41

Protecting Workers At
Composting Facilities
Eliot Epstein

M
OST attention given to health aspects at health impacts or reported adverse health condi-
composting facilities in the past has con- tions. Most of the data is not generally available, as
cerned public health, particularly it resides in in-house reports or gray literature.
bioaerosols, odor emissions and heavy metals in the Information on worker health can be very valu-
finished product. Federal and state regulations have able in the future design of facilities and in evalu-
not dealt with worker health. For example, the fed- ating the potential health impact to the areas sur-
eral 40 CFR Part 503 regulation, “The Use and Dis- rounding composting facilities. Workers are the
posal of Sewage Sludge,” as it pertains to compost- most exposed individuals. Not only are they ex-
ing primarily deals with product use. These posed to more concentrated levels of materials, but
regulations target heavy metals and pathogens in they are also more often exposed than the general
the compost product. The regulation pertaining to public. The objectives of this paper are to provide
volatile solids reduction does impact odor produc- data and insight on occupational hazards with ex-
tion and vector attraction. There are no federal reg- posure to various biological and chemical agents
ulations specifically related to occupational health and to suggest mitigation measures which would
at composting facilities. The Occupational Safety reduce potential health hazards to workers.
and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations
are industrywide and relate to noise and safety is- Occupational Health Hazards
sues. Recently, the National Institute of Occupa- Employees of composting operations can be ex-
tional Safety and Health (NIOSH) issued an Alert posed to pathogens, bioaerosols, toxic chemical
concerning Organic Dust Toxic Syndrome substances (both in the air and from handling ma-
(ODTS), with emphasis on farm workers. terials), heavy metals in feedstocks or compost,
There has been relatively little information on and dust generated during feedstock preparation
occupational health aspects at composting facili- and composting. Occupational health hazards
ties. Recently, several events occurred at compost- vary with different types of feedstocks and the
ing facilities, whereby workers have questioned technologies employed. Table 1 shows the poten-

Table 1. Relative hazards of biological agents, chemicals, and nonbiological material as related
to feedstocks

Hazard
Feedstock Pathogens Bioaerosols Toxic Organics Heavy Metals Dust

Biosolids High High Low Very low Medium

MSW High High Low to medium Very low Medium to high
Yard trimmings Medium High Low Very low Medium to high
Food waste Low High Very low Very low Low to medium
Animal wastes Medium to high High Very low Very low Low to medium
Predominant exposure routes Oral Respiratory Dermal, respiratory Oral Respiratory

Prepared by magazine
All material is copyrighted and can only be used for purposes of this training.
© 2008 The JG Press, Inc.
42 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION - AIR, WATER AND FIRE

tial exposure to the various hazards in relation to

the feedstock and its predominant exposure route. Table 2. Four major groups of pathogenic organisms and
Primary pathogens, especially in biosolids, can some pathogens found in compost feedstocks
enter the worker through the mouth and pass into
the intestines as a result of unclean hands. Pathogenic group Pathogen
Bioaerosols and dust can be inhaled. Toxic organics,
particularly in municipal solid waste (MSW), can Bacteria Salmonella species
Shigella species
enter the body through the skin as a result of spillage Mycobacterium tuberculosis
of liquid materials or can be inhaled as vapors into Escherichia coli
the respiratory system. Consumption and accumu- Enteric viruses Coxsachievirus
lation of heavy metal from wastes is extremely low Rotavirus
Hepatitus A
and does not present a hazard to workers. Adenovirus
High levels of pathogens can be found in Poliovirus
biosolids as a result of fecal matter in wastewater. Echovirus
MSW will contain pathogens from fecal matter in Helminths Ascaris lumbricoides
Taenia saginata
discarded diapers and domestic animal fecal mat- Trichuris trichiura
ter. Medium levels of pathogens can be found in Protozoan Entamoeba histolytica
yard trimmings, resulting from the disposal of do- Giardia lambia
mestic animal litter. Bioaerosols will generally be
high during the composting of any organic materi-
al but are also found in many other types of feed- pathogens. Many of the pathogens are reduced or
stocks. Toxic organics are generally low in most destroyed during the treatment of wastewater and
feedstocks; however, as a result of disposal of haz- biosolids. Biosolids are the result of separating
ardous materials (e.g., household hazardous solids from wastewater in order to be able to dis-
wastes, pesticides, and other chemicals), specific charge clean and disinfected effluent into water
batches of solid waste may contain toxic organics. courses. Therefore, biosolids contain many of the
The technology and equipment employed can pathogens in the influent wastewater from domes-
impact the potential for worker health from tic, commercial and industrial sources. Tables 3 and
bioaerosols and dust. Windrow equipment and ag- 4 show levels of some pathogens found in biosolids,
itated bed systems will release more bioaerosols MSW, yard trimmings, and food residuals.
and dust than tunnel and static pile systems. When domestic animal wastes are discarded
Screens have a great potential to release dust. In with other MSW, many organisms survive. Yard
one enclosed facility where the screen was located trimmings containing domestic animal wastes will
in the same area as the composting process, very also have pathogens. Many of these pathogens can
high measurements of bacteria, Aspergillus fumi- grow to high numbers since there are fewer com-
gatus (A. fumigatus), fungi, and other bioaerosols petitive organisms. Several researchers have iden-
were found in the working areas. Before discussing tified enteroviruses in domestic animals (Lund-
the data available and mitigation measures, it is gren et al. (1968)) and isolated 164 viruses from
important to understand the occupational risk in- rectal, nasal, and throat swabs of beagle dogs. Most
volved with the various hazards. of the viruses identified were either coxsack-
ieviruses or echoviruses. Grew et al. (1970) found
Primary Pathogens poliovirus coxsackievirus and adenovirus in do-
Pathogens can be classified as primary or sec- mestic animals in Costa Rica.
ondary. Primary pathogens can invade and infect
healthy persons, whereas secondary pathogens
normally infect debilitated individuals. The pri-
mary pathogens found in various compost feed-
Table 3. Indicator pathogenic organisms and pathogens in
stocks are bacteria, viruses, parasites, and nema- biosolids, MSW and hospital wastes (Pahren, 1987)
todes (see Table 2). The secondary pathogens of
concern in composting will be discussed under the Microorganisms (per gram)
topic of bioaerosols. Biosolids Hospital Waste MSW
Workers handling biosolids, MSW, yard trim-
mings, and food residuals can be exposed to Total coliforms 2.8 x 109 9.0 x 108 7.7 x 108
Fecal coliforms 2.4 x 108 9.0 x 108 4.7 x 108
pathogens. Human fecal matter contains primary Fecal streptococci 3.3 x 107 8.6 x 108 2.5 x 109
pathogens. As a result, untreated biosolids contain

Prepared by magazine
All material is copyrighted and can only be used for purposes of this training.
© 2008 The JG Press, Inc.
 PROTECTING WORKERS AT COMPOSTING FACILITIES 43

Table 4. Microbiological concentration in food waste, yard trimmings, and wood wastes
(E&A Environmental Consultants, Inc., 1994)

Yard Trimmings
Organism Food Waste Yard Trimmings and Waste Paper Wood Waste

Indicator organism
Total coliform 5.00 x 106 8.0 x 105 5.00 x 105 1.30 x 106
Fecal coliform 2.00 x 104 8.00 x 105 5.00 x 105 1.30 x 106
Escherichia coli 3.50 x 103 8.00 x 105 3.00 x 105 1.30 x 106
Fecal streptococcus 8.00 x 106 1.60 x 106 1.60 x 106 1.60 x 106
Enterococcus 1.30 x 105 2.30 x 105 1.30 x 105 3.00 x 105
Pathogens
Salmonella spp. <0.002 <0.002 0.36 <0.002
Staphylococcus 32.2 0.8 4.4 3.8
Listeria spp. <0.02 0.02 <0.02 <0.02
Parasites Protozoa Negative Negative Negative

Early data on pathogens and pathogenic indica- homes with pets. Similar data were found by
tors found in MSW have been reported by Pahren Solomon (1975), who investigated the indoor at-
(1987) (see Table 3). Fecal Streptococci levels in mosphere of 150 homes. Slavin and Winzenburgen
MSW were higher than in hospital wastes or (1977) found the fungus in basements, bedding,
biosolids. Disposable diapers are a possible source and household dust. Some common activities, such
of infectious enteric viruses. These viruses can be as walking in woods or parks, mowing and raking
stable in the environment for long periods of time. lawns, and potting house plants, expose individuals
The composting process is designed to eliminate to A. fumigatus and other bioaerosols.
pathogens and meet the requirements of the fed- Severe A. fumigatus infections from any of the
eral Part 503 regulations. species occur almost exclusively in people who are
severely debilitated or immunocompromised
Bioaerosols (e.g., persons with kidney transplants, leukemia,
The bioaersols of concern to workers in com- or lymphoma). Thus, nearly all of the cases re-
posting operations can be secondary pathogens or ported have been with patients in the hospital en-
pathogenic substances. A. fumigatus and several of vironment. Millner et al. (1994) indicated that in
the thermophilic actinomycetes are secondary healthy individuals with normal functioning
pathogens of concern to worker health. The lungs, a large number of inhaled spores would not
pathogenic substances that could impair worker result in infection. To date, there is no known lev-
health are endotoxin and organic dust. A. fumigatus el or dose response of A. fumigatus spores which
is a ubiquitous (found everywhere) fungus associ- will cause infection.
ated with decaying organic matter. It has been Bacterial endotoxin is the complex phospholipid-
found in every continent, including Antarctica. It is polysaccharide macromolecule of the cell wall of
associated with soils, forest litter and duff, bird nests gram-negative bacteria. Since gram-negative bacte-
and droppings, manure of cattle and horses, and ria are ubiquitous, so are endotoxins. Organic dust
compost. It has been found in homes, attics, li- is a common source of endotoxin. In addition to en-
braries, air conditioners and humidifiers, and dotoxin, other microorganisms can be present in
building ventilation systems (Millner et al., 1994). organic dust. Endotoxin and organic dusts can elic-
A. fumigatus spores are small and can be inhaled. A. it inflammatory conditions that are either mild or
fumigatus is found in commercial soil potting prod- severe. Rylander (1993) indicated that repeated ex-
ucts (Millner et al., 1977) and in wood chip piles in posure to organic dusts in occupational settings can
the forest product industry (Passman, 1980). result in mucous membrane irritation (MMI). This
Hirsch and Sosman (1976) studied the occurrence condition produces itching and watering eyes and
of A. fumigatus in homes. They found the fungus in nose and throat irritation. Recently, NIOSH (1994)
42 percent of bedrooms, 56 percent of bathrooms, requested assistance in preventing a syndrome
and 85 percent of basements. It was the fourth most called ODTS. ODTS can result in respiratory ill-
common mold in households and was present in all nesses when there is exposure to high concentra-
seasons. A. fumigatus was more frequently found in tions of organic dust. The syndrome is character-

Prepared by magazine
All material is copyrighted and can only be used for purposes of this training.
© 2008 The JG Press, Inc.
44 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION - AIR, WATER AND FIRE

ized by fever occurring four to 12 hours after expo- bers working in the wastewater treatment plant.
sure. Other conditions manifested are flu-like Workers in the dewatering building complained of
symptoms, headache, chills, body aches, and cough several symptoms. Workers at the composting site
(NIOSH, 1994). NIOSH reported agricultural-re- were employees of a private company. These work-
lated cases resulting from workers shoveling com- ers did not report any symptoms associated with the
posted wood chips and leaves, shoveling wood biosolids composting operations.
chips, and handling grain. The second study at Sarnia was done at a yard
Millner et al. (1977) showed that biosolids con- waste composting facility operated by the munic-
tained from 102 to 103 colony forming units (CFU) ipality. Samples for bioaerosols were taken during
per gram dry weight of A. fumigatus. Wood chips two days. Dust levels ranged from 0.11 to 1.15
contained from 10 3 to 10 8 CFU per gram dry mg/m3; A. fumigatus levels ranged from 0.4 x 103
weight of A. fumigatus. St. Pierre (1986) reported to 7.8 x 10 3 CFU/m 3; gram-negative bacteria
that raw biosolids and biosolids cake contained 13 ranged from 0.12 x 103 to 1.6 x 103 CFU/m3; and
to 16 n/g and 6.4 ng/g endotoxin, respectively. Mill- endotoxin levels ranged from <0.00019 to 0.047
ner et al. (1994) provided information on compost µg/m3. All airborne levels of total particulate were
feedstocks as sources of bioaerosols (see Table 5). within the limit established by the Ontario Min-
All of the feedstocks contained endotoxin. With the istry of Labor. Dust levels were below the Danish
exception of some manures and animal carcasses, occupational limits of 10 mg/m 3 and the 15-
all of the other feedstocks contained A. fumigatus. mg/m3 level for nonspecific dust established by
Two studies in Canada were designed to evaluate OSHA. Personal samplers were used to assess di-
bioaerosols in relation to worker health (St. Pierre, rect worker exposure. A. fumigatus levels on per-
1986; Green Lane Environmental Group, Ltd., sonal samplers ranged from 0.4 x 103 to 7.8 x 103
1995). The study in Windsor evaluated bioaerosols CFU/m 3; gram-negative bacteria ranged from
throughout the wastewater treatment plant and the 0.12 x 103 to 1.6 x 103 CFU/m3; and endotoxin
composting facility located at the plant (St. Pierre, levels ranged from 0.0019 to 0.047 µg/m3. Malm-
1986). This work was instigated by the Ministry of ros et al. (1992) proposed threshold limit values
Labor in conjunction with municipal union mem- (TLV) for gram-negative bacteria and endotoxin.

Table 5. Compost feedstocks as sources of bioaerosols

Enteric
Bacteria/ Allergenic Other Specific
Feedstock AFa Endotoxin TAb Viruses Fungi Bacteria Mites Biohazards

Yard trimmings + + + – + + + Allergenic pollen,

terpenes, resins,
lectins, phenols,
toxalbumin
Food/household + + – + + + +
Waste (MSW)
Food processing/ + + + + + + +
winery waste
(grapemarc and cheese)
Fisheries (shellfish) + + + + + + + Allergens of
crustaceans
Agricultural residuals + + + + + + + Deep mycoses
(cotton gin & textile pollen, terpenes,
waste, garden waste, resins lectins
sugarcane/pineapple)
Biosolids + + – + + + +
Animal waste
Carcasses – + – + – – –
Manures – + – +
Barnyard manure + + + + + + +

+ = present, – = not present, a Aspergillus fumigatus, b Thermophilic actinomycetes

Prepared by magazine
All material is copyrighted and can only be used for purposes of this training.
© 2008 The JG Press, Inc.
 PROTECTING WORKERS AT COMPOSTING FACILITIES 45

Figure 1. Respiratory symptoms of workers at Site II, Maryland, 1987-1991 (Chesapeake Occupational Health Services, 1991)

The TLV for gram-negative bacteria was week of exposure, as compared to breathing ca-
1,000/m3 of air, and for endotoxin, the TLV was pacities on Monday morning.
0.1 µg/m3 of air. The International Committee on A five year comprehensive study (1987 to 1991)
Occupational Health has indicated that MMI can was conducted at the Washington Suburban Sani-
occur when endotoxin levels are in the range of tary Commission Site II biosolids facility in Mary-
0.02 to 0.05 µg/m3. These recommended TLV val- land by Chesapeake Occupational Health Services
ues were exceeded on the personal samplers dur- (1991). During the five years, 242 individuals were
ing debagging of raw materials and turning of ac- screened, with an average of 46 workers participat-
tive composting windrows. The report also ing annually. All 242 blood samples were reported
provided a bioaerosol control plan. as “None Detected.” The data showed that respira-
tory symptoms of workers decreased or remained
Occupational Health Conditions unchanged during the five years (see Figure 1). Re-
At Composting Facilities ports of asthma, bronchitis, ear aches, and short-
Biosolids ness of breath were very low. Spirometric findings
One of the earliest studies examining health also were very low. Some of the spirometric findings
conditions at several biosolids composting facili- could be related to smoking history. However, there
ties was conducted by Clark et al., (1984). The data was no excess frequency of abnormal spirometric
was highly inconclusive and generally did not findings. The study concluded the following:
show health effects. The authors did indicate that There is no evidence of adverse effects related to
fungal spores in the environment could have ad- A. fumigatus; employee health concerns decreased;
verse effects on workers. In many cases, interme- lung air capacities of employees basically remained
diate workers had higher levels of “abnormal” unchanged; physical examination findings were
findings than compost workers. Of the 26 compost stable. chest X-ray results were unremarkable; all
workers, one had evidence of skin infections and biological laboratory analyses for A .fumigatus re-
two had evidence of ear infection and acute or mained “None Detected.”
chronic eye and nose inflammation. The authors Several biosolids composting facilities conduct-
indicated that these could possibly be related to ed routine examinations of workers. At Columbus,
composting activities. Epstein and Epstein (1985) Ohio, routine examinations were conducted every
reviewed this study and indicated that the skin ir- six months from 1982 to 1986. No health condi-
ritations were not statistically significant. One of tions related to employment were reported for the
the ear infections was not compost related. There 20 employees (Epstein, 1993). At the Fairfax Coun-
was no evidence of different pulmonary function ty, Virginia biosolids composting facility, routine
tests between compost workers and noncompost examinations were performed prior to hiring em-
workers. In fact, workers had an increase in breath- ployees and every year thereafter since 1984. Tests
ing capacities on Friday evening, after an entire conducted on employees included pulmonary

Prepared by magazine
All material is copyrighted and can only be used for purposes of this training.
© 2008 The JG Press, Inc.
46 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION - AIR, WATER AND FIRE

function tests, chest X-rays, blood tests, routine gastrointestinal symptoms such as vomiting and
physicals, hearing tests, and vision tests. No physi- diarrhea. These two symptoms were lower in the
cal problems have been reported or diagnosed re- compost workers than in the garbage handling
lating to employment at the composting facility. workers.
The Hampton Road Sanitation District (HRSD) in
Virginia began operating an open biosolids com- Mitigation Measures To Protect Workers
posting facility in 1981. Mixing and screening was Mitigation measures to reduce worker exposure
done under a covered area. Full physical examina- and potential health affects involve three areas:
tions were provided to employees every two years. Personal protection; Facility design; and Opera-
The tests included A fumigatus antigen skin tests, tional activities.
pulmonary function tests, chest X-rays, blood tests, Personal protection involves education and the
urinanalyses, and routine physical tests. No health use of personal protective devices. Periodic train-
problems have been reported. ing on health and safety is good insurance. Em-
Municipal Solid Waste ployees need to be informed of appropriate prac-
There is no published or reported data for tices and health issues related to composting.
MSW composting facilities in the United States. Good common sense behavior is very important.
The data from Europe has been predominantly Employees should adhere to precautions such as
from Denmark. In 1988, Lundholm and Rylander using protective clothing, including uniforms and
reported on occupational symptoms among boots which are kept at the workplace; Use protec-
compost workers at an MSW/biosolids compost- tive equipment, such as ear plugs, eye wear, hard
ing plant. They indicated that household garbage hats, and dust masks, when appropriate; and Treat
was a major source of gram-negative bacteria. and disinfect all cuts, no matter how small.
Subjective symptoms such as nausea, headaches, Facilities need to be designed for the safety and
and diarrhea were more common among workers health of employees. The totally enclosed Daven-
interviewed than the control. Malmros and Pe- port facility designed by E&A Environmental
tersen (1988) evaluated working conditions be- Consultants, Inc. (see BioCycle, Vol. 37, No. 4, p.
fore and after modifications were made in a Dan- 62, “The Big and Small of Biosolids Composting.”)
ish MSW sorting plant. Since MSW composting provides 10 air exchanges per hour during work-
facilities often use manual and mechanical sort- ing hours. Drainage and clean-out facilities should
ing in the pre-processing step prior to compost- be provided to remove wastes on the floor and in
ing, this data can be applied to MSW composting other areas frequented by employees. Ponding wa-
facilities. Workers reported flu-like symptoms, ter, leachate, and runoff cause odors, breed vec-
eye and skin irritations, and respiratory prob- tors, and can cause injury to employees during
lems. Total bacterial count and endotoxin levels slippage. Equipment which produces copious
were measured. amounts of dust, such as screens, should be isolat-
The initial data suggested that improvements in ed from the main working area, especially in an en-
the plant would be needed to reduce worker expo- closed environment. Dust suppression equipment
sure to endotoxin and other microbial levels. This should be installed over equipment that produces
was based on the assumption that human dose re- a high amount of dust. These can be mist sprayers
lation to endotoxin was in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 or hoods with a vacuum system. Equipment, such
µg/m3, which illicites fever, acute bronchial con- as front-end loaders, should have well-sealed, ven-
striction, and chest pain. Improvements in venti- tilated cabs with removable and washable filters.
lation and rebuilding the plant greatly improved Employees should be instructed to remove and
worker conditions. clean filters frequently.
Malmros (1990) reported on problems with the The primary operational activities involve keep-
working environment for several different types of ing the facility clean. Roads and other areas where
MSW treatment plants. At that time, there were vehicles travel frequently and where waste or oth-
ten large composting facilities in Denmark. ODTS er materials are kept should be vacuumed or swept
was indicated as a disease among workers. In ad- periodically. Dust can be reduced in heavy traffic
dition, where biosolids were used, gastrointestinal areas by periodic spraying of water. 
symptoms were prevalent in workers. Sigsgaard et
al. (1992) reported on respiratory disorders in re- References
source recovery workers. In all cases, compost Chesapeake Occupational Health Services, 1991.
workers experienced fewer respiratory symptoms Health surveillance program for compost work-
than garbage handlers. The authors also examined ers: An epidemiologic Review. WSSC Site II. Silver

Prepared by magazine
All material is copyrighted and can only be used for purposes of this training.
© 2008 The JG Press, Inc.
 PROTECTING WORKERS AT COMPOSTING FACILITIES 47

Spring, Maryland. Millner, P.D., S.A. Olenchock, E.Epstein, R. Rylander,

Clark, C.S., H.S. Bjoronson, J. Schwartz-Fulton, J.W. J. Haines, J. Walker, B.L. Ooi, E. Horne and M.
Holland. and P.S. Gartside. 1984. Biological health Maritato. 1994. Bioaerosols associated with com-
risks associated with the composting of wastewater posting facilities. Compost Sci. & Util. 2 (4):6-57.
treatment plant sludge. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. NIOSH. 1994. Requesting for assistance in prevent-
56: 1269-1276. ing organic dust toxic syndrome. NIOSH ALERT,
Clayton Environmental Consultants, Inc., 1983. Air Department of Health and Human Services, Publ.
sampling program for total coliforms, particulate No. 94-102.
and fungal spores at selected areas in the Windsor NYDOH. 1994. A prospective study of health symp-
West Pollution Control Plant. Windsor, Ontario. toms and bioaerosol levels near a yard waste com-
Epstein, E. 1993. Neighborhood and worker protec- posting facility. State of New York Department of
tion for composting facilities: Issues and actions. Health, Center for Environmental Health, Albany,
pp. 319-338. In: H.A.J. Hoitink and H.M. Keener NY.
(eds.) Science and Engineering of Composting: De- Pahren, H.R. 1987. Microorganisms in municipal
sign, Environmental Microbiological and Utiliza- solid waste and public health implications. CRC
tion Aspects. Renaissance Publ., Worthington, OH. Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 17
Epstein, E. And J.I. Epstein. 1985. Health aspects of (3):187-228.
composting: A critique of the article “Biological Passman, F.J., 1980. Monitoring of Aspergillus fumi-
health risks associated with the composting of gatus associated with municipal sewage sludge
wastewater treatment plant sludge.” BioCycle 26 composting operations in the State of Maine.
(4):38-40. Portland Water District, Portland, Maine.
Green Lane Environmental Group LTD. 1995. Sarnia Rippon, J.W., 1974. Medical Mycology. The
leaf and yard composting site bioaerosol control Pathogenic Fungi and The Pathogenic Actino-
study. Lambeth, Ontario, Canada. mycetes. W.B. Saunders., Philadelphia, PA.
Grew, N., R.S. Gohd. J.Arguedas, and J.I. Kato. 1970. Rylander, R., 1993. A perspective on indoor air mi-
Enteroviruses in rural families and their domestic crobiological contamination. pp. 334-337. In: C.
animals. Amer. J. Epidemiology. 91 (5):518-526. B. a. C. C. E. Sterling (ed.), Amer. Soc. Heating Re-
Hirsch, S.R. and J.A. Sosman. 1976. A one-year sur- frig. Air Cond. Eng.
vey of mold growth inside twelve homes. Annls. Slavin, R.G. and Winzenburger. 1977. Epidemiolog-
Allerg. 36: 30-38. ic aspects of allergic aspergillosis. Annals Allergy.
Lundgren, D.L., W.E. Clapper, and A. Sanchez. 1968. 38: 215-218.
Isolation of human enteroviruses from beagle Sigsgaard, T., P. Malmros, Nersting, L. and C. Petersen.
dogs. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 128:463-466. 1992. Respiratory disorders and atopy in Danish re-
Lundholm, M. and R. Rylander. 1980. Occupational source recovery workers. Paper submitted to British
symptoms among compost workers. J. Occupa- J. Industrial Med.
tional Medicine 22(4):256-257. Solomon, W.R. 1975. Assessing fungus prevalence in
Malmros, P. 1990. Problems with the working envi- domestic interiors. J. Allerg. Clin. Immunol.
ronment in solid waste treatment. The National 56:235-242.
Labour Inspection of Denmark. Report, Nr. St. Pierre, C, L.S. Romano, M. Dieatrich and H.B.
10/1990. Fackrell. 1986. Assessment of health risks associat-
Malmros, P. And C. Petersen. 1988. The working ed with processing sewage sludge for composting.
conditions at Danish sorting plants. ISWA 88 Pro- Clayton Environ. Consultants, Ltd. Windsor, On-
ceeding of the 5th International Solid Waste Conf. tario, Canada.
1:487-491. Copenhagen, Denmark. The Great Lakes Center. 1996. Environmental char-
Malmros, P., T. Sigsgaard, and B. Bach. 1992. Occu- acterization of bio-aerosol emissions from the DK
pational health problems due to garbage sorting. Recycling Systems, Inc. Composting facility in
Waste Mang. & Res. 10:227-234. Lake Forest, Illinois. The Great lakes Center for
Millner, P.D., P.B. Marsh, R.B. Snowden and J.F. Parr. Occupational & Environmental Safety & Health.
1977. Occurrence of Aspergillus fumigatus during Health Hazard Evaluation Report 96-001.
composting of sewage sludge. Applied and Envi-
ron. Microbiol. 34 (6):765-772.

Prepared by magazine
All material is copyrighted and can only be used for purposes of this training.
© 2008 The JG Press, Inc.