
an element or share a node.
12 There are usually more than one element connected to a dof. Hence, individual element
stiness matrices terms must be added up.
Draft
13 Because each term of all the element stiness matrices must nd its position inside the global
stiness matrix [K], it is found computationally most eective to initialize the global stiness
matrix [KS ]NEQANEQA to zero, and then loop through all the elements, and then through
each entry of the respective element stiness matrix Kije .
14 The assignment of the element stiness matrix term Kij e (note that e, i, and j are all known
since we are looping on e from 1 to the number of elements, and then looping on the rows and
columns of the element stiness matrix i; j ) into the global stiness matrix KklS is made through
the LM vector (note that it is k and l which must be determined).
15 Since the global stiness matrix is also symmetric, we would need to only assemble one side
of it, usually the upper one.
16 Contrarily to Matrix Structural Analysis, we will assemble the full augmented stiness matrix.
17 The algorithm for this assembly is illustrated in Fig. 5.2.
Example 5-4: Global Stiness Matrix Assembly

Assemble the global stiness matrix in terms of element 2 and 3 of the example problem
shown in Fig. 5.1.
Solution:
Given the two elements 2 and 3, their respective stiness matrices in global coordinate
systems may be symbolically represented by:
5 6 7 1 2 3 ! structure d.o.f. LM
1 2 3 4 5 6 ! element d.o.f.
5 1 a b c d e f
6 2 g h i j k
[Ke2 ] = 7 3 l m n o
1 4 p q r
2 5 s t
3 6 u
and
1 2 3 -12 8 9 ! structure d.o.f. LM
1 2 3 4 5 6 ! element d.o.f.
1 1 A B C D E F
2 2 G H I J K
[Ke3 ] = 3 3 L M N O
-12 4 P Q R
8 5 S T
9 6 U
Draft
5.4 Assembly of Global Stiness Matrix 5{5
Figure 5.1: Example for [ID] Matrix Determination
Figure 5.2: Flowchart for Assembling Global Stiness Matrix

Draft
The partially assembled structure global stiness matrix will then be given by (check:
12
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3
1 A+p B +q C +r 0 d i m E F D
2 666 G+s H +t 0 e j n J K I 7
7
7
3 66 L+u 0 f k o N O M 7
7
4 66 7
7
6 66 g h 7
7
K = 7 666
S l 7
7
7
8 66 S T 7
7
9 66 U 7
7
10666 7
7
7
114 5
12 P
18 From this example problem, we note that:

1. Many entries in the global stiness matrix are left as zero, because they correspond to
unconnected degrees of freedom (such as K4;6 ).
2. All entries in the element stiness matrix do nd a storage space in the global stiness
matrix.
5.5 Skyline Storage of Global Stiness Matrix, MAXA Vector

19 The stiness matrix of a structure will be a square matrix of dimension NEQxNEQ.
20 We rst observe that the matrix is symmetric, thus only the upper half needs to be stored.
Furthermore, we observe that this matrix has a certain \bandwidth", BW, dened as j Kij ;
Kii jmax, when Kij 6= 0, Fig. 5.3.
21 Thus, we could as a rst space saving solution store the global stiness matrix inside a
rectangular matrix of length NEQ and width BW, which can be obtained from the LM vector
(largest dierence of terms of LM for all the elements).
22 It is evident that numbering of nodes is extremely important as it controls the size of the
bandwidth, and hence the storage requirement, Fig. 5.4. In this context, we observe that the
stiness matrix really has a variable bandwidth, or variable \skyline". Hence if we want to
store only those entries below the \skyline" inside a vector rather than a matrix for maximum
storage eciency, then we shall dene a vector MAXA which provides the address of the diagonal
terms.

Draft
5.5 Skyline Storage of Global Stiness Matrix, MAXA Vector 5{7
Figure 5.3: Example of Bandwidth
Figure 5.4: Numbering Schemes for Simple Structure

Draft
23 In the following global stiness matrix, the individual entries which must be stored in the
global stiness matrix are replaced by their address in the vector representation of this same
matrix. Also shown is the corresponding MAXA vector.
2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3
12 6 x xx x xx xx xx xx xx xx 7
34 6 6 x x xx xx xx x x x xx x 77
7
56 666 x xx xx xx xx 7
K = 78 66 x x x x 7
xx 777
91066 x x xx 7
11
124
6
x5
7
2 3 8 9
1 3 11 17 24 32 41 68 >
>
>
1 >
>
>
6
6 2 5 10 16 23 31 40 67 7
7 >
>
>
> 2 >
>
>
>
6 7 > >
6
6
4 9 15 22 30 39 66 7
7
>
>
>
>
4 >
>
>
>
6
6 6 8 14 21 29
48 5638 65 7
7
>
>
>
>
>
6 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 7 13 20 28
47 5537 64 7
7
>
>
>
>
7 >
>
>
>
K = 66
6
6 12 19 27
46 5436 63 7
7
7 MAXA =
<
12 =
6
18 45 53 62 77
26 35 >
>
>
18 >
>
>
6
6 25
44 5234 61 7
7
>
>
>
>
>
25 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 43 5133 60 7
7
>
>
>
>
33 >
>
>
>
6
6
6
42 50 59 7
7
7
>
>
>
>
>
42 >
>
>
>
>
4 49 58 5 >
>
>
>
49 >
>
>
>
57 :
57 ;
Thus, to locate an element within the stiness matrix, we use the following formula:
Kij = MAXA(j ) + (j ; i) (5.4)
if i j (since we are storing only the upper half).

24 Using this formula, we will have:
K58 = MAXA(8) + (8 ; 5) = 18 + 3 = 21 (5.5)

K42 = MAXA(4) + (4 ; 2) = 6 + 2 = 8 (5.6)
25 We should note that the total number of non-zero entries inside the global stiness matrix
is always the same, irrespective of our numbering scheme. However by properly numbering
the nodes, we can minimize the number of zero terms2 which would fall below the skyline and
which storage would be ineective.
2 As we shall see later, all the terms below the skyline (including the zeros) must be stored. Following matrix
decomposition, all zero terms outside the skyline terms remain zero, and all others are altered.

Draft
5.6 Augmented Stiness Matrix 5{9
5.6 Augmented Stiness Matrix
26 Previous exposure to the Direct Stiness Method is assumed.
27 We can conceptually partition the global stiness matrix into two groups with respective
subscript ù' over ;u where the displacements are known (zero or otherwise), and t where the
tractions are known.
Pt p = Ktt Ktu
( ) " #( )
tp?
R? u K K ut uu u
28 The rst equation enables the calculation of the unknown displacements on ;t
t = K;tt 1 (Pt ; Ktuu ) (5.7)
29 The second equation enables the calculation of the reactions on ;u
Rt = Kutt + Kuuu (5.8)
30For internal book-keeping purpose, since we are assembling the augmented stiness matrix,
we proceed in two stages:
1. First number all the unrestrained degrees of freedom, i.e. those on ;t .
2. Then number all the degrees of freedom with known displacements, on ;u , and multiply
by -1.
31 Considering a simple beam, Fig. 5.5 the full stiness matrix is equal to
2
v1 1 v2 2 3
V1 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ;12EI=L 6EI=L2 7
3
[K] = M
6
16 6EI=L2 4EI=L ;6EI=L2 2EI=L 77 (5.9)
V2 4 ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2
6
12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 5
M2 6EI=L2 2EI=L ;6EI=L2 4EI=L
This matrix is singular, it has a rank 2 and order 4 (as it embodies also 2 rigid body motions).
32 We shall consider 3 dierent cases, Fig. 5.6
Cantilivered Beam/Point Load

Draft
Figure 5.5: Beam Element

Draft
1. The element stiness matrix is
;3 ;4 1 2
;32 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 6EI=L2 3
ke = ;1 464 ;612EI=L 4EI=L ;6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
2
EI=L ;6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 5
3
2 6EI=L2 2EI=L ;6EI=L2 4EI=L
2. The structure stiness matrix is assembled
1 2 ;3 ;4
1 2 12EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 3
KS = 2;364 ;;126EI=L
2 4EI=L 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
3
EI=L 6EI=L 2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 5
;4 ;6EI=L2 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L
3. The global matrix can be rewritten as
8
>
<
;Ppp 9
>
=
2
12EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 38
>
<
1 ? 9
>
=
0 ;6EI=L2 4EI=L 6EI=L2 2EI=L 2 ?
=6 3pp
7
>
: R3 ? >
;
4
;12EI=L23 6EI=L2 12EI=L23 6EI=L2 5
>
: >
;
R4 ? ;6EI=L 2EI=L 6EI=L 4EI=L 4
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
2 3
L3 =3EI L2 =2EI ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2
6 7
6
6 L2 =2EI L=EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
7
4 ;12EI=L3 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 5
;6EI=L2 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L
5. Next we compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt ; Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by P0t
8 9 2 38 9
>
> ;P >
>
L3 =3EI L2 =2EI ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 >
> ;P >
>
< = 6 7< 0 =
Pt ; Ktu u = 0 ; 6
6 L2 =2EI L=EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
7
>
> 0 >
> 4 ;12EI=L 6EI=L2
3 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 5>> 0 >
>
: ; : ;
0 ;6EI=L2 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L 0
8 9
>
>
<
;P >
>
=
= 0
>
>
:
0 >
>
;
0
6. Now we solve for the displacement t = K;tt 1 P0t , and overwrite Pt by t
8 9 2 38 9
>
> 1 >
>
L3 =3EI L2 =2EI ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 >
> ;P >
>
< = 6 7< =
2 = 6 2
6 L =2EI L=EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
7 0
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
4 ;12EI=L3 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 5>>
:
0 >
>
;
0 0
8 ;6EI=L
2 29EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L
>
>
>
;P L =3EI
3 >
>
>
< =
= ;P L2 =2EI
> >
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
0

Draft
7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Ru = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite
8
u by Ru 9
2 3
8
> ;P L3 =3EI 9
>
L3 =3EI L2 =2EI ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 >
>
> ;P L3 =3EI >
>
>
>
< ;P L2 =2EI >
= 6 L2 =2EI L=EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L 7>< >
=
= 6 7 ;P L2 =2EI
> R3 >
6
4 ;12EI=L3 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 7
5> >
>
: >
; >
> 0 >
>
R4 ;6EI=L2 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L >
:
0
>
;
8 9
>
> ;P L32 =3EI >
>
< ;P L =2EI =
= P
>
> >
>
: ;
PL
Simply Supported Beam/End Moment
2
;3 1 ;4 2
;3 12EI=L23 ;12EI=L3
6EI=L2 6EI=L2 3
ke = 1 6 6EI=L 4EI=L ;6EI=L2 2EI=L 7
;44 ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 5
1 2 ;3 ;4
1 2 4EI=L 2EI=L 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 3
KS = 2;364 62EI=L
EI=L 4EI=L 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 7
2 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ;12EI=L3 5
;4 ;6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 12EI=L3
3. The global stiness matrix can be rewritten as
0pp
8 9
2 38 9
>
>
>
< M
>
>
>
=
4EI=L 2EI=L 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 >
<
1 ? >
=
=6 2EI=L 4EI=L 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 7 ?
2 p
>
> R3 ? >
>
4 6EI=L 2 6EI=L 2 12EI=L3 ;12EI=L3 5
>
: 3 p >
;
>
:
R4 ?
>
; ;6EI=L ;6EI=L ;12EI=L3 12EI=L3
2 2 4
4. Ktt is inverted
2 3
L3 =3EI ;L=6EI 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2
6 7
6
6 ;L=6EI L=3EI 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 7
7
4 6EI=L2 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ;12EI=L3 5
;6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 12EI=L3
5. We compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt ; Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by P0t
8 9 2 38 9
>
> 0 >
>
L3 =3EI ;L=6EI 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 >
> 0 >
>
< = 6 7< M =
Pt ; Ktu u = M ; 6
6 ;L=6EI L=3EI 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 7
7
>
> 0 >
> 4 6EI=L2 6EI=L2 12EI=L ;12EI=L3
3 5>> 0 >
>
: ; : ;
0 ;6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 12EI=L3 0
8 9
>
>
<
0 >
>
=
= M
>
>
:
0 >
>
;
0

Draft
6. Solve for the displacements, t = K;tt 1 P0t , and overwrite Pt by t
8 9 2 38 9
>
> 1 >
> L3 =3EI ;L=6EI 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 > 0 >
< = 6 7>< >
=
2 = 6
6 ;L=6EI L=3EI 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L2 7
7
M
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
4 6EI=L2 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ;12EI=L3 5>>
:
0 >
>
;
0 ;6EI=L2 ;96EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 12EI=L3 0
8
>
>
>
;ML=6EI >>
>
< =
= ML=3EI
>
> 0 >
>
>
: >
;
0
7. Solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru
2 38 9
8
> ;ML=6EI 9
>
L3 =3EI ;L=6EI 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L22 >
> ;ML=6EI >
>
>
< ML=3EI >
= 6
6
;L=6EI L=3EI 6EI=L2 ;6EI=L 7>
7
<
ML=3EI
>
=
R1 = 6 6EI=L2 6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ;12EI=L3 7
>
>
:
>
>
;
4 5>>
> 0 >
>
>
R2
8
;6EI=L2 9
;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 12EI=L3 :
0
;
>
> ;ML=6EI >
>
>
< ML=3EI >
=
= M=L
>
> >
>
> >
: ;M=L ;
Cantilivered Beam/Initial Displacement and Concentrated Moment

;2 ;3 ;4 1
;22 12EI=L23 6EI=L2 ;12EI=L23 6EI=L2 3
ke = ;;3464 ;612EI=L 4EI=L ;6EI=L 2EI=L 7
EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 5
1
2
;2 ;3 ;4
1
4EI=L 6EI=L2 2EI=L ;6EI=L2 3
KS = ;;2364 62EI=L 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 7
2
EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L ;6EI=L2 5
;4 ;6EI=L ;12EI=L ;6EI=L2 12EI=L3
2 3
3. The global matrix can be rewritten as

8
M
p 9 2
4EI=L 6EI=L2 2EI=L ;6EI=L2 38
?
1 p
9
>
< >
= >
< >
=
R2 ? =6 6EI=L 2 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 7 2p
R3 ? 4 2EI=L 6EI=L 2 4EI=L ;6EI=L2 5 3
4 p
>
: >
; >
: >
;
R4 ? ;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2 12EI=L3
4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix
2 3
L=4EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L ;6EI=L2
6 7
6 6EI=L2 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 7
4 2EI=L 6EI=L 2 4EI=L ;6EI=L2 5
;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L ;6EI=L2 12EI=L3
3

Draft
5. Next we compute the equivalent load, P0t = Pt ; Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by P0t
8 9 2 38 9
> M > L=4EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L ;6EI=L2 >
>
1 >
>
< = 6 7< 0 =
Pt ; Ktu u = 0 ; 6 6 EI=L2 12EI=L 3 6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 7
>
: 0 >;
4 2EI=L 6EI=L 2 4EI=L ;6EI=L2 5>
> 0 >
>
: ;
0 ;6EI=L 2 ;12EI=L ;6EI=L2 12EI=L3
3 0
8 9
>
>
<
M + 6EI 0 =L2 > >
=
= 0
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
0
6. Now we solve for the displacements, t = K;tt 1 P0t , and overwrite Pt by t
8 9 2 38 9
>
>
<
1 >
>
=
L=4EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L ;6EI=L2 >
> M + 6EI 0 =L2 >
>
6 7< =
0 = 6 6EI=L 2 12 EI=L 3 6 EI=L2 ;12EI=L23 7 0
>
>
:
0 >
>
;
4 2EI=L 6EI=L 2 4EI=L ;6EI=L3 5>
>
: 0 >
>
;
0 8
; 6 EI=L 2 ;12EI=L3 ;6EI=L2
9
12EI=L 0
> ML= 4 EI + 3 0 =2L >
>
< >
=
= 0
>
>
: 0 >
>
;
0
7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru
2 3
8
> ML=4EI + 30 =2L
9
>
L=4EI 6EI=L2 2EI=L ;6EI=L2
> >
>
< R2
>
= 6
6 6EI=L 2 12EI=L3 6EI=L2 ;12EI=L3 7
7
R3
= 6
6 2EI=L 6EI=L2 4EI=L ;6EI=L2
7
7
>
> >
> 4 5
>
: >
;
R4 ;6EI=L2 ;12EI=L93 ;6EI=L2 12EI=L3
8
>
>
>
ML=4EI + 30 =2L >
>
>
< =
0
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
: 0 ;
8 9
0
ML=4EI + 3 =2L >
>
> >
> >
>
< 3M=2L ; 3EI 0 =L3 > =
= M=2 ; 3EI =L
0 2
>
> >
>
>
> >
: ;3M=2L + 3EI =L >
0 3 ;
Example 5-5: Direct Stiness Analysis of a Truss

Using the direct stiness method, analyse the following truss.

Draft
Solution:
1. Determine the structure ID matrix and the LM vector for each element Initial ID matrix
Node" 1 2 3 4 5 #
ID = 01 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
Final ID matrix
Node" 1 2 3 4 5#
ID = 1 2 ;9 4 6
;8 3 ;10 5 7
LM vectors for each element
2 3
Element 1 1 ;8 4 5
6 1
Element 26 ;8 2 3 777
Element 36
6 2
6
3 4 5 77
6 4
Element 46 5 6 7 77
6 ;9
Element 56 ;10 4 5 777
6 2
Element 66 3 6 7 77
6
Element 74 2 3 ;9 ;10 5
Element 8 ;9 ;10 6 7
Draft
2. Derive the element stiness matrix in global coordinates
2 3
c2 cs ;c2 ;cs 7
[K ] = EA 6 cs
6
s2 ;cs ;s2 77
L 64 ;c2 ;cs c2 cs 5
;cs ;s2 cs s2
where c = cos = x2 ;L x1 ; s = sin = Y2 ;L Y1
Element 1 L = 200 , c = 1620;0 = 0:8, s = 1220;0 = 0:6,
EA
L = (30;000)(10)
20 = 15; 000
2
1 ;8 4 5 3
1 9600 7200 ;9600 ;7200
[K1 ] = ;8666 7200 5400 ;7200 ;5400 777
4 4 ;9600 ;7200 9600 7200 5
5 ;7200 ;5400 7200 5400
Element 2 L = 160 ; c = 1; s = 0; EA
L = 18; 750.
1
2
;8 2 33
1 18; 750 0 ;18; 750 0
[K2 ] = ; 8666 0 0 0
2 4 ;18; 750 0 18; 750
0 777
05
3 0 0 0 0
Element 3 L = 120 ; c = 0; s = 1; EA
L = 25; 000
22
3 4 5 3
2 0 0 0 0
3 60
6
[K3 ] = 464 0 25; 000 0 ;25; 000 777
0 0 0 5
5 0 ;25; 000 0 25; 000
Element 4 L = 160 ; c = 1; s = 0; EA
L = 18; 750
2
4 5 6 73
4 18; 750 0 ;18; 750 0
[K4 ] = 56664 ;180; 750 0 0 0 777
6
0 18; 750 05
7 0 0 0 0

Draft
Element 5 L = 200 ; c = ;1620;0 = ;0:8; s = 0:6; EA
L = 15; 000
2
;9 ;10 4 5 3
;9 6 9600 ;7200 ;9600 7200
[K5 ] = ; 1066 ;7200 5400 7200
4 4 ;9600 7200 9600
;5400 777
;7200 5
5 7200 ;5400 ;7200 5400
Element 6 L = 200 ; c = 0:8; s = 0:6; EAL = 15; 000
2
2 3 6 7 3
2 9600 7200 ;9600 ;7200
[K6 ] = 36664 ;7200
6
5400 ;7200 ;5400 777
9600 ;7200 9600 7200 5
7 ;7200 ;5400 7200 5400
Element 7 L = 160 ; c = 1; s = 0; EA
L = 18; 750
2
2 3 ;9 ;10 3
2 18; 750 0 ;18; 750 0
[K7 ] = 3;9 664 ;180; 750 0 0 0 777
6
0 18; 750 0 5
;10 0 0 0 0
Element 8 L = 120 ; c = 0; s = 1; EA
L = 25; 000
2
;9 ;10 6 7 3
;9 6 0 0 0 0
[K8 ] = ;1066 0 25; 000 0 ;25; 000 77
7
6 4 0 0 0 0 5
7 0 ;25; 000 0 25; 000
3. Assemble the augmented global stiness matrix in kips/ft.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 9; 600 + 18; 750 ;18; 750 0 ;9; 600 ;7; 200 0 0 3
2 9; 600 + (2)18; 750 7; 200 0 0 ;9; 600 ;7; 200
36 5; 400 + 25; 000 0 ;25; 000 ;7; 200 ;5; 400 7
ktt = 46
4
18; 750 + (2)9; 600 7; 200 ; 7; 200 ;18; 750 0 7
5
5 SYMMETRIC 25; 000 + 5; 400(2) 0 0
6 18; 750 + 9600 7200
7 25; 000 + 5; 400
;8 ;9 ;10 3
12 0 + 7; 200
2 0 ;18; 750 ; 18; 750 0
36 0 0 0 7
ktu = 44 ;7; 200
6 ;9; 600 7; 200 7
5 ;5; 400 7; 200 ;5; 400 5
6 0
7 ;25; 000
Draft
;8 ;9 ;10
;8 0 + 5; 400
kuu = ;9 9; 600 + 18; 750 0 ; 7; 200 + 0
;10 ;7; 200 + 0 0 + 5; 400 + 25; 000
4. convert to kips/in and simplify

8 0 9 2 2; 362:5 ;1; 562:5 0 ;800 ;600 0 0 38 u1 9
>
> 0 >
> 3; 925:0 600 0 0 ;800 ;600 >
> u2 >
>
< 0 = 6 2; 533:33 0 ;2; 083:33 ;600 ;450 7< v3 =
0 =6 3; 162:5 0 ;1; 562:5 0 7 u4
>
> ;100 >
>
4 Symmetric 2; 983:33 0 0 5>
> v5 >
>
: 50 ; 2; 362:5 600 : u6 ;
0 2; 533:33 v7
5. Invert stiness matrix and solve for displacements (inches)

8 9 8 9
>
>
>
u1 >
>
>
>
>
>
;0:0223 >
>
>
>
>
>
> u2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 0:00433 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
< v3 >
>
>
=
>
>
>
< ;0:116 >
>
>
=
u4 => ;0:0102
>
>
>
>
>
v5 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;0:0856 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> u6 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> ;0:00919 >
>
>
>
>
:
v7 >
; >
:
;0:0174 >
;
6. Solve for member forces in local coordinate systems

8 9
( ) " #>
> u1 >
>
= ;cc ;ss ;cc ;ss
> >
v1 <
v1 =
v2 >
>
>
u2 >
>
>
:
v2 ;
( )
n o1 h i ;0:0223 n o
v1 = 15;000 0:8 0:6 ;0:8 ;0:6 0 = 52:1 Compression
v2 12 ;0:8 ;0:6 0:8 0:6 ;0:0102 ;52:1
( ; :
) 0856
0
n o2 h i ;0:0233 n o
v1 = 18;750 1 0 ;1 0 0 = ;43:2 Tension
v2 12 ;1 0 1 0 0:00433 43:2
" ;0:116 #
n o3 h i 0:00433 n o
v1 = 25;000 0 1 0 ;1 ;0:116 = ;63:3 Tension
v2 12 0 ;1 0 1 ;0:0102 63:3
( ;0:0856 )
n o4 h i ;0:0102 n o
v1 = 18;750 1 0 ;1 0 ;0:0856 = ;1:58 Tension
v2 12 ;1 0 1 0 ;0:00919 1:58
n o h ;0: i n o n o
v1 5 = 15;000 ;0:8 0:6 0:8 ;0:6 ;0:0102 = 54:0
v2 12 0:8 ;0:6 ;0:8 0:6 ;0:0856 ;54:0 Compression
n o h i ;0:116 n o
v1 6 = 15;000 0:8 0:6 ;0:8 ;0:6 ;0:00919 = ;60:43 Tension
v2 12 ;0:8 ;0:6 0:8 0:6 ;0:0174 60:43
n o7 h
i ;0:116 n o
v1 = 18;750 1 0 ;1 0 0 = 6:72 Compression
v2 12 ;1 0 1 0 ;6:72
( 0 )
n o8 h i 0 n o
v1 = 25;000 0 1 0 ;1 0 = 36:3 Compression
v2 12 0 ;1 0 1 ;0:00919 ;36:3
;0:0174

Draft
7. Determine the structure's MAXA vector
2 3
1 3 9 14
6
6
6
2 5 8 13 19 25 7
7
7
6
6
4 7 12 18 24 7
7
6
6 6 11 17 23 7
7
6
6 10 16 22 7
7
6 7
4 15 21 5
20
8 9
>
>
>
1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
< 4 >
>
=
MAXA = > 6 >
>
>
>
>
10 >
>
>
>
> >
>
>
>
>
15 >
>
>
>
:
20 ;
25 terms would have to be stored.
Example 5-6: Assembly of the Global Stiness Matrix

As an example, let us consider the frame shown in Fig. 5.7.
The ID matrix is initially set to:
2 3
1 0 1
[ID] = 64 1 0 1 75 (5.10)
1 0 1
We then modify it to generate the global degrees of freedom of each node:
2 3
; 4 1 ;7
[ID] = 64 ;5 2 ;8 75 (5.11)
;6 3 ;9
Finally the LM vectors for the two elements (assuming that Element 1 is dened from node 1
to node 2, and element 2 from node 2 to node 3):
" #
[LM ] = ;14 ;25 ;36 ;17 ;28 ;39 (5.12)
Draft
Figure 5.6: ID Values for Simple Beam
50kN
4 kN/m
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
8m
3m
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111 7.416 m 8m
Figure 5.7: Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code

Draft
Let us simplfy the operation by designating the element stiness matrices in global coordinates
as follows:
;4 ;5 ;6 1 2 3
;4 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16 3
2
;5666 A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 777

K (1) = ;666 A31 A32 A33 A34 A35 A36 77 (5.13-a)
1 6
6
A41 A42 A43 A44 A45 A46 77
2 4 A51 A52 A53 A54 A55 A56 5
3 A61 A62 A63 A64 A65 A66
2
1 2 3 ;7 ;8 ;9 3
1 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16
2 6B B22 B23 B24 B25 B26 77
6 21
3 6 B31 B32 B33 B34 B35 B36 777
6
K (2) = ;7666 B41 B42 B43 B44 B45 B46 77 (5.13-b)
;84 B51 B52 B53 B54 B55 B56 5
;9 B61 B62 B63 B64 B65 B66
We note that for each element we have shown the corresponding LM vector.
Now, we assemble the global stiness matrix
2 3
A44 + B11 A45 + B12 A46 + B13 A41 A42A43 B14 B15 B16
6 A +B
6 54 21 A55 + B22 A56 + B23 A51 A52A53 B24 B25 B26 7
7
6 A64 + B31 A65 + B32 A66 + B33 A61 A62A63 B34 B35 B36
6 7
7
6 7
6
6 A14 A15 A16 A11 A12A13 0 0 0 7
7
K = 66 A24 A25 A26 A21 A22A23 0 0 0 7
7 (5.14)
6
6 A34 A35 A36 A31 A32A33 0 0 0 7
7
6
6
6
B 41 B 42 B 43 0 0 0 B44 B45 B46 7
7
7
4 B51 B52 B53 0 0 0 B54 B55 B56 5
B61 B62 B63 0 0 0 B64 B65 B66
We note that some terms are equal to zero because we do not have a connection between
the corresponding degrees of freedom (i.e. node 1 is not connected to node 3).
Example 5-7: Analysis of a Frame with MATLAB

The simple frame shown in Fig. 5.8 is to be analysed by the direct stiness method. Assume:
E = 200; 000 MPa, A = 6; 000 mm2 , and I = 200 106 mm4. The complete MATLAB solution
is shown below along with the results.

Draft
50kN
4 kN/m
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
8m
3m
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111 7.416 m 8m
Figure 5.8: Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code
% zero the matrices

k=zeros(6,6,2);
K=zeros(6,6,2);
Gamma=zeros(6,6,2);
% Structural properties units: mm^2, mm^4, and MPa(10^6 N/m)
A=6000;II=200*10^6;EE=200000;
% Convert units to meter and kN
A=A/10^6;II=II/10^12;EE=EE*1000;
% Element 1
i=[0,0];j=[7.416,3];
[k(:,:,1),K(:,:,1),Gamma(:,:,1)]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j);
% Element 2
i=j;j=[15.416,3];
[k(:,:,2),K(:,:,2),Gamma(:,:,2)]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j);
% Define ID matrix
ID=[
-4 1 -7;
-5 2 -8;
-6 3 -9];
% Determine the LM matrix
LM=[
-4 -5 -6 1 2 3;
1 2 3 -7 -8 -9];
% Assemble augmented stiffness matrix
Kaug=zeros(9);
for elem=1:2
for r=1:6
lr=abs(LM(elem,r));
for c=1:6
lc=abs(LM(elem,c));
Kaug(lr,lc)=Kaug(lr,lc)+K(r,c,elem);
end
end

Draft
end
% Extract the structures Stiffness Matrix
Ktt=Kaug(1:3,1:3);
% Determine the fixed end actions in local coordinate system
fea(1:6,1)=0;
fea(1:6,2)=[0,8*4/2,4*8^2/12,0,8*4/2,-4*8^2/12]';
% Determine the fixed end actions in global coordinate system
FEA(1:6,1)=Gamma(:,:,1)*fea(1:6,1);
FEA(1:6,2)=Gamma(:,:,2)*fea(1:6,2);
% FEA_Rest for all the restrained nodes
FEA_Rest=[0,0,0,FEA(4:6,2)'];
% Assemble the load vector for the unrestrained node
P(1)=50*3/8;P(2)=-50*7.416/8-fea(2,2);P(3)=-fea(3,2);
% Solve for the Displacements in meters and radians
Displacements=inv(Ktt)*P'
% Extract Kut
Kut=Kaug(4:9,1:3);
% Compute the Reactions and do not forget to add fixed end actions
Reactions=Kut*Displacements+FEA_Rest'
% Solve for the internal forces and do not forget to include the fixed end actions
dis_global(:,:,1)=[0,0,0,Displacements(1:3)'];
dis_global(:,:,2)=[Displacements(1:3)',0,0,0];
for elem=1:2
dis_local=Gamma(:,:,elem)*dis_global(:,:,elem)';
int_forces=k(:,:,elem)*dis_local+fea(1:6,elem)
end
function [k,K,Gamma]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j)
% Determine the length
L=sqrt((j(2)-i(2))^2+(j(1)-i(1))^2);
% Compute the angle theta (carefull with vertical members!)
if(j(1)-i(1))~=0
alpha=atan((j(2)-i(2))/(j(1)-i(1)));
else
alpha=-pi/2;
end
% form rotation matrix Gamma
Gamma=[
cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0 0 0 0;
-sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0 0 0 0;
0 0 1 0 0 0;
0 0 0 cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0;
0 0 0 -sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0;

Draft
0 0 0 0 0 1];
% form element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system
EI=EE*II;
EA=EE*A;
k=[EA/L, 0, 0, -EA/L, 0, 0;
0, 12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2, 0, -12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2;
0, 6*EI/L^2, 4*EI/L, 0, -6*EI/L^2, 2*EI/L;
-EA/L, 0, 0, EA/L, 0, 0;
0, -12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2, 0, 12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2;
0, 6*EI/L^2, 2*EI/L, 0, -6*EI/L^2, 4*EI/L];
% Element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system
K=Gamma'*k*Gamma;
This simple proigram will produce the following results:

Displacements =
0.0010
-0.0050
-0.0005
Reactions =
130.4973
55.6766
13.3742
-149.2473
22.6734
-45.3557
int_forces = int_forces =
141.8530 149.2473
2.6758 9.3266
13.3742 -8.0315
-141.8530 -149.2473
-2.6758 22.6734
8.0315 -45.3557
We note that the internal forces are consistent with the reactions (specially for the second node
of element 2), and amongst themselves, i.e. the moment at node 2 is the same for both elements
(8.0315).

Draft
5.7 Computer Program Flow Charts 5{25
5.7 Computer Program Flow Charts
33 The main program should, Fig. 5.9:
1. Read
(a) TITLE CARD
(b) CONTROL CARD which should include:
i. Number of nodes
ii. Number of elements
iii. Type of structure: beam, grid, truss, or frame; (2D or 3D)
iv. Number of dierent element properties
v. Number of load cases
2. Determine:
(a) Number of spatial coordinates for the structure
(b) Number of local and global degrees of freedom per node
3. Set up the pointers of the dynamic memory allocation (if using f77) for:
(a) Nodal coordinates
(b) Equation number matrix (ID)
(c) Element connectivity
(d) Element properties
(e) Element stiness matrices
(f) Element rotation matrices
4. Loop over all the elements and determine the element stiness matrices (in local coordi-
nates), and rotation angles.
5. Determine the column heights, and initialize the global stiness vector to zero.
6. Loop through all the elements, and for each one
(a) Determine the element stiness matrices in global coordinates
(b) Determine the LM vector
(c) Assemble the structure's global stiness matrix.
7. Decompose the global stiness matrix using a Cholesky's decomposition).
8. For each load case:

Draft
(a) Determine the nodal equivalent loads (xed end actions), if any.
(b) Assemble the load vector
(c) Backsubstitute and obtain the nodal displacements
(d) Loop through each element and:
i. Determine the nodal displacements in local coordinates
ii. Determine the internal forces (include eects of xed end actions).
34 The tree structure of the program is illustrated in Fig. 5.10
5.7.1 Input
35 The input subroutine should:
1. For each node read:
(a) Node number
(b) Boundary conditions of each global degree of freedom [ID]
(c) Spatial coordinates
Note that all the above are usually written on the same \data card"
2. Determine equation numbers associated with each degree of freedom, and the total number
of equations (NEQ).
3. For each element, read:
(a) Element number
(b) First and second node
(c) Element Property number
4. For each element property group read the associated elastic and cross sectional charac-
teristics. Note these variables will depend on the structure type.
5.7.2 Element Stiness Matrices
For each element:
1. Retrieve its properties
2. Determine the length
3. Call the appropriate subroutines which will determine:
(a) The stiness matrix in local coordinate systems [ke ].
(b) The direction cosines.
Draft
Victor Saouma Figure 5.9: Program Flowchart

Matrix Structural Analysis
Draft
Figure 5.10: Program's Tree Structure

Draft
5.7.3 Assembly
Since a skyline solver will be used, we rst need to determine the appropriate pointers which
will enable us to eciently store the global stiness matrix (fMAXAg). This is accomplished
as follows, Fig. 5.11:
1. Determine the maximum height of the skyline for each column of the global stiness
matrix by rst assigning a very large number to each row of fMAXAg, and then looping
through each element, and for each one:
(a) Determine the lowest associated global degree of freedom number (from the fLMg
vectors)
(b) Compare this \height" with the one currently associated with those degree of freedom
stored in the element fLMg; if lower overwrite
2. Determine the total height of each skyline (i.e. each column) by determining the dier-
ence between MAXA (IEQ) (Skyline elevation), and IEQ (\BottomLine"). Overwrite
MAXA with this height.
3. Determine the total length of the vector storing the compacted structure global stiness
matrix by summing up the height of each skyline
4. Assign to MAXA(NEQ+1) this total length +1.
5. Loop backward from the last column to the rst, and for each one determine the address
of the diagonal term from MAXA(IEQ) = MAXA(IEQ + 1) ; MAXA(IEQ)
36 Once the MAXA vector has been determine, then term K (i; j ) in the square matrix, would
be stored in KK(MAXA(j)+j-i) (assuming j > i) in the compacted form of fKg.
37 The assembly of the global stiness matrix is next described, Fig. 5.12:
1. Initialize the vector storing the compacted stiness matrix to zero.
2. Loop through each element, e, and for each element:
(a) Retrieve its stiness matrix (in local coordinates) [ke ], and direction cosines.
(b) Determine the rotation matrix [;] of the element.
(c) Compute the element stiness matrix in global coordinates from [bK e ] = [;]T [ke ][;].
(d) Dene the fLMg array of the element
(e) Loop through each row and column of the element stiness matrix, and for those
degree of freedom not equal to zero, add the contributions of the element to the
structure's stiness matrix (note that we assemble only the upper half).
K S [LM (i); LM (j )] = K S [LM (i); LM (j )] + K e[i; j ] (5.15)

Draft
Victor SaoumaFigure 5.11: Flowchart for the Skyline Height Matrix Structural Analysis
Determination
Draft
Figure 5.12: Flowchart for the Global Stiness Matrix Assembly
Draft
5.7.4 Decomposition
38 Decompose the global stiness matrix. Since the matrix is both symmetric and positive
denite, the matrix can be decomposed using Cholesky's method into: [K] = [L][L]T . Should a
division by zero occur, or an attempt to extract the square root of a negative number happen,
then this would be an indication that either the global stiness matrix is not properly assembled,
or that there are not enough restraint to prevent rigid body translation or rotation of the
structure.
5.7.5 Load
39 Once the stiness matrix has been decomposed, than the main program should loop through
each load case and, Fig. 5.13
1. Initialize the load vector (of length NEQ) to zero.
2. Read number of loaded nodes. For each loaded node store the non-zero values inside the
load vector (using the [ID] matrix for determining storage location).
3. Loop on all loaded elements:
(a) Read element number, and load value
(b) Compute the xed end actions and rotate them from local to global coordinates.
(c) Using the LM vector, add the xed end actions to the nodal load vector (unless the
corresponding equation number is zero, ie. restrained degree of freedom).
(d) Store the xed end actions for future use.
5.7.6 Backsubstitution
40 Backsubstitution is achieved by multiplying the decomposed stiness matrix with the load
vector. The resulting vector stores the nodal displacements, in global coordinate system, cor-
responding to the unrestrained degree of freedom.
5.7.7 Internal Forces and Reactions
41The internal forces for each element, and reactions at each restrained degree of freedom, are
determined by, Fig. 5.15
1. Initialize reactions to zero
2. For each element retrieve:
(a) nodal coordinates

Draft
Figure 5.13: Flowchart for the Load Vector Assembly

Draft
Figure 5.14: Flowchart for the Internal Forces

Draft
Figure 5.15: Flowchart for the Reactions

Draft
(b) rotation matrix
(c) element stiness matrix
3. Compute nodal displacements in local coordinate system from e = [;](LM)
4. Compute element internal forces from p = [ke ] e
5. If the element is loaded, add corresponding xed end actions
6. print the interior forces
7. check if any of its degree of freedom is restrained, if so:
(a) rotate element forces to global coordinates
(b) update appropriate reaction
5.8 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

42 You will be required, as part of your term project, to write a simple MATLAB (or whatever
other language you choose) program for the analysis of two dimensional frames with nodal load
and initial displacement, as well as element load.
43 To facilitate the task, your instructor has taken the liberty of taking a program written by
Mr. Dean Frank (as part of his term project with this instructor in the Advanced Structural
Analysis course, Fall 1995), modied it with the aid of Mr. Pawel Smolarki, and is making
available most, but not all of it to you. Hence, you will be expected to rst familiarize yourself
with the code made available to you, and then complete it by essentially lling up the missing
parts.
5.8.1 Program Input
From Dean Frank's User's Manual
44 It is essential that the structure be idealized such that it can be discretized. This discretiza-
tion should dene each node and element uniquely. In order to decrease the required amount
of computer storage and computation it is best to number the nodes in a manner that mini-
mizes the numerical separation of the node numbers on each element. For instance, an element
connecting nodes 1 and 4, could be better dened by nodes 1 and 2, and so on. As it was
noted previously, the user is required to have a decent understanding of structural analysis and
structural mechanics. As such, it will be necessary for the user to generate or modify an input
le input.m using the following directions. Open the le called input.m and set the existing
variables in the le to the appropriate values. The input le has additional helpful directions
given as comments for each variable. After setting the variables to the correct values, be sure
to save the le. Please note that the program is case-sensitive.

Draft
5.8 Computer Implementation with MATLAB 5{37
45 In order for the program to be run, the user must supply the required data by setting certain
variables in the le called indat.m equal to the appropriate values. All the user has to do
is open the text le called indat.txt, ll in the required values and save the le as indat.m
in a directory within MATAB's path. There are helpful hints within this le. It is especially
important that the user keep track of units for all of the variables in the input data le. All
of the units MUST be consistent. It is suggested that one always use the same units for all
problems. For example, always use kips and inches, or kilo- newtons and millimeters.
5.8.1.1 Input Variable Descriptions
46 A brief description of each of the variables to be used in the input le is given below:
npoin This variable should be set equal to the number of nodes that comprise the structure.
A node is dened as any point where two or more elements are joined.
nelem This variable should be set equal to the number of elements in the structure. Elements
are the members which span between nodes.
istrtp This variable should be set equal to the type of structure. There are six types of
structures which this program will analyze: beams, 2-D trusses, 2-D frames, grids, 3-D trusses,
and 3-D frames. Set this to 1 for beams, 2 for 2D-trusses, 3 for 2D- frames, 4 for grids, 5 for
3D-trusses, and 6 for 3D-frames. An error will occur if it is not set to a number between 1 and
6. Note only istrp=3 was kept.
nload This variable should be set equal to the number of dierent load cases to be analyzed.
A load case is a specic manner in which the structure is loaded.
ID (matrix) The ID matrix contains information concerning the boundary conditions for
each node. The number of rows in the matrix correspond with the number of nodes in the
structure and the number of columns corresponds with the number of degrees of freedom for
each node for that type of structure type. The matrix is composed of ones and zeros. A one
indicates that the degree of freedom is restrained and a zero means it is unrestrained.
nodecoor (matrix) This matrix contains the coordinates (in the global coordinate system)
of the nodes in the structure. The rows correspond with the node number and the columns
correspond with the global coordinates x, y, and z, respectively. It is important to always
include all three coordinates for each node even if the structure is only two- dimensional. In
the case of a two-dimensional structure, the z-coordinate would be equal to zero.
lnods (matrix) This matrix contains the nodal connectivity information. The rows corre-
spond with the element number and the columns correspond with the node numbers which the
element is connected from and to, respectively.
E,A,Iy (arrays) These are the material and cross-sectional properties for the elements. They
are arrays with the number of terms equal to the number of elements in the structure. The
index number of each term corresponds with the element number. For example, the value of
A(3) is the area of element 3, and so on. E is the modulus of elasticity, A is the cross-sectional
area, Iy is the moment of inertia about the y axes
Pnods This is an array of nodal loads in global degrees of freedom. Only put in the loads
in the global degrees of freedom and if there is no load in a particular degree of freedom, then

Draft
put a zero in its place. The index number corresponds with the global degree of freedom.
Pelem This an array of element loads, or loads which are applied between nodes. Only
one load between elements can be analyzed. If there are more than one element loads on
the structure, the equivalent nodal load can be added to the nodal loads. The index number
corresponds with the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero
in its place. These should be in local coordinates.
a This is an array of distances from the left end of an element to the element load. The index
number corresponds to the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put
a zero in its place. This should be in local coordinates.
w This is an array of distributed loads on the structure. The index number corresponds
with the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its place.
This should be in local coordinates
dispflag Set this variable to 1 if there are initial displacements and 0 if there are none.
initial displ This is an array of initial displacements in all structural degrees of freedom.
This means that you must enter in values for all structure degrees of freedom, not just those
restrained. For example, if the structure is a 2D truss with 3 members and 3 node, there would
be 6 structural degrees of freedom, etc. If there are no initial displacements, then set the values
equal to zero.
angle This is an array of angles which the x-axis has possibly been rotated. This angle
is taken as positive if the element has been rotated towards the z-axis. The index number
corresponds to the element number.
drawflag Set this variable equal to 1 if you want the program to draw the structure and 0
if you do not.
5.8.1.2 Sample Input Data File
The contents of the input.m le which the user is to ll out is given below:
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: indat.m (EXAMPLE 2D-FRAME INPUT DATA)
%
% Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main data input file for the computer aided
% structural analysis program CASAP. The user must supply
% the required numeric values for the variables found in
% this file (see user's manual for instructions).
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************

Draft
% HELPFUL INSTRUCTION COMMENTS IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NPOIN EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF NODES IN THE STRUCTURE
npoin=3;
% SET NELEM EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN THE STRUCTURE
nelem=2;
% SET NLOAD EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF LOAD CASES
nload=1;
% INPUT THE ID MATRIX CONTAINING THE NODAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (ROW # = NODE #)
ID=[1 1 1;
0 0 0;
1 1 1];
% INPUT THE NODE COORDINATE (X,Y) MATRIX, NODECOOR (ROW # = NODE #)
nodecoor=[
0 0;
7416 3000;
15416 3000
];
% INPUT THE ELEMENT CONNECTIVITY MATRIX, LNODS (ROW # = ELEMENT #)
lnods=[
1 2;
2 3
];
% INPUT THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES ASSOCIATED WITH THIS TYPE OF STRUCTURE

% PUT INTO ARRAYS WHERE THE INDEX NUMBER IS EQUAL TO THE CORRESPONDING ELEMENT NUMBER.
% COMMENT OUT VARIABLES THAT WILL NOT BE USED
E=[200 200];
A=[6000 6000];
Iz=[200000000 200000000];
% INPUT THE LOAD DATA. NODAL LOADS, PNODS SHOULD BE IN MATRIX FORM. THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND
% TO THE GLOBAL DEGREE OF FREEDOM IN WHICH THE LOAD IS ACTING AND THE THE ROW NUMBER CORRESPONDS
% WITH THE LOAD CASE NUMBER. PELEM IS THE ELEMENT LOAD, GIVEN IN A MATRIX, WITH COLUMNS
% CORRESPONDING TO THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND ROW THE LOAD CASE. ARRAY "A" IS THE DISTANCE FROM
% THE LEFT END OF THE ELEMENT TO THE LOAD, IN ARRAY FORM. THE DISTRIBUTED LOAD, W SHOULD BE
% IN MATRIX FORM ALSO WITH COLUMNS = ELEMENT NUMBER UPON WHICH W IS ACTING AND ROWS = LOAD CASE.
% ZEROS SHOULD BE USED IN THE MATRICES WHEN THERE IS NO LOAD PRESENT. NODAL LOADS SHOULD
% BE GIVEN IN GLOBAL COORDINATES, WHEREAS THE ELEMENT LOADS AND DISTRIBUTED LOADS SHOULD BE
% GIVEN IN LOCAL COORDINATES.

Draft
Pnods=[18.75 -46.35 0];

Pelem=[0 0];
a=[0 0];
w=[0 4/1000];
% IF YOU WANT THE PROGRAM TO DRAW THE STUCTURE SET DRAWFLAG=1, IF NOT SET IT EQUAL TO 0.
% THIS IS USEFUL FOR CHECKING THE INPUT DATA.
drawflag=1;
% END OF INPUT DATA FILE
5.8.1.3 Program Implementation

In order to "run" the program, open a new MATLAB Notebook. On the rst line, type the
name of the main program CASAP and evaluate that line by typing ctrl-enter. At this point, the
main program reads the input le you have just created and calls the appropriate subroutines
to analyze your structure. In doing so, your input data is echoed into your MATLAB notebook
and the program results are also displayed. As a note, the program can also be executed directly
from the MATAB workspace window, without Microsoft Word.
5.8.2 Program Listing
5.8.2.1 Main Program
%**********************************************************************************************
%Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main program, Computer Aided Structural Analysis Program
% CASAP. This program primarily contains logic for calling scriptfiles and does not
% perform calculations.
%
% All variables are global, but are defined in the scriptfiles in which they are used.
%
% Associated scriptfiles:
%
% (for all stuctures)
% indat.m (input data file)
% idrasmbl.m
% elmcoord.m
% draw.m
%
% (3 - for 2D-frames)
% length3.m
% stiffl3.m
% trans3.m
% assembl3.m
% loads3.m
% disp3.m

Draft
% react3.m
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMMENT CARDS ARE IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NUMERIC FORMAT
format short e
% CLEAR MEMORY OF ALL VARIABLES
clear
% INITIALIZE OUTPUT FILE

fid = fopen('casap.out', 'wt');
% SET ISTRTP EQUAL TO THE NUMBER CORRESPONDING TO THE TYPE OF STRUCTURE:

% 3 = 2DFRAME
istrtp=3;
% READ INPUT DATA SUPPLIED BY THE USER
indat
% REASSAMBLE THE ID MATRIX AND CALCULATE THE LM VECTORS

% CALL SCRIPTFILE IDRASMBL
idrasmbl
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX
elmcoord
% 2DFRAME CALCULATIONS
% CALCULATE THE LENGTH AND ORIENTATION ANGLE, ALPHA FOR EACH ELEMENT
% CALL SCRIPTFILE LENGTH3.M
length3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN LOCAL COORDINATES

% CALL SCRIPTFILE STIFFL3.M

Draft
stiffl3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES

% CALL SCRIPTFILE TRANS3.M
trans3
% ASSEMBLE THE GLOBAL STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX

% CALL SCRIPTFILE ASSEMBL3.M
assembl3
% PRINT STRUCTURAL INFO
print_general_info
% LOOP TO PERFORM ANALYSIS FOR EACH LOAD CASE

for iload=1:nload
print_loads
% DETERMINE THE LOAD VECTOR IN GLOBAL COORDINATES

% CALL SCRIPTFILE LOADS3.M
loads3
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS

% CALL SCRIPTFILE DISP3.M
disp3
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS AT THE RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM

% CALL SCRIPTFILE REACT3.M
react3
% CALCULATE THE INTERNAL FORCES FOR EACH ELEMENT
intern3
% END LOOP FOR EACH LOAD CASE
end
% DRAW THE STRUCTURE, IF USER HAS REQUESTED (DRAWFLAG=1)

% CALL SCRIPTFILE DRAW.M
draw
st=fclose('all');
% END OF MAIN PROGRAM (CASAP.M)

Draft
disp('Program completed! - See "casap.out" for complete output');
5.8.2.2 Assembly of ID Matrix

%************************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: IDRASMBL.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file re-assambles the ID matrix such that the restrained
% degrees of freedom are given negative values and the unrestrained
% degrees of freedom are given incremental values begining with one
% and ending with the total number of unrestrained degrees of freedom.
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Fall 1995
%
%
%************************************************************************************************
% TAKE CARE OF SOME INITIAL BUSINESS: TRANSPOSE THE PNODS ARRAY
Pnods=Pnods.';
% SET THE COUNTER TO ZERO
count=1;
negcount=-1;
% REASSEMBLE THE ID MATRIX
if istrtp==3
ndofpn=3;
nterm=6;
else
error('Incorrect structure type specified')
end
% SET THE ORIGINAL ID MATRIX TO TEMP MATRIX
orig_ID=ID;
% REASSEMBLE THE ID MATRIX, SUBSTITUTING RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM WITH NEGATIVES,

% AND NUMBERING GLOBAL DEGREES OF FREEDOM
for inode=1:npoin
for icoord=1:ndofpn
if ID(inode,icoord)==0

Draft
ID(inode,icoord)=count;
count=count+1;
elseif ID(inode,icoord)==1
ID(inode,icoord)=negcount;
negcount=negcount-1;
else
error('ID input matrix incorrect')
end
end
end
% CREATE THE LM VECTORS FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
LM(ielem,1:ndofpn)=ID(lnods(ielem,1),1:ndofpn);
LM(ielem,(ndofpn+1):(2*ndofpn))=ID(lnods(ielem,2),1:ndofpn);
end
% END OF IDRASMBL.M SCRIPTFILE
5.8.2.3 Element Nodal Coordinates

%**********************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: ELEMCOORD.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file assembles a matrix, elemcoor which contains the coordinates
% of the first and second nodes on each element, respectively.
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX, ELEMCOOR FROM NODECOOR AND LNODS
for ielem=1:nelem
elemcoor(ielem,1)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),1);
%elemcoor(ielem,3)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),3);
%elemcoor(ielem,6)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,2),3);
end
% END OF ELMCOORD.M SCRIPTFILE

Draft
5.8.2.4 Element Lengths
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : length3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the length of each element and the
% angle alpha between the local and global x-axes. This file can be used
% for 2-dimensional elements such as 2-D truss, 2-D frame, and grid elements.
% This information will be useful for transformation between local and global
% variables.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% ielem = counter for loop
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,4) = xj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,1) = xi-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,5) = yj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,2) = yi-coordinate of element ielem
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMPUTE THE LENGTH AND ANGLE BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL X-AXES FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
L(ielem)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
alpha(ielem)=
% END OF LENGTH3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.8.2.5 Element Stiness Matrices

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: stiffl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program: casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the element stiffenss matrix
% of a 2-D frame element in local coordinates. The element stiffness

Draft
% matrix is calculated for each element in the structure.
%
% The matrices are stored in a single matrix of dimensions 6x6*i and
% can be recalled individually later in the program.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which the appear)
%
% nelem = number of element in the structure
% k(ielem,6,6)= element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
% E(ielem) = modulus of elasticity of element ielem
% A(ielem) = cross-sectional area of element ielem
% L(ielem) = lenght of element ielem
% Iz(ielem) = moment of inertia with respect to the local z-axis of element ielem
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
for ielem=1:nelem
k(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
end
% END OF STIFFL3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.8.2.6 Transformation Matrices

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : trans3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% This file calculates the rotation matrix and the element stiffness
% matrices for each element in a 2D frame.
%
%
% ielem = counter for the loop
% rotation = rotation matrix containing all elements info
% Rot = rotational matrix for 2d-frame element
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
% K = element stiffness matrix in global coordinates
% k = element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%

Draft
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES

% FOR EACH ELEMENT IN THE STRUCTURE
for ielem=1:nelem
% SET UP THE ROTATION MATRIX, ROTATAION
rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
ktemp=k(1:6,1:6,ielem);
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Rot=rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem);
K(1:6,1:6,ielem)=
end
% END OF TRANS3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.8.2.7 Assembly of the Augmented Stiness Matrix

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : assembl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% This file assembles the global structural stiffness matrix from the
% element stiffness matrices in global coordinates using the LM vectors.
% In addition, this file assembles the augmented stiffness matrix.
%
% Variable Descritpions (in order of appearance):
%
% ielem = Row counter for element number
% nelem = Number of elements in the structure
% iterm = Counter for term number in LM matrix
% LM(a,b) = LM matrix
% jterm = Column counter for element number
% temp1 = Temporary variable
% number_gdofs = Number of global dofs
% new_LM = LM matrix used in assembling the augmented stiffness matrix
% aug_total_dofs = Total number of structure dofs
% K_aug = Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt = Structural Stiffness Matrix (Upper left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix)
% Ktu = Upper right part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kut = Lower left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kuu = Lower rigth part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
%
%
% By Dean A. Frank

Draft
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% RENUMBER DOF INCLUDE ALL DOF, FREE DOF FIRST, RESTRAINED NEXT
new_LM=LM;
number_gdofs=max(LM(:));
new_LM(find(LM<0))=number_gdofs-LM(find(LM<0));
aug_total_dofs=max(new_LM(:));
% ASSEMBLE THE AUGMENTED STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX

K_aug=zeros(aug_total_dofs);
for ielem=1:nelem
Tough one!
end
% SET UP SUBMATRICES FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ktt=
Ktu=
Kut=
Kuu=
% END OF ASSEMBL3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.8.2.8 Print General Information

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_general_info.m
%
%
% Prints the general structure info to the output file
%
% By Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
%
%**********************************************************************************************
fprintf(fid,'\n\nNumber of Nodes: %d\n',npoin);

fprintf(fid,'Number of Elements: %d\n',nelem);
fprintf(fid,'Number of Load Cases: %d\n',nload);

Draft
fprintf(fid,'Number of Restrained dofs: %d\n',abs(min(LM(:))));
fprintf(fid,'Number of Free dofs: %d\n',max(LM(:)));
fprintf(fid,'\nNode Info:\n');
for inode=1:npoin
fprintf(fid,' Node %d (%d,%d)\n',inode,nodecoor(inode,1),nodecoor(inode,2));
freedof=' ';
if(ID(inode,1))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof,' X ');
end
if(ID(inode,2))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof,' Y ');
end
if(ID(inode,3))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof,' Rot');
end
if freedof==' '
freedof=' none; node is fixed';
end
fprintf(fid,' Free dofs:%s\n',freedof);
end
fprintf(fid,'\nElement Info:\n');
for ielem=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,' Element %d (%d->%d)',ielem,lnods(ielem,1),lnods(ielem,2));
fprintf(fid,' E=%d A=%d Iz=%d \n',E(ielem),A(ielem),Iz(ielem));
end
5.8.2.9 Print Load

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_loads.m
%
%
% Prints the current load case data to the output file
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Load_case=iload
if iload==1
fprintf(fid,'\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n');
end
fprintf(fid,'Load Case: %d\n\n',iload);

fprintf(fid,' Nodal Loads:\n');
for k=1:max(LM(:));
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM'==k);

Draft
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof='Fx';
case {2,5}, dof='Fy';
otherwise, dof=' M';
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
if Pnods(k)~=0
fprintf(fid,' Node: %2d %s = %14d\n',node, dof, Pnods(k));
end
end
fprintf(fid,'\n Elemental Loads:\n');

for k=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,' Element: %d Point load = %d at %d from left\n',k,Pelem(k),a(k));
fprintf(fid,' Distributed load = %d\n',w(k));
end
fprintf(fid,'\n');
5.8.2.10 Load Vector

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: loads3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program: casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the fixed end actions for elements which
% carry distributed loads for a 2-D frame.
%
%
% b(ielem) = distance from the right end of the element to the point load
% L(ielem) = length of the element
% a(ielem) = distance from the left end of the element to the point load
% Ffl = fixed end force (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% w(ielem) = distributed load on element ielem
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% Pelem(ielem) = element point load on element ielem
% Mfl = fixed end moment (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% Ffr = fixed end force (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% Mfr = fixed end moment (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% feamatrix_local = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in local coordinates
% feamatrix_global = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in global coordinates
% fea_vector = vector of fea's in global dofs, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_abs = vector of fea's in every structure dof
% dispflag = flag indicating initial displacements
% Ffld = fea (vert force) on left end of element due to initial disp
% Mfld = fea (moment) on left end of element due to initial disp

Draft
% Ffrd = fea (vert force) on right end of element due to initial disp
% Mfrd = fea (moment) on right end of element due to initial disp
% fea_vector_disp = vector of fea's due to initial disp, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of fea's due to initial disp, used to calc reactions
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE FIXED END ACTIONS AND INSERT INTO A MATRIX IN WHICH THE ROWS CORRESPOND
% WITH THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND WITH THE ELEMENT LOCAL DEGREES
% OF FREEDOM
for ielem=1:nelem
b(ielem)=L(ielem)-a(ielem);
Ffl=((w(ielem)*L(ielem))/2)+((Pelem(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^3)*(3*a(ielem)+b(ielem));
Mfl=((w(ielem)*(L(ielem))^2))/12+(Pelem(ielem)*a(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^2;
Ffr=((w(ielem)*L(ielem))/2)+((Pelem(ielem)*(a(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^3)*(a(ielem)+3*b(ielem));
Mfr=-((w(ielem)*(L(ielem))^2))/12+(Pelem(ielem)*a(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^2;
feamatrix_local(ielem,1:6)=[0 Ffl Mfl 0 Ffr Mfr];
% ROTATE THE LOCAL FEA MATRIX TO GLOBAL
feamatrix_global=...
end
% CREATE A LOAD VECTOR USING THE LM MATRIX
% INITIALIZE FEA VECTOR TO ALL ZEROS
for idofpn=1:ndofpn
fea_vector(idofpn,1)=0;
end
for ielem=1:nelem
for idof=1:6
if ielem==1
if LM(ielem,idof)>0
fea_vector(LM(ielem,idof),1)=feamatrix_global(idof,ielem);
end
elseif ielem>1
if LM(ielem,idof)>0
fea_vector(LM(ielem,idof),1)=fea_vector(LM(ielem,1))+feamatrix_global(idof,ielem);
end

Draft
end
end
end
for ielem=1:nelem
for iterm=1:nterm
if feamatrix_global(iterm,ielem)==0
else
if new_LM(ielem,iterm)>number_gdofs
fea_vector_react(iterm,1)=feamatrix_global(iterm,ielem);
end
end
end
end
% END OF LOADS3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.8.2.11 Nodal Displacements

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : disp3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it computes the displacements in the global
% degrees of freedom.
%
%
% Ksinv = inverse of the structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt = structural stiffness matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements for the global degrees of freedom
% Pnods = vector of nodal loads in the global degrees of freedom
% fea_vector = vector of fixed end actions in the global degrees of freedom
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CREATE A TEMPORARY VARIABLE EQUAL TO THE INVERSE OF THE STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ksinv=inv(Ktt);
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Delta=

Draft
% PRINT DISPLACEMENTS WITH NODE INFO
fprintf(fid,' Displacements:\n');
for k=1:size(Delta,1)
LM_spot=find(LM'==k);
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof='delta X';
case {2,5}, dof='delta Y';
otherwise, dof='rotate ';
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
fprintf(fid,' (Node: %2d %s) %14d\n',node, dof, Delta(k));
end
fprintf(fid,'\n');
% END OF DISP3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.8.2.12 Reactions
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : react3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the reactions at the restrained degrees of
% freedom.
%
% Variable Descriptions:
%
% Reactions = Reactions at restrained degrees of freedom
% Kut = Upper left part of aug stiffness matrix, normal structure stiff matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of fea's in restrained dofs
%
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% Fall 1995
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX

Draft
Reactions=
fprintf(fid,' Reactions:\n');
for k=1:size(Reactions,1)
LM_spot=find(LM'==-k);
switch(dof)
otherwise, dof='M ';
end
%PRINT THE REACTIONS
fprintf(fid,' (Node: %2d %s) %14d\n',node, dof, Reactions(k));
end
fprintf(fid,'\n');
% END OF REACT3.M SCRIPTFILE
5.8.2.13 Internal Forces

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : intern3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the internal forces in all elements
% freedom.
%
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Pglobe=zeros(6,nelem);
Plocal=Pglobe;
fprintf(fid,' Internal Forces:');

%LOOP FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
%FIND ALL 6 LOCAL DISPLACEMENTS
elem_delta=zeros(6,1);
for idof=1:6
gdof=LM(ielem,idof);
if gdof<0
elem_delta(idof)=
else
elem_delta(idof)=

Draft
end
end
%SOLVE FOR ELEMENT FORCES (GLOBAL)

Pglobe(:,ielem)=K(:,:,ielem)*elem_delta+feamatrix_global(:,ielem);
%ROTATE FORCES FROM GLOBAL TO LOCAL COORDINATES
%ROTATE FORCES TO LOCAL COORDINATES

Plocal(:,ielem)=
%PRINT RESULTS
fprintf(fid,'\n Element: %2d\n',ielem);
for idof=1:6
if idof==1
fprintf(fid,' At Node: %d\n',lnods(ielem,1));
end
if idof==4
fprintf(fid,' At Node: %d\n',lnods(ielem,2));
end
switch(idof)
otherwise, dof='M ';
end
fprintf(fid,' (Global : %s ) %14d',dof, Pglobe(idof,ielem));
fprintf(fid,' (Local : %s ) %14d\n',dof, Plocal(idof,ielem));
end
end
fprintf(fid,'\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n');
5.8.2.14 Sample Output File

CASAP will display gure 5.16.
Number of Nodes: 3
Number of Elements: 2
Number of Load Cases: 1
Number of Restrained dofs: 6
Number of Free dofs: 3
Node Info:
Node 1 (0,0)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Node 2 (7416,3000)
Free dofs: X Y Rot
Node 3 (15416,3000)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Element Info:
Element 1 (1->2) E=200 A=6000 Iz=200000000

Draft
8000
6000
4000
2 2 3
2000 1
1
0
−2000
−4000
−6000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Figure 5.16: Structure Plotted with CASAP
Element 2 (2->3) E=200 A=6000 Iz=200000000
_________________________________________________________________________
Load Case: 1
Nodal Loads:
Node: 2 Fx = 1.875000e+001
Node: 2 Fy = -4.635000e+001
Elemental Loads:
Element: 1 Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 0
Element: 2 Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 4.000000e-003
Displacements:
(Node: 2 delta X) 9.949820e-001
(Node: 2 delta Y) -4.981310e+000
(Node: 2 rotate ) -5.342485e-004
Reactions:
(Node: 1 Fx) 1.304973e+002
(Node: 1 Fy) 5.567659e+001
(Node: 1 M ) 1.337416e+004
(Node: 3 Fx) -1.492473e+002
(Node: 3 Fy) 2.267341e+001
(Node: 3 M ) -4.535573e+004

Draft
Internal Forces:
Element: 1
At Node: 1
(Global : Fx ) 1.304973e+002 (Local : Fx ) 1.418530e+002
(Global : Fy ) 5.567659e+001 (Local : Fy ) 2.675775e+000
(Global : M ) 1.337416e+004 (Local : M ) 1.337416e+004
At Node: 2
(Global : Fx ) -1.304973e+002 (Local : Fx ) -1.418530e+002
(Global : Fy ) -5.567659e+001 (Local : Fy ) -2.675775e+000
(Global : M ) 8.031549e+003 (Local : M ) 8.031549e+003
Element: 2
At Node: 2
(Global : Fx ) 1.492473e+002 (Local : Fx ) 1.492473e+002
(Global : M ) -8.031549e+003 (Local : M ) -8.031549e+003
At Node: 3
(Global : Fx ) -1.492473e+002 (Local : Fx ) -1.492473e+002
(Global : M ) -4.535573e+004 (Local : M ) -4.535573e+004
_________________________________________________________________________

Draft

Draft
Chapter 6
EQUATIONS OF STATICS and
KINEMATICS
Note: This section is largely based on chapter 6 of Mc-Guire and Gallagher, Matrix Structural
Analysis, John Wiley
1 Having developed the stiness method in great details, and prior to the introduction of energy
based methods (which will culminate with the nite element formulation), we ought to revisit
the exibility method. This will be done by rst introducing some basic statics and kinematics
relationship.
2 Those relations will eventually enable us not only to formulate the exibility/stiness relation,
but also other \by-products" such as algorithms for: 1) the extraction of a statically determinate
structure from a statically indeterminate one; 2) checking prior to analysis whether a structure
is kinematically unstable; 3) providing an alternative method of assembling the global stiness
matrix.
6.1 Statics Matrix [B]

3 The statics matrix [B] relates the vector of all the structure's fPg nodal forces in global
coordinates to all the unknown forces (element internal forces in their local coordinate system
and structure's external reactions) fFg, through equilibrium relationships and is dened as:
fPg [B] fFg (6.1)
4 [B] would have as many rows as the total number of independent equations of equilibrium;
and as many columns as independent internal forces. This is reminiscent of the equilibrium
matrix obtained in analyzing trusses by the \method of joints".
5 Depending on the type of structure, the internal element forces, and the equilibrium forces will
vary according to Table 6.1. As with the exibility method, there is more than one combination
Draft
6{2 EQUATIONS OF STATICS and KINEMATICS
Type Internal Forces Equations of Equilibrium
Truss Axial force at one end FX = 0, FY = 0
Beam 1 Shear and moment at one end Fy = 0, Mz = 0
Beam 2 Shear at each end Fy = 0, Mz = 0
Beam 3 Moment at each end Fy = 0, Mz = 0
2D Frame 1 Axial, Shear, Moment at each end Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Mz = 0
Table 6.1: Internal Element Force Denition for the Statics Matrix
of independent element internal forces which can be selected.
6 Matrix [B ] will be a square matrix for a statically determinate structure, and rectangular
(more columns than rows) otherwise.
Example 6-8: Statically Determinate Truss Statics Matrix

Considering the truss shown in Fig. 6.1, it has 8 unknown forces (4 internal member forces
and 4 external reactions), and 8 equations of equilibrium (2 at each of the 4 nodes). Assuming
all the element forces to be tensile, and the reactions as shown in the gure, the equilibrium
equations are:
Node FX = 0 FY = 0
Px1 +F3 C ; Rx1 = 0 |{z}
Node 1 |{z} Py1 +F1 + F3 S ; Ry1 =0
0 0
Node 2 Px2 + F2 = 0 Py2 ; F1 = 0
Px3 ;F2 ; F3 C = 0
Node 3 |{z} Py3 ;F2 ; F3 S = 0
|{z}
0 0
Px4 +Rx4 = 0
Node 4 |{z} Py4 +F4 ; Ry4 = 0
|{z}
0 0
where cos = pL2L+H 2 = C and sin = pL2H+H 2 = S Those equations of equilibrium can be
cast in matrix form
8 9 2 8 9
Fx1 : >
> Px1 >
> 0 0 ;C 0 1 0 0 0 3 > > F1 >
>
6 ;1 ;S 0 0 1 0 0 777 >
> > >
Fy1 : >
>
>
> Py1 >
>
>
>
6
0 >
>
>
> F2 >
>
>
>
Fx2 : >
>
>
>
>
Px2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 0
6
;1 0 0 0 >
0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
F3 >
>
>
>
>
Fy2 : <
Py2 =
=
6 1
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7<
7 F4 =
(6.2)
Fx3 : >
>
>
Px3 >
>
>
6 0
6 1 C 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7> Rx1 >
>
7> >
Fy3 : >
>
>
>
>
Py3 >
>
>
>
>
6 0
6
6
0 S 1 0 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
>
Ry 1 >
>
>
>
>
Fx4 : >
>
>
>
Px4 >
>
>
>
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5>>
>
>
Rx4 >
>
>
>
Fy4 : :
Py4 ;
0 0 0 ;1 0 0 0 1 :
Ry 4 ;
| {z } | {z }| {z }
fPg [B ] fFg
Draft
6.1 Statics Matrix B[ ] 6{3
Figure 6.1: Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Truss

Draft
the unknown forces and reactions can be determined through inversion of [B]:
8 9 2 38 9 8 9
>
> F1 >
> 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 >
> 0 >
> >
> Py2 >
>
>
>
>
>
> F2 >
>
>
>
>
6 0
6 0 ;1 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7>
7>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;Px2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> F3 >
>
> 6 0
6
0 C1 0 C1 0 0 0 7>
>
> Px2 >
>
>
>
>
> Px2 >
>
>
> > 7> > > C >
>
<
F4 >
=
=
6
6 0
6 0 ; CS 0 ; CS 1 0 0 7<
7
>
Py 2 >
=
=>
>
<
; CS Px2 >
=
(6.3)
>
>
>
Rx1 >
>
>
6 1
6 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 7>
7> 0 >
> > Px2 >
>
7> > > >
>
>
>
>
>
Ry1 >
>
>
>
>
6 0
6
6
1 CS 1 CS 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
S Px2 + Py2
C
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
Rx4 >
>
>
>
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5>>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
:
Ry4 ;
0 0 ; CS 0 ; CS 1 0 1 :
0 ; :
; CS Px2 ;
| {z } | {z }| {z }
fFg [B];1 f Pg
We observe that the matrix [B] is totally independent of the external load, and once inverted
can be used for multiple load cases with minimal computational eorts.
Example 6-9: Beam Statics Matrix

Considering the beam shown in Fig. 6.2, we have 3 elements, each with 2 unknowns (v
and m) plus two unknown reactions, for a total of 8 unknowns. To solve for those unknowns
we have 2 equations of equilibrium at each of the 4 nodes. Note that in this problem we have
selected as primary unknowns the shear and moment at the right end of each element. The left
components can be recovered from equilibrium. From equilibrium we thus have:
8 9 2 38 9
>
> P1 >
> ;1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 >
> v1 >
>
6 ;8 ;1
> > > >
>
>
>
> M1 >
>
>
>
6
0 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7>>
> m1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> P2 >
>
>
>
6
6 1 0 ; 1 0 0 0 0 1 7>
7>>
> v2 >
>
>
>
>
<
M2 >
= 6
6 0
=6 1 ; 2 ;1 0 0 0 0
7>
7<
7 m2 >
=
(6.4)
>
>
>
P3 >
>
>
6
6 0 0 1 0 ;1 0 0 0 7>
7>
7>
v3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
M3 >
>
>
>
>
6
6
6
0 0 0 1 ;3 ;1 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
>
m3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
P4 >
>
>
>
4 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 5>>
>
>
R1 >
>
>
>
:
M4 ;
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 :
R2 ;
| {z } | {z }| {z }
f Pg [B] fFg

Draft
6.1 Statics Matrix B[ ] 6{5
Figure 6.2: Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Determinate Beam

Draft
Inverting this 8 by 8 matrix would yield
8 9 2 38 9 8 9
>
> v1 >
> 0 ; 81 0 ; 18 ; 41 ; 18 ; 85 ; 18 >
> 0 >
> >
> 5 >
>
>
>
>
>
> m1 >
>
>
>
>
6 0
6 0 0 1 2 1 5 1 7>
7>
>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> ;40 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
v2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 0
6
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 7>
7>
7>
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;20 >
>
>
>
>
<
m2 =
=
6 0
6 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 7<
7 0 =
=>
<
0 =
(6.5)
>
>
>
v3 >
>
>
6 0
6 0 0 0 0 1 0 7>
7>
7>
;20 >
>
> >
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
>
> m3 >
>
>
> 6 0
6
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 7>
7>
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
R1 >
>
>
>
>
6
4 1 ; 81 0 ; 18 ; 41 ; 18 ; 85 ; 18 5>
>
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
5 >
>
>
>
>
:
|
R2
{z
;
} |
0 1
8 1 18 45 18 138 18
{z }|
:
0
{z
;
}
:
;25 ;
fFg [B];1 fPg
7 For the case of a statically indeterminate structure, Eq. 6.1 can be generalized as:
( )
fPg2n1 = [ [B0]2n2n [Bx]2nr F0
] F (6.6)
x (2n+r)1
where [B0 ] is a square matrix, fF0 g the vector of unknown internal element forces or external
reactions, and fFx g the vector of unknown redundant internal forces or reactions.
8 Hence, we can determine fF0 g from
fF0g = [B0 ];1 fPg ; [B0];1 [Bx] fFxg (6.7)

= [C1 ]2n2n fPg ; [C2 ]2nr fFxg (6.8)
9 Note the following denitions which will be used later:

[B0 ];1 [C1 ] (6.9)
;[B0];1[Bx] [C2 ] (6.10)
Example 6-10: Statically Indeterminate Truss Statics Matrix

Revisiting the rst example problem, but with an additional member which makes it stat-
ically indeterminate, Fig. 6.3, it now has 9 unknown forces (5 internal member forces and 4
external reactions), and only 8 equations of equilibrium. Selecting the fth element force as the
redundant force, and with r = 1, we write Eq. 6.6

Draft
6.1 Statics Matrix B
[ ] 6{7
Figure 6.3: Example of [B] Matrix for a Statically Indeterminate Truss

Draft
( )
fPg2n1 = [ [B0]2n2n [Bx]2nr F0
] F (6.11-a)
x (2n+r)1
8
fP9g = [2B0] fF0g + [Bx] fFxg 38 9 8 9
>
> Px1 >
> 0 0 ; C 0 1 0 0 0 > F1
> >
> >
> 0 >
>
6 ;1 0 ;S 0 0 1 0 0 77 >
> > 7> > > >
>
>
>
> Py1 >
>
>
>
6 >
>
> F2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
Px2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6
6
0 ; 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
7>
>
>
>
>
F3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;C >
>
>
>
>
<
Py2 =
=
6
6 1 0 0 <
0 0 0 0 0 7
7 F4 =
+ > S0
< =
fF5 g(6.11-b)
>
>
>
P
x3 >
>
>
6
6 0 1 S 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7> Rx1 >
> > >
> | {z }
7> > > >
f xg F
>
>
>
>
>
P
y3
>
>
>
>
>
6
6
6
0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
>
Ry1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> xP4 >
>
>
>
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5>>
>
>
Rx4 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
C >
>
>
>
:
P
y4
| {z
;
} |
0 0 0
{z
;1 0 0 0 1 :
}|
Ry4
{z
;
}
:
| {z
;S ;
}
fPg [B0 ] fF0 g [Bx ]
We can solve for the internal forces in terms of the (still unknown) redundant force
fF0g = [B0 ];1 fPg ; [B0];1 [Bx] fFxg 2 3
(6.12-a)
8 9 2 3 68 9 8 9 7
>
> F1 >
> 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 6>
6> 0 >
> >
> 0 >
>
7
7
>
>
>
>
> F2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 0 0 ;1 0 0 0 0 0 7 6>
7 6>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
7
7
7 6> > > >
>
>
>
> F3 >
>
>
>
6
6 0 0 C1 0 C1 0 0 0 7 6>
7 6>
>
> x2 P >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> ;C >
>
>
>
7
7
0 ; CS 0 ; CS 1 0 0
> > 6 > > > > 7
<
F4 =
=
6
6 0 7 6< y 2
76 P =
; > S0
< = 7
fF g (6.12-b)
7
> Rx1 > 6 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 7 6> 0 > >
5
| {z }7
>
> >
> 6 7 6>> >
> >
> >
> 7
>
>
>
> Ry 1 >
>
>
>
6
6 0 1 CS 1 CS 0 0 0 7 6>
7 6>> 0 >
>
>
>
>
> 0 >
>
> F
f x g 77
> > 6 7 6>> >
> >
> >
> 7
>
>
>
>
Rx4 >
>
>
>
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5 6>
6>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
C >
>
>
>
7
7
:
|
Ry 4
{z
;
} |
0 0 ; CS 0 ; CS 1 0 1
{z
6:
4
} | {z
0 ;
}
:
| {z
;S ;
}
7
5
fF0 g [B0 ];1 [C1 ] fPg [Bx ]
Or using the following relations [B0 ];1 [C1 ] and ;[B0 ];1 [Bx ] [C2 ] we obtain
8 9 2 38 9 8 9
>
> F1 >
> 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 >
> 0 >
> >
> ;S >
>
>
>
>
>
> F2 >
>
>
>
>
6 0
6 0 ;1 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> ;C >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> F3 >
>
>
>
6
6 0 0 C1 0 C1 0 0 0 7>
7>>
> Px2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 1 >
>
>
>
0 ; CS 0 ; CS ;S fF5 g
> > 6 7> > > >
<
F4 =
=
6 0
6 1 0 0 7<
7 Py2 +
= < =
(6.13)
>
>
>
Rx1 >
>
>
6 1
6 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 7>
7> 0 >
> > > C >
> | {z }
7> >
> > >
fFx g
>
>
>
> Ry 1 >
>
>
> 6 0
6
1 CS 1 CS 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
> 0 >
>
>
> > >
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
Rx4 >
>
>
>
>
6
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5>
>
>
>
>
0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;C >
>
>
>
>
:
Ry 4 ;
0 0 ; CS 0 ; CS 1 0 1 :
0 ; :
0 ;
| {z } | {z }| {z } | {z }
fF0 g [C1 ] fPg [C2 ]

Draft
6.1 Statics Matrix B [ ] 6{9
Note, that this equation is not sucient to solve for the unknown forces, as fFx g must be
obtained through force displacement relations ([D] or [K]).
6.1.1 Identication of Redundant Forces

10 Whereas the identication of redundant forces was done by mere inspection of the structure
in hand based analysis of structure, this identication process can be automated.
11 Starting with
fPg2n1 = [B]2n(2n+r) fFg(2n+r)1

[B]2n(2n+r) fFg2n+r1 ; [I]2n2n fPg2n1 = f0g
( )
h i F
B ;I 2n(4n+r) P = f0g (6.14)
h i
where B ;I corresponds to the augmented matrix.
12 If we apply a Gauss-Jordan elimination process to the augmented matrix, Eq. 6.14 is then
transformed into:
8 9
h i>
< F0 >
=
I2n2n ;C22nr ;C12n2n F
> x
= f0g (6.15)
:
P >
;
4n+r1
or:
fF0g2n1 = [C1]2n2n fPg2n1 + [C2]2nr fFxgr1 (6.16)
which is identical to Eq. 6.8; As before, Fx are the redundant forces and their solution obviously
would depend on the elastic element properties.
Example 6-11: Selection of Redundant Forces

Revisiting the statically determined truss of Example 1, but with the addition of a fth
element, the truss would now be statically indeterminate to the rst degree. The equation of

Draft
equilibrium 6.2 will then be written as:
8 9
>
>
>
F1 >
>
>
2 3>> F2 >
>
Fx1 : A 0 0 ;C 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 >
>
>
> F3
>
>
>
>
Fy1 : B 6
6 ;1 0 ;S 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 7>
7>
7>
>
> F4
>
>
>
>
>
Fx2 : C 6
6 0 ;1 0 0 ;C 0 0 0 0 ;1 0 7>
7>
>
>
F5
>
>
>
>
1 0 0 0 S 0 0 0 0 0 ;1
6 > >
Fy2 : D 6
6
7<
7 Rx1
=
(6.17)
Fx3 : E 6
6 0 1 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7> Ry1 >
>
7> >
Fy3 : F 6
6
6
0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
> Rx4
>
>
>
>
>
Fx4 : G 4 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 1 0 0 0 5>>
>
> Ry4
>
>
>
>
Fy4 : H
|
0 0 0 ;1 ;S 0 {z
0 0 1 0 0
}>
>
>
>
>
Px2
>
>
>
>
>
>
> >
>
[ B ;I ] |
:
Py2
{z
;
}
fFg
Note that since load is applied only on node 2, we have considered a subset of the identity
matrix [I].
1. We start with the following matrix
2
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Rx1 Ry1 Rx4 Ry4 Px2 Py2 3
A 0 0 ;C 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
B666 ;1 0 ;S 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 777
C66 0 ;1 0 0 ;C 0 0 0 0 ;1 0 77
D66 1 0 0 0 S 0 0 0 0 0 ;1 77 (6.18)
E66 0 1 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 77
F666 0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 777
G4 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 1 0 0 0 5
H 0 0 0 ;1 ;S 0 0 0 1 0 0
2. Interchange columns
2
Rx1 Ry1 F2 F1 F3 F4 F5 Rx4 Ry4 Px2 Py2 3
A 1 0 0 0 ;C 0 0 0 0 0 0
B666 0 1 0 ;1 ;S 0 0 0 0 0 0 777
C66 0 0 ;1 0 0 0 ;C 0 0 ;1 0 77
D66 0 0 0 1 0 0 S 0 0 0 ;1 77 (6.19)
E66 0 0 1 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 77
F666 0 0 0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 777
G4 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 1 0 0 0 5
H 0 0 0 0 0 ;1 ;S 0 1 0 0

Draft
6.1 Statics Matrix B [ ] 6{11
3. Operate as indicates
Rx1 Ry1 F2 F1 F3
2
F4 F5 Rx4 Ry4 Px2 Py2 3
A 1 0 0 0 ;C 0 0 0 0 0 0
B 0 = B + DB666 0 1 0 0 ;S 0 S 0 0 0 ;1 777
C 6 0 0 ;1 0 0 0 ;C 0 0 ;1 0 77
D 6
6 0
6 0 0 1 0 0 S 0 0 0 ;1 77
0 E + C
E = C 6 0 0 1 0 1
6 0 ;1 0 0 ;1=C 0 777
F 6 0
6
6
0 0 0 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 77
G 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 1 0 0 0 5
H 0 0 0 0 0 ;1 ;S 0 1 0 0
(6.20)
4. Operate as indicated
2
Rx1 Ry1 F2 F1 F3 F4 F5 Rx4 Ry4 Px 2 Py 2 3
A0 = A + CE 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ;C 0 0 ;1 0
B 00 = B 0 + SE6660 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ;S=C ;1 777
C 0 = ;C 6 0 0 1 0 0 0 C 0 0 1 0 77
D 6
6
6 0 0 0 1 0 0 S 0 0 0 ;1 77 (6.21)
E0 6
6 0 0 0 0 1 0 ;1 0 0 ;1=C 0 777
F 0 = F ; SE 0 66
6
0 0 0 0 0 1 S 0 0 S=C 0 77
G 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 1 0 0 0 5
H0 = H + F 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 S=C 0
5. Interchange columns and observe that F5 is the selected redundant.
2
Rx1 Ry1 F2 F1 F3 F4 Rx4 Ry4 F5 Px2 Py2 3
A0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ;C ;1 0
B 00666 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ;S=C ;1 777
C 06 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 C 1 0 7
D666 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 S 0 ;1 777 (6.22)
E 066 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 ;1 ;1=C 0 777
F 0666 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 S S=C 0 77
G4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 C 0 0 5
H0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 S=C 0

Draft
From Eq. 6.8 we have
8 9 2 3 8 9
>
>
>
Rx1 >
>
>
1 0 >
>
>
C >
>
>
>
>
>
> Ry1 >
>
>
>
6
6 S=C 1 7
7
>
>
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
F2 6 ;1 ;C
> > 6 7 > >
>
>
>
>
>
> 0 7( )
>
>
>
>
>
>
+ > ;1S > f| F{z5 g}
> > 6 7 > >
<
F1 =
=
6
6 0 1 7
7 Px2
< =
(6.23)
>
>
>
F3 >
>
> 6 1=C
6 0 7
7 Py2 >
> >
>
>
>
> F4 >
>
>
6
6 ; S=C 0 7 | {z }
7
>
>
> ; S >
>
> fFx g
>
>
>
> Rx4
>
>
>
>
6
4 0 0 7
5
P
f g >
>
>
> ;C >
>
>
>
>
> >
> >
> >
>
:
|
Ry4
{z
;
} |
;S=C 0 {z }
:
|
0
;
{z }
f F0 g [C1 ] [C2 ]
which is identical to the results in Eq. 6.13 except for the order of the terms.
6.1.2 Kinematic Instability

13 Kinematic instability results from a structure with inadequate restraint in which rigid body
motion can occur.
14 For example in Fig. 6.4, there is no adequate restraint for the frame against displacement in
the horizontal direction, and the truss may rotate with respect to point O. Kinematic instability
will result in a matrix which is singular, and decomposition of this matrix will result in a
division by zero causing a computer program to \crash". Hence, it is often desirable for \large"
structures to determine a priori whether a structure is kinematically instable before the analysis
is performed.
15 Conditions for static determinacy and instability can be stated as a function of the rank
of [B]. If [B] has n rows (corresponding to the number of equilibrium equations), u columns
(corresponding to the number of internal forces and reactions), and is of rank r, then conditions
of kinematic instability are summarized in Table 6.2
16 Note that kinematic instability is not always synonymous with structure collapse. In some
cases equilibrium will be recovered only after geometry would have been completely altered (such
as with a exible cable structures) and equations of equilibrium would have to be completely
rewritten with the new geometry.
6.2 Kinematics Matrix [A]

17The kinematics matrix [A] relates all the structure's fg nodal displacements in global
coordinates to the element relative displacements in their local coordinate system and the

Draft
6.2 Kinematics Matrix A [ ] 6{13
Figure 6.4: *Examples of Kinematic Instability
n > u Kinematically Instable

n = u Statically Determinate
n = u = r Stable
n = u > r Instable with n ; r modes of kinematic instability
n < r Statically Indeterminate (degree u ; n)
n=r Stable
n>r Instable with n ; r modes of kinematic instability
Table 6.2: Conditions for Static Determinacy, and Kinematic Instability

Draft
support displacement (which may not be zero if settlement occurs) fg, through kinematic
relationships and is dened as:
fg [A] fg (6.24)
18 [A] is a rectangular matrix which number of rows is equal to the number of the element inter-
nal displacements, and the number of columns is equal to the number of nodal displacements.
Contrarily to the rotation matrix introduced earlier and which transforms the displacements
from global to local coordinate for one single element, the kinematics matrix applies to the
entire structure.
19 It can be easily shown that for trusses:
e = (u2 ; u1 ) cos + (v2 ; v1 ) sin (6.25)

where is the angle between the element and the X axis. whereas for exural members:
v21 = v2 ; v1 ; z1L (6.26)
z21 = z2 ; z1 (6.27)
Example 6-12: Kinematics Matrix of a Truss

Considering again the statically indeterminate truss of the previous example, the kinematic
matrix will be given by:
8 9
>
> e1 >
>
2
0;1 0 1 0 0 0 0 3
8
u1
9
>
>
>
>
>
e2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 0 0 ;1 0 1 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
v1
>
>
>
>
7> >
e3 6 ;C ;S 0 0 C S 0 0
>
> >
> 6 >
> >
>
>
>
>
>
> e4
>
>
>
>
>
6
6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ;1
7>
7>
7>
>
> u2 >
>
>
>
>
<
e5
= 6
= 6 0 0 ;C S 0 0 C ;S
6
7<
7 v2 =
(6.28)
>
>
> u1 >
>
> 6
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7>
7> u3 >
>
7> >
>
>
>
>
> v1
>
>
>
>
>
6
6
6 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
>
v3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> u4
>
>
>
>
6
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
7>
5>
>
>
u4 >
>
>
>
>
>
:
v4
>
>
;
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
:
v4 ;
| {z }
[A]

Draft
6.3 Statics-Kinematics Matrix Relationship 6{15
Applying the constraints: u1 = 0; v1 = 0; u4 = 0; and v4 = 0 we obtain:
8 9
>
> e1 >
>
2
;1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0
3
8
u1
9
>
>
>
>
>
e2 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 0 ;1 0 1 0 0 0
0 7>
7>
>
>
v1
>
>
>
>
7> >
e3 6 ;C ;S 0 0 C S 0 0
>
> >
> 6 > >
7> >
>
>
>
>
> e4
>
>
>
>
>
6
6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ;1 7>
7>
>
>
>
u2 >
>
>
>
>
<
e5
= 6
= 6 0 0 ;C S 0 0 C ;S
6
7<
7 v2 =
(6.29)
>
>
> 0 >
>
> 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7>
7> u3 >
>
7> >
>
>
>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
>
6
6
6 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7>
7>
>
>
>
v3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> 0
>
>
>
>
6
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
7>
5>
>
>
u4 >
>
>
>
>
>
:
0
>
>
;
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
:
v4 ;
| {z }
[A]
We should observe that [A] is indeed the transpose of the [B] matrix in Eq. 6.17
6.3 Statics-Kinematics Matrix Relationship

20Having dened both the statics [B] and kinematics [A] matrices, it is intuitive that those
two matrices must be related. In this section we seek to determine this relationship for both
the statically determinate and statically indeterminate cases.
6.3.1 Statically Determinate
21 The external work being dened as
)
Wext = 21 bPc fg W = 1 bFc[B]T fg (6.30)
fPg = [B] fFg ext 2
22 Alternatively, the internal work is given by:

)
Wint = 21 bFc fg W = 1 bFc[A] fg (6.31)
fg = [A] fg int 2
23 Equating the external to the internal work Wext = Wint we obtain:

1 bFc[B]T fg = 1 bFc[A] fg (6.32)
2 2
[B]T = [A] (6.33)

Draft
6.3.2 Statically Indeterminate
24 Whereas in the preceding case we used Eq. 6.1 for [B], for the most general case of statically
indeterminate structures we can start from Eq. 6.6 and write:
( )
fPg = [ B0 Bx ] FFx0 (6.34)
where Fx correspond to the redundant forces. The external work will then be
" #
t
Wext = 21 b F0 Fx c [[BB0]]t fg (6.35)
x
25 Again, we can generalize Eq. 6.24 and write

( ) " #
0 = A0 fg (6.36)
x Ax
where f0 g and fx g are relative displacements corresponding to fF0 g and fFx g respectively.
26 Consequently the internal work would be given by:
" #
A0] fg
Wint = 21 b F0 Fx c [[A (6.37)
x]
27 As before, equating the external to the internal work Wext = Wint and simplifying, we obtain:
[B0 ]T = [A0 ] (6.38)
[Bx]T = [Ax] (6.39)
6.4 Kinematic Relations through Inverse of Statics Matrix

28 We now seek to derive some additional relations between the displacements through the
inverse of the statics matrix. Those relations will be used later in the exibility methods, and
have no immediate applications.
29 Rewriting Eq. 6.36 as
i;1
f0g = [B0];1 t f0g
h h i
fg = [A0];1 f0g = [B0]t (6.40)
we can solve for fF0 g from Eq. 6.8
fF0g = [|B{z ;1 ;1
0 ] } fPg ; [|B0 ] {z [Bx}] fFx g (6.41)
[C1 ] [C2 ]
Draft
6.5 Congruent Transformation Approach to K [ ] 6{17
30 Combining this equation with [B0 ];1 = [C1 ] from Eq. 6.41, and with Eq. 6.40 we obtain
fg = [C1 ]t f0g (6.42)
31 Similarly, we can revisit Eq. 6.36 and write

fxg = [Ax] fg (6.43)
When the previous equation is combined with the rightmost side of Eq. 6.40 and 6.39 we obtain
fxg = [Bx]t [B0];1 t f0g
h i
(6.44)
32 Thus, with [B0 ];1 [Bx ] = ;[C2 ] from Eq. 6.41
fxg = ;[C2]t f0 g (6.45)
This equation relates the unknown relative displacements to the relative known ones.
6.5 Congruent Transformation Approach to [K]

Note: This section is largely based on section 3.3 of Gallagher, Finite Element Analysys, Pren-
tice Hall.
33 For an arbitrary structure composed of n elements, we can dene the unconnected nodal load
and displacement vectors in global coordinate as
fPe g = b bP1 c bP2 c ::: bPn c cT (6.46)
feg = b b1c b2 c ::: bnc cT (6.47)
where fPi g and fi g are the nodal load and displacements arrays of element i. The size of
each submatrix (or more precisely of each subarray) is equal to the total number of d.o.f. in
global coordinate for element i.
34 Similarly, we can dene the unconnected (or unassembled) global stiness matrix of the
structure as [Ke ]:
fFg = [2Ke] fg 3
(6.48)
[K1 ]
6
6 [K2 ] 7
7
[ Ke ] =
6
6
6
[K3 ] 7
7
7 (6.49)
6
4
... 7
5
[Kn ]
Draft
35 Note that all other terms of this matrix are equal to zero, and that there is no intersection
between the various submatrices. Hence, this matrix does not re ect the connectivity among
all the elements.
36 We recall the following relations (Eq. 6.1, 6.24, and 6.33 respectively)
fg = [A]fg (6.50)

fPg = [B]fFg (6.51)
[B]T = [A] (6.52)
We now combine those matrices with the denition of the stiness matrix:
9 9
fPg = [B]fFg > = [A] fFg = [K]fg >
T =
fPg = [K]fg > fFg = [Ke]fg > [K] = [A]T [Ke][A] (6.53)
[B] = [A]T ; fg = [A]fg ;
37Thus, we have just dened a congruent transformation on the unconnected global stiness
matrix written in terms of [Ke ] to obtain the structure stiness matrix. We shall note that:
1. If [Ke ] is expressed in global coordinates, then [A] is a boolean matrix.
2. If [Ke ] is in local coordinates, then [A] must include transformation from element to global
coordinate systems, and is no longer boolean.
3. [K] accounts for the B.C. as those terms associated with the restrained d.o.f. are not
included.
X
4. Note the similarity between the direct stiness method: [K] = [;]T [k][;] and the
congruent transformation approach: [K] = [A]T [Ke ][A].
5. If the structure is a frame with n elements, then we would have [K]neqneq = n1 [;]T66 [k]66 [;]66
X
and the congruent transformation approach: [K]neqneq = [A]Tneq6n [Ke ]6n6n [A]6nneq .
6. Congruent approach appears to be less ecient than the direct stiness method as both
[Ke ] and [A] are larger than [K].
Example 6-13: Congruent Transformation

Assemble the global stiness matrix of the grid shown in Fig. 6.5 using the direct stiness
method and the congruent transformation method.
Solution:
The 2 element stiness matrices in global coordinate system are given by:
Draft
Figure 6.5: Example 1, Congruent Transfer

2
7:692 0: 0: ;7:692 0: 0: 3
6
6 :4 105 ;12: 0: :2 105 12: 77
[KAB ] =
6
6
6
:0048 0: ;12: ;:0048 777 (6.54)
6
6
7:692 0: 0: 77
4 :4 10 5 12: 5
:0048
2
1 105 0: 18:75 :5 105 0: ;18:75 3
6
6 14:423 0: 0: ;14:423 0: 7
7
[KBC ] =
6
6 :00469 18:75 0: ;:00469 7
7
(6.55)
6
6
6
1 10 5 0: ;18:75 7
7
7
4 14:423 0: 5
:00469
We shall determine the global stiness matrix using the two approaches:
Direct Stiness
2 3
0 1 0
[ID] = 64 0 2 0 75 (6.56)
0 3 0
fLM1 g = b 0 0 0 1 2 3 cT (6.57)
fLM2 g = b 1 2 3 0 0 0 cT (6.58)
2 3
(7:692 + 1 105 ) (0: + 0:) (18:75 + 0:)
[K] = 6
4 (0: + 0:) (:4 105 + 14:423) (12: + 0:) 7
5 (6.59)
(0: + 18:75) (12: + 0:) (:0048 + :00469)

Draft
2 3
1 105 0: 18:75
= 6
4 0: :4 105 12: 7
5
18:75 12: :00949
Congruent Transformation
1. The unassembled stiness matrix [Ke ], for node 2, is given by:
fFg = [Ke ] fg (6.60)
8 Mx1 9 2 38 1x 9
> > 7:692 0 0 > >
>
>
< My1 >
>
= 6 :4 105 12: 0: 7>
>
< 1y >
>
= element 1
Fz1 = 6 sym :0048 7 Wz1 (6.61)
>
>
Mx2 >
>
6
4 1 105 0: ;18:75 7
5>>
2x >
>
>
: My2 >
; 0: 14:423 0: >
: 2y >
; element 2
Fz2 sym :00469 Wz2
Note that the B.C. are implicitely accounted for by ignoring the restrained d.o.f.
however the connectivity of the elements is not re ected by this matrix.
2. The kinematics matrix is given by:
fg = [A] fg (6.62)
8 9 2 3
>
>
x1 >
> 1 0 0
>
>
>
>
>
y1 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 0 1 0 78
7> x
9
>
<
wz1 =
=
6
6 0 0 1 7<
7
y
=
(6.63)
>
>
>
x2 >
>
>
6
6
6
1 0 0 7
7>
7: wz >
;
>
>
>
>
:
y2 >
>
>
>
;
4 0 1 0 5
wz2 0 0 1
As for the kinematics matrix, we are relating the local displacements of each ele-
ment to the global ones. Hence this matrix is analogous to the connectivity matrix.
Whereas the connectivity matrix dened earlier re ected the element connection,
this one re ects the connectivity among all the unrestrained degrees of freedom.
3. If we take the product: [A]T [Ke ][A] then we will recover [K] as shown above.
Example 6-14: Congruent Transformation of a Frame

Assemble the stiness matrix of the frame shown in Fig. 6.6 using the direct stiness
method, and the two congruent approaches.
Solution:

Draft
Figure 6.6: Example 2
The stiness matrices of elements AB and BC in local coordinate system are given by:
2
:75 0: 0: ;:75 0: 0: 3
6
6 :00469 18:75 0 ;:0048 18:75 77
6
[k]AB = [k]BC = 200 666 1 105 0 ;18:75 :5 105 777 (6.64)
6
:75 0: 0: 77
4 sym :00469 ;18:75 5
1 105
while the rotation matrix is given by:
2
:9272 :375 0: 0: 0 : 0: 3
6 ;:375 :927 0: 0: 0: 0: 77
6
[;]AB = 666 00:: 0: 1 0: 0: 0: 777
6
0: 0: :9272 :375 0: 77 (6.65)

6
4 0: 0: 0: ;:375 :9272 0: 5
0: 0: 0: 0: 0: 1
[;]BC = [I] (6.66)
The element stiness matrices in global coordinates will then be given by:
[K]AB = [;]TAB [k]AB [;]AB (6.67-a)
2
:645 :259 ;7:031 ;:645 ;:259 ;7:031 3
6
6 :109 17:381 ;:259 ;:109 17:381 77
= 200 666
6
1 105 7:031 ;17:381 :5 105 777 (6.67-b)
6
:645 :259 7:031 77
4 sym :109 ;17:381 5
1 105
and [K]BC = [k]BC
Draft
Direct Stiness: We can readily assemble the global stiness matrix:
2 3
(:645 + :75)
(:259 + 0:) (7:031 + 0:)
[K] = 200 64 (:109 + :00469) (;17:38 + 18:75) 7
5 (6.68)
sym (1 + 1) 105
2 3
1:395 :259 7:031
= 200 46
:1137 1:37 75 (6.69)
sym 2 105
Congruent Transformation, global axis, Boolean [A]
1. We start with the unconnected global stiness matrix in global coordinate system:
fFg = [Ke ] fg (6.70)
8 9 2 38 9
> PX1 > :645 :259 7:031 > UX1 >
>
>
< PY1 >
>
= 6 :109 ;17:381 0 7<
>
> VY1 >
>
=
MZ1 = 200 6 sym 1 105 7 1Z (6.71)
PX2 6 :75 0: 0: 7 UX2
>
> >
> 4 5>> >
>
>
: PY2 >
; 0 :00469 18:75 >
: VY2 >
;
MZ2 sym 1 105 2Z
2. Next we determine the kinematics matrix A:
8
f9g = [A] fg (6.72)
2 3
>
> u1 >
> 1 0 0
>
>
>
>
>
v1 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 0 1 0 78
7> u
9
>
<
1 =
=
6
6 0 0 1 7<
7
v
=
(6.73)
>
>
>
u2 >
>
>
6
6
6
1 0 0 7
7>
7: >
;
>
>
>
>
:
v2 >
>
>
>
;
4 0 1 0 5
2 0 0 1
3. Finally, if we take the product |[A{z]T} [|K{ze}] |{z}
[A] we obtain the structure global stiness
36 66 63
matrix [K] in Eq. 6.69
Congruent Transformation (local axis):
1. Unconnected stiness matrix in local coordinates:
fpe g = [ke ] fe g (6.74)
8 9 2 38 u1x 9
> PX1 > :75 0: 0: > >
>
>
< PY1 >
>
= 6 :00469 ;18:75 7>
>
< vy1 >
>
=
MZ1 = 200 6 sym 1 105 7 z1 (6.75)
PX2 6 :75 0: 0: 7 u2x
>
> >
> 4 5>> >
>
>
: PY2 >
; :00469 18:75 >
: vy2 >
;
M2
Z sym 1 105 z2

Draft
2. The kinematics matrix [A] is now given by:
f eg = [A] fg (6.76)
8 9 2 3
>
>
u1x >
> :9272 :375 0:
>
>
>
>
>
vy1 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 ;:375 :9272 0: 78
7> UX
9
>
<
z1 =
=
6
6
6
0: 0: 1: 7<
7
7 VY
=
(6.77)
>
>
>
u2x >
>
>
6
6
1: 0: 0: 7>
7: Z >
;
>
>
>
>
:
vy2 >
>
>
>
;
4 0: 1: 0: 5
z2 0: 0: 1:
3. When the product: [A]T [ke ][A] we recover the structure global stiness matrix

Draft

Draft
Chapter 7
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
7.1 Introduction
1 Recall the denition of the exibility matrix
fg [d]fpg (7.1)
where fg, [d], and fpg are the element relative displacements, element exibility matrix, and
forces at the element degrees of freedom free to displace.
2 As with the congruent approach for the stiness matrix, we dene:
fFeg = b bF1 c bF2 c ::: bFnc cT (7.2)

f g = b b1c b2 c ::: bnc c
e T (7.3)
for n elements, and where fFi g and fi g are the nodal load and displacements vectors for
element i. The size of these vectors is equal to the total number of global dof for element i.
3 Denoting by fRg the reaction vector, and by fR g the corresponding displacements, we
dene the unassembled structure exibility matrix as:
( ) " #( )
e = [de] Fe (7.4)
R [0] R
where [de ] is the unassembled global exibility matrix.
4 In its present form, Eq. 7.4 is of no help as the element forces fFe g and reactions fRg are
not yet known.
Draft
7{2 FLEXIBILITY METHOD
7.2 Flexibility Matrix
5 We recall from Sect. 6.1.1 that we can automatically identify the redundant forces [Fx ] and
rewrite Eq. 7.4 as: ( ) " #( )
0 = de00 [0] F0 (7.5)
x [0] de Fxx x
where [de00 ] and [dexx ] correspond to the unassembled global exibility matrix, and fF0 g and
fFxg are the corresponding forces.
6 Next we must relate the redundant and nonredundant forces (which together constitute the
unknown element forces and reactions) to the externally applied load fPg. Hence we recall
from Eq. 6.16:
fF0g = [C1] fPg + [C2 ] fFxg (7.6)
which can be rewritten (for convenience:) as:
( ) " #( )
F0 = C1 C2 P (7.7)
Fx 0 I Fx
7 From Eq. 6.42 we had: fg = [C1 ]t f0 g and from Eq. 6.45: fxg = ;[C2 ]t f0 g which
lead to ( ) " #( )
p = C1t 0 0 (7.8)
0 Ct I 2 x
where the subscript p in fp g has been added to emphasize that we are referring only to the
global displacements corresponding to fPg.
8 Finally we substitute Eq. 7.7 into Eq. 7.5 and the results into Eq. 7.8 to obtain:
( ) " #" #" #( )
p = C1t 0 de00 0 C1 C2 P (7.9)
0 C2t I 0 dexx 0 I Fx
or: ( ) " #( )
p = Dpp Dpx P (7.10)
0 Dxp Dxx Fx
where:
[Dpp ] = [C1 ]t [de00 ] [C1 ] (7.11)
[Dpx ] = [Dxp]t = [C1 ]t [de00 ] [C2 ] (7.12)
[Dxx ] = [C2 ]t [de00 ] [C2 ] + [dexx ] (7.13)
9 This equation should be compared with Eq. 7.1 and will be referred to as the unsolved global
assembled exibility equation.
Draft
7.2 Flexibility Matrix 7{3
7.2.1 Solution of Redundant Forces
10 We can solve for the redundant forces (recall that in the exibility method, redundant forces
are the primary unknowns as opposed to displacements in the stiness method) by solving the
lower partition of Eq. 7.10:
fFxg = ; [Dxx];1 [Dxp] fPg (7.14)
7.2.2 Solution of Internal Forces and Reactions

11 The internal forces and reactions can in turn be obtained through Eq. 6.16:
fF0g = [C1] fPg + [C2 ] fFxg (7.15)
which is combined with Eq. 7.14 to yield:
h i
fF0g = [C1 ] ; [C2 ] [Dxx];1 [Dxp] fPg (7.16)
7.2.3 Solution of Joint Displacements

12 Joint displacements are in turn obtained by considering the top partition of Eq. 7.10:
h i
fpg = [Dpp] ; [Dpx] [Dxx];1 [Dxp] fPg (7.17)
| {z }
[D]
Example 7-15: Flexibility Method

Solve for the internal forces and displacements of joint 2 of the truss in example 6.1.1. Let
H = 0:75L and assign area A to members 3 and 5, and 0:5A to members 1, 2, and 4. Let f5 be
the redundant force, and use the [C1 ] and [C2 ] matrices previously derived.
Solution:
C = pL2L+H 2 = 0:8 and S = pL2H+H 2 = 0:6
From Eq. 7.5 we obtain
( ) " #( )
0 = de00 0 F0 (7.18-a)
x 0 dexx Fx

Draft
8 9 2 38 9
>
>
>
u1 >
>
>
0 >
>
>
Rx1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
v1 >
>
>
>
6
6 0 7>
7>>
>
Ry1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
> e2 >
>
>
>
6
6 2 7>
7>>
> f2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
< e1 >
>
>
= L
6
6
6
1:5 7>
7>
7<
> f1 >
>
>
=
>
e3 = AE 6
6 1:25 7
7> f3 (7.18-b)
>
>
>
>
e4 >
>
>
>
>
6
6 1:5 7>
7>> f4 >
>
>
>
7> >
>
>
>
>
>
u4 >
>
>
>
>
6
6
6
0 7>
7>
>
>
>
Rx4 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
v4 >
>
>
>
4 0 5>>
>
>
Ry4 >
>
>
>
:
e5 ;
1:25 :
f5 ;
From Example 6.1.1 we have

2 3 2 3 8 9 8 9
1 0 1 0 >
>
>
C >
>
>
>
>
>
0:8 >
>
>
6 S=C 1 77 66 0:75 1 0 0
6 7 6 7 >
> >
> >
> >
>
7 >
> >
> >
> >
>
6 ;1 0 77 66 ;1 ;C ;0:8
6 7 > > > >
0 7 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
[C2 ] = > ;1S > = > ;0:6
6 7 > > > >
[C1 ] = 66 1=C 01 77 = 66 1:025
0 1
6 7 6 7 < = < =
0
7
7 1 >
(7.19)
6 7 6 7 >
> >
> >
> >
>
6 ;S=C 0 7 6 ;0:75 0 ; S ;0:6
6 7 6 7 >
> >
> >
> >
>
7 >
> >
> >
> >
>
6
4 0 0 5 64 0
7
0 7
5
>
>
>
>
>
; C >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;0:8 >
>
>
>
>
;S=C 0 ;0:75 0 : ; :
0 0 ;
From Eq. 7.11 " #

[Dpp] = [C1 ]t [de00 ] [C1 ] = L 4:797 0 (7.20)
AE 0 1:50
From Eq. 7.12 ( )
[Dpx ] = [C1 ]t [de00 ] [C2 ] = L 3:838 (7.21)
AE ;0:900
From Eq. 7.13
L (4:860)
[Dxx] = [C2 ]t [de00 ] [C2 ] + [dexx ] = AE (7.22)
We can now solve for the redundant force f5 from Eq. 7.14
( )
fFx g = ; [Dxx ];1 [Dxp] fPg = ; 1 b 3 : 8387 ; 0 : 90 c Px2 (7.23-a)
4:860 Py2
f5 = ;0:790Px2 + 0:185Py2 (7.23-b)
The nonredundant forces are now obtained from Eq. 7.16
h i
fF0g = [C1] ; [C2] [Dxx];1 [Dxp] fPg (7.24-a)

Draft
7.3 Stiness Flexibility Relations 7{5
8 9
>
>
>
Rx1 >
>
>
22
1 0
3 2
0:632 ;0:148 3737
>
>
>
>
Ry 1 >
>
>
> 66
0:75 1 777 666 0 0
>
>
>
>
>
f2 >
>
>
>
>
66
66
66 ;1 0 77 66 ;0:632 0:148
77
77
77 (
>
>
< f1 >
>
= 66
66 0 1 77 ; 66 ;0:474 0:111
77
77 Px2
)
>
f3 >
= 66
66 1:25 0 77 66 0:790 ;0:185
77
77 Py 2 (7.24-b)
>
>
>
>
f4 >
>
>
>
66
66
;0:75 0 777 666 ;0:474 0:111
77
77
>
>
>
>
>
Rx4 >
>
>
>
>
66
66
44 0 0 5 4 ;0:632 0:148
77
77
55
>
>
>
>
Ry 4 >
>
>
> ;0:75 0 0 0
:
f5 ;
2 3
0:368 0:148
6
6 0:75 1:000 7
7
6
6
6
;0:368 ;0:148 7
7(
7 )
=
6
6 0:474 0:889 7
7 Px2 (7.24-c)
6
6 0:460 0:185 7
7 Py2
6
6 ;0:276 ;0:111 7
7
6
4 0:632 ;0:148 7
5
;0:750 0
Finally, the displacements are obtained from Eq. 7.17
h i
fpg = [Dpp] ; [Dpx] [Dxx];1 [Dxp] fPg (7.25-a)
| {z }
[D]
( ) "" # " ## ( )
u2 L
= AE 4:797 0 ; 1 14:730 ;3:454 Px2 (7.25-b)
v2 0 1:500 4:860 ;3:454 0:810 Py 2
" #( )
L 1 : 766 0
= AE 0:711 1:333: 711 P x 2 (7.25-c)
Py2
It should be noted that whereas we have used the exibility method in its algorithmic
implementation (as it would lead itself to computer implementation) to analyse this simple
problem, the solution requires a formidable amount of matrix operations in comparaison with
the \classical" (hand based) exibility method.
7.3 Stiness Flexibility Relations

13 Having introduced both the stiness and exibility methods, we shall rigorously consider the
relationship among the two matrices [k] and [d] at the structure level.
14 Let us generalize the stiness relation by partitioning it into two groups: 1) subscript `s' for

Draft
Figure 7.1: Stable and Statically Determinate Element
those d.o.f.'s which are supported, and 2) subscript `f ' for those dof which are free.
( ) " #( )
Pf = kff kfs f (7.26)
Ps ksf kss s
7.3.1 From Stiness to Flexibility
15 To obtain [d] the structure must be supported in a stable and statically determinate way, as
for the beam in Fig. 7.1. for which we would have:
( )
ff g = 1 (7.27)
2
( )
fsg = v1 (7.28)
v2
( )
fPf g = M1 (7.29)
M2
( )
fPsg = V1 (7.30)
V2
Since fs g = f0g the above equation reduces to:
( ) " #
Pf = kff ff g (7.31)
Ps ksf
and we would have:
fPf g = [kff ] ff g (7.32)
[d] = [kff ];1 (7.33)
Example 7-16: Flexibility Matrix

Draft
7.3 Stiness Flexibility Relations 7{7
Figure 7.2: Example 1, [k] ! [d]
From Fig. 7.2 ( ) " #( )

M1
M2 = EI 4 2
L 2 4
1
2 (7.34)
| {z }
[kff ]
" # " #
[kff ];1 = [d] = L 1 4 ;2 = L 2 ;1 (7.35)
EI 12 ;2 4 6EI ;1 2
7.3.2 From Flexibility to Stiness

16 [kff ]: From Eq. 7.26, [k] was subdivided into free and supported d.o.f.'s, and we have shown
that [kff ] = [d];1 , or fPf g = [kff ] ff g but we still have to determine [kfs ], [ksf ], and [kss].
17 [ksf ]: Since [d] is obtained for a stable statically determinate structure, we have:
fPs g = [B] fPf g (7.36)

fPs g = |[B] {z[kff}]ff g (7.37)
[ksf ]
[ksf ] = [B] [d];1 (7.38)
18 [kfs ]: Equating the external to the internal work:
1. External work: Wext = 21 bf cfPf g
2. Internal work: Wint = 12 bPs cfs g
Equating Wext to Wint and combining with
bPs c = bf c [ksf ]T (7.39)
from Eq. 7.26 with fs g = f0g (zero support displacements) we obtain:
[kfs ] = [ksf ]T = [d];1 [B]T (7.40)
Draft
19 [kss ]: This last term is obtained from
fPsg = [B] fPf g (7.41)
fPf g = [kfs] fsg (7.42)
[kfs ] = [d];1 [B]T (7.43)
Combining Eqns. 7.42, 7.41, and 7.43 we obtain:
fPs g = [|B][d]{z;1 [B]T}fsg (7.44)
[kss]
20 In summary we have:
" #
[k] = [B[d][d] ];1 [B[d][d] ];[1B[B] ]T
;1 ;1 T
(7.45)
21 A very important observation, is that the stiness matrix is obviously singular, since the
second \row" is linearly dependent on the rst one (through [B]) and thus, its determinent is
equal to zero.
Example 7-17: Flexibility to Stiness

With reference to Fig. 7.2, and with both M1 and M2 assumed to be positive (ccw):
1. The exibility matrix is given by:
( ) " #( )
1 L
= 6EI 2 ;1 M1 (7.46)
2 ;1 2 M2
| {z }
[d]
2. The statics matrix [B] relating external to internal forces is given by:
( ) " #( )
V1 = L1 ;11 ;11 M1 (7.47)
V2 M2
| {z }
[B]
3. [kff ]: would simply be given by:

" #
[kff ] = [d];1 = EI L
4 2
2 4 (7.48)

Draft
7.4 Stiness Matrix of a Curved Element 7{9
4. [kfs ]: The upper o-diagonal
" # " # " #
[kfs ] = [d];1 [B]T = EI 4 2 1 1 ;1 = EI 6 ;6 (7.49)
L 2 4 L 1 ;1 L2 6 ;6
5. [ksf ]: Lower o-diagonal term
" # " # " #
[ksf ] = [B][d];1 = 1 1 1 EI 4 2 = EI 6 6 (7.50)
L ;1 ;1 L 2 4 L ;6 ;6
2
6. [kss]:
[kss ] = [B] [d];1 [B]T = [ksf ] [B]T (7.51)
" #" # " #
EI 1
= L2 L ;6 ;6 6 6 1 ; 1 EI 12 ;12
1 ;1 = L3 ;12 12 (7.52)
Let us observe that we can rewrite:

8 9 2 38 9
>
> M1 >
> 4L2 2L2 6l ;6l >
> 1 >
>
2L2 4L2 6l ;6l
> > 7> >
<
M2 =
= EI 66 6
7
<
2 =
(7.53)
>
>
>
V1 >
>
>
L3 4 6l 6l 12 ;12 7
5>>
>
v1 >
>
>
:
V2 ;
;6l ;6l ;12 12 :
v2 ;
If we rearrange the stiness matrix we would get:

8 9 2 38 9
> V1 > 12 6 ;12 6 > v1 >
>
> >
> L62 L L;26 L 7>
> >
>
<
M1 = EI 66 6
4 L 2 <
1 =
= ;122L ;6 12 (7.54)
7
> V2 > L4 ;6 7
5> v2 >
>
> >
> L6 L ;L6 L >
> >
>
:
M2 ;
L {z2 L 4 :
2 ;
| }
[k]
and is the same stiness matrix earlier derived.
7.4 Stiness Matrix of a Curved Element

22 We seek to determine the stiness matrix of a circular arc of radius R and sustaining an
angle .
23 First, we determine the exibility matrix of a cantilevered arc from
Z
M dx = R Z MMd
U = M EI (7.55)
s EI 0
Draft
where M is the real moment at arbitrary point A caused by loads and M is the virtual moment
at A caused by unit load
24 The exibility matrix will thus be given by:
8 9 2 38 9
>
< u >
= f11 f12 f13 >
< N >
=
>
v >
= 4 f21 f22 f23
6 7
5
>
V >
(7.56)
: ; f31 f32 f33 : M ;
and
M = M3 + N (R ; R cos ) + V (R2 sin ) (7.57-a)
M + 13 = R(1 ; cos1 ) + R sin2 (7.57-b)
fij = Disp:inDOFicausedbyunitloadinDOFj (7.57-c)
f11 = R Z M M d (7.57-d)
EI Zo p1 D1
= R R2 (1 ; cos )2 d (7.57-e)
EI o
= R3 Z (1 ; 2 cos + cos2 )d (7.57-f)
EI o
= R3 [ ; 2 sin + =2 = 1=4 sin 2] (7.57-g)
EI o
h i
R3 3 ; 2 sin + 1 sin 2
= EI (7.57-h)
2 4
f12 = R Z
f21 = EI R2 sin (1 ; cos )d (7.57-i)
o
= R3 Z (sin ; cossin)d (7.57-j)
EI o
= R3 ; cos ; 1 sin2 (7.57-k)
EI 2 o
= R3 (; cos ; 1 sin2 ) ; (;1 ; 0) (7.57-l)
EI 2
h i
R3 1 ; cos ; 1 sin2
= f21 = EI (7.57-m)
2
f13 R Z
= f31 = EI R(1 ; cos )d (7.57-n)
o
R 2
= EI [ ; sin ]o (7.57-o)
R2 [ ; sin ]
= EI (7.57-p)
R
f22 = EI
Z 2 2
R sin d (7.57-q)
o
Draft
7.5 Duality between the Flexibility and the Stiness Methods 7{11
= R3 ; 1 sin 2 (7.57-r)

EI @ 4 o
h i
= R ; 1 sin 2
3
f22 EI (7.57-s)
@ 4
f23 = f32 = EIR Z R sin d (7.57-t)

o
= R2 [; cos ] (7.57-u)
EI o
R2 [; cos + 1]
= EI (7.57-v)
R Z d
f33 = EI (7.57-w)
o
R
= EI (7.57-x)
7.5 Duality between the Flexibility and the Stiness Methods
FLEXIBILITY STIFFNESS
Indeterminancy Static Kinematic
Primary Unknows Nodal Forces Nodal Displacements
Variational Principle Virtual Force Virtual Displacement
fpg = [B0] fPg fg = [;] fg
[d] [k]
[ D ] = [ B ] T [d][B] [ k ] = [ ;]T [k][;#]( )
( ) " #( ) ( ) "
P = D11 D12 P P kff Dfr f
R D21 D22 R R = Drf Drr r
;
fRg = [D22 ] (fR g ; [D21 ] fpg) ff g = [Kff ] (fPg ; [kfr ] fr g)
1 ;1
fP g = [D11 ];1 (fPg + [D12 ] fRg) fRg = [Krf ] ff g + [krr ] fr g
fpg = [B] fPg fpg = [k][;] fg

Draft

Draft
Part II
Introduction to Finite Elements
Draft
Draft
Chapter 8
REVIEW OF ELASTICITY
8.1 Stress
1 A stress, Fig 8.1 is a second order cartesian tensor, ij where the 1st subscript (i) refers to
Figure 8.1: Stress Components on an Innitesimal Element

the direction of outward facing normal, and the second one (j ) to the direction of component
force. 2 3
11 12 13
ij = 64 21 22 23 7
5 (8.1)
31 32 33
Draft
8{2 REVIEW OF ELASTICITY
2 The stress tensor is symmetric ij = ji; this can easily be proved through rotational equi-
librium.
8.1.1 Stress Traction Relation
3 The relation between stress tensor ij at a point and the stress vector ti (or traction) on a
plane of arbitrary orientation, can be established through the following, Fig. 8.2.
Figure 8.2: Stress Traction Relations
ti = nj ij (8.2)
2 3
11 12 13
b t1 t2 t3 c = b| n1 n{z2 n3 c} 64 21 22 23 7
5 (8.3)
direction cosines 31 32 33
| {z }
stress tensor
where n is a unit outward vector normal to the plane.
4 Note that the stress is dened at a point, and a traction is dened at a point and with respect
to a given plane orientation.
5 When expanded in cartesian coordinates,, the previous equation yields
tx = xx nx + xy ny + xz nz

ty = yxnx + yy ny + yz nz (8.4)
tz = zxnx + zy ny + zz nz

Draft
8.2 Strain 8{3
8.2 Strain
6 Given the displacement ui of a point, the strain "ij is dened as
"ij = 12 (ui;j + uj;i ) (8.5)

or !
@ui + @uj
"ij = 21 @x (8.6)
j @xi
7 When expanded in 2D, this equation yields:

1 @u 1 @u
"11 = 2 @x + @x = @x1 @u1 (8.7-a)

1 1 1
1 @u @u
"12 = 2 @x1 + @x2 = 212 (8.7-b)

2 1
1 @u @u
"22 = 2 @x2 + @x2 = @x @u2 (8.7-c)

2 2 2
1 @u @u
"21 = 2 @x2 + @x1 = 221 (8.7-d)
1 2
8 Initial (or thermal strain)

8 9 8 9
>
< T >
= >
< T >
=
"ij = >
T = (1 + ) > T (8.8)
0 >:; : 0 > ;
{z | } | {z }
Plane Stress Plane Strain
note there is no shear strains caused by thermal expansion.
9 The strain may also be expressed as
= Lu (8.9)
or 2 @ 3
8
> "xx 9
> @x 0 0
> >
0 @ 0
>
>
>
> "yy >
>
>
>
6
6 @y
78
7
ux
9
>
<
"zz >
=
=
6
6
6
0 0 @z@ 7>
7<
7 uy
>
=
(8.10)
"xy @ @
@x 0
> > 6 7> >
>
>
"xz
>
> 6 @y
@
7: uz ;
>
>
>
>
:
>
>
>
>
;
6
4 @z 0 @x@ 7
5
"yz 0 @z@ @y@

Draft
8.3 Fundamental Relations in Elasticity
8.3.1 Equation of Equilibrium
10Starting with the set of forces acting on an innitesimal element of dimensions dx1 dx2 dx3 ,
Fig. 8.3 and writing the summation of forces, will yield
ij;j + bi = 0 (8.11)
where is the density, bi is the body force (including inertia).
Figure 8.3: Equilibrium of Stresses, Cartesian Coordinates
11 When expanded in 3D, this equation yields:

@11 + @12 + @13 + b = 0
@x1 @x2 @x3 1
@21 + @22 + @23 + b = 0 (8.12-a)
@x1 @x2 @x3 2
@31 + @32 + @33 + b = 0
@x @x @x 3
1 2 3

Draft
8.3 Fundamental Relations in Elasticity 8{5
12 Alternatively, the equation of equilibrium can be written as
LT + b = 0 (8.13)
or 8 9
>
> xx >
>
2 @ 0 @y@ @z@ 0
0 3>>
>
> yy >
>
>
>
8
bx
9
@x >
<
zz >
= >
< >
=
6
4 0 @y@ 0 @x@ 0 @z@ 7
5
> xy >
+> by >
=0 (8.14)
0 0 @z@ 0 @x@ @y@ >
>
>
>
> xz
>
>
>
>
>
: bz ;
>
: >
;
yz
13 Expanding
@xx + @xy + @xz + bx = 0
@x @y @z
@yx + @yy + @yz + b = 0 (8.15)
@x @y @z y
@zx + @zy + @zz + bz = 0
@x @y @z
8.3.2 Compatibility Equation

14 If "ij = 21 (ui;j + uj;i ) then we have six dierential equations (in 3D the strain tensor has a
total of 9 terms, but due to symmetry, there are 6 independent ones) for determining (upon
integration) three unknowns displacements ui . Hence the system is overdetermined, and there
must be some linear relations between the strains.
15 It can be shown (through appropriate successive dierentiation of Eq. ??) that the compat-
ibility relation for strain reduces to:
@ 2 "ik + @ 2 "jj ; @ 2 "jk ; @ 2 "ij = 0: (8.16)
@xj @xj @xi @xk @xi@xj @xj @xk
16 In 3D, this would yield 9 equations in total, however only six are distinct. In 2D, this results
in (by setting i = 2, j = 1 and l = 2):
@ 2 "11 + @ 2 "22 = @ 2 12 (8.17)
@x22 @x21 @x1 @x2
(recall that 2"12 = 12 .
17 When he compatibility equation is written in term of the stresses, it yields:
@ 2 11 ; @22 2 + @ 2 22 ; @ 2 11 = 2 (1 + ) @ 2 21 (8.18)

@x22 @x22 @x21 @x21 @x1 @x2
Draft
8.4 Stress-Strain Relations in Elasticity
18 The Generalized Hooke's Law can be written as:
ij = Dijkl"kl i; j; k; l = 1; 2; 3 (8.19)
19 The (fourth order) tensor of elastic constants Cijklhas 81(34 ) components however, due to
the symmetry of both and , there are at most 36 9(92;1) distinct elastic terms.
20 For the purpose of writing Hooke's Law, the double indexed system is often replaced by a
simple indexed system with a range of six:
62 =36
z }| {
k = Dkm "m k; m = 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6 (8.20)
21 For isotropic bodies (elastic properties independent of reference system used to describe it),
it can be shown that the number of independent elastic constants is two. The stress strain
relations can be written in terms of E and as:
" = 1 + ;
ij E ij E ij kk (8.21)

E
ij = 1 + "ij + 1 ; 2 ij "kk (8.22)
where ij is the kroneker delta and is equal to 1 if i = j and to 0 if i 6= j . When the strain
equation is expanded in 3D cartesian coordinates it would yield:
"xy = E1 [xx ; (yy + zz )]
"yy = E1 [yy ; (zz + xx )]
"zz = E1 [zz ; (xx + yy )] (8.23)
"xy = 1+E xy
"yz = 1+E yz
"zx = 1+E zx
22 When the stress equation is expanded in 3D cartesian coordinates, it will yield:

xx = (1;2E)(1+ ) [(1 ; )"xx + ("yy + "zz )]
yy = (1;2E)(1+ ) [(1 ; )"yy + ("zz + "xx )]
zz = (1;2E)(1+ ) [(1 ; )"zz + ("xx + "yy )] (8.24)
xy = xy
yz = yz
zx = zx
Draft
8.5 Strain Energy Density 8{7
where is the shear modulus and xy = 2"xy .
23 In terms of Lame constant we would have
ij = "iiij + 2"ij
(8.25)
1
"ij = 2 ij ; ij 3 +kk2 (8.26)
where
= (1 + E
)(1 ; 2 ) (8.27)
= 2(1E+ ) (8.28)
24 In terms of initial stresses and strains
ij = Dijkl("kl ; "0kl ) + ij0 (8.29)
8.5 Strain Energy Density

25Any elastically deforming body possesses a uniquely dened strain energy1 density which
can be expressed as:
Z "
U0 = ij d"ij = 21 ij "ij = 12 Dijkl"ij "kl (8.30)
0
8.6 Summary
26 Fig. 8.4 illustrates the fundamental equations in solid mechanics.
1 Used in the evaluation of Energy release rate later on.

Draft
Essential B.C.
ui : ;u
Body Forces
?
Displacements
bi ui
?
Equilibrium
?
Kinematics

ij;j + bi = 0 @ui + @uj
"ij = 12 @xj @xi
? ?
Stresses Constitutive Rel. Strain
ij
- ij = Dijkl "kl
"ij
6
Nonessential B.C.
ti : ;t
Figure 8.4: Fundamental Equations in Solid Mechanics

Draft
Chapter 9
VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY
METHODS
9.1 y Variational Calculus; Preliminaries
From Pilkey and Wunderlich book
9.1.1 Euler Equation

1 The fundamental problem of the calculus of variation1 is to nd a function u(x) such that
Z b
= F (x; u; u0 )dx (9.1)
a
is stationary. Or,
= 0 (9.2)
where indicates the variation

2 We dene u(x) to be a function of x in the interval (a; b), and F to be a known function (such
as the energy density).
3 We dene the domain of a functional as the collection of admissible functions belonging to a
class of functions in function space rather than a region in coordinate space (as is the case for
a function).
4 We seek the function u(x) which extremizes .
1 Dierentialcalculus involves a function of one or more variable, whereas variational calculus involves a
function of a function, or a functional.
Draft
9{2 VARIATIONAL AND ENERGY METHODS
u, u
u(x)
C
B
u(x)
du
A dx
x
x=a x=c x=b
Figure 9.1: Variational and Dierential Operators
5 Letting u~ to be a family of neighbouring paths of the extremizing function u(x) and we assume
that at the end points x = a; b they coincide. We dene u~ as the sum of the extremizing path
and some arbitrary variation, Fig. 9.1.
u~(x; ") = u(x) + "(x) = u(x) + u(x) (9.3)
where " is a small parameter, and u(x) is the variation of u(x)
u = u~(x; ") ; u(x) (9.4-a)
= "(x) (9.4-b)
and (x) is twice dierentiable, has undened amplitude, and (a) = (b) = 0. We note that
u~ coincides with u if " = 0
6 It can be shown that the variation and derivation operators are commutative
)
d (u) = u~0 (x; ") ; u0 (x)
dx 0 d (u) = du (9.5)
0 0
u = u~ (x; ") ; u (x) dx dx
7 Furthermore, the variational operator and the dierential calculus operator d can be simi-
larly used, i.e.
(u0 )2 = 2u0 u0 (9.6-a)
(u + v) = u
Z Z
+ v (9.6-b)
udx = (u)dx (9.6-c)
@u x + @u y
u = @x (9.6-d)
@y
Draft
9.1 y Variational Calculus; Preliminaries 9{3
however, they have clearly dierent meanings. du is associated with a neighbouring point at
a distance dx, however u is a small arbitrary change in u for a given x (there is no associated
x).
8 For boundaries where u is specied, its variation must be zero, and it is arbitrary elsewhere.
The variation u of u is said to undergo a virtual change.
9 To solve the variational problem of extremizing , we consider
Z b
(u + ") = (") = F (x; u + "; u0 + "0 )dx (9.7)
a
10 Since u~ ! u as " ! 0, the necessary condition for to be an extremum is

d(") = 0 (9.8)
d"
"=0
11 From Eq. 9.3 u~ = u + ", and u~0 = u0 + "0 , and applying the chain rule
d(") = Z b @F du~ + @F du~0 dx = Z b @F + 0 @F dx (9.9)
d" a @ u~ d" @ u~0 d" a @ u~ @ u~0
for " = 0, u~ = u, thus
d(") = Z b @F + 0 @F dx = 0 (9.10)
d" "=0 a @u @u0
Integration by part (Eq. 5.1 and 5.1) of the second term leads to
b 0 @F b
Z
@u0 dx = @F
Z b
d @F
@u0 ; (x) dx @u0 dx
(9.11)
a a a
Using the end conditions (a) = (b) = 0, Eq. 9.10 leads to

Z b @F d @F
(x) @u ; dx @u0 dx = 0 (9.12)
a
12The fundamental lemma of the calculus of variation states that for continuous (x) in a
x b, and with arbitrary continuous function (x) which vanishes at a and b, then
Z b
(x) (x)dx = 0 , (x) = 0 (9.13)
a
Thus,
@F ; d @F = 0 (9.14)
@u dx @u0
Draft
13 This dierential equation is called the Euler equation associated with and is a necessary
condition for u(x) to extremize .
14 Generalizing for a functional which depends on two eld variables, u = u(x; y ) and v =
v(x; y) Z Z
= F (x; y; u; v; u;x ; u;y ; v;x ; v;y ; ; v;yy )dxdy (9.15)
There would be as many Euler equations as dependent eld variables
8
< @F ; @ @F ; @ @F + @ 2 @F + @ 2 @F + @ 2 @F
@u @x @u;x @y @u;y @x22 @u;xx @x@y @u;xy @y22 @u;yy = 0 (9.16)
: @F ; @ @F ; @ @F + @ 2 @F + @
2 @F @ @F
@v @x @v;x @y @v;y @x @v;xx @x@y @v;xy + @y2 @v;yy = 0
15 We note that the Functional and the corresponding Euler Equations, Eq. 9.1 and 9.14, or
Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 describe the same problem.
16 The Euler equations usually correspond to the governing dierential equation and are referred
to as the strong form (or classical form).
17 The functional is referred to as the weak form (or generalized solution). This classication
stems from the fact that equilibrium is enforced in an average sense over the body (and the
eld variable is dierentiated m times in the weak form, and 2m times in the strong form).
18 It can be shown that in the principle of virtual displacements, the Euler equations are the
equilibrium equations, whereas in the principle of virtual forces, they are the compatibility
equations.
19 Euler equations are dierential equations which can not always be solved by exact meth-
ods. An alternative method consists in bypassing the Euler equations and go directly to the
variational statement of the problem to the solution of the Euler equations.
20 Finite Element formulation are based on the weak form, whereas the formulation of Finite
Dierences are based on the strong form.
21 We still have to dene . The rst variation of a functional expression is
F = R@F @F 0 ) Z b
@F u + @F u0 dx
@ub u + @u0 u = (9.17)
= a Fdx a @u @u0
As above, integration by parts of the second term yields

=
Z b @F d @F
u @u ; dx @u0 dx (9.18)
a
22 We have just shown that nding the stationary value of by setting = 0 is equivalent to
nding the extremal value of by setting d(d"") "=0 equal to zero.
23 Similarly, it can be shown that as with second derivatives in calculus, the second variation
2 can be used to characterize the extremum as either a minimum or maximum.
Draft
9.1.2 Boundary Conditions
24 Revisiting the integration by parts of the second term in Eq. 9.10, we had
Z b 0 @F
dx = @F b ; Z b d @F dx (9.19)
a @u0 @u0 a a dx @u0
We note that
1. Derivation of the Euler equation required (a) = (b) = 0, thus this equation is a state-
ment of the essential (or forced) boundary conditions, where u(a) = u(b) = 0.
@F0 = 0 at x = a and b.
2. If we left arbitrary, then it would have been necessary to use @u
These are the natural boundary conditions.
25 For a problem with, one eld variable, in which the highest derivative in the governing
dierential equation is of order 2m (or simply m in the corresponding functional), then we have
Essential (or Forced, or geometric) boundary conditions, involve derivatives of order zero
(the eld variable itself) through m-1. Trial displacement functions are explicitely required
to satisfy this B.C. Mathematically, this corresponds to Dirichlet boundary-value problems.
Nonessential (or Natural, or static) boundary conditions, involve derivatives of order m
and up. This B.C. is implied by the satisfaction of the variational statement but not
explicitly stated in the functional itself. Mathematically, this corresponds to Neuman
boundary-value problems.
26 Table 9.1 illustrates the boundary conditions associated with some problems
Problem Axial Member Flexural Member
Distributed load Distributed load
Dierential Equation AE ddx2 u2 + q = 0 EI ddx4 w4 ; q = 0
m 1 2
Essential B.C. [0; m ; 1] u w; dw
dx
Natural B.C. [m; 2m ; 1] du
dx
d2 w2
dxand ddx3 w3
or x = Eu;x or M = EIw;xx and V = EIw;xxx
Table 9.1: Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions
Example 9-18: Extension of a Bar

Draft
The total potential energy of an axial member of length L, modulus of elasticity E , cross
sectional area A, xed at left end and subjected to an axial force P at the right one is given by
Z L EA du 2
= 2 dx dx ; Pu(L)
0
(9.20)
Determine the Euler Equation by requiring that be a minimum.
Solution:
Solution I The rst variation of is given by

=
Z L EA
2 du du dx ; Pu(L) (9.21)
0 2 dx dx
Integrating by parts we obtain
L
=
Z
d
L du du
; dx EA dx udx + EA dx u ; Pu(L) (9.22-a)
0 2 0 3

Z L
= ; u dx d EA du dx + 4 EA du ; P 5 u(L)

0 | {z
dx } |
dx {zx=L }

du
= ; EA dx u(0) (9.22-b)
| {z } x=0
The last term is zero because of the specied essential boundary condition which implies
that u(0) = 0. Rcalling that in an arbitrary operator which can be assigned any
value, we set the coecients of u between (0; L) and those for u at x = L equal to zero
separately, and obtain
Euler Equation:
d du
; dx EA dx = 0 0 < x < L (9.23)
Natural Boundary Condition:
EA du
dx ; P = 0 at x = L (9.24)
Solution II We have 2
0
F (x; u; u ) = EA du (9.25)
2 dx
(note that since P is an applied load at the end of the member, it does not appear as part
of F (x; u; u0 ) To evaluate the Euler Equation from Eq. 9.14, we evaluate
@F = 0 & @F = EAu0 (9.26-a)
@u @u0
Draft
Thus, substituting, we obtain
@F ; d @F = 0 Euler Equation (9.27-a)
@u dx @u0
d EA du = 0 B.C. (9.27-b)
dx dx
Example 9-19: Flexure of a Beam

The total potential energy of a beam is given by
Z L
= 1 M ; pw dx = Z L 1 (EIw00 )w00 ; pw dx (9.28)
0 2 0 2
Derive the rst variational of .
Solution:
Extending Eq. 9.17, and integrating by part twice
Z L Z L @F 00 @F

= Fdx =
@w @w 00 w + w dx (9.29-a)
0 0
Z L
= = (EIw00 w00 ; pw)dx (9.29-b)
0
Z L
= (EIw00 w0 )L0 ;

(EIw00 )0 w0 ; pw dx

(9.29-c)
0
Z L
00 0 L 00 0 L
(EIw00 )00 + p wdx = 0

= (EIw w ) 0 ; (EIw ) w 0 +
(9.29-d)
0
Or
(EIw00 )00 = ;p for all x
which is the governing dierential equation of beams and
Essential Natural
w = 0 or EIw00 = ;M = 0
0
w = 0 or (EIw00 )0 = ;V = 0
at x = 0 and x = L

Draft
9.2 Work, Energy & Potentials; Denitions
9.2.1 Introduction
27 Work is dened as the product of a force and displacement
Z b
W def
F:ds
= (9.30-a)
a
dW = Fxdx + Fy dy (9.30-b)
28 Energy is a quantity representing the ability or capacity to perform work.

29 The change in energy is proportional to the amount of work performed. Since only the
change of energy is involved, any datum can be used as a basis for measure of energy. Hence
energy is neither created nor consumed.
30 The rst law of thermodynamics states
The time-rate of change of the total energy (i.e., sum of the kinetic energy and the
internal energy) is equal to the sum of the rate of work done by the external forces
and the change of heat content per unit time:
d
dt (K + U ) = We + H (9.31)
where K is the kinetic energy, U the internal strain energy, W the external work, and H the
heat input to the system.
31 For an adiabatic system (no heat exchange) and if loads are applied in a quasi static manner
(no kinetic energy), the above relation simplies to:
We = U (9.32)
9.2.2 Internal Strain Energy
32 The strain energy density of an arbitrary material is dened as, Fig. 9.2
def
Z "
U0 = d" (9.33)
0
33 The complementary strain energy density is dened

Z
U0 def
= "d (9.34)
0
34 The strain energy itself is equal to

Draft
9.2 Work, Energy & Potentials; Denitions 9{9
σ σ
* *
U0 U0
A A
U0 U0
A A
ε ε
Nonlinear Linear
Figure 9.2: *Strain Energy and Complementary Strain Energy

Z
U def
= U0 d
(9.35)
Z
U def
= U0 d
(9.36)

35 To obtain a general form of the internal strain energy, we rst dene a stress-strain relation-
ship accounting for both initial strains and stresses
= D( ; 0 ) + 0 (9.37)
where D is the constitutive matrix; is the strain vector due to the displacements u; 0 is the
initial strain vector; 0 is the initial stress vector; and is the stress vector.
36 The initial strains and stresses are the result of conditions such as heating or cooling of a
system or the presence of pore pressures in a system.
37 The strain energy U for a linear elastic system is obtained by substituting
= D (9.38)
with Eq. 9.33 and 9.37
Z Z Z
U = 21 T Dd
; T D0 d
+ T 0 d
(9.39)

where
is the volume of the system.
38 Considering uniaxial stresses, in the absence of initial strains and stresses, and for linear
elastic systems, Eq. 9.39 reduces to
Z
U = 12 " |{z}
E" d
(9.40)

Draft
39 When this relation is applied to various one dimensional structural elements it leads to
Axial Members:
U = "
Z 9
d
>
>
P
2 >
>
= Z L P2
=A U = 12 dx (9.41)
P
" = AE >
>
> 0 AE
>
;
d
= Adx
Torsional Members:
Z 9
U = 12 " |{z}
E" d
>
>
>
>
Z

>
>
>
>
>
1
U = 2 xy G xy d
>
>
>
>

| {z } >
>
= Z L T2
xy
xy = JTr U = 21 dx (9.42)
>
> 0 GJ
xy = Gxy >
>
>
>
>
dZ
Z= rddrdx >
>
>
>
r 2 2 >
>
>
r ddr = J >
;
o 0
Flexural Members:
Z 9
U = 21 " |{z}E" >
>
>

>
>
>
>
x = MIzz y >
>
=
1
Z L
M 2 dx
" = MEIzzy >
U= 2 0 EIz (9.43)
>
dZ
= dAdx >
>
>
>
>
>
y2 dA = Iz >
;
A
9.2.2.1 Internal Work versus Strain Energy
40During strain increment, the work done by internal forces in a dierential element will be
the negative of that performed by the stresses acting upon it.
Z
Wi = ; dd
(9.44)

41 If the strained elastic solid were permitted to slowly return to their unstrained state, then
the solid would return the work performed by the external forces. This is due to the release of
strain energy stored in the solid.
Draft
σx σx
C,D C D
σ x dε x σ x dε x
A B εx A,B εx
ε0 εx ε0
εx
(εx)F
(εx)F
(a) (b)
Figure 9.3: Eects of Load Histories on U and Wi
42 Thus, in the absence of initial strains,
U = ;Wi (9.45)
43 The internal work depends on the load history, this is illustrated by considering an axial
member subjected to two load cases, Fig. 9.3: a) Initial thermal strains (with no corresponding
stress increase), followed by an external force; and b) External force, followed by thermal strain.
In both cases the internal work is equal to the area under the curve ABCD.
Z !
L Z ("x )F
Ui = x d"x Adx (9.46-a)
0 0
Wia = ;Ui !
(9.46-b)
Z L Z "0
Wib = ;Ui ; xd"x Adx (9.46-c)
0 0
Hence, Wi is not always equal to ;Ui .
9.2.3 External Work
44 External work W performed by the applied loads on an arbitrary system is dened as
Z Z
We def
= uT bd
+ uT ^td; (9.47)

;t

Draft
where b is the body force vector; ^t is the applied surface traction vector; and ;t is that portion
of the boundary where ^t is applied, and u is the displacement.
45 For point loads and moments, the external work is
Z f Z f
We = Pd + Md (9.48)
0 0
46 For linear elastic systems, we have for point loads

9
P = K Z f
d = 12 K 2f
=
We =
Z f
Pd ; e W = K (9.49)
0
0
When this last equation is combined with Pf = K f we obtain
We = 21 Pf f (9.50)
where K is the stiness of the structure.

47 Similarly for an applied moment we have
We = 12 Mf f (9.51)
9.2.3.1 y Path Independence of External Work

48 In this section we seek to prove that the total work performed in going from state A to B is
independent of the path.
49 In 2D the dierential expression of the work is given by
dW = Fxdx + Fy dy (9.52)
50 From calculus, a necessary and sucient condition for dW to be an exact dierential is that
@Fx = @Fy (9.53)
@y @x
51If the force were to move along a closed contour (or from A to B and then back to A along
any arbitrary path), corresponding to ;, then from Green's theorem (Eq. 5.3) we have
Z
I
(Rdx + Sdy) = @S ; @R dxdy (9.54)
; @x @y
Draft
If we let R = Fx and S = Fy , then
Z
I
W = (Fx dx + Fy dy) = @Fy ; @Fx dxdy (9.55)
; | @x {z @y }
0
52 Thus, from Eq. 9.53 the work is equal to zero,

53 If we decompose the path
I Z B Z A Z B Z A
W= = + =0) =; (9.56)
A B A B
then, the integration for the work leads to
Z B
W= (Fx dx + Fy dy) (9.57)
A
which is path independent.
54 Note that if no net work is done in moving around a closed path, the system is said to be
conservative. This is the case for purely elastic systems.
55 When friction or plastic (or damped) deformations occur, then we would have a noncon-
servative system.
9.2.4 Virtual Work
56We dene the virtual work done by the load on a body during a small, admissible (continuous
and satisfying the boundary conditions) change in displacements.
Z
Internal Virtual Work Wi def
= ; d
(9.58)
Z
Z
External Virtual Work We def
= ^tud; + bud
(9.59)
;t
where all the terms have been previously dened and b is the body force vector.
9.2.4.1 Internal Virtual Work
57 Next we shall derive a displacement based expression of U for each type of one dimensional
structural member. It should be noted that the Virtual Force method would yield analogous
ones but based on forces rather than displacements.
58 Two sets of solutions will be given, the rst one is independent of the material stress strain
relations, and the other assumes a linear elastic stress strain relation.
Draft
Figure 9.4: Torsion Rotation Relations
9.2.4.1.1 Elastic Systems

59 In this set of formulation, we derive expressions of the virtual strain energies which are
independent of the material constitutive laws. Thus U will be left in terms of forces and
displacements.
Axial Members: Z L 9
Z L
U = "d
=
U = A "dx (9.60)
0
d
= Adx ; 0
Torsional Members: With reference to Fig. 9.4

Z 9
U = xy xy d
>
>
>
>
Z
>
>
= Z L Z Z L
T = xy rdA U = ( xy rdA) dx ) U = Tdx (9.61)
A >
> 0 | A {z 0
xy = r >
>
>
> T
}
d
= dAdx ;
Shear Members:
Z 9
U = xy xy d
>
>
>
> Z L Z Z L
Z
=
V = xy dA U = ( xy dA) xy dx ) U = V xy dx (9.62)
A
>
>
> 0 | A {z } 0
>
d
= dAdx ;
V
Flexural Members: With reference to Fig. 9.5.

Draft
Figure 9.5: Flexural Member

Z 9
U = x"x d
>
>
>
>
>
Z
M
M = xydA ) y = x dA
Z >
>
>
= Z L
A A U = Mdx (9.63)
= "Zy )Z y = " >
>
>
>
0
L >
>
>
d
= dAdx >
;
0 A
9.2.4.1.2 Linear Elastic Systems
60 Should we have a linear elastic material ( = E") then:
Axial Members: Z 9
U = "d
>
>
>
>
>
E du d(u) Adx
= Z L
x = E"x = E du
dx U = (9.64)
" = d(dxu) >
>
>
>
0 dx dx | {z }
| {z } | {z } d
d
= Adx >
; \00 \"00
Z Z
U = xy xy d
= r d
(9.65)

For an innitesimal element:

)
= TrJ = Gr dx (9.66)
d = Tdx
GJ dx
since the rate of change of rotation is the strain.
9
d
= rddrdx
Z L Z r Z 2
>
>
U = d
Gr dxx d ( x ) >
>
>
dx rddrdx
>
>
GJ d x d(x ) dx
= Z L
0 0 0 | {z }| {z } U = (9.67)
Z real virtual >
>
> 0 dx dx
| {z } | {z }
r Z 2 2 >
>
> \00 \"00
r ddr = J >
;
o 0

Draft
Z 9
U = x "x d
>
>
>
>
>
)
x = My
I2z = d2 v Ey >
>
>
>
d v2 EIz
M = dx x dx2 =
U =
Z LZ d2 v Ey d2(v) ydAdx (9.68)
|{z}
>
>
> 0 A dx2 dx2
2 >
"x = Ex = d dx(v2 ) y >
>
>
>
>
d
= dAdx ;
or: 9
Eq.
Z 9.68 = Z L d2 v d2 (v) dx
y2 dA = Iz U = EIz dx 2 dx2 (9.69)
; 0 | {z } | {z }
A
\00 \"00
9.2.4.2 External Virtual Work W

61 For concentrated forces (and moments):
Z X X
W = qdx + i (i )Pi + i (i )Mi
(9.70)
where: i = virtual displacement.

9.2.5 Complementary Virtual Work
62We dene the complementary virtual work done by the load on a body during a small,
admissible (continuous and satisfying the boundary conditions) change in displacements.
Z
Complementary Internal Virtual Work Wi def
= ; d
(9.71)
Z
Complementary External Virtual Work We def

= u^ td; (9.72)
;u
9.2.5.1 Internal Complementary Virtual Strain Energy U

63 Again we shall consider two separate cases.
9.2.5.1.1 Arbitrary System
64In this set of formulation, we derive expressions of the complemetary virtual strain energies
which are independent of the material constitutive laws. Thus U will be left in terms of forces
and displacements.
Draft
Axial Members: Z L 9
U = "d
=

Z L
U = A "dx (9.73)
0
d
= Adx ; 0

Z 9
U = xy xy d
>
>
>
>
Z
>
>
= Z L Z Z L
T = xy rdA
U = ( xy rdA) dx ) U = Tdx (9.74)
A >
> 0 | A {z 0
xy = r >
>
>
> T
}
d
= dAdx ;
Shear Members:
Z 9
U = xy xy d
>
>
>
> Z L Z Z L
Z
=

U = ( xy dA) xy dx ) U = V xy dx (9.75)
V = xy dA >
> 0 | A {z 0
A >
> }
d
= dAdx ;
V

Z 9
U = x "xd
>
>
>
>
>
Z
M Z
M = x ydA ) y = x dA
>
>
>
= Z L
A A U = Mdx (9.76)
= y" Z) Zy = " >
>
>
>
0
L >
>
>
d
= dAdx >
;
0 A
9.2.5.1.2 Linear Elastic Systems
65 Should we have a linear elastic material ( = E") then:
Axial Members: Z 9
U = "d
>
>
>

>
= Z L P dx
= PA U = P AE (9.77)
P
" = AE >
>
>
|{z}
0 \00 |{z}
>
d
= Adx ; \"00

Draft
Torsional Members:
Z 9
U = " E"
|{z} dvol
>
>
>
>

>
>
>
Z >
>
U = xy G xy dvol
>
>
>
>
>

| {z } >
xy =
U =
Z L
T GJ T dx (9.78)
xy = TrJ >
>
|{z}
0 \00 |{z}
xy = Gxy >
>
>
>
> \"00
dZ
Z= rddrdx >
>
>
>
r 2 2 >
>
>
r ddr = J >
;
o 0
Flexural Members: Z 9
U = " E"
|{z}
>
>
>
>

>
>
>
>
M
x = Izz y >
>
=
U =
Z L
M EI M dx (9.79)
" = MEIzzy >
>
|{z}
0 \00 | {zz}
dZ
= dAdx >
>
>
>
> \"00
>
y2 dA = Iz >
>
;
A
9.2.5.2 External Complementary Virtual Work W
66 For concentrated forces (and moments):
X
W = i (i )Pi (9.80)
where: i = actual displacement. Or:
X
W = i (i )Mi (9.81)
67 For distributed load:

Z Xn Xn
W = qdx + i=1 (i )Pi + i=1 (i )Mi (9.82)
9.2.6 Potential Energy

9.2.6.1 Potential Functions
68If during loading and unloading, U and U are independent of the path of deformation (i.e.
no intial strains), but depend only on the initial and nal states, then the dierential dU0 and
dU0 are exact dierentials and U0 and U0 are then potential functions.

Draft
9.3 Principle of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual Work 9{19
9.2.6.2 Potential of External Work
69 The potential of external work W in an arbitrary system is dened as
Z Z
We def
=

uT bd
+ ;t
uT ^td; + uP (9.83)
where u are the displacements, b is the body force vector; ^t is the applied surface traction
vector; ;t is that portion of the boundary where ^t is applied, and P are the applied nodal
forces.
70 Note that the potential of the external work is dierent from the external work itself (usually
by a factor of 1/2)
9.2.6.3 Potential Energy
71 The potential energy of a system is dened as
def
= UZ ; We Z Z
(9.84)
= U0 d
; ubd
+ u^td; + uP (9.85)

;t
72 Note that in the potential the full load is always acting, and through the displacements of
its points of application it does work but loses an equivalent amount of potential, this explains
the negative sign.
9.3 Principle of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual Work

73 The principles of Virtual Work and Complementary Virtual Work relate force systems which
satisfy the requirements of equilibrium, and deformation systems which satisfy the requirement
of compatibility:
1. In any application the force system could either be the actual set of external loads dp or
some virtual force system which happens to satisfy the condition of equilibrium p. This
set of external forces will induce internal actual forces d or internal hypothetical forces
compatible with the externally applied load.
2. Similarly the deformation could consist of either the actual joint de ections du and com-
patible internal deformations d of the structure, or some hypothetical external and internal
deformation u and " which satisfy the conditions of compatibility.
74Thus we may have 4 possible combinations, Table 9.2: where: d corresponds to the actual,
and (with an overbar) to the hypothetical values.
This table calls for the following observations
Draft
Force Deformation IVW Formulation
External Internal External Internal
1 dp d du d
2 p du d U CVW/Flexibility
3 dp d u " U VW/Stiness
4 p u "
Table 9.2: Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations
1. The second approach is the same one on which the method of virtual or unit load is based.
It is simpler to use than the third as a internal force distribution compatible with the
assumed virtual force can be easily obtained for statically determinate structures. This
approach will yield exact solutions for staticaally determinate structures.
2. The third approach is favoured for kinematically indeterminate problems or in conjunction
with approximate solution. It requires a proper \guess" of a displacement shape and is
the basis of the stifness method.
9.3.1 Principle of Virtual Work
9.3.1.1 y Derivation
75 Derivation of the principle of virtual work starts with the assumption of that forces are in
equilibrium and satisfaction of the static boundary conditions.
76 The Equation of equilibrium (Eq. 8.11) which is rewritten as
@x + @xy + b = 0 (9.86)

@x @y x
@y + @xy + b = 0 (9.87)
@y @x y
where b representing the body force. In matrix form, this can be rewritten as
8 9
"
@ 0 @ #> x > ( )
+ bbx
< =
@x @y y =0 (9.88)
0 @y@ @
@x >
: xy >
; y
or
LT + b = 0 (9.89)
Note that this equation can be generalized to 3D.

Draft
77 The surface ; of the solid can be decomposed into two parts ;t and ;u where tractions and
displacements are respectively specied.
; = ;t + ;u (9.90-a)
t = ^t on ;t Natural B.C. (9.90-b)
u = u^ on ;u Essential B.C. (9.90-c)
Equations 9.89 and 9.90-b constitute a statically admissible stress eld.
78 We now express the local condition of equilibrium Eq. 9.89 and the static boundary condition
Eq, 9.90-b in global (or integral) form. This is accomplished by multiplying both equations by
a virtual displacement u and integrating the rst equation over
and the second one over ;t ,
and we then take the sum of these two integrals (each of which must be equal to zero)
Z Z
; uT LT + b d
+ uT (t ; ^t)d; = 0 (9.91)

;t
Note that since each term is equal to zero, the negative sign is introduced to maintain later
on consistency with previous results. Furthermore, according to the fundamental lemma of the
calculus of variation (Eq. 9.13), this equation is still equivalent to Eq. 9.89 and 9.89
R
79 Next, we will focus our attention on ;t uT td; which will be replaced (from Eq. 9.90-a) by
Z Z Z
uT td; = uT t d; ; uT td; (9.92)
;t ; ;u
and which we seek to convert into a volume integral through Gauss Theorem, Eq. 5.6 and 5.7.
80 But rst let us recall the denition of the traction vector
t = :n or ti = ij nj (9.93-a)

applying Gauss theorem we obtain
Z Z Z
uT td; = (uT )nd; = div(uT )d
(9.94-a)
; ;Z
Z
= divuT d
+ uT div d
(9.94-b)

However, from Eq. 9.89 we have div = LT thus

Z Z Z
uT td; = divuT d
+ uT LT d
(9.95)
;

81 Combining Eq. 9.92 with the previous equation, leads to

Z Z Z Z
uT td; = divuT d
+ uT LT d
; uT td; (9.96)
;t

;u
Draft
82 We next substitute this last equation into Eq. 9.91 and reduce
Z Z Z Z
; uT LT d
; uT bd
+ divuT d
+ uT LT d

Z
Z
; uT td; ; uT ^td; = 0 (9.97-a)
Z Z
;
Z u
;
Z t
; uT bd
+ divuT d
; uT td; ; uT ^td; = 0 (9.97-b)

;u ;t
83 The strain displacement relation can be written as

divu = (9.98)
Substituting in the previous equation, we get
Z Z Z Z
;
uT bd
+
T d
; ;u
uT td; ;
;t
uT ^td; = 0 (9.99)
84 Virtual displacement must be kinematically admissible, i.e. u must satisfy the essential
boundary conditions u = 0 on ;u , (note that the exact solution had to satisfy the natural B.C.
instead), hence the previous equation reduces to
Z Z Z
T d
; uT bd
; uT ^td; = 0 (9.100)
|
{z }|
{z
;t }
;Wi =Ui ;We
Each of the preceding equations is a work expression, (Eq. 9.59). The rst one corresponds to
the internal virtual work, and the last two are expressions of the work done by the body forces
and the surface tractions through the corresponding virtual displacement u, hence
; Wi = We (9.101)
or
Ui = We (9.102)
which is the expression of the principle of virtual work (or more specically of virtual
displacement) which can be stated as
A deformable system is in equilibrium if the sum of the external virtual work and
the internal virtual work is zero for virtual displacements u which are kinematically
admissible.
The major governing equations are summarized
Draft
Figure 9.6: Tapered Cantilivered Beam Analysed by the Vitual Displacement Method
Z Z Z
T d
; uT bd
; uT ^td; = 0 (9.103)
|
{z }|
{z
;t }
;Wi ;We
= Lu in
(9.104)
u = 0 on ;u (9.105)
85 Note that the principle is independent of material properties, and that the primary unknowns
are the displacements.
86 For one dimensional elements, with no initial strains (U = ;Wi )
Z
"d
= Pv
|{z} (9.106)
| {z } W
U
Example 9-20: Tapered Cantiliver Beam, Virtual Displacement

Analyse the problem shown in Fig. 9.6, by the virtual displacement method.
Solution:
For this exural problem, we must apply the expression of the virtual internal strain en-
ergy as derived for beams in Eq. 9.69. And the solutions must be expressed in terms of the
displacements which in turn must satisfy the essential boundary conditions.
The approximate solutions proposed to this problem are

x
v = 1 ; cos 2l v2 (9.107)
" 3 #
2
v = 3 L ; 2 Lx v2
x (9.108)

Draft
Note that these equations do indeed satisfy the essential B.C.
Using the virtual displacement method we evaluate the displacements v2 from three dierent
combination of virtual and actual displacement:
Solution Total Virtual
1 Eqn. 9.107 Eqn. 9.108
2 Eqn. 9.107 Eqn. 9.107
3 Eqn. 9.108 Eqn. 9.108
Where actual and virtual values for the two assumed displacement elds are given below.
Trigonometric (Eqn. 9.107) Polynomial
h ;
(Eqn. 9.108)
; 2 ; x 3 i
v 1 ; cos 2l v2
x 3 x
h ; L
; 2 L i v2
; ;
v 1 ; cos x
2l v2 3 Lx ; 2 Lx 3 v2
2

v00 22 cos x v2
4L 2l h L
6 ; 12x v
2 Li 2
3
v00 2 x
4L2 cos 2l v2 L2 ; L3 v2
6 12 x
Note that both Eqn. 9.107 and Eqn. 9.108 satisfy the essential (geometric) B.C.
Z L
U = v00 EIz v00 dx (9.109)
0
W = P2v2 (9.110)
Solution 1:

U =
Z L 2
cos x v 6 ; 12x v EI 1 ; x dx
0 4L2 2l 2 L2 L3 2 1 2L
= 3EI1 1 ; 10 + 16 v v
2L3 2 2 2
= P2 v2 (9.111)
which yields:
P2 L3
v2 = 2:648 (9.112)
EI 1
Solution 2:
U =
Z L4 cos2 x v v EI 1 ; x dx
0 16L4 2l 2 2 1 2l
4
= 32EI 1 3 1
L3 4 + 2 v2 v2
= P2 v2 (9.113)
which yields:
3
v2 = 2:P572 LEI (9.114)
1

Draft
Solution 3:
Z L 6 ; 12x 2 1 ; x EI v v dx
U = L2 L3 2l 1 2 2
0
= 9LEI3 v2 v2
= P2 v2 (9.115)
which yields:
3
v2 = P92EI
L (9.116)
9.3.2 Principle of Complementary Virtual Work

9.3.2.1 y Derivation
87 Derivation of the principle of complementary virtual work starts from the assumption of a
kinematicaly admissible displacements and satisfaction of the essential boundary conditions.
88 Whereas we have previously used the vector notation for the principle of virtual work, we
will now use the tensor notation for this derivation.
89 The kinematic condition (strain-displacement) was given in Eq. 8.5.
"ij = 21 (ui;j + uj;i) (9.117)
90 The essential boundary conditions are expressed as

ui = u^ on ;u (9.118)
Those two equations are rewritten as
"ij ; ui;j = 0 (9.119-a)
ui ; u^ = 0 (9.119-b)
We premultiply the rst equation by a virtual stress eld @ij and integrate over the volume;
and we premultiply the second by corresponding virtual tractions ti and integrate over the
corresonding surface
Z Z
("ij ; ui;j ) ij d
; (ui ; u^) ti d; = 0 (9.120)

;u
Note that since each term is equal to zero, the negative sign is introduced to maintain later
on consistency with previous results. Furthermore, according to the fundamental lemma of the
Draft
calculus of variation (Eq. 9.13), this equation is still equivalent to the kinematic conditions
9.117 and 9.118.
91 Since the arbitrary stresses must be statically admissible, it follows that they must satisfy
the equation of equilibrium
R
92 Next, we will focus our attention on ;u ui ti d; which will be replaced (from Eq. 9.90-a) by
Z Z Z
uiti d; = uiti d; ; ui tid; (9.121)
;u ; ;t
and note that the second term on the right hand side is zero since
ti = 0 on ;t (9.122)
in order to satisfy the boundary conditions.
93 We now seek seek to convert the previous expression into a volume integral through Gauss
Theorem, Eq. 5.6 and 5.7.
Z Z Z
uiti d; = ui ti d; = ui(ij nj )d; (9.123-a)
;u Z
; ;Z
= ui ij;j d
+ ui;j ij d
(9.123-b)

However,the virtual stresses must be in equilibrium within

, thus from Eq. 8.11, and in the
absence of body forces
ij;j = 0 in
(9.124)
thus Z Z
uiti d; = ui;j ij d
(9.125)
;u
94 Combinig this last equation with Eq. 9.120 leads to

Z Z Z Z
"ij ij d
; ui;j ij d
; u^ti d; + ui;j ij d
= 0 (9.126)

;u
which simplies into Z Z

"ij ij d
; u^ti d; = 0 (9.127)

;u
95 We note that each of the preceding term is a work expression, and that the rst one corre-
sponds to the internal complementary virtualwork, and the scond to the external complementary
virtual work, Eq. 9.72
; Wi ; We = 0 (9.128)
which is the expression of the principle of virtual complementary work (or more specically of
virtual force) which can be stated as
Draft
A deformable system satises all kinematical requirements if the sum of the external
complementary virtual work and the internal complementary virtual work is zero for
all statically admissible virtual stresses ij .
The major governing equations are summarized
Z Z
"ij ij d
; uî ti d; = 0 (9.129)
|
{z } ;
| u {z }
;Wi We
ij;j = 0 in
(9.130)
ti = 0 on ;t (9.131)
96 Note that the principle is independent of material properties, and that the primary unknowns
are the stresses.
97 The principle of virtual forces leads to the exibility matrix.
Example 9-21: Tapered Cantilivered Beam; Virtual Force

\Exact" solution of previous problem using principle of virtual work with virtual force.
Z L M dx = P
M EI (9.132)
| {z }
{z z
0 | } External
Internal
Note: This represents the internal virtual strain energy and external virtual work written in
terms of forces and should be compared with the similar expression derived in Eq. 9.69 written
in terms of displacements: Z L
U = EIz dx d2 v d2 (v) dx (9.133)
2 dx2
0 | {z } | {z }
"
Here: M and P are the virtual forces, and EIMz and are the actual displacements. See
Fig. 9.7 If P = 1, then M = x and M = P2 x or:
x EI (P:52 x+ x ) dx
Z L
(1) =
0 1 L
Z L 2
P
= EI 2 x dx
1 0 L2+l x
2 2L L x2 dx
= PEI
Z
(9.134)
1 0 L+x

Draft
Figure 9.7: Tapered Cantilevered Beam Analysed by the Virtual Force Method
From Mathematica we note that:
Z 0
x2 = 1 1 (a + bx)2 ; 2a(a + bx) + a2 ln(a + bx) (9.135)
0 a + bx b3 2
Thus substituting a = L and b = 1 into Eqn. 9.135, we obtain:
= 2EI P2 L 1 (L + x)2 ; 2L(L + x) + L2 ln(L + x) jL
0
1 "2 #
2 P 2 L L 2
= EI 2L ; 4L + L ln 2L ; 2 + 2L + L log L
2 2 2 2 2
1

2 P2 L
= EI L (ln 2 ; 2 )
2 1
1
= 2:5887P 2 L3 (9.136)
1EI
This exact value should be compared with the approximate one obtained with the3 Virtual
Displacement method in which a displacement eld was assumed in Eq. 9.215 of 2:PL
55EI1 .
Similarly:
=
Z L
M; (1)
0 EI1 :5 + Lx
= EI2 ML Z L
1
1 0 L+x
2 ML
= EI ln(L + x) jL0
1
= 2 ML (ln 2L ; ln L)
EI1
ML ln 2
= 2EI
1
ML
= :721 (9.137)
EI1

Draft
Example 9-22: Three Hinged Semi-Circular Arch

We seek to determine the vertical de ection of the crown of the three hinged statically
determined semi-circular arch under its own dead weight w. Fig. 9.8 We rst seek to determine
the analytical expression of the moment diagram. From
;
statics,

it can be shown that the vertical
and horizontal reactions are Rv = 2 wR and Rh = 2 ; 1 wR.

Next considering the free body diagram of the arch, and summing the forces in the radial
direction (FR = 0):
Z
;
; 2 ;1 wR cos + 2 wR sin ;
wRd sin + V =0 (9.138)
; ;=0
V = wR 2 ; 1 cos + ; 2 sin (9.139)
Similarly, if we consider the summation of forces in the axial direction (FT = 0):
Z
;
2 ; 1 wR sin + 2 wR cos ; =0 wRd cos + N = 0
(9.140)
; ;
N = wR ; 2 cos ; 2 ; 1 sin (9.141)
Now we can consider the third equation of equilibrium (M = 0):
;
2 ; 1 wR R sin ; 2 wR (1 ; cos ) +
2
Z
wRd R(cos ; cos ) + M = 0 (9.142)

=0 ;
M = wR2 2 (1 ; sin ) + ; 2 cos (9.143)
The real curvature is obtained by deviding the moment by EI
2
cos
= wR
EI 2 (1 ; sin ) + ; 2 (9.144)
The virtual force P will be aa unit vertical point in the direction of the desired de ection,
causing a virtual internal moment
M = R2 [1 ; cos ; sin ] 0 2 (9.145)
Hence, application of the virtual work equation yields:
Z 2
1 = 2 wR 2
(1 ; sin ) + ; 2 cos R2 [1 ; cos ; sin ] Rd

|{z}
P =0 | EI 2 {z } | {z
|{z}
} dx
M
wR4 h
= 16EI 72 ; 18 ; 12
i
4
= :0337 wR
EI (9.146)

Draft
Figure 9.8: Three Hinge Semi-Circular Arch

Draft
Figure 9.9: Semi-Circular Cantilevered Box Girder
Example 9-23: Cantilivered Semi-Circular Bow Girder

Considering the semi-circular cantilevered box girder shown in Fig. 9.9 subjected to its own
weight w, and with a rectangular cross-section of width b and height d = 2b and with Poisson's
ratio = 0:3.
First, we determine the internal forces by applying the three applicable equations of equi-
librium: Z
FZ = 0 V ; wRd = 0 V = wr
Z 0
MR = 0 M ; (wRd)(R sin ) = 0 M = wR2 (1 ; cos ) (9.147)
Z 0
MT = 0 + (wRd)R(1 ; cos ) = 0 T = ;wR2 ( ; sin )
0
Noting that the member will be subjected to both exural and torsional deformations, we
seek to determine the two stinesses. 3
The exural stiness EI is given by EI = E bd123 = E b(212b) = 2Eb3 4 = :667Eb4 .

Draft
The torsional stiness of solid rectangular sections J = kb3 d where b is the shorter side of
E = E =
the section, d the longer, and k a factor equal to .229 for db = 2. Hence G = 2(1+ ) 2(1+:3)
:385E , and GJ = (:385E )(:229b4 ) = :176Eb4 .
Considering both exural and torsional deformations, and replacing dx by rd:
P
Z M Rd + Z T T Rd
M EI
| {z} = GJ (9.148)
W | 0 {z z } | 0 {z }
|
exural {z
torsional }
U
where the real moments were given above.
Assuming a unit virtual downward force P = 1, we have
M = R sin (9.149)
T = ;R(1 ; cos ) (9.150)
Substituting these expression into Eq. 9.148
wR 2Z wR 2Z
1 = EI
|{z} (R sin ) (1 ; cos ) Rd + GJ (| ;{zsin }) R (1 ;{zcos }) Rd
P 0 | {z } | {z } 0 |
M M T T
wR 4Z 1
= EI (sin ; sin cos ) + :265 ( ; cos ; sin + sin cos ) d
0
4
= wR 2: + 18
EI ( |{z} :56} )
| {z
exure torsion
4
= 20:56 wR
EI (9.151)
9.4 Potential Energy

9.4.1 Derivation
98 From section 9.2.6.1, if U0 is a potential function, we take its dierential
@U0 d"
dU0 = @" (9.152-a)
ij
ij
@U0 d
dU0 = @ (9.152-b)
ij
ij

Draft
9.4 Potential Energy 9{33
99 However, from Eq. 9.33
Z "ij
U0 = ij d"ij (9.153-a)
0
dU0 = ij d"ij (9.153-b)
thus,
@U0 = (9.154)
@"ij ij
@U0 = " (9.155)
@ij ij
100 We now dene the variation of the strain energy density at a point2

@U " = "
U0 = @" (9.156)
ij ij ij
ij
R R R
101The principle of virtual work, Eq. 9.103,
"ij ij d
;
ui bi d
; ;t ui tî d; = 0 can be
rewritten as Z Z Z
U0 d
; ui bid
; ui tî d; = 0 (9.157)

;t
102If nor the surface tractions, nor the body forces alter their magnitudes or directions during
deformation, the previous equation can be rewritten as
Z Z Z
U0 d
; uibi d
; ui tî d; = 0 (9.158)

;t
103 Hence, comparing this last equation, with Eq. 9.85 we obtain
= 0 (9.159)
def
= UZ ; We Z (9.160)
Z
= U0d
; ubd
+ u^td; + uP (9.161)

;t
104 We have thus derived the principle of stationary value of the potential energy:
Of all kinematically admissible deformations (displacements satisfying the essential
boundary conditions), the actual deformations (those which correspond to stresses
which satisfy equilibrium) are the ones for which the total potential energy assumes
a stationalry value.
2 Note that the variation of strain energy density is, U0 = ij "ij , and the variation of the strain energy itself
R
is U =
U0 d
.

Draft
k= 500 lbf/in
mg= 100 lbf
Figure 9.10: Single DOF Example for Potential Energy

105 For problems involving multiple degrees of freedom, it results from calculus that
= @@ 1 + @@ 2 + : : : + @@ n (9.162)

1 2 n
106 It can be shown that the minimum potential energy yields a lower bound prediction of
displacements.
107 As an illustrative example (adapted from Willam, 1987), let us consider the single dof system
shown in Fig. 9.10. The strain energy U and potential of the external work W are given by
U = 21 u(Ku) = 250u2 (9.163-a)
We = mgu = 100u (9.163-b)
Thus the total potential energy is given by
= 250u2 ; 100u (9.164)
and will be stationary for
@ = d = 0 ) 500u ; 100 = 0 ) u = 0:2 in
du (9.165)
Substituting, this would yield
U = 250(0:2)2 = 10 lbf-in
W = 100(0:2) = 20 lbf-in (9.166)
= 10 ; 20 = ;10 lbf-in
Fig. 9.11 illustrates the two components of the potential energy.
Draft
Potential Energy of Single DOF Structure
Total Potential Energy

20.0 Strain Energy
External Work
Energy [lbf−in]
0.0
−20.0
−40.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30
Displacement [in]
Figure 9.11: Graphical Representation of the Potential Energy
9.4.2 z Euler Equations of the Potential Energy

108 A variational statement is obtained by taking the rst variation of the variational principle
and setting this scalar quantity equal to zero.
109 The variational statement for the general form of the potential energy functional (i.e. Equa-
tion 9.174) is
Z Z Z Z Z
= T Dd
; T D 0 d
+ T 0 d
; uT bd
; uT ^td; = 0 (9.167)

;t
which is the Principle of Virtual Work.
110 Since the dierential operator L is linear, the variation of the strains can be expressed
in terms of the variation of the displacements u
= (Lu) = Lu (9.168)
This relationship is exploited to obtain a form of the variational statement in which only
variations of the displacements u are present
Z Z Z Z Z
= (Lu)T Dd
; (Lu)T D0 d
+ (Lu)T 0d
; uT bd
; uT ^td; = 0

;t
(9.169)
which is best suited for obtaining the corresponding Euler equations.
Draft
111A form of the variational statement in which strain-displacement relationship (i.e. Equation
??) is substituted into Equation 9.169
Z Z Z
= (Lu)T D(Lu)d
; (Lu)T D0 d
+ (Lu)T 0 d

Z Z

; uT bd
; uT ^td; = 0 (9.170)

;t
is better suited for obtaining the discrete system of equations.
112 To obtain the Euler equations for the general form of the potential energy variational prin-
ciple the volume integrals dening the virtual strain energy U in Equation 9.169 must be
integrated by parts in order to convert the variation of the strains (Lu) into a variation of the
displacements u.
113 Integration by parts of these integrals using Green's theorem (Kreyszig 1988) yields
Z I Z
(Lu)T Dd
= uT G(D)d; ; uT LT (D)d
Z
I@

Z
(Lu)T D0 d
= u G(D0 )d; ; uT LT (D0 )d
T (9.171)

Z I@
Z
(Lu)T 0 d
= uT G0 d; ; uT LT 0 d
where G is a transformation matrix containing the direction cosines for a unit normal vector
such that the surface tractions t are dened as t = G and the surface integrals are over the
entire surface of the body @
.
114 Substituting Equation 9.171 into Equation 9.169, the variational statement becomes
Z
= ; uT fLT [D( ; 0 ) + 0 ] + bgd
Z
+ uT fG[D( ; 0 ) + 0 ] + ^tgd; = 0 (9.172)
@
115 Since u is arbitrary the expressions in the integrands within the braces must both be equal
to zero for to be equal to zero. Recognizing that the stress-strain relationship (i.e. Equation
9.37) appears in both the volume and surface integrals, the Euler equations are
LT + b = 0 on
(9.173)
G ; ^t = 0 on ;t
where the rst Euler equation is the equilibrium equation and the second Euler equation denes
the natural boundary conditions. The natural boundary conditions are dened on ;t rather
than @
because both the applied surface tractions ^t and the matrix-vector product G are
identically zero outside ;t .

Draft
116 Starting from the Euler equations, it is possible to derive the total potential energy functional
by performing the operations just presented in reverse order.
117 Substituting Equations 9.39 and 9.83 into the expression for the total potential energy the
functional for the general form of the potential energy variational principle is obtained
Z Z Z Z Z
1
= 2 Dd
; D0 d
+ 0 d
; u bd
; uT ^td;
T T T T (9.174)
|
{z } |

{z

;t }
9.4.3 Castigliano's First Theorem

118 @U0 = ij , is Castigliano's theorem.
A global version of Eq. 9.155 @" ij
119 Since we are now considering a general structure, we consider an arbitrary three dimensional
structure subjected to a set of external forces (or moments) P^1 ; P^2 ; ; P^n with corresponding
unknown displacements 1 ; 2 ; ; n . The total potential energy is given by
n
X
= Wi + W e = ; U + Pî i (9.175)
i=1
120 The strain energy can also be expressed in terms of the displacements i thus the potential
energy will be dened in terms of generalized coordinates or generalized displacements.
121 For the solid to be in equilibrium, = 0 or
= ; @@U
1 1 ; @U ; ; @U
@ 2 2 @ n n
+P^1 1 + P^2 2 + P^n n = 0 (9.176-a)
or
; @@U ^ @U ^ @U ^
1 + P1 1 + ; @ 2 + P2 2 + + ; @ n + Pn n = 0 (9.177)
but since the variation i is arbitrary, then each factor within the parenthesis must be equal
to zero. Thus
@U ^ (9.178)
@ k = Pk
which is Castigliano's rst theorem:
If the strain energy of a body is expressed in terms of displacement components in
the direction of the prescribed forces, then the rst partial derivative of the strain
energy with respect to a displacement, is equal to the corresponding force.
Example 9-24: Fixed End Beam, Variable I

Draft
Considering the beam shown in Fig. 9.12, we can assume the following solution:
Figure 9.12: Variable Cross Section Fixed Beam
v = a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 (9.179)
1. First, this solution must satisfy the essential B.C.: v = v0 = 0 at x = 0; and v = vmax and
v0 = 0 at x = L2 . This will be enforced by determining the four parameters in terms of a
single unknown quantity (4 equations and 4 B.C.'s):
@x = 0 v = 0 ) a4 = 0
@x = 0 dx dv = 0 ) a3 = 0
(9.180)
@x = L2 v = vmax ) vmax = a1 L83 + a2 L42
@x = L2 dxdv = 0 ) 43 a1L2 + a2L = 0 ) a2 = ; 34 a1 L
upon substitution, we obtain:
!
3 2
v = ; 16Lx3 + 12Lx2 vmax (9.181)
Hence, in this problem the solution is in terms of only one unknown variable vmax.
2. In order to apply the principle of Minimum Potential Energy we should evaluate:
2
Internal Strain Energy U : for exural members is given by U = 2MEI dx (Eq. 9.43);
Z
z
M = d2 v2 , thus we must evaluate d2 v2 from above:
recalling that EI z dx dx
!
dv 2
dx = ; 48Lx3 + 24L2x vmax (9.182)
Draft
d2 v = ; 24 1 ; 4x v (9.183)
dx2 L2 L max
which yields 2 !2 3
1 Z
d2 v
U = 2 2 E dx
4 Iz dx5 (9.184)
2
or:
U = E Z L4 242 1 ; 4x 2 v2 Iz dx
2 2 0 L4 L max 2
Z L 2
E 2 242 4 x
+ 2 L L4 1 ; L vmax 2 I dx
z
4
U = 72LEI z 2
3 vmax (9.185-a)
Potential of the External Work W : For a point load, W = Pvmax

3. Finally,
@ = 0 (9.186-a)
@vmax
@U ; @ W = 0 (9.186-b)
@vmax @vmax
144EIz v
L3 max = P (9.186-c)
vmax = PL3 (9.186-d)
144EIz
4. Note, that had we applied Castigliano's theorem, then

@U def
@vmax = P (9.187-a)
144EIz v
L3 max = P (9.187-b)
vmax = PL3 (9.187-c)
144EIz
which is identical to the solution obrained through the principle of minimum potential
energy.

Draft
9.4.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method
122 Continous systems have innite number of degrees of freedom, those are the displacements
at every point within the structure. Their behavior can be described by the Euler Equation, or
the partial dierential equation of equilibrium. However, only the simplest problems have an
exact solution which (satises equilibrium, and the boundary conditions).
123 An approximate method of solution is the Rayleigh-Ritz method which is based on the
principle of virtual displacements. In this method we approximate the displacement eld by a
function
n
X
u1 c1i 1i + 10 (9.188-a)
i=1
Xn
u2 c2i 2i + 20 (9.188-b)
i=1
Xn
u3 c3i 3i + 30 (9.188-c)
i=1
where cji denote undetermined parameters, and are appropriate functions of positions.
124 should satisfy three conditions
1. Be continous.
2. Must be admissible, i.e. satisfy the essential boundary conditions (the natural boundary
conditions are included already in the variational statement. However, if also satisfy
them, then better results are achieved).
3. Must be independent and complete (which means that the exact displacement and their
derivatives that appear in can be arbitrary matched if enough terms are used. Further-
more, lowest order terms must also beincluded).
In general is a polynomial or trigonometric function.
j
125 We determine the parameters ci by requiring that the principle of virtual work for arbitrary
variations cji . or
!
n
X @ c1 + @ c2 + @ c3 = 0
(u1 ; u2; u3 ) = @c1i i @c2i i @c3i i (9.189)
i=1
for arbitrary and independent variations of c1i , c2i , and c3i , thus it follows that
@ = 0 i = 1; 2; ; n; j = 1; 2; 3 (9.190)
@cji

Draft
Thus we obtain a total of 3n linearly independent simultaneous equations. From these displace-
ments, we can then determine strains and stresses (or internal forces). Hence we have replaced
a problem with an innite number of d.o.f by one with a nite number.
126 Some general observations
1. cji can either be a set of coecients with no physical meanings, or variables associated
with nodal generalized displacements (such as de ection or displacement).
2. If the coordinate functions satisfy the above requirements, then the solution converges
to the exact one if n increases.
3. For increasing values of n, the previously computed coecients remain unchanged.
4. Since the strains are computed from the approximate displacements, strains and stresses
are generally less accurate than the displacements.
5. The equilibrium equations of the problem are satised only in the energy sense = 0
and not in the dierential equation sense (i.e. in the weak form but not in the strong one).
Therefore the displacements obtained from the approximation generaly do not satisfy the
equations of equilibrium.
6. Since the continuous system is approximated by a nite number of coordinates (or d.o.f.),
then the approximate system is stier than the actual one, and the displacements obtained
from the Ritz method converge to the exact ones from below.
Example 9-25: Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam; Polynomial Approximation
For the uniformly loaded beam shown in Fig. 9.13

let us assume a solution given by the following innite series:
v = a1 x(L ; x) + a2 x2 (L ; x)2 + : : : (9.191)
for this particular solution, let us retain only the rst term:
v = a1 x(L ; x) (9.192)
We observe that:
1. Contrarily to the previous example problem the geometric B.C. are immediately satised
at both x = 0 and x = L.
2. We can keep v in terms of a1 and take @a@ = 0 (If we had left v in terms of a1 and a2 we
1
@ = 0, and @ = 0 ).
should then take both @a 1 @a2
3. Or we can solve for a1 in terms of vmax(@x = L2 ) and take @v@max
= 0.

Draft
Figure 9.13: Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam Analysed by the Rayleigh-Ritz Method
=U ;W =
Z L M 2 dx ; Z Lwv(x)dx (9.193)
o 2EIz 0
d2 v2 , the above simplies to:
Recalling that: EIMz = dx
2 ! 3
=
Z L
4
EIz d2 v 2 ; wv(x)5 dx (9.194)
0 2 dx2
Z L EIz
= (;2a1 )2 ; a1 wx(L ; x) dx
0 2
3 3
= EI2 z 4a21 L ; a1 w L2 + a1 w L3
3
= 2a21 EIz L ; a1 wL
6 (9.195)
@ = 0, we would obtain:
If we now take @a 1
3
4a1 EIz l ; wL
6 = 0
2
a1 = 24wL EIz (9.196)
Having solved the displacement eld in terms of a1 , we now determine vmax at L2 :
!
4 x x2
v = 24wL
EI L ; L2
| {z z}
a1
Draft
4
= 96wL
EIz (9.197)
exact = 5 wL4 = wL4 which constitutes
This is to be compared with the exact value of vmax 384 EIz 76:8EIz
17% error.
Note: If two terms were retained, then we would have obtained: a1 = 24wLEI2z & a2 = 24wEIz
exact . (Why?)
and vmax would be equal to vmax
Example 9-26: Uniformly Loaded Simply Supported Beam; Fourrier Series

Let us consider again the problem of Fi. 9.13 but with a trigonometric series for the
continuous displacement eld:
v= 1
X nx
n=1 an sin L (9.198)
we note that the B.C. are satised (v = 0 at x = 0 and x = L). The potential energy is given
by:
= U ;2W 3
!
=
Z L
4
EIz d2v 2 ; wv(x)5 dx
0 2 dx2
2 !2 3
EI 2 2 an
; L2 sin L ; wan sin nx
n nx
XZ L z
= L dx
4 5
0 2
= :::
2 X1 4
= EI2 z L2 a2 n + w L X1 1 a cos nx jL
n=1 n L n=1 n n L 0
4 z X1
= 4EI
L 3 n=1 a 2 n4 ; 2wL X1
n n =1; 3; 5
an
n (9.199)
Note that for n even, the second term vanishes.
We now take:
@ = 0 @ = 0 ::: @ = 0 (9.200)
@a @a
1 2 @an
which would yield:
4
an = EI4wL
(n)5 n =1,3,5 (9.201)
z
or: 4 X1 5
4 wL
v = EI 5 n=1;3;5 n1 sin nx
L (9.202)
z

Draft
Figure 9.14: Example xx: External Virtual Work
and for x = L2 we would get:

4 wL 4 1 1 1
v = vmax = EI 5 1 ; 35 + 55 ; 75 + : : : (9.203)
z
Note that should we consider only the 1st term, then:
4
vmax = 76wL
:5EI vmax
exact (9.204)
z
Example 9-27: Tapered Beam; Fourrier Series

Revisiting the previous problem of a tapered beam subjected to a point load, Fig. 9.14 and
using the following approximation

v=
X
a 1 ; cos nx (9.205)
n=1;3;::: n 2l
we seek to solve for v2 and 2 , for n = 1 and n = 3.
Solution:
2
an n nx
X
v00 = 2l cos 2l (9.206)
Z L
U = 21 (v00 )2 EIz dx (9.207)
0
" 2 #2
EI1 Z L X n nx x
1 ; L dx
= 2 0 n=1;3; an 2l cos 2l (9.208)

Draft
However, we recall that:
8
0 m 6= n
cos mx nx dx =
Z L <
2l cos 2l L m=n
(9.209)
0 :
2
8
0 m 6= n
x cos mx nx dx =
Z L <
2l cos 2l L2 ; L22 2 m = n
(9.210)
0 :
8 2n
Thus combining Eqns. 9.208, 9.209, and 9.210, we obtain:

4 1X
U = 64EI 3 + 1 n4 a2 (9.211)
L3 1;3;5 4 n22 n
The potential of the external work W in turn is given by:

an + ML2 n;1
X X
W = P2 (;1) 2 nan (9.212)
| {z } | {z }
v@x=l @x=l
Finally, taking
@ = @U ; @ W = 0 (9.213)
@an @an @an
Combining Eqns. 9.211, 9.212, and 9.213 we solve for an :
n;1
2L (;1) 2 M
L3 P + n
an = 324 EI 3 + 21 2 n4
(9.214)
1 4 n
X
Solving for v2 = an we obtain:
8
PL3 + 1:ML 2
< 2:59EI1 65EI2 1 n=1
v2 = : PL3 + 1:ML (9.215)
2:55EI1 65EI1 n=3
n(;1) n;2 1 an
X
Similarly we solve for 2 = 2L
8
< PL2 + Ml n=1
1:65EI 1:05EI1
2 : PL2 + ML n=3 (9.216)
1:65EIz 1:04EI1

Draft
9.5 y Complementary Potential Energy
9.5.1 Derivation
R R
127 Eq. 9.129,
"ij ij d
; ;u uî ti d; = 0 can be rewritten as
Z Z
U0 d
; uîti d; = 0 (9.217)

;u
or
= 0 (9.218)
def
= U ; We (9.219)
Check this section
which is the principle of stationary complementary energy which states that
Of all statically admissible states of stress (stresses satisfying the equation of equilib-
rium), the actual state of stress (the one which satisfy the kinematic conditions) are
the ones for which the total complementary potential energy assumes a stationalry
value.
9.5.2 Castigliano's Second Theorem
128 Considering again a three dimensional structure subjected to external displacements (or
rotations) (or moments) ^1 ; ^2 ; ; ^n with corresponding unknown forces (or moments)
P1 ; P2 ; ; Pn . The total complementary potential energy is given by
n
X
= Wi + We = Ui ; î Pi (9.220)
i=1
129 The complementary strain energy can also be expressed in terms of the forces Pi thus the
complementary potential energy will be dened in terms of generalized coordinates or generalized
forces.
130 For the solid to be in equilibrium, = 0 or

= @W
@P1
i P1 + @Wi P2 + + @Wi Pn
@P2 @Pn
;^1P1 ; ^2 P2 ; ^nPn = 0 (9.221-a)
or
@Wi ; ^ P + @Wi ; ^ P + + @Wi ; ^ P (9.222)
@P1 1 1 @P2 2 2 @Pn n n

Draft
9.5 y Complementary Potential Energy 9{47
but since the variation Pi is arbitrary, then each factor within the parenthesis must be equal
to zero. Thus
@Wi = ^ (9.223)
@Pk k
which is Castigliano's second theorem:

If the complementary strain energy of a body is expressed in terms of forces then the
rst partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to any one of the forces, is
equal to the corresponding displacement at the point where the force is located.
Example 9-28: Cantilivered beam

Solve for the displacement of the tip of a cantiliver loaded by a point load.
Solution:
2
From Eq. 9.43, the strain energy is U = 21 M
Z L
dx, and for a point load, the external work
0 EI
is We = P thus the potential energy of the system is
= We ; U Z
L M2
= P ; 21 EI dx
0 z
However, for the point load, the moment is M = Px, substituting above
Z L 2 2
= P ; 2 PEIx dx
1
20L3
= P ; 16 2PEI
d =
dP ; 13 PEIL3 = 0
) = 1 P 2 L3
3 EI
9.5.2.1 Distributed Loads

131 Castigliano's theorem can easily be applied to problems in which the structure is subjected
to point load or moments, and we seek the de ection under these loads.
132 However when a structure is subjected to say a uniform load, and we wish to determine
the de ection at a point where no point load is applied, then we must introduce a ctitious
corresponding force R and then write the complementary strain energy interms of R and the
applied load.
Draft
Example 9-29: De ection of a Uniformly loaded Beam using Castigliano's Theorem
Considering a simply supported uniformly beam, we seek the midspan de ection.

Solution:
We introduce a ctitious force R at midspan, and the moment is thus M (x) = wL 2 x+ 2x;
R
L
w x22 . The complementary strain energy is U = 2 02 M2EI
(x) dx and the displacement
R

= @U
@R R=0
R L2 2 R L2
h i
2 @M
= EI 0 M @R dx = EI 0
wL + R
2 2 x ; w x22 x2 dx
4 R=0 R=0
5wL
= 384 EI
9.6 Comparison of Alternate Approximate Solutions

133 While we were able to assess the accuracy of our approximate solutions with respect to the
exact one, (already known), in general this is not possible. (i.e., If an exact solution is known,
there is no need for an approximate one). Thus the question is, given two or more alternate
approximate solutions which one is the best?
134 This can be determined by evaluating the potential energy of each approximate solution
and identify the lowest one.
Example 9-30: Comparison of MPE Solutions

With reference to examples (simply supported uniformly loaded beams) we can determine
for each one its Potential Energy = U ; We :
Polynomial Solution: From Eq. 9.196 and 9.195 respectively, we had:
2
a1 = 24wL
EIz (9.224)
3
= 2a21 EIz L ; a1 wL
6
!2
wL 2 wL 2 ! wL3
= 2 24EI EIz l ; 24EI 6
z z
Draft
9.7 Summary 9{49
w 2 L5 2 1
= EI 242 ; (6)(24)
z
2 5
= ; 288 wEIL
1 (9.225)
z
Trigonometric Solution: From Eq. 9.199 and 9.201 respectively we had:
4 z X1
= 4EI
L 3 n=1 a 2 n4 ; 2wL X1
n
an
n=1;2;3 n (9.226)
4 wL 4
an = EI (n)5 n = 1, 3, 5 (9.227)
z
For n = 1:
4wL4
a1 = EI (9.228)
z 5
4 EIz " 4wL4 #2 2wL " 4wL4 #
= 4L3 EI 5 ; EI 5
z z
2 5
= wEIL 416 6
6 ; 8
z
2 5
= ; 46 wEIL
z
1 w 2 L5
= ; 240 EI (9.229)
z
We note that the Trigonometric solution has a lower potential energy than the4 polynomial
approximation and is thus more accurate (the exact displacement is vmax = 76wL
:8EIz ) as shown
in Table 9.3.
wEI2 Lz5 vmax wL
EIz4 % error
Polynomial ; 288 1 1
96 17%
Trigonometric ; 240 1 1
76:6 1%
Table 9.3: Comparison of 2 Alternative Approximate Solutions
9.7 Summary
135 A summary of the various methods introduced in this chapter is shown in Fig. 9.15.
136 The duality between the two variational principles is highlighted by Fig. 9.16, where be-
ginning with kinematically admissible displacements, the principle of virtual work provides
Draft
Natural B.C.
Essential B.C.
? ? ? ?
div + b = 0 ; Du = 0
"ij ; 1 (ui;j
2 + uj;i ) = 0 ij;j = 0
t ; bt = 0 ;t u = 0 ;u ; ui ; ub = 0 ;u ti = 0 ;t
U0 def
= 0" d" U0 def
= 0 "d
R R
6 Gauss 6Gauss
? ? ? ?
Principle of Virtual Work Principle of Complementary
R VirtualR Work

ij ij d
; ;u ubi ti d; = 0
R R R

d
;
u bd
; ;t u btd; = 0 "
T T T
Wi ; We = 0 Wi ; We = 0
?
Principle of Stationary
?
Principle of Complementary
Potential Energy Stationary Potential Energy
= 0 = 0
def def We
R R U ; We R
= R = Wi + R
=
U0 d
; (
ui bi d
+ ;t ui tbi d;) =
U0 d
+ ;u ubi ti d;
?
Castigliano's Castigliano's
?
First Theorem Second Theorem
@Wi = Pc @Wi = c
@ k k @Pk k
?
Rayleigh-Ritz
n
X
uj cji ji + j0
i=1
@ = 0 i = 1; 2; ; n; j = 1; 2 ; 3
@cji
Figure 9.15: Summary of Variational Methods

Draft
9.7 Summary 9{51
Kinematically Admissible Displacements

Displacements satisfy the kinematic equations
and the the kinematic boundary conditions
6
?
Principle of Stationary Principle of Virtual Work
Complementary Energy
Principle of Complementary Principle of Stationary
Virtual Work Potential Energy
6
?
Statically Admissible Stresses
Stresses satisfy the equilibrium conditions
and the static boundary conditions
Figure 9.16: Duality of Variational Principles
statically admissible solutions. Similarly, for statically admissible stresses, the principle of
complementary virtual work leads to kinematically admissible solutions.
137 Finally, Table 9.4 summarizes some of the major equations associated with one dimensional
rod elements.

Draft
U Virtual Displacement U Virtual Force U

Z L 2
General Linear General Linear
1 P Z L Z L
E du d(u) Adx
Z L Z L P dx
Axial 2 0 AE dx "dx
0 0 | {zdx} | dx | {z }
0
"dx
0
P AE
|{z}
{z } d
|{z}
Z
" Z
"
L L
Shear ::: V xy dx ::: V xy dx :::
L M2 Z 0L Z 0L
Flexure 1
Z
dx Mdx
Z L d2 v d2(v) dx
EIz dx Mdx
Z L M dx
M EI
2 0 EIz 0 0 | {z 2} | dx 2
{z } 0 0 |{z}
| {zz}
" "
Z L T2 Z L Z L d d Z L Z L
T dx
Torsion 1
2 0 GJ dx Tdx GJ dx dxx ) dx
x ( Tdx T GJ
|{z}
0 0 | {z } | {z } 0 0 |{z}
" "
W Virtual Displacement W Virtual Force W
P 1
i 2 Pi i i Pi i i Pi i
M i 1 Mi i
Z L 2 Z L
i Mi i Z L
i Mi i
w w(x)v(x)dx w(x)v(x)dx w(x)v(x)dx
0 0 0
Table 9.4: Summary of Variational Terms Associated with One Dimensional Elements

Draft
Chapter 10
INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS
10.1 Introduction
27Application of the Principle of Virtual Displacement requires an assumed displacement eld.
This displacement eld can be approximated by interpolation functions written in terms of:
1. Unknown polynomial coecients, most appropriate for continuous systems, and the Rayleigh-
Ritz method
y = a1 + a2 x + a3x2 + a4 x3 (10.1)
A major drawback of this approach, is that the coecients have no physical meaning.
2. Unknown nodal deformations, most appropriate for discrete systems and Potential Energy
based formulations
y = = N1 1 + N2 2 + : : : + Nn n (10.2)
28For simple problems both Eqn. 10.1 and Eqn. 4y
10.2 can readily provide the exact solutions of
d
the governing dierential equation (such as dx4 = EIq for exure), but for more complex ones,
one must use an approximate one.
10.2 Shape Functions

29For an element (nite or otherwise), we can write an expression for the generalized displace-
ment (translation/rotation), at any point in terms of all its nodal ones, .
n
X
= Ni(X )i = bN(x)cfg (10.3)
i=1
where:
1. i is the (generalized) nodal displacement corresponding to d.o.f i
Draft
10{2 INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS
Figure 10.1: Axial Finite Element
2. Ni is an interpolation function, or shape function which has the following characteristics:

(a) Ni = 1 at i
(b) Ni = 0 at j where i 6= j .
3. N can be derived on the bases of:
(a) Assumed deformation state dened in terms of polynomial series.
(b) Interpolation function (Lagrangian or Hermitian).
30 We shall distinguish between two classes of problems, those involving displacements only,
and those involving displacement and their derivatives.
31 The rst class requires only continuity of displacement, and will be referred to as C 0 problems
(truss, torsion), whereas the second one requires continuity of slopes and will be referred to as
C 1 problems.
10.2.1 Axial/Torsional
32 With reference to Fig. 10.1 we start with:
= N1 1 + N2 2 (10.4)
x = N1 x1 + N2 x2 (10.5)
33Since we have 2 d.o.f's, we will assume a linear deformation state
u = a1 x + a2 (10.6)
where u can be either or , and the B.C.'s are given by: u = u1 at x = 0, and u = u2 at
x = L. Thus we have:
u1 = a2 (10.7)
Draft
10.2 Shape Functions 10{3
u2 = a1 L + a2 (10.8)
34 Solving for a1 and a2 in terms of u1 and u2 we obtain:

a1 = uL2 ; uL1 (10.9)
a2 = u1 (10.10)
35 Substituting and rearranging those expressions into Eq. 10.6 we obtain

u = ( uL2 ; uL1 )x + u1 (10.11)
= (1 ; Lx ) u1 + Lx u2 (10.12)
| {z } |{z}
N1 N2
or:
N1 = 1 ; Lx (10.13)
N2 = Lx
10.2.2 Generalization
36 The previous derivation can be generalized by writing:
( )
u = a1 x + a2 = b x 1 c aa1 (10.14)
| {z } 2
[p] | {z }
fag
where [p] corresponds to the polynomial approximation, and fag is the coecient vector.
37 We next apply the boundary conditions:
( ) " #( )
u1 = L0 11 a1 (10.15)
u2 a2
| {z } | {z }| {z }
fg [L] fag
following inversion of [L], this leads to
( ) " #( )
a1
a2 = L1 ;L1 10 u1
u2 (10.16)
| {z } | {z }| {z }
fag [L];1 f g

Draft
Figure 10.2: Flexural Finite Element
38 Substituting this last equation into Eq. 10.14, we obtain:

( )
u=b
|
(1 ; Lx ) Lx
{z
c} uu12 (10.17)
[p][L];1 | {z }
| {z } f g
[N]
39 Hence, the shape functions [N] can be directly obtained from
[N] = [p][L];1 (10.18)
10.2.3 Flexural
40 With reference to Fig. 10.2. We have 4 d.o.f.'s, fg41 : and hence will need 4 shape
functions, N1 to N4 , and those will be obtained through 4 boundary conditions. Therefore we
need to assume a polynomial approximation for displacements of degree 3.
v = a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 (10.19)
= dx dv = 3a x2 + 2a x + a (10.20)
1 2 3
41 Note that v can be rewritten as:

8 9
a1 >
>
>
>
>
>
v = b x3 x2 x 1 c > aa2
< =
(10.21)
| {z }>> 3 >
>
>
[p] :
a4 ;
| {z }
fag
42 We now apply the boundary conditions:
Draft
v = v1 a tx=0
v = v2 at x = L
dv
= 1 = dx at x = 0
dv
= 2 = dx at x = L
or: 8 9 2 38 9
>
>
>
v1 >
>
>
0
0 0 1 > 1
>
> a >
>
>
<
1 =
= 664 L3 L02 L1 01
6
0 7<
7 a
2
=
(10.22)
>
>
>
v2 >
>
>
7
5>>
>
a
3 >
>
>
:
2 ;
3L2 2L 1 0 :
a
4
;
| {z } | {z } | {z }
fg [L] fag
43 which when inverted yields:
8 9 2 38 9
>
> a1 >
> 2 L ;2 L > 1
> v >
>
>
<
a2 >
=
= 1 66 ;3L ;2L2 3L ;L2 7>
7
<
1 >
=
(10.23)
>
>
>
a3
>
>
> L3 64 0 L3 0 0 7
5>>
> 2 v >
>
>
:
a4
;
L 3 0 0 0 :
2 ;
| {z } | {z } | {z }
fag [L];1 fg
44 Combining Eq. 10.23 with Eq. 10.21, we obtain:
2 38 9
2 L ;2 L v
> 1
>
> >
>
= b x3 x2 x 1 c L3 664 ;03L ;L2L3 3L ; L2
2 >
1 6 7<
7 1
=
(10.24)
| {z } 0 0 7
5>>
>
v2 >
>
>
[p] L3 0 0 0 :
2
;
| {z } | {z }
[L];1 fg
8 9
v1 >
> >
>
(1 + 2 3 ; 3 2 ) x(1 ; )2 (3 2 ; 2 3 ) x( 2 ; ) 1 >
< >
=
= b| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } c (10.25)
N1 N2 N3 N4 > v2
> >
>
| {z }>
:
2
>
;
;1 [|p][{zL] | {z }
[N]
}
fg
where = xl .
45 Hence, the shape functions for the exural element are given by:
N1 = (1 + 23 ; 32 ) (10.26)

N2 = x(1 ; )2 (10.27)
N3 = (3 ; 2 )
2 3 (10.28)
N4 = x( ; )2 (10.29)
and are shown in Fig 10.3.
46 Table 10.1 illustrates the characteristics of those shape functions

Draft
Shape Functions for Flexure

(v1; θ1; v2; θ2)
1.0
0.8
N1
0.6
N3
N2
N4
0.4
N
0.2
0.0
−0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
ξ(x/L)
Figure 10.3: Shape Functions for Flexure of Uniform Beam Element.
=0 =1
Function Ni Ni;x Ni Ni;x
N1 = (1 + 23 ; 32 ) 1 0 0 0
N2 = x(1 ; )2 0 1 0 0
N3 = (32 ; 2 3 ) 0 0 1 0
N4 = x(2 ; ) 0 0 0 1
Table 10.1: Characteristics of Beam Element Shape Functions

Draft
10.2.4 Constant Strain Triangle Element
47 Next we consider a triangular element, Fig. 10.4 with bi-linear displacement eld (in both x
Figure 10.4: *Constant Strain Triangle Element

and y):
u = a1 + a2 x + a3 y (10.30)
v = a4 + a5x + a86y 9
(10.31)
a1 >
< >
=
= b 1 x y c > a2 >
(10.32)
| {z
[p]
}:
a3 ;
| {z }
f ag
48 As before, we rst seek the shape functions, and hence we apply the boundary conditions at
the nodes for the u displacements rst:
8 9 2 38 9
>
< u1 >
= 1 0 0 >
< 1 a >
=
>
u2 >
= 4 1 x2 0
6 7
5
> 2 a >
(10.33)
: u3 ; 1 x3 y3 :
3 a ;
| {z } | {z } | {z }
fg [L] fag
49 We then multiply the inverse of [L] in Eq. 10.33 by [p] and obtain:
u = N1 u1 + N2 u2 + N3 u3 (10.34)
where
N1 = x 1y (x2 y3 ; xy3 ; x2 y + x3 y)
2 3
Draft
N2 = x 1y (xy3 ; x3y) (10.35)

2 3
y
N3 = y
3
We observe that each of the three shape functions is equal to 1 at the corrsponding node, and
equal to 0 at the other two.
50 The same shape functions can be derived for v :
v = N1 v1 + N2 v2 + N3 v3 (10.36)
51 Hence, the displacement eld will be given by:

8 9
>
> u1 >
>
( ) "
>
>
#>
>
>
v1 >
>
>
>
>
u = N01 N0 N02 N0 N03 N0
<
u2 =
(10.37)
v 1 2 3 >
>
>
v2 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
u3 >
>
>
>
;
v3
52 The element is refereed to as Constant Strain Triangle (CST) because it has a linear dis-
placement eld, and hence a constant strain.
10.3 Interpolation Functions

53 Based on the preceding examples, we now seek to derive a \general formula" for shape
functions of polynomials of various orders.
10.3.1 C 0: Lagrangian Interpolation Functions
54 In our earlier approach, the shape functions were obtained by:
1. Assumption of a polynomial function: = bpcfag
2. Application of the boundary conditions fg = [L]fag
3. Inversion of [L]
4. And nally [N] = [p][L];1
55 By following these operations, we have in eect dened the Lagrangian Interpolation Func-
tions for problems with C 0 interelement continuity (i.e continuity of displacement only).

Draft
10.3 Interpolation Functions 10{9
56 The Lagrangian interpolation denes the coecients ([N] in our case) of a polynomial series
representation of a function in terms of values dened at discrete points (nodes in our case).
For points along a line this would yield:
Qm+1
(x;x )
Ni = Qmj=1+1;j6=i(xi ;xjj ) (10.38)
j =1;j 6=i
57 If expanded, the preceding equation would yield:

N1 = (x(x;;xx2)()(xx ;;xx3 ))((xx;;xmx+1 ) )
1 2 1 3 1 m+1
( x ; x )( x ; x ) ( x ; x
N2 = (x ; x 1)(x ; x3 ) (x ; mx+1 ) ) (10.39)
2 1 2 3 2 m+1
Nm+1 = (x (;x ;x x)(1x)(x ; ;x2x) ) (x (;x xm ); x )
m+1 1 m+1 2 m+1 m
58 For the axial member, m = 1, x1 = 0, and x2 = L, the above equations will result in:
= (x ; L) + x = (1 ; x ) + x
;L 1 L 2 L} 1 L (10.40)
2
| {z |{z}
N1 N2
which is identical to Eq. 10.12.
10.3.1.1 Constant Strain Quadrilateral Element
59 Next we consider a quadrilateral element, Fig. 10.5 with bi-linear displacement eld (in both
x and y).
60 Using the Lagrangian interpolation function of Eq. 10.38, and starting with the u displace-
ment, we perform two interpolations: the rst one along the bottom edge (1-2) and along the
top one (4-3).
61 From Eq. 10.38 with m = 1 we obtain:
u12 = xx2 ;;xx u1 + xx1 ;;xx u2

2 1 1 2
a ; x x
= 2a u1 + 2a u2 + a (10.41)
62 Similarly
u43 = xx2 ;;xx u4 + xx1 ;;xx u3
2 1 1 2
a ; x x
= 2a u4 + 2a u3 + a (10.42)
Draft
Figure 10.5: Constant Strain Quadrilateral Element
63Next, we interpolate in the y direction along 1-4 and 2-3 between u12 and u43 . Again, we
use Eq. 10.38 however this time we replace x by y:
u = yy2 ;;yy u12 + yy1 ;;yy u43 (10.43)
2 1 1 2
= b 2;b y a 2;a x u1 + b 2;b y x 2+a a u2 + y 2+b b a 2;a x u4 + y 2+b b x 2+a a u3
= (a ; x4)(abb ; y) u1 + (a + x4)(abb ; y) u2 + (a + x4)(abb + y) u3 + (a ; x4)(abb + y) u4
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
N1 N2 N3 N1
64 One can easily check that at each node i the corresponding Ni is equal to 1, and all others
to zero, and that at any point N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 = 1. Hence, the displacement eld will be
given by: 8 9
>
>
>
u1 >
>
>
>
>
>
> v1 >
>
>
>
( ) "
>
>
#>
>
>
u2 >
>
>
>
>
u = N01 N0 N02 N0 N03 N0 N04 N0
<
v2 =
(10.44)
v 1 2 3 4 >
>
>
u3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
v3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
u4 >
>
>
>
:
v4 ;

Draft
10.3 Interpolation Functions 10{11
10.3.1.2 Solid Rectangular Trilinear Element
65 By extension to the previous derivation, the shape functions of a solid rectangular trilinear
solid element, Fig. 10.6 will be given by:
Figure 10.6: Solid Trilinear Rectangular Element

8 9
>
>
>
u1 >
>
>
>
>
>
> v1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
w1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> u2 >
>
>
>
8
> u
9
>
2
N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4 0 0
3>>
>
>
>
v2 >
>
>
>
>
<
v
=
= 4 0
6
N1 0 0 N 2 0 0 N 3 0 0 N 4 0 7
<
w2 =
(10.45)
>
: w >
; 0 0 N1 0 0 N2 0 0 N3 0 0 N4
5
>
>
>
u3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
v3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
w3 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
u4 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
v4 >
>
>
>
:
w4 ;
where
Ni = (a x)(b8abc
y)(c z) (10.46)
10.3.2 C 1: Hermitian Interpolation Functions

66 For problems involving the rst derivative of the shape function, that is with C 1 interelement
continuity (i.e continuity of rst derivative or slope) such as for exure, Hermitian interpolation
functions rather than Lagrangian ones should be used.

Draft
Constant a1
Linear a2 x a3 y
Quadratic a4 x2 a5 xy a6 y 2 (10.47)
Cubic a7 x3 a8 x2 y a9 xy 2 a10 y 3
Quartic a11 x4 a12 x3 y a13 x2 y 2 a14 xy 3 a15 x4
Table 10.2: Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial Series (1D & 2D)
Element Terms # of Nodes
(terms)
Linear a1 , a2 2
Quadratic a1 , a2 , a4 3
Bi-Linear (triangle) a1 , a2 , a3 , 3
Bi-Linear (quadrilateral) a1 , a2 , a3 , a5 4
Bi-Quadratic (Serendipity) a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a8 , a9 8
Bi-Quadratic (Lagrangian) a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a8 , a9 , a13 9
Table 10.3: Polynomial Terms in Various Element Formulations (1D & 2D)
67 Hermitian interpolation functions are piecewise cubic functions which satisfy the conditions
of displacement and slope (C 0 , C 1 ) continuities. They are exensively used in CAD as Bezier
curves.
10.4 Interpretation of Shape Functions in Terms of Polynomial

Series
68 A schematic interpretation of shape functions in terms of polynomial series terms is given in
Table 10.2.
69 Polynomial terms present in various element formulations is shown in Table 10.3
10.5 Characteristics of Shape Functions

1. The basis of derivation of shape functions could be:
(a) A polynomial relation
i. Exact
ii. Approximation
(b) Or other
i. Logarithmic

Draft
10.5 Characteristics of Shape Functions 10{13
ii. Trigonometric
2. Shape functions should
(a) be continuous, of the type required by the variational principle.
(b) exhibit rigid body motion (i.e. v = a1 + : : :)
(c) exhibit constant strain.
3. Shape functions should be complete, and meet the same requirements as the coecients
of the Rayleigh Ritz method.
4. Shape functions can often be written in non-dimensional coordinates (i.e. = xl ). This
will be exploited later by Isoparametric elements.

Draft

Draft
Chapter 11
FINITE ELEMENT
FORMULATION
27 Having introduced the virtual displacement method in chapter 9, the shape functions in
chapter 10, and nally having reviewed the basic equations of elasticity in chapter 8, we shall
present a general energy based formulation of the element stiness matrix in this chapter.
28 Whereas chapter 2 derived the stiness matrices of one dimensional rod elements, the ap-
proach used could not be generalized to general nite element. Alternatively, the derivation of
this chapter will be applicable to both one dimensional rod elements or contnuum (2D or 3D)
elements.
11.1 Strain Displacement Relations

29 The displacement at any point inside an element can be written in terms of the shape
functions bNc and the nodal displacements fg
(x) = bN(x)cfg (11.1)
The strain is then dened as:
"(x) = [B(x)]fg (11.2)
where [B] is the matrix which relates joint displacements to strain eld and is clearly expressed
in terms of derivatives of N.
11.1.1 Axial Members
(1 ; Lx ) x ( )
u(x) = b | {z } L c uu1
|{z} (11.3)
N1 N2 2
| {z }| {z }
bNc f g
Draft
11{2 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION
6 7
du =
6
6 ; L1 L1 7(
7
u1
)
"(x) = "x = dx 6
4 |{z}
7
|{z} 5
u2 (11.4)
@N1 @N2
@x {z @x } | {z }
fg
|
[B]
11.1.2 Flexural Members

30 Using the shape functions for exural elements previously derived in Eq. 10.29 we have:
d2 v
" = y = y dx (11.5)
2
1 M
= EI (11.6)
d2 v
= y dx (11.7)
2
8 9
6 (2 ; 1) ; 2 (3 ; 2) 6 (;2 + 1) ; 2 (3 ; 1)
6
6
7>
7> v
> 1
>
>
>
L
6
= y 2 {z } | L {z } |L2 {z } | L {z
6
7<
7 1
=
(11.8)
4 |
@ 2 N1 @ 2 N2 @ 2 N3 @ 2 N4
} 5
>
>
>
v 2 >
>
>
|
@x2 @x2 {z
@x2 @x2 :

} | {z2
;
}
[B]
fg
11.2 Virtual Displacement and Strains

31 In anticipation of the application of the principle of virtual displacement, we dene the vectors
of virtual displacements and strain in terms of nodal displacements and shape functions:
(x) = [N(x)]fg (11.9)
"(x) = [B(x)]fg (11.10)
11.3 Element Stiness Matrix Formulation

32 In one dimensional elements with initial strain (temperature eect, support settlement, or
other) such that:
"x = x + "0x (11.11)
E
|{z}
|{z}
due to load initial strain
thus:
x = E"x ; E"0x (11.12)

Draft
11.3 Element Stiness Matrix Formulation 11{3
33 Generalizing, and in matrix form:
fg = [D]fg ; [D]f0g (11.13)
where [D] is the constitutive matrix which relates stress and strain vectors.
34 The element will be subjected to a load q (x) acting on its surface
35 Let us now apply the principle of virtual displacement and restate some known relaations:
U = W
Z
(11.14)
U = bcf gd
(11.15)

fg = [D]fg ; [D]f0 g (11.16)

fg = [B]fg (11.17)
fg = [B]fg (11.18)
bc = bc[B]T (11.19)
36 Combining Eqns. 11.14, 11.15, 11.16, 11.19, and 11.17, the internal virtual strain energy
is given by:
Z Z
U = b{zc[B]T} [|D][B{z]fg} d
; b|{zc[B]T} [|D]{zf0g} d
fg f g fg f 0 g
Z Z
= bc [B]T [D][B] d
fg ; bc [B]T [D]f"i gd
(11.20)

37 the virtual external work in turn is given by:

Z
W = bc Fg + bcq(x)dx
f|{z} (11.21)
| {z } l
Virt. Nodal Displ. Nodal Force
38 combining this equation with:

fg = [N]fg (11.22)
yields: Z l
W = bcfFg + bc [N]T q(x) dx (11.23)
0
39 Equating the internal strain energy Eqn. 11.20 with the external work Eqn. 11.23, we obtain:
Z Z
b c [B]T [D][B] d
fg ; bc [B]T [D]f"i gd
=
|
{z } |
{z }
[k] fF0 g
| {z }
U
Draft
11{4 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION
Z l
bcfFg + bc [N]T q(x) dx (11.24)
| 0 {z }
fFe g
| {z }
W
40 Cancelling out the b c term, this is the same equationn of

o equilibrium as the one written
earlier on. It relates the (unknown) nodal displacement , the structure stiness matrix
[k], the external nodal force vector fFg, the distributed element force fFeg, and the vector of
initial displacement.
41 From this relation we dene:
The element stiness matrix:
Z
[k] = [B]T [D][B]d
(11.25)

Element initial force vector:

Z
fFig = [B]T [D]f"i gd
(11.26)

Element equivalent load vector:

Z l
fFeg = [N] q(x) dx (11.27)
0
and the general equation of equilibrium can be written as:
[k]fg ; fF0 g = fFg + fFe g (11.28)
11.3.1 Stress Recovery
42 Whereas from the preceding section, we derived a general relationship in which the nodal
displacements are the primary unknowns, we next seek to determine the internal (generalized)
stresses which are most often needed for design.
43 Recalling that we have:
fg = [D]fg (11.29)

fg = [B]fg (11.30)
With the vector of nodal displacement fg known, those two equations would yield:
f g = [D] [B]fg (11.31)

Draft
Chapter 12
SOME FINITE ELEMENTS
12.1 Introduction
27 Having rst introduced the method of virtual displacements in Chapter 9, than the shape
functions [N] (Chapter 10) which relate internal to external nodal displacements, than the
basic equations of elasticity (Chapter 8) which dened the [D] matrix, and nally having
applied the virtual displacement method to nite element in chapter 11, we now revisit some
one dimensional element whose stiness matrix was earlier derived, and derive the stiness
matrices of additional two dimensional nite elements.
12.2 Truss Element

28 The shape functions of the truss element were derived in Eq. 10.13:
N1 = 1 ; Lx
N2 = Lx
29 The corresponding strain displacement relation [B] is given by:
"x = ddxu
= [ dN 1 dN2
dx dx ]
= [ ; L1 L1 ] (12.1)
| {z }
[B]
30 Z the constitutive matrix [D] reduces to the scalar E; Hence, substituting

For the truss element,
into Eq. 11.25 [k] = [B]T [D][B]d
and with d
= Adx for element with constant cross

Draft
12{2 SOME FINITE ELEMENTS
sectional area we obtain: ( )
[k] = A
Z L ; L1 E b ; 1 1 cdx
1 L L
0 L
" #
[k] = AE
Z L
1 ;1
L 2 0 ;1 1 dx
" # (12.2)
= AE 1 ;1
L ;1 1
31 We observe that this stiness matrix is identical to the one earlier derived in Eq. 2.45.
12.3 Flexural Element

32For a beam element, for which we have previously derived the shape functions in Eq. 10.29
and the [B] matrix in Eq. 11.8, substituting in Eq. 11.25:
Z lZ
[k] = [B]T [D][B] y2 dA dx (12.3)
0 A
Z
and noting that y2 dA = Iz Eq. 11.25 reduces to
A
Z l
[k] = [B]T [D][B]Iz dx (12.4)
0
33 For this simple case, we have: [D] = E , thus:
Z l
[k] = EIz [B]T [B] dx (12.5)
0
34 Using the shape function for the beam element from Eq. 10.29, and noting the change of
integration variable from dx to d , we obtain
8 6 9
Z 1>
> L 2 (2 ; 1) >
>
[k] = EIz
<
; L2 (3 ; 2) = 62 (2 ; 1) ; 2 (3 ; 2) 62 (;2 + 1) ; 2 (3 ; 1) Ld (12.6)
6 (;2 + 1) L L L L
0> > |{z}
: L 2
> >
2
; L (3 ; 1) ; dx
or
2
v1 1 v2 2 3
V166 12LEI3 z 6EI L2

z ; 12LEI3 z 6EI z
L2 7 7
M16 L2
6 6 EI z 4 EI
L
z ; L2
6 EI z 2 EI
L
z 7 (12.7)
[k] = V266 ; 12EI3 z ; 6EI2 z 12EI3 z ; 6EI2 z 777
L 2EILz 6LEIz 4EILz 7
M264 6EIL 2
z
L ; L 2 L 5
Which is identical to the beam stiness matrix derived in Eq. 2.45 from equilibrium relations.
Draft
12.4 Triangular Element 12{3
12.4 Triangular Element
35 Having retrieved the stiness matrices of simple one dimensional elements using the principle
of virtual displacement, we next consider two dimensional continuum elements starting with
the triangular element of constant thickness t made out of isotropic linear elastic material. The
element will have two d.o.f's at each node:
n o
= b u1 u2 u3 v1 v2 v3 ct (12.8)
12.4.1 Strain-Displacement Relations

36 The strain displacement relations is required to determine [B]
37 For the 2D plane elasticity problem, the strain vector fg is given by:
fg = b "x "y xy ct (12.9)
hence we can rewrite the strains in terms of the derivatives of the shape functions through the
matrix [B]: 8 9 2 @N 3
< "x > 0 ( )
>
" y
=
= 4 0
6
@x @N 7 u (12.10)
>
: xy ;> @N @N
@y 5
v
|
@y {z @x
| {z }
} n o
[B]
38 We note that because we have 3 u and 3 v displacements, the size of [B] and [] are 3 6
and 6 1 respectively.
39 Dierentiating the shape functions from Eq. 10.35 we obtain:
2
; 1 1 0 0 0 0
3
6 x
6 | {z 2} 2x
|{z}
|{z}
@N3
7
7
6 78 9
6
6
@N1
@x
@N2
@x
@x u
7> 1 >
7> >
8
> "x
9
>
6
6
0 0 0 x3 ; x2 ; ;x3 1 7>
7>
>
>
>
u2
>
>
>
>
>
<
"y
=
=
6
6
6
x2 y3 } | x{z2 y3} |{z}
y3 7<
7
7
u3
=
(12.11)
>
:
xy
; > 6
6
| {z
@N1 @N2 @N3 7>
7>
v
> 1 >
>
>
6
x ; x ; ;x3 1
@y @y @y 7>>
> v2
>
>
>
; x1 1
| {z } 6 7> >
fg 6 3 2 0 7 :
v ;
3
6
6 x y | x{z2 y3} |{z}
2 3
4 | {z }
y3 | {z 2}
x 2
|{z}
|{z}
@N3
7
7 | {z }
5 n o
@N1
@y
@N1
@y
@N3
@x
@N1
@x
@N2
@x
@x
| {z }
[B]

Draft
12.4.2 Stiness Matrix
40With the constitutive matrix [D] given by Eq. ??, the strain-displacement relation [B] by
Eq. 12.11, we can substitute those two quantities into the general equation for stiness matrix,
Eq. 11.25:
Z
[k] = [B]T [D][B]d

2 3
; x12 0 x3 ;x2
x2 y3
6 1
x2 0 ; x;2xy33 7 " #
Z 6
6 0 0 1 7
7 E 1 0
= 6 x3 ;x2 y3 7 1 0
6

6 0 x2 y3 ; x12 7 1 ; 2
7 0 0 1; )
4 0 ; x;2xy33 1
x2 5| {z 2 }
0 1 0 [D]
|
y{z
3
}
[B]T
2 3
; x12 1
x2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 x3 ;x2 ; x;2xy33 1 (12.12)
4
x3 ;x2 x2 y3 y3 5 tdxdy
x2 y3 ; ;x3
x2 y3
1 ;
y3 {z x2
1 1
x2 0 |dvol{z }
| }
[B]
2 3
y32 + x23;2 ;y32 2; x3 x23;2 x2 x3;2 ;y3 x3;2 x3 y3 + y3 x3;2 ;x2 y3
6 ;y32 ; x3 x3;2 y 3 + x 3 ; x 2 x 3 y3 x 3; 2 + x 3 y 3 ;x3 y3 x2 y3 7
6 7
6 x
= 6 ;y3 x3;2 2 x 3; 2 ; x 2 x3 x 2
2 ; x 2 y 3 x 2 y 3 0 7
6 y3 x3;2 + x3 y3 ;x2 y3 y32 + x23;2 ;y32 ; x3 x3;2 x2 x3;2 7
7
4 x3 y3 + y3 x3;2 ;x3 y3 x2 y3 ;y32 ; x3 x3;2 y32 + x23 ;x22x3 5
;x2y3 x2 y3 0 x2 x3;2 ;x2 x3 x2
where = 1;2 , = 1+2 , = 2(1;ET 2 )x2 y3 , x3;2 = x3 ; x2 , and y3;2 = y3 ; y2 .
12.4.3 Internal Stresses

41Recall from Eq. 11.31 that f g = [D] [B]fg hence for this particular element we will
have:
8 9
>
> u1 >
>
8
> x
9
>
2
1 0
32
; x12 1 0 0 0 0
3>>
>
>
>
u2 >
>
>
>
>
< = E x2 <
u3 =
y = 1 ; 2 6
1 0 76
0 0 0 xx32;yx32 ; x;2xy331 7
y3 5 >
4
1; )
54
x3 ;x2 ; x;2xy33 v1
y3 {z ; x2
> > 1 1 1 >
: xy
; 0 0 2 x2 y3 x2 0 >
>
>
> v2
>
>
>
>
| {z } | {z }| }>>
:
>
>
;
f g [D] [B] v3
| {z }
n o


Draft
12.5 Quadrilateral Element 12{5
8 9
>
> u1 >
>
2
;y3 y3 0 x3;2 ;x3 x2
3>>
>
>
>
u2 >
>
>
>
>
= 64 ;y3 y3 0 x3;2 ;x3 x2 7
<
u3 =
(12.13)
x3;2 ;x3 x2 ;y3 y3 0
5
>
>
>
v1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
v2 >
>
>
>
;
v3
where = (1;E2 )x2 y3
42 We should note that for this element the stress is independent of x and y because a linear
displacement relation was assumed resulting in a constant strain and stress (for linear elastic
material).
12.4.4 Observations
43 For this element we should note that:
1. Both and " are constants
2. Interelement equilibrium conditions are not satised
3. Interelement continuity of displacement is satised
12.5 Quadrilateral Element

Draft

Draft
Chapter 13
GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
13.1 Strong Form
27 Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744.
28 An initially straight member is concentrically loaded, and all bers remain elastic until
buckling occur.
29 For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown in Fig.
13.1. Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor imperfection
P P
x
x and y are
principal axes
x
Slightly bent position

L
Figure 13.1: Euler Column

is present.
13.1.1 Lower Order Dierential Equation
30At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the
concentric load P , gives rise to a moment
Mz = ;Py (13.1)
Draft
13{2 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
Note that the value of y is irrelevant.
31 Recalling that
d2 y = Mz (13.2)
dx2 EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following dierential equation
d2 y ; P y = 0 (13.3)
dx2 EI
32 P , the solution to this second-order linear dierential equation is
Letting k2 = EI
y = ;A sin kx ; B cos kx (13.4)
33 The two constants are determined by applying the boundary conditions

1. y = 0 at x = 0, thus B = 0
2. y = 0 at x = L, thus
A sin kL = 0 (13.5)
34 This last equation can be satised if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no de ection; 2) kL = 0, that
is no applied load; or 3)
kL = n (13.6)
;
P = n 2 or
Thus buckling will occur if EI L
2 2
P = n L2EI
35The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature de ection, will occur for n = 1; Thus
Euler critical load for a pinned column is
2
Pcr = LEI
2 (13.7)
36 The corresponding critical stress is

2
cr = E2 (13.8)
L
r
where I = Ar2 .
37 Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.

Draft
13.1 Strong Form 13{3
13.1.2 Higher Order Dierential Equation
38 In the preceding approach, the buckling loads were obtained for a column with specied
boundary conditons. A second order dierential equation, valid specically for the member
being analyzed was used.
39 In the next approach, we derive a single fourth order equation which will be applicable to
any column regardelss of the boundary conditions.
40 Considering a beam-column subjected to axial and shear forces as well as a moment, Fig.
13.2, taking the moment about i for the beam segment and assuming the angle dxdv between the
axis of the beam and the horizontal axis is small, leads to
2
dM ( dx ) dV
M ; M + dx dx + w 2 + V + dx dx ; P dx dx = 0 dv (13.9)
41 Neglecting the terms in dx2 which are small, and then dierentiating each term with respect
to x, we obtain
d2 M ; dV ; P d2 v = 0 (13.10)
dx2 dx dx2
42 However, considering equilibrium in the y direction gives
dV = ;w (13.11)
dx
43 From beam theory, neglecting axial and shear deformations, we have
d2 v
M = ;EI dx (13.12)
2
44Substituting Eq. 13.11 and 13.12 into 13.10, and assuming a beam of uniform cross section,
we obtain
4 2
EI d v4 ; P d v2 = w
dx dx
(13.13)
45 P , the general solution of this fourth order dierential equation to any set
Introdcing k2 = EI
of boundary conditions is
v = C1 sin kx + C2 cos kx + C3 x + C4 (13.14)
46 If we consider again the stability of a hinged-hinged column, the boundary conditions are
v = 0; v;xx = 0 at x = 0 (13.15)
v = 0; v;xx = 0 at x = L
Draft
w(x)
P P
x
dx
y,u
w
M
δV
P i V+ δx dx
V
δv P
δx
dx
M+ δM
δx dx
θi i P
P
j
P
θj
dx
Figure 13.2: Simply Supported Beam Column; Dierential Segment; Eect of Axial Force P

Draft
13.1 Strong Form 13{5
substitution of the two conditions at x = 0 leads to C2 = C4 = 0. From the remaining
conditions, we obtain
C1 sin kL + C3 L = 0 (13.16-a)
;C1k sin kl = 0
2 (13.16-b)
these relations are satised either if C1 = C3 = 0 or if sin kl = C3 = 0. The rst alternative
leads to the trivial solution of equilibrium at all loads, and the second to kL = n for n =
1; 2; 3 . For n = 1, the critical load is
2
Pcr = LEI
2 (13.17)
which was derived earlier using the lower order dierential equation.
47 Next we consider a column with one end xed (at x = 0), and one end hinged (at x = L).
The boundary conditions are
v = 0; v;xx = 0 at x = 0 (13.18)
v = 0; v;x = 0 at x = L
These boundary conditions will yield C2 = C4 = 0, and
sin kL ; kL cos kL = 0 (13.19)
But since cos kL can not possibly be equal to zero, the preceding equation can be reduced to
tan kL = kL (13.20)
which is a transcendental algebraic equation and can only be solved numerically. We are
essentially looking at the intersection of y = x and y = tan x, Fig. 13.3 and the smallest
P , the smallest critical load is
positive root is kL = 4:4934, since k2 = EI
2 2 EI
Pcr = (4:4934)
L2 EI = (0:699L)2
(13.21)
Note that if we were to solve for x such that v;xx = 0 (i.e. an in ection point), then x = 0:699L.
48 We observe that in using the higher order dierential equation, we can account for both
natural and essential boundary conditions.
13.1.3 Slenderness Ratio
49 For dierent boundary conditions, we dene the slenderness ratio
= lre
q
where le is the eective length and is equal to le = kl and r the radius of gyration (r = AI ).
50 le is the distance between two adjacent (ctitious or actual) in ection points, Fig. 13.4

Draft
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Figure 13.3: Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged
Column
13.2 Weak Form
13.2.1 Strain Energy
51 Considering a uniform section prismatic element, Fig. ??, subjected to axial and exural
deformation (no shear), the Lagrangian nite strain-displacement relation is given by ??
"xx = u;x + 21 (u2;x + v;x2 + w;x2 ) (13.22)
thus, the total strain would be
du d2v ! 1
dv 2
"xx = dx ; y dx2 + 2 {zdx } (13.23)
|{z} |
Axial |Flexure
{z }
Large Deformation
52 we note that the rst and second terms are the familiar components of axial and exural
strains respectively, and the third one (which is nonlinear) is obtained from large-de ection
strain-displacement.
53 The Strain energy of the element is given by
Z
e 1
U = 2 E"2xx d
(13.24)


Draft
13.2 Weak Form 13{7
Pcr Pcr Pcr
i.p.
l/4 i.p.
i.p.
<kl<l
kl=l kl= l l l
2
2
l
i.p.
l/4
i.p.
i.p.
Pcr Pcr Pcr
k=1 k=1/2 1/2<k<1
Pcr Pcr Pcr

i.p.
l l<kl<
8
i.p. l
l
kl=21
kl=1
Pcr
Pcr Pcr
i.p.
l<kl<
8
i.p.
k=2 k=1
Figure 13.4: Critical lengths of columns

Draft
54 Substituting Eq. 13.23 into U e we obtain
2 !2 !
2 2 4
e 1
U = 2
Z Z
4
du + y 2 d v 1 dv du
+ 4 dx ; 2y dx dx d2 v
L A dx dx2 2
! #
d2 v
;y dx dv 2 + du dv 2 EdAdx (13.25-a)
2 dx dx dx
55 Noting that Z Z Z
dA = A; ydA = 0; y2 dA = I (13.26)
A A A
for y measured from the centroid, U e reduces to
2 !2 3
2
Z
U e = 21 E 4A du + I d2 v
dv 4 + A du dv 2 5 dx
+ A4 dx (13.27)
L dx dx2 dx dx
4
We discard the highest order term A4 dx
dv in order to transform the above equation into a
linear instability formulation.
56 Under the assumption of an independent prebuckling analysis for axial loading, the axial
load Px is
du
Px = EA dx (13.28)
Thus Eq. 13.27 reduces to
2 ! 3
U e = 21
Z
4

du + EI
EA dx
2
d2 v 2 + P dv 25 dx (13.29)
dx2 x dx
L
57We can thus decouple the strain energy into two components, one associated with axial and
the other with exural deformations
U e = Uae + Ufe (13.30-a)
2
Uae = 21 du dx
EA dx
Z
(13.30-b)
L2 3
1 Z
d 2 v !2
dv 2
Ufe = 2 4EI dx2 + Px dx 5 dx (13.30-c)
L

Draft
13.2 Weak Form 13{9
13.2.2 Euler Equation
58Recall, from Eq. 9.15 that a functional in terms of two eld variables (u and v) with higher
order derivatives of the form
Z Z
= F (x; y; u; v; u;x ; u;y ; v;x ; v;y ; ; v;yy )dxdy (13.31)
There would be as many Euler equations as dependent eld variables, Eq. 9.16
8
< @u ; @x @u;x ; @y @u;y + @x2 @u;xx + @x@y @u;xy + @y2 @u;yy = 0
> @F @ @F @ @F @ 2 @F @ 2 @F @ 2 @F
(13.32)
: @v ; @x @v;x ; @y @v;y + @x2 @v;xx + @x@y @v;xy + @y2 @v;yy = 0
> @F @ @F @ @F @ 2 @F @ 2 @F @ 2 @F
59 For the problem at hand, those two equations reduce to

Z
Ufe = 12 EIv;xx
h i
2 + P v2 dx (13.33)
x ;x
L| {z }
F
and the corresponding Euler equation will be
2
@ @F + @ @F = 0
; @x @v;x @x2 @v;xx (13.34)
The terms of the Euler Equation are given by
@F
@v;x = Px v;x (13.35-a)
@F = EIv (13.35-b)
@v;xx ;xx
Substituting into the Euler equation, and assuming constant Px , and EI , we obtain
d4 v ; P d2 v = 0
EI dx (13.36)
4 x dx2
which is identical to Eq. 13.13

13.2.3 Discretization
60 Assuming a functional representation of the transverse displacements in terms of the four
joint displacements
v = Nv (13.37-a)
dv
dx = N;xv (13.37-b)
d2 v = N v (13.37-c)
dx2 ;xx

Draft
61 Substituting this last equation into Eq. 13.30-c, the element potential energy is given by
e = Ufe + W e (13.38-a)
1 1
= 2 bve c[ke ] fve g + 2 bve c[kg ] fveg ; bvc fPg (13.38-b)
where Z
[ke ] = EI fN;xxg bN;xxcdx (13.39)
L
and
Z
[kg ] = P fN;xg bN;xcdx (13.40)
L
where [ke ] is the conventional element exural stiness matrix.
62 [kg ] introduces the considerations related to elastic instability. We note that its terms solely
depend on geometric parameters (length), therefore this matrix is often referred to as the
geometric stiness matrix.
63 Using the shape functions for exural elements, Eq. 10.29, and substituting into Eq. 13.39
and Eq. 13.40 we obtain
2
u1 v1 1 u2 v2 2 3
EA
L 0 0 ; EA
L 0 0
6
6 0 12EI
L3
6EI
L2 0 ; 12LEI3 6EI
L2
7
7
6
6
ke = ; EA
6
0 6EI
L2
4EI
L 0 ; 6LEI2 2EI
L
7
7
7 (13.41)
6 0 0 EA 0 0 7
6 L L 7
6
40 ; 12LEI 3 ; 6LEI2 0 12LEI3 ; 6EI 7
L2 5
0 6EI
L2
2EI
L 0 ; 6LEI2 4EI
L
which is the same element stiness matrix derived earlier in Eq. 12.7.
64 The geometric stiness matrix is given by
2 u1 v1 1 u2 v2 2 3
0 06 L0 0 0 0
6
6
6
0 5 10 0 ; 65 10L 2 777
0 10L 152 L2 0 ; 10L ; L30 77
kg = PL (13.42)
6
6
6 0 06 0L 0 0 0 7
6
6
6
0 ; 5 ; 10 0 65 ; 10L 777
4 0 10L ; L302 0 ; 10L 152 L2 5
65 The equilibrium relation is thus

kv = P (13.43)
Draft
13.3 Elastic Instability 13{11
where the element stiness matrix is expressed in terms of both the elastic and geometric
components)
k = ke + kg (13.44)
66 In a global formulation,we would have
K = Ke + Kg (13.45)
67 We assume that conservative loading is applied, that is the direction of the load does not
\follow" the de ected direction of the member upon which it acts.
13.3 Elastic Instability

68 In elastic instability, the intensity of the axial load system to cause buckling is yet unknown,
the incremental stiness matrix must rst be numerically evaluated using an arbitrary chosen
load intensity (since Kg is itself a function of P ).
69 For buckling to occur, the intensity of the axial load system must be times the initially
arbitrarily chosen intensity of the force. Note that for a structure, the initial distribution of P
must be obtained from a linear elastic analysis. Hence, the buckling load, P is given by
P = P (13.46)
70 Since the geometric stiness matrix is proportional to the internal forces at the start, it
follows that
Kg = Kg (13.47)

where Kg corresponds to the geometric stiness matrix for unit values of the applied loading
( = 1).
71 The elastic stiness matrix Ke remains a constant, hence we can write
(Ke + Kg )v ; P = 0

72The displacements are in turn given by
v = (Ke + Kg );1 P
and for the displacements to tend toward innity, then
jKe + Kg j = 0 (13.48)

Draft
which can also be expressed as
jK;g 1Ke + Ij = 0 (13.49)
73 Alternatively, it can simply be argued that there is no unique solution (bifurcation condition)
to v.
74 The lowest value of , crit will give the buckling load for the structure and the buckling
loads will be given by
Pcrit = critP (13.50)
75 The corresponding deformed shape is directly obtained from the corresponding eigenvector.
Example 13-31: Column Stability

Determine the buckling load of the following column.
P
1
2
3
(1) l
5
6 4
l
(2)
8
9
Solution:

Draft
The following elastic stiness matrices are obtained
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 3
EA
L 0 0 ; EA
L 0 0
6
6 0 12EI
L3
6EI
L2 0 ; 12LEI3 6EI
L2
7
7
k1e =
6
6
6
0 6EI
L2
4EI
L 0 ; 6LEI2 2EI
L
7
7
7 (13.51-a)
6
6 ; EA
L 0 0 EA
L 0 0 7
7
6
4 0 ; 12LEI3 ; 6LEI2 0 12EI
L3 ; 6EI 7
L2 5
0 6EI
L2
2EI
L 0 ; 6LEI2 4EI
L
2
4 5 6 7 8 9 3
EA
L 0 0 ; EA
L 0 0
6
6 0 12EI
L3
6EI
L2 0 ; 12LEI3 6EI
L2
7
7
k2e =
6
6
6
0 6EI
L2
4EI
L 0 ; 6LEI2 2EI
L
7
7
7 (13.51-b)
6
6 ; EA
L 0 0 EA
L 0 0 7
7
6
4 0 ; 12LEI3 ; 6LEI2 0 12EI
L3 ; 6EI 7
L2 5
0 6EI
L2
2EI
L 0 ; 6LEI2 4EI
L
Similarly, the geometric stiness matrices are given by
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
60
6
6
5
L
10 0 ; 65 10L 2 777
k1g = ;LP ; 10L ; L30 77
6 L 2 2
60
6 10 15 L 0 (13.52-a)
60 0 0 0 0 0 7
6 7
4 0 ;5 ; 10L2 ; 10L
6 6 0 6 7
5 5
0 10L ; L30 0 ; 10L 2 2
15 L
2
4 5 6 7 8 9 3
0 65 L
10 0 ; 65 L
10 2
6
60 L 2 2
15 L 0 ; 10L ; L30 7
k2g = ;LP
7
6 10 7
60 0 0 0 0 0 7 (13.52-b)
6 7
6 0 ;6 ; 10L2 0 6 ; 10L 7
4 5 5 5
0 10L ; L30 0 ; 10L 2 2
15 L
The structure's stiness matrices Ke and Kg can now be assembled from the element sti-
nesses. Eliminating rows and columns 2, 7, 8, 9 corresponding to zero displacements in the
column, we obtain
1 4 3 5 6
I 2 ; I2
2 AL2 AL 2
0 0 0 3
6; I
6 AL
EI 2 ALI 0 0 0 777
Ke = L3 66 0
6
0 4L2 ;6L 2L2 77 (13.53)
4 0 0 ;6L 24 0 5
0 0 2L2 0 8L2
Draft
and
1 4 3 5 6
2
0 0 0 0 0 3
60 0 0 0 0 2 77
; P 6
; ;
Kg = L 66 0 0 15;LL 1012 30L 777
6 2 2 L (13.54)
40 0 10 5 0 5
0 0 ;30L2 0 154 L2
noting that in this case Kg = Kg for P = 1, the determinant jKe + Kg j = 0 leads to
1 4 3 5 6
1

AL2
I ; ALI 22 0 0 0

4

; ALI 2 2 ALI 0 0 0

4
3
0 0 4L ; 15 EI ;6L + 10 EI 2L + 30 EI = 0
2 2 L 4 1 L 3 2 1 L (13.55)
5

0 0 ;6L + 101 L
EI4
3
24 ; 125 L
EI
2
0

6 0 0 1 L
2L2 + 30 EI 0 8L2 ; 15 EI
4 L4
introducing = ALI 2 and = L 2

EI , the determinant becomes

1 4 5 3 6
1 ;

0 0 0
4 ; 2 ;

0 0 0
3 0 0 2 2 ; 15 ;6;L + 10 2 + 30 = 0

(13.56)
5 0 0 ;6L + 10 12 2 ; 5

;
0
6 0 0

2 + 30 0 4 2 ; 15
Expanding the determinant, we obtain the cubic equation in
33 ; 2202 + 3; 840 ; 14; 400 = 0 (13.57)
and the lowest root of this equation is = 5:1772 .
We note that from Eq. 13.21, the exact solution for a column of length L was
2 (4:4934)2 EI = 5:0477 EI
Pcr = (4:4934)
l2 EI = (2L)2 L2 (13.58)
and thus, the numerical value is about 2.6 percent higher than the exact one. The mathematica
code for this operation is:
(* Define elastic stiffness matrices *)
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },

Draft
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
ke1=N[ke[e,a,l,i]]
ke2=N[ke[e,a,l,i]]
(* Assemble structure elastic stiffness matrices *)

ke={
{ke1[[3,3]], ke1[[3,5]] , ke1[[3,6]] },
{ ke1[[5,3]], ke1[[5,5]]+ke2[[2,2]], ke1[[5,6]]+ke2[[2,3]]},
{ ke1[[6,3]], ke1[[6,5]]+ke2[[3,2]], ke1[[6,6]]+ke2[[3,3]]}
}
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke1]]
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke]]
(* Define geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg[p_,l_]:=p/l{
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }
}
kg1=kg[p,l]
kg2=kg[p,l]
(* Assemble structure geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg={
{kg1[[3,3]], kg1[[3,5]] , kg1[[3,6]] },
{ kg1[[5,3]], kg1[[5,5]]+kg2[[2,2]], kg1[[5,6]]+kg2[[2,3]]},
{ kg1[[6,3]], kg1[[6,5]]+kg2[[3,2]], kg1[[6,6]]+kg2[[3,3]]}
}
(* Determine critical loads in terms of p (note p=1) *)
p=1
keigen= l^2 (Inverse[kg] . ke)/( e i)
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen]]
(* Alternatively*)
knew =ke - x kg
pcrit2=NSolve[Det[knew]==0,x]
Example 13-32: Frame Stability

Determine the buckling load for the following frame. Neglect axial deformation.

Draft
P P
15’
I=200
I=50 6’
10’
I=100
Solution:
The element stiness matrices are given by
2
u1 2 0 0 3
20 1; 208
k1e = 664 1;208
6
96; 667 777 (13.59-a)
5

u1 2
2
0 0 3
0:01 0:10 7
k1g = ;P 64 0:10 16 :00
6
6 77 (13.59-b)
5

2
0 2 0 3 3
7
k2e = 664 128 ; 890 64; 440 77
6
5 (13.59-c)

64; 440 128; 890
2
u1 3 0 0 3
47 1; 678
6 1; 678 80; 556 7
6 7
ke = 64
3
75 (13.59-d)


Draft
2
u1
3 0 0 3
0:01667 0:1
k3g = ;P 64 0 :1 9 :6 775
6 7
6
(13.59-e)

The global equilibrium relation can now be written as
(Ke ; P Kg ) = 0 (13.60)

u1 2 3
(66:75) ; P (0:026666) (1; 208:33) ; P (0:1) (1; 678:24) ; P (0:1)

(1; 208:33) ; P (0:1) (225; 556:) ; P (16:) (64; 444:4) ; P (0) = 0 (13.61)

(1; 678:24) ; P (0:1) (64; 444:) ; P (0) (209; 444:) ; P (9:6)
The smallest buckling load amplication factor is thus equal to 2; 017 kips.
(* Initialize constants *)
a1=0
a2=0
a3=0
i1=100
i2=200
i3=50
l1=10 12
l2=15 12
l3=6 12
e1=29000
e2=e1
e3=e1
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
ke1=ke[e1,a1,l1,i1]
ke2=ke[e2,a2,l2,i2]
ke3=ke[e3,a3,l3,i3]
kg[l_,p_]:=p/l{
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }

Draft
}
kg1=kg[l1,1]
kg3=kg[l3,1]
(* Assemble structure elastic and geometric stiffness matrices *)
ke={
{ ke1[[2,2]]+ke3[[2,2]] , ke1[[2,3]] , ke3[[2,3]] },
{ ke1[[3,2]] , ke1[[3,3]]+ke2[[3,3]] , ke2[[3,6]] },
{ ke3[[3,2]] , ke2[[6,3]] , ke2[[6,6]]+ke3[[3,3]] }
}
kg={
{ kg1[[2,2]]+kg3[[2,2]] , kg1[[2,3]] , kg3[[2,3]] },
{ kg1[[3,2]] , kg1[[3,3]] , 0 },
{ kg3[[3,2]] , 0 , kg3[[3,3]] }
}
(* Determine critical loads in terms of p (note p=1) *)
p=1
keigen=Inverse[kg] . ke
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen]]
modshap=N[Eigensystems[keigen]]
13.4 Geometric Non-Linearity

76From Eq. 13.44 it is evident that since kg depends on the magnitude of Px , which itself may
be an unknown in a framework, then we do have a geometrically non-linear problem.
Example 13-33: Eect of Axial Load on Flexural Deformation

Determine the midspan displacement and member end forces for the beam-column shown
below in terms of Px ; The concentrated force is 50kN applied at midspan, E=2 109 kN/m2
and I=2 10;3 m4 .
50
80,000
6m 6m
Solution:
Using two elements for the beam column, the only degrees of freedom are the de ection and
rotation at midspan (we neglect the axial deformation).
Draft
13.4 Geometric Non-Linearity 13{19
The element stiness and geometric matrices are given by
0 0 0 0 v1 2
2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
60
6 222; 222: 666 ; 666: 0 ;222; 222: 666; 666: 77
[K1e ] = 666 00 666;0666: 2; 6660; 666
6
0: ;666; 666: 1; 333; 333 777 (13.62)
6
0 0 0 7
7
4 0 ;222; 222: ;666; 666: 0 222; 222: ;666; 666: 5
0 666; 666: 1; 333; 333 0: ;666; 666: 2; 666; 666
0 v1 2 0 0 0
2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
60
6 222; 222: 666; 666: 0 ;222; 222: 666; 666: 77
[K2e ] = 666 00 666;0666: 2; 6660; 666 00: ;6660; 666: 1; 3330; 333 777
6 7
(13.63)
6 7
4 0 ;222; 222: ;666; 666: 0 222; 222: ;666; 666: 5
0 666; 666: 1; 333; 333 0: ;666; 666: 2; 666; 666
0 0 0 0 v1 2
2
0 0 0 0 0 0 3
6 0 ;16; 000 ;8; 000 0 16; 000 ;8; 000 777
6
[K1g ] = 666 00 ;8;0000 ;640; 000 00 8; 000 16; 000 77
6
0 0 77 (13.64)
6
40 16; 000 8; 000 0 ;16; 000 8; 000 5
0 ;8; 000 16; 000 0: 8; 000 ;64; 000
0 v1 2 0 0 0
2
0 0 0 0 0 0 3
6 0 ;16; 000 ;8; 000 0 16; 000 ;8; 000 777
6
[K2g ] = 666 00 ;8;0000 ;640; 000 00 8; 000 16; 000 77
6
0 0 77 (13.65)
6
40 16; 000 8; 000 0 ;16; 000 8; 000 5
0 ;8; 000 16; 000 0: 8; 000 ;64; 000
Assembling the stiness and geometric matrices we get
v1
"
2 #
[K] = 4120; 444
:
: 0:
5; 205; 330 (13.66)
and the displacements would be

( ) ( )
v1
2 = ;0:00012123
0 (13.67)

Draft
and the member end forces for element 1 are given by
8 9 8 9
>
> Plft >
> >
> ulft >
>
>
>
>
>
>
Vlft >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> vlft >
>
>
>
<
Mlft = h i>
<
lft >
=
> Prgt >
= [K1e ] + [K1g ] > urgt >
>
> >
> >
> >
>
>
>
>
>
:
Vrgt >
>
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
vrgt >
>
>
>
;
Mrgt rgt
0 0 0 0 v1 2
0 2
0 0 0 0 ;0 38 >
> 0
9
>
>
60
6 206; 222: 658; 667: 0 ;206; 222: 658; 667: 77 > >
>
> 0 >
>
>
>
658; 667: 260; 2670 0 ;658; 667: 1; 349; 330 77
> >
= 666 00 0
6 7< =
6
0 0 0 0 0 7>
7>>
0 >
>
>
40 ;206; 222 ;658; 667: 0 206; 222: ;658; 667: > 5 >
>
> ; 0 : 00012123 >
>
>
>
0 658; 667: 1; 349; 330 0 ;658; 667: 2; 602; 670 :
0 ;
8 9
>
> 0 > >
>
>
>
>
>
25: > >
>
>
>
=
<
79:8491 = (13.68-a)
>
>
>
0: > >
>
>
>
>
>
:
;25: > >
>
>
79:8491 ;
Note that had we not accounted for the axial forces, then
( ) ( )
v1 = ;0:0001125 (13.69-a)
2 0
8 9 8 9
>
> Plft >
> >
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
Vlft >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
25: >
>
>
>
>
<
Mlft =
=
<
75: =
(13.69-b)
>
>
>
Prgt >
>
>
>
>
>
0: >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
Vrgt >
>
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
;25: >
>
>
>
;
Mrgt 75:
Alternatively, if instead of having a compressive force, we had a tensile force, then
( ) ( )
v1 = ;0:000104944 (13.70-a)
2 0
8 9 8 9
>
> Plft >
> >
> 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
Vlft >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
25: >
>
>
>
>
<
Mlft =
=
<
70:8022 =
(13.70-b)
>
>
>
Prgt >
>
>
>
>
>
0: >
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
Vrgt >
>
>
>
;
>
>
>
>
:
;25: >
>
>
>
;
Mrgt 70:8022
Draft
We observe that the compressive force increased the displacements and the end moments,
whereas a tensile one stiens the structure by reducing them.
The Mathematica to solve this problem follows
OpenWrite["mat.out"]
a1=0
a2=0
e=2 10^9
i=2 10^(-3)
i1=i
i2=i1
l=6
l1=l
l2=6
p=-80000 (* negative compression *)
load={-50,0}
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_]:={
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
ke1=N[ke[e,a1,l1,i1]]
ke2=N[ke[e,a2,l2,i2]]
(* Assemble structure elastic stiffness matrices *)
ke=N[{
{ ke1[[5,5]]+ke2[[2,2]], ke1[[5,6]]+ke2[[2,3]]},
{ ke1[[6,5]]+ke2[[3,2]], ke1[[6,6]]+ke2[[3,3]]}
}]
WriteString["mat.out",MatrixForm[ke]]
kg[p_,l_]:=p/l {
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }
}
kg1=N[kg[p,l1]]
kg2=N[kg[p,l2]]
(* Assemble structure geometric stiffness matrices *)
kg=N[{
{ kg1[[5,5]]+kg2[[2,2]], kg1[[5,6]]+kg2[[2,3]]},
{ kg1[[6,5]]+kg2[[3,2]], kg1[[6,6]]+kg2[[3,3]]}
}]

Draft
(* Determine critical loads and normalize wrt p *)
keigen=Inverse[kg] . ke
pcrit=N[Eigenvalues[keigen] p]
(* Note that this gives lowest pcrit=1.11 10^6, exact value is 1.095 10^6 *)
(* Add elastic to geometric structure stiffness matrices *)

k=ke+kg
(* Invert stiffness matrix and solve for displacements *)
km1=Inverse[k]
dis=N[km1 . load]
(* Displacements of element 1*)
dis1={0, 0, 0, 0, dis[[1]], dis[[2]]}
k1=ke1+kg1
(* Member end forces for element 1 with axial forces *)
endfrc1=N[k1 . dis1]
(* Member end forces for element 1 without axial forces *)

knopm1=Inverse[ke]
disnop=N[knopm1 . load]
disnop1={0, 0, 0, 0, disnop[[1]], disnop[[2]]}
(* Displacements of element 1*)
endfrcnop1=N[ke1 . disnop1]
Example 13-34: Bifurcation

Analyse the stability of the following structure. Compare the axial force caused by the
coupled membrane/ exural eects with the case where there is no interaction.
1,000
12 12
θ1 θ2

Draft
Solution:
In the following solution, we will rst determine the axial forces based on the elastic stiness
matrix only. Then, on the basis of those axial forces, we shall determine the geometric stiness
matrix, and solve for the displacements. Because of the non-linearity of the problem, we may
have to iterate in order to reach convergence. Following each analysis, we shall recompute the
geometric stiness matrix on the basis of the axial loads detemined from the previous iteration.
Note that convergence will be reached only for stable problems. If the method fails to
converge, it implies possible biurcation which could be caused by elastic displacements ap-
proaching L sin , due to either being too small, or E being too small (i.e not sti enough).
NEEDS SOME CORRECTION

a1 = 1
a2 = 1
i1 = 1 1^3/12
i2 = i1
l1 = 12
l2 = 12
e1 = 200000
e2 = e1
e3 = e1
theta1 =N[Pi/8]
theta2 = Pi-theta1
load ={0, -1000, 0}
normold = 0
epsilon = 0.01
puncpl = load[[2]] / (Sin[theta1] 2)
(*
Define elastic stiffness matrices
*)
ke[e_,a_,l_,i_] := {
{e a/l , 0 , 0 , -e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 , 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , 6 e i/l^2 },
{0 , 6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l },
{-e a/l , 0 , 0 , e a/l , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , -12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 , 0 , 12 e i/l^3 , -6 e i/l^2 },
{ 0 , 6e i/l^2 , 2 e i/l , 0 , -6 e i/l^2 , 4 e i/l }
}
(*
Define geometric stiffness matrix
*)
kg[l_,p_] := p/l {
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , 6/5 , l/10 , 0 , - 6/5 , l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , 2 l^2/15 , 0 , - l/10 , - l^2/30 },
{0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{0 , -6/5 , - l/10 , 0 , 6/5 , - l/10 },
{0 , l/10 , - l^2/30 , 0 , - l/10 , 2 l^2/15 }

Draft
}
(*
Define Transformation matrix and its transpose
*)
gam[theta_] := {
{ Cos[theta] , Sin[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ -Sin[theta], Cos[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Cos[theta] , Sin[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , -Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 }
}
gamt[theta_] := {
{ Cos[theta] , -Sin[theta], 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 , 0 , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Cos[theta] , -Sin[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , Sin[theta] , Cos[theta] , 0 },
{ 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 1 }
}
(*
Define functions for local displacments and loads
*)
u[theta_,v1_,v2_] := Cos[theta] v1 + Sin[theta] v2
(*
Transformation and transpose matrices
*)
gam1 = gam[theta1]
gam2 = gam[theta2]
gam1t = gamt[theta1]
gam2t = gamt[theta2]
(*
Element elastic stiffness matrices
*)
ke1 = ke[e1, a1, l1, i1]
ke2 = ke[e2, a2, l2, i2]
Ke1 = gam1t . ke1 . gam1
Ke2 = gam2t . ke2 . gam2
(*
Structure's global stiffness matrix
*)
Ke={
{ Ke1[[4,4]] + Ke2[[1,1]] , Ke1[[4,5]] + Ke2[[1,2]] , Ke1[[4,6]] + Ke2[[1,3]] },
{ Ke1[[5,4]] + Ke2[[2,1]] , Ke1[[5,5]] + Ke2[[2,2]] , Ke1[[5,6]] + Ke2[[2,3]] },
{ Ke1[[6,4]] + Ke2[[3,1]] , Ke1[[6,5]] + Ke2[[3,2]] , Ke1[[6,6]] + Ke2[[3,3]] }
}
(*
======= uncoupled analysis ==========
*)
dise=Inverse[Ke].load
u[theta_,diseg1_,diseg2_] := Cos[theta] diseg1 + Sin[theta] diseg2
uu1 = u[ theta1, dise[[1]], dise[[2]] ]

Draft
13.5 Summary {25
uu2 = u[ theta2, dise[[1]], dise[[2]] ]
up1 = a1 e1 uu1/l1
up2 = a2 e2 uu2/l2
(*
========== Coupled Nonlinear Analysis ==============
Start Iteration
*)
diseg = N[dise]
For[ iter = 1 , iter <= 100, ++iter,
(* displacements in local coordinates *)
disloc={ 0,0,0,
u[ theta1, diseg[[1]], diseg[[2]] ],
u[ theta2, diseg[[1]], diseg[[2]] ],
0};
(* local force *)
ploc = ke1 . disloc;
p1 = ploc[[4]];
p2 = p1;
kg1 = kg[ l1 , p1 ];
kg2 = kg[ l2 , p2 ];
Kg1 = gam1t . kg1 . gam1;
Kg2 = gam2t . kg2 . gam2;
Kg={
{ Kg1[[4,4]] + Kg2[[1,1]] , Kg1[[4,5]] + Kg2[[1,2]] , Kg1[[4,6]] + Kg2[[1,3]] },
{ Kg1[[5,4]] + Kg2[[2,1]] , Kg1[[5,5]] + Kg2[[2,2]] , Kg1[[5,6]] + Kg2[[2,3]] },
{ Kg1[[6,4]] + Kg2[[3,1]] , Kg1[[6,5]] + Kg2[[3,2]] , Kg1[[6,6]] + Kg2[[3,3]] }
};
(*
Solve
*)
Ks = Ke + Kg;
diseg = Inverse[Ks] . load;
normnew = Sqrt[ diseg . diseg ];
ratio = ( normnew-normold ) / normnew;
Print["Iteration ",N[iter],"; u1 ",N[u1],"; p1 ",N[p1]," ratio ",N[ratio]];
normold = normnew;
If[ Abs[ ratio ] < epsilon, Break[] ]
]
Print[" p1 ",N[p1]," up1 ",N[up1]," p1/up1 ",N[p1/up1]," ratio ",N[ratio]]
13.5 Summary

Draft
{26 GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
STRONG FORM WEAK FORM
? ? ?
2 2
dx ; y
"x = du
2nd Order D.E. 4th Order D.E. dv dv
+ 21 dx
dx2
2 B.C. 4 B.C.
? ?
d2 y
; EIP = 0 U= 1R 2
dx2 2
E" d
v = ;A sin kx ; B cos kx
? ?
EI ; P = w
d4 v
dx4
d2 v
dx2 K= Ke Kg
v = C1 sin kx + C2 cos kx + C3 x + C4
?
P = (Ke + Kg )v
?
jKe + Kg j = 0
Figure 13.5: Summary of Stability Solutions

Draft
Appendix A
REFERENCES
Basic Structural Analysis :
1. Arbabi, F., Structural Analysis and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991
2. Beaufait, F.W., Basic Concepts of Structural Analysis, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood
Clis, N.J., 1977
3. Chajes, A., Structural Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Clis, N.J., 1983
4. Gerstle, K.H., Basic Structural Analysis, (Local Reprint 1984.
5. Ghali, A., and Neville, A.M., Structural Analysis, Chapan and Hall, London, 1978
6. Gutowski, R.M., Structures: Fundamental Theory and Behavior, Van Nostrand Rein-
hold Co., N.Y., 1984
7. Hsieh, Y.Y., Elementary Theory of Structures, 2nd Ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood
Clis, N.J., 1982
8. Laursen, H.I., Structural Analysis, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1978
9. Morris, J.C., Wilbur, S., and Utku, S., Elementary Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
N.Y., 1976
10. Wang, C.K., Intermediate Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1983
Matrix Analysis :
1. Argyris, J.H., Recent Advances in Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, 1964
2. Beaufait, F.W., Rowan Jr., W.H., Hoadley, P.G., and Hackett, R.M., Computer Meth-
ods of Structural Analysis, 4th Edition, 1982
3. Bhatt, P., Programming the Matrix Analysis of Skeletal Structures, Halsted Press,
1986
4. Elias, Z.M., Theory and Methods of Structural Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, 1986
5. Holzer, S.M., Computer Analysis of Structures. Elsevier, 1985
6. Livesley, R., Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 964
7. Martin, H.C., Introduction to Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
N.Y., 1966
Draft
A{2 REFERENCES
8. McGuire, W., and Gallagher, R.H., Matrix Structural Analysis, John Wiley and Sons
Inc., N.Y., 1979
9. Meek, J.L., Matrix Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1971
10. Meyers, V.J., Matrix Analysis of Structures, Harper and Row, Publ., N.Y., 1983
11. Przemieniecki, J.S., Theory of Matrix Structural Analaysis, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1968
12. Weaver Jr, W., and Gere, J.M., Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures, 2nd Ed., Van
Nostrand Co., N.Y., 1980
Introduction to Finite Element and Programming :
1. Bathe, K.J., Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Clis, N.J., 1982
2. Cook, Malkus, and Plesha, Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis,
John Wiley & Sons, 1989 (Third Edition)
3. Gallagher, R.H., Finite Element Analysis Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Clis, N.J., 1979
4. Hinton and Owen, An Introduction to Finite Element Computation, Pineridge Press,
Swansea U.K., 1978
5. Hughes, T.R., The Finite Element Method, Linear Static and Dynamic Finite Element
Analysis, Prentice Hall, 1987
6. Zienkiewicz, O., and Taylor, R., The Finite Element Method, Vol. 1 Basic Formulation
and Linear Problems, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 1989
Energy Methods :
1. Pilkey and Wunderlich, Mechanics of Structures, Variational and Computational Meth-
ods, CRC Press, 1994
2. Langhaar, H., Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.,
1962
3. Reddy, J.N., Energy and Variational Methods in Applied Mechanics, John Wiley and
Sons, 1984.
Numerical Techniques :
1. Jennings, A., Matrix Computations for Engineers and Scientists, John Wiley and
Sons, N.Y., 1977.
2. Hilderbrand, F.B., An Introduction to Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1974
3. Press, W., et. al., Numerical Recipes, The Art of Scientic Computing, Cambridge
University Press, 1987
Journals :
1. Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineering
2. Computers and Structures
3. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering

Draft
Appendix B
REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA
Because of the discretization of the structure into a nite number of nodes, its solution will
always lead to a matrix formulation. This matrix representation will be exploited by the
computer ability to operate on vectors and matrices. Hence, it is essential that we do get a
thorough understanding of basic concepts of matrix algebra.
B.1 Denitions
Matrix: 2 3
A11 A12 : : : A1j : : : A1n
6
6 A21 A22 : : : A2j : : : A2n 7
7
6 .. .. ... .. ... .. 7
[A] =
6
6 . . . . 7
7
(2.1)
6
6 Ai1 Ai2 : : : Aij : : : Ain 7
7
6
6 .. .. ... .. ... .. 7
7
4 . . . . 5
Am1 Am2 : : : Amj : : : Amn
We would indicate the size of the matrix as [A]mn , and refer to an individual term of
the matrix as Aij . Note that matrices, and vectors are usually boldfaced when typeset, or
with a tilde when handwritten A~.
Vectors: are one column matrices: 8 9
>
>
>
B1 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
B2 >
>
>
>
>
> .. >
>
fXg = > B. i
< =
>
(2.2)
> >
>
>
> .. >
>
>
>
>
>
> . >
>
>
>
:
Bm ;
A row vector would be

bCc = b B1 B2 : : : Bi : : : Bm c (2.3)
Draft
B{2 REVIEW of MATRIX ALGEBRA
Note that scalars, vectors, and matrices are tensors of order 0, 1, and 2 respectively.
Square matrix: are matrices with equal number of rows and columns. [A]mm
Symmetry: Aij = Aji
Identity matrix: is a square matrix with all its entries equal to zero except the diagonal terms
which are equal to one. It is often denoted as [I], and
Iij = 01;; ifif ii 6=

j (2.4)
=j
Diagonal matrix: is a square matrix with all its entries equal to zero except the diagonal
terms which are dierent from zero. It is often denoted as [D], and

6 j
Dij = 06=; 0; ifif ii = (2.5)
=j
Upper Triangular matrix: is a square matrix with all its entries equal to zero, except those
along and above the diagonal. It is often denoted as [U], and

Uij = 06=; 0; ifif ii
>j
j (2.6)
Lower Triangular matrix: is a square matrix with all its entries equal to zero except those
along and below the diagonal. It is often denoted as [L], and

Lij = 06=; 0; ifif ii
<j
j (2.7)
Orthogonal matrices: [A]mn and [B]mn are said to be orthogonal if [A]T [B] = [B]T [A] =
[I]
A square matrix [C]mm is orthogonal if [C]T [C] = [C] [C]T = [I]
Trace of a matrix: tr(A) = Pni=1 Aii
Submatrices: are matrices within a matrix, for example
2 3
5 3 1 "
[ A ] [ A ]
#
[ A] = 4 4 6 2 5=
6 7 11
[A21 ] [A22 ]
12 (2.8)
10 3 4
2 3
1 5 "
[ B ]
#
[B] = 4 2 4 5=
6 7 1
[B2 ] (2.9)
3 2
" #
[A] [B] = [A11 ] [B1 ] + [A12 ] [B2 ] (2.10)
[A21 ] [B1 ] + [A22 ] [B2 ]
" #" # " #
[A11 ] [B1 ] = 5 3 1 5 = 11 37 (2.11)
4 6 2 4 16 44
Draft
B.2 Elementary Matrix Operations B{3
[A22 ] [B2 ] = [4]
2
[3 2] = 3[12 8] (2.12)
14 34
[A] [B] = 4 22
6
48 75 (2.13)
28 70
Operate on submatrices just as if we were operating on individual matrix elements.
B.2 Elementary Matrix Operations

Transpose: of a matrix [A]mn is another matrix [B] = [B]Tnm such that Bij = Aji Note
that
([A] [B])T = [B]T [A]T (2.14)
Addition (subtraction):
[A]mn = [B]mn + [C]mn (2.15)
Aij = Bij + Cij (2.16)
(2.17)
Scalar Multiplication:
[B] = k [A] (2.18)
Bij = kAij
Matrix Multiplication: of two matrices is possible if the number of columns of the rst one
is equal to the number of rows of the second.
[A]mn = [B]mp [C]pn (2.19)
Aij = bBi c1p fCj gp1
| {z }
11
p
X
= Bir Crj (2.20)
r=1
(2.21)
Some important properties of matrix products include:
Associative: [A]([B][C]) = ([A][B])[C]
Distributive: [A]([B] + [C]) = [A][B] + [A][C]
Non-Commutativity: [A][B] 6= [B][A]

Draft
B.3 Determinants
The Determinant of a matrix [A]nn , denoted as det A or jAj, is recursively dened as
n
X
det A = (;1)1+j a1j det A1j (2.22)
j =1
Where A1j is the (n ; 1)x(n ; 1) matrix obtained by eliminating the ith row and the jth column
of matrix A. For a 2 2 matrix

a11 a12 = a a ; a a21 (2.23)

a21 a22 11 22 12
For a 3 3 matrix

a11 a12 a13
= a aa22 aa23 ; a12 aa21 aa23 + a13 aa21 aa22 (2.24)

a21 a22 a23

11

a31 a32 a33
32 33 31 33 31 32
= a11 (a22 a33 ; a32 a23 ) ; a12 (a21 a33 ; a31 a23 ) (2.25)
+a13 (a21 a32 ; a31 a22 ) (2.26)
= a11 a22 a33 ; a11 a32 a23 ; a12 a21 a33 + a12 a31 a23 (2.27)
+a13 a21 a32 ; a13 a31 a22 (2.28)
Can you write a computer program to compute the determinant of an n n matrix?
We note that an n n matrix would have a determinant which contains n! terms each one
involving n multiplications. Hence if n = 10 there would be 10! = 3; 628; 800 terms, each one
involving 9 multiplications hence over 30 million oating operations should be performed in
order to evaluate the determinant.
This is why it is impractical to use Cramer's rule to solve a system of linear equations.
Some important properties of deteminants:
1. The determinant of the transpose of a matrix is equal to the determinant of the matrix
j A j=j AT j (2.29)
2. If at least one row or one column is a linear combination of the other rows or columns,
then the determinant is zero. The inverse is also true, if the determinant is equal to zero,
then at least one row or one column is a linear combination of of other rows or columns.
3. If there is linear dependancy between rows, then there is also one between columns and
vice-versa.
4. The determinant of an upper or lower triangular matrix is equal to the product of the
main diagonal terms.
5. The determinant of the product of two square matrices is equal to the product of the
individual determinants
j AB j=j A jj B j (2.30)
Draft
B.4 Singularity and Rank B{5
B.4 Singularity and Rank
If the deteminant of a matrix [A]nn is zero, than the matrix is said to be singular. As we
have seen earlier, this means that there is at least one row or one column which is a linear
combinations of the others. Should we remove this row and column, we can repeat the test for
singularity until the size of the submatrix is r r. Then we refer to r as the rank of the matrix
or rank(A) = r. We deduce that the rank of a nonsigular n n matrix is n. If the rank of a
matrix r is less than its size n, we say that it has n ; r rank deciency.
If n is the size of the global stiness matrix of a structure in which the boundary conditions
have not been accounted for (n = is equal to the total number of nodes times the total number
of degrees of freedom per node) would have a rank r equal to n minus the number of possible
rigid body motions (3 and 6 in two and three dimensional respectively).
B.5 Inversion
The inverse of a square (nonsingular) matrix [A] is denoted by [A];1 and is such that
[A] [A];1 = [A];1 [A] = [I] (2.31)
Some observations
1. The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is equal to the transpose of the inverse
h i;1 h iT
AT = A;1 (2.32)
2. The inverse of a matrix product is the reverse product of the inverses
([A] [B]);1 = [B];1 [A];1 (2.33)
3. The inverse of a symmetric matrix is also symmetric
4. The inverse of a diagonal matrix is another diagonal one with entries equal to the inverse
of the entries of the original matrix.
5. The inverse of a triangular matrix is a triangular matrix.
6. It is computationally more ecient to decompose a matrix ([A] = [L] [D] [U]) using upper
and lower decomposition or Gauss elimination) than to invert a matrix.
B.6 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

A special form of the system of linear equation
2 38 9 8 9
A11 A12 : : : A1n >
> x1 >
> >
> B1 >
>
7> > > >
6
6 A21 A22 : : : A2n 7<
>
x2 >
= >
< B2 >
=
[A] = 66 .. .. ... .. 7
7> .. = > .. (2.34)
4 . . . 5>> . >
>
> >
> . >
>
>
> > > >
Victor Saouma Ai1 Ai2 : : : Ann :
xn ; :
Bn Structural Analysis
Matrix
;
Draft
is one in which the right hand side is a multiple of the solution:
[A] fxg = fxg (2.35)
which can be rewritten as
[A ; I] fxg = 0 (2.36)
A nontrivial solution to this system of equations is possible if and only if [A ; I] is singular
or
jA ; Ij = 0 (2.37)
or

A11 ; A12 : : : A1n

A21 A22 ; : : : A2n

[ A] =
.. .. ... ..
=0 (2.38)
. . .

Ai1 : : : Ann ;
Ai2

When the determinant is expanded, we obtain an nth order polynomial in terms of which is
known as the characteristic equation of [A]. The n solutions (which can be real or complex)
are the eigenvalues of [A], and each one of them i satises
[A] fxi g = i fxi g (2.39)
where fxi g is a corresponding eigenvector.
It can be shown that:
1. The n eigenvalues of real symmetric matrices of rank n are all real.
2. The eigenvectors are orthogonal and form an orthogonal basis in En .
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are used in stability (buckling) analysis, dynamic analysis, and to
assess the performance of nite element formulations.

Draft
Appendix C
SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR
EQUATIONS
Note this chapter is incomplete
C.1 Introduction
76 Given a system of linear equations [A]nn fxg = fbg (which may result from the direct
stiness method), we seek to solve for fxg. Symbolically this operation is represented by:
fxg = [A];1 fbg
77 There are two approaches for this operation:
Direct inversion using Cramer's rule where [A];1 = [adj[AA] ] . However, this approach is compu-
tationally very inecient for n 3 as it requires evaluation of n high order determinants.
Decomposition: where in the most general case we seek to decompose [A] into [A] = [L][D][U]
and where:
[L] lower triangle matrix
[D] diagonal matrix
[U] upper triangle matrix
There are two classes of solutions
Direct Method: characterized by known, nite number of operations required to achieve
the decomposition yielding exact results.
Indirect methods: or iterative decomposition technique, with no a-priori knowledge of
the number of operations required yielding an aapproximate solution with user dened
level of accuracy.
Draft
C{2 SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
C.2 Direct Methods
C.2.1 Gauss, and Gaus-Jordan Elimination
78 Given [A]fxg = fbg, we seek to transform this equation into
1. Gaus Elimination: [U]fxg = fyg where [U]is an upper triangle, and then backsubstitute
from the bottom up to solve for the unknowns. Note that in this case we operate on both
[A] & fbg, yielding fxg.
2. Gauss-Jordan Elimination: is similar to the Gaus Elimination, however tather than
transforming the [A] matrix into an upper diagonal one, we transform [AjI] into [IjA;1 ].
Thus no backsubstitution is needed and the matrix inverse can be explicitely obtained.
Example C-35: Gauss Elimination

In this rst example we simply seek to solve for the unknown vector fxg given:
8
>
< +10x1 +x2 ;5x3 = 1:
>
;20x1 +3x2 +20x3 = 2: (3.1)
: +5x1 +3x2 +5x3 = 6:
Solution:
1. Add 1020 times the rst equation to the second one will elliminate the x1 coecient from
the second equation.
2. Substract 105 times the rst equation from the third one will elliminate the x1 coecient
from the third equation.
8
>
< 10:x1 +x2 ;5:x3 = 1:
>
+5:x2 +10:x3 = 4:
: +2:5x2 +7:5x3 = 5:5
3. Substract 25:5 times the second equation from the third one will elliminate the x2 coecient
from the last equation
8
>
< 10:x1 +x2 ;5:x3 = 1:
>
+5:x2 +10x3 = 4:
: +2:5x3 = 3:5

Draft
C.2 Direct Methods C{3
4. Now we can backsubstitute and solve from the bottom up:
x3 = 32::55 = 1:4 (3.2)
x2 = 4: ;510 :x3
: = ; 2: (3.3)
x1 = 1: ; x10 2 + 5:x3 = 1:
: (3.4)
Example C-36: Gauss-Jordan Elimination

In this second example we will determine both fxg and the matrix inverse [A];1 .
Solution:
The operation is identical to the rst, however we augment the matrix [A] by [I]: [AjI], and
operate simultaneously on the two submatrices.
1. Initial matrix
2 38 9
10 1 ;5 1 0 0 > < 1 >
=
4 ;20 3 20 0 1 0 5 2 (3.5)
6 7
> >
5 3 5 0 0 1 : 6;
2. Elimination of the rst column:
(a) row 1=0.1(row 1)
(b) row 2=(row2)+20(new row 1)
(c) row 3=(row 3) -5(new row 1)
2 38 9
1 0:1 ;0:5 0:1 0 0 >
< 0:1 >
=
6
4 0 5 10 2 1 0 7
5 4 (3.6)
0 2:5 7:5 ;0:5 0 1 >
: 5:5 >
;
3. Elimination of second column

(a) row 2=0.2(row 2)
(b) row 1=(row 1)-0.1(new row 2)
(c) row 3=(row 3) -2.5(new row 2)
2 38 9
1 0 ;0:7 0:06 ;0:02 0 >
< 0:02 >
=
6
4 0 1 2 0:4 0:2 0 7
5 0:8 (3.7)
0 0 2:5 ;1:5 ;0:5 1 >
: 3:5 >
;

Draft
4. Elimination of the third column
(a) row 3=0.4(row 3)
(b) row 1=(row 1)+0.7(new row 3)
(c) row 2=(row 2)-2(new row 3)
2 38 9
1 0 0 ;0:36 ;0:16 0:28 >
< 1 >
=
6
4 0 1 0 1:6 0:6 ;0:8 7
5 ;2 (3.8)
0 0 1 ;0:6 ;0:2 0:4 >
: 1:4 >
;
| {z }
fxg
This last equation is [IjA;1 ]
C.2.1.1 Algorithm
79 Based on the preceding numerical examples, we dene a two step algorithm for the Gaussian
ellimination.
80 Dening akij to be the coecient of the ith row & j th column at the k th reduction step with
i k & j k:
Reduction:
akik+1 = 0 k<in
ak ak
aij = akij ; akkk k < i n; k < j n
k +1 ik kj
(3.9)
k k
bkij+1 = bkij ; aikakkkbkj k < i n; 1 < j m
Backsubstitution: Xn
i
xij =
biij ; k=ii+1 aik xkj (3.10)
aii
Note that Gauss-Jordan produces both the solution of the equations as well as the inverse of
the original matrix. However, if the inverse is 3not desired it requires three times (N 3 ) more
operations than Gauss or LU decomposition ( N3 ).
C.2.2 LU Decomposition
81 In the previous decomposition method, the right hand side (fbg must have been known before
decomposition (unless we want to detemine the inverse of the matrix which is computationaly
more expensive).
82 In some applications it may be desirable to decompose the matrix without having the RHS
completed. For instance, in the direct stiness method we may have multiple load cases yet we
would like to invert only once the stiness matrix.
Draft
This will be achieved through the following decomposition:
[A] = [L][U] (3.11)
It can be shown that:
1. Both decompositions are equivalent.
2. Count on number of operation show that the 2 methods yield the same number of opera-
tions. Number of operations in LU decomposition is equal to the one in Gauss elimination.
83The solution consists in:
Decomposition: of the matrix independently of the right hand side vector
[A] = [L] [U] (3.12)
[L] [|U]{zfxg} = fbg (3.13)
fy g
Backsubstitution: for each right hand side vector
1. Solve for fyg from [L]fyg = fbg starting from top
2. Solve for fxg from [U]fxg = fyg starting from bottom
84 The vector fyg is the same as the one to which fbg was reduced to in the Gauss Elimination.
C.2.2.1 Algorithm
1. Given:
2 3 2 32 3
a11 a12 a1n 1 u11 u12 u1n
6
6 a21 a22 a2n 7
7
6
6 l21 1 76
76 u22 u2n 7
7
6
6 .. .. .. .. 7
7 = ..
6
6 .. ... 76
76 ... 7
7 (3.14)
4 . . . . 5 4 . . 54 5
an1 an2 ann ln1 ln2 1 unn
2. solve:
a11 = u11 a12 = u12 a1n = u1n
a21 = l21 u11 a22 = l21 u12 + u22 a2n = l21 u1n + u2n
.. (3.15)
. Xn;1
an1 = ln1 u11 an2 = ln1 u12 + ln2 u22 ann = k=1 lnk ukn + unn
3. let:
2 3
u11 u12 u1n
6
6 l21 u22 u2n 7
7
[A]F = ..
6
6 .. 7
7 (3.16)
4. . 5
ln1 ln2 unn
Draft
4. Take row by row or column by column
Xj ;1
lij =
aij ; k=1 lik ukj i>j
u jj
X i;1 (3.17)
uij = aij ; k=1 lik ukj i j
lii = 1
Note:
1. Computed elements lij or uij may always overwrite corresponding element aij
2. If [A] is symmetric [L]T 6= [U], symmetry is destroyed in [A]F
For symmetric matrices, LU decomposition reduces to:
Xi;1
uij = aij ; k=1 lik ukj ij
lii = 1u (3.18)
lij = ujjji
Example C-37: Example

Given:
2 3
7 9 ;1 2 7
A = 664 41
6
;5 2 ;7 7 (3.19)
6 ;3 ;4 75
3 ;2 ;1 ;5
Solution:
Following the above procedure, it can be decomposed into:
Row 1: u11 = a11 = 7; u12 = a12 = 9; u13 = a13 = ;1; u14 = a14 = 2
Row 2:
l21 = ua2111 = 74
u22 = a22 ; l21 u12 = ;5 ; 4 97 = ;10:1429
u23 = a23 ; l21 u13 = 2 + 4 17 = 2:5714
u24 = a24 ; l21 u14 = ;7 ; 4 72 = ;10:1429
Row 3:
l31 = ua3111 = 71
l32 = a32 ;ul2231 u12 = 6;;(010:1429)(9)
:1429 = ;0:4647
u33 = a33 ; l31 u13 ; l32 u23 = ;3 ; (0:1429)(;1) ; (;0:4647)(2:5714) = ;1:6622
u34 = a34 ; l31 u14 ; l32 u24 = ;4 ; (0:1429)(2) ; (;0:4647)(;8:1429) = ;8:0698

Draft
Row 4:
l41 = ua4111 = 37
l42 = a42 ;ul2241 u12 = ;2;;(010::4286)(9)
1429 = ;0:
l43 = a43 ;l41 uu1333 ;l42 u23 = ; 1 ;(0 : 4286)( ; 1) ;(0: 5775)(2: 5714) = 1:23
;1:6622
u44 = a44 ; l41 u14 ; l42 u24 ; l43 u34 = ;5 ; (0:4286)(2) ; (0:5775)(;8:1429) ; (1:2371)(;8:0698) = 8:82
or
2 32 3
1 0 0 0 7 9 ;1 2
:5714 1 0 0 7 6 0 ;10:1429 2:571 ;8:143
6 76 7
6
6
4 :1429 ;:4647 1 0 76
54 0 0 ;1:662 ;8:069
7
7
5
(3.20)
:4286 :5775 1:2371 1 0 0 0 8:8285
| {z }| {z }
[L] [U]
| {z }
[A]
C.2.3 Cholesky's Decomposition

85 If [A] is symmetric [A]F is not. For example:
2 3 2 32 3
16 4 8 1 16 4 8
4 4
6
5 ;4 75 = 64 :25 1 76
54 4 ;6 7
5 (3.21)
8 ;4 22 :5 ;1:5 1 9
86 In the most general case, we will have:
[A] = [L ][D][U ]T (3.22)
87 For aa symmetric [A] matrix, [U ] should be the transpose of [L ] or
[A] = [L ][D][L ]T (3.23)
88Furthermore,
1 1
the diagonal matrix [D] can be factored as as the product of two matrices:
[D] = [D] 2 [D] 2 Thus: 1 1
[A] = [|L ][{zD] 2} |[D] 2{z[L ]T} (3.24)
[L] [L]T
89 This algorithm can be summarized as:
r
Xi;1
lii = aii ; k =1 lik2
Xj ;1 (3.25)
aij ; k=1
lij = ljj i>j
Draft
90 Note:
1. Decomposition takes place by columns
2. lij will occupy same space as aij
Example C-38: Cholesky's Decomposition

Given: 2 3
4 6 10 4
6 6 13 13 6
6 7
A = 64 10 13 27 2
7
7
5
(3.26)
4 6 2 72
Solution:
Column 1: p
l11 = pa11 = 4 =2
l21 = al1121 = 26 =3
l31 = al1131 = 102 =5
l41 = al1141 = 24 =2
Column 2: q p
l22 = a22 ; l21 2 = 13 ; 32 = 2
l32 = a32 ;l22l31 l21 = 13;(5)(3)
2 = ;1
a
l42 = l22
42 ; l 41 l 21 6
= 2;(2)(3) =0
Column 3: q p
l33 = a33 ; l31 2 ; l2 = 27 ; 52 ; (;1)2 = 1
32
l43 = a43 ; l41 l31
l33
;l 42 l32 = 2;(2)(5)1;(0)(;1) = ;8
Column 4: q p
l44 = a44 ; l41
2 ; l2 ; l2 = 72 ; (2)2 ; (0)2 ; (;8)2 = 2
42 43
or 2 32 3
2 0 0 0 2 3 5 2
6
6 3 2 0 0 76
76 0 2 ;1 0 7
7
(3.27)
6
4 5 ;1 1 0 76
54 0 0 1 ;8 7
5
|
2 0
{z
;8 2
}|
0 0 0
{z
2
}
[L] [U]
| {z }
[A]

Draft
C.3 Indirect Methods C{9
C.2.4 Pivoting
C.3 Indirect Methods
91 Iterative methods are most suited for
1. Very large systems of equation n > 10, or 100,000
2. systems with a known \guess" of the solution
92 The most popular method is the Gauss Seidel.
C.3.1 Gauss Seidel
c11 x1 + c12 x2 + c13 x3 = r1
c21 x1 + c22 x2 + c23 x3 = r2 (3.28)
c31 x1 + c32 x2 + c33 x3 = r3
solve 1st equation for x1 using initial \guess" for x2 ; x3 .
x1 = r1 ; c12cx2 ; c13 x3 (3.29)
11
solve 2nd equation for x2 using the computed value of x1 & initial guess of x3
x2 = r2 ; c21cx1 ; c23 x3 (3.30)
22
so on & so forth
Note:
1. The iterative process can be considered to have converged if:
j x ;xlkx j "
k k;1
(3.31)
2. The convergence can be accelerated by relaxation
xki = xki + (1 ; )xki ;1 (3.32)
where is a weight factor between 0. and 2. For values below 1 we have underrelaxation,
and for values greater than 1 we have overrelaxation. The former is used for nonconvergent
systems, whereas the later is used to accelerate convergence of converging ones. optimum
for frame analysis is around 1.8.

Draft
C.4 Ill Conditioning
93 An ill condition system of linear equations is one in which a small perturbation of the
coecient aij results in large variation in the results x. Such a system arises in attempting
to solve for the intersection of two lines which are nearly parallel, or the decomposition of a
structure stiness matrix in which very sti elements are used next to very soft ones.
C.4.1 Condition Number
94 Ill conditioning can be detected by determining the condition number of the matrix.
max
= min (3.33)
where max and min are the maximum and minimum eigenvalues of the coecient matrix.
95 In the decomposition of a matrix, truncation errors may result in a loss of precision which
has been quantied by:
s = p ; log (3.34)
where p is the number of decimal places to which the coecient matrix is represented in the
computer, and s is the number of correct decimal places in the solution.
96 Note that because the formula involves log , the eigenvalues need only be approximately
evaluated.
C.4.2 Pre Conditioning
97 If a matrix [K] has an unacceptably high condition number, it can be preconditionedthrough
a congruent operation:
[K0 ] = [D1 ][K][D2 ] (3.35)
However there are no general rules for selecting [D1 ] and [D2 ].
C.4.3 Residual and Iterative Improvements

Draft
Appendix D
TENSOR NOTATION
NEEDS SOME EDITING
76 Equations of elasticity are expressed in terms of tensors, where

A tensor is a physical quantity, independent of any particular coordinate system yet spec-
ied most conveniently by referring to an appropriate system of coordinates.
A tensor is classied by the rank or order
A Tensor of order zero is specied in any coordinate system by one coordinate and is a
scalar.
A tensor of order one has three coordinate components in space, hence it is a vector.
In general 3-D space the number of components of a tensor is 3n where n is the order of
the tensor.
77 For example, force and a stress are tensors of order 1 and 2 respectively.
78 To express tensors, there are three distinct notations which can be used: 1) Engineering; 2)
indicial; or 3) Dyadic.
79 Whereas the Engineering notation may be the simplest and most intuitive one, it often leads
to long and repetitive equations. Alternatively, the tensor and the dyadic form will lead to
shorter and more compact forms.
D.1 Engineering Notation

In the engineering notation, we carry on the various subscript(s) associated with each coordinate
axis, for example xx ; xy .
Draft
D{2 TENSOR NOTATION
D.2 Dyadic/Vector Notation
80 Uses bold face characters for tensors of order one and higher, ; . This notation is indepen-
dent of coordinate systems.
81 Since scalar operations are in general not applicable to vectors, we dene
A+B = B+A (4.1-a)

A B = ;B A (4.1-b)
A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k (4.1-c)
AB = jAjjBj cos(A; B)
= A

x Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (4.1-d)

i j k

A B =

Ax Ay Az

(4.1-e)
Bx By Bz
grad A = rA = i @A +
@x @y j @A + k @A
@z (4.1-f)

div A = rA = @ + j @ + k @ (iA + jA + kA )
i @x @y @z x y z
= @Ax + @Ay + @Az (4.1-g)

@x @y @z
Laplacian r2 = rr = @2A + @2A + @2A (4.1-h)
@x2 @y2 @z2
(4.1-i)
D.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation

This notation uses letter appended indices (sub or super scripts) to the letter representing the
tensor quantity of interest. i.e. ai ; ij ; "ij , where the number of indices is the rank of the tensor
(see sect. B.4).
82 The following rules dene tensorial notation:
1. If there is one letter index, that index goes from i to n. For instance:
8 9
>
< a1 >
=
ai = ai = b a1 a2 a3 c = > a2 >
i = 1; 3 (4.2)
: a3 ;
assuming that n = 3.

Draft
D.3 Indicial/Tensorial Notation D{3
2. A repeated index will take on all the values of its range, and the resulting tensors summed.
For instance:
a1i xi = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 (4.3)
3. Tensor's order:
First order tensor (such as force) has only one free index:
ai = ai = b a1 a2 a3 c (4.4)
Second order tensor (such as stress or strain) will have two free indeces.
2 3
D11 D22 D13
Dij 64 D21 D22 D23 7
5 (4.5)
D31 D32 D33
A fourth order tensor (such as Elastic constants) will have four free indeces.
4. Derivatives of tensor with respect to xi is written as ; i. For example:
@ @vi = v @v @Ti;j
@xi = ;i @x i i;i @xij = vi;j @xk = Ti;j;k (4.6)
Usefulness of the indicial notation is in presenting systems of equations in compact form.
For instance:
xi = cij zj (4.7)
this simple compacted equation (expressed as x = cz in dyadic notation), when expanded would
yield:
x1 = c11 z1 + c12 z2 + c13 z3
x2 = c21 z1 + c22 z2 + c23 z3 (4.8-a)
x3 = c31 z1 + c32 z2 + c33 z3
Similarly:
Aij = BipCjq Dpq (4.9)
A11 = B11 C11 D11 + B11 C12 D12 + B12 C11 D21 + B12 C12 D22
A12 = B11 C11 D11 + B11 C12 D12 + B12 C11 D21 + B12 C12 D22
A21 = B21 C11 D11 + B21 C12 D12 + B22 C11 D21 + B22 C12 D22
A22 = B21 C21 D11 + B21 C22 D12 + B22 C21 D21 + B22 C22 D22 (4.10-a)

Draft
D{4 TENSOR NOTATION

Draft
Appendix E
INTEGRAL THEOREMS
76Some useful integral theorems are presented here without proofs. Schey's textbook div grad
curl and all that provides an excellent informal presentation of related material.
E.1 Integration by Parts

The integration by part formula is
Z b Z b
u(x)v (x)dx = u(x)v(x)ja ; v(x)u0 (x)dx
0 b (5.1)
a a
or
Z b Z b
udv = uvjba ; vdu (5.2)
a a
E.2 Green-Gradient Theorem

Green's theorem is
Z
I
(Rdx + Sdy) = @S ; @R dxdy (5.3)
; @x @y
E.3 Gauss-Divergence Theorem

77 The general form of the Gauss' integral theorem is
Z Z
v:nd; = divvd
(5.4)
;
Draft
E{2 INTEGRAL THEOREMS
or
Z Z
vini d; = vi;id
(5.5)
;
78 In 2D-3D Gauss' integral theorem is

Z Z Z Z Z
div qdV = qT :ndS (5.6)
V S
or
Z Z Z Z Z
vi;i dV = vi ni dS (5.7)
V S
79 Alternatively
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
div qdV = qT :ndS ; (r)T qdV (5.8)
V S V
80 For 2D-1D transformations, we have

Z Z I
div qdA = qT nds (5.9)
A s
or
Z Z I Z Z
div qdA = qT nds ; (r)T qdA (5.10)
A s A

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MATRIX STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

I Matrix Structural Analysis of Framed Structures 1{15

II Introduction to Finite Elements 7{13

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

lc: Local Coordinate system

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

1.2 Overview of Structural Analysis

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Table 1.1: Example of Nodal De nition

Table 1.2: Example of Element De nition

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Table 1.3: Example of Group Number

each element), and a sign convention become apparent.

1.3.3 Sign Convention

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 1.1: Global Coordinate System

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 1.2: Local Coordinate Systems

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 1.3: Sign Convention, Design and Analysis

1.4 Degrees of Freedom

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 1.4: Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 1.5: Independent Displacements

1.5 Course Organization

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Type Node 1 Node 2 [k] [K]

Table 1.4: Degrees of Freedom of Di erent Structure Types Systems

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 1.6: Examples of Global Degrees of Freedom

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 1.7: Organization of the Course

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

2.2 In uence Coecients

Table 2.1: Examples of In uence Coecients

2.3 Flexibility Matrix (Review)

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 2.1: Example for Flexibility Method

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

7 Those results can be summarized in a matrix form as:

8 The exibility method will be covered in more detailed, in chapter 7.

2.4 Sti ness Coecients

1. Constrain all the degrees of freedom

fpg = [k]f g (2.8)

Victor Saouma Matrix Structural Analysis

Figure 2.2: De nition of Element Sti ness Coecients

Table 1.1: Example of Nodal Denition

Table 1.2: Example of Element Denition

Table 1.4: Degrees of Freedom of Dierent Structure Types Systems

2.2 In uence Coecients

Table 2.1: Examples of In uence Coecients

2.4 Stiness Coecients

fpg = [k]f g (2.8)

Figure 2.2: Denition of Element Stiness Coecients

Figure 2.3: Stiness Coecients for One Dimensional Elements

20 Since equilibrium of forces and moments must be satised, we have:

Figure 2.6: Deformation of an Innitesimal Element Due to Shear

2 2.22(v1 = 1) Eq. 2.22(1 = 1) Eq. 2.22(v2 = 1)

Note that the denominators have already been divided by 1 + in kbt .

Upon substitution, the grid element stiness matrix is given by

2.7 Remarks on Element Stiness Matrices

52 More about the stiness matrix properties later.

Figure 3.1: Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. 1 and 2

4. The structures stiness matrix will now be assembled:

fpg = [ke]f g (4.1)

5 Let us dene a transformation matrix [;] such that:

10 We dene the rotated coordinate system as x; y; z relative to original system X; Y; Z , in terms