Technical Information

Properties of Extension of Steel Wire Ropes

Any assembly of steel wires spun into a helical formation The Modulus of Elasticity also varies with different rope
either as a strand or wire rope, when subjected to a tensile constructions, but generally increases as the cross-
load, can extend in three separate phases, depending on sectional area of steel increases. By using the values
the magnitude of the applied load. given, it is possible to make a reasonable estimate of
elastic extension, but if greater accuracy is required it is
There are also other factors which produce rope extension
advisable to carry out a modulus test on an actual sample
which are very small and can normally be ignored.
of the rope.
Phase 1 - Initial or Permanent
WL
Constructional Extension Elastic Extension = (mm)
EA
At the commencement of loading a new rope, extension is
W = load applied (kN)
created by the bedding down of the assembled wires with a
L = rope length (mm)
corresponding reduction in overall diameter. This reduction
E = elastic modulus (kN/mm2)
in diameter creates an excess length of wire which is
A = metallic cross section (mm2)
accommodated by a lengthening of the helical lay. When
sufficiently large bearing areas have been generated on Phase 3 - Permanent Extension
adjacent wires to withstand the circumferential compressive
The permanent, non-elastic extension of the steel caused
loads, this mechanically created extension ceases and the
by tensile loads exceeding the yield point of the material.
extension in Phase 2 commences. The Initial Extension of
any rope cannot be accurately determined by calculation If the load exceeds the Limit of Proportionality, the rate of
and has no elastic properties. extension will accelerate as the load is increased, until a
loading is reached at which continuous extension will
The practical value of this characteristic depends upon
commence, causing the wire rope to fracture without any
many factors, the most important being the type and
further increase of load.
construction of rope, the range of loads and the number
and frequency of the cycles of operation. It is not possible Thermal Expansion and Contraction
to quote exact values for the various constructions of rope
The coefficient of linear expansion (∝) of steel wire rope is
in use, but the following approximate values may be
0.0000125 = (12.5 x10-6) per oC and therefore the change
employed to give reasonably accurate results.
in length of 1 metre of rope produced by a temperature
change of t oC would be;
% of rope length
Change in length ∆| = ∝ |o t
Fibre Core Steel Core
where:
∝ = coefficient of linear expansion
Lightly loaded 0.25 0.125
Factor of safety about 8:1
|o = original length of rope (m)
Normally loaded 0.50 0.25
t = temperature change (oC)
Factor of safety about 5:1
Heavily loaded 0.75 0.50
The change will be an increase in length if the temperature
Factor of safety about 3:1
rises and a decrease in length if the temperature falls.
Heavily loaded Up to 2.00 Up to 1.00
with many bends Extension due to Rotation
and/or deflections
The elongation caused by a free rope end being allowed
The above figures are for guidance purposes. More precise to rotate.
figures are available upon request. Extension due to Wear
Phase 2 - Elastic Extension The elongation due to inter-wire wear which reduces the
Following Phase 1, the rope extends in a manner which cross-sectional area of steel and produces extra
complies approximately with Hookes Law (stress is constructional extension.
proportional to strain) until the Limit of Proportionality or Example: What will be the total elongation of a 200
Elastic Limit is reached. metre length of 28mm diameter Blue Strand 6x36 wire
It is important to note that wire ropes do not possess a rope at a tension of 55.8 kN and with an increase in
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity, but an ‘apparent’ Modulus of temperature of 20oC.
Elasticity can be determined between two fixed loads.
Permanent Constructional Extension = 0.25% of
rope length = 500mm

Elastic Extension = WL = 55.8 x 200,000 = 294.4mm

EA 105 x 361

Thermal Expansion = ∆| = ∝ |o t = 0.0000125 x 200,000 x 20 = 50mm

Therefore total extension = 500 + 294 + 50 = 844mm

38 BRIDON Crane
 Technical Information

Pressures between Ropes and Sheaves or Drums

In addition to bending stresses experienced by wire ropes If the pressure is high, the compressive strength of the
operating over sheaves or pulleys, ropes are also subjected material in the groove may be insufficient to prevent
to radial pressure as they make contact with the sheave. excessive wear and indentation and this in turn will damage
This pressure sets up shearing stresses in the wires, the outer wires of the rope and effect its working life. As
distorts the rope’s structure and affects the rate of wear of with bending stresses, stresses due to radial pressure
the sheave grooves. When a rope passes over a sheave, increase as the diameter of the sheave decreases.
the load on the sheave results from the tension in the rope Although high bending stresses generally call for the use of
and the angle of rope contact. It is independent of the flexible rope constructions having relatively small diameter
diameter of the sheave. outer wires, these have less ability to withstand heavy

2T sin θ
pressures than do the larger wires in the less flexible
Load on bearing = constructions. If the calculated pressures are too high for
2
the particular material chosen for the sheaves or drums or
Assuming that the rope is supported in a well fitting groove, indentations are being experienced, consideration should
then the pressure between the rope and the groove is be given to an increase in sheave or drum diameter. Such
dependent upon the rope tension and diameter but is a modification would not only reduce the groove pressure,
independent of the arc of contact. but would also improve the fatigue life of the rope.

2T The pressure of the rope against the sheave also cause

Pressure, P =
Dd distortion and flattening of the rope structure. This can be
controlled by using sheaves with the correct groove profile
P = pressure (kg/cm2)
which, for general purposes, suggests an optimum groove
T = rope tension (kg)
radius of nominal rope radius +7.5%. The profile at the
D = diameter of sheave or drum (cm)
bottom of the groove should be circular over an angle of
d = diameter of rope (cm)
approximately 120o, and the angle of flare between the
sides of the sheave should be approximately 52o.
Maximum Permissible Pressures
Hardness of Rope Wire
Groove material
Rope Approximate Approximate
Cast Low 11 to 13%
grade Equivalent Hardness
Number of iron carbon Mn steel
outer wires cast steel or
Min. Tensile API 9A Brinel Rockwell
in strands equivalent
alloy Strength Grade ‘C’
steels
2160N / mm2 EEIPS 480 / 500 52
kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2
1960N / mm2 EIPS 470 / 480 51
5 - 8 Ordinary lay 20 40 105
5 - 8 Lang’s lay 25 45 120 1770N / mm2 IPS 445 / 470 49
9 - 13 Ordinary lay 35 60 175
1570N / mm 2 PS 405 / 425 45
9 - 13 Lang’s lay 40 70 200
14 - 18 Ordinary lay 42 75 210 Suggested pulley hardness: 250-300 Brinell for Mn steel or
14 - 18 Lang’s lay 47 85 240 equivalent alloy steel.
Triangular strand 55 100 280
If the calculated pressure is too high for the particular
It should be emphasised that this method of estimation of material chosen for the pulley or drum, consideration
pressure assumes that the area of contact of the rope in should be given to increase in pulley or drum diameter.
the groove is on the full rope diameter, whereas in fact only Such a modification would not only reduce the groove
the crowns of the outer wires are actually in contact with the pressure, but would also improve the fatigue life of the rope
groove. The local pressures at these contact points may be by reducing the bending stresses imposed.
as high as 5 times those calculated and therefore the
values given above cannot be related to the compressive
strength of the groove material.

BRIDON Crane 39
 Technical Information

Bend Fatigue
Bend fatigue testing of ropes usually consists of cycling a However, the benefit of such testing can be particularly
length of rope over a sheave while the rope is under a helpful to the rope manufacturer when developing new or
constant tension and as part of its ongoing development improving existing products.
programme Bridon has tested literally thousands of ropes
If designers or operators of equipment are seeking optimum
in this manner over the years on its in-house own design
rope performance or regard bending fatigue life as a key
bend testing equipment.
factor in the operation of equipment, such information can
Through this work, Bridon has been able to compare the be provided by Bridon for guidance purposes.
effects of rope construction, tensile strength, lay direction,
Service life curve for various D:d ratios
sheave size, groove profile and tensile loading on bend

100
fatigue performance under ideal operating conditions. At
the same time it has been possible to compare rope life to

R e la t iv e Ro p e Se r vi ce L if e
discard criteria (e.g. as laid down in ISO 4309) with that to
complete failure of the rope, i.e. to the point where the rope 80

has been unable to sustain the load any longer. As part of

the exercise, it has also been possible to establish the 60
residual breaking strength of the rope at discard level of
deterioration. 40

Effects of D:d Ratio and loading on fatigue life -

Typical example Dyform 6 20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Number of bends to rope failure

D: d r ati o

When considering the use of a steel wire rope around a

5% MBL
minimum D:d ratio, it is generally accepted that at below
4:1 the effect on the strength of the rope needs to be
considered. Permanent distortions within the rope will occur
10% MBL
when using ratios of 10:1 and less and that a minimum ratio
of 16:1 be used for a rope operating around sheaves.
20% MBL
Approximate loss in breaking strength due to bending
0.000
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
0.100
0.200 0.5
Ef f i ci e nc y % MB F

S hea ve D:d ra t i o
0.300 EB = 1 -
0.400 D/d
0.500
What needs to be recognised, however, is that very few
0.600
ropes operate under these controlled operating conditions,
making it very difficult to use this base information when 0.700
attempting to predict rope life under other conditions. Other 0.800
0.900
1.000
influencing factors, such as dynamic loading, differential
loads in the cycle, fleet angle, reeving arrangement, type of 0 10 20 30 40
coiling on the drum, change in rope direction, sheave D :d r at io
alignment, sheave size and groove profile, can have an
equally dramatic effect on rope performance.

40 BRIDON Crane
 Technical Information

Swivels
Rotating loads can put at risk the safety of those persons construction and lay type and direction, is given.
within a lifting zone during a lifting operation. For simplicity, the ropes are grouped according to their
rotational characteristics.
In order to reduce the risk of rotation the machinery
designer or user may find it may be necessary to Note 1: A swivel should not be used when installing a rope.
incorporate a swivel in the reeving system; however, it
Note 2: Further guidance on the use of swivels with six strand
should be recognised that excessive rotation could have an
and rotation-resistant ropes is given in ISO 4308 ‘Cranes
adverse effect on rope performance depending on the
and lifting appliances - selection of wire ropes - part 1
rope’s rotational characteristics.
General’.
To assist the machinery designer or user in determining
Note 3: Swivels have varying degrees of efficiency and may be
whether or not a swivel should be used in a lifting system,
either an independent accessory or an integral part of a
the following guidance, taking into account the rope type,
lifting accessory such as a crane hook.

Group 1

Both sets of ropes in this group have high values of rotation when loaded and must not be used unless both
ends of the rope are fixed and prevented from rotating however they must NOT be used with a swivel,
under any circumstances.

DO NOT USE A SWIVEL

Group 1a: Single layer ropes Group 1b: Parallel-closed ropes

Lang’s lay Lang’s and Ordinary (Regular) lay

Blue Strand 6x19 Lang’s lay Endurance DSC 8

Blue Strand 6x36 Lang’s lay Endurance Dyform DSC 8
Endurance 8 Lang’s lay
Endurance 8PI Lang’s lay
Endurance Dyform 8 Lang’s lay
Endurance Dyform 8PI Lang’s lay
Endurance Dyform 6 Lang’s lay
Endurance Dyform 6PI Lang’s lay

Group 2

With one end free to rotate, all of the ropes in this group will generate less rotation when loaded than those listed in
Group 1. However, such ropes are still likely to unlay and distort under this condition.

When used in single part reeving they may require a swivel to prevent rotation in certain operating conditions but this
should only apply when employee safety is an issue.

Group 2: Single layer ropes

Ordinary (Regular) lay

Blue Strand 6x19 Ordinary lay Endurance Dyform 8 Ordinary lay

Blue Strand 6x36 Ordinary lay Endurance 8PI Ordinary lay
Endurance 8 Ordinary lay Endurance Dyform 8PI Ordinary lay
Endurance Dyform 6 Ordinary lay Endurance 6FS Ordinary lay
Endurance Dyform 6PI Ordinary lay Endurance Dyform 6FS Ordinary lay

BRIDON Crane 41
 Technical Information

Swivels
Group 3

The ropes in this group incorporate a centre which is laid in the opposite direction to that of the outer strands and
are specifically designed to have a medium amount of resistance to rotation.

If it is necessary to use a swivel with any of these ropes in single part reeving to prevent rotation of the load, the
rope should operate within the normal design factor of 5, not be subject to any shock loading and be checked daily
for any evidence of distortion.

Where any of these ropes are used in multi-part reeving, the use of an anti-friction swivel at the outboard anchor
point is not recommended. However, a swivel which can be locked may be useful when optimising the reeving,
following rope installation or after subsequent changes to the reeving arrangement.

It should be noted that if a swivel is used in conjunction with these ropes, the bending fatigue life may be reduced
due to increased internal deterioration between the outer strands and the underlying layer.

Group 3: Rotation-resistant ropes

Lang’s and Ordinary (Regular) lay

Endurance 18 Endurance Dyform 18 Endurance 18PI

Group 4

The ropes in this group are designed to have extremely low levels of rotation when loaded and, if necessary, may
operate with a swivel in both single and multi-part reeving systems.

Any induced rotation which might normally result from any fleet angle or loads cycle effect would be expected to be
relieved when the rope is used with a swivel.

Testing has also shown that when used with a swivel at normal design factor of 5 and zero fleet angle, no reduction in
either rope breaking force or bending fatigue life would be expected.

Group 4: Low rotation ropes

Endurance 35LS Endurance Dyform 34LR Endurance Dyform 34LRPI

42 BRIDON Crane
 Technical Information

Fleet Angle
Of all the factors which have some influence on the winding At the sheave
of a rope on a smooth drum, the fleet angle, arguably, has
Where a fleet angle exists as the rope enters a sheave, it
the greatest effect.
initially makes contact with the sheave flange. As the rope
Fleet angle is usually defined as the included angle continues to pass through the sheave it moves down the
between two lines, one which extends from a fixed sheave flange until it sits in the bottom of the groove. In doing so,
to the flange of a drum and the other which extends from even when under tension, the rope will actually roll as well
the same fixed sheave to the drum in a line perpendicular as slide. As a result of the rolling action the rope is twisted,
to the axis of the drum. (See illustration). i.e. turn is induced into or out of the rope, either shortening
or lengthening the lay length of the outer layer of strands.
Illustration of Fleet Angle
As the fleet angle increases so does the amount of twist.

To reduce the amount of twist to an acceptable level the fleet

angle should be limited to 2.5O for grooved drums and 1.5O for
angle
Fleet angle plain drums and when using rotation-resistant low rotation and

Sheave
parallel-closed ropes the fleet angle should be limited to 1.5O.

However, for some applications it is recognised that for

practical reasons it is not always possible to comply with
Drum these general recommendations, in which case the rope life
could be affected.
If the drum incorporates helical grooving, the helix angle of
the groove needs to be added or subtracted from the fleet
angle as described above to determine the actual fleet
Rope Torque
angle experienced by the rope.
The problem of torsional instability in hoist ropes would not
At the drum exist if the ropes could be perfectly torque balanced under
load. The torque generated in a wire rope under load is
When spooling rope onto a drum it is generally
usually directly related to the applied load by a constant
recommended that the fleet angle is limited to between 0.5O
‘torque factor’. For a given rope construction the torque
and 2.5O. If the fleet angle is too small, i.e. less than 0.5O,
factor can be expressed as a proportion of the rope
the rope will tend to pile up at the drum flange and fail to
diameter and this has been done below..
return across the drum. In this situation, the problem may
be alleviated by introducing a ‘kicker’ device or by Variation with rope construction is relatively small and
increasing the fleet angle through the introduction of a hence the scope for dramatically changing the stability of a
sheave or spooling mechanism. hoisting system is limited. Nevertheless the choice of the
correct rope can have a deciding influence, especially in
If the rope is allowed to pile up it will eventually roll away
systems which are operating close to the critical limit. It
from the flange creating a shock load in both the rope and
should be noted that the rope torque referred to here is
the structure of the mechanism, an undesirable and unsafe
purely that due to tensile loading. No account is taken of
operating condition.
the possible residual torque due, for example, to rope
Excessively high fleet angles will return the rope across the manufacture or installation procedures.
drum prematurely, creating gaps between wraps of rope
Torsional Stability
close to the flanges as well as increasing the pressure on
the rope at the cross-over positions. The torque factors quoted on page 45 are approximate
maximum values for the particular constructions.
Even where helical grooving is provided, large fleet angles
To calculate the torque value for a particular rope size
will inevitably result in localised areas of mechanical
multiply by the nominal rope diameter.
damage as the wires ‘pluck’ against each other. This is
Example: for 20mm dia. Dyform 34LR Lang’s Lay at 20% of
often referred to as ‘interference’ but the amount can be
minimum breaking force:-
reduced by selecting a Lang’s lay rope if the reeving allows.
The “interference” effect can also be reduced by employing Torque value = torque factor x rope dia.
a Dyform rope which offers a much smoother exterior = 1.8% x 20mm
surface than conventional rope constructions. = 0.36mm

Floating sheaves or specially designed fleet angle To calculate the torque generated in a particular rope when
compensating devices may also be employed to reduce subjected to a tensile load, multiply the load by the torque
the fleet angle effect. value and conbine the units.
Example:- For 20mm dia. Dyform 34LR Lang’s Lay at 75kN:

Torque generated = torque value x load.

= 0.36 x 75
= 27Nm

BRIDON Crane 43
 Technical Information

Rope Torque
The torsional characteristics of wire rope will have the effect Angular displacement of block
of causing angular displacement of a sheave block when
To predict the amount of angular displacement by which a
used in multi-fall reeving arrangements.
sheave block may turn under the influence of rope torque:
The formula below gives a good approximation under
such arrangements. sin θ = (4 000 L. Tv)
S2
S2 = 4000L. Tv
sin θ (for even number of falls)

Where S is the rope spacing in mm The equations assume that rope is torque-free in the no-
load condition, therefore, induced torque during or
L is the length of each part in the reeving
immediately after installation will adversely influence the
Tv is the torque value of the rope
θ is the angular displacement of the sheave block
calculated effect.

The above data assumes a constant torque value which is

When the angular displacement of the sheave block
exceeds 90O (sin θ = 1) torsional instability results and
a valid assumption for a new rope. Wear and usage can
have a significant effect on the torque value but practical
‘cabling’ of the reeving will occur. Therefore the test for
work shows that under such circumstances the torque
stability of any particular reeving can be expressed as:
value will diminish, thus improving the stability of the
S> 4 000 L. Tv arrangement. Some arrangements may be of such
complexity that the evaluation demands a computer study.
Where S is the rope spacing in mm
L is length of each part in metres Examples:
Tv is torque value in mm
Assuming a pedestal crane working on two falls is roped
The preceding equations are all relative to a simple two with 20mm diameter DYFORM 34LR and the bottom block
part reeving. For more complex systems a similar approach carries a sheave of 360mm diameter with the falls parallel:
may be used if account is taken of the different spacings of
Torque value = 1.8% x 20
the ropes.
= 0.36mm
Even Number of Falls
If the rope is new (worst condition) and no account is taken
Rope Plan Effective Rope of block weight and friction then angular displacement for a
Spacing height of lift of 30 metres is given by
2-Fall
sin θ = (4 000 . 30 . 0.36)
3602

= 0.333 i.e. 19O 47’

4-Fall
The reeving would be expected to ‘cable’ at a height of lift
calculated as:

L = S2
4 000 . Tv

= 3602
Note: For hoisting arrangements in which the rope falls are
4 000 . 0.36
not parallel an average rope spacing should be used.
= 90 metres
Uneven Number of Falls
From the crane designer’s viewpoint a safety factor against
(Rope Termination at Bottom Block)
‘cabling’ should be recognised (angular displacement
Rope Plan limited at 30O) hence the practical height of lift is
approximately 45 metres.
3-Fall

Effective Rope Spacing and modified formula for stable

condition

Effective Rope Spacing S

Stable condition if

S > 6 000 . L. Tv

44 BRIDON Crane
 Technical Information

Summary Technical Information and Conversion Factors

(For guidance purposes only)

Bridon supply a range of ‘Endurance’ High Performance steel wire ropes specifically designed and manufactured to meet
the needs of today’s cranes and the demanding applications to which they are exposed. High performance ropes are
normally selected by customers when they require the specific characteristics of improved performance, high strength,
low extension or low rotation.

Extension Rotational
characteristics characteristics

Fill Nominal Rope Torque factor at

Factor Metallic 20% of breaking Turn value Nominal Rope
Rope Construction Area modulus Initial force % at 20% of Lay length
f’ at 20%
Factor permanent breaking mm
% of
C’
breaking extension force
force % degrees/
Ordinary Lang’s rope lay
kN/mm2

6 & 8 Strand High Performance

Dyform 6 & 6-PI 67.0 0.526 103 0.1 6.9 10.9 60 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.
Dyform Bristar 6 66.0 0.518 103 0.1 6.9 10.9 60 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.
Endurance 8 & 8-PI 63.0 0.495 96 0.2 7.0 9.0 90 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.
Dyform 8 & 8-PI 68.0 0.534 100 0.15 7.0 9.0 90 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.
Dyform DSC 8 75.0 0.589 107 0.09 8.1 11.0 70 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.
Constructex 72.1 0.566 108 0.05 7 n/a 60 6.0 x Nom. rope dia.
Dyform Zebra 59.1 0.464 103 0.1 7 11 60 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.
Brifil 6x36 iwrc class 58.6 0.460 102 0.15 7 11 60 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.

Rotation Resistant
Dyform 18 & 18-PI 71.0 0.558 95 0.1 3 4.5 4 6.25 x Nom. rope dia.
Endurance 50DB 63.0 0.495 97 0.24 n/a 3.6 3 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.

Low Rotation
Dyform 34LR & 34LR-PI 74.0 0.581 99 0.05 0.8 1.8 0.7 6.0 x Nom. rope dia.
Endurance 35LS 63.9 0.502 102 0.1 0.8 1.8 0.7 6.0 x Nom. rope dia.

Conventional Constructions
Blue Strand 6 x 19 iwrc class 57.2 0.449 103 0.15 7 9 50 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.
Blue Strand 6 x 36 iwrc class 58.6 0.460 104 0.17 7 9 60 6.5 x Nom. rope dia.

The figures shown in the above table are nominal values given for the product range and are for guidance purposes only,
for specific values please contact Bridon.

The above modulus vales are based on the nominal rope metallic area

BRIDON Crane 45
 Technical Information

Guide to Examination
The continued safe operation of lifting equipment, lifting Some of the More Common Types of Wire
accessories (e.g. slings) and other systems employing wire Fractures Can Include:
rope depends to a large extent on the operation of well
programmed periodic rope examinations and the A Severed B Tension C Fatigue D Corrosion
by wear fatigue
assessment by the competent person of the fitness of the
rope for further service.

Examination and discard of ropes by the competent person

should be in accordance with the instructions given in the
original equipment manufacturer’s handbook. In addition,
account should be taken of any local or application specific
Regulations.

The competent person should also be familiar, as

appropriate, with the latest versions of related International,
European or National standards such as ISO 4309 “Cranes
- Wire ropes - code of practice for examination.

Particular attention must be paid to those sections of E Plastic F Martensite G Sheared

rope which experience has shown to be liable to wear end
deterioration. Excessive wear, broken wires,
distortions and corrosion are the more common
visible signs of deterioration.

Note: This publication has been prepared as an aid for rope

examination and should not be regarded as a substitute for the
competent person.

Wear is a normal feature of rope service and the use of the

correct rope construction ensures that it remains a
secondary aspect of deterioration. Lubrication may help to
reduce wear.

Broken wires are a normal feature of rope service towards

the end of the rope’s life, resulting from bending fatigue Factors Affecting Rope
and wear. The local break up of wires may indicate some
mechanical fault in the equipment. Correct lubrication in Performance
service will increase fatigue performance.
Multi-coiling of the rope on the drum can result in severe
Distortions are usually as a result of mechanical damage,
distortion in the underlying layers.
and if severe, can considerably affect rope strength.
Bad coiling (due to excessive fleet angles or slack
Visible rusting indicates a lack of suitable lubrication,
winding) can result in mechanical damage, shown
resulting in corrosion. Pitting of external wire surfaces
as severe crushing, and may cause shock loading
becomes evident in some circumstances. Broken wires
during operation.
ultimately result.
Small diameter sheaves can result in permanent set of
Internal corrosion occurs in some environments when
the rope, and will certainly lead to early wire breaks due
lubrication is inadequate or of an unsuitable type.
to fatigue.
Reduction in rope diameter will frequently guide the
observer to this condition. Confirmation can only be made Oversize grooves offer insufficient support to the rope
by opening the rope with clamps or the correct use of spike leading to increased localised pressure, flattening of the
and needle to facilitate internal inspection. rope and premature wire fractures. Grooves are deemed to
be oversize when the groove diameter exceeds the
Note: Non-destructive testing (NDT) using electromagnetic means
nominal rope diameter by more than 15% steel, 20%
may also be used to detect broken wires and/or loss in metallic area.
polyurethane liners.
This method complements the visual examination but does not
replace it. Undersize grooves in sheaves will crush and deform the
rope, often leading to two clear patterns of wear and
Pictures courtesy of S.M.R.E. Crown Copyright 1966
associated wire breaks.

Excessive angle of fleet can result in severe wear of the

rope due to scrubbing against adjacent laps on the drum.
Rope deterioration at the Termination may be exhibited in
the form of broken wires. An excessive angle of fleet can
also induce rotation causing torsional imbalance.

46 BRIDON Crane
 Technical Information

Troubleshooting Guide
Typical examples of Wire Rope deterioration

1 Mechanical damage 9 Typical wire fractures

due to rope movement as a result of bend
over sharp edge fatigue.
projection whilst under
load.

2 Localised wear due to 10 Wire fractures at the

abrasion on supporting strand, or core
structure. interface, as distinct
from ‘crown’ fractures.

3 Narrow path of wear 11 Break up of IWRC

resulting in fatigue resulting from high
fractures, caused by stress application.
working in a grossly
oversize groove, or
over small support
rollers.

4 Two parallel paths of 12 Looped wires as a

broken wires indicative result of torsional
of bending through an imbalance and/or shock
undersize groove in the loading.
sheave.

5 Severe wear, 13 Typical example of

associated with high localised wear and
tread pressure. deformation.

6 Severe wear in Lang’s 14 Multi strand rope ‘bird

Lay, caused by caged’ due to torsional
abrasion. imbalance.

7 Severe corrosion. 15 Protrusion of rope

centre resulting from
build up of turn.

8 Internal corrosion 16 Substantial wear and

whilst external surface severe internal
shows little evidence of corrosion.
deterioration.

BRIDON Crane 47
 Technical Information

Troubleshooting Guide
The following is a simplified guide to common wire rope problems. More detailed advice can be obtained from any Bridon
distributor. In the event of no other standard being applicable, Bridon recommends that ropes are inspected/examined in
accordance with ISO 4309.

Problem Cause/Action

Mechanical damage caused by the rope contacting the • Generally results from operational conditions.
structure of the installation on which it is operating or an
• Check sheave guards and support/guide sheaves to
external structure - usually of a localised nature.
ensure that the rope has not “jumped out” of the
intended reeving system.

• Review operating conditions.

Opening of strands in rotation resistant, low rotation and • Check sheave and drum groove radii using sheave
parallel closed ropes - in extreme circumstances the rope gauge to ensure that they are no smaller than nominal
may develop a “birdcage distortion” or protrusion of inner rope radius +5% - Bridon recommends that the sheave
strands. and drum groove radii are checked prior to any rope
installation.
Note - rotation resistant and low rotation ropes are designed
with a specific strand gap which may be apparent on • Repair or replace drum/sheaves if necessary.
delivery in an off tension condition. These gaps will close
• Check fleet angles in the reeving system - a fleet angle
under load and will have no effect on the operational
in excess of 1.5 degrees may cause distortion
performance of the rope.
(see page 43).

• Check installation method - turn induced during

installation can cause excessive rope rotation resulting
in distortion (See pages 53 - 60).

• Check if the rope has been cut “on site “ prior to

installation or cut to remove a damaged portion from
the end of the rope. If so, was the correct cutting
procedure used? Incorrect cutting of rotation resistant,
low rotation and parallel closed ropes can cause
distortion in operation (See page 57).

• Rope may have experienced a shock load.

Broken wires or crushed or flattened rope on lower layers • Check tension on underlying layers. Bridon
at crossover points in multi - layer coiling situations. recommends an installation tension of between 2% and
10% of the minimum breaking force of the wire rope.
Wire breaks usually resulting from crushing or abrasion.
Care should be taken to ensure that tension is retained
in service. Insufficient tension will result in these lower
layers being more prone to crushing damage.

• Review wire rope construction. Dyform wire ropes are

more resistant to crushing on underlying layers than
conventional rope constructions.

• Do not use more rope than necessary.

• Check drum diameter. Insufficient bending ratio

increases tread pressure.

Wires looping from strands. • Insufficient service dressing.

• Consider alternative rope construction.

• If wires are looping out of the rope underneath a

crossover point, there may be insufficient tension on the
lower wraps on the drum.

• Check for areas of rope crushing or distortion.

48 BRIDON Crane
 Technical Information

Troubleshooting Guide
Problem Cause/Action

“Pigtail” or severe spiralling in rope. • Check that the sheave and drum diameter is large
enough - Bridon recommends a minimum ratio of the
drum/sheave to nominal rope diameter of 18:1.

• Indicates that the rope has run over a small radius or

sharp edge.

• Check to see if the rope has “jumped off” a sheave and

has run over a shaft.

Two single axial lines of broken wires running along the • Check sheave and drum groove radii using sheave
length of the rope approximately 120 degrees apart gauge to ensure that they are no smaller than nominal
indicating that the rope is being “nipped” in a tight rope radius + 5% - Bridon would recommend that the
sheave. sheave/drum groove radii are checked prior to any
rope installation.

• Repair or replace drum/sheaves if necessary.

One line of broken wires running along the length of the • Check to see if the groove diameter is no greater than
rope indicating insufficient support for the rope, generally 15% greater than the nominal rope diameter.
caused by oversize sheave or drum grooving.
• Repair or replace drum/sheaves if necessary.

• Check for contact damage.

Short rope life resulting from evenly/randomly distributed • Bending fatigue is accelerated as the load increases
bend fatigue wire breaks caused by bending through the and as the bending radius decreases (see page 40).
reeving system. Consider whether either factor can be improved.

Fatique induced wire breaks are characterised by flat • Check wire rope construction - Dyform ropes are
ends on the broken wires. capable of doubling the bending fatigue life of a
conventional steel wire rope.

Short rope life resulting from localised bend fatigue wire • Bending fatigue is accelerated as the load increases
breaks. and as the bending radius decreases (see page 40).
Consider whether either factor can be improved.
Fatique induced wire breaks are characterised by flat
ends on the broken wires. • Check wire rope construction - Dyform ropes are
capable of doubling the bending fatigue life of a
conventional steel wire rope.

• Localised fatigue breaks indicate continuous repetitive

bends over a short length. Consider whether it is
economic to periodically shorten the rope in order to
move the rope through the system and progressively
expose fresh rope to the severe bending zone. In order
to facilitate this procedure it may be necessary to begin
operating with a slightly longer length of rope.

Continued on next page

BRIDON Crane 49
 Technical Information

Troubleshooting Guide
Problem Cause/Action

Broken rope - ropes are likely to break when subjected to • Review operating conditions.
substantial overload or misuse particularly when a rope
has already been subjected to mechanical damage.

Corrosion of the rope both internally and/or externally can

also result in a significant loss in metallic area. The rope
strength is reduced to a level where it is unable to sustain
the normal working load.

Wave or corkscrew deformations normally associated • Check sheave and drum groove radii using sheave
with multistrand ropes. gauge to ensure that they are no smaller than nominal
rope radius +5% - Bridon recommends that the
sheave/drum groove radii are checked prior to any
rope installation.

• Repair or replace drum/sheaves if necessary.

• Check fleet angles in the reeving system - a fleet angle

in excess of 1.5 degrees may cause distortion
(see page 43).

• Check that rope end has been secured in accordance

with manufacturers instructions (see page 57).

• Check operating conditions for induced turn.

Rotation of the load in a single fall system. • Review rope selection.

• Consider use of rotation resistant or low rotation rope.

Force
Anchored Creates
Turn

Free to
Rotate

Rotation of the load in a • Review rope selection.

multi - fall system
Remedy • Consider use of rotation resistant or low rotation rope.
resulting in “cabling” of (Release
3 turns)
the rope falls. • Review installation procedure (See pages 53 - 60)
or operating procedures.
Possibly due to induced
turn during installation or
operation.
1.5 turns
L.H. cable

RIGHT HAND LAY ROPE

50 BRIDON Crane
 Technical Information

Troubleshooting Guide
Problem Cause/Action

Core protrusion or broken core in single layer six or eight • Caused by repetitive shock loading - review
strand rope. operating conditions.

Rope accumulating or “stacking” at drum flange - due to •Review drum design with original equipment
insufficient fleet angle. manufacturer - consider adding rope kicker, fleeting
sheave etc.

Sunken wraps of rope on the drum normally associated •Check correct rope diameter.
with insufficient support from lower layers of rope or
•If grooved drum check groove pitch.
grooving.
•Check tension on underlying layers - Bridon recommend
an installation tension of between 2% and 10% of the
minimum breaking force of the wire rope - Care should
be taken to ensure that tension is retained in service.
Insufficient tension will result in these lower layers being
more prone to crushing damage.

•Make sure that the correct rope length is being used.

Too much rope (which may not be necessary) may
aggravate the problem.

Short rope life induced by excessive wear and abrasion. •Check fleet angle to drum.

•Check general alignment of sheaves in the reeving

system.

•Check that all sheaves are free to rotate.

•Review rope selection. The smooth surface of Dyform

wire ropes gives better contact with drum and sheaves
and offers improved resistance to “interference”
betweeen adjacent laps of rope.

External corrosion. •Consider selection of galvanised rope.

•Review level and type of service dressing.

Internal corrosion. •Consider selection of galvanised rope.

•Review frequency amount and type of service dressing.

•Consider selection of plastic impregnated (PI) wire rope.

BRIDON Crane 51