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Forensic science

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


"Forensics" redirects here. For other uses, see Forensics (disambiguation).

Forensic science

Physiological sciences

Forensic anthropology
Forensic archaeology
Forensic odontology
Forensic entomology
Forensic pathology
Forensic botany
Forensic biology
DNA profiling
Bloodstain pattern analysis
Forensic chemistry
Forensic osteology

Social sciences

Forensic psychology
Forensic psychiatry

Forensic criminalistics

Ballistics
Ballistic fingerprinting
Body identification
Fingerprint analysis
Forensic accounting
Forensic arts
Forensic footwear evidence
Forensic toxicology
Gloveprint analysis
Questioned document examination
Vein matching

Digital forensics

Computer forensics
Database forensics
Mobile device forensics
Network forensics
Forensic video
Forensic audio

Related disciplines

Fire investigation
Detection of fire accelerants
Forensic engineering
Forensic linguistics
Forensic materials engineering
Forensic polymer engineering
Vehicular accident reconstruction

People

William M. Bass
George W. Gill
Richard Jantz
Edmond Locard
Douglas W. Owsley
Auguste Ambroise Tardieu
Juan Vucetich

Related articles

Crime scene
CSI effect
Perry Mason syndrome
Pollen calendar
Skid mark
Trace evidence
Use of DNA in forensic entomology

 V

 T

 E

Forensic science (often shortened to forensics) is the application of a broad spectrum


of sciences and technologies to investigate and establish facts of interest in relation to criminal or civil
law.[1] The word forensic comes from the Latin forēnsis, meaning "of or before the forum."[2] In Roman times, a
criminal charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person
accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story. The individual
with the best argument and delivery would determine the outcome of the case. This origin is the source of the
two modern usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation.

In modern use, the term "forensics" in the place of "forensic science" can be considered correct as the term
"forensic" is effectively a synonym for "legal" or "related to courts". However the term is now so closely
associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word "forensics"
with "forensic science".

In the United States there are over 12,000 Forensic Science technicians, as of 2011.[3]

Contents
[hide]

 1 History
o 1.1 Antiquity and the Middle Age

o 1.2 Modern history

 2 Subdivisions

 3 Notable forensic scientists

 4 Questionable techniques

 5 Litigation science

 6 Examples in popular culture

 7 Controversies

 8 See also

 9 References

 10 Further reading

 11 External links

[edit]History

[edit]Antiquity and the Middle Age

Archimedes may have used his principle of buoyancy to determine whether the golden crown was less dense than solid
gold.

Main article: Forensics in antiquity

The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment.
Criminal investigations and trials relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However ancient sources
contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow the concepts of forensic science that is developed
centuries later, such as the "Eureka" legend told of Archimedes (287–212 BC).[4] The account about
Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape.
According to Vitruvius, a votive crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II, who had supplied the
pure gold to be used, and Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by
the dishonest goldsmith.[5] Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown, so he could not
melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density.

The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve (separate) criminal cases is attributed to
the book of Xi Yuan Lu (translated as "Washing Away of Wrongs"[6][7]), written in Song Dynasty China by Song
Ci (宋慈, 1186–1249) in 1248. In one of the accounts, the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved
by a death investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location. (He realized it was a sickle
by testing various blades on an animal carcass and comparing the wound.) Flies, attracted by the smell of
blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed. The book also offered
advice on how to distinguish between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation(broken neck cartilage),
along with other evidence from examining corpses on determining if a death was caused by murder, suicide or
an accident.

Methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine
innocence or guilt. In ancient Chinese cultures, sometimes suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried
rice and spit it back out. In ancient middle-eastern cultures the accused were made to lick hot metal rods
briefly. Both of these test had some validity since a guilty person would produce less saliva and thus have a
drier mouth. The accused were considered guilty if rice was sticking to their mouth in abundance or if their
tongues were severely burned due to lack of shielding from saliva.

[edit]Modern history
In the 16th-century Europe medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on
cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of
violent death on internal organs. Two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation
of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In
the late 18th century, writings on these topics began to appear. These included A Treatise on Forensic
Medicine and Public Health by the French physicianFodéré and The Complete System of Police Medicine by
the German medical expert Johann Peter Franck.

In 1773 a Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele devised a way of detecting arsenous oxide, simple arsenic, in
corpses, although only in large quantities. This investigation was expanded, in 1806, by German
chemist Valentin Ross, who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim's stomach, and by English
chemist James Marsh, who used chemical processes to confirm arsenic as the cause of death in an 1836
murder trial.

Two early examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use
of logic and procedure in criminal investigations. In 1784, in Lancaster, John Toms was tried and convicted for
murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad
(crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with
a torn newspaper found in Toms' pocket. In Warwick in 1816, a farm labourer was tried and convicted of the
murder of a young maidservant. She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the marks of violent
assault. The police found footprints and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp earth
near the pool. There were also scattered grains of wheat and chaff. The breeches of a farm labourer who had
been threshing wheat nearby were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth near the
pool.[8] Police started using fingerprints for evidence when Juan Vucetich solved a murder case in Argentina by
cutting off a piece of door with a bloody fingerprint on it.[9] Later in the 20th century several British
pathologists, Bernard Spilsbury, Francis Camps, Sydney Smith andKeith Simpson pioneered new forensic
science methods in Britain. In 1909 Rodolphe Archibald Reiss founded the first school of forensic science in the
world: the "Institut de police scientifique" at the University of Lausanne (UNIL).

Forensic science has been fostered by a number of national forensic science learned bodies including
the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1948; publishers of the Journal of Forensic Sciences),
the Canadian Society of Forensic Science (founded 1953; publishers of the Journal of the Canadian Society of
Forensic Science), The British Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1960; publishers of Medicine,science
and the law (journal)), and theAustralian Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1967; publishers of
the Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences).

A history of forensic photography can be viewed here.

[edit]Subdivisions

Agents of the United States Army Criminal Investigation Division investigate a crime scene
Police forensic investigation in Ashton-under-Lyne, England, using a tent to protect the crime scene

 Computational forensics concerns the development of algorithms and


software to assist forensic examination.

 Criminalistics is the application of various sciences to answer questions


relating to examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace
evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, footwear impressions,
and tire tracks), controlled substances, ballistics, firearm and toolmark
examination, and other evidence in criminal investigations. In typical
circumstances evidence is processed in a Crime lab.

 Digital forensics is the application of proven scientific methods and


techniques in order to recover data from electronic / digital media. Digital
Forensic specialists work in the field as well as in the lab.

 Forensic accounting is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence

 Forensic aerial photography is the study and interpretation of aerial


photographic evidence

 Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal


setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human
remains.

 Forensic archaeology is the application of a combination


of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law
enforcement.

 Forensic astronomy uses methods from astronomy to determine past


celestial constellations for forensic purposes.

 Forensic botany is the study of plant life in order to gain information


regarding possible crimes.

 Forensic chemistry is the study of detection and identification of illicit drugs,


accelerants used in arson cases, explosive and gunshot residue.
 Forensic dactyloscopy is the study of fingerprints.

 Forensic document examination or questioned document


examination answers questions about a disputed document using a variety
of scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve a
comparison of the questioned document, or components of the document,
with a set of known standards. The most common type of examination
involves handwriting, whereby the examiner tries to address concerns
about potential authorship.

 Forensic DNA analysis takes advantage of the uniqueness of an


individual's DNA to answer forensic questions such as paternity/maternity
testingand placing a suspect at a crime scene, e.g. in a rape investigation.

 Forensic engineering is the scientific examination and analysis of


structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage.

 Forensic entomology deals with the examination of insects in, on and


around human remains to assist in determination of time or location of
death. It is also possible to determine if the body was moved after death.

 Forensic geology deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals
and petroleum.

 Forensic geophysics is the application of geophysical techniques such as


radar for detecting objects hidden underground or underwater.[10]

 Forensic intelligence process starts with the collection of data and ends
with the integration of results within into the analysis of crimes under
investigation[11]

 Forensic Interviews are conducted using the science of professionally


using expertise to conduct a variety of investigative interviews with victims,
witnesses, suspects or other sources to determine the facts regarding
suspicions, allegations or specific incidents in either public or private sector
settings.

 Forensic limnology is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes


in or around fresh-water sources. Examination of biological organisms, in
particular diatoms, can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.

 Forensic linguistics deals with issues in the legal system that requires
linguistic expertise.

 Forensic meteorology is a site-specific analysis of past weather conditions


for a point of loss.
 Forensic odontology is the study of the uniqueness of dentition, better
known as the study of teeth.

 Forensic optometry is the study of glasses and other eye wear relating to
crime scenes and criminal investigations

 Forensic pathology is a field in which the principles


of medicine and pathology are applied to determine a cause of death or
injury in the context of a legal inquiry.

 Forensic podiatry is an application of the study of feet footprint or footwear


and their traces to analyze scene of crime and to establish personal
identity in forensic examinations.

 Forensic psychiatry is a specialised branch of psychiatry as applied to and


based on scientific criminology.

 Forensic psychology is the study of the mind of an individual, using


forensic methods. Usually it determines the circumstances behind a
criminal's behavior.

 Forensic seismology is the study of techniques to distinguish the seismic


signals generated by underground nuclear explosions from those
generated by earthquakes.

 Forensic serology is the study of the body fluids.[12]

 Forensic toxicology is the study of the effect of drugs and poisons on/in the
human body.

 Forensic video analysis is the scientific examination, comparison and


evaluation of video in legal matters.

 Mobile device forensics is the scientific examination and evaluation of


evidence found in mobile phones, e.g. Call History and Deleted SMS, and
includes SIM Card Forensics

 Trace evidence analysis is the analysis and comparison of trace evidence


including glass, paint, fibres and hair.

 Wildlife Forensic Science applies a range of scientific disciplines to legal


cases involving non-human biological evidence, to solve crimes such as
poaching, animal abuse, and trade in endangered species.
[edit]Notable forensic scientists
Self-portrait of Alphonse Bertillon, inventor of anthropometry

 Michael Baden (1934 – )

 William M. Bass (1928 – )

 Joseph Bell (1837–1911)

 Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914)

 Sara C. Bisel (1932–1996)

 Francis Camps (1905–1972)

 Ellis R. Kerley (1924–1998)

 Paul L. Kirk (1902–1970)

 Clea Koff (1972 – )

 Wilton M. Krogman (1903–1987)

 Alexandre Lacassagne (1843-1924)

 Henry C. Lee (1938 – )

 Edmond Locard (1877–1966)

 William R. Maples (1937–1997)

 Miklos Nyiszli (1901-1956)

 Albert S. Osborn (1858–1946)

 Skip Palenik (1946 - )

 Keith Simpson (1907–1985)

 Clyde Snow (1928 – )

 Bernard Spilsbury (1877–1947)

 Auguste Ambroise Tardieu (1818–1879)

 Paul Uhlenhuth (1870–1957)

 Cyril Wecht (1931 – )


[edit]Questionable techniques
Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, have turned out later
to have much less scientific merit or none.[13] Some such techniques include:

 Comparative bullet-lead analysis was used by the FBI for over four
decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. The
theory was that each batch of ammunitionpossessed a chemical makeup
so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to a particular batch or even a
specific box. Internal studies and an outside study by the National
Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable, and the FBI
abandoned the test in 2005.[14]

 Forensic dentistry has come under fire: in at least two cases bite-mark
evidence has been used to convict people of murder who were later freed
by DNA evidence. A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of
Forensic Odontology found a 63 percent rate of false identifications and is
commonly referenced within online news stories and conspiracy
websites.[15][16] The study was based on an informal workshop during an
ABFO meeting, which many members did not consider a valid scientific
setting.[17]

 Scientists have also shown, in recent years, that it is possible to fabricate


DNA evidence, thus "undermining the credibility of what has been
considered the gold standard of proof in criminal cases".[18]
[edit]Litigation science

Litigation science describes analysis or data developed or produced expressly for use in a trial versus those
produced in the course of independent research. This distinction was made by the US 9th Circuit Court of
Appeals when evaluating the admissibility of experts.[19]

This uses demonstrative evidence, which is evidence created in preparation of trial by attorneys or paralegals.

[edit]Examples in popular culture


Joseph Bell

Sherlock Holmes, the fictional character created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in works produced from 1887 to
1915, used forensic science as one of his investigating methods. Conan Doyle credited the inspiration for
Holmes on his teacher at the medical school of the University of Edinburgh, the gifted surgeon and forensic
detective Joseph Bell. Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple books and television series were also
a big hit worldwide.

Decades later the comic strip Dick Tracy also featured a detective using a considerable number of forensic
methods, although sometimes the methods were more fanciful than actually possible.

Barry Allen (alter ego of The Flash) is a forensic scientist for the Central City police department.

Defence attorney Perry Mason occasionally used forensic techniques, both in the novels and television series.

One of the earliest television series to focus on the scientific analysis of evidence was Quincy, M.E. (1976–83,
and based loosely on an even earlier Canadian series titled Wojeck), with the title character, a medical
examiner working in Los Angeles solving crimes through careful study. The opening theme of each episode
featured a clip of the title character, played by Jack Klugman, beginning a lecture to a group of police officers
with "Gentlemen, you are about to enter the fascinating sphere of police work, the world of forensic medicine."
Later series with similar premises include Dexter, The Mentalist, CSI, Cold Case, Bones, Law & Order, Body of
Proof, NCIS, Criminal Minds, Silent Witness, Case Closed, Midsomer Murders and Waking the Dead, depict
glamorized versions of the activities of 21st-century forensic scientists. Some claim these TV shows have
changed individuals' expectations of forensic science, an influence termed the "CSI effect".[20]

Non-fiction TV shows such as Forensic Files, The New Detectives, American Justice, and Dayle
Hinman's Body of Evidence have also popularized forensic science.

The Ace Attorney series features forensic science, mainly in Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney and the DS-only case
in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney.
[edit]Controversies

Questions about forensic science, fingerprint evidence and the assumption behind these disciplines have been
brought to light in some publications,[21][22] the latest being an article in the New York Post.[23] The article stated
that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone's fingerprint is unique."[23] The article also
stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned - and with it may come a radical change in how
forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors."[23]

On 25 June 2009 the Supreme Court issued a 5-to-4 decision in Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts stating that
crime laboratory reports may not be used against criminal defendants at trial unless the analysts responsible
for creating them give testimony and subject themselves to cross-examination. The Supreme Court cited the
National Academies report Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States[24] in their decision. Writing for
the majority, Justice Antonin Scalia referred to the National Research Council report in his assertion that
"Forensic evidence is not uniquely immune from the risk of manipulation."

In 2009, scientists indicated that it is possible to fabricate DNA evidence therefore suggesting it is possible to
falsely accuse or acquit a person or persons using forged evidence.[18]

Although forensic science has greatly enhanced investigators ability to solve crimes, they have limitations and
must be scrutinized in-and-out of the courtroom to avoid wrongful convictions, which have happened.[25]

[edit]See also

 American Academy of Forensic Sciences

 Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners

 Australian Academy of Forensic Sciences

 Ballistic fingerprinting

 Bloodstain pattern analysis

 Canadian Identification Society

 Computer forensics

 Crime

 Computational forensics

 Diplomatics (Forensic paleography)

 Fingerprint

 Footprints

 Forensic accounting

 Forensic animation

 Forensic anthropology
 Forensic biology

 Forensic chemistry

 Forensic economics

 Forensic engineering

 Forensic entomology

 Forensic facial reconstruction

 Forensic identification

 Forensic interviewers

 Forensic linguistics

 Forensic materials engineering

 Forensic photography

 Forensic polymer engineering

 Forensic profiling

 Forensic psychiatry

 Forensic psychology

 Forensic seismology

 Forensic video analysis

 Glove prints

 Questioned document examination

 Retrospective diagnosis

 RSID

 Scenes of Crime Officer

 Sherlock Holmes

 Skid mark

 Trace evidence

 Profiling practices

 Wildlife Forensic Science

 What I Wanted to Learn

 What I would like to learn about forensic science is how it began, and who influenced it. Also I
like to know what the other types of forensic sciences there are and, better understand what
forensic geology, entomology, ballistics and fingerprinting are.
 What I Already Knew

 Before beginning this search there are some things I already knew. I think that majoring in
forensic science is going to require a lot of physical and biological science. There are also
several different types of forensic sciences such as, Entomology-, which is the study of insects
and their relation to the decomposition of a corpse, and ballistics-, which is the study of the
type of weapon used. Also if I change my major to forensic science it would require me
moving to another college, like University of Central Oklahoma.

 What I Learned

 As we all very well know science is growing at a very rapid rate, so is forensic science, which is
what I m thinking of changing my major to. Through my research for this paper I have learned
many things, from what the different types of forensic sciences are, and what they do, to
where and how forensic science started. First I m going to define forensic science, which is the
application of scientific techniques to provide objective, circumstantial evidence (Walls, Preface
V). As forensic science is practiced today through forensic medicine from police work, the
policeman could learn, and the doctor was assumed to know enough science to apply his
technique to the problems encountered as they arose. Most Forensic professors agree that
forensic science began with the writings of Sherlock Holmes in 1887 by Conan Doyle, which
helped, publicize the idea that science could be applied to the everyday life of police work
(Murray 3).

 In 1893 another author, criminal investigator and professor of criminology published a book
outlining the ideas of scientific geology investigation of a crime. Hans Gross, one of the
forbearers of forensic geology who believed that it is most interesting that the impetus came
from the ideas in men s minds, not accidentally from actual cases (Murray 6). He was born in
1847-1915 in Austria. Endowed with a keen interest in science, he grouped together the
current methods of geological science investigation. With a high sense of imagination and
foresight (Murray 5) , Gross suggested many links of science to criminal investigation in his
classic book Handbuch fur Untersuchungrichter (Handbook for Examining Magistrates). Gross
developed the ideas of that time in the sciences of medicine, serology, toxicology and
ballistics. Also having heavily implemented the use of forensic geology in hiring mineralogists
and micoscopist to study dust, dirt on shoes and spots on clothes (Murray 4). This book,
originally compiled in German, was later translated into English under the title Criminal
Investigation. It was reprinted several times and has impacted the use of science in criminal
investigation. According to Gross, Dirt on shoes can often tell us more about where the wearer
of those shoes had last been than toilsome inquires (Murray 5).

 Another forbearer of the forensic geology world, Dr. Georg Popp, was trained as a chemist.
Popp maintained a chemical and microscopic service in Frankfurt, Germany. Like many of the
other consulting labs of Frankfurt his lab offered services in examining the areas of food,
mineral water analyses, bacteriology and many other related fields. Foremost of Popp, he had
the imagination and foresight to seek out new ways of using his science that was rapidly
expanding (Murray 5). His interest in forensics began when an investigator, who had read
Gross s book, asked Popp to examine some spots on a suspect s trousers to identify whether
the spots of mud were from the scene of a crime. From this induction he devoted himself to
finding new ways of using chemical and microscopic techniques. Popp was again asked to
examine the evidence of a murder case in October of 1904 where a seamstress had been
strangled with her own scarf in a bean field. All that was left at the scene of the crime was a
dirty handkerchief containing nasal mucus. The nasal mucus contained bits of coal, particles of
snuff and grains of minerals, particularly the mineral hornblende. This evidence led them to a
man who had been known to work in a coal-burning gas works, dip snuff, and most
interestingly worked part-time in a gravel pit that contained the mineral Hornblende. The
suspect was then brought in for questioning and was found to have the mineral hornblende
under his fingernails. Upon later investigation a soil sample from the suspects trousers was
found to contain minerals that matched that of a soil sample from the crime scene where the
body had been found. When confronted with the evidence the suspect immediately turned
himself in. The Frankfurt news headlines contained the heading The Microscope as Detective
(Murray 7).

 A Question I have is what is forensic Hypnosis. I have been able to find only one resource for
hypnosis. Forensic hypnosis is the management, application, and combination of the art of
hypnosis and forensic science in criminal and civil investigations. The primary objective of
forensic hypnosis is to enhance the recall of volunteer victims and witnesses to crimes and
investigations. A hypno-investigator is a legal professional that has trained in hypnosis as an
investigative tool to gather facts pertaining to a special event. Also noted as a
hypnotechnician, popularized in the 1950 s by the Advance Ethical Hypnosis.

 The part of forensic science that interests me the most is ballistics and finger printing. With
sciences ever expanding field, we are finding more ways of bettering our forensics. An article I
read in the Daily Oklahoman stated that,

 Police trailing a murder suspect saw him spit in a parking lot, giving them the DNA evidence
they needed to arrest him in connection with the slaying of a waitress two years earlier (Daily
Oklahoman 13-A).

 It s hard to believe that something insignificant as spitting in a parking lot gave the police the
evidence needed to charge this Jacksonville, Florida man with a murder he committed just two
years earlier.

 Since the 1980 s the science of finger printing has grown also. With the introduction of the
AFIS most major police department s can reference a set of fingerprints against a statewide or
even a nationwide database of nearly every Americans prints. At over 1,200 prints per second
AFIS can kick out possible matches in just a few hours, which then have to be verified as an
exact match by a fingerprint examiner.

 With this new technology for fingerprinting, the Federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and
Firearms have been working with a Canadian company developing a system called Bulletproof.
This system matches the ballistics of a bullet from a crime scene to a small universe of
potential matches (Witkin and Hetter p30). A pilot program using the system has linked about
a dozen shootings in Washington, D.C. in a 7 month period (Witkin and Hetter p30).

 Another well developing forensic science is that of Forensic Entomology, which is the study of
how insects can help discern the time, cause of death and whether the body has been moved.
These forensic entomologist use baseline data of how old the insects are to determine the time
of death and whether it has been moved from its natural habitat. Recently, the FBI matched a
suspect to his dead rape victim by the blood contained in a single louse that had migrated
from him to her (Fernandez p58).

 Also chemists and other scientist are developing a device that they could wave over a body to
sniff the chemical gases given off by a decomposing body to detect how long the body has
been dead.

 Forensic Psychiatry has been defined as an interface specialty concerned with the instrumental
use of psychiatry, the application of psychiatric theory, principles, and practice to legal issues
for legal ends.

 The Search

 I began this I-Search paper on the twenty-first of February by trying to think of a topic that I
needed to find an answer to. On the twenty-third I wrote down what I already knew about my
subject, which wasn t very much. On the twenty-eighth Dr. Craig showed us how to use the
different sources in the library. She showed us the Expanded Academic ASAP database that
contains lots of newspaper and magazine articles from 1980 to present for us to use as
references and how to send the articles to our e-mail addressee. Also she showed us how to
find books using the online book catalog. I spent that evening in the library looking up books
and articles through the Expanded Academic ASAP to use in my paper. The following class she
showed us how to compose our works cited page with all the different types of sources like
electronic sources, newspaper and magazine articles, e-mail, interviews, and book sources.
We looked at a couple of I-search papers from some of Dr. Craig s previous students to give
us an idea of how to compose our paper. Some of the sources I got while in the class were not
exactly what I wanted so I searched on Infotrac from my house in Watonga to get some better
sources. The next day I went to the library to find the previous Saturday Oklahoman for an
article my mother had read that had to do with my paper. After I had all my sources that I
was satisfied with I started composing my paper.

 Conclusion

 Through my research of this paper I have learned many things. I learned how to actually do a
research paper. I also learned what the different types of forensic sciences are and what they
involve. I am still not sure whether I want to change my major or not, but I have learned how
to do a full research paper.

Forensic Anthropology
"Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology to
the legal process. The identification of skeletal, badly decomposed, or otherwise
unidentified human remains is important for both legal and humanitarian reasons.
Forensic anthropologists apply standard scientific techniques developed in physical
anthropology to identify human remains, and to assist in the detection of crime.
Forensic anthropologists frequently work in conjunction with forensic pathologists,
odontologists, and homicide investigators to identify a decedent, discover evidence of
foul play, and/or the postmortem interval. In addition to assisting in locating and
recovering suspicious remains, forensic anthropologists work to suggest the age, sex,
ancest ry, stature, and unique features of a decedent from the skeleton." (Carpenter
2003).
International Association for Craniofacial Identification (IACI)
http://www.forensicartist.com/IACI/index.html
The IACI, formed in 1988, is an organization comprised mainly of medical and
scientific professionals throughout the world who specialize in Forensic
Odontology, Forensic Anthropology, 2 and 3-dimensional Skull Reconstruction
Techniques, Computer Based Skull Reconstruction, Facial Aging for Law
Enforcement, and Facial Mapping, as well as Composite Sketching.
The Craniofacial Identification Links are particularly useful. Craniofacial
Identification Links are arranged into two columns with no annotations. Links
range from traditional to computerized methods of craniofacial reconstruction.
Forensic Art
http://www.forensicartist.com/index.html
The site covers the various facets of forensic art, giving a brief description of
each. This site is maintained by Wesley Neville, a forensic artist and
polygraphist with the Florence County Sheriff's Office in Florence, South
Carolina, and a member of the International Association for Identification (IAI)
forensic art sub-committee. The abundance of graphics makes the site slow to
load, but a lot of images are to be expected on an "art" site. The red print on
black background and tiny font size might make the site somewhat hard to read
for some folks but persevere as there are some excellent resources here.
OsteoInteractive
{http://medstat.med.utah.edu/kw/osteo/index2.html}
A great introduction to human osteology, forensic anthropology,
paleopathology, and histology by experts in their fields. Topics include age,
sex, stature, race, pathology, trauma, taphonomy, identifying characteristics,
and graduate education in forensic anthropology.

Forensic Botany
Forensic botany is the application of plant science to the resolution of legal questions.
The use of botanical evidence in legal investigations is relatively recent. Today,
forensic botany encompasses numerous subdisciplines of plant science: palynology
(pollen), anatomy and dendrochronology (the study of tree rings), limnology (study of
freshwater ecology, including diatoms), systematics (systematic expertise is required
when the identity of suspected drug species, notably marijuana, is in question),
ecology (ecological knowledge of plant species is useful to investigators in two main
ways: to determine whether plant fragments recovered from a victim or object came
from where it was found or from some other area, and in locating clandestine graves)
and molecular biology. (Forensic Botany 2003).
Forensic Botany
{http://myweb.dal.ca/jvandomm/forensicbotany/}
One of the few comprehensive sites on the subject, the Forensic Botany site is a
project in the Web Literacy For the Natural Sciences class at Dalhousie
University, Halifax, Canada. It offers excellent information through literature
citations with information and definitions of the subdisciplines within the field,
clearly explains botanical uses within forensics and provides case examples
illustrating the described procedures and botanical evidence used. The "cited
literature and links" section is particularly useful.
Forensic Palynology: A New Way to Catch Crooks
{http://www.crimeandclues.com/pollen.htm}
A comprehensive overview of the field of palynology, the study of
palynomorphs (pollen) trapped in materials associated with criminal or civil
investigation, is written by Vaughn M. Bryant, Jr., Palynology Laboratory,
Texas A&M University, and Dallas C. Mildenhall, Institute of Geological and
Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand.

Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology


"Forensic Toxicology is, quite literally, the use of toxicology in courts of law. This is
most often understood to mean the analysis of alcohol, drugs, and poisons in body
fluids and the interpretation of those analytical results for the benefit of the courts.
There is considerable overlap between forensic toxicology and clinical toxicology,
criminalistics, forensic psychology, employment drug testing, environmental
toxicology, forensic pathology, pharmacology, sports medicine, and veterinary
toxicology. Consequently there are few 'pure' forensic toxicology sites on the
Internet." (The World Wide Web Virtual Library: Forensic Toxicology 2003).
The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists (TIAFT)
http://www.tiaft.org/
Founded in 1963, this association groups over 1400 members from all regions
of the world. The aims of this association are to promote cooperation and
coordination of efforts among members and to encourage research in forensic
toxicology. The members come from the police force, medical examiners and
coroners' laboratories, horseracing and sports doping laboratories, hospitals,
departments of legal medicine, pharmacology, pharmacy and toxicology. Enter
the Open Area for resources for non-members. The Observatory provides a list
of websites arranged by categories (on the left menu bar). Also useful is the MS
Library, collecti ons of home-made reference electron impact mass spectra of
derivatives produced by TIAFT members and made available freely on the
Internet. "The intention is to complete commercial databases with new
upcoming or uncommon substances or less frequent d erivatives of drugs."
The Society of Forensic Toxicologists (SOFT)
http://www.soft-tox.org/
SOFT, officially incorporated in 1983, is an organization composed of
practicing forensic toxicologists and those interested in the discipline for the
purpose of promoting and developing forensic toxicology. The Toxilinks
section is particularly useful.
The World Wide Web Virtual Library: Forensic Toxicology
http://home.lightspeed.net/~abarbour/vlibft.html
"The Virtual Library is the Web's original index, founded by Timothy Berners-
Lee. In the original spirit of the Web, it is maintained as a public service by
volunteers expert in their particular fields." This site is maintained by Alan
Barbour, a forensic toxicology consultant with more than twenty-five years'
experience in forensic toxicology and clinical laboratory science. Links are
arranged within broad categories: forensic toxicology sites, directories of
forensic expert witnesses, general forensic science links, and education and
career guidance in forensic sciences.
Molecular Expressions: Optical Microscopy Primer
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/index.html
Microscopy is a very important in forensic sciences as microscopes are used
extensively in crime labs. For forensic science students, this site, created by
Michael W. Davidson, Mortimer Abramowitz, Olympus America Inc., and The
Florida State University, provides an excellent introduction to Optical
Microscopy, Digital Imaging, and Photomicrography . Topics covered include
the physics of light and colour, an anatomy of the microscope, specialized
microscopy techniques, digital imaging in optical microscopy,
photomicrography, concepts and formulas in microscopy, fundamentals of
stereomicroscopy, and interactive tutorials.
Guidelines for the Interpretation of Analytical Toxicology Results and Unit of
Measurement Conversion Factors
{http://www.leeds.ac.uk/acb/annals/Webwise/Webwise97-1.html}
This alphabetical table contains details of over 700 compounds. The table has
been compiled within the limitations currently imposed by the restricted
character set implemented on the World Wide Web. This limitation should be
understood by all who make use of the table. This site was posted as a web
table addition to an article appearing in the Annals of Clinical Biochemistry in
1998 (Flanagan 1998).
ChemFinder.com
http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com/
Individual access to ChemFinder is complimentary on a limited basis.
"ChemFinder has been providing free chemical searching to hundreds of
thousands of scientists since 1995." This free database includes chemical
structures, physical propert ies, CAS Registry Numbers, and links to other web
sites with information about your compound.
Mass Spectrometry Databases
http://www.ualberta.ca/~gjones/mslib.htm
Created by the Mass Spectrometry Database Committee of the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences Toxicology Section, this site provides zip files
of a comprehensive drug mass spectral library and the latest version of the
mini-library of full mass spe ctra of newer drugs, metabolites and some
breakdown products. This library is a "subset" of one that has been compiled
over a period of many years by Dr. Graham Jones and colleagues in Edmonton,
Alberta, Canada. Pure drug spectra, plus a few breakdown products and pure
metabolite standards have been edited into a single library. The libraries use the
Hewlett Packard DOS ChemStation and UNIX ChemSystem MSD operating
systems.

Crime Scene Investigation


"Crime Scene Investigation involves the use of scientific methods, physical evidence,
deductive reasoning, and their interrelationships to gain explicit knowledge of the
series of events that surround the commission of a crime." (Carpenter 2003).
Crime-Scene-Investigation.net
http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/index.html
One-stop shopping for crime scene investigation links, articles, crime scene
response and evidence collection guidelines, information on crime scene and
evidence photography, training and employment and a bookstore. Links are
arranged at the top level by broad categories and by subcategories within the
pages. The site is maintained by The Crime Scene Investigator Network based
in Temecula, CA.
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Tutorial
{http://www.bloodspatter.com/bloodstain-tutorial}
Bloodstain pattern analysis "is the examination of the shapes, locations, and
distribution patterns of bloodstains, in order to provide an interpretation of the
physical events which gave rise to their origin." This is an introduction to
bloodstain pattern analysis by J. Slemko, a forensic consultant in Alberta,
Canada.
Footwear & Tire Track Impression Evidence
http://members.aol.com/varfee/mastssite/index.html
Presented by C.A.S.T. (Chesapeake Area Shoeprint and Tire track), this site
includes an interactive footwear examination tutorial for investigating
shoeprints recovered from a crime scene. As well, there are extensive links on
outsole evaluation, shoe and tire manufacturer contact information, tire web
sites and instructions for evidence gathering. C.A.S.T. is a consortium of
Footwear & Tire Track examiners organized as a Multi-Agency Forensic
Cooperation (MAFC) group.

Criminalistics and Trace Evidence


"Criminalistics and Trace Evidence are both catch-all terms that apply to all types of
physical evidence that may be circumstantial evidence in the trial of a case. Most
often, the term is meant to include a variety of types of trace evidence analyzed by
experts who are sometimes identified as 'microanalysts,' sometimes as 'trace evidence
examiners,' or as 'criminalists,' or indeed by several different specialists.
Microanalysts determine the nature of small items of trace evidence and compare it
with known materials for the purpose of determining the origin of the trace evidence."
(Carpenter 2003).
Latent Print Examination: Fingerprints, Palmprints and Footprints
http://onin.com/fp/
An extensive web site devoted to links on latent fingerprints, including articles
and a comprehensive list of legal challenges to fingerprints. This site is
maintained by Ed German of the US Army Criminal Investigation Command,
US Army Criminal Investigation Laboratory.
Marks Working Group
http://www.intermin.fi/intermin/hankkeet/wgm/home.nsf/
The Marks Working Group is one of the technical Working Groups of the
European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) and represents
examiners working with shoeprint, toolmark, and other types of visual mark
comparisons in forensic laboratories. The Group publishes the Information
Bulletin for Shoeprint/Toolmark Examiners. The Marks Working Group
collects a library of articles (bibliographies) covering various sub-disciplines of
comparative visual examinations of interest to the mark examiners. In the Links
section, this web site provides a link to {an interesting article on taking
measurements of tiremarks}.
SWGFAST: Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study and
Technology
http://www.swgfast.org/
A scientific working group of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to
create consensus standards for fingerprint analysis and technology. Guidelines
are provided in pdf format.
Ridges and Furrows
http://www.ridgesandfurrows.homestead.com/
"This web site is the culmination of many hours spent researching topics
related to forensic science" and the author's particular areas of interest:
embryogenesis of friction skin (Histology of Thick Skin), enhancement of
latent prints using digital technology and latent print identification. Categories
include history, friction skin anatomy, scientific research, fingerprint patterns,
and identification. This site was created by Mary Beeton, an A.F.I.S.
Fingerprint Technician with the Durham Regional Police Service in Ontario,
Canada.

Forensic DNA Analysis


"DNA forensic analysis relies on one key characteristic of DNA: the configuration is
the same in all cells of an individual. Altogether each person carries around 200,000
genes in each cell, comprising three billion 'base pairs' -the chemical building blocks
of DNA. Analyzing all these base pairs and genes in order to identify an individual
would be impossible, with current technology. Instead, forensic scientists focus on
certain genetic sequences called 'markers'. Here, the arrangement of genetic
information is highly variable and particular to each person." (Carpenter 2003).
MITOMAP: A Human Mitochondrial Genome Database
http://www.mitomap.org/
A searchable "compendium of polymorphisms and mutations of the human
mitochondrial DNA." The Mitomap Quick Reference section includes an
extensive bibliography (Mitochondrial References) arranged alphabetically by
author; the fulltext of the Mitochondrial Human Genome Report; Amino Acid
Translation Tables; The Human Mitochondrial Sequence; a link to the Human
Mitochondrial Protein Database; and Illustrations.
Mitochondrial DNA Concordance
{http://shelob.bioanth.cam.ac.uk/mtDNA/toc.html}
"The Concordance of Nucleotide Substitutions in the Human mtDNA Control
Region is compiled from nucleotide sequence data available in the public
domain or supplied by accredited forensic laboratories world-wide."
Mitochondrial DNA Analysis in the FBI Laboratory
{http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-
communications/fsc/july1999/dnalist.htm/}
An informative article from Forensic Science Communications, the journal of
the FBI Laboratory, which explains mitochondrial DNA and its use in the
forensics laboratory to solve crimes.
STRBase
http://www.cstl.nist.gov/biotech/strbase/
Database of literature on Short Tandem Repeat DNA intended to benefit
research and application of short tandem repeat DNA markers to human
identity testing.
National Center for Biotechnology Information
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Established in 1988 as a national resource for molecular biology information,
NCBI creates public databases, conducts research in computational biology,
develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates
biomedical information.
Forensic Mathematics
http://dna-view.com/
Charles Brenner has been a consultant in forensic mathematics, which mostly
pertains to DNA identification, since 1977. His well organized site presents
discussions on topics in forensic mathematics, software, data, a bibliography
with links to the full text of articles, and links to other sites in forensic DNA
analysis.

Forensic Entomology
"Forensic Entomology, or Medicocriminal Entomology, is the science of using insect
evidence to uncover circumstances of interest to the law, often related to a crime. The
time of death, for example, can usually be determined using insect evidence gat hered
from and around a corpse, provided the evidence is properly collected, preserved and
analyzed by an appropriately educated forensic entomologist. Insect scientists, or
entomologists, are being called upon with increasing frequency to apply their kno
wledge and expertise to criminal and civil proceedings. They are also recognized
members of forensic laboratories and medical/legal investigation teams." (American
Board of Forensic Entomology 2003).
American Board of Forensic Entomology (ABFE)
{http://www.forensicentomologist.org/}
The ABFE constitutes the first step toward a professional organization with
strict educational, ethical and maintenance standards. The ABFE site provides a
short but informative overview of the science and history of forensic
entomology, as well as case studies in forensic entomology.
Forensic Entomology Pages, International
{http://folk.uio.no/mostarke/forens_ent/forensic_entomology.html}
Created by Morten Stærkeby, a graduate student in entomology at the
University of Oslo, who is now an independent consultant in forensic
entomology in Norway. This web site provides a comprehensive overview of
the many uses of insect and arthropod evidence as evidence. The organized site
lists sections describing protocol and information regarding entomology in
establishing time of death, movement of corpses, common insects found on
bodies and case histories.
Forensic Entomology: Insects in Legal Investigations
http://www.forensicentomology.com/index.html
Created by Dr. J.H. Byrd of the Department of Criminal Justice at the Virginia
Commonwealth University, this site includes definitions, death scene
procedures, life cycles, information on entomological collection equipment, an
entomological field notes death scene form in pdf, and further links.

Ethics in Forensic Science


Ethics in Science
{http://www.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/ethics/}
A hypermedia page residing in the Department of Chemistry, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, with links to
fulltext articles, bibliographies and selected essays on ethics in science. This
page is no longer updated on a regular basis but most of the links are not
dependent on their currency.
American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Ethical Guidelines for the Practice of
Forensic Psychiatry
{http://www.forensic-psych.com/articles/artEthics.php}
Ethical guidelines for forensic psychiatrists adopted May, 1987 and revised
October, 1989.
American Society of Crime Lab Directors Code of Ethics
{http://www.ascld.org/ethics.html}
The major responsibility of the Ethics Committee is to handle all ethics
complaints brought before the ASCLD Board of Directors and apply them to
the Code of Ethics via the Enforcement Procedure of the Code of Ethics.

Explosives
International Association of Bomb Technicians and Investigators (IABTI)
http://www.iabti.org/
Founded in 1973, the IABTI "is an independent, non-profit professional
association formed for countering the criminal use of explosives." The site
provides information on the organization and links to {explosives
manufacturers}. Links to explosives manufacturers are limited to advertisers
in The Detonator and exhibitors at the International Association of Bomb
Technicians and Investigators (IABTI) regional and international conferences.
Links to bomb squad web sites are only accessible to members.
Analysis and Detection of Explosives: Published Papers, Reports and Presentations,
1988-1998
{ncfs.ucf.edu/twgfex/docs/Analysis_and_Detection_of_Explosives.pdf}
A reference bibliography compiled in 1999 by Charles R. Midkiff of the
Technical Working Group for Fire and Explosives (TWGFEX).

Firearms, Tool Marks & Ballistics


Ballistics is the "study of a projectile in motion" (Brenner 2002) while firearms
identification is primarily concerned with determining if a bullet, cartridge case or
other ammunition component was fired by a particular firearm (Brenner 2002). These
terms are often confused. Tool marks, or toolmarks, are marks left on an item by a
tool; in the case of firearms, marks left by a part of the firearm on a cartridge case.
Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE)
http://www.afte.org/
Formed in 1969 to address the requirements of firearms and toolmark
examiners, the AFTE publishes the AFTE Journal. This site
includes: Ammunition Manufacturers/Distributors , an alphabetical list of
ammunition manufacturers and distributors; Firearm
Manufacturers/Distributors, an alphabetical list of firearm manufacturers and
distributors; and Ballistics Links, an alphabetically arranged metasite of
ballistics links.
firearmsID.com
http://www.firearmsid.com/
firearmsID.com is a non-profit web site maintained by Jeffrey Scott Doyle
(Firearm and Tool Mark Examiner with the Kentucky State Police Jefferson
Regional Forensic Lab), that exists solely as an educational and/or investigative
aid. This web site provides an extensive introduction to firearms identification.
It is arranged by broad categories: Firearm identification, distance
determinations, firearm function testing, expert witness testimony, new
technologies - INIS, DrugFire, case profiles, the history of firearms ID, and
career information.
Firearms Tutorial
{http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/TUTORIAL/GUNS/GUNINTRO.html}
This illustrated tutorial is "designed to give you a working knowledge of the
types of firearms, the types of ammunition used, the nature of injuries that can
be produced in the body, and the investigative techniques employed by the
forensic pathologist in assessing firearms injuries." This tutorial is one of many
created by The Internet Pathology Laboratory for Medical Education at Florida
State University College of Medicine. This resource is designed for students
and workers in the health care sciences studying pathology. Warning: Some of
the images are quite graphic!
How Do Bullets Fly?
http://www.nennstiel-ruprecht.de/bullfly/index.htm#Top_of_page
"This document attempts to explain the basics of the complicated subject of
bullet motion through the atmosphere and avoids formulas as well as
mathematics, but expects familiarity with the way of physical thinking. It
includes new experimental observations of bullets fired from small arms, both
at short and at long ranges. Numerous illustrations are included and can be
viewed via links to promote further understanding. This article is also thought
[of] as an introduction for all types of readers (hunters, sportsmen, ballisticians,
forensic scientists), interested in the 'mysteries' of the exterior ballistics of
bullets, fired from small arms." The author includes links to formulas related to
bullet motion. The author is Ruprecht Nennstiel of Wiesbaden, Germany.
Feasibility of a California Ballistics Identification System
{www.guncite.com/CA_study.pdf}
The California Department of Justice submitted the results to the Legislature in
January 2003 on the feasibility of a ballistic fingerprinting database in
California. The more technical information is contained in the Appendices to
the report. Some of the "exhibits" in the appendices are not provided fulltext in
the report but can be found fulltext on the Web or by contacting the authors of
each appendix.

Forensic Odontology
"Odontology is the study of teeth. Forensic odontology is a specialized field of
dentistry where, in a death investigation, identity has sometimes been established
through analysis of the teeth and accompanying dental prosthetics, fillings and
compou nds" (Virginia Institute of Forensic Science and Medicine 2003).
American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO)
http://www.abfo.org/
The American Board of Forensic Odontology was organized in 1976 under the
auspices of the National Institute of Justice with the mission to establish,
enhance, and revise as necessary, standards of qualifications for those who
practice forensic odontology, and to certify as qualified specialists those
voluntary applicants who comply with the requirements of the Board. Detailed
ABFO guidelines on human identification, bitemarks, development of a dental
ID team and missing person and unidentified body cases are available in the
{ID & Bitemark Guidelines} section.
Bureau of Legal Dentistry (BOLD)
http://www.boldlab.org/
The Bureau of Legal Dentistry provides current bibliographies on "Human,
Animal Bites", "DNA Methods", "Mass Fatalities", "Human Identification",
"Domestic Violence", and "Dental Jurisprudence" in the Research area.
Forensic Dentistry Online
http://www.forensicdentistryonline.org/
A web site by the International Organisation for Forensic Odontostomotology
(IOFOS) devoted to forensic dentistry. Includes information on identifications,
bitemarks, journals and books on this fascinating subject. The links on the right
side of the page are particularly useful. Many lead to fulltext articles. The
IOFOS publishes theJournal of Forensic Odontostomatology.
Issues in Human and Animal Bite Mark (Bitemark) Management
http://www.forensic.to/webhome/bitemarks/
Created by Mike Bowers, a forensic odontologist, this site provides a
comprehensive overview, accessible through a hyperlinked table of contents, of
bite marks in forensic sciences.

Questioned Document Examination


"A document is any material that conveys a message whether visible, invisible, or
partially visible. Where a question, such as authorship or authenticity, arises in
reference to a document, the document should be submitted to a Questioned
Documents Examiner" (Mid-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists 2003). "The
application of allied sciences and analytical techniques to questions concerning
documents is termed forensic document examination. The examination of questioned
documents consists of the analysis and comparison of questioned handwriting, hand
printing, typewriting, commercial printing, photocopies, papers, inks, and other
documentary evidence with known material in order to establish the authenticity of
the contested material as well as the detection of alterations" (Document Examination
Consultants, Inc. 2003). "The terms forensic documents examinations (examiners)
should be considered interchangeable with the terms questioned documents
examinations (examiners) in light of the fact that 'forensic' is typically defined as
'pertaining to legal proceedings' " (Mid-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists
2003).
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners
http://www.asqde.org/
"The ASQDE was formally established on September 2, 1942. The purposes of
the Society and of its members are to foster education, sponsor scientific
research, establish standards, exchange experience, provide instruction in the
field of questioned document examination, and to promote justice in matters
that involve questions about documents." The site has an up-to-date database of
court decisions relating to expert testimony about handwriting and document
comparisons. ASQDE publishes the Journal of the American Society of
Questioned Document Examiners.
American Board of Forensic Document Examiners
http://www.abfde.org/
Established in 1977, this organization provides a program of certification in
forensic document examination with the dual purpose of serving the public
interest and promoting the advancement of forensic science. Current
employment opportunities are listed in the Jobs section and the Links section
has some interesting links to cases involving questioned documents and legal
issues.
Questioned Documents Site of Emily J. Will
http://www.qdewill.com/
Created by Emily J. Will, a Certified Document Examiner, this is a useful place
to start for an overview of questioned document examination.
Identifont
http://www.identifont.com/index.html
"Identifont uses a proprietary expert system to identify a typeface based on
information about specific characteristics of the typeface." Identifont was
designed and developed by Human-Computer Interface, a documentation and
information desi gn company specialising in high tech products. Scan the text,
upload the image, and this site will attempt to identify the font.
Virtual Typewriter Museum
http://www.typewritermuseum.org/
The Virtual Typewriter Museum was conceived, designed and produced by
mmworks, a Dutch based web design company, and is edited by Paul Robert. A
virtual museum, based on private collections from around the world.
The Classic Typewriter Page
{http://staff.xu.edu/~polt/typewriters/index.html}
Information on typewriters is becoming harder to find, so this site is a welcome
addition to the Internet. Maintained by Richard Polt, a Professor of Philosophy
at Xavier University in Cinncinatti, Ohio, the "Typewriter Facts" section is
useful to questioned document examiners while the remainder of the links are
more for typewriter enthusiasts.
Bookbinding: A Tutorial
http://www.cs.uiowa.edu/~jones/book/
Originally created in 1995, "Bookbinding: A Tutorial" is maintained by
Douglas W. Jones, of the University of Iowa Department of Computer Science
and Center for the Book. This text was written after consultation with staff of
the University of Iowa Book Conservation Laboratory, and an early draft of
this text was reviewed by a preservation librarian for the Research Libraries
Group. Access to the information is in the form of a hyperlinked table of
contents with links to other resources at the end.
Omniglot
http://www.omniglot.com/
"This web site provides a guide to over 200 different alphabets, syllabaries and
other writing systems, including a few you will find nowhere else. It also
contains details of many of the languages written with those writing systems
and links to a wide range of language-related resources, such as fonts, online
dictionaries and online language courses." The A-Z Index of all the writing
systems and languages featured on this site is comprehensive and extensive,
detailing the alphabets of each language. The site was created by Simon Ager, a
web developer from England with a keen interest in languages.
CounterSpace
{http://www.counterspace.us/typography/}
A web site dedicated to typography and its history. Although there is not much
information on the authority of the site, the content is trustworthy and well
designed. Particularly of use to someone new to questioned document
examination is the Anatomy section.
fonts.com
{http://www.fonts.com/FindFonts/search.htm}
This site allows for on-line viewing of samples of all fonts in the monotype
catalog. The "Search By Sight" feature enables you to identify a font from a
sample by answering a series of simple questions. It is ideal if you want to
match an existing ty peface, or identify a typeface you have seen in a
publication. You can also search by keyword, classification or designer, in
addition to browsing alphabetically by font family. Fonts.com is owned and
operated by Agfa Monotype Corporation, a worldwide marketer over 8,000
high-quality fonts.

Terminology
Glossary of Terms of the Death Investigation
{http://www.vifsm.org/assets/glossary.html}
A single page glossary of forensics terms maintained by the Virginia Institute
of Forensic Science and Medicine.
Forensic DNA Glossary
{http://www.forensicdna.com/DNAGlossary.htm}
This work appears as Appendix A in "An Introduction to Forensic DNA
Analysis, 2nd edition", by Norah Rudin and Keith Inman, CRC Press, 2002
(Inman and Rudin 2002).
Glossary of Typography
{http://www.counterspace.us/typography/}
Choose the glossary option from the menu bar at the top of the screen to access
the extensive definitions of terms of interest to questioned document
examiners. Created by CounterSpace.
Glossaries in Fingerprint Analysis
Created by SWGFAST, a scientific working group of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) to create consensus standards for fingerprint analysis and
technology. The glossaries can be viewed using Adobe Acrobat.

 Friction Ridge Automation,


{http://www.swgfast.org/glsry_fr_automation_feb02.pdf}
 Anatomy, {http://www.swgfast.org/glsry_anatomy_feb02.pdf}
 Identification, {http://www.swgfast.org/glsry_identification_feb02.pdf}
 Identification (Supplement),
{http://www.swgfast.org/glsry_identification_supplement_feb02.pdf}
 Fingerprint Classification,
{http://www.swgfast.org/glsry_fp_class_feb02.pdf}
 Latent Print Processing,
{http://www.swgfast.org/glsry_lp_processing_feb02.pdf}

Genetics and DNA Glossaries


Glossaries created by Promega Corporation, a reagent and reagent systems
supply company. Both glossaries are arranged alphabetically with a
hyperlinked alphabetic index at the top.

 {Genetic Identity Glossary}


 {Acronyms Used in the Literature of Genome Research}
The first time you connect, you will need to select your location before
you can get to the glossary.

On-Line Medical Dictionary (OMD)


{http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/}
"OMD is a searchable dictionary created by Dr. Graham Dark and contains
terms relating to biochemistry, cell biology, chemistry, medicine, molecular
biology, physics, plant biology, radiobiology, science and technology. It
includes acronyms, jarg on, theory, conventions, standards, institutions,
projects, eponyms, history, in fact anything to do with medicine or science. It
aims to provide a one-stop source of information about all medical and
scientific terms and includes many useful cross-refere nces and pointers to
related resources elsewhere on the Internet, as well as bibliographical reference
to paper publications. It lacks many entries which one can find in paper
dictionaries but contains more encyclopedia-like entries and entries on various
subjects. It also contains many definitions in related areas. The dictionary
started in early 1997 and has grown, to contain over 46,000 definitions."
Entries are cross-referenced to each other and to related resources elsewhere on
the net.
Forensic Botany Glossary

Archaeology and anthropology are the study of historic human remains and the objects, buildings
and other artefacts associated with them. Forensic archaeologists and anthropologists can apply the
same techniques to crime scenes, to get evidence from human remains, as well as from drugs, guns
or stolen goods found at crime scenes, whether recent or decades old.

TYPES OF FORENSIC

Forensic Archaeology
A forensic archaeologist’s first involvement may be to help the police locate the site where a body
and victim’s personal items, or stolen goods are buried, through geological and geophysical
surveying techniques, as well as using imaging and photography.

The forensic archaeologist may also help with the excavation, using similar tools and expertise to
those used at an archaeological dig. This has to be done slowly and painstakingly, and the
archaeologists will record and preserve anything found at every stage and depth (for example paint
flakes, hair, clothing or DNA) as it may be vital evidence. The colour and state of the soil may be
useful in the investigation.

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Forensic archaeologists can date items found in grave sites, including bones, using a range of
techniques. Carbon dating can determine whether the grave site is recent or ancient.
Forensic archaeologists may be involved in the excavation of mass graves to produce evidence for
war crimes trials, or in the collecting and collating of human remains and personal effects at mass
fatalities, such as bomb or gas explosions, or plane crashes.

Evidence from forensic archaeologists about how materials degrade or decompose over time and in
specific conditions is important, as this can help determine, for example, how long a body has been
buried by the state of the clothes or the surrounding soil, or how long stolen goods have been buried
by the subsequent damage to metal and other materials.

Forensic archaeologists may have to give evidence in court as an expert witness, and need to be
able to communicate complex issues to a lay audience. They may also have to communicate with
distressed and bereaved relatives.

Forensic Anthropology
Forensic anthropologists work with human skeletons or bodies that are unrecognisable (through
burning, mutilation or mummification) in order to help identify individuals and discover the cause of
death.

Forensic anthropologists can identify bones and fragments of bones, initially determining whether
they are human or animal. The size and shape of the skeleton can help determine the race, sex, age
height and build of the victim, and the bones can help determine the cause of death (accidental,
intentional, or through disease), and whether any injury to the bones was before, during or after
death (pre-, peri- or post-mortem).

Using computer techniques, forensic anthropologists can create faces from just skulls, which can
help in identifying victims. This is based on the anatomy and physiology of bone and muscle, as well
as artistic knowledge of human form, but may not be admissible as evidence.

Like many other branches of forensic sciences, forensic anthropologists may have to give evidence
in court and speak with people who have lost a friend or member of their family.

orensic Accounting is a field of forensic science that - although it may not sound particularly
interesting - has its place and is very useful when it comes to investigating fraud cases.

It is worth mentioning at this point that not all aspects of forensic science are geared towards the
solving of murders or violent crimes; sometimes crimes on a smaller, but just as important, scale
require forensic assistance of one kind or another.

Forensic Accounting

What Forensic Accountants Do


A forensic accountant is charged with the task of pouring over vast amounts of figures in order to
find out where illegal financial practices have taken place and whether or not companies or
individuals have been fraudulently treated by a person or company acting on their behalf.
In a lot of these investigations the figures of company accounts have been altered to show a shortfall
or loss whereas in actual fact the company has made considerable profits and may not wish to pay
the relevant taxes on them. Also members of staff who are positions of authority have been known to
set up dummy corporations to siphon off large amounts of money which can then be used later for
their own personal ends.

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A forensic accountant will seek to trace any financial discrepancies within a company's accounts and
use so-called 'paper trails' or 'audit trails' to try and locate missing monies and also to find out who
misappropriated them to begin with.

Another of the forensic accountant's remits is to liase with officers of the Fraud Squad in order to
keep them up to date with his or her findings and also to try and find out from them what it is they
should be looking for.

Common Crimes For Forensic Accountants


There are many different ways in which accounts can be mismanaged or deliberately defrauded but
the most common is the keeping of two sets of accounts; one which details exactly what is coming in
and going out of a company's accounts, the other for the purposes of tax audits and the likes which
show an entirely different set of figures and which can be used for defrauding the Inland Revenue
and Customs and Excise.

A forensic accountant will also be asked to look into insurance claims where there are extremely
high payouts to be made - not with the intention of refusing to make the payout - but to ensure that
all is above board and that the payouts are not being made as a result of a fraudulent claim. It is
estimated that the amount of money fraudulently claimed every year in the United Kingdom through
this underhand practice runs into several billion.

It is important to mention also that a forensic accountant may not necessarily be employed directly
by the police force investigating any wrong doings but may simply be acting as a third party - or
expert witness - for the police who can call upon them if a criminal investigation goes to court.
Forensic accountants have the power only to seize and examine only those accounts which are
under scrutiny and any other documents or procedures can only be carried out - especially if a police
investigation is ongoing - only with the police's express permission.
Forensic Toxicology

The field of forensic science has come a long way – this is particularly true in the area of forensic
toxicology, which is both fascinating and important for many applications. Forensic toxicology deals
with the investigation of toxic substances, environmental chemicals or poisonous products. If you
have ever been asked to take a drug test for work or you know someone who has, then you are
already familiar with one of the applications of forensic toxicology. The toxicology part refers to the
methods used to study these substances. Forensic toxicology is actually a bit of a mix of many other
scientific disciplines such as chemistry, pathology and biochemistry. It also shares ties with some of
the environmental sciences.

Using Forensic Toxicology Today


Currently, this area of forensics has evolved to mean the study of illegal drugs and legal ones such
as alcohol. Forensic toxicology can even identify poisons and hazardous chemicals. The chemical
makeup of each substance is studied and they are also identified from different sources such as
urine or hair. Forensic toxicology deals with the way that substances are absorbed, distributed or
eliminated in the body – the metabolism of substances. When learning about drugs and how they act
in the body, forensic toxicology will study where the drug affects the body and how this occurs.

Obtaining Samples for Toxicology Testing


Before toxicology testing can go forward, samples need to be taken. You might be surprised to know
just how many parts of your body can produce samples that are effective for identifying drugs. One
example is urine, which is commonly used in forensic toxicology. It's an easy sample to obtain and
relatively rapid and non-invasive. It can show substances even several weeks after their ingestion.
One example would be the drug marijuana, which can be detected even two weeks following use of
the drug. When a urine sample is taken, however, there are sometimes rules and regulations around
how the sample is collected. If the testing was related to workplace drug testing, a person could
substitute a sample from someone else that would then show a negative result. For this reason,
there are sometimes parameters around reasonable supervision when a person has to provide a
urine sample.

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Blood samples are another body sample used for forensic toxicology. A huge range of toxic
substances can be tested from a blood sample. You may already be familiar with blood alcohol
testing used to assess if a person was driving under the influence of alcohol. This type of testing is
important in assessing if a driver is above the legal limit and it is also used to prove a case in court.

Hair samples are a good way to test for substance abuse that has occurred over the long-term. After
a person ingests a chemical, it ends up in the hair, where it can provide forensic toxicologists with an
estimate of the intensity and duration of drug use. Hair testing is even offered quite widely by
companies that allow you to mail in a hair sample and check off the drugs you want checked. Saliva
is another way that forensic toxicologists can test for drugs. It does, however, depend on the drug in
terms of identifying its concentration. One of the more unusual sounding but interesting ways that
the human body can be used for forensic toxicology involves the gastric contents in a deceased
person. During the autopsy, a sample of the person's gastric contents can be analysed, which then
allows the forensic toxicologist to assess if the person took any pills or liquids before their death. The
brain, liver and spleen can even be used during toxicology testing.

Forensic Toxicology Applications


While there are many uses for forensic toxicology testing, the most familiar one to most people is
likely to be drug and alcohol testing. This type of testing is commonly performed in the transportation
industry and in workplaces. Another use is for drug overdoses, whether these are intended or
accidental. People who drive with a blood alcohol concentration over the accepted legal limit can
also be assessed through toxicology testing. Another application of forensic toxicology relates to
sexual assault that involves the use of drugs. Various drugs are used today for the purposes of
rendering the victim unable to fight the attacker, who then proceeds to sexually assault the victim.
Through toxicology testing, a victim can find out what drug was given and can then be treated
accordingly.

There are a lot of substances and poisons in our world – many of which impact how we function in
work and society. For some people, these substances can influence their death. Fortunately,
forensic toxicology testing allows forensic scientists to identify substances and determine a pattern
of use. In this way, a forensic toxicologist can provide closure on the 'what if' of a person's drug
habits or perhaps some mystery surrounding their death.

o put forensic science in simply layman's terms: it is the application of scientific procedures in
conjunction with the law.Forensic science is the umbrella term for a collection of scientific
procedures that can be employed when it comes to providing evidence that a crime has been
committed and also provides ways and means of proving how a crime has been committed.

In its simplest form it can be a means by which fingerprints, fibres, DNA and bodily fluids can be
collected and stored - without contamination - so that they can be later used as evidence in a police
investigation into a specific crime - or indeed series of crimes.
Types of Forensic Science
Forensic science breaks down into the categories of:

 Forensic Science
 Forensic Medicine
 Forensic Psychology
 Forensic Dentistry
 Forensic Graphology
 Forensic Accounting
Each of these categories will at some time or other be employed in a criminal investigation and can
also be used in commercial matters such as insurance investigations, allegations of fraud and/or
corruption, and proving the paternity of an individual in an ongoing investigation relating to child
welfare.

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Forensic Science and Crime


All of these categories have their own particular specialities and it is important to recognise that the
role of Forensic Science in the area of criminal prosecution has proved vital in bringing many
criminals to justice who might have otherwise slipped through the net.

It is important to remember also that Forensic Science is not simply investigating the events
surrounding and leading up to death. It is also used to prove that serious sexual and grievous bodily
assaults have taken place and it has proved fundamental in how the legal system conducts cases
once they have been brought before a court of law.

Forensic Science Developments


In the last two decades forensic science has seen many important discoveries made and has had
many different procedures added to its remit in order to aid in the detection of criminals and also in
proving the innocence of people suspected of crimes they did not commit.

Indeed without forensic science it is fair to say that many of the crimes that are committed today in
our world would go unsolved and most definitely unpunished if it were not for these advances.

Forensic science has now become a scientific study in its own right and now includes some of the
world's most important discoveries as part of its remit. These include:

 DNA coding
 Toxicology - the study of drugs and their effects on the human body
 Serology - the study of bodily fluids
 Ballistics - the study of firearms
In addition to these studies forensic science also looks at time of death, cause of death and how a
body is disposed of. It also takes into account the fact that bodies many not necessarily have died
where they are located and techniques within the field can provide definitive proof of this through soil
analysis, examination and categorising of various pollens, and many other factors such as
temperature and weather conditions.

It is fair to say that forensic science has become one of the most important areas of scientific study
of the 20th and 21st century and will remain so for a long time to come.

Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is the forensic study of the mind and the ways in which the mind works,
especially in the instances of violent crime.

Determining The Reasons


During the course of an investigation into a violent crime - or indeed murder - a forensic psychologist
is charged with the task of uncovering the reasons behind why an individual might carry out such an
act.

There are many different reasons as to why an individual might lash out and commit a violent act. In
some instances there are levels of extreme stress or emotional misgivings that can cause a person
to lash out and it is in these instances that a forensic psychologist will be called upon.

Forensic psychology sets out to prove the link between emotional distress, psychological strain and
violence.

What a Forensic Psychologist Does


A forensic psychologist will spend time trying to piece together the reasons behind why an individual
would commit a violent act especially if the person responsible has not yet been remanded into
custody.

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They will do this in a manner of ways; the first of which is to observe the crime scene and the
manner in which the victim was attacked or murderer. This can allude as to the mental state of the
perpetrator at the time and can determine whether or not they were in a frenzied condition or were
acting out of some predetermined calm action.

It is not uncommon for individuals to carry out a attack or murder whilst being in a calm and rational
state of mind and forensic psychology is used as a method of understanding why this is the case.

A psychologist has the job of deciphering what is true and what is a lie when a suspect is
interviewed and is also responsible for determining whether or not the suspect is of sound mind. The
condition of the suspect's mentality is of the utmost importance if the police wish to pursue a criminal
conviction; establishing that the individual has a grasp on reality and has claims over their own
responsibility is necessary if criminal proceedings are to take place.

A psychological profile is also a necessary part of the a forensic psychologist's role if the assailant is
still at large; a profile is a means by which to provide information about the suspect's current state of
mind, reasons for why he or she is pursuing the course of action they are, and what steps can be
taken to alleviate the situation without any further physical harm or loss of life.

Another aspect of this forensic psychology is a 'psychological autopsy'; this is an examination


resulting in a profile especially in those instances when an individual takes his or her own life. The
profile is designed as a way of determining whether the individual intended to take their own life or if
it was accidental. Extraneous influences such as alcohol, drugs, high financial and personal stress
can lead to this sort of event taking place; and with this in mind a forensic psychologist must
determine the facts - or least try to piece their last hours or days together - to the best of their
abilities.

Forensic Pathology
Pathology is the study of disease and its causes. Forensic pathology involves discovering the
cause of death, especially in cases where it is sudden or the police suspect that it has not occurred
by natural causes. A forensic pathologist is a medical doctor trained in pathology.

Forensic pathology dates back to the 16th century in Europe.

Determining How Someone Died


The first stage is to conduct a post-mortem (also known as an ‘autopsy’). This involves first examining
the body and looking at its external appearance to help identification and to begin to determine how the
person died – for example looking for evidence of blows, looking at the size, shape and location of
wounds such as stab wounds or bullet entry points, or looking for signs of asphyxia.

The pathologist will then begin surgical procedures and study the internal organs to see how
external injuries connect to internal injuries, for example bruising of the brain following a head
injury, or damage to the heart and blood vessels following a stabbing or shooting, and look for
evidence of disease as a cause of death, for example heart attack, stroke, aneurysm or infection.

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The stomach contents may provide clues to the time circumstances or cause of death. The
forensic pathologist will also look for microscopic changes in the tissues to support these
observations.

The autopsy may also include taking samples that may lead to conviction of a murderer or rapist
including taking samples from under fingernails, or samples of semen from vaginal swabs.

The pathologist will need to take precautions to protect him or herself and other staff if the
victim died of (or with) an infectious disease such as HIV.

The circumstances or state in which the victim was fund can cause problems for the pathologist –
for example if the body was found in water, or in a significant state of decomposition.

Determining Why Someone Died


As well as looking at how someone died, the forensic pathologist will determine why he or she died –
was it an accident or natural causes, or was it suicide or murder. Sometimes the cause of death remains
undetermined.

Forensic pathologists may also have to help identify the dead person, which can include looking
at medical records and dental records, especially if the face has been mutilated.

The Working Life


Forensic pathologists may have to give evidence at coroner’s courts and Crown courts, and have to be
able to communicate clearly to experts and lay people, including bereaved families.

The pathologist will work with other branches of forensic sciences and medicine and will use the
resources of biochemists, pharmacologists, microbiologists and haematologists.

Working as a forensic pathologist can be quite harrowing, and to cope, pathologists have to be
able to separate themselves from their cases. This may include developing what seems to be a
rather grim sense of humour to outsiders.
Developments In Forensic Pathology
Some forensic pathologists are looking at MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) as an alternative or in
addition to autopsy, but it does not seem to offer enough detail.

Forensic Medicine
Where forensic science is the study of those things that may contribute - or be attributed - to the
death of a victim, forensic medicine is the natural progression and is the study of how the body died.

Most of us will see a corpse on television or at the cinema and many think that it looks brutal but the
reality is a lot less sanitised than what the media would like to portray: forensic medicine deals
primarily with the how and why of death as opposed to the surroundings, the ambient temperature
and so on.

How Forensic Medicine is Used


To explain briefly how forensic medicine is best used it is perhaps best to look at this scenario; a
body is found in a field with no visible signs of injury - mortal or otherwise. How did the body get
there, how did the victim die, who might have been responsible? These are the questions that
forensic medicine seeks to answer using recognised medical procedures as a means of doing so.

Forensic medicine is also used to identify the victims of murder when identification proves otherwise
impossible. And this can be done by using dental records, birthmarks, tattoos or scars, and other
visible bodily signs.

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Indeed sometimes forensic medicine is called upon to reconstruct the face of a victim decades after
they died using detailed computer programs, artists impressions and even clay modelling to build up
a picture of the face based solely on the skull and skeletal remains.

Forensic medicine is - for the most part - a study in death and the events leading up to the death of
an individual and more often than not a pathologist will be called upon to perform an autopsy - or in
the case of a serious sexual assault - blood, hair, fibre and DNA samples taken to help strengthen
the case against an alleged attacker.
Of course Forensic Medicine is not just the study of how people die but certain aspects of it are
geared towards finding out why people die. That perhaps sounds a strange statement to make but
there are instances when the human body simply stops working. When this happens there might not
have been any ill health or illness diagnosed and indeed - if a person dies without having seen a
doctor within a set time frame prior to their death - an autopsy is required to define cause of death
before the deceased can be buried.

This also allows for all walks of medicine to learn and provides students with the opportunity to see
for themselves what can happen and the reasons for it when it comes to death.

Forensic Medicine also provides us with clues to our ancestry with tests being carried out on
Mitochondrial DNA - that strand of DNA that is passed down through the generations between
bloodlines.

All of these things fall under the remit of Forensic Science and help to not only detect when an
unlawful killing has taken place but also helps to give us an insight into how the human body works,
why it works in the way it does, and likewise why sometimes it refuses to work at all.

Forensic Graphology
Forensic Graphology is the study of handwriting especially that found in ransom notes, poison pen
letters or blackmail demands.

Forensic Graphology and Crime Solving


Although this is a recognised and called upon scientific technique Forensic Graphology cannot tell a
person's age or sex from the handwriting. What it can do however is give indications as to the
person's state of mind at the time of producing a particular document, be it a blackmail letter, a
poison pen letter or a suicide note.

A Graphologist looks for insights into some of the following:

 Mood
 Motivation
 Integrity
 Intelligence
 Emotional Stability
A Graphologist will examine an individual's handwriting for signs of some or all of the above and
there may be other factors that interest them as well, depending on the reasoning behind their
involvement in a particular investigation.

During the course of an investigation a Graphologist will be called upon to offer advice as to how the
individual was feeling at the time of writing their document and how they wrote the document.
Examining The Writing
Aspects of the writing process include examining slants and size of the writing, how the writing was
put onto the paper - was it written softly or heavily scrawled - and how the individual writing the letter
might speak.

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This may not sound important but you can tell a lot about a person by the way they write - or more
importantly - in the words they write. It has become commonplace now for us as individuals to write
in the same manner as we speak, using abbreviations, slang and colloquialisms that vary from
person to person and indeed place to place. These are important and a Graphologist can make good
use of these things during the investigative process.

Also they may be called upon to examine what may be suspicious - or fraudulent - documents as is
sometimes the case with insurance claims and indeed in some rare instances, police statements
where there have been allocations of corruption.

How Graphologists Work


A Graphologist will employ the use of what is called an ESDA test: Electrostatic Development of
Indented Writing Impressions. This test is used to bring to the fore evidence on paper that is not
visible to the naked eye. For example an ESDA test can determine whether or not a document has
been altered by being rewritten on top of another document or if there any fingerprints on the
paperwork, which might not be visible.

Working Together
Another important aspect of a Forensic Graphologist is to help provide a usable profile in conjunction
with a forensic psychologist that police can use in order to draw up a list of suspects.

Profiling an individual's writing can prove immensely valuable and can throw up evidence as to their
state of mind, their education, their intellect and also their egotistical tendencies. Some writers of
poison pen letters or ransom demands may make outrageous claims or disparaging remarks which
when directed at the person receiving the letters can lead to a name being given as a possible
suspect.

It is important to note however that no two individual's handwriting is the same and also you cannot
tell their sex or race from their handwriting but it can give interesting clues as to their mental and
emotional state.
Forensic Entomology
Entomology is the study of insects, and forensic entomologists use insects to provide more
information about crimes.

The first record of the use of forensic entomology is Song Ci (sometimes called Sung Tz’u), a lawyer
in 13th century China.

The live and dead insects found at the site of a crime can tell the forensic entomologist many things,
including when and where crimes took place, whether the victim had been given drugs, and in
murder cases, the time since death, and the length of time the body had been there.

When and Where


Some insects are only found in specific areas, so finding these at a crime scene can help find out
where the crime took place – for example finding insects that are most common near water on body
that is found inland could suggest that the body has been moved.

Some insects are only active at night, or during the day, so finding these could support evidence of
when a crime took place. For example, a suspect may claim to only have driven during the day, but
evidence of night-flying insects on the suspect’s car would go against this.

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Drugs
By analysing the bodies, shed skins or faeces of flesh-eating insects found at a crime scene
(entomotoxicology), forensic entomologists may be able to determine whether drugs were used, and
which they were.

DNA
Forensic scientists can extract the DNA from blood consumed by blood-sucking insects. This can be
used to place someone at the scene of a crime, supported by evidence of bite marks.

Insects In Murder Cases


Some insects scavenge dead flesh or lay eggs in dead bodies. Forensic entomologists study the
kinds of insects found in and near bodies, and by knowing the life cycles of the different insects, and
the stages of decomposition when different insects populate dead bodies, can determine the time
since death (post-mortem interval) or the length of time the body has been there, if it has been
moved since death.
The first insects on bodies are usually flies, including houseflies. Different flies arrive at different
stages – some are attracted to newly dead bodies, others will only arrive three to six months after
death. Beetles tend to arrive as the body decomposes.

The succession of flies and the length of their life cycles will depend on the location, time of year,
weather, and whether the body was on the surface or buried.

Some bees and wasps predate flies and their larvae, and can cause difficulties by removing the
insects used by forensic entomologists to study the crime scene.

Insects In Abuse Cases


Insects can be used as evidence in human and animal abuse and neglect cases – for example, flies
can lay eggs in untreated wounds, and flies will be attracted to unchanged nappies or incontinence
pads in neglected babies and elderly or disabled people.

Other Examples
Insects can walk through bloodstains and leave bloodstained droppings at crime scenes, which can
cause confusion.

Insects and insect bodies can help identify the country of origin of illegally imported vegetable
matter, such as cannabis.

Bee and wasp stings can cause car accidents, and the police may call in forensic entomologists to
confirm this as a cause.

Forensic Archaeology
Archaeology and anthropology are the study of historic human remains and the objects, buildings
and other artefacts associated with them. Forensic archaeologists and anthropologists can apply the
same techniques to crime scenes, to get evidence from human remains, as well as from drugs, guns
or stolen goods found at crime scenes, whether recent or decades old.

Forensic Archaeology
A forensic archaeologist’s first involvement may be to help the police locate the site where a body
and victim’s personal items, or stolen goods are buried, through geological and geophysical
surveying techniques, as well as using imaging and photography.

The forensic archaeologist may also help with the excavation, using similar tools and expertise to
those used at an archaeological dig. This has to be done slowly and painstakingly, and the
archaeologists will record and preserve anything found at every stage and depth (for example paint
flakes, hair, clothing or DNA) as it may be vital evidence. The colour and state of the soil may be
useful in the investigation.
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Forensic archaeologists can date items found in grave sites, including bones, using a range of
techniques. Carbon dating can determine whether the grave site is recent or ancient.

Forensic archaeologists may be involved in the excavation of mass graves to produce evidence for
war crimes trials, or in the collecting and collating of human remains and personal effects at mass
fatalities, such as bomb or gas explosions, or plane crashes.

Evidence from forensic archaeologists about how materials degrade or decompose over time and in
specific conditions is important, as this can help determine, for example, how long a body has been
buried by the state of the clothes or the surrounding soil, or how long stolen goods have been buried
by the subsequent damage to metal and other materials.

Forensic archaeologists may have to give evidence in court as an expert witness, and need to be
able to communicate complex issues to a lay audience. They may also have to communicate with
distressed and bereaved relatives.

Forensic Anthropology
Forensic anthropologists work with human skeletons or bodies that are unrecognisable (through
burning, mutilation or mummification) in order to help identify individuals and discover the cause of
death.

Forensic anthropologists can identify bones and fragments of bones, initially determining whether
they are human or animal. The size and shape of the skeleton can help determine the race, sex, age
height and build of the victim, and the bones can help determine the cause of death (accidental,
intentional, or through disease), and whether any injury to the bones was before, during or after
death (pre-, peri- or post-mortem).

Using computer techniques, forensic anthropologists can create faces from just skulls, which can
help in identifying victims. This is based on the anatomy and physiology of bone and muscle, as well
as artistic knowledge of human form, but may not be admissible as evidence.

Like many other branches of forensic sciences, forensic anthropologists may have to give evidence
in court and speak with people who have lost a friend or member of their family.

Next Page

Forensic Dentistry
Forensic Dentistry is the area of forensic medicine concerned with the examination of teeth,
especially in the cases of victims who cannot be identified by conventional means or when an
attacker bites a victim and leaves bite marks behind.

Forensic dentistry seeks to help the police and other law enforcement authorities with cutting edge
techniques in order to make identifications based upon the uniqueness of both teeth and the marks
they leave behind when they are used to bite another human being.

Dentistry as Evidence
Using specific highly technical procedures a forensic dentist can provide accurate estimates as to
the age of a victim, when they died and can also take DNA samples from the teeth for use in the
identification process. As teeth are one of the only things remaining when a body decomposes they
are useful for extrapolating DNA samples along with bone marrow and hair.

Forensic dentistry can also be used to determine whether or not a bite mark has been made by
natural or synthetic teeth (dentures) and as we have already mentioned each bite mark is different
from person to person.

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Bite marks, like fingerprints, are unique and a forensic dentist will be able to make a cast or take
pictures of the bite marks (which bruise in the same way as a wound caused by blunt force trauma
or the result of a tightly held grip) to use later on as a means of comparing results.

A human bite mark will often be elliptical or circular in formation and will display the specific
characteristics of the teeth that have been used to make the mark. Likewise a bite mark will can be
U-shaped in appearance with a space in between to show where the biter has opened their mouth to
a width necessary to get their teeth around a wrist or an arm.

The mistreatment of teeth also has a large part to play in the identification of bite marks. Missing
teeth, fractures or malformed teeth all bear their own unique characteristics and these show when a
bite mark is examined. As do the position of the incisors within the biter's mouth and whether or not
these incisors - which appear as triangular shaped wounds or marks on the skin of the person who
has been bitten - are in good order.

It is possible that - given enough force in the jaw of the person doing the biting - that the skin can be
penetrated and in addition to leaving bruises they can leave cuts that, when swabbed, can contain
saliva, which can in itself be used as a means of identification through DNA testing.
It is also important to note that bite marks can be taken not just from the skin of a victim but also
from items found at a crime scene. For example a half eaten apple will provide the forensic scientists
- or Scenes of Crime Officer - with a usable impression of a possible assailant's mouth: and likewise
if someone were to - say - chew on the end of a pencil or matchstick. Bite marks can be used to
stunning effect in the pursuit of an assailant and these bite marks - as we have already said - can
also provide saliva that can provide usable DNA samples which help making the identification of a
suspect that much easier.

When examining teeth in order to make the comparison between bite mark and origin of bite mark a
clinical examination may take place. This examination can only be undertaken providing the suspect
gives his or her consent.

Forensic Accounting
Forensic Accounting is a field of forensic science that - although it may not sound particularly
interesting - has its place and is very useful when it comes to investigating fraud cases.

It is worth mentioning at this point that not all aspects of forensic science are geared towards the
solving of murders or violent crimes; sometimes crimes on a smaller, but just as important, scale
require forensic assistance of one kind or another.

What Forensic Accountants Do


A forensic accountant is charged with the task of pouring over vast amounts of figures in order to
find out where illegal financial practices have taken place and whether or not companies or
individuals have been fraudulently treated by a person or company acting on their behalf.

In a lot of these investigations the figures of company accounts have been altered to show a shortfall
or loss whereas in actual fact the company has made considerable profits and may not wish to pay
the relevant taxes on them. Also members of staff who are positions of authority have been known to
set up dummy corporations to siphon off large amounts of money which can then be used later for
their own personal ends.

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A forensic accountant will seek to trace any financial discrepancies within a company's accounts and
use so-called 'paper trails' or 'audit trails' to try and locate missing monies and also to find out who
misappropriated them to begin with.
Another of the forensic accountant's remits is to liase with officers of the Fraud Squad in order to
keep them up to date with his or her findings and also to try and find out from them what it is they
should be looking for.

Common Crimes For Forensic Accountants


There are many different ways in which accounts can be mismanaged or deliberately defrauded but
the most common is the keeping of two sets of accounts; one which details exactly what is coming in
and going out of a company's accounts, the other for the purposes of tax audits and the likes which
show an entirely different set of figures and which can be used for defrauding the Inland Revenue
and Customs and Excise.

A forensic accountant will also be asked to look into insurance claims where there are extremely
high payouts to be made - not with the intention of refusing to make the payout - but to ensure that
all is above board and that the payouts are not being made as a result of a fraudulent claim. It is
estimated that the amount of money fraudulently claimed every year in the United Kingdom through
this underhand practice runs into several billion.

It is important to mention also that a forensic accountant may not necessarily be employed directly
by the police force investigating any wrong doings but may simply be acting as a third party - or
expert witness - for the police who can call upon them if a criminal investigation goes to court.
Forensic accountants have the power only to seize and examine only those accounts which are
under scrutiny and any other documents or procedures can only be carried out - especially if a police
investigation is ongoing - only with the police's express permission.

Computer Forensics Explained


In today’s ever changing criminal world the use of computers for fraud and the pursuit of other
crimes has increased to dramatic proportions. So much so that specialist departments have been
formed to help deal with the problem of computer crime.

Computer crime is not only about fraud – online or otherwise – it also encompasses areas such as
pornography, child sex abuse and the sale of black market goods online.

Pressing the Delete Key


One of the most common mistakes made by many individuals committing computer crime is that
which says pressing the delete key will get rid of any tell tale evidence; this is simply not the case.
Information that has been removed by deletion has not been removed completely from the hard
drive; the space has simply been freed up so that other information can be written over the top of it.
This in effect means the original information is still there and can be retrieved by computer forensics
officers using the correct software.

Re-Constituted Hard Drives


Another element of the computer forensics’ department’s remit is the checking of all hard drives that
are brought to them within personal computers and laptops. This can be useful in as much as many
computers are stolen and are simply wiped clean only to be sold on. However because the
knowledge of many thieves is limited all they are simply doing is writing over the computer’s original
hard drive information which can – using what is known as an ‘image’ – be restored to its original
condition thus providing valuable information as to the computer’s original owner.

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The same ‘image’ principal applies to computers which are thought to have been used by individuals
– or gangs – involved in child pornography or pornography in general. It is illegal in the United
Kingdom to view pornography via the Internet although many people may find this a strange
concept. In the United States the legal age is 21 but in the United Kingdom the activity is illegal
which is why nearly all British owned pornographic websites are hosted from serves off shore.

Forensic Accounting
There are individuals who may – for the purposes of gaining money by deception or defrauding Her
Majesty’s Revenue & Customs – alter their computerised accounting software to report figures that
are not necessarily reflective of those which have been generated originally.

In this instance a forensic accounting specialist would reconstitute the computerised accounts to
reflect the original copies that were originally kept on the hard drive or other media before being
altered. This is a long and arduous process which can take many weeks or indeed months to
complete but it is worth noting that in most cases there is a high degree of success and accuracy in
the findings of the forensics departments.

Expert Witnesses
Forensic IT specialists are often called upon to appear before a court – and a jury therein – to
explain how a series of events involving computers and computerised equipment unfolded and how
the subsequent evidence against the individuals in question was gathered.

This is called ‘providing an expert witness’ and is sometimes the most important element of any
prosecution made against an individual or group of individuals. This information must be imparted to
the jury in a manner they will understand using both visual and audio aids if required and also
demonstrations.

Computer forensics – as we have already mentioned – is fast becoming one of the most important
elements of the forensics environment and also one of the most useful tools in the arsenal of the
police in their fight against crime in its many guises.
Forensic Toxicology
The field of forensic science has come a long way – this is particularly true in the area of forensic
toxicology, which is both fascinating and important for many applications. Forensic toxicology deals
with the investigation of toxic substances, environmental chemicals or poisonous products. If you
have ever been asked to take a drug test for work or you know someone who has, then you are
already familiar with one of the applications of forensic toxicology. The toxicology part refers to the
methods used to study these substances. Forensic toxicology is actually a bit of a mix of many other
scientific disciplines such as chemistry, pathology and biochemistry. It also shares ties with some of
the environmental sciences.

Using Forensic Toxicology Today


Currently, this area of forensics has evolved to mean the study of illegal drugs and legal ones such
as alcohol. Forensic toxicology can even identify poisons and hazardous chemicals. The chemical
makeup of each substance is studied and they are also identified from different sources such as
urine or hair. Forensic toxicology deals with the way that substances are absorbed, distributed or
eliminated in the body – the metabolism of substances. When learning about drugs and how they act
in the body, forensic toxicology will study where the drug affects the body and how this occurs.

Obtaining Samples for Toxicology Testing


Before toxicology testing can go forward, samples need to be taken. You might be surprised to know
just how many parts of your body can produce samples that are effective for identifying drugs. One
example is urine, which is commonly used in forensic toxicology. It's an easy sample to obtain and
relatively rapid and non-invasive. It can show substances even several weeks after their ingestion.
One example would be the drug marijuana, which can be detected even two weeks following use of
the drug. When a urine sample is taken, however, there are sometimes rules and regulations around
how the sample is collected. If the testing was related to workplace drug testing, a person could
substitute a sample from someone else that would then show a negative result. For this reason,
there are sometimes parameters around reasonable supervision when a person has to provide a
urine sample.

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Blood samples are another body sample used for forensic toxicology. A huge range of toxic
substances can be tested from a blood sample. You may already be familiar with blood alcohol
testing used to assess if a person was driving under the influence of alcohol. This type of testing is
important in assessing if a driver is above the legal limit and it is also used to prove a case in court.
Hair samples are a good way to test for substance abuse that has occurred over the long-term. After
a person ingests a chemical, it ends up in the hair, where it can provide forensic toxicologists with an
estimate of the intensity and duration of drug use. Hair testing is even offered quite widely by
companies that allow you to mail in a hair sample and check off the drugs you want checked. Saliva
is another way that forensic toxicologists can test for drugs. It does, however, depend on the drug in
terms of identifying its concentration. One of the more unusual sounding but interesting ways that
the human body can be used for forensic toxicology involves the gastric contents in a deceased
person. During the autopsy, a sample of the person's gastric contents can be analysed, which then
allows the forensic toxicologist to assess if the person took any pills or liquids before their death. The
brain, liver and spleen can even be used during toxicology testing.

Forensic Toxicology Applications


While there are many uses for forensic toxicology testing, the most familiar one to most people is
likely to be drug and alcohol testing. This type of testing is commonly performed in the transportation
industry and in workplaces. Another use is for drug overdoses, whether these are intended or
accidental. People who drive with a blood alcohol concentration over the accepted legal limit can
also be assessed through toxicology testing. Another application of forensic toxicology relates to
sexual assault that involves the use of drugs. Various drugs are used today for the purposes of
rendering the victim unable to fight the attacker, who then proceeds to sexually assault the victim.
Through toxicology testing, a victim can find out what drug was given and can then be treated
accordingly.

There are a lot of substances and poisons in our world – many of which impact how we function in
work and society. For some people, these substances can influence their death. Fortunately,
forensic toxicology testing allows forensic scientists to identify substances and determine a pattern
of use. In this way, a forensic toxicologist can provide closure on the 'what if' of a person's drug
habits or perhaps some mystery surrounding their death.

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