EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

UNIT III

INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES

4.1 Stator Voltage Control

In this method of control, back-to-back thyristors are used to supply the motor with variable ac
voltage. The analysis implies that the developed torque varies inversely as the square of the input RMS
voltage to the motor. This makes such a drive suitable for fan- and impeller-type loads for which torque
demand rises faster with speed. For other types of loads, the suitable speed range is very limited. Motors
with high rotor resistance may offer an extended speed range. It should be noted that this type of drive
with back-to-back thyristors with firing-angle control suffers from poor power and harmonic distortion
factors when operated at low speed. If unbalanced operation is acceptable, the thyristors in one or two
supply lines to the motor may be bypassed. This offers the possibility of dynamic braking or plugging,
desirable in some applications.

FIGURE (a) Stator voltage controller. (b) Motor and load torque–speed characteristics under voltage
control.
The induction motor speed variation can be easily achieved for a short range by either stator voltage
control or rotor resistance control. But both of these schemes result in very low efficiencies at lower speeds.
The most efficient scheme for speed control of induction motor is by varying supply frequency. This not only
results in scheme with wide speed range but also improves the starting performance. If the machine is
operating at speed below base speed, then v/f ratio is to be kept constant so that flux remains constant. This
retains the torque capability of the machine at the same value. But at lower frequencies, the torque capability
decrease and this drop in torque has to be compensated for increasing the applied voltage.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

4.2 V/F Control

Open Loop V/F Control

The open loop V/F control of an induction motor is the most common method of speed control
because of its simplicity and these types of motors are widely used in industry. Traditionally, induction
motors have been used with open loop 50Hz power supplies for constant speed applications. For
adjustable speed drive applications, frequency control is natural. However, voltage is required to be
proportional to frequency so that the stator flux
Ѱs=Ѵs/Ѡs

Remains constant if the stator resistance is neglected. The power circuit consists of a diode
rectifier with a single or three-phase ac supply, filter and PWM voltage-fed inverter. Ideally no feedback
signals are required for this control scheme.
The PWM converter is merged with the inverter block. Some problems encountered in the
operation of this open loop drive are the following:
The speed of the motor cannot be controlled precisely, because the rotor speed will be slightly
less than the synchronous speed and that in this scheme the stator frequency and hence the synchronous
speed is the only control variable.
The slip speed, being the difference between the synchronous speed and the electrical rotor speed,
cannot be maintained, as the rotor speed is not measured in this scheme. This can lead to operation in the
unstable region of the torque-speed characteristics.
The effect of the above can make the stator currents exceed the rated current by a large amount
thus endangering the inverter- converter combination

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

These problems are to be suppress by having an outer loop in the induction motor drive, in which
the actual rotor speed is compared with its commanded value, and the error is processed through a
controller usually a PI controller and a limiter is used to obtain the slip-speed command

Block diagram of open loop V/F Control for an IM

Closed Loop V/F Control

The basis of constant V/F speed control of induction motor is to apply a variable magnitude and
variable frequency voltage to the motor. Both the voltage source inverter and current source inverters are
used in adjustable speed ac drives. The following block diagram shows the closed loop V/F control using
a VSI

Block diagram for closed loop V/F control for an IM

A speed sensor or a shaft position encoder is used to obtain the actual speed of the motor. It is
then compared to a reference speed. The difference between the two generates an error and the error so
obtained is processed in a Proportional controller and its output sets the inverter frequency. The
Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

synchronous speed, obtained by adding actual speed Ѡf and the slip speed ѠSI, determines the inverter
frequency The reference signal for the closed-loop control of the machine terminal voltage Ѡ f is
generated from frequency
4.3 Field Weakening Mode

In the field of closed loop controlled voltage source inverter- fed induction motors the rotor flux
oriented control scheme can be regarded as the state of the art for various applications [6]. In some
applications as spindles, traction and electric vehicle drives the availability of constant power operation is
very important. A field-oriented induction motor drive is a suitable candidate for such applications
because the flux of the induction machine can be easily weakened. In this case the drive operates close to
the voltage limit and the reference flux has to be carefully selected to achieve the maximum torque
Control of an induction motor with weakened flux has been investigated by many authors and three
methods for establishing the flux were suggested

1) The flux reference can be set according to a fixed flux- speed characteristic

2) it can be calculated from simplified motor equations, which can be improved through
consideration of additional variables
3) it can be provided by a voltage controller, which sets the flux in such a way that the voltage
required by the motor matches the voltage capability of the inverter
The third strategy seems to be optimal because it is not sensitive to parameter variations in a
middle speed region. At high speed the current has to be reduced for matching the maxi - mum torque
and for avoiding a pull-out. In this is done with a fixed current-speed characteristic which is sensitive to
parameter and DC link voltage variations. A remedy is possible if a parameter insensitive feature of the
induction machine is used for the current reduction. Such a criterion is presented and an extension of the
voltage control is presented in this paper which allows an operation with maximum torque in the whole
field weakening region

THE STEADY STATE TORQUE CAPABILITY

The investigation starts with the dynamic model of the induction motor in the rotor flux oriented frame

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

The voltage limitation curves depend on rotor speed. For every rotor speed any operation point
below the voltage and the current limitation curve is possible and permissible. Obviously three speed
regions have to be distinguished Basic speed region: At low speeds the peak of the cur- rent limit curve is
situated below the voltage limit curve (e. g. curve b) with lo00 rpm). The maximum torque is determined
by the peak of the current limitation curve and the corresponding rotor flux Root has to chosen.

Lower flux weakening region: At medium speeds the maximum torque is indicated by the
crossing of both limitation curves (e. g. curve a) and b) with 2500 rpm). The induction machine has to
run with minimum current and maximum voltage.
Upper flux weakening region: At high speeds the maxi- mum torque is fixed by the maxima of the
voltage limitation curves only. The machine has to run only with maximum voltage but the current has to
be reduced.
In the lower flux weakening region the optimum operating point can be adjusted independently of
the electrical parameters if the control scheme makes sure that the induction machine runs with
maximum current and voltage.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

Fig. 2 shows a scheme that keeps these two conditions ([3], [lo]). The voltage controller increases the
flux of the induction motor until the voltage matches the reference value us that is nearly the same as the
voltage maximum
At the basic speed region the induction motor must not run at the voltage limit. The missing
condition to adjust the operating point is replaced by the limitation of the reference flux. This is chosen as
that determined the peak of the current limitation curve.
At the upper flux weakening region the limitation of the reference q-current is carried out with a
speed depending function is max (am) that is calculated offline in such a way that de reduced current
limitation curve crosses the voltage limitation curves at their maxima in Fig

Scheme of rotor flux oriented control with voltage controller

4.4 Voltage-source Inverter-driven Induction Motor

A three-phase variable frequency inverter supplying an induction motor is shown in Figure. The
power devices are assumed to be ideal switches. There are two major types of switching schemes for the
inverters, namely, square wave switching and PWM switching.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

Square wave inverters

The gating signals and the resulting line voltages for square wave switching are shown in Figure.
The phase voltages are derived from the line voltages assuming a balanced three-phase system.

A schematic of the generic inverter-fed induction motor drive.

The square wave inverter control is simple and the switching frequency and consequently,
switching losses are low. However, significant energies of the lower order harmonics and large
distortions in current wave require bulky low-pass filters. Moreover, this scheme can only achieve
frequency control. For voltage control a controlled rectifier is needed, which offsets some of the cost
advantages of the simple inverter
PWM Principle

It is possible to control the output voltage and frequency of the PWM inverter simultaneously, as
well as optimize the harmonics by performing multiple switching within the inverter major cycle which
determines frequency. For example, the fundamental voltage for a square wave has the maximum
amplitude (4Vd/π) but by intermediate switching, as shown in Fig. 34.12, the magnitude can be reduced.
This determines the principle of simultaneous voltage control by PWM. Different possible strategies for
PWM switching exist. They have different harmonic contents. In the following only a sinusoidal PWM is
discussed.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

Inverter gate (base) signals and line-and phase-voltage waveforms

PWM principle to control output voltage.

Sinusoidal PWM

Figure explains the general principle of SPWM, where an isoles triangle carrier wave of frequency fc
is compared with the sinusoidal modulating wave of fundamental frequency f, and the points of intersection
determine the switching points of power devices. For example, for phase-a, voltage (Va0) is obtained by
switching ON Q1 and Q4 of half-bridge inverter, as shown in the figure . Assuming that f
< fc, the pulse widths of va0 wave vary in a sinusoidal manner. Thus, the fundamental frequency is
controlled by varying f and its amplitude is proportional to the command modulating voltage. The
Fourier analysis of the va0 wave can be shown to be of the form

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

Va0 = 0.5mVd sin(2 Лft+πφ)+ harmonic frequency terms

Line voltage waves of PWM inverter

Where m = modulation index and φ = phase shift of output, depending on the position of the
modulating wave. The modulation index m is defined as
m= VP/VT

Where Vp = peak value of the modulating wave and VT = peak value of the carrier wave. Ideally,
m can be varied between 0 and 1 to give a linear relation between the modulating and output wave. The
inverter basically acts as a linear amplifier. The line voltage waveform is shown in Fig.
Current Fed Inverters

CSI classification is based on the structure of the front-end power converter, which could be
either a phase-controlled thyristor rectifier or a PWM current-source rectifier.
A. Phase-Controlled Front-End Rectifiers

These drives use a front-end rectifier based on thyristor-type power switches (Fig. 1), which can be
operated with either variable or fixed dc-link current. The performance of the drive converter depends on
this last feature.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

Variable DC-Link Current Scheme

The CSI is operated with a fixed pattern, which is usually optimized in terms of harmonic
spectrum and switching frequency. Thus, the load voltage harmonic distortion is minimum and constant
(Table I). However, the dc-link current must be adjusted through transient changes in firing angle to meet
the requirements of the load. The dc voltage, on the other hand, is practically constant and independent of
the load torque.
This last feature leads to a constant input current displacement factor and, thereby, a constant overall
PF. Also, since the dc-link current tracks the output current, the dc-bus and switch conduction losses are kept
to a minimum. Usually, the dc-link inductor is designed to have an acceptable current ripple (5%). In order to
achieve this value and due to the low-order harmonics produced by the thyristor rectifier (sixth,
12th, etc.), the size of the dc inductor becomes quite bulky. This results in a slow system transient response.
Also, the supply current has a high distortion factor % due to the low-order harmonics (fifth, seventh, etc.)
injected by the thyristor rectifier. Fig shows typical waveforms of the converter. The rectifier phase angle
is only adjusted during transient conditions occurring under load speed and torque variations.

(a)

AC drive CSI based on a phase-controlled front-end rectifier

(a) Power topology. (b) Supply phase voltage and supply line current. (c) DC rectifier voltage and dc-link
current. (d) CSI line current and load line voltage. (e) Load phase voltage and load line current.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

Fixed DC-Link Current Scheme

Unlike the above control scheme, the CSI is operated with a PWM pattern, which varies as a function
of the CSI modulation index. Therefore, the load voltage harmonic distortion is variable and depends upon the
speed and load torque (Table I). Since the dc-link current is fixed, the different load power requirements are
obtained by varying the dc-link voltage. To achieve this, the input current displacement factor is continuously
adjusted and, thereby, the input PF becomes variable and close to zero for light loads. Contrary to the variable
dc-link current scheme, the dc -bus and switch conduction losses are always maximum, due to the fact that the
dc-link current is always maximum (Table I). Although the dc-link inductor size is as big as the one used in
the above scheme, the dynamic response of the load current is improved, due to the variable PWM pattern
approach with time responses to modulation index changes
of the order of a sampling period. This scheme also presents a high supply current harmonic distortion, due to
the thyristor rectifier operation (Table I). Typical waveforms shown in Fig are also applicable in this case;
however, in this mode of operation, the rectifier phase angle is continuously adjusted to maintain a
constant dc-link current, regardless of the load speed and torque.

B. PWM Front-End Rectifiers

Unlike phase-controlled rectifier topologies, this topology uses a PWM rectifier. This allows a
reduction in the harmonics injected into the ac supply. The rectifier is operated with a fixed dc-link current.
Fig. 2 shows typical waveforms of the converter. The PWM pattern is adjusted on a continuous basis to
keep a constant dc-link current. In contrast to topologies based on thyristor front-end rectifiers, the
overall drive input PF is always greater than 0.95, and the total input current harmonic distortion, which
depends on the sampling frequency, is typically lower than 10% (Table I) . Also, since the output inverter
is PWM modulated, the system has time responses close to the sampling period. However, the dc-bus
losses and switch conduction losses are maximum, since the dc-link current is always equal to its
maximum value, regardless of the load speed and torque.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

AC drive CSI based on a PWM front-end rectifier

(a) Power topology. (b) Supply phase voltage and supply line current. (c) DC rectifier voltage and dc-link
current. (d) CSI line current and load line voltage. (e) Load phase voltage and load line current.
4.5 Vector Control of AC Induction Machines

Vector control is the most popular control technique of AC induction motors. In special reference
frames, the expression for the electromagnetic torque of the smooth-air-gap machine is similar to the
expression for the torque of the separately excited DC machine. In the case of induction machines, the control
is usually performed in the reference frame (d-q) attached to the rotor flux space vector. That’s why the
implementation of vector control requires information on the modulus and the space angle (position) of the
rotor flux space vector. The stator currents of the induction machine are separated into flux- and torque-
producing components by utilizing transformation to the d-q coordinate system, whose direct axis
(d) is aligned with the rotor flux space vector. That means that the q-axis component of the rotor flux
space vector is always zero:

The rotor flux space vector calculation and transformation to the d-q coordinate system require the
high computational power of a microcontroller. The digital signal processor is suitable for this task. The
following sections describe the space vector transformations and the rotor flux space vector calculation.

Block Diagram of the Vector Control

Shows the basic structure of the vector control of the AC induction motor. To perform vector control, it is
necessary to follow these steps:
• Measure the motor quantities (phase voltages and currents)

• Transform them to the 2-phase system (α,β) using a Clarke transformation

• Calculate the rotor flux space vector magnitude and position angle

• Transform stator currents to the d-q coordinate system using a Park transformation

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

• The stator current torque and flux producing components are separately controlled

• The output stator voltage space vector is calculated using the decoupling block

• The stator voltage space vector is transformed by an inverse Park transformation back from the d-q
coordinate system to the 2-phase system fixed with the stator
• Using the space vector modulation, the output 3-phase voltage is generated

Block Diagram of the AC Induction Motor Vector Control

Forward and Inverse Clarke Transformation (a,b,c to α,β and backwards)

The forward Clarke transformation converts a 3-phase system a,b,c to a 2-phase coordinate
system α,β. Figure shows graphical construction of the space vector and projection of the space vector to
the quadrature-phase components α,β.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

The inverse Clarke transformation goes back from a 2-phase (α,β) to a 3-phase isa, isb, isc system. For
constant k=2/3, it is given by the following equations:

Forward and Inverse Park Transformation (α,β to d-q and backwards)

The components isα and isβ, calculated with a Clarke transformation, are attached to the stator
reference frame α, β. In vector control, it is necessary to have all quantities expressed in the same
reference frame. The stator reference frame is not suitable for the control process. The space vector i sβ is
rotating at a rate equal to the angular frequency of the phase currents. The components i sα and isβ depend
on time and speed. We can transform these components from the stator reference frame to the d-q
reference frame rotating at the same speed as the angular frequency of the phase currents. Then the i sd
and isq components do not depend on time and speed. If we consider the d-axis aligned with the rotor
flux, the transformation is illustrated in Figure where θfield is the rotor flux position.

Park Transformation

The inverse Park transformation from the d-q to α,β coordinate system is given by the following equations:

Rotor Flux Model

Knowledge of the rotor flux space vector magnitude and position is key information for the AC
induction motor vector control. With the rotor magnetic flux space vector, the rotational coordinate
system (d-q) can be established. There are several methods for obtaining the rotor magnetic flux space
vector. The implemented flux model utilizes monitored rotor speed and stator voltages and currents. It is
calculated in the stationary reference frame (α,β) attached to the stator. The error in the calculated value
of the rotor flux, influenced by the changes in temperature, is negligible for this rotor flux model.

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

The rotor flux space vector is obtained by solving the differential equations (EQ 4-2) and (EQ 4-
3), which are resolved into the α and β components. The equations are derived from the equations of the
AC induction motor model

4.6 Closed-loop control of induction motor

Closed-loop induction motor drive with constant volts/Hz control strategy

Dept. of
EEE
EE6601 SOLID STATE DRIVES

An outer speed PI control loop in the induction motor drive, shown in Figure computes the
frequency and voltage set points for the inverter and the converter respectively. The limiter ensures that
the slip-speed command is within the maximum allowable slip speed of the induction motor. The slip-
speed command is added to electrical rotor speed to obtain the stator frequency command. Thereafter, the
stator frequency command is processed in an open-loop drive. Kdc is the constant of proportionality
between the dc load voltage and the stator frequency.

4.7 Constant air gap flux control:

1. Equivalent separately-excited dc motor in terms of its speed but not in terms of decoupling of flux
and torque channel.
2. Constant air gar flux linkages

ƛm= Lmim=E1/Ѡs

The rotor flux magnitude and position is key information for the AC induction motor control. With the
rotor magnetic flux, the rotational coordinate system (d-q) can be established. There are several methods
for obtaining the rotor magnetic flux. The implemented flux model utilizes monitored rotor speed and
stator voltages and currents. It is calculated in the stationary reference frame (α,β) attached to the stator.
The error in the calculated value of the rotor flux, influenced by the changes in temperature, is negligible
for this rotor flux model