Possible Causes of Erosion

Soft rock:
Acidic rain

Ground water

Salt ware

Traffic on the road: Fannie bay is a kind of recreational spot for different ages of people.

Sea wall
Seawalls are onshore structures constructed where the sea, and associated coastal processes, impact
directly upon the landforms of the coast (Coastalwiki.org. 2017) with the principal function of
preventing or alleviating overtopping and flooding of the land and the structures behind due to
storm surges and waves. It is a structure separating the area of land and water, primarily designed to
prevent erosion and other damage due to wave action (SPM, 1984, p A-30). It is built parallel to the
shoreline as a reinforcement of a part of the coastal profile. (USACE, 2003, p VI-2-1). Moreover, it is
designed to resist the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between
land and sea. Seawalls are massive structures because they are designed to resist the full force of
waves and storm surge (Coastal Engineering Solutions. 2017).

Seawalls typically have a smooth, vertical surface facing the water which can result in waves
reflecting off of the seawall. This reflection can lead to erosion of the shore area immediately lake
ward of the structure including beaches and the lakebed, erosion of the area directly landward of the
structure, and erosion on unprotected areas adjacent to the ends of the structure.

These structures can have a vertical, stepped, or curved face, and typically have a horizontal surface
(or cap) at the crest. In some cases the seawall cap can be wide enough to contain a promenade on
top of the structure or provide access to the lake. Seawalls can be made of various materials
including concrete blocks, cast in place concrete and stone-filled cribs. The types of sea walls are
described below:
Curved face seawall

Curved face seawall is designed to withstand the effects of high wave. In order to avoid the loss of
foundation materials caused by scouring waves and/or leaching from over topping water or storm
drainage underneath the wall, sheet pile cut off wall should be constructed.

Moreover, scouring can be decreased by placing the stone of large size at the toe. A typical curved
face sea wall with its components is given below:

Stepped face seawall

Stepped face seawall is designed to oppose or resist the effects of moderate wave. Reinforced
concrete sheet piles with tongue- and- groove joints are employed to construction this type of
seawall. The spaces which is created between piles is either filled with grout in order make sand
proof cut off wall or install geotextile fiber at the back of the sheet pile to form sand tight barrier.

Applying geotextile is beneficial because it allows seeping water through and consequently prevents
accumulating hydrostatic pressure. Figure 2 shows stepped face seawall with the components and
details.

Figure-2: Stepped Face Seawall and its Components

Rubble Mound Seawalls

Design and construction this type of seawall configuration might be easier and cheaper. It can resist
substantially strong wave actions. Despite scouring of the front beach, quarry stone comprising the
seawall could be readjusted and settled without causing structural failure.

Figure 3 provide components of rubble bound seawall. The rubble bound seawall dimensions are
determined based on site conditions.

Figure-3: Rubble Mound Seawall

Among these three options of sea wall curved sea wall will be the best possible options for the
construction to protect the coastal cliffs and also preserve the surrounding of the site which holds
some historical importance to the civilization.

Height of the barrier

When selecting the height of protection, one must consider the maximum water level, any
anticipated structure settlement, freeboard, and wave run up and overtopping. Elevation of the
structure is perhaps the single most important controlling design factor and is also critical to the
performance of the structure. Numerous seawall failures can be directly and indirectly attributed to
inadequate elevations.
Elevation with reference to mean lower low water (MLLW) is determined by the following
equation:

he =  s + F
s = design storm surge.

F= freeboard
The height of the barrier is taken based on the Mean Astronomical Tide (MAT) and Mean High Water
Spring tide (MHWS). The difference is 5.5 meters. The storm surge and the freeboard are also
considered. The storm surge is taken 10% and the freeboard is also taken 10% of the mean spring
range of 5.5 meter. The total calculated height of the sea wall is 6.6 meters from the ground level.
The depth for the foundation of sea wa

Freeboard F

Storm surge Height of the wall

w

Ground level

Scouring depth S

Energy of wave

Design -> volume

MATERIALS

Generally seawalls are constructed with large boulders weighing up to 4 tonnes each. The seawall
standard was established by the Queensland Government’s Coordinator General’s Department in
consultation with Dutch experts. Seawalls provide some protection for buildings constructed in
erosion-prone areas along the beaches.

There are two types of seawalls approved for the Gold Coast A-line seawall (Figure 12). Gold Coast
seawalls typically include three layers, including an outer face of boulders supported by rock fill and a
filter layer. There are two types of filter layers, one comprising clay/shale and an alternative design
using geotextile material.
The Type 1 wall is a clay/shale fill consisting of a mixture of 50% clay and 50% shale and free of
organic matter. Type 2 walls incorporate a geotextile material. The geotextile must comply with the
following minimum requirements:

• unit weight AS1587 – 1000 g/m2 (min)

• grab tensile strength to AS2001.2.3 – 1000 N (min) in any direction in plane of geotextile

• trapezoidal tear resistance AS01117 – 600 N (min) in any direction

• water permeability (10 cm head) – 30 litres/m2/second (min).

The remainder of the walls consist of rock fill and boulders which will not disintegrate in water.
Grading of the materials must be in accordance with the details shown on the drawings. The rock fill
and boulders must be clean and free of topsoil and all organic matter. Rock sizes can vary between
90 kg and 360 kg (50% must be over 270 kg). Boulders range between 1.5 tonnes and 4 tonnes (50%
must be over 3 tonnes).

Preparation of the site

Mayer Hoff bearing capacity test

Construction procedure

Cost

Time required

Darwin, for example, has a spring tide range of 5.5 m

4. SEAWALL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

4.1 MATERIALS

Gold Coast seawalls are constructed with large boulders weighing up to 4 tonnes each. The
seawall standard was established by the Queensland Government’s Coordinator General’s
Department in consultation with Dutch experts. Seawalls provide some protection for buildings
constructed in erosion-prone areas along the beaches.

There are two types of seawalls approved for the Gold Coast A-line seawall (Figure 12). Gold Coast
seawalls typically include three layers, including an outer face of boulders supported by rock fill and a
filter layer. There are two types of filter layers, one comprising clay/shale and an alternative design
using geotextile material.

The Type 1 wall is a clay/shale fill consisting of a mixture of 50% clay and 50% shale and free of
organic matter. Type 2 walls incorporate a geotextile material. The geotextile must comply with
the following minimum requirements:

• unit weight AS1587 – 1000 g/m2 (min)

• grab tensile strength to AS2001.2.3 – 1000 N (min) in any direction in plane of geotextile

• trapezoidal tear resistance AS01117 – 600 N (min) in any direction

• water permeability (10 cm head) – 30 litres/m2/second (min).

The remainder of the walls consist of rock fill and boulders which will not disintegrate in water.
Grading of the materials must be in accordance with the details shown on the drawings. The rock
fill and boulders must be clean and free of topsoil and all organic matter. Rock sizes can vary
between 90 kg and 360 kg (50% must be over 270 kg). Boulders range between 1.5 tonnes and 4
tonnes (50% must be over 3 tonnes).

4.2 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

Gold Coast City Council provides the following guidance for the construction of a wall as shown
in Figure 13.

6.1 The contractor shall construct foreshore seawalls as detailed on the drawings.

6.2 Type 1 wall incorporating clay/shale shall be constructed as follows:

i) The clay/shale layer from RL 0.60 m AHD to RL 4.9 m (min) AHD shall be installed as a
single layer. The layer shall be compacted to ensure stability. The Superintendant shall
inspect and certify that the compacted layer complies with the requirements of the
specification and the drawings

ii) The rock fill layer from RL 0.00 m AHD to RL 4.9 m (min) AHD shall be installed as a single layer.
Rocks shall be laid to ensure maximum interlock. The Superintendant shall inspect and certify that
the rock layer complies with the requirements of the specifications and the drawings.

iii) The boulder armour layer from RL 0.00 m AHD to RL 4.9 m (min) AHD shall be installed as a
single layer. Boulders shall be laid to ensure maximum interlock. The Superintendant shall inspect
 and certify that the boulder layer complies with the requirements of the specifications and
the drawings.

iv) After certification has been provided for the rock fill layer, sand from the excavation shall be
flooded into the voids. Water used for flooding shall be sourced from the nearest Council
hydrant stand after paying the appropriate fees.

 6.3 Type 2 wall incorporating geotextile material shall be constructed in accordance with the
requirements of Subclause 6.2 ii), iii) and iv) herein

3.2 Selection Factors http://www.pilebuck.com/seawalls-bulkheads-quaywalls/chapter-2-

protective-waterfront-structures/

3.2.1 Exposure. If location is subject to heavy wave attack (6 feet or greater significant wave height
before breaking), select vertical wall, curved face, or rubble mound types. For locations subject to
moderate wave attack (3 to 6 ft [.91 to 1.83 m]) significant wave height before breaking), use any
type of seawall. For locations subject to light wave attack (4 ft [1.22 m] or less significant wave
height before breaking), use any type of seawall or use a bulkhead.

3.2.2 Foundation Condition. For fair to good foundation conditions, any type of seawall is applicable
provided that provision is made to prevent undermining due to scour. For poor foundation
conditions, flexible types are applicable such as revetments and rubble mounds which can
accommodate substantial settlement, pile supported designs such as stepped-face walls which are
independent of settlement and soil strength, and lightweight, sloped constructions which minimize
shear stress in the supporting soil. Where hard bottom (rock, hardpan) is located at reasonable
depth, gravity structures, including curved face walls, should be considered. Seawalls supported on
piles may be detailed to accommodate lateral movement as shown in Figures 4 and 5.

3.2.3 Beach Scour. Since a seawall is often located between the extreme high and extreme low tide
marks or in shallow water, it is subject to scour from breaking waves. In deeper water, reflection
from a vertical face wall may be expected to cause scour at the foot of the wall. Prevention of scour
from breaking waves requires use of a toe blanket or a cutoff wall, which lets the scour occur but
prevents undermining. The scoured volume normally fills again after the storm, but if scour, albeit
temporary, is to be permitted, check stability of the wall under condition of maximum scour. The
prevention of scour due to wave reflection (which implies water of sufficient depth at the face of the
wall to prevent breaking of waves) can be facilitated by the use of rubble mound or stepped-face
designs. For guidance in estimating depth of scour, refer to para. 3.4.1.
3.2.4 Overtopping. Vertical face and curved (concave) face walls tend to throw the reflected waves
into the air where an onshore wind can carry a considerable quantity of water ashore. Wave run-up
on paved slopes, such as concrete block revetment, also can result in a large quantity of water
overtopping the wall. Where overtopping is a serious problem, rubble mound, stepped face, and
similar energy-dissipating designs with or without a parapet wall at the top of the slope, or devices
such as those shown in Figure 2, should be considered. A slight nose at the top of the wall helps to
return the uprushing waves. A pronounced projection should be avoided.

Figure 1
Types of Seawalls (Examples A thru C)
 Figure 2
Types of Seawalls (Examples D thru F)
 Figure 3
Types of Seawalls (Examples G thru I)

3.3 General Design

3.3.1 Forces to be Considered

a) Self-weight, weight of fill, and applied live load, in general.

b) Lateral earth pressure (refer to DM-7.01, Soil Mechanics, and DM-7.02, Foundations and Earth
Structures).

c) Wave pressures and suctions.

d) Hydrostatic pressure due to tidal lag.

e) Surcharge.

f) Buoyancy.

3.3.2 Wave Pressures and Suctions

3.3.2.1 Height and Period of Incident Waves. (Refer to procedures in DM-26.2.)

3.3.2.2 Critical Depth for Breaking of Incident Waves. (Refer to DM-26.2.) Where the critical value of
the ratio db:Ho (determined from the charts) approximates the actual value db:Ho at the wall,
design the wall for pressures due to “breaking” waves. Where the actual depth-height ratio is less
than the critical ratio, design the wall for pressures due to a “broken” wave. Where the actual depth-
height ratio is greater than the critical value, the wall will be subject only to pressures due to
“nonbreaking waves.”

3.3.2.3 Pressure Due to Breaking, Broken, and Nonbreaking Waves. (Refer to DM-26.2.)

3.3.2.4 Maximum Forces and Moments. Analyze several incident wave conditions (combinations of
height and period) to determine the maximum forces and moments.

3.3.3 Tidal Lag. At high tide, the water level in the fill behind a bulkhead, seawall, or quaywall rises,
but, because of the limited permeability of the fill, not as fast as the tide rises. Similarly, as the tide
falls, the water level in the fill also falls, but not as fast. The lag in rise of the water level in the fill is
of no concern as regards design of the wall. However, the lag in fall of the water level creates an
unbalanced water pressure which must be resisted or accommodated by the structure. Therefore,
where the wall stands seaward of the high-high water mark, design for tidal lag is as follows:

a) For permeable structures such as rubble mounds and for structures with permeable backfill
(coefficient of permeability greater than one foot per minute), positive drainage of the backfill, and
weep holes at or near the ground line at the front of the walls, assume zero tidal lag.

b) For structures backed by impermeable fill (coefficient of permeability of 10-3 ft/min or less),
assume tidal lag equal to one-half the mean tidal range.

c) For structures backed by fill material having a permeability between 10-3 and one ft/min:

1) If the wall is of low permeability (sheet piling and few or no weep holes), assume tidal lag equal to
one-half the mean tidal range.

2) If the wall is permeable (lagging, with spaces between the boards, gravel chimneys connected to
weep holes or similar devices [see Figure 6]), treat the water load (saturation level above low water
level) as a surcharge. The curves of Figure 6 assume semidiurnal tides. For diurnal tides, the effects
of tidal lag will be less. See Figure 7 for a sample computation illustrating the use of the curves of
Figure 6.

d) These allowances for tidal lag do not consider the effects of inundation of the backfill due to
overtopping. If overtopping is anticipated and positive provisions have not been made to drain the
overflow water away from the wall and to prevent its penetration into the backfill design for an
assumed ground water level at the top of the wall. Allow 50 percent overstress (or reduce overall
load factor to 1.2) for all loading combinations which include this assumption.

e) Add the tidal lag effect with low water condition on the outboard face.

3.3.4 Allowable Stresses. For Service Classification B, use allowable stresses given in MILHDBK-
1002/2, Loads.

3.4 Design Details

3.4.1 Scour. Except in deep water, scour at the toe of a seawall during severe storms is inevitable.
Provide a toe wall or toe armor to prevent undermining. The following may be used for guidance in
detailing toe protection.

3.4.1.1 Width of Toe Armor. (See Figure 3, type H.)

3.4.1.2 Depth to Toe Wall. Assume scour depth below the natural seabed equal to the maximum
unbroken wave height consistent with the depth of water at face of wall. For attack by broken
waves, and for conditions of progressive shoreline erosion in general, refer to method in Section
5.28 of the Shore Protection Manual, U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center. Design to
ensure the stability of the wall in the scoured condition and provide excess toe armor or toe stone in
rubble mounds of revetments to allow for the inevitable settlement and displacement during heavy
wave attack.

3.4.2 Overtopping. Overtopping of a seawall in a severe storm is difficult to prevent. If substantive

erosion of the upland due to the fall and wash of the water cannot be tolerated, the upland adjacent
to, and a distance back of, the wall must be armored against erosion. Pavement close to the wall is
required to resist the fall of the water thrown into the air by the impact of waves on the wall. If the
upland slopes inshore, provisions must be made to collect and transport the overtopping water and
to prevent erosion due to the run-off of said water. Plantings in lieu of pavement seldom work well.
Use devices described in para. 3.2.4 to reduce overtopping…

REFERENCES:

USACE (2003) Design of coastal revetments, seawalls, and bulkheads. US Army Corps of Engineers,
Report Number: EM 1110-2-1100. In 6 Volumes.