2 - Water Requirements of Crops

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11:: Water Requirements of Crops
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2.1. General
E y crop requires a certain quantity of water after a certain fixed interval,
vherut its period of growth. If the natural rain is sufficient and timely so as to satisfy
0
throug
b h h e requirements, · · ·
no 1rngat10n· · require
water is · d f or ra1smg
· · th at crop: In E ng Ian d ,
ot t esple the natural rain falling regularly throughout the year, satisfies both these
for exam
. ents' "ior pract1ca
· II y a II th e crops, an d , thereiore,
" · · · is
Irngat1on · not s1gm· "fi1cantIy
req~Ir~n:1n1
England. But in a tropical country like India, the natural rainfall is either
~ee fef .. ent or the water does not fall regularly, as required by the crops. Since the
msu JCI
magnitude '
as we II as ~h e. fr~qu~nc~ of the .raml:a· ·· II fvahnes
· throug houdt ahtrop1ca· I country,
. rop maY require 1mgat10n in certain part o t e country, an t e same crop may
certain c·re anY 1mgat10n
. . . in . some ot her part of th e country. Th e area wh ere 1mgat10n . . .
not
. requi · I · II d h "d • h"I h
t for agncu ture 1s ca e t e ari region, w 1 e t e area in w 1c mienor · h" h · " · crops
is a mus wn wit . hout Irngatton
. . . 1s . 'd regaon.
. ca II ed a sem1-ar1 .
can be gr O
Th term 'Water requirements of a crop' means the total quantity and the way in
w ic t
h. h e crop requires water, from the time it is sown to the time it is harvested. It is
r frOJll the above discussion, that the water requirement, will vary with the crop
::r~~l~aas with the place. In other words, different crops will ~ave _diffe.ren~ water
· . ents, and the same crop may have different water requirements at different
requirem d d" th . . . r f ·1
places of the sa.me .countryd ; efpe n ~nfg upon e vanat10ns m c imates, type o so.1 s,
cuiuvat10n, an use u1 ram a11s, etc. ·
meth od s Of
2•2. Crop period or Base Period
Th time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its
.
t
harves in
~ g is called the crop-period. The time between the first watering of a crop at
··
fits sowmg · Iast watermg
to its · beiore" h arvestmg
· 1s · ca 11 ed the Base perw · d or
the time o .r the crop. C rop peno . d is
. s 1·1gh tIy more than th e b ase penod, . b ut "ior all
t he Base O'J . .
. 1 purposes, they are taken as one and the same thmg, and generally expressed
practica
. d Hence, m· future, th e terms J"k
I e growth perw · d, crop peno · d, base peno
. · d, etc.,
~ill a~:·used as synonyms, each representing crop period, and will be represented by B _
---,(in-days].
2•3. Duty and Delta of a Crop ..
Delta· Each crop requires a certain amount of water after a certain fixed
231
. f
• • time, throughout its period of growth. The depth of water required every time,
mterva10 varies
· from ·5 to 10 cm d epen d"mg upon the type of the crop, c 1·1mate an d soi·1 .
11
i~ne:~1 y interval between two such consecutive waterings is called the frequency of
. ~ ?1e or rotation period. The rotation period may vary between 6-15 days for
1rngat1on,
22
.-
WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 23

different crops. The summation of the total water depth supplied during the base period
of a crop, for its full growth, will evidently represent the total quantity of water required
by the crop for its full-fledged nourishment. This total quantity of water required by the
crop for its full growth (maturity) may be expressed in hectare-metre (Acre-ft) or in
million cubic metres (million cubic-ft) or simply as depth to which water would stand
on the irrigated area, if the total quantity supplied were to stand above the surface
without percolation or evaporation. This total depth of water (in cm) required by a crop
to come to maturity is called its delta (A).
Example 2.1. /f rice requires about 10 cm depth of water at an average interval qf
about JO days, and the crop period for rice is 120 days, find out the delta for rice.
Solution. Water is required at an interval of 10 days for a period of 120 days. It
evidently means that 12 no. of waterings are required, and each time, 10 cm depth of
water is required. Therefore, total depth of water required
A= 12 x 10 cm= 120cm.
Hence A for rice= 120 cm. Ans.
Example 2.2. lfwheat requires about 7.5 cm of water after every 28 days, and the
base period for wheat is 140 days, find out the value of delta for wheat.
Solution. Assuming the base period to be representing the crop period, as per usual
practice, we can easily infer that the water is required at an average interval of 28 days
up to a total period of 140 days. This means that ~~O =5 no. of waterings are required.
The depth of water required each time =7.5 cm.
:. Total depth of water reqd. in 140 days= 5 x 7.5 cm= 37.5 cm
Hence, A f~r wheat= 37.5 cm. Ans.
2.3.2. Delta for certain crops. The average values of deltas for certain crops are
shown in Table 2. L These values represerfrthe fofalwater requirement of the crops. The
actual requirement of irrigation water may be less, depending upon the useful rainfall.
Moreover, these values represent the values on field, i.e. 'delta on field' which includes
the evaporation and percolation losses.
Table 2.1. Average Approximate Values of!:,,.
for Certain Important Crops in India
S.No. Crop Delta on.fiel.d
{I) (2) (3)
I. Sugarcane 120 cm (48")
2. Rice i20 cm (48")
3. Tobacco 75 cm (30")
4. Garden fruits · - -:_ ___ 60 cm-(24<') '---- -~- - - - - - - - -
5. Cotton 50 cm (22")
6. Vegetables 45 cm (18")
7. Wheat 40 cm (16")
8. Barley 30 cm (t2'')
9. Maize 25 cm (10")
10. Fodder 22.5 cm (9")
11. Peas 15 cm (6").
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
2.3.3. Duty ofWater. The 'duty' of water is the relationship between the volume
of water and the area of the crop it matures. It may be defined as the number of hectares
of land irrigated for full growth of a given crop by supply of 1 m3/sec of water
.continuously during the entire base period (B) of that crop. Thus, if water flowing at a
rate of one cubic metre per second, runs continuously forB days, and matures 200
hectares, then the duty of water for that particular crop will be defined as 200 hectares
per cumec to the base of B days. The duty is generally represented by the letter D.
,, '
2.3.4. Relation between duty and delta. Let there be a crop of base period B days ..
Let one cumec of water be applied to this crop on the field for B days. ·
Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days
= V =(I x 60 x 60 x 24 x B) m3
=86400B (cubicmetre)
By definition of duty (D), one cubic metre supplied for B days matures D hectares
of land.
:. This quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D sq. m of area.
Total ·depth of water applied on this land
· Volume 86,400 B 8.64 B
= . = . 4 =----metres .
I· Area 10 D · D
By definition, this total depth of water is called delta (A).
8.64B
A=--metres ... (2.1)
D
or A= 86~B cm. ... (2.2)
.·where; A~is in cm.:·:s is in· days ; arid" · ·

"'I
I D is duty in. hectares/cumec.
Example 2.3. Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 864 hectares/cumec on the
field, the base period of this crop is 120 days.
Solution.
-n
A (cm) = 864 B w here. B IS
. m. d ays and D IS
. m. hectares/cumec
In this question, B = 120 days and D = 864 hectares/cuni.ec

A= 864X 120=
.. u 120 cm. Ans.
864
2.3.5. Duty at various places. In a large canal irrigation §.Y§!e111, the water.from its
--s0urce1first ofall~~flows iiff6 the mairi" canal ; °from the main canal, it flows into the
branch canal ; from the branch canal, it flows into the distributary ; from the distributary,
it flows into the minor ; and then into the field channels (water-courses) ; and finally
into the fields. A,systematic layout of.a canal system is shown in Fig. 2. I.
During the passage of water from these irrigation channels, water is lost due to
evaporation and percolation. These losse.s are called Transit losses or Transmission or
Conveyance losses in channels.
Duty of water for a crop, is
the number of hectares of land, Slc.T EXCLUDER
which the unit flow of water ----""""'---?r-__;:.._______
for B days can irrigate. There-
fore, if the water requirement of
a particular crop at a particular ~~~~t_:r~~D,..
.location is more; then lesser
SEDIMENT ESCAPE
number of hectares of land it CHANNEL
will irrigate. Hence, if water
consumed by a crop of a given MAIN CANAL
base period is more, its duty will
be less. It, therefore, becomes
clear that the duty of water at DISTRIBUTARY.
the head of the water-course Q <30 Cu.. EC'S
will be less than the duty of
water 'on the field' .' because
when water flows from the head
of the water-course and reaches
the field, some water is lost en-
FIELD
route as transit losses. Applying
the same reasoning, it can be es-
tablished that duty of water at . .......-.----'
the head of a minor will be less Fig. 2.1. Layout of a canal system.
than that at the head of the .water-course ; duty at the head of a distributary will be less
than that at the head of a minor, duty at the head of a branch canal will be less than
that at the head of a disiributary, and duty at the head of a main canal will be. less than
a
the duty-at the head of branch l:ana(."'Dut.Y:cOf~Viater_,,tllecefore, _y_ai:i~s from one. place to.
another, and increases as one moves downstream from the head of the main canal towards
the head of the branches or water-courses. The duty at the head of water-course (i.e. at the
outlet point of the minor), is quite important; and is called the outlet discharge factor. This
outlet point is generally the end point of Irrigation Department. The control of IITigation
Department finishes at the outlet point, and the water is carried into the fields through
water-courses by the beneficiary cultivators themselves.
2.3.6. Flow duty and Quantity duty. In direct irrigation, duty is always expressed
in hedares/cumec. It is then called as flow-duty or duty.
In storage irrigation, duty may, sometimes be expressed in hectares/million cubic
metre of water available in the reservoir. It eventually means that every million cubic
metre of water available in the reservoir will mature so many hectares of a particular
crop. Hen'ce-;-the -irrigation· 'capacity'ofthe reservoir is-directly--k-nGwn.- Whencdutyc_js__
expressed in this manner, it is called Quantity duty or Storage duty.
2.3. 7. Factors on which duty depends. Duty of irrigation water depends upon the
following factors :
(i) Type of crop. Different crops require different amount of water, and hence, the
duties. for them are different. A crop requiring more water will have less flourishing
acreage for the same supply of water as compared to that requiring less water. Hence.
ditty will be less for a crop requii;ing more water and vice versa. ···
26 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
(ii) Climate and season. As stated earlier, duty includes the water lost in evaporation
I.·I
I
and percolation. These losses will vary with the season. Hence, duty varies from season
to season, and also from time to time in the same season. The figures for duties which
we generally express are their average values considered over the entire crop period.
(iii) Useful rainfall. If some of the rain, falling directly over the irrigated land, is
useful for the growth of the crop, then so much less irrigation water will be required to
mature the crop. More the useful rainfall, less will be the requirement of irrigation water,
and hence, more will be the duty of irrigation water.
(iv) Type of soil. If the permeability of the soil under tlie irrigated crop is high, the
water lost due to percolation will be more and hence, the duty will be less. Therefore,
• for sandy soils, where the permeability is more, the duty of water is less.
(v) Efficiency of cultivation method. If the cultivation method (including tillage and
irrigation) is faulty and less efficient, resulting in the wastage of water, the duty of water
will naturally be less. If the irrigation water is used economically, then the duty of water
will improve, as the same quantity of water would be able. to irrigate more area.
Cultivators should, therefore, be trained and educated properly to use irrigation water
economically.
2.3.8. Importance of duty. It helps us in designing an efficient canal irrigation
system. Knowing the total available water at the head of a main canal; and the overall
duty for all the crops required to be irrigated in different seasons of the year, the area
which can be irrigated can be worked out. Inversely, if we know the· crops area required
to be irrigated and their duties, we can work out the discharge required for designing
the channel.
2.3.9. Duty for certain crops. The average values of duties. for certain important
Indian crops are tabulated in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Average·-ApproximateValues oI'Duty for
Certain Important Crops in India
Crop Duty in hectareslcumec

Sugarcane 730
Rice 775
Other Kharif 1500
Rabi 1800
Perennials 1100
i Hot fodder 2000
I 2.3.10. Measures for Improving duty of water. The duty of canal water can cer-
1 tainly be improved by effecting economy in the use of wa!_e!__~y i:_e~orting. to the
. 1"-'--·_foJk>wing-precautions-and-'pracfrces·.--- ---· - - -- --- -------- --
! (1) Precautions infield preparation and sowing:
(i) Land to .be used for cultivation should, as far as possible, be levelled.
(ii) The fields should be properly ploughed to the required depth.
I: (iii) Improved modern cultivation methods may preferably be adopted.·
(iv) Porous soils should be treated before sowing crops to reduce seepage of water.
(v) Alkaline soils should be properly leached before sowing.
(vi) Manure fertilisers should be added to increase water holding capacity of the
soil.
(vii) Rotation of crops* shou!d be preferred, as this will ensure increased crop yields
with minimum use of water.
(2) Precautions in handling irrigation supplies :
(i) The source of irrigation water should be s_ituated within the prescribed limits,
and should be capable of delivering sufficient quantity of satisfactary quality
of irrigation-water. _ _ · __ _
(ii) Canals carrying irrigation supplies should be lined to reduce seepage and
evaporation••, thereby reducing on field requirement of watei- and consequent-
ly improving the duty of water.
(iii) Water courses may preferably be lined ; or R.C.C. pipes may be used for the
same to redu_ce on field requirement of water, thereby improving duty.
(iv) Free flooding of fields should be avoided and furrow irrigatfon method may
preferably be adopted; if surface irrigation is resorted to. ·
(v) Sub surface irrigation and Drip irrigation may be preferre_d to ordinary surface
irrigation.
(vi) If canals are. not lined, then two canals running side l;>y side may be preferred
to a single canal, as this will reduce the FSL, thereby reducing percolation
losses. - · -
(vii) Irrigation supplies should be economically used by proper control on its dis-
tribution, volumetric assessment, and by imparting proper education to the
farmers.
2.4.-Crop Seasons and Indian Agricultu,r~
More than 70% of the Indian population is directly or indirectly connected with
agriculture. The chief crops of India are rice, wheat, sugarcane, tea, cotton, groundnut,
jute, coffee, rubber, garden crops (like coconuts, orange, etc), etc. Different types of
soils are needed for raising different types of crops. For example, heavy retentive soil
(40% clay) is favourable for raising crops like sugarcane, rice, etc., requiring more
water. Light sandy soil (2 to 8% clay) is suitable for crops like gram, fodder, etc.
requiring less water. Medium or normal soil (having about 10-20% of clay) is suitable
for crops like wheat, cotton, maize, vegetables, oil seeds, etc. requiring normal amount
of water.
From the agricultural point of view, the year can be divided into two principal
cropping seasons, i.e. Rabi and Kharif. Normally, Rabi starts from 1st October and ends
on-3-1-st-March; while Kharifstartsfr:mrLL~t A,p__r_ilJ1:_1icj__e_nds on 30th Septemlze_r. These
dates are not rigid dead lines. The time may vary up toi=3 months -on-
eiilier-siae·.- --
Sugarcane, which is an important cash crop, extends over both seasons.
The Kharif crops are rice, bajra, jowar, maize, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, e.tc. The
Rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, potatoes, etc. Kharif crops are
also called 'Summer crops' and Rabi crops as 'Winter crops'. Kharif crops require about
two to three times the quantity of water required by the Rabi crops.
* explained in article 2.5.5.
** Water moving with higher velocity, will ensure reduced evaporation.
28 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES·
The above distinction of seasons is well applicable to North India, but in South
India, there is no such marked distinction between the different seasons. In fact, in South
India, there is no clear cut winter, spring, summer and autumn seasons, as they are in
North India. Except Bombay-Deccan, where there are five crop seasons, there are only
three crop seasons in the remaining parts of the country. These three classifications of
seasons are :
(i). Hot weather or Kharif season. (ii) Monsoon sea.son. (iii) Winter or Rabi season.
When a crop requires water for its crop season and also for some time in the
beginning of the next crop season, allowance has to be made for this overlap. This
allowance is known as overlap allowance, Sugarcane is an example of this kind of crop.
Some important Indian crops, their periods of growth, water requirements, seed require-
ments, yields, etc. are shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3. Irrigation Requirements of Certain Important Indian Crops
Average
Average
.Av. water quantity of ·
S. Peri(1dof Irrigation requirements quantity of
Crop depth reqd. yield
No. growth and remarks seed required
(in cm) obtained in
in kg/hectare
..-.
kglhecwre
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Kharif Crops
(i) Maize, June to 45 Four or five waterings. 15. 3.000
high yielding Sept.-Oct. Sensitive to drought and
floods. Responsible to
fertilizers.
(ii) Bajra (spiked July to Nov. 30 Water should not stand: 3.75 2.000
millets, or Pearl ·Irrigation as required.
millets) , high
- --
.. -~-~si_sJllllt_ t9_drqµgbJ_and ···- - ----. .- ·- ·~
yielding flooding.
111
(iii) Juar Sown in July 30 ·.Same as a~ove. 12.5 3,000.
(Great millets), as fodder and
high yielding cut green
.. ·more than '
1111
once.
(iv) Ground-nut May to 45 ··Paleo' reqd. before - · 1,600
Nov-Dec. sowing.
(v) Cotton May-June to
Nov.-Jan.
25-40 Three or four irrigations - 500
are required. Damage up
to the extent of 50% may
be caused by flooding,
rains, etc.
(vi) Pulses like July-Aug. to _, __ ~q_c_c_ - Irtigated_jvJJe.n leaves_ ____ .Jl.5 c..:.-·'. -"-'--'--700
-Arhar,'ere~--- ----Nov::Dec.- - -getdrled.
(vii) Transplanted July to Nov. 125-150 Stan!'ling water of 5 to 8 30 to 35 kg 4500
Rice (Paddy), cm gives best results. of seed is
high yielding sufficient to
raise-n urse_ry
co transplant
one ·he_ccare
(viii) Ti! July-Aug. to - Generally not irrigated 1.25 350
Oct.-Nov. but better to irrigate
.. once .
( J) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Rabi Crops
(i) Wheat Oct. to 37.5 Three-four waterings of 80-100 1500
(ordinary) March-'-April 7~10 cm depth.
(ii) High yielding Oct. to 45 Five-six waterings of 100-125 4000

Wheat March-April 7-10 cm depth.
(iii) Gram (high . Sept.-Oct. 30 Irrigated when leaves 12.5 3500
yielding) to March get dry.
(iv) Barley Oct. to 30 Two waterings ; one at 120 130Q
Mar.-April ·· ----- - --- jointing and another at · ...
bo.oting stage.
(v) . Potatoes Sept.~Oct. 60-90 Usually irrigated ; sown 15,000 35.000
to.Feb. in high hills up to early
April. Second crop .in
plains is some ti mes,
taken in Feb.-april.
(vi) Tobacco Oct.-Feb. to 60 Four to five waterings. 4,500
Feb.-May
(vii) Linseed i.e. Alsi Oct.-Nov. to 45-50 Irrigated at intervals of 700
March 15 days. Resistant to
drought but damaged
by frost and flooding.
(viii) Mustard Oct. to 45 Watered at intervals of 33 1000 io
Feb.-Mar. 7-!0days. 1600
Overlapping crop but generally classified under Rabi crop
(i) Sugarcane IFeb.-March to I 90 I 5 or 6 waterings of 10 500 25,000-
Dec.-March cm or more. 30,000
2.5. certairtlmportant f>efiiiitiliiis-:c--c.-·· ··

2.. 5.1. Kharif-Rabi ratio or Crop ratio. The area to be irrigated for Rabi crop is
generally more than that for the Kharif crop. This ratio of proposed areas, to be irrigated
in Kharif season to that in the Rabi season is called, Kharif-Rabi ratio. This ratio is
generally 1 : 2, i.e. Kharif area is one-half of the Rabi area.
2.5.2. Paleo irrigation. Sometimes, in the initial stages before the crop is sown,
the land is very dry. This particularly hapr.ens at the time of sowing of Rabi crops
because of hot September, when.the soil may be too dry to be sown easily. In such a
case, the soil is moistened with water, so as to help in sowing of the crops. This is known
as Paleo irrigation.
2.5.3. Kor-watering. The first watering which is given to a crop, when the crop is
·a fewcentimeti:es-high, is called•kor-watering. Itisusually.the.maximlllILsingle_w.atering___
followed by other waterings a:t usual intervals, as required by drying of leaves.
The optimum depth of kor-watering for different crops are different. For
example, the optimum depth of kor-watering for Rice is 19 cm., for Wheat (in
U.P.) is about 13.5 cm, and for Sugarcane is 16.5 cm.
The kor-w~~ring must be applied within a fixed limited period, called Kor-period.
If the plants f~il to receive this water in time or in sufficient quantity, then they do suffer
a significant loss. The kor-period depends upon the climate. It is less for humid climates
!RRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
30
and more for dry climates. The kor-period for rice varies from 2 to 4 weeks, .and that
for wheat varies from 3 to 8 weeks.
2.5.4. Cash crops. A cash crop may be defined as a crop which has to be encashed
in the. market for processing, etc. as it cannot be consumed directly by the cultivators.
I'
I
All non-food crops, are thus, included in cash crops. Crops like jute, tea, cotton, tobacco,
,! sugarcane, etc. are, therefore, called cash crops. The food crops like wheat, rice, barley,
I
1, maize, etc. are excluded from the list of cash crops.
1,
2.5.5. Crops rotation. When the same crop is grown again and again in the same
field, the fertility of land gets reduced as the soil becomes deficient in plant foods
favourable fo that particular crop: In order to enhance the fertility of the land and to
make the soil regain its original structure, it is often found necessary and pelpful to give
some rest to the land. This can be achieved either by allowing the land to lie fallow
without any cultivation for some time, or to grow crops which do not mainly require
those salts or foods which were mainly required by the earlier grown crop. This method
of growing different crops in rotation; one after the other, in the same field, is called
Rotation of Crops. A cash crop may be followed by a fodder crop, which, in turn, may
be followed by a soil-renovating crop like gram, which being a liguminous crop, helps
in giving nitrogen to the fields, thereby renovating the soil. The cultivators who are fond
of sowing cash crops always, should be educated and made to understand the advantages
of sowing crops in rotation.
The rotation of crops will help in extracting different foods from the soil, and thus
avoiding the general deficiency of any particular type(s) of element(s). Moreover, if
only one type of crop is grown in the same field, numerous insects and pests (of similar
nature) will get developed. The crop rotation will also help in checking such growths.
Crop rotation will thus help in increasing the fertility of soil, and reducing the diseases
and wastage due to insects, and hence increasing the overall crop yield.
In general, the following rotations of crops may be, adopted depending upon the soil
conditions :
(i) Wheat-Juar-Gram
(ii) Rice-Gra~ •
(iii) Cotton-Wheat-Gram*- Fallow (up to July)
(iv) Cotton-Juar-Gram.
(v) Sugarcane (18 months) - Thadwa - Wheat or gram - Fallow (upto July).
2.6. Optimum Utilisation of Irrigation Water
If a crop is sown and produced under absolutely identical conditions, using different
amounts of water depths, the yield is found to vary. The yield increases with water,
reaches a certain maximum value and then falls down, as_shown in Fig. 2.2-']b.tJ-_q_lialJtity _
' - -~-- -of water at which the:yie-ldis inaximum,'-frcall~d ihe optimum
~~t~r d~pth.
Therefore, optimum utilisation of irrigation, generally means, getting maximum
yield with any amount of water. The supplies of water to the various crops should be
adjusted in such a fashion, as to get optimum benefit ratio, not only for the efficient use
of available water and maximum yield, but also to prevent water-logging of the land
* After harvesting a heavy water consuming crop like Rice, a less water consuming short term crop like
gram may be taken, which may come up on the remnant moisture and manure.
in question. To 1achieve economy in the use of
water, it is necessary that the farmers be made
acquainted with the fact that only a certain
fixed amount of water gives best results, More
than that quantity, as well as, less than that
l. _ -. -.
~- M·. A._x. Y.I E.LD
quantity, reduces the yield. Many cultivators, · .u;· . . .

till today feel, that they can increase the crop ; ;: : OP Ti MUM .,.
yield by using more and more water. Hence, DEPTH
they try to supply more water to their fields by
undue tapping at the outlets. This must be · WATER DEPTH
checked. Moreover, farmers should. be en-
couraged to line their water courses, thereby Fig. 2.2.
saving at. least 20% of the costly irrigation
water, which can be used to irrigate extra additional fields.
2.7. Irrigation Efficiencies
Efficiency is the ratio of the water output to the water input, and is usually expressed
as percentage. Input minus output is nothing but losses, and hence, if losses are more,
output is less and, therefore, efficiency is less. Hence, efficiency is inversely propor-
tional to the losses. Water is lost in irrigation during various processes and, therefore,
there are differentkinds of irrigation efficiencies, as given below : ·
(i) Efficiency of water-conveyance. It is the ratio of the water delivered into the
fields from the outlet point of the channel, to the water entering into the channel at its
starting point. It may be represented by Tlc- It takes the conveyance or transit losses into
consideration.
(ii) Efficiency of water-application. It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored
into the root zone. of the crops to the quantity of-water. actually ·delivered-into.the.field.
It may be represented by Tla· It may also be called on farm efficiency, as it takes into
consideration the water lost in the farm.
(iii) Efficiency of water-storage. It is the ratio of the water stored in the root zone
during irrigation to the water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation (i.e. field ·
capacity - existing moisture content). It may be represented by Tls·
(iv) Efficiency of water use. It is the ratio of the water beneficially used, including
leaching water, to the quantity of water delivered. It may be represented by l'lu·
Example 2.4. One cumec of water is pumped into afarm distribution system. 0.8
cumec is delivered to a tum-out, 0.9 kilometre from the well. Compute the conveyance
efficiency.
Solution. By definition,
=Output X 100 = 0 ·8 X 100 = 8001.0
7 A
'Ile Input · 1.0 c ns.
Example 2.5. 10 cumecs of water is delivered .to a 32 hectare field, for 4 hours.
Soil probing after the irrigation indicates that 0.3 metre of water has been stored in the
root zone. Compu'te the water application efficiency.
32 IRRIGA TibN ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Solution. Volume of water supplied by 10 cumecs of water applied for 4 hours
=(IO x 4 x 60 x 60) m 3 = l,44,000m 3

= 14.4 x 104 m 3 = 14.4 m x 104 m2 = 14.4 ha.m.
( ... I 04 m2 = l hectare) .
Input= 14.4 ha.m ... (i)
Output= 32 hectares land is storing water upto 0.3 m depth.
Output= 32 x 0.3 ha.m = 9. 6 ha.m · · ... (ii}
· Water~pIJiTdiiion efficiency (TJa) ~ Outputx 100= ·9;6 >< 100::::66.67% Ans.

· · . , . Input 14.4 .
(li) Uniformity coefficient or Wa,ter distribution efficiency. Th~ effectiveness of
irrigation· may also be measured by its. water. distribution efficiency (TJd), which is
defined below :
. ,:1
'I
11d=(1-~J ,' ... (2.3)
,1
111 •• where TJd= Water distribution efficiency.
,
1
11
D= Mean depth of water stored during irrigation.
'I
d = Average of the absolute values of deviations
,:I
I~ from the mean.
The water distribution efficiency represents the extent to which the water has
penetrated to a uniform depth, throughout the field. When the water has penetrated
uniformly throughout the field, the deviation from the mean depth is zero and water
distribution efficiency is 1.0.
Example. 2.6. The depths of penetration~ a_lonog:th_e_ le'[lgth,. qf ~ __boqr,qe,r__sJrip _at ·-cc
pomfs30'nieires'aj}iiriwere}robe£ihei~ ~bs;;.,ed values are 2.o, [9;1.8, 1.6-and 1.5
metres. Compute the water distribution efficiency.
Solution. The observed depths at five stations are 2.0, 1.9, L8, 1.6 and 1.5 metres,
respectively. ·
. d th. D 2.0+ 1.9+ 1.8+ 1.6+ 1.5 8.8 . ·
M ean ep = = · . = 5 = 1.76 metres
5
Values of deviations from the mean are (2.0-1.76), (l.9 - 1.76), (1.8-1.76),
(l.6- 1.76), (1.5 ~ 1.76) i.e.
0.24, 0.14, 0.04, - 0.16 and -0.26.
The absolute values of these deviations from the mean, are 0.24, 0.14, 0.04, 0. 1.6 _..c..::
''''1:---imd-0-:26-.------·-·--------'-- ________:__ · .... '- .. _____,_ ---------- ---- - - --- ------ ----------- -- ....-----·-------...
The average of these absolute values of deviations from the

,, I
mean= d= 0.24+ 0.14+ 0.04+ 0.16+ 0.26

5
=0.84
--=0.l 68 metre
5
The water distribution efficiency
=(1-;)=[l - ~--~668 ]= 1-0.095=0.905

Hence, the water distribution efficiency = 0.905. Ans.
Example 2,7. A stream of 130 litres per second was diverted from a canal and 100
litres per second were delivered to the field. An area of 1.6 hectares was irrigated in 8
hours. The effective depth of root zone was .1. 7 m. The runoff loss in the field was 420
cu. m. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1. 7 m at the head end of the
field to 1.1 mat the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20 cm
per metre depth of soil. It is required to determine the water conveyance efficiency,
water application efficiency, water storage efficiency, and water distribution efficiency.
Irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 50% of the available moisture.
Solution.
(i) Water conveyance efficiency (Tic)
= Water delivered to the fields

100
Water supplied into the canal at the head x
100
= x 100 = 77%. (say) Ans.
130
(ii) Water application efficiency (Tia)
= Water stored in the root zone during irrigation
100
Water delivered to the field x
Water supplied to field during 8 hours @ 100 litres per second
= lOOx 8 x 60 x 60 litres= 2880cu. m- ,- - - -- ·-· -
Runoff loss in the field = 420 cu. m.
:. the water stored in the root zone
= 2880 - 420 = 2460 cu. m
:. Water application efficiency (Tia)
2460
= x 100 = 85.4 % Ans.
2880
(iii) Water storage efficiency
= Water stored in the root zone during irrigation
100
Water needed in root zone prior to irrigation x
- ____MoistuteJaolding capacity of s_oil-=- =- __ ________ __ -'----=-~-'---C--·---------
= 20 cm perm depth x 1.7 m depth of root zone = 34 cm.

Moisture already available in root zone at the time of start of irrigation
50
= 100 x 34 = 17 cm.
Additional water required in root zone

= 34 - 17 = 17 cm.
1~0 x (1.6 x 10
4 (i.e. Depth x Plot area)
= ) cu. m
=2720cu.m
. But actual. water stored in root zone = 2460 cu. m
:. Water storage efficiency (rt,)
~ 2720.
2460
x 100 = 90 % (say)
. .·
Ans.
(iv) Water distribution efficiency
.~d=(l- ~) where D = inean depth of water. stored in the root zone

=l.7+1.1=14
2 . m.
d is computed as below :
Deviation from the mean at upper end (absolute value)
=I L1-1.4I =o.3
Deviation from the mean at lower end
= ILI-1.41 =0.3.
d = Average of the absolute values .of deviations
fr om mean= 0.3 + 0.3 0 .30 .
I
2
.1,
Using Eq. (2.3), we have,
·:: . ~d=(l -oi~4°);;,,o.78(f~~78~6%'''''A~~· - ---..-· -

2.8. Consumptive Use or Evapotranspiration (Cu).
Consumptive use for a particular trop may be defined as the total amount of water
used by the plant in transpiration (building of plant tissues, etc.) and evaporation from
adjacent soils or from plant leaves, in any specified time. The values of consumptive
use ( C;,) may be different for different crops, and may be different for the same crop at ·
different times and places .
I . ·In fact, the consumptive use for a given crop at a given place may vary throughout
I
I I
the day, throughout the month and throughout the crop period. Values of daily consump-
c/::::..i:· ·
. tiveus~ or n10nthly co11sumptive use, a.r~,g,C:!!~[l!l!y .. determined fora. giY~J:Lc.r_op..and.aL_.:
.
a given place. Values of monthly consumptive tise over the entire crop period, are then
I
I
used to determine the irrigation requirement ofthe crop.
. .
I:
2.9. Effective Raimail (Re)
i 'I
Precipitation falling during the growing period of a crop that is .available to meet
the evapo-transpiration needs of the crop, is called effective rainfall. It does not include
i.' precipitation lost through deep percolation below the root ione or the water lost as
surface run off. Average ratios, applicable to effective rainfall, are shown in Table 2.4.
l
I
'
I I
Table 2.4. Average Ratios Applkable to Effective Rainfall
Average annual Per cent chance of occurrence

rainfall in cm.
- 50 60 70 80 90
- 10 0.84 0.72 0.61 0.50. 0.38
20 0.90 0.81 0.71 0.62 0.51
30 0.93 0.85 0.78 0.69 0.58
40 0.95 0.88 0.81 0.73 0.63
50 0.96 0.90 0.83 0.75 0.67

60 0.97 0.91 0.84 0.78 0.70
70 0.97 0.92 0.86 0.80 0.72
80 0.98 0.93 0.87 0.81 0.74
90 0.98 0.93 0.88 0.82 0.75

100 0.98 .0.94 0.89 0.83 0.76
120 0.98 0.94 0.90 0.85 0.78
140 0.99 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.80
160 0.99 . 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.82
180 0.99 0.95 0.92 0.88 0.84
200 0.99 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.85
2.10. Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR)

It is the amount of Irrigation water required in order to meet the evapotranspiration
needs of the crop during its full growth. It is, therefore, nothing but the consumptive
use itsetf;oufexclusive"ofeffective1JTecipitation;cst0recksoiLmoisture,-or_grnund_water.
When the last two are ignored, then we can write
C.I.R. = Cu - Re ... (2.4)
2.11. Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)
It is the amount of irrigation water required in orcj.er to meet the evapotranspiration
need of the crop as well as other needs such as leaching. Therefore, N.l.R.
=Cu -Re+ Water lost as percolation in satisfying other needs such as foaching. 0
2.12. Factors Affecting Consumptive Use

Consumptive use or evapotranspiration depends upon all those factors on which
e\'liPOration and transpiration depend ; such as temperature, sunlight, humidity, wind
movement, etc, as detailed in article 7.34~2-:J.- ·-· -~ --- ---'---------- ·· ·--"-----~-"-
Example 2.8. The following table gives the values of consumptive uses and effective
rainfalls for the periods shown against them, for a Jowar crop sown at Bellary in
Kamataka State. The period of growth is from 16th October to 2nd Feb., i.e .. ( 110 days).
Determine the net irrigation requirement of this crop, assuming that water is not
required for any other purpose except that of fulfilling the evapotranspiration needs of
the crop.
. .
36 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES . .
Table 2.5 (a) <·

Dmes Cui(lmm. R, in mm.
(1) (2) (3)
October 16-31 37.0 30.8
November 1-30 84.2 20.4
December 1-31 154.9 6.7
January 1-31 188.1 2.4
February· 1-2 13.3 1.0
Solution. The given table is extended as showri in Table 2.5 (b). Values in coL (4)
are obtained by subtracting values of col. (3) from values of col. {2).
Table 2.5 (b)
Dates .c. R, . NIR=C.-R,
(1) .(2) (3) (4)
October 16-31 37.0 30.8 6.2
November 1-30 84.2 20.4 63.8
December 1-31 154.9 6.7 148.2
January 1-31 188.1 2.4 185.7
February 1-2 13.3 1.0 12.3
:E=416.2mm
= 41.62 cm
Hence, the net irrigation requirement =41.62 cm. Ans.

2.13. Estimation of Consumptive Use
Although various methods have been developed in order to estimate evapotranspira-
tion (consumptive use) values of different crop in an area, or for areas vegetated with
-the .same.-croppingc-pattem,but-thecmost simple· and-commonly- used methods arec: ·cc·c
(1) Blaney-Criddle Equation, and
(2) Hargreaves class A pan evaporation method.
(3) Penman's equation.
They are described below :
2.13.1. Blaney-Criddle Formula. It states that the monthly consumptive use is
given by ·
... (2.5)
where, Cu= Monthly consumptive use in cm.

k = Crop factor, determined by experiments for
- ,each crop,-under the-environmental conditions
of the particular area.
t = Mean monthly temperature in. °C.
p = Monthly per cent of annual day light hours
that occur during the period.
If To [I J
.8t + 32 is represented by f, we get
Cu =k ·f ... (2.6)
ES
This formula has been extensively used throughout the world for estimating seasonal
water requirements. However, it was found that the values of k based on seasonal
determinations were too low for the short periods between irrigations. This led to further
developments and finally the formula was expressed as
Cu= k Lf ... (2.7)
where Cu= Seasonal consumptive use, i.e. consumptive
use during the period of growth for a given
c~OIJ i!l a given area.
4) The above formula involves the use of crop factor, the value of which is to be
determined for each crop and for different places. At present, this information is not
available in India. Moreover, this formula does not take into consideration the factors
such as humidity, wind velocity, elevation, etc. on which consumptive use depends.
Hargreaves class A Pan evaporation method is, therefore, generally used in India.
Example 2.9. Wheat is to be grown at a certain place, the useful climatological
conditions of which are tabulated below in.Table 2.6 (a). Determine the evapotranspira-
tion and consumptive irrigation requirement of wheat crop. Also determine the field
irrigation requirement if the water application efficiency is 80%. Make use of Blaney-
Criddle equation and a crop factor equal to O.&
Table 2.6 (a)
Month Monthly temp. in °C, Monthly per cent of day time Useful rainfall in cm, averaged
averaged over the hr. of the year computed over the last 5.years
last 5 years from the Sun-shine Tables
(I) (2) (3) (4)
November 18.0 7.20 1.7
h December 15.0 7.15
- - --- - --- ---· ·--
l.42
-- -·-- -·-·--
-· --- -· ··--'-·
January 13.5 730 3-.01

February 14.5 7.10 2.25
Solution. Blaney-Criddle equatio11 is
where,/= fo (i.8 t +32}; and k = 0.8 (given)

Values off are worked ou.tincol. (5) of Table 2.6 (b).
Table 2.6 (b)
I
R,
Month t p
!=-Jo (1,81+ 32)
(l) (2) (3) (4) (5)
- -- --- ------- ----- . ---- - - -. -·- ---
November 18.00 7.20 1.70 11.6
December 15.00 7.15 1.42 10.5
January 13.50 7.30 3.01 10.3
February 14.50 7.10 2.25 10.3
l:= 8.38 cm :E= 42.7 cm
Cu,,;, k · Lf = 0.8 X 42.7 =34J6 crri.

Hence, Consumptive use Cu = 34.16 cm. Ans.
!r,:
Consumptive irrigation requirement= Cu - Re= 32.72- 8.38 = 24.34 cm. Ans.

2
~:~
4
Field irrigation requirement = C.I.R.!11a = = 30.43 cm. Ans.
Example 2.10. Detennine the volume ofwater required to be diverted from the head works
to irrigate area of 5000 ha using the data given in the table below. Assume 80% as the effective
precipitation to take care of the consumptive use of the crop. Also assume 50% efficiency of
water application in the field and 75% as _the conveyance efficiency of canal
.. ... - - Table 2.7 (a)
....
Month TempF Percentage hrs of sunshine Raiii/all mm Consumptive coefficient

or
Crop.factor (k)
( 1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
June ·70.8 9.90 75 0.80
July 74.4 10.20 108 0.85
August 72.8 9.60 130 0.85
September 71.6 8.40 115 0.85
October 69.3 7.86 105 0.65
November 55.2 7.25 25 0.65
December 47.1 6.42 0 0.60
January 48.8 8.62 0 0.60
February. 53.9 9.95 0 0.65
March 60.0 8.84 0 0.70
April 62.5 8.86 0 0.70
May 67.4 9.84 0 0.75
Solution. The given table 2.7 (a) is extended as shown in table 2.7 (b) to compute monthly
values of consumptive use (Cu) by the Eqn. Cu= k · f, where f = .l!_ [l.8t + 32], where tis in
. . ~
ofTable:..2}-~a),.then.the.eqn,,..pecomes
0
C. Whent isin''F as givenincol(2)
Cu = k( fo t) where tis 0 F.
Monthly values off are. hence worked out in col (6) of Table 2.7 (b).
Table 2.7 (b)
Month Temp °F
Cu=kf= LE ·t
Percentage hrs Rainfall cm Cimsumptive
l!fsun shine p co~ffii:ient 40
or Crop.factor k col(S) x col (3) x col (2)
C/11.
40
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) . (6)
June 70.8 9.90 7.5 0.80 14.02
July 74.4 10.20 10.8 0.85 . 16.13
August 72.8 9.60 13.0 0.85. . . 14.85 \_
·--·- -- ....... --·12-:-18 ...
S-epglmber 71.6
---··
8.40 11.5
-
o:ss· ·~-- ---~~~
October 69.3 7.86 10.5 0.65 8.85

~ovember 55.2 7.25 2.5 0.65 ---~ ---- 6.50
December 47.l 6.42 0 0.60 4.54
January. 48.8 8.62 0 0.60 6.31
February 53.9 9.95 0 0.65 8.71
March 60.0 8.84 0 0.70 9.28
April 62.5 8c85 0 0.70 9.68
May 67.4 9.84 0 0.75 12.44
:I: 55.8 124.09 cm
Total consumptive use= I: col(6) = 124.09 cm.
Useful rainfall = 80% of total precipitation (given)
= 80% x 55.8 cm.= 44.64 cm.
:. Net irrigation requirement
NIR = Cu - R. = 124.09 - 44,64 = 79 .45 cm.
79 5 79 5
Field irrigation requirement =FIR= N ·I· R = .4 = .4 = 158..9 cm
· Tla 50% 0.5
Gross irrigation requirement at head works =FIR·

Tlc
where Tlc =conveyance efficiency = 75% = 0.75
158.9
GIR = 0. = 211.87 cm.
75
Vol. of water required for 5000 ha area
211.87 4 ? 3
= 100 m x (5000 x 10 m-) = 105.93 M·m . Ans.
..
Example 2.11. The monthly consumptive use values for Paddy are tabulated in
Table 2.8. Determine the total consumptive use. What is the average monthly consump-
tive use and peak monthly consumptive use ?
Table 2.8
Rice (Loam Soil)

Dates
Cu in cm
June 1-30} 26.69
July . 1-12 Nursery 8.76
.-July 13--=Jl 14.38
August .1-31 22.73
September 1___.:.30 21.29
October 1-31 25.50
November 1-24 15.06
Solution. The summation of consumptive uses

= 29.69 + 8.76 + 14.38 + 22.73 + 21.29 + 25.50 + 15.06 = 137.41 cm
Hence, total consumptive use for paddy= 137.41 cm. Ans.
Average daily consumptive use
137.41
=
Period of growth in days 30+ 31+31+30 + 31+24
137.41
=--yr;-= 0.77 cm. = 7. 7 mm. Ans.
Average ·monthly consumptive use= 0.77 x 30 = 23;1 mm. Ans.

Peak monthly consumptive use
= 26.69 cm. (Highest value given) Ans.
40 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC _STRUCTURES
2.13.2. Hargreaves Class A pan evaporation method. In this method, evapotranspira·

tion (consumptive use) is related to pan evaporation by a constant K, called consumptive use
coefficient. The formula cah be written as
Evapotranspiration(E, or Cu)
----------- = K
·. Pan evaporation (Ep)
or \ Et or Cu= K. EP \ ... (2.8)

Consumptive use coefficient (K) is different for different crops and is different for
the same crop at different places. It also varies with the crop growth, and is different at
different crop stages for .the same crop. The above relationship is now available for
· various crops from many countries such as Israel, Philippines, U.S.A. and India. Re-
search stations constantly go on reporting more and more data. Where specific data are
not available, average values can be used as recommended by Hargreaves, and given in
. Table 2'.9. The crops have been divided into 8 groups and the coefficients have been
suggested for average conditions of soil, etc.
(i) Group A. The important crops include :
Sugar, Beats,..Maize, Cotton, Jowar; Bean, Peas, Potatoes, etc.
(ii) Group B. This grdVp co~slsts ofde2iduous frujts and some field crops. Important
~rops are :
. Tomatoes, Hybrid Walnuts, Plumes, Olives, and some group A crops that fail to
produce maximum vegetative cover.and maximum growth ratios.
E . . ..
(iii) Group C. Et ratios are of the· order of 0.6. It includes cFops like Melons,
p
. Onions, Carrots, Hops, Grapes, etc.
E
(iv) ~~oup [)·_The maxim~m E;
ratio is abou~ ~.;_o and us_ually occurs at a~()~t 75 .
to 80% completion of crop vegetative cycle. The important crops are :
Wheat, Barley, Celery, Flax and other small grains, etc.
E
(v) Group E. Ratios of Et vary from O.Tto 1.10. The model value being 0.90. The
p
important crops are :
Pastures, Orchard with cover crop, Plantain, etc.
. . E
(vi) Group F. It includes citrus crops such as Oranges, Grape fruit, etc. The Er ratios
p
are fairly constant throughout the year and average to a value of about 0.60 .
. E .
: : _· ·-·-----~1j_) Gro~p ~•.E~~alu~genera!!Y_ increase with EroE_ll_ll_d '::arx from().§~_~oJ:()():_
. It includes Sugarcane and Alfalfa. .
. .. . . . . . . • E1 . . . ·-----·---···-
(viii) Paddy orRiCe:. E increases from 0.80to1.30, with crop growth and then falls
p
down, reaching its maximum value somewhere near 50% giowth, as shown in Table 2.9.
The coefficients shown in Table 2.9 are only average values and care must be taken
while using them. Local values when available should only be used. The factors which
increase or decrease the evapotranspiration may be taken into consideration. For ex-
arnple, talier and more uneven vegetation tends to result in greater turbulence and more
efficient utilisation of radiation in the production of water use. Dark green vegetation
produces higher rate of absor~tion of solar ener~y, and hen~e, its evapotranspirat!on rate
will be higher than that for hght green vegetat10n. For this reason, the plant diseases,
causing yellowing of the leaves of the plants, greatly reduce evapotranspiration.
Tab.le 2.9. Hargrea.ve's Average Values of
Consumptive Use Coefficient K (Et= KEp)
Percent Consumptive use coefficient (K) to be multiplied by class A Pan Evaporation (El'), i.e:. E, = K: E1,
of crop
growing
Group A Group B Group C GroupD Group E Group F GroupG Rice
season
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
0 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.90 0.60 0.50 0.80
5 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.90 0.60 0.55 0.90
10 0.36 0.27 0.22 0.15 0.90 0.60 0,60 0.95
15 0.50 0.38 0.30 0.19 0.90 b.60 0.65 LOO
20 0.64 0.48 0.38 0.27 0.90 0.60 0.70 1.05
25 0.75 0.56 0.45 0.33 0 90 0.60 0.75 1.10
30 0.84 0.63 0.50 0.40 0.90 0.60 0.80 1.14
35 0.92 0.69 0.55 0.46 0.90 0.60 0.85 1.17
40 0.97 0.73 0.58 0.52 0.90 0.60 0.90 1.21

- - - - --~-- .. - -··- -···
""- ""
45 0.99 0.74 0.60 0.58 0.90 0.60 0.95 1.25
50 1.00 0.75 0.60 0.65 0.90 0.60 1.00 1.30
55 1.00 0.75 0.60 0.71 0.90 0'.60 1.00 1.30
60 0,99 0.74 0.60 0.77 0.90 0.60 1.00 1.30
65 0.96 0.72 0.58 0.82 0.90 0.60 0.9.5 ·. . J.25
70 0.91 0.68 0.55 0.88 0.90 0.60 .0.90 1.20
75 0.85 0.64 0.51 0.90 0.90 0.60 0.85 1.15
80 0.75 0.56 0.45 0.90 0.90 0.60 0.80 1.10

- -- ·----------- .. -- - - - -- ------------ ---- ---~-- -----·- ------ ----
85 0.60 0.45 0.36 0.80 0.90 0.60 0.75 1.00
90 0.46 0.35 0:28 0.70 0.90 0.60 0.70. 0.90
95 0.28 . 0.21 0:1'7 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.55 0.80
100 0.20 0.20 0.17 0c60 0.90 0,.60 0.50 0.20
Values of K for certain crops reported from India and U.S.A. are given in Tables
2.10 and 2.11 respectively. · .
Table 2.10. Values of K for Certain Indian Crops ; (E1 = K · Ep)
o/oofcrop Wheat Ludhiana Maize Ludhiana

,, Wheat Poona (India) Cotton Poona (India)
growing season (India) (India)
(/) (2) (3) (4) (5)

..
I 0 0.14 0.30 0.22 0.40
5 --- 0.17. 0.40. 0.22 0.42 -·

- ·- -·
'
10 0.23 0.51 0.23 0.47
,,
I 15 0.33 0.62 0.24 0.54
20 0.45 0.73 0.26 0.63
25 0.60 0.84 0.35 0.75
30 0.72 0.92 0.58 0.85
35 0.81 0,96. 0.80 0.96
40 0.88 1.10 0.95 l.04
45 0.90 1.10 l.03 l.07
50 0.91 1.00 i.08 l.09
--
. 55 ... 0.90 ; o;9l 1.08 LIO
60 0.89 0.80 I.07 Lll
I
65 0.86 0.65 l.05 l.10
70 0.83 0.51 LOO l.07
I 75 0.80 0.40 0.93 l.04
80 0.76 0.30 0.85 l.00
85 0.71 Q.20 0.73 0.97

' .. -· "------~---- -- ---------· - ··------ --··--- . --------- -- -- --- - ----. -- - - --- - ---------·- - --~-- --·
90 0.65 0.12 Oc62 0.89
. 95 0;58 0:10 0.50 0.81
100 0.51 0.10 0.40 .• 0.70
Seasonal value K 0.61 0.61 0.68 0.86

Table 2.11. Values of K for certain U.S.A. Crops (Et= K-Ep)
- Rice
% Qfcrop Sugarcane* Maize Jowar Sugarcane*
Los Banos
growing season Hawaii (USA) Albama (USA) Albama (USA) Hargreaves
(USA)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
0 0.34 1.00 OAO 0.42 0.48
5 0.37 1.02 0.40 0.44 0.50

-
10 0.40 1.03 0.43 0.46. 0.53
15 0.44 1.05 0.46 0.48 0.55
20 0.50 1.07 0.52 0.50 0.60
25 0.60 1.09 0.59 0.52 0.67
30 0.72 1.11 0.67 0.56 0.75
35 0.86 1.13 0.76 0.59 0.80

40 0.93 1.16 0.85 0.64 0.85
45 0.98 1.18 0.93 0.71 0.87
50 1.02 1.20 1.02 0.79 0.89
55 1.05 1.21 1.09 0.92 0.90
)
60 l.07 1.22 1.14 I 1.01 0.90

65 l.10 1.22 l.19 1.07 0.85
70 1.13 1.21 . 1.21 1.09 0.75
75 1.16 1.19 1.23 1.09 0.71
80. ..LJ9. 7 .. - - ·-- __J .J.Q._ ----- 1.22 1.05 0.68
- -- - .-..·-··-··
--~
- - ·- .
85 1.20 1.10 1.16 0.99 0.59

90 1.20 1.03 1.06 0.91 0.51
95 1.19 0.96 0.95 0.82 0.50
100 1.19 0.86 0.75 0.70 0.50
Seasonal K 0.89 1.10 0.86 0.75 0.69
*Value of K for sugarcane reported from Hawaii and found by Hargreaves are compared in col.
(2) and col. (6). ·
Class A pan evaporation (Ep) measurements. EP can be experimentally deter-

mined by directly measuring the quantity of water evaporated from the standard class
A pan.Ihis_p~11 is 111!1 in diameter, 25 cm deep, and bottom is raised 15 cm above
the ground surface. The depthofwater is to oel.Cepi1ri a fixed-ra-ifge--'sucffthat-the-water
surface is at least 5 cm, and never more than 7.5 cm, below the top of the pan.
The pan evaporation (Ep) can also· be detennined by using the Christiansen for-
mula, which states
EP =0.459 R · C1 • Cw· Ch· Cs Ce ·;·(2.9)
where R = Extra-terrestrial radiation in the same units as
EP in cm or mm (Table 2.12),
,.,1';1_.-
i 11'1
44 IRRIGATION.ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Ct= Coefficient for temperature, and is given by

C1 =. 0.393 + 0.02796 Tc+ 0.0001189 T/
... (2.10)
where, Tc is the mean temperature in °C.
·· · Cw= Co~fficient for wind velocity, and is given as
. ::: 0.708.+0.0034 W-0.0000038 W ... (2.11)
where, Wis the mean wind .velocity at 0.5
. metre above the ground in
km/day.
Ch= Coefficient for relative humidity, and is given
. by
4
Ch= l.250-1l0087H+0.75x 10 H 2
- 0.$5x 1078 H4 ... (2.12)
ii
where His the mean percentage relative
humidity at noon or average
relati.ve humidity for 11 and 18
hours.
Cs= Coefficient for per cent of possible sunshine,
and is given by
= 0.542+ 0.0085-0.78 x 10- 4 5 2
+ 0.62 x 10- 6 5 3 ... (2.13)
where 5 is the mean sunshine percentage.
Ce = Coefficient of elevation
= 0.97 + 0.00984 E .. ,(~)4).
·where £.is the el~vailoni~· foo m.etres.
I, I;
·Values of R for different latitudes are tabulated in Table 2.11.
Example 2.12. (a) pe.termine the pan evaporation from thefoUowing data for the
1111111
month. of April, using Christiansen method. .
'
Latitude
. 15° 19' N; Elevation+ 449
' '..· metres
. .
Month : April.
Mean Temperature 31.8°C.
Mean wind velocity at 0.5 m above the ground = 183 kilometres per day.
'I
Ii Mean relative humidity=40%
Mean sunshine per cent = 89%
11. --~lf.sB~tabte-s"for.c.e-xt-ra-:.te:rrestrtcil7ai/fiit1oic(Tltlile-rt2T(l5) Whai is. the consumpt[vi -
! · . use for April in this country for a crop having a consumptive use coefficient equal to.
0:80.
. S~Iution. Fi~d th~ v~iue of R from Table 2.12 ·for th.e month. Of April a~d for a
latitude of 15° 19' N. It comt<soutto.oe ab.oqt47.3 cm. N,ow, using eqs. (2.10) to (2.14),
we~et
. . ·. . . . ., . . 2
.cl= 0.393 + 9.0279.6rX, 31,8 +0,000118.9 (31.8) = 1.403
1 '-1JIJl9j
:a
i
I
Table 2.12. Mean Monthly Values of Extra-terrestrial Radiation R in cm.
! E
c::
i
I
La1i1udes
)an. Feb. March April May June July
in degrees ! Aug. Sept. 1.0ct. Nov. Dec.
I
North ;ti
!
-~
45 l~.621 19.990 31.953 41.072 50.317 52.146 52.426 .46.101 35.204 25.730. 16;891 13.843
~
0
"ti·
Cll
40 lQ.609 23.393 35.027 . 42.926 50.003 52.146 52.730 47.498 37.770 29.312 20.70i 17.831
i,.
35 23.546 26.670 37.871 44.450 51.384 51.918 52.730 48.565 40.056 32.664 24.460 21.819
I
30 27.407 29.794 40.411 45.669 .. 51.460 51.384 52.451 49.276 42.037 35.814 28.092 25.781
25 3\.140 32.690 42.647 46.558 51.206 50.571 51.841 49.682 43.688 ~8.710 31.572 29.642
20 34.722 35.382 44.552 47.117 50.597 49.428 50.902 49.708 45.009 41 •oo 34:900
i 33.376
15 3~: l 00 37.821 46.126 47.320 49.657 47.980 49.657 49.403 45.989 43.612 37.973 36.906
!.
1
10 41 .250 40.005 47.346 47.168 48.388 46.253 48.082 48.717 46.609 45.593 40.818
I 40.259
I·
5 4+120 41.885 48.209 46.660 46.787 44.221 46.178 47.701 46.888 47.244 43.409 43.358
0 4~:736 43.485 48.692 45.822 44.882 41.910 43.993 46.335 46.812 48.539. 45.695 46 . 177
!
I
.j:>.
Vt
Cw= 0.708+ 0.0034xl83 ~ 0.0000038 (183) 2 = 1.200.

ch= i.250-0.0081 ><40+ o.75 x io4 (40)2-0.85 x 10- 8 (40)4 = 1.000 l.
C5 =0.542+ 0.008 X 89-0.78 x 10'" (89)2+ 0.62x.10- (89) 6 3

4
= 1.073.
Ce= 0.97 + 0.00984 x 4.49 = 1.014~
. (a) Pan evaporation EP is given by eq. (2.9) as :
Ep =0.459R·C·C. t w·Ch·C·C
.se
= 0.459 (47.3) (1.403) (1.200) (l.000) (1.073) (LOI4)
· =39.8c~: Ans. · · · · - ·- · · ·
. .. . .
. (b) £ 1 =. K · EP = 0.8 x 39.8 = 3L84 cm
Hence, the required value of consumptive use= 31.84 cm. Ans.
Example 2.13. Determine the consumptive use and net irrigation requirement for
Jowar sown at Bellary (Karnataka) from the following data:
I I
'I Table 2.13 (a)
Dates and period Pan evaporation Ep or P, in <::onsu.mptive use coefficient Effective precipitation in
of growth cm (K) cm.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Oct.16-31 8.49 0.44 3.42
Nov.1-30 15:57 0.54 2.19
Dec.1-31 16.59 0.94 0.54
Jan. 1-31 19.10 0.99 0.15
Feb.1-2 1.54 0.73 0.02
Solution.
Proceed as shown in Table :i.13 (b).
Table 2.13 (b)
lldlllll
K-Ep=E1=Cu
Dates Ep(cm) K R,in cm Cu - R, = N.l.R.
in cm
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
~ I~ I:
I'
., .
'
Oct.16-31 8.49 0.44 3.74 3.42 0.32
Nov.1-30 15.57 0.54 8.41 2.19 6.22
Dec.1-31 16.59 0.94 15.59 0.54 IS.OS
Jan. 1-31 19.10 0.99 18.91 0.15 18.76
-- · -- -0.73-·
2 -- -T.s.r·----
"'"'' -- -- ---- -- . ----- --·--·-- -----· ------- -------·-----~----· ---
Fe0.-1 1.12 0.02 1.10
'f.=47.77 r. = 41.45
First of all, calcufate the values of Cu as in col. (4) Table 2.13 (b) and then determine
I'
N.I.R. as in col. (6) of this Table. Table is otherwise self-explanatory.
Total consumptive· use= 47.77·cm} Ans.
Netlrrigationrequirement =41.45 cm
I
J
I - r·,.- .. · 1. . ,: '· : '··:·L·'·•· .·,:·r:· •>o:ev,·::"~'"'.,....,..,
~
. ·>ti\
:;c:J
~C'
i
, Table 2.14. Sample Calculations for Determining Irrigation Requirement of Codon Crop. (in cm)
I
Coiton (Oct. 1:1-Feb.
' -
26 =139 days) .i
.i
. ·. . .
I ;;l
I• %ofgrowing
No. of days up
season = col. PanEvap.
Effective
F.l.R. = N.I.R. GIR=FIR ~
Dates .1tomid-point K EpK=Cu rainfall N.l.R. in cm
' of iilterval
]()(). =Ep. . R, 1'\a 1'\c .~
(Z)xl39 0
...,,
I I
Ill
I
(I) (2) (3) (4) ! (5) (6) (7) (8) .· (9) (10)
Oct.11-31 !' 11 7.9 14.73 i 1.23 3.38 - 3.38. B6. 5.28

·.·
~
Nov.1-30 · 35 25.2 18.85
.I
0.36 6.78 - 6:78 7.98 10.65
Dec. 1-:-31 67 48:2 17.60 i 1.00 17.60 - 1.7.60 20.70 27.60
Jan .. 1-31 98 70.5 19.63 I 0.99 19.43 - 19.43 22.86 30.48.
Feb.1-26 126 90.6 19.94 0.61 12.17 - 12.17 14.30 18.07
I I
1:=59.36 i I:= 59.36 1:=69.80 .I:= 92.08
I . . !i
FIR = F'f
. I Id I · · . R . (' ) NIR · NIR
mgat10n equirement m cm := ~ = 0. 85
1
FIR incl~des percolation losses in the field iwater-courses, field channels and in field applicatfon of water.
I. I.. . R . . (' .~ FIR FIR
GIR = Gross rngat10n eqmrement m cm~ = T\c = 0.85
i.e. GIR = FIR+ Conveyance losses in distributaries up to the field.
I .j:,.
-.J
I
t;
:1
Table 2.15
Sample Calculations for Determining Irrigation Requirement for Wheat CrQp (in-cm)
Wheat: Period of growth: I Nov. to 15 March (135 days)
l\i; %ofgrowing _ _
1
, No.ojdaysup
. . season -_ co I. Pan . E1-K-Ep-Cu . NIR
. . . -C
- 11 - Re F.I.R.
Dates ;. to "!1dpomt of 100
evapo:atwn Coeff. (K) Co11s~mptive R, m cm ciii = NIR = N/R
I: mterval .(2) x
135
(Ep) m cm use 111 cm . T]a 0.7
:
v> 1
~J ~J ~ m ~ <n r~ ~ ;:;::;
', ::0
Nov. l-'-30 15 11 15 0.16 2.40 0.4 2,00 2-86
~·
...,
Dec. 1-31 46 34 12.8 0.46 5.89 1.6 4.29 6.13 '
~
Jan. 1~31 . i 77 57 9.4 0.73 6.86 3.2 · 3.66. 5.23 tr1
.z
0
Feb. 1'-'-28 I06 78 15.4 0.90 13.86 2.2 11.66 16.66 ztr1'
March 1-15 128 95 io.1 0.60 6.06 Nil 6.06 &.66 ~·
'
z0
, . , :I:= 35.07 :I:= 27.67 :E = 39.54
Po
. z
Note : L The peak requirement during a month will be more than the average ; allowance should therefore, be made for this, ~
. while designing channel capacity. . d
2. Eff~ctive rainfall (Re) should be taken' from the previous records,. and the mean value should not be taken. On the ~
oth~r hand, the values which are availfible in 75% to 80% of the years should oe taken. ;;
...,
Cll
::0
c:
...,
()
c::
::0
tr1
Cll j
2.13.3. Penman's Equatiog,. While the Blaney Criddle equation (1975) and the
Hargreaves class A pan equation using Christiansen formula (1968) had been in use for
the last many years for computing the consumptive use, Cu (i.e. evapotranspiration, E1)
values, and net irrigation requirements for different crops ; the Penman equation (1998)
has, however, more recently been introduced for determing the consumptive use of
different areas or different segments of a basin, depending upon the type of vegetation
covering each sub-basin. The advantage with this equation lies in the fact that the
different specified values of coefficient of reflection (albedo), a factor used in this
equation, are available for dif- fr-------------------.
ferent types of areas, which can ai
be used in Penman's equation to 5 VI
compute consumptive use (i.e. :!J
Potential evapotranspiration, 5..
PAT) values for different seg- ;:;
meµts of command area. g_
0
Penman's equation for com- >
-o
putation of PET or Cu for an area, ~
has a sound theoretical reasoning, :;:
and it is not a simple empirical -6
equation. This equation has, in- V1
fact, been derived by intelligently .___ _ _ _ _ __,,Ta1_ ___.T_a_______.
combining the energy balance Temperature-·
and mass transfer approaches of
the computations of transpiration Fig. 2.3 .. Saturation vapour pressure vs. Temp. curve.
and evaporation, respectively.
Hence, although slightly complicated mathematical conceptual work is involved here,
yet its use is becoming ipor~ a,Qd m()r_e_pQQ_l1Jar, i!.l tociay's modern computer age.
Penman's equation, incorporating some of the modifications suggested by _other
investigators, is given as:
E1 =
A·H+E·y
~ +/ . .(2.15)
where £ 1 = Daily potential evapo-transpiration
A = Slope of the saturation vapour pressure Vs
Temp. curve at the mean air temperature, as
shown in Fig~ 2.3, and values given in Table
2.16.
Hn = Net incoming solar radiation or energy, ex-
- ____e!~s~ed in mm of evaporable water per day*
* Since the energy required by water in evaporation equals 585 calories/gm = 585 calories/cc (I gm =I
cc), we have
Energy.as 1 mm of evaporable water from an area of A hectares
=(i~ cm}Ax 108 cm2> x 585 cal/cm3

= 585 x ul A calories
1-----------
11
'
1
! 50 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
_,,I'
I Ea= A parameter including wind velocity and

saturation deficit, as given by"Eqn. (2.18) in
mm/day
y= psychromatic constant
= 0.49 mm of Hg/°C
The net radiation (Hn) in the above equation is the same, as used in the energy
budget equation (7.46), and is estimated by the equation
Hn :=::He (1 - r) (a+ b · ~}- <J ·

4
Ta (0.56- 0.092-Ve;) x(a.JO+ 0.90 ~)
- ' ... (2.16)
where He= mean incident solar radiation at the top of the
I! - atmosphere on a horizontal surface, expressed
, 'I in mm of evaporable water per day. This value
i 11·
is a function of latitude (<!>) of the place and
! - the period of the year, as per the mean month-
,, ly values given in table 2.18.
r = reflection coefficient (albedo) of the given
! I
area. Usual values of this coefficient for-dif-

ferent types of areas are given in Table 2._17.
a=a constant depending upon the latitude(<!>) and
is given as
a= 0.29 cos <P ... (2.17)
b = a constant having average value
' '=0.52
n = actual duration of bright sunshine in hours
N = maximum possible hours of :bright sunshine--.
(mean value). This value is a function of
latitude (<j>), and its values are given in table
2.19 for each month of the year
<J = Stefan-Bolzman constant
= 2.01 x 10-9 mm/day
Ta= mean air temperature in °K
= 273+ °C
ea= actual mean vapour pressure in the air in mm
of Hg.
The parameter E11 of Penman's equation (2.15) is estimated as :
+ --'--'-~-'-----'--'---Ea - 0.35
11
" . l +
1~2~-(e.1 - ea) mm/day - ... (2.18) -
where V2 = mean wind speed at 2 m above the ground in

km/day
e5 = saturation vapour pressure at mean all'
. temperature in mm of Hg (Table 2.16)
ea= actual mean vapour pressure of air in mm of
Hg.
With the help of the above equation, and using the values of A, e, r, He and N from
tables 2.16 to 2.19, £ 1 or Cu can be determined for the given area. This equation can
!so be used to compute the evaporation from a water surface (lake, etc.) by using
~:::: 0.05. Due to its general applicability, this equation is widely used these days in India,
.t'.!!
the U.K., the Australia; and in some parts of U.S.A. ·
Table 2.16. Saturation Vapour Pressure (es), and
Slope of Saturation Vapour Pressure
Vs Temperature Curve (A)
Saturation vapour pressure (e.r) in
Temperature Slope A in mm/°C
mm of Hg
(1) (2) (3)
0 4.58 0.30
5.5 6.54 0.45
7.5 7.78 0.54
10.0 9.21 0.60
12.5 10.87 0.71
15.0 12.79 0.80
17.5 15.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
25.0 23.76 l.40
27.5 27.54 1.61
30.0 31.82 1.85
32.5 36.68 2.07
35.0 42.81 2.35
--------~~-~---- -·
37.5 48.36 . 2.62 ..
40.0 55.32 2.95

45.0 nzo 3.66
Table 2.17. Values .of ReflectiQn Coefficient r (albedo)

Su iface Range of r value~f ·
Close grained crops 0.15- 0.25
Bare lands ··o.o5-0.45
Water surface 0.05
Snow 0.45 - 0:90
Table 2.18. Mean Monthly Solar Radiation at Top of Atmospher~

He in mm of evaporable water/day
.
North
latitude Jan. Feb. March April May Jun. Jul.· Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov., Dec.
oo 14.5 15.0 15.2 14.7 i3.9 13.4 13.5 14.2 14.9 15.0 14.6 14.3
100 12.8 13.9 .14.8 15.2.. 15.0 14.8 . 14.8 15.0 14.9 14.1 13.l 12.4
20° 10,8 12.3 13.9 15.2 15.7 15.8 15:7 15.3 14.4 12.9 11.2 10.3
30° 8.5 10.5 12.7 14.8 . 16:0 16.5 16.2 15.3 13.5 11.3 9.1 7.9
400 6.0 8.3 11.0 13.9. 15.9 16.7 16.3 .. 14.8 . 12.2 9.3 6.7 5.4
50° 3.6 5.9 9.1 12.7 15.4 16.7 16.1 13.9 10.5 7.1 4.3 3.0 '
Table 2.19. Mean Monthly Values of Possible Sunshine Hours (N)
North
Jan. Feb. March April May Jun. July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Latitude
oo 12.l 12.l 12.l 12.l 12.l 12.l 12.l 12.l 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1
100 11.6 11.8 12.I 12.4 12.6 ·12.7 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5
20° I I.I 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.l 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
30° 10.4 I I.I 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.l 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
40° 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.4 15.0: -·· 14.7 ·13,8 12.5 .__LL2.· 10.0 9.4
50° 8.6 IO.I 11.8 13.8 15.4 16.4 16.0 14.5 · 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1
Example 2.14. Compute the total consumptive use (Cu) from a drainage basin
located near Gurgaon (Haryana) during the month of April by Penman's formula. The
following data is given:
Latitude of place = 28° N
Elevation = RL 220 m.
Meteorologically observed data during April
Mean monthly temperature = 40°C
Mean relative humidity = 35%
Mean observed sun shine hours per day = 13h
Mean wind velocity at 2 m height = 72kmlday/(3kmlh)
Data available and obtained from standard charts
(i) Slope of the es Vs T° chart at 40°C =2.95 mm of Hg/°C
(ii) Saturation pressure at 40°C = 55.32 mm of Hg
Mean monthly solar radiation at top of atmosphere
_ during April jo,-28°N latitutie.c . _ _ :;:._)4.9._mm of_ev.apor.a~Je_w.a.terlday_
Mean monthly value of possible sunshine hours
for April for 28°N latitu<f.e = 12.9 h
Albedo for the area = 0.25
Solution. Penman's equation (2.15) is given as:
AHn+Ea. y
Er= Cu
A+y
where A= 2.95 mm ofHg/°C
Hn =to be computed by eq. (2.16)
Ea= given by eq. (2.18) as :
= 0.35{1 +
1~~) (e,. - ea) mm/day
=0.35(1+17620)~(55.32-19.36)
( ·. · ea =(R.H.) es .
= 35% x 55.32 = 19.36 mm Hg
= 18.07mm/day ·
y= 0.49mm ofHg/°C
fr WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 53
:Es··~
...
Hn is given by eqn. (2.16) as :
4
Hn =He (1 - r) (a+ b · ;)- cr · Ta (0.56- 0.092 ..Je;;) x (o. IO+ 0.90;)
where He= mean monthly incident solar radiation at top
of atmosphere
= 14.9 mm of evaporable water/day
9
r= 0.25
2 -
a= 0.29 cos <I>= 0.29 cos 28° = 0.256
b= 0.52
n = 13 h
•in N= 12.9 h
'he cr = 2.01x10-9 mm/day
Ta= (40°C + 273) = 3 l 3°K
ea= (R.H.) es= 35% X 55.32
= 19.36 mm of Hg
Substituting values, we get
Hn = 14.9 (1 - 0.25) [ 0.256 + 0.52 x

1 ;~9 ]-
[ {2.01x10-9 x (313)
4
} x {0.56-0.092 ~19.36} x {0.10+ 0.90x 1;~9}]
= 14.9 (0. 75) (0.78) - (19.292) (0.155) (1.007)
=8.716-3.011
= 5. 705 mm of evaporative water/day
AHn+EaY --
Now,---cc-c~-= A +y -- ·- -------------
-- --··-- ------
---· -
2.95 x 5.705 + 18.07 x 0.49

=
2.95+ 0.49
= 49.648.4+ 8.854 =17.Ol m miday. A ns.
3 4
2.13.4. Comparison of Blaney-Criddle Equation, Hargreaves-Christiansen
Equation and Penman's Equation. These three empirical equations have been
developed by the various researchers over the last 40 years to estimate evapo-transpira-
tion (£1) values for different crops, or area segments vegetated with the same cropping
pattern, under different climatic variables. Since the suggested empirical equations are
often subjected to rigorous local calibrations, they can not have a global validity. It,
however.-becomes-difficulUocsuggesLas_to_whiclLequation_shoulclbe_use_d_in__a_p_ar.tic_ular_--____ _
case. A recent study made in Chandigarh region has, however, shown that the annual
evapotranspiration values obtained from Penman's equation are quite close t.o the values
obtained from the actual field observations made in pan evaporation method ; while the
values obtaiqed oy Blaney-Criddle equation were on much higher side (about 30%
,Hg higher), and the values obtained by Hargreaves-Christiansen equation were on lower
side (about 15-20% lower). No definite co~clusion can, hence, be drawn regarding th~
decis_ion on the global use of a particular equation.
Although, use of Penman's equation is being largely advocated these days, yet since
the equation needs elaborate data, it may not be always feasible to use this equation.
Moreover, this equation can be used for generalised 'Vegetated areas, and not for in-
dividual crops, since the value range ofreflection coefficient i.e. albedo (r), as used in
this equation, is given for areas having close grained crops, as to vary between 0.15-0.25
(Pl. see table 2.17)
2.14. Soil-Moisture-Irrigation Relationship
The water below the watertable is known as ground water and above the watertable
as soil-moisture.
Extending down -from the ground surface, is the soil zone or the root zone, which
is defined as being the depth of
overburden that is penetrated by
the roots of veget~tion, as shown in
Fig. 2.4. This zone is the most im-
portant from irrigation point of
- view, because it is this zone, from w.T.
SOIL MOISTURE
j
l
INTERMEDIATE ZONE
which the plants do take their water - - - - _c~i~i:_Rv_zo~E ___ _
supplies. When water falls over the GROUND WATER
ground, a part of it getsabsorbed in
_ ·_n 1 ; 7; 7; ; 1 17.2pZ7.V7l01U2 7 15 zn.T.A; 7 1 ; ; ; 7 7_
this root zone, and th~ rest flows IVI t.~· ::. 1HA
downward under the action of Fig.2.4.
gravity and is called gravity water.
2.14.1. Field Capacity. Immediately after a rain or irrigation water application,
when all the gravity water has drained down to the watertable, a certain amount of water
is retained on the surfaces of soil grains by molecular attraction and by loose chemical
bonds (i.e. adsorption). This water cannot be easily drained under the action of gravity,
and is called-the field rnpacity. The field capacity is thus the wateh:ontenfofii-soil
after free drainage has taken place for a sufficient period. This period of free gravity
drainage is generally taken as 2 to 5 days. -
The field capacity water further consists of two parts. One part is that which _is attached
to the soil molecules by surface tension against gravitation forces, and can be extracted by
plants by capillarity. This water is called capillary water. The other part is that which is
attached to the soil molecules by loose chemical bonds. This water which cannot be removed
by capillarity is not available to the plants, and is called the hygroscopic water.
The field capacity water (i.e. the quantity of water which any soil can retain
indefinitely against gravity) is expressed as the ratio of the weight of water contained
in the soil to the weight of the dry soil retaining that water : i.e.
_--p·relct·c·
-- _ - . __
- apacrty =Wt. ---ofwaterretained.in
-- a-certain Y.:.Ol.-ofsoil x JOO
... (2~ 19)
Wt. of the same volume of dry soil
If we consider 1 m 2 area of soil and d metre depth ofroot zone, then the volume of soil
is d x 1 =d cubic metres. If the dry unit wt. of soil is Yd kN/m 3*, then the Wt. of d cubic
metres of soil is Yd ·d kN. If Fis the field capacity, then_
* It is the unit wt. of the dried soil sample and not of the soil solids. It may sometimes hence be called as
apparent unit wt.
~s
:e --
n. F = Wt. of water retained in unit area of soil
1- Yd·d
n or Wt. of water retained in unit area of soil =Yd · d · F kN/m 2
5 - Yd · d · F kN/m
2
:. Vol. of water stored in unit area of soil=
YwkN/m·3
or Total water storage capacity of soil in (m depth of water)
e Yd·d·F
= m
h where F = the field capacity m.c.
d = depth of root zone in m
Yw = the unit wt. of water
Yd = the dry unit wt. of soil.
Hence, the depth of water stored in the root zone in filling the soil upto field capacity
Yd· d · F
= metres. ... (2.20)
Yw
The knowledge of field capacity is very important, because it is the field capacity
water which can supply water for plant nourishment. The larger part of applied water
drains down and joins the watertable and is thus a waste from irrigation point of view.
As expressed earlier, the total field capacity water cannot be utilised by the plants.
The plants can extract water from the soil till the permanent wilting point is reached.
The permanent wilting point is that water content at which plant can no longer extract
sufficient water for its growth, and wilts up. It is the point at which permanent willing
of plants takec-place:ctt;therefo-i"e;-be-comeTeViaenTthiitthe wcTteFwhicn is· aviiilcil:Jte fr/ -
the plants, is the difference of field capacity water and permanent wilting point water.
This is known as available moisture or maximum storage capacity of soil. Hence, the
available water or available moisture may be defined as the difference in water content
of the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point. The water left in the soil
after the permanent wilting point is reached, cannot be removed, and is known as,
unavailable moisture or Hygroscopic water (See Fig. 2.5).
2.14.2. Readily available moisture. It is that portion of the available moisture
which is most easily extracted by the plants, and is approximately 75 to 80% of the
available moisture.
2.14.3. Soil-moisture deficiency. The water required to bring the -soil moisture
co II tent of a given _soil_ lQ.iJLfield _capacity_ is__c_alle_d __thefield_maistur.e..deficieucy or.
soil-moisture deficiency. . .
2.14.4. Equivalent moisture. Just as the field capacity is the water retained by a
saturated soil after being acted upon by gravity ; similarly, equivalent moisture is the
water retained by a saturated soil after being centrifuged for 30 minutes by a centrifugal
force of 1000' times that of gravity. Therefore, it is slightly less, or at the most equal to
the field capacity. ·
11
1 2~15. Estimating Depth and Frequency of Irrigation on the Basis of Soil Moisture
Regime Concept
Water or soil moisture is consumed by plants through their roots. It, therefore, becomes
necessary that suffiCient moisture remains available in the soil from the surface to the root zone
depth. As explained earlier, the soil moisture in the root zone can vary between field capacity
(uppet limit) and wilting point moisture content (lower limit) as shown in Fig. 2.5.
1--~------------...-:.F..:.:IE::::LD CAPACITY m.c.

OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT
---_J__ -------~~IL~~:~·Cw~~~rlLLARY
FIE D CAPACITY Wilting
point m.c.
NON AVAILABLE m.c. OR
HYGROSCOPIC WATER
----TIME
Fig. 2.5.
It is also evident from the previous discussion that the soil moisture is not allowed
to be depleted up to the wilting point, as it would result in considerable fall in crop
yield. The optimum level up to which the soil .moisture may be allowed to be depleted
in the root zone without fall in crop yield, has to be worked out for every crop and soil,
by experimentation. The irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture
falls up to this optimum level (fixing irrigation frequency) and its quantity should be
just sufficient to br_ing the mois.ture_contentup to its ..fielci,capacity, rnaking,allewanee~
fof?/jijJHcation losses (thus fixing wate~ depth).
Water will be utilised by the plants after the fresh irrigation dose is given, and soil
moisture will start falling. It will again be recouped by a fresh dose of irrigation, as soon
as the soil moisture reaches the optimum level, as shown in Fig. 2.6:
'11
1
OPTIMUM m.c. .WrLTING

Pt m.c.
-TIME
,., ...,--'---~--·-_-_
.._ . _ : _ ·_. _.. _ .. _._··..c.. ·c:.. ............ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Fig. 2.6.
Example 2.15. After how many days will you supply water to soil in order to ensure
sufficient irrigation of the given crop, if
(i) Field capacity of the soil= 28%
(ii) Permanent wilting point = 13%
(iii) Dry density of soil = 1.3 gm/c.c.
l
(iv) Effective depth of root wne = 70 cm
(v) Daily ~onsumptive use of water for the given crop = 12 mm.
Assume any other data, not given. (Engineering Services, 1974)
Solution. We know, by definition of available moisture, that
the available moisture = Field capacity- Permanent wilting
= 28 - 13 = 15%.
Let us assume that the readily available moisture or the bptimum soil moisture level
is 80% of available moisture.
i.e., Readily available moisture =0.80x 15%= 12%
:. Optimum moisture = 28 - 12 = 16%
It means that the moisture will be filled by irrigation between 16% and 28%.
Depth of water stored in root zone between these two limits
Yd -
=- .d [F·ield capacity
. m.c. - 0pt1mum
. m.c.]
Yw
where Yd= Pd· g = Pd= 1.3 gm/cc= 1. 3
Yw Pw · g Pw 1.0 gm/cc
d = 0. 7 m (given)
= l.3xo.10[0.28-0.16]m
= 1.3 x 0.7 x 0.12m = 0.1092 m= 10.92cm.
Hence, water available for evapo-transpiration = 10.92 cm.
1.2 cm of water is utilised by the plant in 1 day
.. 10.92 cm of water will be utilised by the plant in
-- -- -- -_,_- -_-·_c:-,- -- --- -- -- ----------------
--rxT0~9i---:c---:-;-
= 1. days= 9.1 days ; Say 9 days.

2
Hence, after 9 days, water should be supplied to the given crop. Ans.
Example 2.16. Wheat_ is to be grown in afield having afield capacity equal to 27%
and the permanent wilting point is I 3%. Find the storage capacity in 80 cm depth of
the soil, if the dry unit weight of the soil is 14.72 kN!m 3 . If irrigation water is to be
supplied when the average soil moisture falls to I 8%, find the water depth required to
be supplied to the field if the field application efficiency is 80%. What is the amount of
wat_er needed at the canal outlet if the water lost in the water-courses and the field
channels is I 5% of the outlet discharge ?
Solution. Maximum storage capacity or Available moisture.
-- -- -----==-y~:dTF1e1a-caf~~1tyrn;c,--witt1nr~it:1n-:-c-.r------'-
where Yd= 14.72 kN/m3

d = depth ofroot zone= 0.8 m
:. Max. storage capacity or max. Available moisture
= 14.72
_ x0.8 [ 0.27-0.13
9 81
J [ ·: Yw=9.81 kN/m
3
]
= 1.2 [0.14] = 0.168 metres= 16.8 cm. Ans.

Since the moisture is allowed to vary between 27% and 18%, the deficiency created
in this fall
14.72
= . x0.8 [0.27-0.18)
9 81
- -- -= b2 x 0~09=o,108metres=10;8 cm.
Hence, 10.8 cm depth of water is the .net irrigation requirement.
Quantity of water required to be supplied to the field (F.l.R.) = N ~~R.
N.LR. 10.8 . A
or ·FIR
· · · = 0.80 = 0.80 = 13 ;5 cm. ns.
Quantity of water needed at the canal outlet
= F.l.R. = 13 ·5 = 15.88 cm. Ans.
Tic 0.85
Example 2.17. 800 m 3 of water is applied to a farmer's rice field of0.6 hectares.
When the moisture content in the soil falls to 40% of the available water between the
field capacity (36%) of soil and permanent wilting point (15%) of the soil crop com-
bination, determine the field application efficiency. The root zone depth of rice is 60
cm. Assume porosity = 0.4. · (Civil Services, 1994)
Solution. We have defined Field Capacity m.c. (F) as :
F= Wt. of water contained in a certain vol. of soil
. Wt. of the same volume of dry soil (i.e. wt. of dry soil retaining that water)
If a saturated soil contains volume equal to V, and the volume of its voids is Vv,
then the weight of water contained in this soil= 'Yw · Vv ; where 'Yw is the unit wt. of water.
The wt of this-soil-of-V m 3 after it is- 0ven dried-to remove water and to fill-the-voids
with air, is given by 'Yd· V ; where 'Yd is the dry unit wt. of the s~il.
'Yw · Vv Vv . .
.. F =--;--V But -v· =n (porosity)
'Yd'
F= 'Yw · n
'Yd
'Yd = !!:.. = 0.4 = l. ll ·: n =Porosity= 0.4 (given)
'Yw F 0.36 F = F.C. = 0.36
Max. quantity of water stored between field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
point (P.W)
~~B~}d (wrwp) .
where d = root zone depth = 0.6 m (given)
=1.11 x0.60 (0.36- 0.15] = 0.14 m.
Deficiency of water created when irrigation is done·.
=60% x 0.14 m [ ·: irrigation wateris-applied when m.c. falls ]

to 40% ofm.c. available between F.C. and P.W.
=0.084m ·
'
t

Hence, irrigation water is supplied to fill up 0.084 m depth of water.
:. Vol. of irrigation water required to fill up the created deficiency
= 0.084 m x (0.6 hect.)
x
= 0.084 m x (0.6 10,000) m 2 = 504 m3 . .. .(i)
Actual irrigation water supplied = 800 m3 ... (ii)
:. Efficiency of field application = ~~~ = 63% Ans.
Example 2.18. Work out the irrigation schedule based on the soil moisture concept,
given the following information. Also extract the data on the total depth of irrigation
water required and the respective dates of irrigation water supply :
(a) The crop is grown in an appropriate soil with no restrictive layers within the
top 1.5 m depth of soil. - -
(b) Normal root zone depth of the crop is 1.2 m.
(c) Bulk density of soil is 1.35.
(d) Field capacify is 18% and permanent wilting point is 7%.
(e) Moisture level in the soil is to be maintained at not less than one-third of available
retention. Irrigation will then be done over a duration of 2 days at a uniform rate of supply
and at a uniform rate of advance to fully and.just compensate for the depletion.
(j) No extra water is ever required for leaching.
(g) Sowing is done on 1 November when the soil moisture is left just at field capacity
in the entire root zane.
(h) For the crop, at the location, the average evapotranspiration rates are :
1 Nov..__:_ 30 Nov. 1.T mm/day
1 Dec. - 31 Dec: 1.7 mm/day
------------------- 1Jan.~3FJan. - -- -T4-mrnlday;'
1 Feb. - 28 Feb. 1.5 mm/day
1 March-25 March 3.5 mm/day
(i) Harvesting is done on or after 26 March.
(j) There is expected an effective rainfall of 24 mm during 4 Janua0 1 to19 January,
both days inclusive, with uniform intensity.
(k) By the end of the crop growth season, only the minimum water needed to be left
unused in the root zane. (Engineering Services, 1990)
Solution.
___-_M
___ il:X_._ moisture retained by soil= Field capacity= 18~
Permanent wilting i.e. below which soil cannot extract water for plant's growth
=7%
:. Max. moisture available for plant's growth i.e. available moistureretention
=18-7=11%
3 of available moisture = 311 % = 3.67%
1
:. Moisture level at which irrigation must start = Minimum m.c. at which plants start
wilting + ±of available moisture (given)
= 7% + 3.67% = 10.67%.
This means that we will start irrigation as soon as m.c. falls to 10.67%, and will,
thus, fill the soil with moisture till it rises to 18% (field capacity).
Irrigation water required to increase m.c. of soil in root zone from 10.67% to 18%
is obtained by equation (2.15), as :
= 1!!:_ [Upper lim~t m.c. _Lower lim~t m.c.]
w a:s fract10n as fract10n
where · y =Unit wt. (Apparent) of soil
'1' · w =Unit wt. of water
i'
1 =Density (apparent) of soil = 1.35 (given)

w
d = root zone depth = 1.2 m (given)
= 1.35 x 1.2 18 - 10.67]- = L35 x l.2 [0.18 - 0.1067] = 11.87 cm.
[ 100 100
In other words, as and when this 11.87 cm depth of stored moisture gets consumed
by evapotranspiration, irrigation water will be supplied.
From the given consumptive uses, we find that
Water consumed from 1st Nov. to 3 Jan. (when rains start)
11
I = 1.1 mm/day x 30 days (i.e., between 1 Nov. - 30 Nov.)
+ 1.7 mm/day x 31 days (i.e., between 1 Dec.-31 Dec.)
+ 2.4 mm/day x 3 days (i.e., between 1 Jan.-3 Jan.)
= 92.9 mm = 9.29 cm ...(i)
Hence, water withdrawn from soil during Ist Nov. io 3lan. ~-~.(29 C-m (<permissible"
11.87 cm). .
No irrigation is) thus, required till then.
I
During rains (between 4 Jan. to 19 Jan.), effective rain water received by soil per day
'"'I
!/' !
2.4cm
!
, r,1
~ 'I
= 16 days 0.15cm/day
I: Consumptive use of 0.24 cm/day during this period, means that an amount of
0.24-0.15 = 0.09 .cm/day of moisture is only consumed from soil, i.e.
I
11 i Additional water consumed from soil during 4 Jan. - 19 Jan.
1' I = 0.09cm/day x 16
I , ,c:1_________________________ :::::J•44 CD!_ ___ '-"--·-· --'--'-"---'--· __ _ ... (ii)
I I Hence, water withdrawn from soil during 1st Nov.-19 Jan.
, I , = (i) + (ii)= 9 .29 + 1.44 = 10. 73 cm.
,, I
Balance water left in soil to be withdrawn before irrigation
: 11: ' = 11.87 - 10.73 = 1.14 cm.
I 1 i This is consumed @ 2.4 mm/day in x days,
where x = ~:~: = 4. 75 days, say 4 days.

Hence, !st irrigation will be needed after 4 days from 20th Jan., i.e., on 24th Jan.
This irrigation is to be done over 2 days (given), i.e., on 24 Jan. and 25 Jan.
First irrigation water required on 24 Jan. and 25 Jan.
= (10.73 + 4 x 0.24) +~-;cm/day x 2 days

(to compensate for depletion in 2 days)
= 11.69 + 0.48 = 12.17 cm. Ans.
With effect froII1__26 Jan., water is again consumed as bel~w:
Between 26 Jan.-31 Jan. = 0.24 cm/day x 6 days = 1.44 cm
Between 1. Feb.-28 Feb. = 0.15 cm/day x 28 days = 4.20 cm

Between 1 Mai:ch-25 March= 0.35cm/day x 25 days = 8.75 cm
Total = .14.39 cm
> 11.87 cm
Hence, another water is required after x days of March, where
_ 11.87...:(1.44+4.2) _ 17 8d . 17d ',
x- _ - . ays i.e., ays
0 35
Hence, 2nd irrigation should start on 18th March and water depth now required is only
= 14.39- ll.87=2.52cm.
Thus, only 2.52 cm irrigation water is required at 2nd time.
Hence, the required irrigation schedule is
(i) 1st watering on 29th and 30Jan. = 12.17 cm of water depth] Ans.
·----·--Tri) 2ridwateringori 18tlfMarch =2.52cmofwaterdepth ·
Example 2.19. A sandy loam soil holds water at 140 mmlm depth between field
capacity and permanent witting point. The root depth of the crop is 30 cm and the
allowable depletion of water is 35%. The daily water use by the crop is 5 mm/day. The
area to be irrigated is 60 ha and water can be diverted at 28 l.p.s. The surface irrigation
application efficiency is 40%. There are no rainfall and ground water contribution.
Determine
(i) allowable depletion depth between irrigations.
(ii) frequency of irrigatiOn
(iii) net application depth of water
~~- ~i'f.)_'!_()_l!!-_m~_q.{iv_<iE~!.. reql!J!e_~·----·--·---- -· - - ---· --·--- - ·-
(v) time to irrigate 4 ha plot (Engineering Services 1999)
Solution•. Moisture holding capacity of soil= 140 mrnlm depth
Depth of root zone = 30 cm = 0.3 m
:. Moisture holding=acity of root zone
= 140-x0.3m=42mm=4.2.cm
m .
Allowable depletion = 35% ·
(i) :. Available moisture depth or Allowable depletion depth between irrigations

= 35% x 4.2 cm= 1.47 cm. Ans.
Daily use of water :::: consumptive use ,;, 5 mm/day
· · (ii} :. - Frequency of irrigation
Available moisture .1.47 cm
= =
Moisture consumed per day 0.5 crryday
= 2.94 days., say 3 days. Ans.
Net water depth to be applied while irrigating each time after 3 days
= 3 x 0.5 = 1.5 cm Ans. (in place of 1.47 cm)
Field Irrigation requirement
= Net irrigation requirement= 1_1=
3 75
Efficiency of irrigation 0.4 - · cm.
(iv) :. Qty. of water reqd. in the fields
= 3.75 cm of water depth= 3.75 cm x Area of field
3.75 m 4 2 3
= 3.75 cmx 60 ha=IOO x (60x 10) m =22,500m·
Hence, vol of water reqd. to irrigate 60 ha area, each time· at 3 days interval
I ~ : i
= 22,500 m 3Ans.
(v) Time to irrigate 4 ha when irrigation water is supplied @ 28 lps :
Vol. of water reqd. to irrigate 4 ha plot
3 75
= 3 75 cm x 4 ha= · x (4 x 104) m3 = 1500m3
~-- --- - --- 100
Time during which 1500 m3 of water can be supplied @ 28 lps.
3 3
1500 x 10 l 1500 x 10
= 28 lps
= 28 s
3
= 1500
,· 28x 10 x 60 x1 60 hr=14.88 hr Ans.
Example 2.20. Det.ermine the field capacity of a soil for the following data :
(i) Depth of root zone = 1.8 m
(ii) Existing moisture = 8%
(iii) Dry density of soil = 1450 kg!m 3
-------(iv) QuaniitY-ofwate~-applied to soil = 650 m3 -'----'---'-- __ _o_cc__
(v) Water lost due to deep percolation and evaporation= 10%

(vi) Area to be irrigated= 1000 m3 (AMIE 1999 (Summer) Exam.)
3
Solution. Volume of total water applied= 650 m .
Water wasted = 10% of 650 m3 = 65 m3 .

Water used in raising m.c up to field.capacity= 650- 65 = 585 m 3.
Depth -of water used in raising m.c up to to field capacity_ from the existing 8%
= 585 m3 = 0.585 m
Area= 1000 m 2
But water depth required in root zone of depth td increase m.c, is given by eqn.
= ~-[ upper limit me - l_ower limit me, as fractions J

t/~
3
45
0.585 = 1. x 1.8 m [F.C- 0.08]-
1 t/m·
or (F.C - 0.08) = 0.224
or F.C= 0.224-0.08 = 0.144
Hence, Field capacity= 14.4% Ans.
PROBLEMS
1. (a) What is meant by 'Duty' and 'Delta' of canal water? Derive a relationship between duty and delta
for a given base period.
(b) Find tqe delta for sugarcane when its duty is 730 hectares/cumec on the field ~nd the base period
of the crop being 11.0 days. (Ans. 130 cm)
(c) Define and ·explain the following terms as used in relation to water requirements of crops :
(i) Base period. (ii) Intensity of irrigation. (iii) Cash crops.
2. (a) Whai do you understand by 'Duty' of canal water and what is its importance ? Explain how does
duty differs from that at the head of a water-course and that at the head of a canal bringing wa~er
to the watercourse.
(b) Mention the approximate values of Duty and Delta for rice, wheat and sugarcane in your region.
3. __ (a)---c-Qepne_'Duty' and 'Delta', and derive their_ relationship. -~ ,--:-.o- __ _
(b) What are the factors on _which duty depends ?
(c) How can the duty be improved and_ what will be the gain ?
(d) What is meant by 'Flow duty' and 'Quantity duty' ?
4. What is meantby 'duty' ?
Enumerate the different terms by which duty can be improved.
What are the factors affecting duty ?
The base period of paddy is 120 days. If the duty for this crop is 900 hectares per cumec, find the
value of delta. [Ans. 115 cm]
5. Describe briefly the factors affecting duty.
Water is released at _·the rate of 5 ctimecs at the head sluice. If the duty 'at the field is 100
hectares/cumec and the loss of water in.transit is 30%, find the area of the land that can be irrigated.
[Ans. 350 hectares]
6.-WhaHs-meant-by "Duty of water" ? Explain the influence ofsevera-1- facto1:s-which--affectduty...What
are the different ways in which duty can be expressed ?
A reservoir with a live storage capacity of 300 million cubic metres is able to irrigate an ayacut of
40.000 hectares with 2 fillings each year. The crop season is 120 days. What is the duty ?
[Ans. 691 hectares/cum~c]
7_ Name the principal kharif crops of your region, and detail the agricultural and climatic requirements
for sowing, growth and harvesting of one of the principal ones. Give the normal requirement ofseed
per hectare and the average yield per hectare of the crop.
Suggest ways to increase the "duty" in an irrigation system.
8. (a) Explain as how the following factors affect the 'duty' of a crop :
(i) Soil and sub-soil condition. (ii) Stage of growth.
(iii) Temperature. (iv) Rainfall.
(b) Compute the depth and frequency of irrigation required for a certain crop with data given below:
Root zone depth= 100 cm. Field capacity= 22%
Wilting point= 12% Apparent specific gravity of soil* = 1.50-·
Consumptive use = 25 mm/day Efficiency of irrigation =50%
Assume 50% depletion on available moisture before application of irrigation water at field capacity.
[Hint. Follow example 2.14, and work out :
Readily available moisture·:: 5%, and finally work out :
Depth of water stored in root zone = 7 .5. cm] Ans.
Frequency of irrigation= 3 days
9. Explain with neat sketch the layout of a modern canal system, carrying water from a barrage. Discuss
as to how the duty of water increases as we move downstream from the head of the main canal
towards the head of the watercourse.
10. Write short notes o.n :
(i) Optimum utilisation of irrigation water.
(ii) Crop rotation.
(iii) Consumptive use and its estimation.
(iv) Water distribution efficiency.
(v) Net irrigation requirement (NIR).
(vi) Outlet factor.
(vii) Estimating depth and frequency of irrigation on the basis of soil moisture regime concept.
(viii) Crop seasons in India and their principal crops.
11. Define and explain the following terms :
(i) Cash crops. (ii) Field capacity.
(iii) Available moisture. (iv) Soil moisture defic!ency.
·· -(v) Crop ratio. (vi) Overlap allowance.
(vii) Paleo irrigation. (viii) Kor water depth.
12. How will you proceed for determining th.e field irrigation requirement (FIR) for an important crop
like wheat ? Expfain with reference to a sample table, with assumed monthly values of pan
evaporations. [Hint. Please see Table 2.15]
13. Name any two methods used for estimating consumptive use o(water for a particular crop at a
particular place. Explain in details the one which is most widely used in your region, and the reasons
for preferring that particular method.. _
* Apparent sp. gr. of soil =~:, where Yd is the dry unit wt. of soil (i.e. the soil containing air filled voids).
Actual sp. gr. (Ss or G) =Ys, where Ys is the unit wt. of the soil solids.
Yw

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I 1

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS 23

.·where; A~is in cm.:·:s is in· days ; arid" · ·

In this question, B = 120 days and D = 864 hectares/cuni.ec

Crop Duty in hectareslcumec

(ii) High yielding Oct. to 45 Five-six waterings of 100-125 4000

2.5. certairtlmportant f>efiiiitiliiis-:c--c.-·· ··

quantity, reduces the yield. Many cultivators, · .u;· . . .

Solution. Volume of water supplied by 10 cumecs of water applied for 4 hours

=(IO x 4 x 60 x 60) m 3 = l,44,000m 3

· Water~pIJiTdiiion efficiency (TJa) ~ Outputx 100= ·9;6 >< 100::::66.67% Ans.

The average of these absolute values of deviations from the

mean= d= 0.24+ 0.14+ 0.04+ 0.16+ 0.26

=(1-;)=[l - ~--~668 ]= 1-0.095=0.905

= Water delivered to the fields

= 20 cm perm depth x 1.7 m depth of root zone = 34 cm.

Additional water required in root zone

(iv) Water distribution efficiency

.~d=(l- ~) where D = inean depth of water. stored in the root zone

Using Eq. (2.3), we have,

·:: . ~d=(l -oi~4°);;,,o.78(f~~78~6%'''''A~~· - ---..-· -

Average annual Per cent chance of occurrence

20 0.90 0.81 0.71 0.62 0.51

30 0.93 0.85 0.78 0.69 0.58

40 0.95 0.88 0.81 0.73 0.63

50 0.96 0.90 0.83 0.75 0.67

70 0.97 0.92 0.86 0.80 0.72

80 0.98 0.93 0.87 0.81 0.74

90 0.98 0.93 0.88 0.82 0.75

2.10. Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR)

2.12. Factors Affecting Consumptive Use

Table 2.5 (a) <·

Hence, the net irrigation requirement =41.62 cm. Ans.

where, Cu= Monthly consumptive use in cm.

January 13.5 730 3-.01

Solution. Blaney-Criddle equatio11 is

where,/= fo (i.8 t +32}; and k = 0.8 (given)

Cu,,;, k · Lf = 0.8 X 42.7 =34J6 crri.

38 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Consumptive irrigation requirement= Cu - Re= 32.72- 8.38 = 24.34 cm. Ans.

Month TempF Percentage hrs of sunshine Raiii/all mm Consumptive coefficient

October 69.3 7.86 10.5 0.65 8.85

Gross irrigation requirement at head works =FIR·

Rice (Loam Soil)

Solution. The summation of consumptive uses

Average ·monthly consumptive use= 0.77 x 30 = 23;1 mm. Ans.

2.13.2. Hargreaves Class A pan evaporation method. In this method, evapotranspira·

or \ Et or Cu= K. EP \ ... (2.8)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

0 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.90 0.60 0.50 0.80

5 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.90 0.60 0.55 0.90

10 0.36 0.27 0.22 0.15 0.90 0.60 0,60 0.95

15 0.50 0.38 0.30 0.19 0.90 b.60 0.65 LOO

20 0.64 0.48 0.38 0.27 0.90 0.60 0.70 1.05

25 0.75 0.56 0.45 0.33 0 90 0.60 0.75 1.10

30 0.84 0.63 0.50 0.40 0.90 0.60 0.80 1.14

35 0.92 0.69 0.55 0.46 0.90 0.60 0.85 1.17

40 0.97 0.73 0.58 0.52 0.90 0.60 0.90 1.21

45 0.99 0.74 0.60 0.58 0.90 0.60 0.95 1.25