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HARBOR ENGINEERING
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HANDBOOK OF PORT AND
HARBOR ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL AND STRUCTURAL ASPECTS

Gregory P. Tsinker, Ph.D., P.E.

Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

Cover Design: Andrea Meyer, emDASH inc., New York, NY
Cover Photo: Courtesy of Han-Padron Associates, New York, NY

Copyright © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1997

Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1997

ISBN 978-1-4757-0865-3 ISBN 978-1-4757-0863-9 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-0863-9

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any
form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or
information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher.

12345678910XXXOI 009997

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tsinker, Gregory P.
Handbook of port and harbor engineering : geotechnical and structural aspects I Gregory
P. Tsinker.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4757-0865-3
I. Harbors-Design and construction. 2. Marine geotechnique. I. Title.
TC205.T747 1996
627' .2-dc20 95-48487
CIP
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available

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To Nora

v
 contents

Dedication v

Preface xix

Introduction xxv

Contributors xxxvii

1 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS ON PORT DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 General 1
1.1.2 Seawater and Fouling 4

1.2 Water-level Variations 8

1.3 Weather Factors 10

1.4 Wind 12
1.4.1 General 12

vii
viii Contents

1.4.2 Wind Parameters 14

1.5 Currents 16

1.6 Waves 19
1.6.1 General 19
1.6.2 The Sea State Parameters 26
1.6.3 Wave Theories 31
1.6.4 Design Wave 33

1.7 Ice 37
1.7.1 Introduction 38
1.7.2 Ice Covers 39
1.7.3 Effects of Ice on Port Operations 47
1.7.4 Cold Temperature and Ice Effects on Marine Structures Design 54

References 61

2 PORT (HARBOR) ELEMENTS: DESIGN PRINCIPLES

AND CONSIDERATIONS 69

2.1 General 69
2.1.1 Port Classification 70
2.1.2 Port Details and Definitions 71

2.2 Ships and their Influence on Port Design 73

2.2.1 Ships 73
2.2.2 Ship Influence on Port Design 74

2.3 Access (Navigation) Channel 78

2.3.1 General 78
2.3.2 Navigational and Operational Parameters 79
2.3.3 Environmental Parameters 81
2.3.4 Layout 82
2.3.5 Channel Cross Section 84
2.3.6 Economic Considerations 96
 Contents ix

2.4 Port (Harbor) Entrance 98

2.5 Port Water Area (Harbor) 106

2.5.1 Basin Sizes 107

2.6 Location, Orientation, Size, and Shape of the Port 112

2.6.1 Selection of Port Location 112
2.6.2 Size and Orientation of Marine Facilities 115
2.6.3 Harbor Area Requirements 115

2.7 Quay Basin 119

2.8 Offshore Installations 121

2.8.1 Offshore Bottom-Fixed Marine Facilities 121
2.8.2 Single-Point Offshore Moorings 123

2.9 Port-Related Marine Structures 124

2.9.1 Land Requirements 124
2.9.2 Dust and Noise Control 127
2.9.3 Berth Requirements 128
2.9.4 Structures 130
2.9.5 Selection of the Most Cost Effective Structure for Dock Construction 151
2.9.6 Constructability 153

2.10 Structural Materials 154

2.10.1 Structural Concrete 155
2.10.2 Underwater Concreting 172
2.10.3 Precast Concrete 178
2.10.4 Structural Steel in Port Engineering 180
2.10.5 Structural Timber 195

2.11 Breakwaters 198

2.12 In-Harbor Slope Protection 203

2.13 Aids to Navigation 204

2.14 Mooring Accessories 205

x Contents

2.15 Fender Systems 206

2.15.1 Timber Fenders 208
2.15.2 Solid Rubber Fenders 210
2.15.3 Pneumatic Fenders 216
2.15.4 Foam-Filled Fenders 222
2.15.5 Other Fender Systems 222
2.15.6 Fenders Failure 226
2.15.7 General Principles in Fender System Selection and Design 226

References · 232

3 DESIGN LOADS 243

3.1 General 243

3.2 Environmental Loads 244

3.2.1 Wind 245
3.2.2 Currents 248
3.2.3 Waves 251

3.3 Mooring Loads 260

3.3.1 Mooring Lines Arrangement 261
3.3.2 Mooring Line Materials 262
3.3.3 Mooring Forces 262

3.4 Loads From Cargo Handling and Hauling Equipment and Uniform
Distributed Loads 267
3.4.1 General Considerations 267
3.4.2 Design Load Assumptions 269
3.4.3 Uniform Distributed Cargo Loads and Miscellaneous Live Loads 271
3.4.4 Rubber Tire and Crawler Track Mounted Equipment 272
3.4.5 Rail-Mounted Cargo 279
3.4.6 Fixed-Base Equipment 282

3.5 Ship Impact (by M. Shiono in collaboration with G. Tsinker) 283

3.6 Ice Loads 293

3.6.1 General 293
3.6.2 Environmental Driving Forces 294
3.6.3 Ice-Crushing Load 295
3.6.4 Loads Due to Ice Bending Mode of Failure 297
 Contents xi

3.6.5 Forces Due to Ice Sheet Adfreeze to the Structure 299

3.6.6 Vertical Loads on Piles or Piers Due to Changes in Water Level 300
3.6.7 Ice Load of Thermal Origin 301
3.6.8 Other Ice-Induced Loads 302

3.7 Seismic Loads (by W. S. Dunbar) 302

3.7.1 Seismic Ground Motion 303
3.7.2 Descriptions of Ground Motion 307
3.7.3 Design Ground Motion Estimation 312
3.7.4 Design Loads 318

3.8 Load Combinations 319

References 320

4 GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS OF SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 331

4.1 General 331

4.2 Subsurface Investigation 333

4.3 Soil Liquefaction and Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential (by G. Tsinker

and W. S. Dunbar) 334

4.4 Basic Design and Construction Considerations 342

4.4.1 Modern Trends 342
4.4.2 Bottom-Fixed Structures 343
4.4.3 Safety Considerations 345
4.4.4 Construction Procedure 347

4.5 Soils and Bedrock 348

4.5.1 Gravel and Sand 348
4.5.2 Silt and Clay 349
4.5.3 Bedrock 350

4.6 Properties and Characteristics of Soils 352

4.6.1 Shear Strength 354
4.6.2 Compressibility (Consolidation) 356
4.6.3 Permeability 357
xii Contents

4.7 Lateral Soil Pressure 358

4.7.1 Active Earth Pressure 359
4. 7.2 Effects of Wall Movement 368
4.7.3 Effects of Time-Dependent Changes in Soil 374
4.7.4 Effect of Ambient Temperature on Earth Pressures 376
4. 7.5 Effects of Backfill Freezing 376
4.7.6 Passive Earth Pressure 376
4. 7. 7 Earth Pressure at Rest 380
4.7.8 Compaction-Induced Pressure 381

4.8 Friction Forces on Walls 381

4.9 Dynamic Soil Pressures 382

4.9.1 Mononobe-Okabe Formulation 383
4.9.2 Effect of Saturated Backfill 385
4.9.3 Hydrodynamic Pressures 385
4.9.4 Effect of Wall Inertia 386
4.9.5 Selection of Ground Motions 387
4.9.6 Effect of Wall Movements 387

References 388

5 GRAVITY-TYPEQUAYWALLS 397

5.1 General 397

5.2 Basic Structural Arrangements 403

5.2.1 Blockwork Structures 403
5.2.2 Quay Walls Composed of Floated-in Concrete Caissons 409
5.2.3 Quay Walls Composed of Large-Diameter Cylinders 428
5.2.4 Cribwork Quay Walls 435
5.2.5 Steel Sheet-Pile Cell Bulkheads 439
5.2.6 Quay Walls 446
5.2.7 Gravity-Type Walls 452

5.3 Basic Design Considerations 461

5.3.1 Loads and Forces Load Combinations 461
5.3.2 Basic Static Principles 464

5.4 Design ofBlockwork Quay Walls 478

5.4.1 Basic Design Principles 478
 Contents xiii

5.4.2 Design Phase 1 480

5.4.3 Design Phase 2 483
5.4.4 Design Phase 3 484
5.4.5 Design Phase 4 484

5.5 Design of Quay Walls Comprised of Floated-in Concrete Caissons 485

5.5.1 Basic Design Principles 485
5.5.2 Buoyancy and Buoyant Stability of a Caisson 485
5.5.3 Buoyancy and Stability of a Damaged Caisson 489
5.5.4 Caisson Launch 490
5.5.5 Towing and Sinking 496
5.5.6 Structural Design 497

5.6 Design of Quay Walls Composed of Large-Diameter Cylinders 500

5.7 Design ofL-Shaped Walls 504

5.7.1 Basic Requirements 504
5.7.2 Design of Cantilever Walls 506
5.7.3 Design of Counterfort Wall 507
5.7.4 Design of Wall Constructed from Prefabricated Components with
Internal Anchorage 508
5.7.5 Design of Wall Constructed from Prefabricated Components with
External Anchorage 508

5.8 Design of Cellular-type Steel Sheet-pile Bulkheads 511

5.8.1 Introduction 511
5.8.2 Conventional Design Method 512
5.8.3 Horizontal Shear (Cummings') Method 518
5.8.4 Brinch Hansen Method 519
5.8.5 Seismic Design of Cellular Bulkheads 519
5.8.6 Deflection of Cellular Bulkhead 520
5.8.7 Effects of Concentrated Horizontal Loads on Sheet-Pile Cell 522

5.9 Design ofCribwork-type Quay Walls 522

5.10 Reinforced Earth Quay (by D. Weinreb and P. Wu) 524

5.10.1 General Concept 524
5.10.2 Design of Reinforced Earth Marine Structures 532
5.10.3 Construction of Reinforced Earth Walls Underwater 536

References 542
xiv Contents

6 SHEET-PILE BULKHEADS 549

6.1 Introduction 549

6.1.1 Sheet-Piling-Background 549
6.1.2 Anchoring Systems 552
6.1.3 Sequence of Construction 555

6.2 Sheet-Piling-Structural and Driving Aspects 555

6.2.1 Timber Sheet Piles 556
6.2.2 Steel Sheet Piles 558
6.2.3 Concrete Sheet Piles 561
6.2.4 Selection of Sheet-Pile Section 570

6.3 Anchor Systems 571

6.3.1 Anchor System Comprised of Tie-Rods and Anchorages 572
6.3.2 Anchor System Comprised of Raked Piles 576
6.3.3 Ground (Rock) Anchors 583

6.4 Wall Capping 589

6.5 Construction Methods 591

6.5.1 Construction Sequence 591
6.5.2 Sheet-Pile Driving 592
6.5.3 Pile Jetting 596
6.5.4 Earthwork 602

6.6 Earth Pressures on Flexible Walls: State-of-the-Art Review 606

6.7 Design of Sheet-pile Walls 623

6.7.1 Design Criteria 623
6.7.2 Design of Cantilever Walls 625
6. 7.3 Design of Anchored Bulkheads 630
6.7.4 Design of Sheet-Pile Bulkheads Anchored by Raked Piles 643

6.8 Sheet-Pile Bulkheads Built on Creep Soils 653

6.8.1 Cantilever Sheet-Pile Bulkhead 655
6.8.2 Single-Anchor Sheet-Pile Bulkhead 657
6.8.3 Multianchor Sheet-Pile Bulkhead 661

6.9 Anchorage Design 665

 Contents xv

6.9.1 Piled Anchorages 666

6.9.2 Sheet-Pile Anchor Wall 667
6.9.3 Individual Vertical Anchor Piles 669
6.9.4 Deadman (Plate) Anchor 670

6.10 Waling and Tie-Rod Design 672

6.11 Ground (Rock) Anchors 673

6.12 Overall Stability 679

6.13 Seismic Design of Anchored Sheet-Pile Walls (by W. S. Dunbar) 682

6.13.1 Observed Failure Modes 682
6.13.2 Seismic Design Procedure 683
6.13.3 Assumption 683
6.13.4 Factor of Safety Against Failure by Rotation 683
6.13.5 Size and Location of Anchor Block 684
6.13.6 Balanced Design Procedure 685

6.14 Sheet-Pile Wall Failure 686

References 688

7 PILED WATERFRONT STRUCTURES 695

7.1 Introduction 695

7.2 General 697

7.2.1 Structural Schemes and Structural Components 697
7.2.2 Prefabrication 701

7.3 Open Pile Structures With Suspended Decks 701

7.3.1 Open Piled Offshore Piers 702
7.3.2 Piling 710
7.3.3 Suspended Deck Structures for Marginal Wharves 711
7.3.4 Basic Design Principles 712
7.3.5 Suspended Deck Structures Founded on Large-Diameter Cylindrical Piles
718
7.3.6 Protection from Ship Impact 722
xvi Contents

7.3.7 Pile Anchoring in Foundation Soil and the Deck Structure 724

7.4 Relieving Platforms 725

7.5 Structural Elements 734

7.5.1 Pile Foundation 735
7.5.2 Superstructure 776
7.5.3 U nderdeck Slope 782

7.6 Pile-Soil Interaction 795

7.6.1 General 795
7.6.2 Piles Under Axial Static Load 803
7.6.3 Pile Settlement 817

7.7 Laterally Loaded Piles 820

7.7.1 General 820
7.7.2 Conventional Design Methods 822
7.7.3 Broms' Method 826
7. 7.4 Subgrade Reaction Approach 829
7.7.5 Laterally Loaded Socketed Piles 836

7.8 Piled Marine Structures Design Methods 837

7.8.1 Design Criteria 837
7.8.2 Design Methods 838

References 865

8 OFFSHORE DEEP WATER TERMINALS 879

8.2 Layout 881

8.2.1 Dry Bulk Loading/Unloading Facilities 882
8.2.2 Liquid Bulk Loading/Unloading Terminals 886

8.3 Mooring System 888

8.3.1 Basic Structural Concepts 890

8.4 Dolphins and Platforms 893

8.4.1 Breasting Dolphins 893
8.4.2 Piled Breasting Dolphins 895
8.4.3 Gravity-Type Dolphins 896
 Contents x:vii

8.4.4 Steel Jacket-Type Structures 898

8.4.5 Fenders 898
8.4.6 Mooring Dolphins 898
8.4.7 Loading/Unloading Platforms 899
8.4.8 Access Trestles and Catwalks 899

8.5 Structural Design 901

8.5.1 Marine Foundation and its Effects on Structural Design 901
8.5.2 Basic Design Procedures 903

References 914

9 MODERNIZATION OF EXISTING MARINE FACILITIES 917

9.1 Introduction 917

9.2 Modernization of Mooring Structures 919

9.2.1 Modernization of Gravity-Type Quay Walls 920
9.2.2 Modernization of Piled Wharves 925
9.2.3 Modernization of Sheet-Pile Bulkheads 925
9.2.4 New Wall Construction 929

9.3 Modernization of Waterfront Structures: Characteristic Examples 930

9.3.1 Gravity-Type Quay Walls 930
9.3.2 Modification of Piled Coal-Loading Pier No. 6 at Norfolk, Virginia 940
9.3.3 Use of Piled Structures and Sheet-Pile Walls for Modernization
of Existing Structures 942
9.3.4 Construction of Brand New Structures 949

References 949

10 BREAKWATER DESIGN (by S. Takahashi) 951

10.1 Historic Development of Breakwaters 952

10.1.1 Structural Types 952
10.1.2 Conditions for Breakwater Selection 956
10.1.3 Comparison of Sloping- and Vertical-Type Breakwaters 956
10.1.4 Historical Development of Breakwaters 957

10.2 Design of Conventional Vertical Breakwaters 977

xviii Contents

10.2.1 Examples of Conventional Vertical Breakwaters 977

10.2.2 Wave Transmission and Reflection by Vertical Walls 978
10.2.3 Wave Forces on Vertical Walls 981
10.2.4 Design of Rubble-Mound Foundation 1001
10.2.5 Rubble-Mound Toe Protection Against Scouring 1005

10.. 3 Design of New Types ofVertical Breakwater 1006

10.3.1 Perforated Wall Breakwater 1007
10.3.2 Inclined Walls 1015

10.4 Design of Horizontally Composite Breakwaters 1020

10.4.1 Wave Transmission and Reflection 1021
10.4.2 Wave and Block Load on a Vertical Wall 1022
10.4.3 Stability of Wave-Dissipating Concrete Blocks 1023

10.5 Design of Rubble-Mound Breakwaters 1024

10.5.1 Wave Transmission and Reflection 1025
10.5.2 Design of Armor Layer 1027
10.5.3 Inner Layers, Core, Toe, and Wave Screen 1034

References 1036

Index 1045
 Preface

In past 10 years or so several excellent This book has been written to :fill a niche
books and handbooks on "Port and Harbors in the existing literature on port and harbor
Engineering" and "Coastal and Ocean Engi- engineering and to provide the port design-
neering" have been published in Europe and ers, and particularly those concerned with
in North America. Reference to these works the design of a port- and harbor-related
is made elsewhere in this book. marine structures, with state-of-the-art in-
The authors of the aforementioned works formation and common sense guidelines to
offer a shrewd and comprehensive discus- the design and construction of the basic
sion on the marine environment and its types of marine structures. This book is a
effects on port design, port operation, port companion volume to my earlier work Ma-
hydraulics, coastal geomorphology, littoral rine · Structures Engineering: Specialized
drift and sedimentation, port and shipping Applications published by Chapman & Hall
technology and economics, design and con-
in 1995. That book covers important sub-
struction of a floating port related struc-
jects such as the evaluation of capacity of
tures, and others. However, proportionally
the in-service marine structures and meth-
the geotechnical and structural aspects of
port construction have been given very lit- ods of their remediation and maintenance,
tle attention. This happens, perhaps, be- construction and operation of the marine
cause the subject of marine structures engi- structures in cold regions, design and con-
neering is very broad by itself; it is a blend struction of a shipyard and related marine
that encompasses the array of engineering structures, design of anchored offshore
disciplines, e.g., civil, structural, geotechni- moorings and floating breakwaters, design
cal, hydraulic, strength of materials, corro- and construction of marinas (small craft
sion, naval architecture and others knowl- harbors), and design and construction of
edge of which is required to produce a sound marine structures that are used in naviga-
and economical design of a modern port or ble waterways for protecting the bridge
marine terminal. piers from ship collision. Conversely, this
xix
xx Preface

volume provides the marine structures de- tion principles, and operation of these
signer with basic information on the marine structures have been significantly improved
environment and its effects on port design by the introduction of new and better fend-
and construction (Chapter 1); port elements ering systems and efficient mooring acces-
and their effects on port operation (Chapter sories. New and better structural materials
2); design loads and their combinations that have also been introduced. For example,
are commonly used to design waterfront modern concrete technology now enables the
structures (Chapter 3); information on the engineer to use durable high-strength con-
phenomenon of soil I structure interaction crete, highly resistant to deterioration in
that explains basic principles that affect harsh marine environments. New and bet-
soil lateral thrust against rigid and flexibleter repair procedures and rehabilitation
soil retaining structures (Chapter 4); design techniques for port structures have also
of gravity quay walls, sheet pile bulkheads, been introduced.
and piled marine structures (Chapters 5, 6 Progress in development of new marine
and 7); basic principles of design of the structures and modernization of existing
offshore marine terminals (Chapter 8); structures was based on advances in ana-
modernization of the existing waterfront lytical design methods as well as on result
structure that makes them usable in mod- of numerous scale-model tests and field in-
ern port operations (Chapter 9); and design vestigations conducted all over the world.
and construction of breakwaters (Chapter Today, marine structure design is a unique
10). discipline in the field of civil engineering
In both books each chapter includes a that is based on the use of highly advanced
comprehensive list of relevant cross-refer- methods of soil foundation investigation and
ences intended to help the interested reader thorough understanding of the principles of
to study the subject in additional depth. soiljstructure interaction in the marine en-
In this book I have attempted to provide vironment.
the reader with a clear understanding of Recently sophisticated computational
the phenomenon of interaction between the procedures and mathematical models have
environmental agents such as waves, cur- been developed and used for design of vari-
rents, and wind as well as harbor soils and ous marine structures. It must be stressed,
backfill materials with bottom-fixed marine however, that in many cases the diverse
structures. and complex geology at various port loca-
During my long career as a practicing tions results in a wide variety of geotechni-
waterfront consultant and port engineer cal environments. Such conditions require a
considerable progress has occurred in the careful approach to selection of structure
field of design and construction of port- and type and use of the appropriate design
navigation-related marine structures. method, which should not necessarily be
Progress in port design, and in particular highly sophisticated. It is a misconception
design of waterfront structures, has been that sophisticated computer analysis, with
strongly influenced by the dramatic changes its greater accuracy, will automatically lead
in vessel sizes and in modes of modern to better design. Despite the highly sophis-
terminal operation. Multipurpose ports have ticated analytical methods available today,
been replaced by more specialized termi- the marine structural designer must be
nals, which result in dramatic effects on aware that the design is not merely a stress
both the design of berth structures and lay- analysis process. Use of computers has not
out of the terminal. Furthermore, marine diminished the value of some hand calcula-
structures for various purposes have been tions. In fact, many questions about marine
developed using new design and construe- structure engineering are still best an-
 Preface xxi

swered with simple, often empirically based, cialized marine terminals. During the same
but practical formulas. period of time the nature of port traffic has
Computers have revolutionized the pro- changed markedly rendering some older fa-
cess of structural engineering and greatly cilities unsuitable for today's operations.
increased productivity of engineering firms. The obvious example is the emphatic shift
Computer-aided analyses are of great help to containerization of literally all types of
when used in the proper context, for exam- cargoes and transportation of containerized
ple, when modeling of the structure is cor- goods in ever larger vessels. Similar devel-
rect, the real boundary conditions are taken opments have occurred in transporting of
into account and most of all when the out- huge volumes of liquid and dry bulk com-
put is examined and interpreted by an ex- modities; sizes of the vessels that now
perienced engineer. However, some critics transport these cargoes reached 500,000
observed a "rapid deteriorating competency DWT and more. Obviously, these giant ves-
on the part of the engineering community sels require deeper approach channels;
as a consequence of using computers" and larger harbor basins; deep water quays;
found "a serious lack of critical evaluation gantry cranes with greater height clear-
ability in many of the young engineers ... ance, outreach, and lifting capacity; special-
(which) put an inordinate amount of faith ized terminals with appropriate handling
in the computer" (ENR, October 28, 1991). equipment; and so on. This gives obvious
The worrisome trend in the present de- impetus to global modernization of existing
sign and construction practices is that some ports as well as to construction of new ports
inexperienced, however, highly competent and terminals that can accommodate the
in the use of computers, engineers consider modern maritime traffic.
themselves "instant experts" ready to ana- Large capital investments into ports de-
lyze and design anything. velopment have been made in 1960s through
The marine structures designer should 1980s and many experts predict that this
realize that formulation of the mathemati- trend will continue through 1990s and far
cal approach used for structural analysis beyond into the 21st century.
must be practical and compatible with Much of the capital spent on port devel-
available engineering data, for example, opment is allocated for construction, opera-
shearing strength and consolidation charac- tion, and maintenance of its marine facili-
teristics of the foundation and backfill soils, ties. Therefore, economical design of these
environmental and live loads, etc. However, facilities can save a lot of money needed for
sometimes even when analytically correct port development.
results are obtained, the inexperienced en- Successful design of any project is based
gineer can make errors by neglecting some on three pillars; they are
practical aspects related to constructibility,
for example, how to fabricate or how to get • intelligence
the structural component in place. • education
To avoid the disastrous consequences of • experience.
such designs experienced engineers must
spend sufficient time helping their less ex- The latter two assume thorough knowledge
perienced colleagues to prepare the mathe- of a subject matter and the most recent
matical models and review the computer developments in the area of interest. Unfor-
output. tunately, all too frequently good and less
The 1980s and 1990s have become known costly engineering solutions are not used
for global modernization of existing ports because of the lack of familiarity on a part
and construction of new high capacity spe- of the designer. On the other hand, use of a
xxii Preface

"text book" solution to solve the problem This book has been 7 years in prepara-
may also be counterproductive. tion. I have drawn from more than 40 years
The subject of marine engineering is a of my own experience as a marine engineer
field where ingenuity can achieve consider- and scientist involved with research and all
able savings. Every project is site specific practical aspects of structural design, con-
and therefore no engineer should be content struction, and project management. Also,
merely to follow anothers designs but should worldwide experience has been examined
study such designs and use them as a start- and the best of it is included in this work.
ing point for developing his or her own Subsequently, acknowledgments of mate-
ideas that are best suitable for the particu- rial used in this book are given in the ap-
lar site conditions. propriate places in the text and figures. I
AB noted earlier the science and practice wish to extend my deepest gratitude to all
of port and harbor engineering draw from the publishers, authors, and organizations
various disciplines and cover a broad area from whom material for this work has been
of interrelated subjects. This book offers ba- drawn.
sically geotechnical and structural aspects This volume is not a one-man job. I am
of port and harbor engineering, and no at- deeply indebted to many experienced indi-
tempt has been made to include all detailed viduals who have contributed material and
analytical procedures from these interre- comments to this project. In attempting to
lated disciplines, for example, dredging, port make this work most helpful and useful I
operation and maintenance, etc. However, have drawn from sources including the
where relevant, all efforts have been made knowledge and experience of my former col-
to provide the reader with a considerable leagues at Acres International Limited, who
cross-reference on the interrelated subjects; assisted in a variety of ways: Dr. W. S.
this includes the most recently published Dunbar contributed information on
books, papers from the journals of profes- seismic-induced loads, potentials for soil
sional engineering societies, and the pro- liquefaction, soil dynamic loads upon re-
ceedings of specialty conferences. taining structures, design of a soil retaining
The design procedures and guidelines structures for seismic loading and also re-
contained in this book are intended to point viewed several chapters and helped in edit-
out the complexity of the particular prob- ing the book; Mr. R. G. Tanner has reviewed
lem and illustrate factors that should be several chapters and offered useful com-
considered and included in an appropriate ments; special gratitude goes to Mr. D. Pro-
design scenario. They should not be used tulipac who dedicated a great deal of his
indiscriminately and particularly not for the time to editing most of the text.
detailed design, and should always be com- I wish to extend my gratitude and ac-
bined with good engineering judgment. As knowledge a stimulating and enjoyable col-
noted earlier, this work has been conceived laboration with: Mr. M. Shiono, Deputy
as a two-part treatise in which I have at- General Manager-Research and Develop-
tempted to provide marine structures de- ment, Sumitonio Rubber Industries, Kobe,
signers with state-of-the-art information Japan who contributed information on rub-
and common sense guidelines to the design ber fender systems; Dr. S. Takahashi, Chief
of basic types of marine structures associ- of Maritime Structures Laboratory, Port
ated with port activities. and Harbour Research Institute, Yokosuka,
This book is designed to serve as both a Japan, who contributed Chapter 10
guide and a reference for practicing marine "Breakwater Design"; Dr. M. Gurinsky, Pro-
and geotechnical engineers and a text for ject Engineer for Hardesty & Hanover Con-
graduate students and others seeking to sulting Engineers, New York, N.Y., who
enter the field of marine engineering. contributed Section 6.8, "Sheet Pile Bulk-
 Preface xxiii

heads Built Upon Creep Soils"; Mr. D. ject and extend my deepest gratitude to Mr.
Weinreb and Mr. P. Wu, both vice presi- M. Shiono and Mr. Ed Patrick of Sumitomo
dents for Reinforced Earth Company, Ltd., Canada for their support. I also wish to
Rexdale, Ontario, who contributed Section thank my publisher, Chapman & Hall, for
5.10, "Reinforced Earth Quay Walls. full cooperation.
I extend my deepest gratitude to my good Finally, special thanks are due to my
friend Roman Glusman for his invaluable wife Nora, for her valuable assistance dur-
help with preparation of some illustrations ing preparation of the manuscript copy, but
and Ms. L. Dunn, who typed the manuscript most important, for patiently tolerating me
and dealt ably with many difficulties in the during the preparation of both volumes.
process. I wish to thank Sumitomo Rubber
Industries, Ltd. for sponsorship of this pro- GREGORY P. TSINKER
 Introduction

Ports- Their Past. Present. and Future

Maritime transportation has generally been traffic increased, the existing river ports
the most convenient and least expensive became overcrowded, and in order to permit
means of transporting goods, and this is more ships to berth and at the same time to
why mankind, since ancient times, has been keep the river usable for more ships, piers
steadily extending its activities into this had to be constructed along river banks.
area. This stage may be seen as the beginning
The history of maritime transportation of the development of modern ports. The
and port development dates back to the ever-increasing demand for shipping and
year 3500 B.C. and beyond. Over centuries, port facilities resulted in construction of the
transport of goods by means of water trans- first open-sea ports. Four to five thousand
portation has been evolved in steps with the years ago the Phoenicians established open-
needs of world trade and technical capabili- sea ports along the Mediterranean coast-
ties to build larger ships and ship I cargo line, and the Romans built the famous naval
handling facilities. port near Rome on the Tiber River at Ostia.
Initially, waterborne traffic has existed By the end of the first century A.D. a num-
on a local basis where small ships sailed out ber of large ports had been constructed in
of river ports for other nearby river ports the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the
located in the same river system. With ad- Persian Gulf.
vancing navigational skills the merchants Unfortunately, many of these old ports
ventured greater and greater distances. and harbors have disappeared, either being
Thus, larger ships transporting larger destroyed during the wars, buried by earth-
quantities of goods have emerged. As ship quakes, or just through neglect and deca-

XXV
xxvi Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future

dence. Some of these ports are known from methods and technologies for handling and
old documents and others have been discov- hauling of miscellaneous cargoes. However,
ered by archaeologists. As pointed out by in the 1880s many kinds of cargos were still
DuPlat Taylor (1949), these ports have been handled manually as it had been for cen-
well planned and effectively executed. turies. Cargoes that consisted basically of
The description of different methods of bags, bales, bundles, barrels, cases, cartons,
port construction in earlier centuries, drums, pieces of timber, steel, and so forth
specifically in the Roman Empire, that in- have been moved manually in the ship, on
clude the use of tongue and grooved, lami- the quay, in the shed, and in the ware-
nated, and various other types of sheet pil- house, sometimes ''humped" on the back.
ing, and large stone blocks are found in This created a heavy demand for labor
treaties by Roman architects (Leimdorfer, which fluctuated greatly with the arrival
1979). and departure of ships. Thus, if the ships
As ship navigators developed more skill were to be turned round efficiently and eco-
and fears of unknown waters gradually dis- nomically, a big pool of casual laborers was
appeared, merchant mariners, in addition necessary.
to trade between river ports on their own In the late 1880s, ships still continued
coasts, started sailing the high seas, bring- their transition from sail to steam engine.
ing goods from country to country and from The capacity of these vessels was a few
continent to continent. The interchange of thousand tonnes and their draft less than
goods and later of raw materials between 6 m. As ships changed, so did the ports that
countries and continents reached by mar- served them.
itime traffic as well as the development of In many ports, the finger pier was the
powerful navy fleets brought about develop- most characteristic type of berth construc-
ment of large sea ports; this subsequently tion. Typically, goods were stored there in
gave birth to large cities built around these warehouses located in close proximity to
ports. the berth line and were taken in and out of
Many modern cities have been built and port by horse and cart.
expanded around medieval ports located on The shift to mechanized handling of car-
the open sea, bays, estuaries, sounds, and goes in ports began in the early 1900s. This
rivers. Examples are London, Rotterdam, was largely dictated by the growing volume
Hamburg, and many others. However, it of maritime traffic and changing size of
was not until the 1880s that a revival of ships. By the 1920s most of the general
interest in port works reappeared. cargo ships were using onboard booms to
Port developments and their evolution move cargo by the sling-load method. The
has started, motivated by both economic trend toward the growth of ship size coin-
and technological pressures that resulted cided with construction of vessels special-
from the global industrial revolution. At this ized in transporting a certain type of cargo
time, the size, diversity, and complexity of (e.g., general purpose commodities, dry and
ports changed dramatically. To a great ex- liquid bulk cargoes, and others). Naturally,
tent this have been influenced by the new developments in a ship industry in-
changing nature of ships, for example, the evitably brought about innovations in cargo
transition from ships made from wood to handling and hauling technologies, the most
steel and the introduction and rapid devel- radical of which was introduction of a quay
opment of steamboats, and by the demand edge cranes.
that greater volumes of cargo be handled at World War 11-inspired inventiveness took
ports more rapidly. The latter stimulated mechanization of cargo handling one step
the development of more and more efficient forward by the introduction offorklift trucks
 Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future xxvii

and pallets that enabled the general-pur- developed and used extensively. This
pose cargoes to be moved faster. In postwar method allows containers, but also cars,
years, pallets have been standardized inter- tracks, trains, and so forth, to roll on ships
nationally by International Standard Orga- via large stern or side ramps.
nization (ISO) (1992). The ISO Committee The advent of containers completely
stipulated that the maximum permissible overshadowed cargo handling on pallets.
width of road vehicles (then mostly flat and The introduction of container systems for
open) must be about 245 em; thus, all stan- transporting goods revolutionized sea and
dard pallets had one dimension, of which land transport and cargo handling methods;
245 em was a multiple, so that they could ship turnaround time was reduced spectac-
be stowed across open vehicles without ularly and speed, efficiency, and safety of
wasting space. The use of forklift vehicles handling all types of containerized cargoes
and pallets was very rapidly developed in increased dramatically. This new technol-
industry all over the world, and palletized ogy drastically changed the approach to port
loads occupied the steadily increasing vol- planning. In most ports, a previously very
ume of ship holds. This, however, changed effective pier system was disused as general
drastically in the not too distant future. cargo operations have been moved to the
The shift to new technologies occurred in usually remote, high-volume container fa-
the 1950s with the introduction of container cilities with their large paved container
ships built to transport large freight con- storage areas and relatively few berths.
tainers. These modern specialized ports and termi-
Containers were soon standardized by nals tie directly into upland staging areas
ISO internationally to 20 or 40 ft in length (marshalling yards) with multimodal links
(6.06 m or 12.19 m) with the outside width to several cities, a region, or the entire
and height being 8 ft (2.44 m). At the pres- country.
ent time, the empty weight of a modern Traditionally, ports have been developed
20-ft container ranges from 19 to 22 kN in natural habors and, as mentioned ear-
with maximum permitted total weight of lier, have formed the nuclei for many cities.
240 kN. The empty weight of a 40-ft con- Today, ports and marine terminals are built
tainer ranges from 28 to 36 kN with a wherever they can be economically justified.
maximum permitted total weight of305 kN. The need for large open areas to accommo-
Initially, containers have been handled date a modern container facility has in-
by conventional quay edge cranes. The first duced ports to move to the periphery of
specially designed container crane was in- cities and often on poor quality land. The
troduced in 1959, and over the last 30 years, latter usually presents a challenge to port
container handling cranes have grown. in designers and has been an area of major
size and handling capacity. The need for controversy related mostly to dredging and
efficient handling of containers stimulated disposal of the contaminated dredged soils.
the development of new equipment, such as Alternatives to dredging have been found in
straddle carriers, heavy lift forklift trucks, constructing offshore island ports and mov-
gantry cranes, special tractors, and others. ing the up-river shallow draft ports down
Older forklift trucks used for handling gen- river, to deeper waters.
eral cargo and pallets had lifting capacities Dramatic changes have also occurred in
of 30-80 kN. In contrast, today's new fork- the handling of liquid and dry bulk cargoes.
lifts for container handling have capacities Movements of liquid bulk petroleum prod-
up to 450 kN. ucts by ship started in the 1880s when
During the last 25 years, the roll-onjroll- special tanks were mounted onto existing
offmethod of handling containers have been vessels. Prior to this, the only means of
xxviii Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future

moving liquids was in barrels, which was needed. In some instances the terminals
not a very efficient way of transporting have been moved as far as 2 km or more
ever-increasing quantities as mankind offshore and have been linked to the shore
moved into the petroleum age. either by a bridgelike trestle, designed to
Since the introduction of the first tank- support pipe lines or conveyor systems and
mounted vessels, the procedure and method to provide access to the terminal for
of liquid bulk handling has not changed in lightweight vehicular traffic or by subma-
principle 100 years later; however, techni- rine pipelines. In some instances, particu-
cal improvements in this area have been larly in heavily populated areas where local
spectacular. The capacity of liquid bulk car- residents object to the construction of con-
riers (tankers) in the 1940s has reached ventional trestles as an unacceptable "vis-
22,000 DWT and at the present time ual pollution," submarine tunnels have been
500,000-DWT tankers ply the oceans. To- constructed as a solution to the problem.
day, several shipyards in Europe and Asia The modern port is developed as an im-
have the capacity to build 1,000,000-DWT portant link in a total transportation sys-
tankers. tem and planners of such multimodal sys-
Similar developments have occurred in tems seek to optimize the total network, not
the transportation of dry bulk materials. just one of its components.
Bulk carriers have lagged but tracked Construction of a new port, or expansion
tanker growth, and, similarly, tankers may or modernization of an existing one, is usu-
also be expected to grow in the future. The ally carried out to increase port capacity
use oflarge and very large deep draft ships and its effectiveness. Traditionally, this has
for transporting liquid and dry bulk materi- been focused on the sea, and, consequently,
als and the material hauling innovations construction of new berths and moderniza-
have changed the nature of the modern tion and expansion of existing ones was the
port. Ports actually become a highly special- prime area of interest. However, as urban
ized terminals able to handle the one spe- coastal areas, particularly in developed
cific cargo at very high rates; for example, countries, have substantially expanded over
loading of up to 20,000 tonnesjh and more the last five decades, while concurrently in-
of dry bulk, and 220,000 m 3 of crude oil per ternational trade has increased and con-
day; thus, annual throughput of tens of mil- tinue to expand, making the world more
lions of tonnes has been achieved. and more economically interdependent, the
Deep draft vessels need deep water ports. port land-side capacity to transfer the cargo
It has been learned, however, that the con- from the wharf to the end user has become
ventional approach to construction of such increasingly critical. In some densely popu-
ports, involving dredging of large quantities lated areas, the available transportation
of sometimes contaminated sediments, can network (e.g., highway and rail) is limited
be prohibitively expensive. The solution has to moving a certain amount of cargo and
been found in the construction of offshore cannot be expanded further. Under these
marine facilities not protected from the ef- conditions there is no logic in increasing the
fects of environmental forces such as waves existing port capacity, unless the land-side
and currents. At these facilities, the low transportation infrastructure is equally ca-
berth occupancy due to rough sea condi- pable of moving the increased volume of
tions has been compensated for by a very cargo through the land-based transporta-
high rate of material handling on calm days. tion network.
These facilities have been constructed far In this respect, to avoid a waterfront con-
enough offshore where sufficiently deep wa- flict, many countries have developed a mas-
ter is found and no maintenance dredging is ter plan for its major ports. For example, in
 Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future xxix

Canada, both the Canada Ports Corporation sist of 75% manufactured goods as opposed
(a Canadian Crown Corporation) and indi- to export of raw materials and this trend is
vidual ports have developed land use plans characteristic of most countries in South
and economic impact assessment in cooper- East Asia. Wider, nonstandard container
ation with the cities and local special-inter- are already the reality, and the trend for
est groups which interface with port activi- use of larger containers will continue. New
ties (Gaudreault, 1989). container sizes will inevitably have great
In the view of many experts, moderniza- impact on the design of new containerships
tion of existing ports will continue and many and the container handling technologies.
new ports will be developed in the 1990s The most radical and far-reaching
and beyond due to major expansion of the changes in container terminal technology
world economy. The latter is result of dra- will be their continuing automation which
matic growth of the world population, gen- will lower manpower requirements and op-
eral industrial growth, and growth of erating costs, increase control, and speed
petroleum and mineral material industries. the flow of goods through the ports. Future
The real value of world trade will con- terminals will be more flexible and easily
tinue to grow. The new North American adaptable to changes in the world's econ-
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between omy resulting in cyclic changes in demands.
the United States, Canada, and Mexico and Alternatives to dredging and construc-
new improved GATT treaty arrangements
tion of deep water ports will be design of
are expected to encourage similar agree-
wider vessels with lesser drafts. The impor-
ments elsewhere in the world that will
tant new development in port operations
eventually result in the total world market
that occur about three decades ago was the
free from protectionism and · immune to
virtual disappearance of the true passenger
destabilizing political upheaval in some re-
liners; the cruise industry has emerged to
gions. As pointed out by Barker (1990/1991)
in future trade, replace it. Today, the passenger trade exists
basically on local lines on inland waterways
and between coastal ports .
. . . the exporters will seek to increase the
Cruise vessels, to date, have continued to
added value of their trade, which will tend to
reduce tonnages of raw commodities and in- look like liner vessels, notwithstanding that
crease those in partially or fully processed speed is no longer of paramount impor-
materials. Thus increasingly refined tance. Cushing (1989) predicts that cruise
petroleum products, chemicals, alumina or vessels will change; they will become larger,
aluminum ingots or aluminum products, steel slower moving floating resorts.
products, vehicles, sawn and processed tim- The new ideas in port operations will
ber products, processed agricultural commodi- bring new engineering and construction
ties and such-like will be the cargoes rather ideas in their wake. As pointed out by
than the basic raw commodities. These are
more valuable and readily damaged cargoes
Hochstein (1992), the nontechnical aspects
which require more careful handling and stor- of port performance, such as commercializa-
age. The trend to more specialized vessels tion, liberalization, and privatization, along
such as reefer, parcel tanker, car carriers and with improvements of port administration
roll-onjroll-off will continue and many of the will continue to contribute to the institu-
processed cargoes will end up being handled tional restructuring and drastic improve-
in containers. ments in port operations.
Commercialization gives to the port au-
This trend is already quite visible in Asia. thorities freedom similar to the private sec-
For example, today, Thailand's exports con- tor where decision making is decentralized
xxx Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future

and management is held accountable for erate in the 1990s. Also, today it is most
port performance. apparent in Asia.
Liberalization lessens the port authori- Improvement of port administration en-
ties' monopoly on power by allowing the compasses actions that improve the perfor-
private sector to provide similar services mance of the organization. It may include
and is complementary to commercialization. corporate planning and carrier develop-
Privatization transfers functions previ- ment, as well as installation and constant
ously performed by the port authority modernization of a computerized manage-
(government) to private sector. It may in- ment information systems that enhances
volve transfer of full or partial ownership of management without changing the port's
port facilities, or it may be limited to pri- institutional structure.
vate sector management practices for the Recent experience in ports worldwide
provision of port services via lease and op- suggest that commercialization and privati-
erating contracts. Privatization usually as- zation are the most far-reaching and effec-
sociates with eliminated subsidies and re- tive strategies to achieve the objective of
duced costs of port operation. port effectiveness.
The privatization of ports brings greatly In conclusion to this section it should be
enhanced commercial freedom to port man- noted that the future is not possible with-
agers and is recognized as one way to react out thorough familiarity with the past which
more positively to market opportunities and is a true foundation for new ideas. As Tooth
use human incentives, based on personal . (1989) rightfully said, "The past is not just
gains and improvements, to increase effi- something out of date, it is a record of
human experience-an experience is cer-
ciency of the port operations. This trend is
tainly something which should be used to
natural and will continue both in developed
help shape the future."
and developing countries.
For more information on port develop-
It must be recognized, however, that
ments the reader is referred to Dally (1981),
ports and harbors are built and operate
Cushing (1989), Clearwater (1992), Thom-
within a certain societal framework that
son (1992), and PIANC (1987, 1989, 1990).
includes an array of political, financial, en-
vironmental, and other considerations.
Therefore, the port planner must have a Engineering Advancement in Port
clear understanding of local technical and Design and construction
nontechnical issues. For example, in some The primary construction materials that
developing countries, existing or new ports were used for construction of older marine
are not solely an industrial development facilities were wood and stone. They were
but also enterprises aimed at solving some worked by hand and used for construction
regional, social, or demographical problems. of sheet-pile bulkheads, piled piers, quay
Therefore, a careful approach to port priva- walls, breakwaters, and other structures.
tization is needed in developing countries. Wooden sheet piles and regular piles were
The latter assumes that although commer- driven by using primitive power equipment,
cial spirit there must not be discouraged, and stone was placed from crude construc-
the commercial approach to port operations tion platforms.
in some developing countries should not More than five centuries ago the Phoeni-
pursue a short-term financial gain. cians extensively used wooden sheet piles
In Europe, port privatization has been and piles for construction of their marine
successfully introduced in the 1980s in the facilities. For sheet-piling they used long
United Kingdom where it is likely to accel- planks made from Lebanon cedar. Various
 Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future :xxxi

types of timber sheet-piling techniques (e.g., destroy wood. The same is true for wooden
tongue and groove, laminated, and others) piles.
were used. These piles were driven succes- Cast-iron piles became complementary to
sively edge to edge to form a vertical wall timber piling in the early 1800s (Borthwick,
for the purpose of preventing the retained 1936). The earliest reported use of iron sheet
materials from spreading and from being piles was construction of the North Pier of
undermined by the action of waves and cur- Bridlington harbor, the United Kingdom, in
rent. This type of construction was also the early 1820s (Mackley, 1977). Various
known to ancient Egyptians and Romans. types of iron sheet-pile sections were avail-
The Phoenicians also used heavy blocks able at that time, and a considerable
locked together with copper dowels for con- amount of exploratory work was carried out
struction of the open-sea port at Tyre. This in order to develop the most economical
type of construction was also used by the profile. Cast iron, however, as a material
Romans. In the 1800s, both materials still had limitations primarily because of its vul-
played a major role in port construction. nerability to brittle fracture during driving
A great variety of gravity-type walls con- in hard soils. Typically, wrought-iron piles
structed from rubble masonry or heavy were used in a composite riveted form and
granite or limestone blocks have been built were based primarily on the fitting of plates
during the 1880s. The history of heavy between suitable guides or against sup-
blockwork construction is traced back to ports.
ports in Mediterranean, at Marseilles and In 1897 a Danish engineer, Larssen, rev-
Algiers, with much of this pioneering work olutionized the use of iron sheet piles by
being carried out at the Port-of-Bonqie, Al- introducing a new pile section which was
geria where a quay wall composed C!f lime- developed from a rolled trough section plus
stone blocks had been built as far back as a riveted "z" section, to form an interlock;
1840. During the same period of time, wood this shape is very familiar in modern con-
was extensively used for the construction of struction.
piled wharves and piers, as well as for grav- In 1914 Larssen also introduced the first
ity-type quays comprised of floated-in tim- deep-arch section in which interlocks were
ber cribs with or without a masonry super- situated in the neutral axis of the complete
structure. section; thus, their material bulk did not
It should be noted that improved and influence the bending moment to be taken
economically sound blockwork quay walls up.
are still in use. Details are provided in Larssen's inventions and modifications
Chapter 5. Today, timber cribs are used helped to greatly increase the capacity and
where wood is in abundance, and timber effectiveness of sheet piles in their ability to
sheet-pile bulkheads made from treated resist earth and water pressures. Increased
wood have been constructed elsewhere, par- pile stiffness enabled it to be driven without
ticularly in coastal regions as a secondary buckling or springing under the blows of
line of shore defense in ocean-exposed loca- the driving hammer, increased water-tight-
tions and for construction of low-height ma- ness of the sheeting prevented seepage
rine structures in small-craft harbors. through the wall, and, most importantly,
Well-treated timber sheeting is also em- efficient use of rolling mills produced an
ployed in permanent structures where it is economical section with interlocks.
always hidden under water, thus preserved At the beginning of this century, both
from rot, and at locations where there is no wood and iron have been replaced by steel
marine organisms (e.g., borers) which can and reinforced concrete. The first sheet pile
xxxii Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future

ever made from a rolled section was used in crete in the tension zone is thereby largely
Chicago in 1901; it was called the Jackson eliminated and the danger of corrosion of
pile. This was followed by the rather fast reinforcement is decreased.
development of numerous straight or trough The same applies to regular concrete piles
sections of steel piles that were produced that are extensively used in marine applica-
around the world, either with integral lock- tion. The advantage of piled structures is
ing arrangements or with a separate inter- that they enable practically free passage of
locking member. waves, which makes them particularly at-
The first steel "z"-shaped sheet piling tractive for construction of the deep water
known as the Hoesch system was intro- offshore terminals.
duced in Belgium in 1913. In comparison A great variety of concrete and steel piles
with other sections, this type of piling was have been developed and used from the
stiffer and had a higher section modulus at beginning of this century. The wide variety
equal weight with other piling systems. of these piles is discussed in Chapter 7.
Since this time, various combinations of The most significant development in this
different piling systems and various types area is the use of large-diameter (up to
of box piles (H-section) have been intro- 3.0 m and more), very long (60 m and longer)
duced in North America and Europe. At prestressed concrete and steel cylindrical
present, a variety of high-strength sheet- piles. Depending on geotechnical site condi-
pile sections are available from different tions, these piles can be installed by differ-
pile manufacturers. ent methods (e.g., driven by hammer, vibra-
In addition to the above-mentioned piles, tor, hydraulically, or a combination of some
relatively low sectional modulus straight of these). It should be pointed out that the
web steel sheet piles are often used in ma- vibratory hammers introduced in the fifties
rine application for construction of and sixties changed the basic way piles had
cellular-type bulkheads. These piles were been driven since the late 1800s. New hy-
first manufactured and used in the United draulically operated hammers enable the
States in 1908/1909. constructors to drive piles under water.
It should be noted that steel pipe-type Similarly, very large floating and jack-up
sheet piles are now coming into widespread pile-driving equipment was developed and
use for deep water construction where a used for pile installation at exposed off-
sheeting of greater strength is required. shore locations. An array of piles with en-
Reinforced concrete sheet piles have been hanced bearing capacities have been devel-
used in harbor construction since the begin- oped; for example, screw piles of different
ning of this century. They are usually con- designs, prefabricated piles with enlarge-
sidered relatively maintenance-free compo- ments on their shafts, belled piles, and other
nents of a sheet-pile wall. Although many have been s~ccessfully used in port and
different design types have been developed offshore construction.
and used in the past 50 or so years, the High-strength steel and prestressed con-
straight web piling bar provided with a crete allow the port designers and construc-
tongue and groove, similar to that used on tors the flexibility to design for greater
timber piles, is the most commonly used. depth, longer spans and higher capacity.
Since the 1950s, prestressed concrete sheet For example, general cargo wharves are now
piles have replaced almost completely the routinely designed for 5.0 tonnesjm2, up
ones made from regular reinforced concrete. from 2.0 tonnesjm 2 60-70 years ago.
Prestressing of concrete sheet-pile rein- Galvanization and the use of protective
forcement has an advantage, especially in coatings, such as epoxy, which came into
seawater environment, as cracking of con- use in the 1950s increased the longevity of
 Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future xxxiii

marine structures. Epoxies are also used by An economical solution to gravity wall
constructors for splicing concrete structural construction in the wet was also achieved
elements in the field. by use of the traditional structures such as
Remarkable progress has been achieved a large-diameter steel sheet-pile cell, a con-
in concrete technology. Today's structural ventional boxlike floated-in concrete cais-
concrete is indeed a mixture of admixtures. son, and blockwork walls of enhanced de-
Products such as superplasticizers, re- signs.
tarders, accelerators, air entrainers, and The economy of gravity wall construction
others allow concrete pours in cold temper- was significantly improved by using innova-
ature or hot weather. A denser and higher tive methods of bed preparation and place-
quality product is obtained by use of silica ment and densification of backfill materials.
fume in a slurry or powdered form. Silica Detailed information on this subject is given
fume can substantially increase strength in Chapter 5.
and density of concrete and make it virtu- Waterfront construction was accelerated
ally impervious to chloride penetration in by the use of prefabricated structural com-
the harsh marine environment. Further- ponents. Prefabrication dramatically re-
more, use of corrosion inhibitors may slow duced the time required for overwater con-
down the potential onset of corrosion in struction and enhanced quality and there-
steel reinforcing bars. fore longevity of marine structures.
Development of huge floating heavy lift The design of any project is a continuous
equipment revolutionized the construction process, which begins with the perception of
a need or opportunity, followed by a feasi-
of gravity-type quay walls and breakwaters.
bility study that usually includes a concep-
These structures, generally built in water
tual design, and embedded by the detail
depths of 6-9 m in the late 1800s, are now
design. The latter is followed by the con-
constructed at depths of 25 m and below.
struction of the project with subsequent
Finally, it should be pointed out that in
commissioning. Furthermore, where re-
the past 30-40 years primitive fenders used quired to support the basic concept of the
for protection of marine structures from ship project (e.g., harbor layout) or permit inno-
impact have been replaced by very efficient vative structural designs to be used with
high-energy-absorbing and low-reaction- confidence, research is undertaken.
force rubber fender systems. At the present In the past, port and its related marine
time, fender units are manufactured from structures have been designed with a high
solid a,nd laminated rubber in different degree of redundancy, largely because of
shapes and sizes. They are also manufac- the relatively rapid deterioration rate of
tured in the form of a low-pressure inflated structural materials in the marine environ-
balloon (pneumatic fenders), or as a closed- ment, but also due to a lack of proper
cell foam filled unit. The pneumatic fender understanding of wave mechanics, mecha-
units have been manufactured up to 4.0 m nisms of ship-structure andjor soil-struc-
in diameter and 12.0 m long. ture interaction. The latter was particularly
In modern marine engineering practice, true in designing a "flexible" structure such
a number of innovative and economical as sheet-pile bulkheads.
gravity-type quay walls have been em- In the past 50 years, substantial progress
ployed. Among them are concrete large- has been achieved in such areas as the
diameter floated-in caissons, bottomless development of new, much stronger and
concrete cylinders, and prefabricated L- more durable structural materials, the in-
shaped retaining walls of miscellaneous de- troduction of better construction tech-
signs. nology, and a better understanding of the
xxxiv Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future

process of soil-structure interaction. Thus, (CAD) open opportunities for transition

research and development directly or indi- from traditional two-dimensional (2-D) de-
rectly became the integral part of the de- sign to three-dimensional (3-D) design. This
sign process. has been made feasible by the rapid ad-
The design of port layout with its related vances in computer-graphics hardware
structures such as breakwaters, piers, and which now permits full 3-D CAD models to
quay walls normally involves a great num- be displayed quickly and effectively, with
ber of parameters that are generally consid- hidden lines removed or with shading; 3-D
ered to be far beyond the ability of purely computer models can be viewed from any
analytical methods to achieve the reliable angle and viewpoint, in orthographic, iso-
solution. This has been overcome by use of metric, perspective, or cutaway views. This
large-scale physical models, which appear helps to make. the project aesthetically more
to be a viable tool in solving a complex acceptable to the community and overcome
multiparameter problem. the public resistance to some projects re-
Today's engineers have abundant analyt- garded as a "visual pollution" to the area.
ical capability supported by computers. The The importance of aesthetic aspects of any
mathematical modeling of a complex phe- project now is fully recognized by the de-
nomenon such as the interaction between signers and developers, and the 3-D ap-
nature and engineering developments has proach to structural and civil design helps
become commonplace in the design process. to bridge the gap between art and science.
It enables the engineer to .closely predict Unfortunately, computerization of the
the behavior of the complex structure in design process has its own drawbacks; it
practice. provides not only the leading edge of tech-
For complex projects, both mathematical nology but have been also a major source of
and physical models are best used in combi- concern. The popularity of computers has
nation. However, despite the prediction of resulted in a flood of software, and on
model studies, the designer should exercise today's software market, there are nearly
the proper level of conservative engineering as many computer programs as there are
judgment which is dictated by the complex- researchers. Unfortunately, the quality of
ity of marine foundations, marine environ- some software presently available on the
ment, ship maneuvers, and so forth. market is questionable, and it would be of
Today, port and harbor engineering has great interest and perhaps shock to some
entered the electronic age. The computer when results of analyses of a certain struc-
vastly enhances an engineer's productivity tures are compared with the same input
and his or her opportunities for innovative data using different programs.
design. In addition to reducing the opportu- The difference in the software output
nities for making errors, the use of comput- happens because some developers of com-
ers drastically enhances engineering judg- puter software blindly rely solely on the
ment. By taking advantage of the speed of mathematical approach to solving the prob-
computer analysis, the engineer can explore lem and are ignorant about current state-
a number of design alternatives in a short of-the-art knowledge.
period of time. Today, computer hardware Sometimes problems with software (e.g.,
and software allow the engineer to see his incorrect sign convention) may cause a com-
project from all perspectives, investigate puter to subtract stresses when it must be
each detail, make changes by shaping as a added can be difficult to detect.
sculptor might, then, when all is finished, Growing reliance on computer-aided
have the calculations and drawings pro- analysis and design without adequate con-
duced. Computer-aided design and drafting trols on misuse can lead to structural fail-
 Ports-Their Past, Present, and Future xxxv

ures and, subsequently, to "computer-aided the observation method is a departure from

liabilities," the term used by Backman the traditional design process in geotech-
(1993) in her interesting paper on a subject nicaljfoundation engineering, because it
matter. allows one to make a final decision on foun-
Recognizing this as a potential problem, dation design in the future, both during
the Committee on Practices to Reduce Fail- construction when uncertainty in founda-
ures, under the American Society of Civil tion soils became understood and during
Engineers Technical Council on Forensic facility operation. The latter is particularly
Engineering, is currently preparing a mono- important where long-term changes in
graph titled "Avoiding Failures Caused by soil-structure interaction are expected.
Misuse of Civil Engineering Software." The Several advancements in port engineer-
monograph, scheduled for publication in ing have been pointed out in this section
1996, will examine all computer-related is- and the reader will find much more else-
sues where misuse could result in cata- where in this book.
strophic failures, poor performance of facili- Finally, it should be noted that in the
ties, and poor solutions to problems in civil past in order to reduce the cost of a design,
engineering. attempts to standardize construction of ma-
Due to a worsening legal climate for rine structures have been made. It has been
practicing engineers, the designers are of- proved, however, that standard designs to
ten not willing to accept potential risk asso- meet various site conditions, in general, and
ciated with a more economical or innovative marine facilities, in particular, are not eco-
design. The conservative approach, which nomical. In general, it is because the cost of
limits innovations in design and construc- the waterfront structure is so high that it
tion practices, causing economical prob- would be false economy to attempt to re-
lems, has been especially visible in founda- duce design costs by limiting the scope of
tion engineering. This has been explained design studies.
by the uncertainties in soil-structure inter- In conclusion, it must be said that pro-
action and usually limited information on ducing a good, sound, and effective design
foundation soils available to the designer. is, of course, science; however, it is also an
In the past 35-40 years, this has been im- art. Just as an artist does, the designer
proved by the extensive research into must be imaginative in developing the con-
statistics and risk analysis, as applied to cept of his or her project and, as a scientist,
the field of geotechnical engineering. careful and meticulous in paying attention
Also, the observational (monitored deci- to all details.
sions) method, which provides the designer
with flexibility in the decision-making pro- REFERENCES
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measurements, which, in turn, permits Beyond." The Dock & Harbour Authority, De-
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involved in soil-structure interaction may Cast Iron in Piling, Particularly at Brunswick
affect the design of the structure; risk anal- Wharf, Blackwall." Transaction Institute Civil
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 contributors

Mr. M. Shiono Dr. M. Gurinsky, P.E.

President SRI Marine Servie Co. Ltd. Project Engineer
1-14, 4 chome Isogami-Dori Hardesty & Hanover Consulting Engineers
Chuo-Ku, Kobe 651, Japan 1501 Broadway
New York, N.Y. 10036
Dr. S. Takahashi
Chief Maritime Structures Lab
Port and Harbour Research Institute Dr. W. S. Dunbar
3-1-1 Nagase Yokosuka, Japan 239 Engineering Consultant
925 Leovista Ave.
Mr. P. L. Wu, P.E. and Mr. D. Weinreb, P.E. North Vancouver, British Columbia,
Vice Presidents Reinforced Earth Co. Ltd. Canada V7R 1R1
190 Attwell Dr., Suite 501
Rexdale, Ontario, Canada M9W 6H8

xxxvii