Key Concepts in Welding Engineering

by R. Scott Funderburk

A Look at Input

What is Heat Input?

In arc welding, energy is transferred
from the welding electrode to the base
metal by an electric arc. When the
welder starts the arc, both the base
metal and the filler metal are melted to
create the weld. This melting is possi-
ble because a sufficient amount of
power (energy transferred per unit
time) and energy density is supplied to
the electrode.

Heat input is a relative measure of the

energy transferred per unit length of
weld. It is an important characteristic
because, like preheat and interpass
temperature, it influences the cooling
rate, which may affect the mechanical
properties and metallurgical structure
of the weld and the HAZ (see Figure Figure 1. Heat input influences cooling rate.
1). Heat input is typically calculated
as the ratio of the power (i.e., voltage
x current) to the velocity of the heat
source (i.e., the arc) as follows: How is Heat Input welding cables (see Figure 2). The
Measured? machine voltage, therefore, can be
60 EI used only for approximate calculations
H= Heat input can not be measured
1000 S directly. It can, however, be calculated Heat input is a
where, from the measured values of arc volt- relative measure of
H = heat input (kJ/in or kJ/mm) age, current and travel speed.
E = arc voltage (volts) the energy transferred
I = current (amps) Arc Voltage during welding
S = travel speed (in/min or mm/min) In determining the arc voltage (E), the
voltage should be measured as close and, in the case of significant voltage
This equation is useful for comparing to the arc as possible, as opposed to drops, may lead to heat input calcula-
different welding procedures for a the value displayed on the welding tion errors.
given welding process. However, heat machine voltmeter. Measuring the
input is not necessarily applicable for voltage across the arc provides the Current
comparing different processes (e.g., actual voltage drop across the welding The welding current (I) is measured
SMAW and GMAW), unless additional arc. The welding machine voltmeter with either an inductance meter (tong
data are available such as the heat reading is always higher than the arc meter) or a shunt with appropriate
transfer efficiency (Linnert, 1994). voltage due to the resistance of the metering equipment. The current is

Welding Innovation Vol. XVI, No. 1, 1999

never fixed with respect to time, espe- Transient Values mentation of cooling rate and heat
cially on a microsecond level. With For processes in which the voltage input a more accurate analysis proce-
SMAW, the current is also a function and current vary significantly with time, dure may be required, including
of the arc length, which is dependent such as short-circuiting GMAW, the instantaneously monitoring the volt-
on the welder's skill. Therefore, the average values of these variables are age, current and travel speed to calcu-
current used in the heat input calcula- used in calculating the heat input. For late the actual heat input.
tions should be the average value. example, with GMAW-pulsed arc, the
current is pulsed at a specified fre-
Travel Speed quency from a minimum value (back- Weld Size is Related
The travel speed (S) is the forward ground current) to the maximum value to Heat Input
velocity of the arc measured in either (peak current). The average value The cross-sectional area of a weld is
inches per minute or millimeters per between the maximum and minimum generally proportional to the amount of
minute. Only the forward progress con- current and voltage will provide an heat input. This intuitively makes
tributes to the travel speed. If a weaving approximate heat input value for these sense, because as more energy is
technique is used, only the forward welding processes. supplied to the arc, more filler metal
speed counts, not the oscillation rate. and base metal will be melted per unit
For vertical welding, the upward or With SMAW, the resistance of the length, resulting in a larger weld bead.
downward speed of the arc is used. The electrode changes as it is melted, If a welder makes one weld with a fast
travel speed must be in terms of minutes which results in a voltage change. travel speed and another with a slow
and not seconds for the dimensions to The temperature of the electrode also travel speed, keeping current and volt-
balance in the heat input equation. age the same for both, then the weld
The current made at the slower travel speed will
When the travel speed is measured,
the arc should be established for an
is never fixed be larger than the faster one. The fol-
lowing equation is an approximation
amount of time that will produce an with respect to time for the fillet weld leg size based on
accurate average speed. A continu- heat input (Miller, 1998):
ous welding time of 30 seconds is increases while its length is reduced
suggested. If this is not possible for during welding, both of which influence H
the production joint (e.g., short welds), the overall resistance. Average values
ω =
500
a test weld should be run on a mock- are used in this case as well.
up joint that will provide a sufficient where,
length to determine the travel speed. The transient nature of these factors is ω = fillet weld leg size (in)
The travel speed accuracy with manu- usually not considered when calculat- H = heat input (kJ/in)
al or semi-automatic welding is depen- ing heat input, and the averages are
dent on the welder. However, with adequate for procedure qualification or Although the precise relationship
automatic welding, the speed is set on simple comparison of welding proce- between heat input and fillet weld size
the motor controlled travel carriage. dures. However, for scientific experi- also depends on other variables,
including the process and polarity, this
equation is a helpful tool, especially in
creating and reviewing welding proce-
dures. For example, if a minimum fillet
weld size is specified, then the corre-
sponding minimum heat input can be
determined and controlled.

Cooling Rate is a
Function of Heat Input
The effect of heat input on cooling rate
is similar to that of the preheat temper-
ature. As either the heat input or the
preheat temperature increases, the rate
of cooling decreases for a given base
metal thickness. These two variables
interact with others such as material
thickness, specific heat, density, and
Figure 2. The arc voltage is always lower than the machine voltage due to the
resistance of the welding cables.

Welding Innovation Vol. XVI, No. 1, 1999

 Table 1. How Material Properties are Affected by Increasing Heat Input for SMAW
thermal conductivity to influence the
cooling rate. The following proportion-
Property* Change
ality function shows this relationship
between preheat temperature, heat

Õ Õ
Yield Strength 30%
input and cooling rate:
Tensile Strength 10%
1
R∝ Percent Elongation 10%

Õ
To H

Õ
Notch Toughness (CVN) 10%, for 15 < H < 50 kJ/in
where,

Õ
50%, for 50 < H < 110 kJ/in
R = cooling rate (°F/sec or °C/sec)
Hardness 10%

Õ
To = preheat temperature (°F or °C)
H = heat input (kJ/in or kJ/mm)
* SMAW with a heat input range of 15 to 110 kJ/in.
The cooling rate is a primary factor
that determines the final metallurgical
structure of the weld and heat affected
zone (HAZ), and is especially impor- tied to the heat input, but is also signif- Welding Codes
tant with heat-treated steels. When icantly influenced by the weld bead
welding quenched and tempered size. As the bead size increases, As discussed previously, heat input
steels, for example, slow cooling rates which corresponds to a higher heat can affect the mechanical properties
(resulting from high heat inputs) can input, the notch toughness tends to and metallurgical structure in the weld
soften the material adjacent to the decrease. In multiple-pass welds, a and HAZ of weldments. The AWS
weld, reducing the load-carrying portion of the previous weld pass is Welding Codes have specific provi-
capacity of the connection. refined, and the toughness improved, sions related to heat input for this very
as the heat from each pass tempers reason. Below are the requirements
the weld metal below it. If the beads for heat input from AWS D1.1 and
How Does Heat Input are smaller, more grain refinement D1.5.
Affect Mechanical occurs, resulting in better notch tough-
Properties? ness, all other factors being even. AWS D1.1 Structural Welding
Code — Steel
Varying the heat input typically will Tests have been conducted with The AWS D1.1 Structural Welding
affect the material properties in the SMAW electrodes and procedures that Code — Steel controls heat input in
weld. The following table shows how provided heat inputs varying from 15 three areas: (1) qualified Welding
the listed properties change with kJ/in (0.6 kJ/mm) to 110 kJ/in (4.3 Procedure Specifications, (2) minimum
increasing heat input. An arrow point- kJ/mm) (Evans, 1997). This repre- fillet weld sizes and (3) quenched and
Õ

ed up, , designates that the property sents a very large heat input range, tempered steels.
increases as heat input increases. An which encompasses most applications
Õ

arrow pointed down, , designates that of SMAW. Qualified Welding Procedure

the property decreases as heat input Specifications (WPSs)
increases. Next to the arrow is the If the changes in heat input are rela- When heat input control is a contract
approximate amount that property tively small, as opposed to those of requirement, and if the procedure
changed from the minimum to maxi- the previous table, then the mechani- used in production has a correspond-
mum value of heat input tested. cal properties may not be significantly ing heat input that is 10% or greater
changed. In another study, no signifi- than that recorded in the Procedure
Other than notch toughness, all of the cant correlation between heat input Qualification Record (PQR), then the
mechanical properties show a monoto- and mechanical properties was estab- qualified WPS must be requalified
nic relationship to heat input, that is, lished for submerged arc welding (AWS D1.1-98, Table 4.5, item 18).
the mechanical property only increas- (SAW) with typical highway bridge This is primarily due to concerns
es or decreases with increasing heat fabrication heat input levels of 50 to 90 regarding the potential alteration of
input. Notch toughness, however, kJ/in (Medlock, 1998). In this case, the weld metal and HAZ mechanical
increases slightly and then drops sig- the tests results did show varying properties.
nificantly as heat input increases. The properties; however, no discernable
change in notch toughness is not just trends were established.

Welding Innovation Vol. XVI, No. 1, 1999

Minimum Fillet Weld Sizes AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code Summary
The code also controls the heat input The AWS D1.5-96 Bridge Welding Heat input is a relative measure of the
by limiting the minimum size of fillet Code has provisions for heat input in energy transferred during welding. It
welds (AWS D1.1-98, Table 5.8). two areas: procedure qualification andis a useful tool in evaluating welding
According to the Commentary, “For fracture critical nonredundant members.
procedures within a given process.
non-low-hydrogen processes, the The cooling rate, weld size and materi-
minimum size specified is intended to Procedure Qualification al properties may all be influenced by
ensure sufficient heat input to reduce There are three different methods for the heat input. Some welding codes
the possibility of cracking in either the qualifying procedures in D1.5: the place specific controls on the heat
heat-affected zone or weld metal” Maximum Heat Input Method, the input. To ensure high quality in welded
(AWS D1.1-98, para. C5.14). For mul- Maximum-Minimum Heat Input construction, it is important to under-
tiple-pass fillet welds, the Commentary Method, and the Production Procedure stand and apply these principles when
includes the following: Method. For the Maximum Heat Input notch toughness and HAZ properties
Method, the heat input must be are to be controlled and when welding
“Should fillet weld sizes greater than between 60% and 100% of the value high alloy steels.
the minimum sizes be required for from the Procedure Qualification
these thicknesses, then each indi- Record (PQR) used to qualify the References
vidual pass of multiple-pass welds WPS (AWS D1.5-96, para. 5.12.1). ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5-96 Bridge Welding
must represent the same heat input With the Maximum-Minimum Heat Code. American Welding Society, 1996.
per inch of weld length as provided ANSI/AWS D1.1-98 Structural Welding Code -

D1.1-98 controls heat

by the minimum fillet size required Steel. American Welding Society, 1998.
Evans, G. M. and Bailey, N. Metallurgy of Basic
by Table 5.8.” (AWS D1.1-98, para.
C5.14). input in three areas Weld Metal. Abington Publishing, 1997.
Graville, B.A. The Principles of Cold Cracking
Control in Welds. Dominion Bridge Company,
Quenched and Tempered Steels Input Method, the heat input must fall 1975.
Linnert, G.E. Welding Metallurgy, Vol.1.
When quenched and tempered steels between that of the two required quali- American Welding Society, pp.667-693, 1994.
(e.g., A514 and A517) are to be weld- fication tests. If the Production Miller, D.K. and Funderburk, R.S. “Reviewing
ed, the heat input, as well as mini- Procedure Method is used, the heat and Approving Welding Procedure
mum preheat and maximum interpass input can only deviate from the PQR Specifications.” The National Steel
Construction Conference Proceedings. New
temperatures, must conform to the by the following: an increase of up to Orleans, AISC, 1998.
steel producer's specific written rec- 10% or a decrease not greater than Medlock, Ronald D. Qualification of Welding
ommendations (AWS D1.1-98, para. 30% (AWS D1.5, Table 5.3, item 17). Procedures for Bridges: An Evaluation of the
5.7). If high heat input welding is Heat Input Method. Thesis, University of
Texas, May 1998.
used, the HAZ can be significantly Fracture Critical Nonredundant Stout, R.D. and Doty, W.D. Weldability of Steels.
weakened due to high temperatures Members 2nd Edition. Welding Research Council, pp.
and slower cooling rates. However, Chapter 12 of D1.5 applies to fracture 39-43, 103-107, 217-218, 229-237, 1971.
the requirement does not universally critical nonredundant members Welding Handbook, Vol. 1, 8th Edition.
American Welding Society, pp. 32-34, 1987.
apply to all quenched and tempered (FCMs). The minimum preheat tem- Welding Handbook, Vol. 4, 8th Edition.
steels. For example, with ASTM perature for a FCM is selected based American Welding Society, pp. 43-45, 1998.
A913 Grades 60 or 65, which are on the heat input, material grade and
quenched and self-tempered, the thickness, and filler metal diffusible
heat input limitations of AWS D1.1 hydrogen content (AWS D1.5, Tables
paragraph 5.7 do not apply (AWS 12.3, 12.4 and12.5). Although the
D1.1-98, Table 3.1 and 3.2, footnote 9 focus in chapter 12 of D1.5 is the mini-
and 4, respectively). mum preheat temperature, the heat
input value is an equally controlling
variable.

Welding Innovation Vol. XVI, No. 1, 1999