Electrochemical, Generation, And, Storage
Electrochemical, Generation, And, Storage
Electrochemical, Generation, And, Storage
genera/on
and
storage
Primary
and
secondary
Ba5eries
difference
• Primary:
chemical
energy
to
electrical
energy
• Secondary
:
electrical
energy
to
electrical
energy
Zinc-‐carbon
or
Leclanché
ba5ery
• Zn(s)lZnCl2(aq),NH4Cl(aq)lMnO2(s),C(s)
and
the
OCV
is
in
the
range
1.55-‐1.74
V
By
1868
more
than
20
000
of
these
cells
were
in
service
in
European
telegraph
systems.
Twenty
years
aWer
the
original
cell
had
been
proposed,
Carl
Geissner
patented
the
idea
of
manufacturing
the
zinc
anode
in
the
form
of
a
cup
which
would
act
as
a
container
for
the
electrolyte
(which
was
immobilized
with
plaster
of
Paris).
In
the
following
a
cereal
gel
subs/tuted
the
plaster
method.
reac/ons
The
basic
process
consists
of
oxida/on
of
zinc
at
the
anode
to
form
zinc
ions
in
solu/on:
• Zn(s)-‐-‐+Zn2+
+
2e
• together
with
a
reduc/on
of
Mn
(IV)
to
a
trivalent
state
as
MnO.OH
(s)
or
• Mn203.H20(s),
at
the
cathode,
e.g.
• 2MnO2(s)
+
2H20
+
2e
-‐-‐+
2MnO.OH(s)
+
2OH-‐(aq)
• The
ini/al
products
of
the
electrode
reac/ons
may
then
undergo
further
• reac/ons
in
solu/on.
The
prevailing
process
is
• Zn2+(aq)
+
2OH-‐(aq)+
2NH4+(aq)-‐-‐-‐>
Zn(NH3)22+
+
2H20
• followed
by
the
forma/on
of
the
slightly
soluble
Zn(NH3)2Cl2
• Zn(NH3)2+(aq)
+
2Cl-‐(aq)
-‐-‐+
Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s)
electrolyte
• The
electrolyte
in
the
original
Leclanché
cell
was
a
saturated
solu/on
of
ammonium
chloride.
The
addi/on
of
zinc
chloride
was
soon
found
to
be
beneficial
to
cell
performance,
and
since
Geissner's
/me
the
electrolyte
has
contained
both
salts.
Acid-‐base
polariza/on
• The
cathodic
reac/ons
generate
OH-‐
and
increase
pH
• While
the
anodic
one
decreases
pH:
• Zn2+(aq)
+
H20
-‐-‐-‐)
Zn(OH)+
+
H+(aq)
• A
pH
gradient
is
thus
established
during
cell
discharge.
The
cathode
• Graphite,
once
the
normal
choice
for
Leclanché
cells,
is
now
used
only
occasionally
for
certain
high
current
cells,
and
has
been
replaced
by
acetylene
black.
• In
Leclanché
cells,
in
contrast
to
other
zinc-‐
carbon
cells,
a
measure
of
porosity
is
retained
to
permit
ven/ng
of
hydrogen
or
carbon
dioxide
and
hence
to
obviate
the
need
for
installing
a
resealable
vent
with
the
a5endant
cost
implica/ons.
Manganese
oxide
• MnO2
has
numerous
allotropic
forms,
with
subtle
crystal
structure
modifica/ons
and
a
wide
variety
of
surface
types.
So
far
it
has
not
proved
possible
to
relate
in
any
exact
way
the
crystal
structure,
surface
proper/es,
etc.
of
a
par/cular
sample
of
MnO2
with
its
corresponding
electrochemical
behaviour.
Manganese
oxide
• Naturally
occurring
MnO2
ores
from
a
number
of
sources
(and
in
par/cular
Ghana,
Gabon
and
Mexico),
known
as
NMD,
are
prac/cally
free
from
significant
amounts
of
heavy
metal
impuri/es
and
can
be
used
directly
aWer
washing
processes
without
chemical
purifica/on.
• 'Synthe/c'
MnO2
is
obtained
from
natural
MnO2
which
has
been
reduced
to
MnO
and
thence
put
into
solu/on
using
sulphuric
acid.
The
resul/ng
manganous
sulphate
is
purified
and
then
oxidized
either
chemically
to
yield
CMD
or
electrochemically
to
yield
EMD,
which
are
MnO2
phases
with
high
surface
area
and
consistent
proper/es,
and
which
are
used
in
high
quality
Leclanché
cells.
• CMD
and
EMD
have
different
crystal
structures
from
the
phases
exis/ng
in
the
natural
ores.
They
are
also
free
from
manganite,
MnOOH,
which
in
NMD-‐based
cells
results
in
a
slightly
lower
OCV.
reac/ons
In
addi/on,
the
slow
diffusion
of
protons
within
the
solid
MnO2
results
in
serious
polariza/on
of
the
cell,
especially
at
high
currents
.
If
the
cell
is
allowed
to
'rest'
for
a
period
while
no
current
is
drawn,
the
cell
voltage
slowly
recovers,
as
proton
diffusion
dissipates
the
high
Mn
(III)
concentra/on
near
the
surface
of
the
MnO2
grains
and
the
composi/on
of
the
solid
returns
to
uniformity
anode
• In
modern
cells
the
anode
is
fabricated
from
a
zinc
alloy
sheet
synthesized
from
'ba5ery
grade'
zinc
(99.99%)
containing
small
quan//es
of
Pb
and
Cd
to
give
sa/sfactory
mechanical
proper/es
for
drawing,
extrusion,
etc.
• Electrode
polariza/on
of
the
anode
is
less
severe
than
that
for
the
cathode
and
is
mainly
concentra/on
polariza/on
resul/ng
from
accumula/on
of
zinc
chloride
near
the
electrode
surface.
During
rest
periods
aWer
discharge,
diffusion
of
ZnCl2
into
the
bulk
of
the
electrolyte
reduces
the
anode
polariza/on
and
this
also
contributes
to
the
recovery
of
the
cell
voltage.
Shelf
reac/ons
• Shelf
reac/ons
are
defined
as
chemical
processes
occurring
in
ba5eries
during
storage
before
they
have
been
used.
• The
most
significant
shelf
reac/ons
which
lead
to
the
deteriora/on
of
Leclanché
cells
are
corrosion
processes
at
the
anode.
• Those
corrosion
process
comes
from
oxygen
penetra/on
and
zinc
oxida/on
or
from
hydrogen
evolu/on
at
anode
greatly
enhanced
from
the
presence
of
some
impuri/es.
• Zn(s)
+
2NH4+(aq)
+
2Cl-‐(aq)
à
Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s)
+
H2(g)
• Zn(s)
+
Fe2+(aq)
-‐>Zn2+(aq)
+
Fe(s)
Shelf
reac/ons
• Un/l
recently
the
principal
technique
was
to
amalgamate
the
zinc
surface
by
adding
a
small
quan/ty
of
a
soluble
mercury
salt
to
the
electrolyte.
This
increased
the
hydrogen
overvoltage
of
the
zinc
and
also
allowed
dissolu/on
of
small
quan//es
of
electroposi/ve
metals,
thus
preven/ng
the
forma/on
of
local
couples.
• (Why?
Consider
the
volcano
plot!!)
Leakage
• A
long-‐standing
problem
of
Leclanché
dry
cells
is
their
propensity
to
leak
aWer
heavy
discharge.
• This
fact
comes
form
a
complex
set
of
reac/ons:
zinc
corrosion
which
weakens
the
metal
and
produc/on
of
gas
from
starch
degrada/on;
the
combina/on
of
these
processes
allows
an
easier
leakage;
exhausted
ba5eries
should
be
immediately
get
out
of
the
electric
device.
Some
prac/cal
informa/ons
• Leclanché
cells
are
manufactured
in
a
range
of
sizes,
from
11.3
mm
diameter
•
3.3
mm
high
bu5on
cells
to
66.7
mm
diameter
x
166
mm
high
alarm
cells.
Combina/on
of
cells
in
series
and
parallel
arrangements
gives
a
wide
variety
of
ba5eries
with
different
capaci/es
and
voltages
ranging
from
1.5
to
510
V.
A
modern
Leclanché
cell
Alterna/ve
geometries
Alterna/ve
chemistries
Zinc
chloride
The
improved
performance
of
the
ZnCl2
cell
is
offset
by
the
higher
cost
incurred
through
using
a
be5er
quality
cathode
mix
and
more
complex
fabrica/on
due
to
the
requirement
of
more
reliable
seals.
Alterna/ve
chemistries
Zinc
chloride
The
improved
performance
of
the
ZnC12
cell
is
offset
by
the
higher
cost
incurred
through
using
a
be5er
quality
cathode
mix
and
more
complex
fabrica/on
due
to
the
requirement
of
more
reliable
seals.
Alkaline
ba5eries
• In
this
case,
the
electrolyte
is
a
concentrated
aqueous
solu/on
of
potassium
hydroxide
(about
30%),
partly
converted
to
potassium
zincate
by
the
addi/on
of
zinc
oxide.
• rela/vely
constant
capacity
over
a
wide
range
of
current
drains
•
be5er
behaviour
at
low
temperature.
• Another
feature
of
this
system
is
that
it
can
be
the
basis
of
a
secondary
ba5ery
system.
• 2Zn(s)+2MnO2(s)+H20(l)
-‐>
2MnO.OH(s)
+
2ZnO(s)
Alkaline
ba5eries
• The
electrolyte
is
immobilized
generally
using
carboxymethylcellulose,
and
a
non-‐woven
fabric
separator
made
of
natural
or
synthe/c
fibres
resistant
to
the
high
pH
is
placed
between
the
electrodes
• The
cathode
mix
is
a
compressed
mixture
of
electroly/c
MnO2
(EMD)
and
synthe/c
graphite
or
acetylene
black
to
provide
electronic
conduc/vity,
in
• a
ra/o
of
4-‐5:
1,
we5ed
with
electrolyte.
The
cathode
current
collector
is
generally
the
external
steel
can,
which
may
be
nickel-‐plated
or
coated
with
conduc/ve
carbon.
Alkaline
ba5eries
Alkaline
ba5eries
Non-‐stoichiometric
materials
Provided
that
the
reduc/on
does
not
exceed
a
Mn02
-‐>
MnO1.5
level
equivalent
to
MnO1.33the
reac/on
can
be
MnO1.5-‐-‐-‐>
>
MnO1.33
reversed
and
the
cathode
recharged.
In
prac/ce
MnO1.33
-‐-‐-‐-‐>
MnO
this
means
limi/ng
the
discharge
at
0.9
V.
Alkaline
ba5eries
• The
anode
is
a
hollow
cylinder
of
powdered
zinc
set
in
a
carboxymethylcellulose,
polyacrylate
or
other
polymer-‐based
gel.
Zinc
powder
with
median
par/cle
diameters
in
the
range
150-‐250
gm
is
produced
by
interac/on
of
a
thin
stream
of
molten
metal
with
jets
of
compressed
air.
• Gassing
may
be
reduced
by
alloying
the
zinc
with
small
quan//es
of
aluminium,
bismuth
or
calcium.
• As
in
the
case
of
Leclanché
cells,
manufacturers
use
a
range
of
organic
addi/ves
to
reduce
zinc
corrosion
now
that
mercury
amalgama/on
is
no
longer
acceptable
for
environmental
reasons.
Other
chemistry
alterna/ves
• Replacement
of
zinc
anodes
by
aluminium
or
magnesium
seems
an
a5rac/ve
proposi/on
because
of
their
significantly
higher
specific
capaci/es
• (2.98
Ah/g
for
Al
and
2.20
Ah/g
for
Mg
compared
with
0.82
Ah/g
for
• Zn).
•
In
addi/on,
both
metals
have
higher
standard
poten/als
than
zinc
so
that
a
higher
cell
voltage
and
energy
density
can
be
an/cipated.
• Two
problems
the
greatly
increased
corrosion
rate,
the
presence
of
an
oxide
film
which
limits
anode
corrosion
but
is
responsible
for
a
'voltage
delay'
on
discharge.
Bu5on
cells
• 'Miniature'
or
'bu5on'
cells
are
cylindrical
in
form
and
have
a
height
of
less
than
5
mm.
• electric
watches
and
other
miniature
electronic
devices
and
current
produc/on
is
over
109
units
per
year
• The
earliest
aqueous
system,
based
on
mercuric
oxide
and
zinc,
was
introduced
in
the
1940s.
This
is
the
Ruben-‐
Mallory
or
RM
cell
• The
zinc-‐silver
oxide
system
was
introduced
commercially
by
Union
Carbide
in
1961
shortly
aWer
the
appearance
of
electric
watches,
and
a
number
of
other
alkaline
electrolyte
bu5on
cells
were
developed
subsequently.
Zinc/mercuric-‐oxide
• Zn(s)lZnO(s)lKOH(aq)lHgO(s),C(s)
• The
anode
reac/on
may
be
wri5en
as
• Zn(s)
+
2OH-‐(aq)
à
ZnO(s)
+
H20(l)
+
2e-‐
and
the
cathode
reac/on
as
• HgO(s)
+
H20(1)
+
2e-‐
à
Hg(l)
+
2OH-‐(aq)
• so
that
the
overall
cell
reac/on
is
• Zn(s)
+
HgO(s)
à
ZnO(s)
+
Hg(l)
• Two
important
points
to
note
are
the
invariance
of
the
electrolyte
solu/on
and
the
constancy
of
the
chemical
poten/als
of
reactants
and
products,
as
the
discharge
proceeds.
• One
consequence
of
the
effec/ve
non-‐involvement
of
the
electrolyte
is
that
only
a
very
small
quan/ty
is
required
in
a
working
cell.
Another
is
a
rela/vely
constant
internal
resistance,
leading
to
a
fiat
discharge
curve.
Zinc/mercuric
oxide
• The
free
energy
change
for
the
cell
reac/on
is
259.8
kJ/
mol
and
the
cell
emf
is
1.347
V,
which
is
in
very
sa/sfactory
agreement
with
the
OCV
of
1.357
V
of
commercially
produced
cells
• The
electrolyte
is
usually
an
approximately
40%
solu/on
of
KOH
saturated
with
zinc
oxide,
to
which
corrosion
inhibitors
have
been
added.
The
KOH
is
occasionally
replaced
by
NaOH.
• The
electrolyte
is
immobilized
using
felted
cellulose.
The
most
common
anode
is
a
porous
compressed
cylindrical
pellet
of
amalgamated
zinc
powder
and
electrolyte
(possibly
gelled).
Zinc/mercuric
oxide
Comparisons
Comparisons
Comparisons
Comparisons
Lithium
primary
ba5ery
Proper/es
• High
cell
voltage.
Lithium
cells
commonly
have
OCV
and
working
voltages
of
3
V
and
may
have
values
of
4
V.
In
addi/on
to
contribu/ng
to
the
high
energy
density
of
the
cells,
the
number
of
cells
in
a
ba5ery
pack
can
be
reduced
by
a
factor
of
2
or
3
in
comparison
with
aqueous
primary
cells.
• Flat
discharge.
It
is
straighrorward
to
combine
lithium
with
a
cathode
where
the
ac/vity
of
the
oxidized
and
reduced
forms
are
invariant
during
discharge
of
the
cell.
Proper/es
• Self-‐discharge
is
minimized
due
to
the
forma/on
of
the
passiva/ng
layer
on
lithium.
Prac/cal
storage
limits
of
5-‐10
years
at
room
temperature
are
readily
achieved
• Wide
opera/ng
temperature
range.
Because
of
the
low
freezing
point
of
suitable
non-‐aqueous
solvents,
lithium
cells
can
perform
reasonably
well
down
to
temperatures
of
around
-‐40°
Their
construc/on
also
allows
them
to
be
operated
at
60°
and
over.
Organic
electrolytes
formule
Some
proper/es
Li
Salts
• The
most
widely
used
salts
are
LiBr,
LiPF6,
LiAsF6,
LiBF4,
LiCl04
and
LiAlCI4,
i.e.
either
simple
salts
or
combina/ons
of
a
lithium
halide
with
a
Lewis
acid.
The
best
known,
LiCF3SO3,
lithium
trifluoromethanesulphonate,
some/mes
referred
to
as
'lithium
triflate’
• .
More
conduc/ve
solu/ons,
due
to
lower
ion
pairing,
may
be
obtained
using
LiN(SO2CF3)2,
known
as
LiTFSI
or
'lithium
imide’,
or
LiC(SO2CF3)3which
is
called
'lithium
methide'.
• Both
of
these
salts
are
highly
stable
both
from
a
thermal
and
from
an
electrochemical
point
of
view.
Behaviour
Lithium
Passiva/on
• The
forma/on
of
passiva/ng
films
on
lithium
in
contact
with
liquid
or
soluble
cathodic
reagents
is
a
prerequisite
for
the
construc/on
of
a
prac/cal
cell.
The
film
acts
in
the
same
way
as
a
separator,
preven/ng
further
direct
chemical
reac/on
of
lithium
and
the
cathodic
reagent.
Passiva/on
effect:
voltage
delay