Moleconcept Notes

MOLE CONCEPT 1
MOLE-CONCEPT
In 1971, the General conference on weights and measures, adopted mole as the seventh basic
SI unit of the amount of a substance.
The term ‘mole’ is a Latin word which means heap or pile. A mole of atom is a collection of
atoms whose total weight is equal to the gram atomic weight. As equal number of moles of
different elements contain equal number of atoms, it is very easy to express the amount of a
substance in terms of moles. Just as a dozen means twelve objects, in the similar fashion, a
mole is a collection of a ‘definite number’ of particles, viz., atoms, molecules, ions or electrons.
This ‘definite number’ is called Avogadro number which is equal to 6.023  1023. Thus, a
mole can be defined as, “the amount of a substance containing as many atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons or other elementary entities as there are carbon atoms in exactly 12g of C-12”.
Now-a-days, gram-molecules and gram-atom are termed as a mole of molecules and a
mole of atoms respectively, e.g., 1 gram-molecule of chlorine and 1 gram atom of
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chlorine are expressed as 1 mole of Cl 2 and 1 mole of Cl respectively.
The number of moles can be calculated by a number of formulae depending upon the data
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given :
Wt. of substance in g
No. of moles of molecules =
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Mol. wt. of substance

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Wt. of element in g
No. of moles of atoms =
At. wt. of the element
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Volume of the gas at STP

No. of moles of gas =
Standard molar volume (i.e. 22.4L)
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Illustration 1.
How many years it would take to spend Avogadro’s number of rupees at the rate of
10 lac rupees per second?
Solution :
Total rupees to be expanded = 6.023 × 10 23
Rupees spent per second = 106
Rupees spent per year = 106 × 60 × 60 × 24 × 365
 6
10 × 60 × 60 × 24 × 365 Rupees are spent in 1 year
6.023 10 23
 6.023 × 1023 “ “=
106  60  60  24  365
= 1.9099 × 1010 year
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2 MOLE CONCEPT
Illustration 2.
From 200 mg of CO 2, 1021 molecules are removed. How many g and mole of CO 2 are
left?
Solution :
 6.023 × 1023 molecules of CO2 = 44 g
21
44 1021
10 molecules of CO2 = = 7.31 × 10–2 g = 73.1 mg
6.023 1023
 CO2 left = 200 – 73.1 = 126.9 mg
wt. 126.9  10 3
Also mole of CO2 left = = = 2.88 × 10–3
m.wt. 44
Oxidation state of an element in a particular species (atoms, molecules or ions) is the number
of electrons gained or lost by that element during its change from free state into that species.
For example, the oxidation state of Na in NaCl is +1, of calcium in Ca 3(PO4)2 is +2, of
chlorine in Cl2 is zero.
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(1) Oxidation no. is given positive sign if electrons are lost. oxidation no. is given negative
sign if electrons are gained.
(2) Oxidation no. represents real charge in case of ionic compounds. However, in covalent
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compounds it represents imaginary charge.
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Rules For Calculation Of Oxidation Number

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Following rules have been arbitrarily adopted to decide oxidation no. of elements on the basis
of their periodic properties.
1. In uncombined state or free state, oxidation number of an element is zero.
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2. In combined state oxidation no. of

(a) F is always –1.
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(b) O is –2. In peroxides it is –1, in superoxides it is –1/2. However in F2 O it is +2.

(c) H is +1. In ionic hydrides it is –1 (i.e., IA, IIA and IIIA metals).
(d) halogens as halide is always –1.
(e) sulphur as sulphide is always –2.
(f) metals is always +ve.
(g) alkali metals (i.e., I A group — Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) is always +1.
(h) alkaline earth metals (i.e., II A group—Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) is always +2.
3. The algebraic sum of the oxidation no. of all the atoms in a compound is equal to zero,
e.g. KMnO4 .
Oxidation no. of K + Ox. no. of Mn + (Ox. no. of O)  4 = 0
(+1) + (+7) + 4  (–2) = 0
4. The algebraic sum of all the oxidation no. of elements in a radical is equal to the net
charge on the radical, e.g., CO 32 .
Oxidation no. of C + 3  (Oxidation no. of O) = –2
(+4) + 3 x (–2) = –2
5. Oxidation number can be zero, +ve, –ve (integer or fraction)
6. Maximum oxidation no. of an element is = Group number (Except O and F)
Minimum oxidation no. of an element is = Group number –8 (Except metals)
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MOLE CONCEPT 3
Illustration 3 :
Find the oxidation number of
(a) S in SO42– ion (b) S in HSO 3¯ ion
(c) Pt in (PtCl 6)2– (d) Mn in (MnO4)– ion
Solution :
(a) Let the oxidation number of S be x.
We know that Ox. no. of O = –2
So Ox. no S + 4 (Ox. no. O ) = –2  x + 4(–2) = –2
or x – 8 = –2  x = + 8 – 2 = + 6
The oxidation number of S in SO 24 ion is +6.
(b) Let the oxidation number of S be x in HSO 3– ion.
We know that Ox. no. of H = +1
Oxidation number of O = –2
So Ox. no. H + Ox. no. S + 3 (Ox. no. O) = –1
+ 1 + x + 3(–2) = –1  +1 + x – 6 = –1  x – 5 = –1
or x = + 5 – 1 = +4  The oxidation number of S in HS O 3 ion is +4.
(c) Let oxidation number of Pt be x. We know that Ox. no. of Cl = –1
Ox. no. Pt + 6 (Ox. no. Cl) = –2  x + 6(–1) = –2
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So
or x – 6 = –2  The oxidation number of Pt in [Pt(Cl) 6]2– ion is +4.
(d) Let oxidation number of Mn be x. We know that Ox. no. of O = –2
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So Ox.no. Mn + 4 (Ox. no. O) = –1  x + 4(–2) = –1  x – 8 = –1
or x = + 8 –1 = +7. The oxidation number of Mn in [MnO4]– ion is +7.
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1. Determine the average oxidation no. of following elements given in bold letters :
(a) H2S2O8 (b) K4Fe(CN)6 (c) OsO4
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(d) HNC (e) Fe0.94O (f) Fe3O4

(g) NH2.NH2 (h) FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O (i) NOClO4
(j) Na2[Fe(CN)5NO] (k) [Fe(NO)(H2O)5]SO4 (l) Na2S4O6
(m) (CH3)2SO (n) Na2S2
2. Determine the oxidation number of the following elements given in bold letters :
(a) Ba2XeO6 (b) C3O2 (c) V(BrO2)2
(d) Cs4Na(HV10O28) (e) K[Co(C2O4)2.(NH3)2] (f) [Ni(CN)4]2–
3. Find the oxidation number of bold lettered atoms :
(a) Mn in K2MnO4, K2MnO3, Mn3O4, MnSO4, K3MnF6, MnO2
(b) C in CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C2H4, C2H2, H2C2O4, CO2
(c) S in Na2S2O3, S4, S8, Na2S2O7
(d) N in NH3, NH2OH, NaN3, NH4NO2
(e) Cl in Cl2, HOCl, Cl2O, ClO2, KClO3, Cl2O7
4. Determine the oxidation number of bold lettered atoms in the following :
(a) 8 KClO3 + 24 HCl 8 KCl + 12 H2O + 9Cl2 + 6ClO2
(b) 3I2 + 6NaOH NaIO3 + 5NaI + 3H2O
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4 MOLE CONCEPT
5. Find the oxidation number of bold lettered atoms :

(a) SnS3–2 (b) S2O3–2 (c) S2O7–2 (d) NH4+
– –4
(e) ClO2 (f) P2O7 (g) O2–2 (h) C2O4–2
(i) Cr2O7–2 (j) MnO4– (k) Be3N2 (l) Na3Fe(CN)5NO
(m) KCrO3.Cl (n) F2H2 (o) Co(NH3)6+3 (p) CuH
(q) O2F2
Oxidation : It is a process in which electrons are lost by an atom, ion or molecule.

e.g, Mg  Mg2+ + 2e– Fe2+  Fe3+ + e–
2Cl–  Cl2 + 2e– H2O2  O2 + 2H+ + 2e–
Reduction : Reduction is a process in which electrons are gained by an atom, ion or molecule.
Na+ + e–  Na I2 + 2e–  2I–
2H2O + 2e–  H2 + 2 OH–
Redox Reactions : Those reactions in which electrons are transferred from one substance
to another are called Redox Reactions.
Zn + Fe2+  Zn2+ + Fe MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
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Those species (atoms, molecules and ions) which have tendency to accept the electrons are
known as oxidizing agents or oxidants, whereas those species (atoms, molecules or ions) which
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releases the electrons are called reducing agents or reductants. In other words, oxidizing agents
are reduced and reducing agents are oxidized.
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(1) Oxidants are substances which :

(a) oxidize other
(b) are reduced themselves
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(c) show electronation.

(d) show a decrease in oxidation number during a redox change
(e) has higher oxidation no. in a conjugate pair of redox.
(2) Reductant are substances which :
(a) reduce other
(b) are oxidized themselves.
(c) show de-electronation
(d) show an increase in oxidation no. during a redox change
(e) has lower oxidation no. in a conjugate pair of redox.
(3) A redox change is one in which a reductant is oxidized to liberate electrons, which are
then used up by an oxidant to get itself reduced.
M1  M1+n + ne oxidation
M2 + ne  M2
+n
reduction
M1 + M2+n  M1+n + M2 Redox reaction
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MOLE CONCEPT 5
(4) A redox change occurs simultaneously. For example,
2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2 SO4  K2SO4 + 2 MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O
Oxidant Reductant
One can see the above equation in the ionic form,
Mn O 4 + 8H+ + 5e  Mn2+ + 4H2O
(As MnO 4 is accepting 5e–, so it is being reduced and hence it is an oxidant.)

Fe2+  Fe3+ + 1e–
As Fe2+ is losing 1e–, so it is being oxidized and hence it is a reducing agent. Similarly,
PbS + 4H O  PbSO4 + 4H2O
2 2
Reductant Oxidant
MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
Oxidant Reductant
Cr2 O 72 + 6I– + 14H+  2Cr3+ + 3I2 + 7H2O
Oxidant Reductant
Guidelines for the Identification of Oxidizing and Reducing Agent

1. If an element is in its highest possible oxidation state in a compound, it can function as an
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oxidizing agent, e.g. KMnO 4, K2Cr2O7, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4 etc.
2. If an element is in its lowest possible oxidation state in a compound, it can function as a
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reducing agent, e.g. H 2S, FeSO4, Na2S2O3, SnCl2 etc.
3. If an element is in its intermediate oxidation state in a compound, it can function both as an
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oxidizing agent as well as reducing agent, e.g. H 2O2, H2SO3, HNO2, SO2 etc.
4. If highly electronegative element is in its higher oxidation state in a compound, that compound
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can function as a powerful oxidizing agent, e.g. KClO 4, KClO3, KIO3 etc.
5. If an electronegative element is in its lowest possible oxidation state in a compound or in free
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state, it can function as a powerful reducing agent, e.g. I –, Br–, N3– etc.
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Common Oxidising and Reducing Agents

Oxidising agent Effective Change Decrease in Oxidation
Number
KMnO4 in acid solution Mn O 4  Mn2+ 5
KMnO4 in neutral solution Mn O 4  MnO2 3
K2Cr2O7 in acid solution Cr2 O 72  Cr3+ 3
dilute HNO3 NO 3  NO 3
concentrated HNO3 NO 3  NO2 1
concentrated H2SO4 SO 24  SO2 2
manganese (IV) oxide MnO2  Mn 2+
2
Chlorine Cl2  Cl– 1
Chloric (I) acid ClO–  Cl– 2
KIO3 in dilute acid IO 3  I2 5
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6 MOLE CONCEPT
Oxidising agent Effective Change Decrease in Oxidation

Number
KIO3 in concentrated acid IO 3  I+ 4
iron (II) salts (acid) Fe  Fe
2+ 3+
1
tin (II) salts (acid) Sn2+  Sn4+ 2
oxalate (acid) C2 O 24  CO2 1
2
sulphites (acid) SO 32  SO 4 2
sulphide S  S
2–
2
iodides (dilute acid) I–  I2 1
iodides (concentrated acid) I–  I+ 2
metals, e.g. Zn Zn  Zn2+ 2
hydrogen H2  H+ 1
1. Identify the reactants, if any, oxidized or reduced .
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(a) NaH + H2O  NaOH + H2
(b) 2FeCl3 + H2S  2FeCl2 + S + 2HCl
 Mg3N2
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(c) 3Mg + N2
(d) AgCN + CN–  Ag(CN)2–
(e) SnCl2 + Br2  SnCl2.Br2
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(f) AlCl3 + K  Al + 3KCl

2CuSO4 + 4KI  Cu2I2 + K2SO4 + I2
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(g)
(h) NH 4NO 2  N2 + 2H2O
(i) CaC2 + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
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(j) SnS2 + S–2  SnS3–2

(k) 3O2  2O3
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2. Select the oxidants and reductants in the given reactions .

(a) Ag(NH3)2+ + 2H+  Ag+ + 2NH4+
(b) KIO3 + 5KI + 6HCl  3I2 + 6KCl + 3H2O
(c) 2CuSO4 + SO2 + 2KBr + 2H2O  2CuBr + 2H2SO4 + K2SO4
(d) C2H4 + Br2  C2H4Br2
(e) 2I– + H2O2  2OH– + I2
(f) Si + 2KOH + H2O  K2SiO3 + 2H2
(g) 2Cu+2 + 4I–  Cu2I2 + I2
Redox reactions involve oxidation and reduction both. Oxidation means loss of electrons
and reduction means gain of electrons. Thus redox reactions involve electron transfer and the
number of electrons lost are same as the number of electrons gained during the reaction. This
aspect of redox reaction can serve as the basis of a pattern for balancing redox reactions.
Two methods are commonly used for this purpose.
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MOLE CONCEPT 7
(A) Ion electron method

It involves three sets of rules depending upon the nature of medium (i.e. neutral, acid or alkaline)
in which reaction occurs.
(a) Neutral medium :
e.g., H2C2O4 + KMnO4  CO2 + K2O + MnO4 + H2O
Step 1. Select the oxidatn, reductant atoms and write their half reactions, one representing
oxidation and other reduction.
C 2+3  2C+4 + 2e
5e + Mn+7  Mn+2
Step 2. Balance the no. of electrons and add the two equations.
5C2+3  10C+4 + 10e
10e + 2Mn+7  2Mn+2
5C2+3 + 2Mn+7  10C+4 + 2Mn+2

Step 3. Write complete molecule of the reductant and oxidant from which respective redox
atoms were obtained
5H2C2O4 + 2KMnO4  10CO2 + 2MnO
Step 4. Balance other atoms if any (except H and O)
In above example K is unbalanced, therefore,
5H2C2O4 + 2KMnO4  10CO2 + 2MnO + K2O
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(Mentioned as product)
Step 5. Balance O atom using H2O on desired side.
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5H2C2O4 + 2KMnO4  10CO2 + 2MnO + K2O + 5H2O

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(b) Acidic medium :


e.g., NO3– + H2S H  HSO4– + NH4+
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Produced like neutral medium for step 1 to 4.

Step 1. 8e + N+5  N–3
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S–2  S+6 + 8e
Step 2. N+5 + S–2  N–3 + S+6
Step 3.NO3– + H2S  NH4+ + HSO4–
Step 4. No other atom (except H and O) is unbalanced and thus, no need for this step.
Step 5. Balance O atom : Balancing of O atom is made by using H 2O and H+ ions.
Add desired molecules of H2O on the side deficient with O atom and double H + on opposite
side. Therefore,
H2O + NO3– + H2S  NH4+ + HSO4– + 2H+
Step 6. Balance charge by H+
3H+ + H2O + NO3– + H2S  NH4+ + HSO4– + 2H+
 Finally balanced equation is ,
H+ + H2O + NO3– + H2S  NH4+ + HSO4–
(c) Alkaline medium :
OH ¯
e.g., Fe + N2H4  Fe(OH)2 + NH3
Proceed like neutral medium for step 1 to 4
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8 MOLE CONCEPT
Step 1. Fe  Fe+2 + 2e
2e + N2–2  2N–3
Step 2. Fe + N2–2  Fe+2 + 2N–3
Step 3. Fe + N2H4  Fe(OH)2 +2NH3
Step 4. No other atom (except H and O) is unbalanced and thus, no need for this step.
Step 5. Balance O atom: Balancing of O atom is made by using H 2O and OH– ions.
Add desired molecules of H 2O on the side rich with O atoms and double OH – on opposite
side. Therefore,
4OH– + Fe + N2H4  Fe(OH)2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
Step 6. Balance charge by H+:
4OH– + 4H+ + Fe + N2H4  Fe(OH)2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
 finally balanced equation is,
2H2O + Fe + N2H4  Fe(OH)2 + 2NH3
Balancing of Half reactions

Example 1. I2  IO3–
Step 1. Balance atoms other than O and H if needed i.e.,
I2  2IO3–
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Step 2. Balance O atoms using H+ and H2O as reported earlier.
I2 + 6H2O  2IO3– + 12H+
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Step 3. Balance charge by electrons .
I2 + 6H2O  2IO3– + 12H+ + 10e
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This is balanced half reaction.

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Example 2. S2O3–2  SO2

Step 1. As above S 2O3–2  2SO2
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Step 2. Balance O atom by H 2O and OH– as reported earlier.

2OH– + S2O3–2  2SO2 + H2O
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Step 3. Balance charge by electrons.

2OH– + S2O3–2  2SO2 + H2O + 4e
This is balanced half reaction
1. Balance the following equation using desired medium –

1. C2H5OH + Cr2O72– + H+  Cr3+ + C2H4O + H2O
2. Sn(OH)3– + Bi(OH)3 + OH–  Sn(OH)62– + Bi
3. IO3– + N2H4 + HCl  N2 + ICl2– + H2O
4. Hg2Cl2 + NH3  Hg + HgNH2Cl + NH4Cl
5. Zn + NO3– + H+  Zn2+ + NH4+ + H2O
6. I2 + NO3– + H+  IO3– + NO2 + H2O
7. MnO4– + SO22– + H2O  MnO2 + SO42– + OH–
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MOLE CONCEPT 9
8. H2O2 + ClO2 + OH–  ClO2– + O2 + H2O
9. ClO– + CrO2– + OH–  Cl– + CrO42– + H2O
10. Cl2 + KOH  KClO3 + KCl + H2O
11. H2O2 + KMnO4  MnO2 + KOH + O2 + H2O
12. HNO2 + KMnO4 + H2SO4  HNO3 + KMnO4 + K2SO4 + H2O
13. N2H4 + AgNO3 + KOH  N2 + Ag + KNO3 + H2O
14. P + HNO3  HPO3 + NO + H2O
15. K2Cr2O7 + HCl  KCl + CrCl3 + H2O + Cl2
16. MnO4– + C2O42– + H+  CO2 + Mn2+ + H2O
17. Cr2O72– + C2O42– + H+  Cr3+ + CO2 + H2O
18. KMnO4 + H2S + H2SO4  KHSO4 + MnSO4 + S + H2O
19. Cu(NH3)4Cl2 + KCN + H2O  K2Cu(CN)3 + NH3 + KCNO + NH4Cl + KCl
20. Ag + KCN + H2O + O2  KAg(CN)2 + KOH
21. Fe3O4 + MnO4– + H2O  Fe2O3 + MnO2 + OH–
22. C2H5OH + MnO4– + OH–  C2H3O– + MnO2 + H2O
23. Cr2O72– + SO32– + H+  Cr3+ + SO42– + H2O
ClO3– + SO2 + H+  ClO2 + HSO4– .in
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24.
25. Mn2+ + S2O82– + H2O  MnO4– + HSO4– + H+
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The concentration of a solution can be expressed in a number of ways. The important

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methods are:
(i) Strength of solution :
Amount of solute present in one litre solution
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weight of solute w
S = =
volume of solution in litre V in (l )
= Normality × Equivalent weight
= Molarity × Molecular weight
(ii) Mass percentage or per cent by mass :
Mass of solute
%(w/w) Mass percentage of solute = x 100
Mass of solution
Mass of solute  100 Mass of solute  100
= =
Mass of solute  Mass of solvent Volume of solution  Density of solution
(iii) Percent mass by volume :

Mass of solute
%(w/v) = x 100
Volume of soltuion
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10 MOLE CONCEPT
(iv) Parts per million (ppm) :

Mass of solute
ppm = x 106
Mass of solution
(v) Mole fraction :
Let n moles of solute (A) and N moles of solvent (B) be present in a solution.
n N
Mole fraction of solute = = XA , Mole fraction of solvent = = XB
Nn Nn
In binary solution, X A + XB = 1
Mole fraction is independent of temperature of the solution.
(vi) Molality
No. of moles of solute
Molality (m) =
weight (in kg) of solvent
Let wA grams of the solute of molecular mass mA be present in wB grams of the solvent, then
wA
Molality (m) = x 1000
mA  wB
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Relation between mole fraction and Molality :
X A  1000 wA  1000
=m=
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XB  mB wB  mB
Note : Molality is the most convenient method to express the concentration because it involves
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the mass of liquids rather than their volumes. It is also independent of the variation in temperature.
(vii) Molarity (Molar concentration)
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No. of moles of solute

Molarity (M) =
Volume (in litre) of solution
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wA
Molarity of the solution = x 1000
mA  V
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Relation between molarity and % solute by mass :

Let d = density of solution in g/mL and let it contains x% (w/w) solute by mass.
Number of moles of solute in 1 litre
mass of solute in gram x  d 10
= =
grams molecular mass of solute M solute
x  d 10
M=
mA
Molarity of dilution :
Before dilution After dilution
M 1V 1 = M 2V 2
Molarity of mixing :
M1V1 + M2V2 + M3V3 = MR(V1 + V2 + V3) MR = resultant molarity
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MOLE CONCEPT 11
Relationship between molality and molarity :
molarity 1000  M
Molality (m) = =
d  molarity  msolute 1000  d  M  M solute
(viii) Normality :
It is define as no. of equivalent of a solute present in one litre of solution.
Equivalent of solute Weight of solute
N= =
Volume of solution in litre Equivalent weight of solute  V in litre
w w  1000
N= =
E  V in (l ) E  V in mL
Wt. of solute
Also Equivalent = N × V in l =
Eq. wt. of solute
Wt. of solute
and Milli equivalent = N × V in ml = × 1000
Eq. wt. of solute
Note : A striking fact regarding equivalent and milli equivalent is equivalent and milli
equivalent of reactants reacts in equal number to give same number of equivalent or
.in
milli equivalent of products separately.
(ix) Formality :
ps
Since molecular weight of ionic solids is not determined accurately experimentally due to their
dissociation nature and therefore molecular weight of ionic solid is often referred as formula
te
weight and molarity as formality.

wt. of solute
yS
Formality = i.e., molarity

Formula wt.  V (in l )
ud
(x) Specific gravity of solution

weight of solution
= i.e., weight of 1 mL solution.
St
volume of solution
Note :
(1) Molality , % by weight, mole fractions are independent of temperature since these involve
weights.
(2) Rest all, i.e, Normality, molarity, % by vol., % by strength and strength are temperature
dependent, normally decrease with increase in temperature since volume of solution
increases with T.
(3) Sometimes term formality is used in place of molarity.
(4) Normal , molar solution means for solutions having normality 1 N and molarity 1 M
respectively..
(5) Standard solution is one whose N or M are known
(6) On diluting a solution , eq, meq, mole or m mole of solute do not change however N an M
change.
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12 MOLE CONCEPT
Illustration 4.
The density of a solution containing 13% by mass of sulphuric acid is 1.09 g/mL.
Calculate the molarity of the solution.
Solution :
In solving such numericals , the following formula can be applied:
% strength of soln. density of soln.10
Molarity =
Mol. mass
13  1.09  10
M = = 1.445 M
98
Illustration 5.
The density of a 3 M sodium thiosulphate solution (Na 2S2O3) is 1.25 g/mL. Calculate
(i) the percentage by mass of sodium thiosulphate
(ii) the mole fraction of sodium thiosulphate and
+ 2–
(iii) molalities of Na and S2O3 ions.
Solution :
x  d 10 x  1.25  10
(i) M=  3=
mA 158
 x = 37.92
.in
ps
474
(ii) No. of moles of Na2S2O3 = =3
158
te
776
Mass of water = (1250 – 474) = 776 g , No. of moles of water = = 43.1
18
yS
3 3
Mole fraction of Na 2S2O3 = = = 0.065
43.1  3 46.1
ud
(iii) No. of moles of Na+ ions = 2 × No. of moles of Na 2S2O3 = 2 × 3 = 6

St
No. of moles of Na  ions 6

Molality of Na+ ion = = × 1000 = 7.73 m
Mass of water in kg 776
No. of moles of S 2O32– ions = No. of moles of Na 2S2O3
3
Molality of S 2O32– ions = × 1000 = 3.86 m
776
Illustration 6.
One litre of sea water weighs 1030 g and contains about 6 × 10 –3g of dissolved O 2.
Calculate the concentration of dissolved oxygen in ppm.
Solution :
Mass of O2 in mg = 6 × 10–3g × 103 mg/g = 6mg
Mass of O 2 in mg 6
ppm of O2 in 1030 g sea water = 
Mass of sea water in kg (1030 /1000)kg
6  1000
  5.8ppm
1030
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MOLE CONCEPT 13
Illustration 7.
A 100 mL solution of KOH contains 10 milliequivalents of KOH. Calculate its
strength in normality and grams/liter.
Solution :
no. of m.e. 10
Normality = = = 0.1
volume in mL 100
 Strength of the solution = N/10. Again,
1
Strength in grams/ litre = normality × eq. wt. = × 56 = 5.6 grams/litre.
10
 molecular wt 56 
 eq. wt. of KOH    56 
 acidity 1 
1. 214.2 g of sugar syrup contains 34.2 g of sugar. Calculate :

(a) molality of the solution and
2.
(b) mole fraction of sugar in the syrup.
.in
How many g of a 5.0 % by weight NaCl solution are necessary to yield 3.2 g NaCl ?
ps
3. Calculate the molarity, molality and mole fraction of ethyl alcohol in a solution of total
volume 95 ml prepared by adding 50 ml of ethyl alcohol (density = 0.789 g ml –1) to 50ml
te
water (density = 1.00 g ml–1).

yS
4. What volume of 96 % H2SO4 solution (density 1.83 g/ml) is required to prepare 4 litre of
3.0 M H2SO4 solution ?
ud
5. A litre of milk weighs 1.032 kg. The butterfat it contains to the extent of 4.0% by volume has a
density of 865 kg/m3. What is the density of the fat-free “skimmed” milk ?
St
6. Mole fraction of glucose in a solution (solvent is a liquid having molecular mass 25) is 0.2.
If density of solution is 1.4 gm/ml, then calculate molarity of the solution.
7. 10 ml of ethanol having density 0.7893 gm/ml is mixed with 20 ml of water having density
0.9971 g/ml. The resulting solution formed has density 0.9571 g/ml. Calculate
(i) % change in volume on mixing (ii) molarity of the solution
(iii) molality of the solution
8. A procedure calls for 100 cm3 of 20.0 % H2SO4, density 1.14 g/cm3. How much concentrated
acid, of density 1.84 g/cm 3 and containing 98.0 % H2SO4 by weight, must be diluted with
water to prepare 100 cm3 acid of the required strength ?
9. 100 g of 1 molal ethylene glycol solution is prepared in the laboratory. Determine % by mass
of each component.
10. What volume of dilute nitric acid, of density 1.11 g/mL and 19 % HNO3 by weight, contains
10 g HNO3?
11. What volume of 95.0 % alcohol by weight (density 0.809 g/cm 3) must be used to prepare
150 cm3 of 30.0% alcohol by weight (density 0.957 g/cm 3) ?
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14 MOLE CONCEPT
12. Calculate the resulting molarity of the solution that is obtained by adding 5 g of NaOH to
200 mL of M/4 NaOH solution (density = 1.05 g cm –3). The density of resulting solution is
1.08 g cm–3.
13. A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with chloroform which is
supposed to be carcinogen. The level of contamination was 15 ppm (by mass). Express this
in percent by mass. Also find the molality of chloroform in water sample.
14. Calculate the volume of 80 % H2SO4 by mass (density = 1.80 g cm –3) that is required to
obtain one litre of 20 % H2SO4 by mass (density = 1.25 g cm –3)
15. (a) The given sample of sulphuric acid was found to have mole fraction of H2SO4 as 0.15.
Calculate the molality of the solution.
(b) In a solution of benzene and toluene, the mole fraction of toluene is 0.5. Calculate the
mass % of the solution with respect to benzene ?
The concentration of H2O2 is usually represented in terms of volume. If a sample of H 2O2 is

labeled as ‘x volume’, it means that 1 volume of H2O2 solution gives ‘x volumes’ of O2 gas at
STP on complete decomposition.
.in
Consider the decomposition of H 2O2 as

2H 2 O 2 
 2H 2 O  O 2
ps
234 g 22.4 L at STP
 22400 ml of O2 gas is liberated by 68g of H2O2 solution

te
68 x 17 x
 x ml of O2 gas will be liberated by = 22400 = g of H2O2
5600
yS
17 x
It means that g of H2O2 will be present in 1 ml of solution.
5600
ud
17 x 17 x
 1000 ml of solution contains H 2O2 =  1000 =
5600 5.6
Strength (g L–1) = Normality  Equivalent weight
St
17 x
= N  34
2 ( n-factor of H2O2 = 2)
5.6
x = 5.6  N
i.e., Volume strength of H2O2 = 5.6  Normality
Illustration 8:
A sample of H 2O2 is x% by mass. x ml of KMnO 4 are required to oxidize one gram of
this H2O2 sample. Calculate the normality of KMnO 4 solution.
Solution :
Suppose, Mass of H2O2 solution = 100g
Mass of H2O2 present = x gram
Mass of H2O2 solution taken = 1 gram
Mass of H2O2 present in 1 gram solution x
= 100
Equivalents of H2O2 = w
E
= 100 x 17 …(1)
(E for H2O2) = 17
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MOLE CONCEPT 15
Equivalents of KMnO 4 = N × V (litre) = N × x × 10 –3
Putting equivalents of H2O2 and KMnO4 equal,
x
100  17 = N  x  10
-3
N = 0.59 (Normality of H 2SO4)
1. Calculate the strength of “30 V” H2O2 in the terms of :

(a) % strength (w/v) (b) normality (c) molarity (d) strength (g/L)
2. Calculate the volume strength of 3.58 N H2O2 solution.
3. Calculate the strength of “56 V” H2O2 in the terms of :
(a) % strength (w/v) (b) normality (c) molarity (d) strength (g/L)
4. What is the mass of hydrogen peroxide present in 1 litre of 2M solution ? Calculate the
volume of oxygen (at NTP) liberated upon the complete decomposition of 100 ml of the
above solution.
5. Calculate the strength in gm/ of ‘100 V’ of H2O2.
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ps
te
Oleum or fuming sulphuric acid contains SO 3 gas dissolved in sulphuric acid. When water is
yS
added to oleum, SO3 reacts with H2O to form H2SO4, thus mass of the solution increases.
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
The total mass of H2SO4 obtained by diluting 100g of sample of oleum with desired amount
ud
of water, is equal to the percentage labeling of oleum.

 % labeling of oleum = Total mass of H2SO4 present in oleum after dilution.
St
= mass of H2SO4 initially present

+ mass of H2SO4 produced on dilution.
Illustration 9:
Calculate the composition of 109% oleum.
Solution :
Let the mass of SO3 in the sample be ‘w’ g, then the mass of H 2SO4 would be (100 – w)g.
On dilution,
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
80g 18g
w = Moles of H SO formed after dilution.
Moles of SO3 in oleum = 80 2 4
98 w
 Mass of H2SO4 formed on dilution = 80
98 w
Total mass of H2SO4 present in oleum after dilution = + (100 - w) = 109
80
 w = 40
Thus oleum sample contains 40% SO 3 and 60% H2SO4.
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16 MOLE CONCEPT
1. Calculate % of free SO3 and H2SO4 in 104.5 % oleum sample.

2. Calculate % of free SO3 and H2SO4 in 102.25% oleum sample.
3. Calculate % of free SO3 and H2SO4 in 118% oleum sample.
4. Calculate the weight of H2SO4 and SO3 in 200 g of oleum sample labelled as 109%.
5. Calculate the composition of the final solution if 100g of oleum labelled as 118% is added with
(a) 9 gm water (b) 18 g water (c) 1.20 g water
Hardness of water is due to the presence of Ca 2+ and Mg2+ in it. Hardness of water is of two
types :
1. Temporary Hardness : It is due to the presence of dissolved Ca(HCO 3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2
in water. To determine the temporary hardness a given volume of hard water is titrated with a
strong acid (HCl or H2SO4) using methyl orange indicator.
.in
2. Permanent Hardness : It is due to the presence of dissolved CaCl 2, CaSO4, MgCl2 and
MgSO4 in water. A known volume of hard water is taken and an excess of known equivalents
ps
of Na2CO3 are added in it. Na2CO3 reacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ forming precipitates of CaCO3
and MgCO3. These precipitates are filtered off. The filtrate is titrated with a strong acid (HCl
or H2SO4). Knowing the equivalents of Na2CO3 added and left unreacted, the equivalents of
te
Na2CO3 consumed by hard water is known. The equivalents of Na 2CO3 consumed is equal to
yS
the total equivalents of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in hard water.
Hardness of water is represented in ppm (mg/litre) of CaCO3 i.e. milli grams of CaCO3 present
per litre of hard water. But hard water does not contain CaCO 3. Hard water contains CaCl 2,
ud
MgCl2, Ca(HCO3)2 etc.

One mole CaCl 2  one mole CaCO3
St
or 111g CaCl2  100g CaCO3

Similarly, 120g MgSO4  100g CaCO3
Thus mass of CaCO3 corresponding to the mass of CaCl 2, MgSO4 etc., present in hard water
is calculated. Milligrams of CaCO3 per litre of hard water is called hardness of water in ppm.
Illustration 9:
One liter of sample of hard water contains 1mg of CaCl 2 and 1 mg of MgCl 2. Find the
total hardness of water in terms of CaCO 3 per 106 parts of water by weight
Solution:
1 10 3  103 1  wt. 
1000 
m M of MgCl2 = =  milli mole
95 95  M.wt 
1 10 3  103 1
m M of CaCl2 = =
111 111
 m M of CaCO3 if MgCl2 and CaCl2 are taken form of CaCO 3
( Ca, Mg are both bivalent  mole ratio is 1 : 1)
1 1 206
= + =
95 111 111 95
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MOLE CONCEPT 17
206 100
 Weight of CaCO3 in 1000 mL = ×
111 95 1000
 Hardness in ppm (part per million)
g of CaCO3 206  100  106
= = = 1.953
106 g of H 2O 111 95  1000  1000
 Hardness = 1.953 ppm
Water Softeners :
The hardness may be removed by either of the reactants on treating with water.
(a) Washing soda :
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 Boil
 CaCl3 + 2NaCl
(b) Slaked lime :
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 Boil
 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
(c) Permutit or sodium aluminium orthosilicate or sod. zeolite :
CaCl2 + Na2Al2Si2O8  Ca(Al2Si2O8) + 2NaCl
(d) Calgon or sodium hexametaphosphate :
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2Ca+2 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6]  4Na+ + Na2[Ca2(PO3)6]
ps
te
1. (a) Calculate the degree of hardness of water containing :

yS
(i) 0.02 gm of MgSO4 per litre. (ii) 0.005 moles of MgSO4 per litre
(b) 50 litre of water containing Ca(HCO 3)2 when converted into soft water required
ud
22.2 g Ca(OH)2.
Calculate the amount of Ca(HCO3)2 per litre of hard water.
St
2. Calculate the degree of hardness of water containing :

(a) 0.04 g of CaSO4 per litre (b) 0.001 moles of CaCO 3 per litre
(c) 0.01 g of CaCl 2 per litre (d) 0.12 g of MgCl 2 per litre
3. A water sample obtained from a tube well contains 88.2 ppm of SO 42– and 149 ppm of
HCO3– with Ca2+ ions as the only cation in 106 g. Calculate :
(a) the concentration of Ca2+ expressed in ppm.
(b) the No. of moles of CaO consumed in removing HCO 3– from 1.0 × 106 g of given
water sample.
(c) the concentration (in ppm) of residual Ca2+ ions left after the treatment with CaO.
4. What mass of CaO will be required to soften 1000 litre of a hard water sample containing
122.0 ppm of HCO3. If all the cations associated with HCO 3– ions are Ca2+, what will the
total mass of CaCO3 obtained as white precipitate.
5. A sample of hard water has its hardness due to CaSO 4 only. When this water is passed
through an anion exchange resin, SO 42– ions are replaced by OH –. 25.0 ml of hard water
sample so treated requires 21.58 ml of 10 –3 M H2SO4 for its titration. What is the hardness of
water expressed in terms of ppm of CaSO 4 ? Assume density of hard water = 1 g/ml.
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18 MOLE CONCEPT
Let us consider a balanced chemical equations

Example 1. PbS + 4H2O2  PbSO4 + 4H2O
This equation will provide us various quantitative informations:
1. The molar ratio of reactants, i.e., PbS and H 2O2 in which they react together is 1:4.
2. The molar ratio of the two products i.e., PbSO 4 and H2O being formed in the
reaction is also 1:4.
3. The initial moles of PbS and H 2O2 for the reaction to take place not necessarily be
1 and 4 respectively or also should not be in the molar ratio of 1:4.
4. One can start the reaction with PbS and H 2O2 in any molar ratio, but the ratio of PbS
and H2O2 which are reacting will always be in the ratio of 1:4.
5. One mole of PbSO4 and 4 moles of H2O will be formed for each mole of PbS being
consumed.
The stoichiometric coefficients of a balanced chemical equation is the molar ratio and
not the weight ratio.
One can use the balanced chemical equation for quantitative (gravimetrically or volumetrically)
estimation of reactants and products. But if one does not have the balanced equation, it is very
.in
difficult to calculate the amounts of reactants consumed or products being formed.
Example 2. N2 + 3H2 2NH3
ps
Above balanced chemical equation gives idea that 1 mole of N 2 (28 g) reacts with 3 mole of
H2 (6 g) to give 2 mole of NH 3
Example 3. 2N2O5  4NO2 + O2
te
Above balanced equation indicates that 2 mole of N 2O5 (2 ×108 g) will decompose to give 4
yS
mole of NO2 (4 × 46 g) and 1 mole of O 2 (32 g).
Illustration 10:
ud
Calculate the mass of 90% pure MnO 2 to produce 35.5g of Cl2 according to the following
reaction.
St

Solution:
87g 71g
71g Cl2 is produced by 87g of MnO 2
87  35.5
 35.5g Cl2 is produced = = 43.5g
712
90g pure MnO2 is present in 100g sample
100  43.5
 43.5g pure MnO2 = = 48.3g
90
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MOLE CONCEPT 19
The reactions in which more than one reactants are reacting and if they are not present in the
same molar ratio as the balanced equation requires, then one has to find out the limiting reagent
i.e., the reagent which is completely consumed in the reaction. All quantitative calculations are
carried out with the help of limiting reagent only. Now, how to decide the limiting reagent of a
reaction? Consider the following example.
Example 1. Suppose you are given 5 moles of PbS and 18 moles of H 2O2 and you have to
calculate the maximum amount of PbSO4 being produced.
The balanced equation is :
PbS + 4H2O2  PbSO4 + 4H2O
Initial moles 5 mol 18 mol
Now since 1 mol of PbS reacts completely with 4 moles of H 2O2 to produce 1 mol of PbSO4.
Therefore, 5 moles of PbS will react with 20 moles of H 2O2. But since moles of H2O2 is only
18. So, H2O2 will be the reagent which will be consumed first, and hence H 2O2 is the limiting
reagent. If PbS have been the limiting reagent 5 mole of it would have given 5 moles of PbSO4
but it is not so. As one can see from the balanced chemical equation that 1 mol of PbSO 4 is
produced from 4 moles of H2O2. So 18 moles of H2O2 will produce 4.5 moles of PbSO 4.
.in
Example 2. Suppose you are given 12 g of C and 40 gm of O 2 and you have to calculate
maximum amount of CO2 formed. The balance chemical equation is :
C + O2  CO2
ps
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
12 g 32g 44 g
te
For complete reaction of 40 g of O2 (1.25 mole) 15 g of C (1.25 mole) is required but only
12 g of C is present therefore C is limiting reagent and 12 g of C will give 44 g of CO 2 and
yS
the O2 is excess reagent.

So, one can define limiting reagent in another way,
ud
“The reagent producing the least number of moles of products is the limiting reagent”.
Calculation of limiting reagent :
St
(a) By calculating the required amount by the equation and comparing it with given amount.
[Useful when only two reactant are there]
(b) By Calculating amount of any one product obtained taking each reactant one by one
irrespective of other reactants. The one giving least product is limiting reagent.
(c) Divide given moles of each reactant by their stoichiometric coefficient, the one with
least ratio is limiting reagent. [Useful when number of reactants are more than two]
Percentage yield :
acutal yield
The percentage yield of product =  100
the theoretical maximum yield
(1) The actual amount of any limiting reagent consumed in such incomplete reactions is
given by : [ % yield × given moles of limiting reagent ] [ for reversible reactions ]
(2) For irreversible reaction with % yield less than 100, the reactant is converted to
product [desired and waste]
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20 MOLE CONCEPT
Illustration 11.
20 mL of 0.1 N BaCl 2 is mixed with 30 mL of 0.2 N Al 2 (SO4)3. How many g of BaSO 4
are formed?
Solution :
BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3  AlCl3 + BaSO4
M. eq. before reaction = 20 × 0.1 30 × 0.2
= 2 =6 0 0
Meq. after reaction 0 4 2 2
 Meq. of BaSO4 formed = 2
w
or × 1000 = 2
E
2 E 2  233
 w= = = 0.233 g
1000 2  1000
Illustration 12.
8 gm of methane is burnt with 4.48L of O 2 at STP. Find out the volume of CO 2 gas produced
at STP and also the weight of CO 2 gas.
Solution :
The balanced chemical equation is
CH 4 +
1 mol
2O2 
2 mol
 CO2 +
1 mol .in2H2O
ps
16 gm 2  22.4 L 22.4 L 44 gm
8
 0.5 mol
te
No. of moles of CH 4 =
16
yS
4.48L
No. of moles of O2 =  0.2mol
22.4L
Now since 1 mole of CH4 requires 2 mol (i.e. 44.8 L) of O 2 for complete combustion. But
ud
the given moles of O2 is only 0.2 mol. So, O2 is the limiting reagent.
Again , since 2 moles of O2 reacts with 1 mol of CH 4 to give 22.4 L of CO2 at STP.
St
So 0.2 mole of O2 will react with 0.1 mol of CH 4 to give 2.24 L of CO 2.

Wt. of CO2 produced = 0.1 mol  44
= 4.4 gms of CO2
1. According to the reaction , SO2 + H2S  S + H2O, when 6.4 g of SO 2 is reacted with 4 g
H2S. Calculate :
(a) The limiting reagent
(b) Maximum amount of sulphure which can be produced
(c) The amount of excess reagent remaining after the reaction is complete ?
2. According to the reaction K 2Cr2O7 + 14 HCl  2CrCl3 + 2KCl + 3Cl 2 + 7H2O when
2.98g of K2Cr2O7 and 5.84 g of HCl were reacted. Then calculate :
(a) The limiting reagent
(b) Maximum amount of CrCl3 which can be produced
(c) The amount of excess reagent remaining after the reaction is complete ?
(d) How much ml of Cl2 will be evolved at STP after the reaction is complete ?
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MOLE CONCEPT 21
3. A sample of KClO3 on decomposition yielded 448 mL of oxygen gas at NTP. Calculate :
(a) weight of oxygen produced. (b) weight of KClO3 originally taken, and
(c) weight of KCl produced.
4. In a process for producing acetic acid, oxygen gas is bubbled into acetaldehyde containing
manganese (II) acetate (catalyst) under pressure at 60ºC.
2CH3CHO + O2  2CH3COOH
In a laboratory test of this reaction, 20g of CH 3CHO and 10g of O 2 were put into a
reaction vessel
(a) How many gram of CH3COOH can be produced?
(b) How many grams of the excess reactant remain after the reaction is complete?
5. What weight of CO is required to form Re 2(CO)10 from 2.50 g of Re 2O7 according to the
unbalanced reaction: Re 2O7 + CO Re2(CO)10 + CO2
6. 1 g of dry green algae absorbs 4.7 × 10 –3 mole of CO2 per hour by photosynthesis. If the
fixed carbon atoms were all stored after photosynthesis as starch, (C6H10O5)n, how long would
it take for the algae to double their own weight, assuming photosynthesis takes place at a
constant rate ?
7. When a mixture of NaBr and NaCl is repeatedly digested with sulphuric acid, all the
halogens are expelled and Na2SO4 is formed quantitatively. With a particular mixture, it was
.in
found that the weight of Na 2SO4 obtained was precisely the same as the weight of NaBr-
NaCl mixture taken. Calculate the ratio of the weights of NaCl and NaBr in the mixture.
ps
8. Equal weights of phosphorus and oxygen are heated in a closed vessel producing P 2O3 and
P2O5 in 1 : 1 mole ratio. If the limiting component is exhausted, find what fraction of which
te
component is left over.

yS
9. 0.75 mole of solid ‘A 4’ and 2 mole of gaseous O 2 are heated in a sealed vessel, completely
using up the reactants and producing only one compound. It is found that when the temperature
is reduced to the initial temperature, the contents of the vessel exhibit a pressure equal to half
ud
the original pressure. What conclusions can be drawn from these data about the product of the
reaction.
St
10. Equal weights of Zn metal and iodine are mixed together and the iodine is completely converted
to ZnI2. What fraction by weight of the original zinc remains unreacted ?
11. From the following reaction sequence ,
CaC2 + H2O  CaO + C2H2
C2H2 + H2  C2H4
nC2H4  (C2H4)n
Calculate the mass of polyethylene which can be produced from 10 kg of CaC 2.
12. From the following reactions ,
2CoF2 + F2 2CoF3
(CH2)n + 4n CoF3  (CF2)n + 2n HF + 4n CoF2
Calculate how much F2 will be consumed to produce 1 kg of (CF 2)n.
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22 MOLE CONCEPT
(A) Gravimetric Analysis :

Gravimetric analysis is an analytical technique based on the measurements of mass of solid
substances and/or volume of gaseous species. Gravimetric analysis is divided into three parts.
(a) Mass-Mass relationship (b) Mass-volume relationship
(c) Volume-volume relationship
(a) Mass-Mass Relationship :
It relates the mass of a species (reactant or product) with the mass of another species
(reactants or product)
Let us consider a chemical reaction ,

2NaHCO3(s)  Na2CO3(s) + H2O + CO2(g)
Suppose the mass of NaHCO 3 being heated is ‘a’ g and we want to calculate the weight of
Na2CO3 being produced by heating of ‘a’ g of NaHCO 3.
The moles of NaHCO 3 = 84 a
According to the above balanced equation 2 moles of NaHCO3 upon heating gives 1 mole of
Na2CO3. So,
The no. of moles of Na 2CO3 produced = 12  84a
.in
Thus, wt. of Na2CO3 produced = moles of Na 2CO3  Molecular weight of Na 2CO3
ps
a  106 = 53 a gms
= 12  84
te
84
Illustration 13 :
yS
By heating 10g of CaCO 3, 5.6g CaO is formed. What is the weight of CO 2 obtained
in this reaction?
ud
Solution :
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
Molecular weight 100 56 44
St
100g CaCO3 gives 56g CaO and 44g CO 2

 10g CaCO3 gives 5.6g CaO and 4.4g CO 2
(b) Mass-Volume Relationship :

It relates the mass of a species (reactant or product) and the volume of a gaseous species
(reactant or product) involved in a chemical reaction. Suppose we are provided with ‘a’ gms
of NaHCO3 in a vessel of capacity V L and the vessel is heated, so that NaHCO 3

decomposes as 2NaHCO 3  Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Now, we want to calculate the volume of CO 2 gas being produced.
Moles of NaHCO3 taken = 84 a
Now , since 2 moles of NaHCO3 gives 1 mole of CO2 at STP. Thus

Moles of CO2 produced = 12  84 a
As we know that 1 mole of any gas at STP occupies a volume of 22.4 L.

1 a 
So, volume of CO2 produced =    22.4 L
 2 84 
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MOLE CONCEPT 23
Illustration 14 :
Calculate the volume of hydrogen liberated at 27°C and 760 mm pressure by treating
1.2g of magnesium with excess of hydrochloric acid.
Solution : The balanced equation is
Mg + 2HCl = MgCl 2 + H2
1 mole 1 mole
24g 22.4 litre at NTP
24g of Mg liberate hydrogen = 22.4 litre
22.4
1.2g of Mg will liberate hydrogen =  1.2 = 1.12 litre
24
Volume of hydrogen under given condition can be calculated by applying
P1 V1 P2 V2

T1 T2
P1 = 760 mm P2 = 760 mm
T1 = 273 K T2 = (27 + 273) = 300K
V1 = 1.12 litres V2 = ?
760  1.12 300
V2 =   1.2308litres
.in
273 760
(c) Volume-Volume Relationship :

ps
It relates the volume of gaseous species (reactants or products) with the volume of another
gaseous species (reactant or product) involved in a chemical reaction.
te
Illustration 15 :
yS
What volume of oxygen gas at NTP is necessary for complete combustion of 20 litre of
propane measured at 0°C and 760 mm. pressure.
Solution :
ud
The balanced equation is

C 3 H 8  5O 2  3CO 2  4H 2 O
St
1 vol 5 vol
1 litre 5 litre
1 litre of propane requires = 5 litre of oxygen

20 litre of propane will require = 5 ×20 =100 litre of oxygen at 760 mm pressure and 0°C.
1. Calculate the volume of CO2 formed at STP by heating 4.2 g of NaHCO3.

2. Calculate the amount of CaCO 3 required to be heated in order to collect 1.12 litre of CO 2 at
STP.
3 Anhydrous sodium sulphate can absorb water vapour and be converted to the decahydrate.
By how many grams would the mass of a 1-g sample of the thoroughly dried Na2SO4 increase
if exposed to sufficient water vapour to be converted to the decahydrate ?
4. 100 ml mixture of O2 and O3 when passed through pyrogallol (absorbs only O3) volume reduced
by 20ml. 100 ml of this mixture when heated calculate the increase in total volume.
5. Calculate the volume of O2 required for complete combustion of 1 litre CH 4 gas at STP.
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24 MOLE CONCEPT
6. 5 g of CaCO3 when heated the CO 2 liberated was found 1 litre at STP. Calculate the
percentage purity of the CaCO3 sample.
7. When 5 g mixture of NaHCO 3 and Na2CO3 was heated, 560 ml of CO 2 was collected at
STP. Calculate percentage of composition of the mixture.
8. 1 g mixture of cuprous oxide and cupric oxide was quantitatively reduced to 0.839 g of
metallic copper. What was the weight of cupric oxide in the original sample ?
9. A 1-g sample of KClO 3 was heated under such conditions that a part of it decomposed
according to the equation :
(a) 2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
and the remaining underwent change according to the equation
(b) 4KClO3  3KClO4 + KCl
If the amount of O2 evolved was 146.8 mL at NTP, calculate the percentage by weight of
KClO4 in the residue.
10. A solid mixture (5 g) consisting of lead nitrate and sodium nitrate was heated below 600ºC
until the weight of the residue is constant. If the loss in weight is 28 %, find the amount of the
lead nitrate and sodium nitrate in the mixture ?
11. A 2-g sample containing Na 2CO3 and NaHCO3 loses 0.248 g when heated to 300ºC, the
.in
temperature at which NaHCO 3 decomposes to Na 2CO3, CO2 and H2O. What is the
percentage of Na2CO3 in the given mixture ?
ps
12. An alloy of aluminium, and copper was treated with aqueous HCl. The aluminium dissolved
according to the reaction :
te
Al + 3H+  Al3+ + 3 2 H2,

yS
but the copper remained as pure metal. A 0.350 g sample of the alloy gave 415 cc of H 2
measured at 273 K and 1 atm pressure. What is the weight percentage of Al in the alloy ?
ud
(B) Volumetric Analysis

Titration : The process of determination of concentration of a solution of unknown
St
concentration with the help of a solution of known concentration i.e., standard solution, is
known as TITRATION.
Note : No. of equivalent of solute = Volume of solution (in litre)  normality of solution
No. of milli equivalents of solute = Normality of solution  Volume of solution in milliliters
Equivalent Weight : Number of parts by mass of an element which reacts or displaces from
a compound 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen, 8 parts by mass of oxygen and 35.5 parts by
mass of chlorine, is known as the equivalent weight of that element e.g.
2Mg  O 2   2MgO
48g 32g
12g 8g
 32g of O2 reacts with 48g of Mg
48  8
 8g of O2 = 32 = 12g
 Equivalent weight of Mg = 12
Similarly, Zn  H 2 SO 4 
 ZnSO 4  H 2
65.5g 2  1.008
 2  1.008g of hydrogen is displaced by 65.5g
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MOLE CONCEPT 25
65.5
 1.008g of H = = 32.75g
2 1.008
 Equivalent weight of Zn = 652.5 = 32.75
Al + 3
2 Cl2  AlCl3
32 g 3
2  71 g  111.5g chlorine reacts with 27 g of Al
27  35.5
 35.5 g chlorine reacts with = 9.0g of Al
111.5
 Equivalent weight of aluminium = 27 3 = 9.0

As we can see from the above examples that equivalent weight is the ratio of atomic weight
and a factor (say n-factor) which is in above three cases is their respective valencies. So,
atomic weight
equivalent weight =
n  factor
In a similar way, the equivalent weight of acid/base is the ratio of molecular weight and the
basicity/acidity and for oxidizing agents and reducing agent it is the ratio of molecular weight
.in
and the number of moles of electrons gained or lost. So in case of acid/base the n-factor is
basicity/acidity (i.e. number of dissociable H+ ions/number of dissociable OH– ion and in case
ps
of oxidizing agent/reducing agent, n-factor is number of moles of electrons gained/lost per
mole of oxidizing agent/reducing agent. Therefore, in general, we can write.
te
Atomic or molecualr weight

Equivalent weight (E) =
n  factor
yS
Wt W W
No. of equivalents of solute =  
Eq. wt. E M / n
ud
No. of equivalents of solute = No. of moles of solute  n-factor

And also Normality = n-factor  molarity of solution
St
* Equivalent weight of any substance is the weight in gram which combines with 1 gram of
hydrogen , 8 grams of oxygen, 35.5 grams of Cl and 108 grams of Ag.
Molecular weight
* Equivalent weight =
' n' factor
1. The equivalent weight of a metal is 36. What weight of the metal would give 9.322 gm of its
chloride ?
2. On heating 5 × 10–3 equivalent of CaCl2.xH2O, 0.18 gm of water is obtained, what is the value
of x ?
3. The equivalent weight of a metal is double that of oxygen. How many times is the weight of
its oxide greater than the weight of the metal ?
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26 MOLE CONCEPT
4. 0.224 gm of a metal when dissolved in dilute acid liberates 285 cc of hydrogen, measured at
17ºC and 78 cm of mercury pressure. Find the equivalent weight of the metal.
5. 1.82 g of a metal required 32.5 mL of N HCl to dissolve it. What is equivalent weight of
metal ?
6. The equivalent weight of a metal is 30. What volume of chlorine would be liberated at 27ºC
and 750 mm pressure by 0.6 gm of the metal ? [ Aqueous tension at 27ºC = 26.6 mm ]
7. The molecular formula of an oxide of an element X is XmOn what is the equivalent weight of
the metal ? [ Given atomic weight of X = a ]
8. 12 g of an element combines with 32 g of oxygen. What is the equivalent weight of the element
if the equivalent weight of oxygen is 8 ?
9. Equivalent weight of sulphur in SCl2 is 16, what is the equivalent weight of S in S2Cl2 ?
[ S = 32 , Cl = 35.5 ]
10. 1.60 gm of a metal were dissolved in HNO 3 to prepare its nitrate. The nitrate was strongly
heated to give 2 g oxide. Calculate equivalent weight of metal.
11. From 3.36 gm of Fe, 4.80 gm of iron oxide is obtained. What is the equivalent weight of Fe ?
12. 1.0 g of metal nitrate gave 0.86 g of metal sulphate. Calculate equivalent weight of metal.
13.
.in
An element forms two oxides, the weight ratio composition in them, A : O = x : y in the first
oxide and y : x in the second oxide. If the equivalent weight of A in the first oxide is 10.33,
ps
Calculate the equivalent weight of A in the second oxide .
Calculation of n-factor
te
For calculating the n-factor of any reactant in any reaction. One must know the kind of
yS
reaction it is, the reactions may be classified into the following three types .
(a) Acid-Base Reactions/Neutralization reactions
(b) Redox Reactions
ud
(c) Precipitation Reactions/Double decomposition reactions

St
(a) Acid-Base Reaction :

According, to the Arrhenius, an acid is a substance that furnishes H+ ion(s) in solution, a base is
a substance that furnishes OH– ion(s) in solution and neutralization is a reaction in which H+
ion furnished by acid combines with OH – ions furnished by base. The number of H + ion(s)
furnished per molecule of the acid is its n-factor also called basicity. Similarly the number of
OH– ion(s) furnished by the base per molecule is its n-factor, also called acidity.
Some Examples
 H   Cl 
HCl  ;  H   HSO 4
H 2SO 4 
( n 1) ( n 1)
 2H   SO 24
H 2SO 4  ;  H   H 2 PO 4
H 3 PO 4 
( n 2 ) ( n 1)
 3H   PO 34
H 3 PO 4  ;  H   H 2 PO 3
H 3 PO 3 
( n 3 ) ( n 1)
 2H   HPO 3
H 3 PO 3 
( n 2)
The n-factor of H3PO3 cannot be 3 as it has only two dissociable H + ions. So, its n-factor or
dissociable protons is 1 or 2 as one of the H-atoms is linked with P atom directly.
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MOLE CONCEPT 27
HO P OH
 CH 3COO   H 
Similarly, CH 3COOH 
( n 1)
n-factor of CH3COOH is 1, because it contains only one dissociable H + ion.

Now , we will consider the n-factor of some bases.
 Na   OH 
NaOH 
( n 1)
[Ba (OH)]  OH 
Ba (OH) 2 
( n 1)
 Ba 2  2OH 
Ba (OH) 2 
( n 2)
 Al3  3OH 
Al(OH) 3 
( n 3 )
Similarly, n-factor of Al(OH) 3 can also be 1 or 2 or 3, depending upon the number of OH –

released.
.in
ps
Molecular weight
te
Equivalent weight =
' n' factor
yS
Note : Molecular weight is the mass of 1 mole of any substance hence ‘n’ factor is always
calculated for 1 mole of substance.
ud
Acids :
1. Calculate the ‘n’ factor of following acids :
St
(a) H 2C 2O 4 (b) H2SO 4

(c) H3PO 2 (d) KHC 2O 4
(e) H3BO3 (f) H3PO 4
(g) NaHC 2O4.KHC 2O4.H2C 2O4 (h) HNO 2
(i) H2S (j) CH3COOH
(k) Al2(C2O4)3.5H2C2O4 (l) H3PO 3
(m) H2SO 3 (n) HNO 3
(o) SnC2O4.2NaHC 2O4.3KHC 2O4.4H2C 2O4
2. Find equivalent weight of H2SO4 in the following cases :
(a) H2SO4 NaHSO4 (b) H2SO4  Na2SO4
(c) H2SO4 Na3H(SO4)2 (d) H2SO4 KH3 (SO4)2
Bases :
3. Calculate the ‘n’ factor and equivalent weight of following bases :
(a) NaOH (b) NH4OH (c) Al(OH)3
(d) Mg(OH)2 (e) MgAl(OH)5 (f) Fe(OH)3
(g) Na3Al(OH)6 (h) KOH (i) Ca2Al3(OH)13
(j) Zn(OH)2
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28 MOLE CONCEPT
4. Find equivalent weight of Al(OH)3 in the following reactions :

(a) Al(OH)3 Al(OH)2Cl (b) Al(OH)3 Al(OH)Cl2
(c) Al(OH)3 AlCl3 (d) Al(OH)3 Al2(OH)4(NO3)2
(e) Al(OH)3 Al3(OH)3 (PO4)2
(B) Redox Reactions

Those reactions which involve the exchange of electrons are called redox reactions. For the
calculation of n-factor of oxidising agent or reducing agent, the method depends upon the
change in oxidation state of the species considered. We will discuss them one by one.
(i) When only one atom undergoing either reduction or oxidation e.g.
7 2
H
MnO  Mn 2

4
n 5
In such a case, we consider the change in oxidation state of atom undergoing oxidation or
reduction change per molecule as the n-factor of the species.
n-factor = |(+2) 1 – (+7)  1| = 5
2 3
Fe 2 
 Fe 3 n-factor = |(+3) × 1 – (+2) × 1| = 1
n 1
32 42
.in
C2O 42 
 2CO 2 n-factor = |(+4) × 2 – (+3) × 2| = 2
n 2
ps
62 32
Cr2 O 72 
 2Cr 3 n-factor = |(+3) × 2 – (+6)× 2| = 6
n 6
te
(ii) Salts which reacts in such a way that only one atom undergoes change in
oxidation state but appears in two products with the same oxidation state :
yS
In such a case the method of calculation of n-factor remains the same i.e., we will calculate the
change in oxidation state of the atom per mole of that substance (reactant).
ud
62 3 3
Cr2 O72 
 Cr 3  Cr 3
St
In this example, oxidation state of Cr changes from +6 to +3 in both the products. So

n-factor = |(+6) × 2 – (+3) × 2| = 6
(iii) Salts which react in such a way that only one atom undergoes change in oxidation
state but goes in two products with different oxidation state as a result of either
only oxidation or only reduction.
7 2 6
3MnO 4  2Mn 2  Mn  6
In such a case, it is impossible to calculate the n-factor until and unless one knows that how
much of MnO 4 is changing to Mn 2+ and how much to Mn 6+ and if one knows the balanced
equation then there is no need of calculation of n-factor. Nevertheless in such case the n-
factor can be calculated by deducing the total change in oxidation state divided by total
number of atom undergoing reduction/oxidation change. So, for the calculation of n-factor in
the above example, out of three moles of MnO 4 , two moles are being converted to Mn2+ and
one mole changes to Mn6+. So total decrease in oxidation state of Mn.
= | [2 × (+2) – 2 × (+7)] | + | [1 × (+6) – 1 × (+7)]|
= | 4 – 14 | + | 6 – 7 | = 11
So, n-factor = 11
3
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MOLE CONCEPT 29
(iv) Salts which react in such a way that only one atom undergoes change in oxidation
state in two product, in one product with changed oxidation state and in other
product with same oxidation state as that of reactant.
In such case also one cannot calculate the n-factor without knowing the balanced
chemical equation because one must know how much of atom has changed its oxidation
state. For example.
K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl  2KCl + 2CrCl 3 + 3Cl2 + 7H2O
Let us calculate the n-factor of HCl. Out of 14 moles of Cl – (in HCl) only 6 moles of
Cl– are changing its oxidation state from –1 to 0 in the product Cl 2 and the oxidation
state of remaining 8 Cl– ions remains same in KCl and CrCl3. So, total no. of moles of
electrons lost by 14 moles of HCl is 6. So each mole of HCl takes up 6/14 i.e., 3/7
moles of electrons and hence n-factor of HCl is 3/7.
(v) Salts which react in such a way that two or more atoms in the salt undergoes
change in oxidation states as a result of either oxidation or reduction. Let us
consider the following example,
FeC2O4  Fe3+ + 2CO2
In this case, the oxidation of both Fe 2+ and C3+ are changing from + 2 and +3 to +3
and +4 respectively. In such a case we will calculate the n-factor of the salt as the total
.in
increase or decrease in oxidation state per mole of the salt. As one can see that one
mole of FeC 2O4 contains one mole of Fe 2+ and one mole of C 2O42– (i.e. 2 carbon
atoms per mole of C 2O42–.
ps
Total change in oxidation state
= | 1 × (+2) – 1 × (+3) | + | 2 × (+3) – 2 × (+4) |
te
=1+2=3
So, n-factor of FeC 2O4 is 3
yS
(vi) Salts which react in such a way that two atoms undergoing change in oxidation
state but one undergoing oxidation and other reduction reaction. In such a case
ud
one has to calculate the change in oxidation state of either the atom being oxidized
or the atom being reduced. For example.
St
3 2 6 2 0 2 3 2

(N H 4 ) 2 Cr 2 O 7 
 N 2  Cr2 O3  4H 2O
In this reaction, the oxidation state of N is increasing by 6 units and that of Cr is
decreasing by 6 unit. So, we can consider either oxidation or reduction product for the
calculation of n-factor and it will be the same.
n-factor of (NH4)2Cr2O7 considering oxidation
= |(-3) ×2 – (0) × 2| = 6
n-factor of (NH4)2Cr2O7 considering reduction
= |(+6) × 2 – (+3) × 2| = 6
(vii) Species which undergoes disproportionation reaction: Those reaction in which
oxidant and reductant are the same species or the same element from the species
is getting oxidized as well as reduced.
When the number of moles of atoms being oxidized is equal to the number of moles of
atoms being reduced.
The n-factor can be calculated by knowing the balanced chemical equation and
considering any of the change taking place. Say for example,
2H2O2  2H2O + O2
Out of 2 moles of H2O2 consumed in the reaction, one mole of H2O2 is being oxidized
(H2O2  O2) and one mole of H 2O2 is being reduced (H 2O2  2H2O). First
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30 MOLE CONCEPT
consider the oxidation reaction

( 1)2 20
H 2O2   O 2
n-factor = |2 × 0 – (–1) × 2| = 2
Again, considering reduction reaction
( 1)2 ( 2 )2
H 2O2   2H 2 O
n-factor = |(-2) × 2 – (-1) × 2| = 2
So, n-factor of H 2O2 either considering oxidation or reduction reaction is same
i.e. 2.
I Calculate n factor of the reactants in the following reaction in which only 1 atom undergo
change in oxidation state
H
*MnO4– OH
–
1. *KMnO4 
 Mn+2 2.  MnO4–2

HO H
3. *KMnO4 

2
MnO2 4. *Cr2O7–2  Cr+3
5. *K2Cr2O7 OH
 Cr+3
–
6.
.in H
*Na2S2O3 

S4O6–2
ps
*S2O3–2 OH OA
–
7.  SO4–2 8. *H2O2  H 2O
RA
*C2O4–2  CO2
te
9. *H2O2  O2 10.

11. *KI I2 12. *CrO4–2 Cr2O4–2
yS
13. H2S  S 14. H2SO4  S

15. Hg5(IO6)2  K2HgI4 16. PbCl2  PbCl4
ud
17. Al2(C2O4)2  CO2 18. ClO–  ClO4–

19. I–  I2 20. SO2  SO4–2
St
21. Ba(MnO4)2  Mn+2 22. Pb(Cr2O4)2  Cr+6

23. I–  I3– 24. Fe2O3  FeO
25. Pb3O4  PbO2 26. AN  NO3–
27. Cu3P2  H2PO4– 28. NaClO3  NaCl
29. Fe3O4  FeO 30. Ca3(PO4)2  P–3
31. (NH4)2SO4  N2H4 32. FeSO4  Fe2(SO4)3
33. CO2  CaC2O4 34. Fe0.93O  FeO
35. Al(MnO4)3  Mn+2 36. Sn(Cr2O7)2  Cr+3
37. PbS  PbSO4 38. Cu2O  CuO
39. Mg3N2  NO3– 40. CuS  SO4–2
41. Fe2S3  SO3 42. SnCl2  ClO4–
43. H2SO4  H2S 44. Cu2S  Cu+2
45. H2SO4  SO2 46. Cu2S  SO3
47. PbCl2  Pb+4 48. FeC2O4  Fe+3
49. FeC2O4  CO2 50. Fe(NO3)3  Fe
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MOLE CONCEPT 31
II Calculate ‘n’ factor of reactants in the following reactions in which more than 1 atoms
undergo change in oxidation state :
1. FeC2O4 Fe+3 + CO2 2. Cu2S Cu+2 + SO4–2
3. Pb(N3)2 Pb3O4 + NO 4. As2S3 H3AsO4 + SO3
5. Cu3P Cu+2 + H3PO4 6. CrI3 CrO4–2 + IO4–
7. FeS2 Fe+3 + SO2 8. Co(MnO4)3 CoO + MnO2
9. FeCr2O4 Fe2O3 +K2CrO4 10. SnC2O4 Sn+4 + CO2
III Calculate ‘n’ factor of reactants in the following disproportionation reactions

1. Br  Br + BrO
2
–
3
–
2. ClO  ClO + Cl 3
–
4
– –
3. S  S + S O
–2
2 3
–2
4. 2H O  H O +O 2 2 2 2
5. 2Cu  Cu + Cu
+ +2
(c) Precipitation/Double Decomposition Reactions :

In such reaction, there is no change in oxidation state of any atom. The n-factor of the salt
can be calculated by multiplying the oxidation state of the cation/anion by total no. of atoms
per molecule of the salt. For example
BaCl2  Na 2SO 4 
 BaSO 4  2 NaCl
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n 2 n 2
for BaCl2
ps
n-factor = Oxidation state of Ba atom in BaCl2 × number of Ba atoms in 1 molecule of
BaCl2
= (+2) × 1 = 2
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for Na2SO4
yS
n-factor = Oxidation state of Na × number of Na-atoms in 1 molecule of Na 2SO4

= (+1) × 2 = 2
ud
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The process of determination of concentration of a solution with the help of a solution of known
concentration (standard solution) is called titration.
Titration is divided into following three categories.
(a) Simple Titration
(i) Acid base titration (ii) Double Titration (iii) Redox titration
(b) Back Titration
(c) Iodimetric and Iodometric Titration
(a) Simple Titration :

A known volume of the solution of unknown concentration is taken in a flask and required
reagents are added to it. The solution of known concentration is added from the burette in the
solution of unknown concentration till the latter reacts completely. This process is called
titration. At the end point (equivalence point) the equivalents or milliequivalents of the two
reacting substances are equal.
Volume of solution (A) = VA litres
Normality of solution (A) = NA
Equivalents of substance (A) = NAVA
Similarly equivalents of substance (B) = NBVB
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32 MOLE CONCEPT
At the equivalence point (end point) the equivalents (not the moles) of the two substance are
equal.
NAVA (litre) = NB  VB (litre)
Simple titrations can be studied under following three headings :
(i) Acid base titration (ii) Double Titration (iii) Redox titration
(i) ABT (Acid Base Titration) :

In this type of titration an acid is reacted with base
For ABT , Meq. of acid = Meq. of base
.in
ps
In the above figure Meq. of acid = N1V1
Meq. of acid = N2(V2 – V3)
te
 N1V1 = N2(V2 – V3)

yS
Illustration 16 :
40 ml N/10 HCl and 60 ml N/20 KOH are mixed together. Calculate the normality of
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the acid or base left. What is the normality of the salt formed in the solution?
Solution :
1 40
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Milli equivalents of HCl = N × V (ml) = 4

10
1 60
Milli equivalents of KOH = N × V (ml) = 3
20
One milli equivalent of an acid neutralizes one milli equivalent of a base
Milli equivalent of HCl left =4–3=1
Total volume of the solution = 40 + 60 = 100 ml
Milli equivalents of HCl = N × V (ml)
1 = N × 100
Normality (N) of HCl left in solution = 0.01
Salt formed = Milli equivalent of acid or base neutralized
Milli equivalents of the salt formed = N × V (ml)
3 = N × 100
Normality (N) of salt formed = 0.03
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MOLE CONCEPT 33
1. A solution containing 4.2 g of KOH and Ca(OH) 2 is neutralized by an acid. If it consumes

0.1 equivalent of acid, calculate composition of sample in solution.
2. Gastric juice contains 3.0 g of HCl per litre. If a person produces 2.5 litre of gastric juice per
day, how many antacid tablets each containing 400 mg of Al(OH)3 are needed to neutralize all
the HCl produced in one day ?
3. 2.5 g of a double sulphate or iron and ammonia on boiling with NaOH liberated NH3 gas which
exactly neutralised 12.8 mL of normal H2SO4. Determine the percentage of NH3 in the double
salt. [8.71 %]
4. The formula weight of an acid is 82.0. 100 cm3 of a solution of this acid containing 39.0 g of the
acid per litre were completely neutralized by 95.0 cm3 of aqueous NaOH containing 40.0 g of
NaOH per litre. What is the basicity of the acid ?
5. What volume at NTP of ammonia gas will be required to be passed into 30 mL of N H2SO4
solution to bring down the acid normality to 0.2 N ?
7. What volume of a solution of hydrochloric acid containing 73 g of acid per litre would suffice
.in
for the exact neutralization of sodium hydroxide obtained by allowing 0.46 g of metallic sodium
to act upon water ?
ps
8. Calculate the volume of a dibasic acid of normality 0.1 N which is just sufficient to neutralize
1 g of base which furnishes 0.04 mole of OH– in solution.
te
9. Two acids H2SO4 and H3PO4 are neutralized separately by the same amount of an alkali when
sulphate and dihydrogen phosphates are formed respectively. Find the ratio of the masses of
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H2SO4 and H3PO4.

10. 100 g of HCl solution of specific gravity 1.17 g/mL contains 33.4 g of HCl. What volume of
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this HCl solution will be required to exactly neutralize 5 litres of 0.1 N NaOH solution ?
11. 2.505 g of hydrated dibasic acid requires 35 mL of 1 N NaOH solution for complete
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neutralization. When 1.01 g of the hydrated acid is heated to constant weight, 0.72 g of the
anhydrous acid is obtained. Calculate degree of hydration of the acid.
12. Oxalic acid, (COOH)2, reacts with NaOH according to
(COOH)2 + 2NaOH (COONa)2 + 2H2O
If 0.816 g of oxalic acid dihydrate, (COOH) 2.2H2O, is dissolving in water and titrated with
0.120 M NaOH solution, what volume of NaOH will be needed ?
13. A mixture of NaOH and Mg(OH)2 weighs 2.325 g. It requires 3 g of H2SO4 for its neutralization.
What is % composition of mixture ?
14. 0.9698 g of an acid are present in 300 mL of a solution. 10 mL of this solution requires exactly
20 mL of 0.05 N KOH solution. Calculate equivalent weight of acid. If molecular weight of
acid is 98, calculate no. of neutralizable protons.
(b) Double Titration :

If an aqueous solution contains a mixture of any two of the three NaOH, NaHCO 3 and
Na2CO3 and it has to be titrated against an acid HCl or H2SO4, it will require two indicators
to determine the strength of the bases present. The two indicators used are phenolphthalein
and methyl orange.
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34 MOLE CONCEPT
Method : A given volume of the aqueous solution of the bases is taken and phenolphthalein
indicator is added to it. This solution is titrated with an acid of known normality to the end point
the volume of the acid used is noted. This end point is called first end point. Now in the same
solution methyl orange is added and gain titrated with an acid of known strength to the end
point. It is called second end point. The volume of acid, used in the second end point is also
noted. The normality of the bases present is then calculated.
Principle : In the presence of phenolphthalein indicator
(i) NaOH is completely neutralized by the acid.
(ii) Only half of the milliequivalents of Na2CO3 present are titrated as the phenolphthalein
will show the colour change when only NaHCO 3 (weak base) and neutral species are
left in the reaction mixture. The following reactions take place,
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
Na2CO3 + HCl  NaHCO 3 + NaCl
weak base
Since phenolphthalein is a weak organic acid, and it changes its colour in weakly basic
medium (NaHCO3), so as soon as the Na2CO3 is converted to NaHCO3 phenolphthalein
shows the colour change indicating the completion of the reaction.
In the presence of methyl orange, all the basic substances left in the mixture will be
neutralized by acid and methyl orange will show the colour change when the medium is
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weakly acidic (H2O + CO2 i.e. H2CO3).
1. Titration of the solution containing both NaOH and Na 2CO3:
ps
A given volume of the aqueous solution is titrated with an acid of known normality using
phenolphthalein indicator. Suppose ‘a’ milli equivalents of acid are used in the first end point
te
then, milli equivalent of NaOH + ½ milli equivalent of Na2CO3

= milli equivalent of acid = a …(1)
yS
Now in the same already titrated solution methyl orange indicator is added and again titrated
to the end point. Suppose ‘b’ milli equivalents of the acid are used at the second end point.
ud
½ milli equivalents of Na2CO3 = milli equivalents of acid = b …(2)

From equation (1) and (2)
Milli equivalents of acid used by Na2CO3 = 2b
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 milli equivalents of Na2CO3

Milli equivalents of acid used by NaOH =a–b
= milli equivalent of NaOH
Knowing the milli equivalents of Na 2CO3 or NaOH and the volume of the solution titrated,
their normality can be calculated.
Illustration 17 :
NaOH and Na 2CO3 are dissolved in 200 ml aqueous solution. In the presence of
phenolphthalein indicator. 17.5 ml of 0.1 N HCl are used to titrate this solution. Now
methyl orange is added in the same solution titrated and it requires 2.5 ml of the same
HCl. Calculate the normality of NaOH and Na 2CO3 and their mass present in the
solution.
Solution :
Milli equivalents (a) of HCl used in the presence of phenolphthalein indicator.
= N  V (ml)
= 0.1  17.5 = 1.75
1.75 (a) = milli. eq. of NaOH + 1/2 milli eq. of Na 2CO3 ...(1)
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MOLE CONCEPT 35
Milli eq. (b) of HCl used in the presence of methyl orange indicator
= N  V (ml)
= 0.1  2.5 = 0.25
0.25 (b) = 1/2 milli equivalents of Na 2CO3 …(2)
For Na2CO3 solution: From equation(2)
Milli eq. of acid used by Na2CO3 = 2b
= 2  0.25 = 0.5
Volume of Na2CO3 solution = 200 ml
Suppose, Normality of Na 2CO3 =N
Milli equivalents of Na2CO3 = N  V (ml) = 200N
Putting equivalents of acid and Na2CO3 equal.
200N = 0.5
1
or (Normality of Na2CO3 solution) N =
400
Mass of Na2CO3 = N  E  V (litre)
1
(E for Na2CO3 = 53) =  53  0.2
400
= 0.0265 gram
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For NaOH solution: From equation (1) and (2)
Milli eq. acid used by NaOH = a – b = 1.75 – 0.25
= 1.50
ps
Volume of NaOH solution = 200 ml
Suppose, Normality of NaOH solution = N
te
Mili eq. of NaOH = N  V (ml) = 200 N

Putting the mili eq. of NaOH and acid used equal
yS
200 N = 1.5
1.5
ud
(Normality of NaOH solution) N =

200
Mass of NaOH = N  E  (V litres)
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1.5
=  40  0.2
200
(E for NaOH = 40) = 0.06g
2. Titration of the solution containing both Na 2CO3 and NaHCO 3:

Given volume of the solution is titrated by an acid using phenolphthalein indicator. Suppose ‘a’
milli equivalents of acid are used in the first end point. Then
1/2 milli equivalent of Na2CO3 = milli equivalents of acid = a…(1)
Now in the same already titrated solution methyl orange indicator is added and again titrated to
the end point. Suppose ‘b’ milli equivalents of the acid are used at the second end point. Then
1/2 milli equivalents of Na2CO3 + milli equivalents of NaHCO3
= milli equivalents of acid=b ..(2)
From equation (1) and (2)
Milli equivalents of acid used by Na2CO3 = 2a
 milli equivalents of Na2CO3
Milli equivalents of acid used by NaHCO3 = b – a
= milli equivalent of NaHCO3
Knowing the milli equivalents of the base and volume of the solution titrated, the normality
(strength) of the bases can be calculated.
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36 MOLE CONCEPT
Illustration 18 :
Both Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 are present in an aqueous solution. In the presence of
phenolphthalein indicator 10 ml of this solution requires 2.5 ml of 0.1M H 2SO4 for
titration. After this methyl orange is added in the same solution and titration requires
5 ml M H2SO4. Calculate the concentration of Na 2CO3 and NaHCO3 in g/litre.
Solution :
Milli eq. (a) of H2SO4 used in the presence of phenolphthalein indicator
= N  V (ml) = 0.1  2  2.5 = 0.5
a = 0.5 = 12 milli equivalents of Na2CO3 …(1)
Milli. eq. (b) of NaHCO 3 + ½ milli eq. of Na2CO3 …(2)
For Na2CO3 solution: From equation (1)
Milli eq. of acid used by Na2CO3 = 2  0.5 = 1
Suppose, Normality of Na2CO3 solution = N
Volume of Na2CO3 solution taken = 10 ml
Milli eq. of Na2CO3 taken = N  V (ml) = 10 N
Putting the milli eq. of H2SO4 and Na2CO3 equal,
1 = 10 N
or (Normality of Na2CO3) N = 0.1
=NE
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Strength (S) in g/litre
= 0.1  53 (E for Na2CO3 = 53)
= 5.3 g/litre
ps
For NaHCO3 solution: From equations (1) and (2) milli eq. of acid used by
NaHCO3 = b – a = 1.0 – 0.5 = 0.5
te
Suppose, Normality of NaHCO3 solution =N

Volume of NaHCO3 solution taken = 10 ml
yS
Milli equivalents of NaHCO3 taken = 10 N

Putting the milli eq. of H2SO4 and NaHCO3 equal,
0.5 = 10 N
ud
or (Normality of NaHCO3 solution) N = 0.05

Strength (S) in g/litre =NE
St
(E for NaHCO3 = 84) = 0.05  84 = 4.2g/litre
1. A solution of NaOH and Na2CO3 is prepared 25 ml of this solution required for neutralization :
(a) 25 ml of 0.08 N HCl when phenolphthalein is used as indicator
(b) 35 ml of 0.08 N HCl when methyl orange is used as indicator. Find the strength of
NaOH and Na2CO3.
2. 8 gram of a mixture of anhydrous Na 2CO3 and NaHCO3 was dissolved in water and made
upto 1000 ml. 25 ml of this solution required for neutralization :
(a) 32.51 ml of N/10 HCl using methyl orange &
(b) 11.80 ml of N/10 HCl using phenolphthalein. Find the strength of NaHCO3 and Na2CO3.
3. 25 ml of a mixture of NaOH + Na2CO3, when titrated with 0.1 N HCl using phenolphthalein
indicator required 25 ml HCl to decolourise phenolphthalein. At this stage methyl orange was
added and addition of acid was continued. The second end point was reached after further
addition of 5 ml of the acid. Calculate the amount of Na 2CO3 and NaOH per litre of the
solution.
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MOLE CONCEPT 37
4. A solution contained Na 2CO3 and NaHCO3. 25 ml of this solution required 5 ml of 0.1 N
HCl for titration with phenolphthalein as indicator. The titration was repeated with the same
volume of the solution but with methyl orange 12.5 ml of 0.1 N HCl was required this time.
Calculate the amount of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 in the solution.
5. A mixed solution of KOH and Na 2CO3 required 20 ml of N/20 HCl solution when titrated
with phenolphthalein as indicator. But the same amount of solution when titrated with methyl
orange as indicator required 30 ml of the same acid. Calculate the amount of KOH and Na2CO3.
6. 50 ml of a solution, containing 1 g each of Na 2CO3, NaHCO3 and NaOH, was titrated with N
HCl. What will be the titre reading if :
(a) only phenolphthalein is used as indicator ?
(b) only methyl orange is used as indicator from the very beginning ?
(c) methyl orange is added after the first end point with phenolphthalein ?
7. 20 mL of a mixed solution of Na 2CO3 and NaOH required 17.5 mL of N/10 HCl when
titrated within phenolphthalein as indicator. But when methyl orange added, a second end
point was observed on the further addition of 2.4 mL of HCl. Calculate the amount of Na2CO3
and NaOH in one lit. of the solution.
8. A solution contains Na 2CO3 and NaOH. Using phenolphthalein as indicator, 25 ml of a
mixture requires 719.5 ml of 0.005 N HCl for the end point. If methyl orange is indicator, then
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25 ml of solution requires 25.9 ml of the same HCl for end point. Calculate concentration of
each substance in g per litre.
ps
9. A certain solution consists of Na 2CO3 and NaHCO3, 30 ml of this solution required 12 ml of
0.1 N H2SO4 using phenolphthalein as indicator. In presence of methyl orange, 30 ml of same
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solution required 40 ml of 0.1 N H2SO4. Calculate the amount of Na 2CO3 and NaHCO3 per
litre in mixture.
yS
(c) Redox titration :

It is a type of simple titration in which a solution of oxidising agent is reacted with a solution of
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reducing agent
For redox titration , Meq. of reducing agent = Meq. of oxidising agent
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Standard Solution of oxidising agent

(solution of known conc. N2)
After
V2 ml complete reaction V3 ml
Reducing agent (solution of unknown

V1 ml concentration. N1) V1 ml
In the above figure Meq. of reducing agent = N1V1

Meq. of oxidising agent = N2(V2 – V3)
 N1V1 = N2(V2 – V3)
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38 MOLE CONCEPT
1. 20 mL of 0.2 M MnSO4 are completely oxidized by 16 mL of KMnO4 of unknown normality,

each forming Mn+4 oxidation state. Find out the normality and molarity of KMnO4 solution.
2. 1 g of H2O2 solution containing X% H2O2 by weight requires X mL of KMnO4 for complete
oxidation in acid medium. Calculate normality of KMnO4 solution.
3. Find out the % of oxalate ion in given sample of oxalate salt of which 0.3 g dissolved in 100 mL
of water required 90 mL of N/20 KMnO 4 for complete oxidation.
4. 25 g of a sample of FeSO4 was dissolved in water containing dil. H2SO4 and the volume made
upto 1 litre. 25 mL of this solution required 20 mL of N/10 KMnO 4 for complete oxidation.
Calculate % of FeSO4.7H2O in given sample.
5. A solution of 0.1 M KMnO4 is used for the reaction :
S2O3–2 + 2MnO4– + H2O  MnO2 + SO4–2 + OH–
What volume of solution in mL will be required to react with 0.158 g of Na 2S2O3 ?
6. A solution contains mixture of H2SO4 and H2C2O4. 25 mL of this solution requires 35.5 mL of
N/10 NaOH for neutralization and 23.45 mL of N/10 KMnO 4 for oxidation. Calculate :
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(a) Normality of H2C2O4 and H2SO4
(b) Strength of H2C2O4 and H2SO4
ps
Assume molecular weight of H2C2O4 = 126
7. 0.5 g sample of iron containing mineral mainly in the form of CuFeS2 was reduced suitably to
convert all the ferric ions into ferrous ions (Fe +3  Fe+2) and was obtained as solution. In
te
the absence of any interfering radical, the solution required 42 mL of 0.01 M K 2Cr2O7 for
yS
titration. Calculate % of CuFeS2 in sample.

8. 0.2828 g of iron wire was dissolved in excess dilute H 2SO4 and the solution was made upto
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100 mL. 20 mL of this solution required 30 mL of N/30 K 2Cr2O7 solution of exact oxidation.
Calculate % purity of Fe in wire.
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9. Mg can reduce NO3– to NH3 in basic solution :

NO3– + Mg(s) + H2O  Mg(OH)2(s) + OH–(aq) + NH3(g)
A 25.0 mL sample of NO3– solution was treated with Mg. The NH3(g) was passed into 50 mL
of 0.15 N HCl. The excess HCl required 32.10 mL of 0.10 M NaOH for its neutralisation.
What was the molarity of NO3– ions in the original sample ?
10. A polyvalent metal weighing 0.1 g and having atomic weight 51.0 reacted with dil. H 2SO4 to
give 43.9 mL of H2 at STP. The solution containing the metal in the lower oxidation state was
found to required 58.8 mL of 0.1 N KMnO 4 for complete oxidation. What are valencies of
metal.
11. A mixture of KMnO 4 and K2Cr2O7 weighing 0.24 g on being treated with KI in acid
solution liberates just sufficient I2 to react with 60 mL of 0.1 N hypo. Find out % of Cr and Mn
in mixture.
12. 1.5 g of brass containing Cu and Zn reacts with 3 M HNO 3 solution, the following reaction
take place Cu + HNO3  Cu+2 + NO2(g) + H2O
Zn + H+ + NO3–  NH4+ + Zn+2 + H2O
The liberated NO 2(g) was found to be 1.04 litre at 25ºC and one atm.
(a) Calculate the percentage composition of brass.
(b) How many mL of 3M HNO3 will be required for completely reacting 1g of brass ?
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MOLE CONCEPT 39
13. 10 mL of H2O2 solution when reacted with KI solution produced 0.5 g of iodine. Calculate %
purity of H2O2 (by volume).
14. How many mL of 0.24 M solution of Na2SO3 will be oxidized by 180 mL of 0.32 M KMnO 4
in acid medium ?
15. What is the strength of K2Cr2O7 solution, whose 10 mL required 15 mL of N/10 hypo solution for
neutralization?
16. A solution containing 1.984 g of crystalline Na 2S2O3.xH2O in water required 40 mL of N/5
iodine solution for complete reaction. Calculate the value of x.
17. 0.2274 g sample of copper ore containing CuS liberated iodine when treated with excess of
KI in acid solution. The liberated iodine required 28.6 mL of 0.035 N Na2S2O3.5H2O solution
for complete reaction. Determine the percentage of CuS in ore.
18. 100 mL of K2Cr2O7 solution (10 g of K 2Cr2O7 per litre) and 75 mL of ferrous salt solution
(80 g of FeSO4.7H2O per litre) are mixed in presence of excess of H 2SO4 & the resulting
solution titrated with 0.2121 N KMnO4 solution. What will be the volume of KMnO4 needed?
19. In analysis of 0.1 g iron oxide of unknown composition, is dissolved and all the iron is reduced
to divalent state and then titrated with 0.0993 N solution of K 2Cr2O7, 13.05 mL of which is
used for titration. What is the formula of iron oxide ?
20.
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15 mL sample of a solution of 0.04 M Sn +2 and X.M Fe+2. Both ions are easily oxidized by
Cr2O7–2 in acidic solution and the redox products are Sn +4, Fe+3 and Cr+3. If 18 mL of 0.1250
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M Cr2O7–2 is required for oxidation what is X ?
te
(B) Back Titration :

Let us consider that we have an impure solid substance ‘Z’ weighing ‘w’ g and we are required
yS
to calculate the percentage purity of ‘Z’ in the sample. We are also provided with two solutions
‘X’ and ‘Y’, where the concentration of ‘Y’ is known (N1) and that of ‘X’ is unknown. For the
ud
back titration to work, following conditions are to be satisfied

(a) Compounds ‘X’, ‘Y’ and ‘Z’ should be such that ‘X’ and ‘Y’ reacts with each other.
(b) ‘X’ and pure ‘Z’ also reacts with each other but the impurity present in ‘Z’ does not
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react with ‘X’.

Z + X (excess)  Product 1
Remaining (X) + Y  Product 2
Note : Product 1 should not react with Y
Milli equivalent of Y = N2V2
Where N2 and V2 (ml) is the normality and volume of Y
Initial mili equivalent of X = N1V1
Where N1 and V1 (ml) is the normality and volume of X
Remaining milli equivalents of X after reacting with Y = N1V1– N2V2
Remaining milli equivalents of X = milli equivalents of Z
a  1000
N1V1 – N2V2 = where ‘a’ is the weight of pure Z which is reacted.
Equivalent weight
Molecular weight (N1V1  N 2 V2 )

a
n  factor
(N1V1  N1V2 ) Molar Mass of `Z'
 Percentage purity of ‘Z’ =   100
n  factor W
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40 MOLE CONCEPT
Illustration 19 :
20 g of a sample of Ba(OH) 2 is dissolved in 10 ml. of 0.5N HCl solution. The excess of
HCl was titrated with 0.2N NaOH. The volume of NaOH used was 10 cc. Calculate
the percentage of Ba(OH) 2 in the sample.
Solution : Milli eq. of HCl initially = 10  0.5 = 5
Milli eq. of NaOH consumed = Milli eq. of HCl in excess
= 10  0.2 = 2
 Milli eq. of HCl consumed = Milli eq. of Ba(OH)2
= 5-2=3
 eq. of Ba(OH)2 = 3/1000 = 3  10-3
Mass of Ba(OH)2 = 3  10-3  (171/2) = 0.2565 g.
% Ba(OH)2 = (0.2565/20)  100 = 1.28%
1. 1 g sample of washing soda was dissolved in 50 mL of 1.0 M HCl. The excess acid
required for neutralization 21.13 mL of 1.018 M Ba(OH) 2. Compute the degree of hydration
of washing soda.
2.
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1 mL solution containing (NH 4)2SO4 was treated with excess of NaOH. The NH 3 released
was absorbed in 50 mL of 0.1 N HCl solution. The solution after passage of NH3 in it requires
ps
20 mL of 0.1 N NaOH for complete neutralisation. Calculate the strength of (NH4)2SO4 solution.
3. A mixture of (NH4)2SO4 and NH4Cl in the ratio 43.7 % and 56.3 % respectively was dissolved
te
in water to prepare 1 litre solution. 25 mL of this solution was boiled with 50 mL of N/10
yS
NaOH until all the NH3 was evolved. The excess of NaOH was neutralized by 24.3 mL of
N/10 HCl. Calculate the weight of each component in mixture.
ud
(C) Iodimetric and Iodometric Titrations

The redox-titration using iodine directly or indirectly as an oxidizing agent are called Iodine
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Titrations. These are of two types.

(a) Iodimetric Titrations :
Iodimetric titrations are defined as those iodine titrations in which a standard iodine solution
is used as an oxidant and iodine is directly titrated against a reducing agent. Iodimetric
procedures are used for the determination of strength of reducing agent like thiosulphates,
sulphites, arsenites and stannous chloride etc., by titrating them against standard solution of
iodine taken in a burette. Some cases of oxidation-reduction reactions are given as under :
(i) 2Na2S2O3 + I2  Na2S4O6 + 2NaI
(ii) Na2SO3 + I2 + H2O  Na2SO4 + 2HI
(iii) Na3AsO3 + H2O  Na3AsO4 + 2HI
(b) Iodometric Titrations :
Iodometric titrations are defined as those iodine titrations in which some oxidizing agent
liberates iodine from an iodine solution and then liberated iodine is titrated with a standard
solution of a reducing agent added from a Burette. In such titrations, a neutral or an acidic
solution of oxidizing agent is employed. The amount of iodine liberated from an iodide, (i.e.
KI) is equivalent to the quantity of the oxidizing agent present. Iodometric titrations are used
for the determination of CuSO4, K2Cr2O7, KMnO4, ferric ions, antimonite ions, H2O2, MnO2,
bromine and chlorine etc.
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MOLE CONCEPT 41
The equations for some of the reactions are as follows :
(i) 2CuSO4 +4KI  Cu2I2+ 2K2SO4 + I2
(ii) 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4  K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5O
10KI + 5H2SO4 + 5O  5K2SO4 + 5H2O + 5I2
(iii) K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4  K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 4H2O + 3O
6KI + 3H2SO4 + 3O  3K2SO4 + 3H2O + 3I2
In the above reactions, the liberated iodine is titrated with a standard sodium thiosulphate.
2Na2S2O3 + I2  Na2S4O6 + 2NaI
Illustration 20 :
0.5 g sample containing MnO 2 is treated with HCl, liberating Cl 2. The Cl2 is passed
into a solution of KI and 30.0 cm 3 of 0.1 M Na2S2O3 are required to titrate the liberated
iodine. Calculate the percentage of MnO 2 in sample. (At. Wt. of Mn = 55).
Solution :
MnO 2 HCl
 Cl 2 
KI
I 2   NaI  Na 2 S 4 O 6
Na 2S2 O 3
Redox change are :  2I 

2e  I 02 

2S 22 
 S (45 / 2 )  2e
.in
2e  Mn 4 
 Mn 2
The reactions suggest that ,
ps
Meq. of MnO2 = Meq. of Cl2 formed = Meq. of I2 liberated
= Meq. of Na2S2O3 used
te
w
  1000 = 0.1  1  30
M/2
yS
[  N Na 2S2O3  M Na 2S2O3 since valency factor = 1, see redox changes for Na 2S2O3 ]
0.11 30  M 0.1 1 30  87
ud
or w MnO2   ( M MnO2  87)

2000 2000
w MnO 2 = 0.1305
St
0.1305
 Purity of MnO2 =  100 = 26.1 %
0 .5
1. 2.480 g of KClO3 are dissolved in conc. HCl and the solution was boiled. Chlorine gas evolved
in the reaction was then passed through a solution of KI and liberated iodine was titrated
with 100 mL of hypo. 12.3 mL of same hypo solution required 24.6 mL of 0.5 N iodine for
complete neutralization. Calculate % purity of KClO3 sample.
2. 0.32 g sample of impure KI was dissolved in 1.1 millimole of K 2CrO4 and 25 mL of 5 N
H2SO4. Iodine formed was expelled off by boiling and the solution is now mixed with excess of
pure KI and I2 liberated again, which on titration required 14 mL of 0.1 N Na2S2O3. Calculate
% purity of original KI sample.
3. 0.3521 g of a mixture of KMnO4 and K2CrO4 were treated with excess of KI in acid medium
and liberated iodine required 25 mL of 0.32N Na2S2O3 solution. Determine % of Mn in mixture.
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42 MOLE CONCEPT
Problem 1 :
P and Q are two elements which forms P 2Q3 and PQ2. If 0.15 mole of P 2Q3 weighs
15.9g and 0.15 mole of PQ 2 weighs 9.3g, what are atomic weights of P and Q?
Solution :
Let atomic weight of P and Q are a and b respectively
 Molecular weight of P 2Q3 = 2a + 3b
and Molecular weight of PQ 2 = a + 2b
Now given that 0.15 mole of P 2Q3 weigh 15.9g
15.9  wt.  9.3
(2a  3b)    mole  Similarly, (a  2b) 
0.15  mol. wt.  0.15
Solving these two equations b = 18, a = 26
Problem 2 : .in
ps
Potassium selenate is isomorphous with potassium sulphate and contains 45.52%
selenium by weight. Calculate the atomic weight of selenium. Also report the equivalent
te
weight of potassium selenate.

Solution :
yS
Potassium selenate is isomorphous to K 2SO4 and thus its molecular formula is K 2SeO4.
Now molecular weight of K 2SeO4 = (39  2 + a + 4  16)
ud
= (142 + a)
where a is atomic weight of Se
(142 + a)g K2SeO4 has Se = a g
St
a  100
 100g K2SeO4 has Se =
142  a
a  100
 % of Se = 45.52  = 45.52  a = 118.2
142  a
Mol. wt. 2  39  118.2  64
Also equivalent of K2SeO4 =  = 130.1
2 2
Problem 3 :
A sample of H 2SO4 (density 1.787g mL –1) is labeled as 86% by weight. What is molarity
of acid? What volume of acid has to be used to make 1 litre of 0.2M H 2SO4?
Solution :
H2SO4 is 86 % by weight
 Weight of H2SO4 = 86g, Weight of solution = 100g
100 100
 Volume of solution = mL  litre
1.787 1.787  1000
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MOLE CONCEPT 43
86
M H 2SO4   15.68
 100
98 
1.787  1000
Let V mL of this H2SO4 are used to prepare 1 litre of 0.2 M H 2SO4
 mM of conc. H2SO4 = mM of dilute H2SO4
V  15.68 = 1000  0.2  V = 12.75 mL
Problem 4 :
The molecular mass of an organic acid was determined by the study of its barium salt.
4.290g of salt was quantitatively converted to free acid by the reaction with 21.64 ml
of 0.477 M H 2SO4. The barium salt was found to have two mole of water of hydration
per Ba2+ ion and the acid is mono basic. What is molecular weight of anhydrous acid?
Solution :
4.290
Meq. of barium salt = Meq. of acid ;  1000 = 21.64  0.4777  2
M/2
Molecular weight of salt = 415.61
415.61  137  36
Molecular weight of anion =  121.31
.in
2
 Molecular weight of acid = 121.31 + 1 = 122.31
ps
Problem 5 :
25 mL of a solution of Na 2CO3 having a specific gravity of 1.25g mL –1 required 32.9
te
mL of a solution of HCl containing 109.5gm of the acid per litre for complete
neutralization. Calculate the volume of 0.84 N H 2SO 4 that will be completely
yS
neutralized by 125g of Na 2CO3 solution.

Solution :
ud
109.5
N HCl  3
36.5  1
St
Since Na2CO3 is completely neutralized by HCl

 Meq. of Na2CO3 = Meq. of HCl  N  25 = 32.9  3  N Na 2CO3  3.948
Now Na2CO3 fresh solution reacts with H 2SO4
125
 Volume of Na2CO3 solution =  100ml
1.25
 Meq. of H2SO4 = Meq. of Na2CO3  0.84  V = 100  3.948
 Volume of H2SO4= 470 mL
Problem 6 :
Borax in water gives:
B 4 O 72  7H 2 O 
 4H 3 BO3  2OH 
How many gram of borax (Na 2B4O7.10H2O) are required to?
(a) Prepare 50 mL of 0.2 M solution
(b) neutralize 25 mL of 0.1934 M of HCl and H 2SO4 separately
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44 MOLE CONCEPT
Solution :
 Normality 
 Molarity  -   N=M2
 No. of replaceable OH 
Thus Meq. of borax in solution = 50  0.2  2 = 20
w w
  1000  20   1000  20  w = 3.82g
M/2 382 / 2
w
For neutralization of HCl, Meq. of HCl = Meq. of borax  25  0.1934   1000
382 / 2
 Weight of borax = 0.09235g
For neutralization of H2SO4, Meq. of borax = Meq. of H 2SO4
w
  1000  25  0.1934  2  Weight of borax = 1.847g
382 / 2
Problem 7 :
A mixture containing As 2O3 and As2O5 required 20.10 mL of 0.05N iodine for titration.
The resulting solution is then acidified and excess of KI was added. The liberated
iodine required 1.1113g hypo (Na 2S2O35H2O) for complete reaction. Calculate mass
mixture. The reactions are :
As2O3 + 2I2 + 2H2O  As2O5 + 4H+ + 4I–
.in
ps
As2O5 + 4H+ + 4I–  As2O3 + 2I2 + 2H2O
Solution :
te
Meq. of I2 used = 20.10  0.05 = 1.005

Let Meq. of As2O3 and Meq. of As2O5 in mixture be a and b respectively. On addition of I2 to
yS
mixture,
As+3 is converted to As+5.
 Meq. of As2O3 = Meq. of I2 to mixture used = 1.005 = Meq. of As 5+ formed.
ud
or a = 1.005 …(1)
After the reaction with I2, mixture contains all the arsenic in +5 oxidation state which is then
St
titrated using KI + hypo. Thus,

Meq. of As2O3 as As+5 + Meq. of As2O5 as As+5 = Meq. of liberated I2 = Meq. of hypo used
1.113
or ab 1000 
 100 a + b = 4.481
248
By equations (1) and (2), b = 4.481 – 1.005 = 3.476
Meq.  Eq.Wt 1.005 198
 Wt. of As2O3 =   0.0497g
1000 4 100
3.476  230
and Wt. of As2O5 =  0.1999g
4  1000
 Wt. of mixture = 0.0497 + 0.1999 = 0.2496g
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MOLE CONCEPT 45
Problem 8 :
Chile salt peter, a source of NaNO 3 also contains NaIO 3. The NaIO3 can be used as
source of iodine, produced in the following reactions.
IO3– + 3HSO3–  I– + 3H+ +3SO42– …(1)
5I + IO3 + 6H  3I2(g) + 3H2O
– – +
…(2)
One litre of chile salt peter solution containing 5.80g NaIO 3 is treated with
stoichiometric quantity of NaHSO 3. Now an additional amount of same solution is
added to reaction mixture to bring about the second reaction. How many grams of
NaHSO3 are required in step I and what additional volume of chile salt peter must be
added in step II to bring in complete conversion of I – to I2?
Solution :
 Meq. of NaHSO 3 = Meq. of NaIO3 = N  V = 1985.8  1000
/6
[Et. wt. of NaI = M/6 because I5+ + 6e  I–]
Meq. of NaHSO3 = 175.76
175.76  104
 w NaHSO3  = 9.14g
2000
Also Meq. of I– formed in I step using valence factor 6 = 175.76
.in
In II step valence factor of I– is 1 and valence factor of IO3 is 5
Thus, Meq. of I– formed using valence factor 1 = 1756.76

ps
Also Meq. of NaIO3 used in step II = 1756.76
te
175.76 5.8 175.76

 NV=  V   VNaIO3 = 200 mL
yS
6 198 / 5 6
Problem 9 :
ud
For estimating ozone in the air, a certain volume of air is passed through an acidified
or neutral KI solution when oxygen is evolved and iodide is oxidized to give iodine.
St
When such a solution is acidified, free iodine is evolved which can be titrated with
standard Na2S2O3 solution. In an experiment, 10 litre of air at 1 atm and 27°C were
passed through an alkaline KI solution, at the end, the iodine entrapped in a solution
on titration as above required 1.5 mL of 0.01 N Na 2S2O3 solution. Calculate volume %
of O3 in sample.
Solution :
The reactions are :
H2O + 2KI + O3  2KOH + I2 + O2
Also 2e– + I2  2I–
And 2S22+  S4+5/2 + 2e–
 Meq. of I2 = Meq. of Na2S2O3 = 1.5  0.01 = 1.5  10–2
1.5  10 2
or mM of I2 = = 7.5  10–3
2
 mM of O3 = mM of I2 = 7.5  10–3 ( Mole ratio of O3 : I2 :: 1: 1)
7.5 106  0.0821 300
 PO3  = 184.725  10–7 atm
10
 Volume % of O3 = 184.725  10–7  100 = 1.847  10–3 %
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46 MOLE CONCEPT
Problem 10 :
1.5g of brass containing Cu and Zn reacts with 3M HNO 3 solution, the following
reactions take place.
Cu + HNO3  Cu2+ + NO2(g) + H2O
Zn + H+ + NO3–  NH4+ + Zn2+ + H2O
The liberated NO 2(g) was found to be 1.04 litre at 25°C and one atm.
(a) Calculate the percentage composition of brass.
(b) How many mL of 3M HNO 3 will be required for completely reacting 1g of brass?
Solution :
(a) Cu0  Cu2+ + 2e, N5+ + e N4+
 Eq. of Cu = Eq. of NO2
w 1 1.04  PV 
=  mole of NO 2  Eq. of NO 2  
63.6 / 2 0.0821  298  RT 
 wCu = 1.35g,  wZn = 1.50 – 1.35 = 0.15g
1.35 0.15
 % of Cu = 100 = 90% and % of Zn = 100 = 10%
1.5 1.5
(b) Thus, 1 g brass contains 0.9g Cu and 0.1g Zn
.in
0.1
 Meq. of HNO3 = Meq. of Zn  3  8  V1   1000
65 / 2

ps
V1 = 0.128mL
( N 5  8e 
 N 3 ) and Meq. of HNO3 = Meq. of Cu
te
0.9
or 3  V2  1000  V2 = 9.43 mL
636 / 2
yS
 Total volume of HNO 3 used = 0.128 + 9.43 = 9.558 mL

ud
Problem 11 :
1.249 g of a sample of pure BaCO 3 and impure CaCO 3 containing some CaO was
treated with dil.HCl and it evolved 168 ml of CO 2 at NTP. From this solution, BaCrO 4
St
was precipitated, filtered and washed. The precipitate was dissolved in dilute sulphuric
acid and diluted to 100 ml. 10 ml of this solution, when treated with KI solution,
liberated iodine which required exactly 20 ml of 0.05N Na 2S 2O 3. Calculate the
percentage of CaO in the sample.
Solution :
168
n CaCO3  n BaCO3  n CO2 = = 7.5  10–3 —— (1)
22400
2BaCO3  2BaCrO4 H 
 BaCr2O7 KI
  I2 + Na2S2O3
20  10 3  0.05  100
eq. of Na2S2O3 = eq. of I2 = eq of BaCr2O7 =
10
= 1  10–12
Moles of BaCr2O7 = 16  10–2 , Moles of BaCrO4 = 62 (1 10–2)
1
Moles of BaCO3 =  10–2 = 3.33  10–3 —— (2)
3
Weight of BaCO3 = 0.650 gm
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MOLE CONCEPT 47
From equation (1) and (2) we get  n CaCO3 = 4.17  10–3
weight of CaCO3 = 100  4.17  10 3 = 0.417 g

weight of CaO = 1.249 - 0.656 – 0.417 = 0.176 % of CaO = 10..249
176  100 = 14.09 %
Problem 12 :
In a quality control analysis for sulphur impurity 5.6g steel sample was burnt in a
stream of oxygen and sulphur was converted into SO 2 gas. The SO2 was then oxidized
to sulphate by using H 2O2 solution to which had been added 30 mL of 0.04M NaOH.
The equation for reaction is :
SO2(g) + H2O2(aq) + 2OH–(aq)  SO4–2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
22.48 mL of 0.024M HCl was required to neutralize the base remaining after oxidation
reaction. Calculate % of sulphur in given sample.
Solution : Meq. of alkali added = 30  0.04 = 1.2
Meq. of alkali left = 22.48  0.024 = 0.54
 Meq. of alkali for SO 2 and H2O2 = 1.2 – 0.54 = 0.66
0.66  40
 Weight of alkali used = = 0.0264
1000
.in
80g NaOH reacts with 64g SO 2
64  0.0264
 0.0264g NaOH reacts = = 0.021g SO2
ps
80
Now 64g SO2 required = 32g S
te
32  0.021
 0.021g SO2 required = = 0.0105g
64
yS
0.0105
 % of S = 100 = 0.1875%
5.6
ud
Problem 13 :
St
A granulated sample of aircraft alloy (Al, Mg, Cu) weighing 8.72g was first treated
with alkali and then with very dilute HCl, leaving a residue. The residue after alkali
boiling weighed 2.10g and the acid insoluble residue weighed 0.69g. What is the
composition of the alloy?
Solution :
Let Al, Mg and Cu be a, b and c g respectively.
2Al + 2NaOH  2H 2 O
 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
Cu + HCl  No reaction
i.e., only Al reacts with NaOH and then only Mg reacts with HCl
 a + b + c = 8.72
b + c = 2.10 (Residue left after alkali treatment)
c = 0.69 (Residue left after acid treatment)
 b = 6.62g
1.41
 % of Al = 86..72
62  100 = 75.9 % of Mg = 100 = 16.2
8.72
% of Cu = 80..72
69  100 = 7.9
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48 MOLE CONCEPT
Problem 14 :
25 ml from a stock solution containing NaHCO 3 and Na2CO3 was diluted to 250 ml
with CO2 free distilled water. 25 ml of the diluted solution when titrated with 0.12 M
HCl required 8 ml when phenolphthalein was used as an indicator. When 20 ml of
diluted solution was titrated with same acid required 18 ml when methyl orange was
used as an indicator. Calculate concentration of NaHCO 3 in the stock solution in gm/
litre and in mole/litre. To 100 ml of the stock solution how much NaOH should be
added so that all bicarbonate will be converted into carbonate?
Solution :
When phenolphthalein used, NaHCO3 remains unaffected and Na2CO3 will be converted into
NaHCO 3
Na2CO3 + HCl  NaHCO3 + NaCl
1 1 w
eq of Na2CO3 = eq. of HCl  = 0.12  8  10–3  10
2 2 53
w = 1.017 gm in 25 ml = 40.7 gm / litre = 0.38 mole / litre
When methyl orange is used NaHCO 3 and Na2CO3 both will be converted into CO 2
Eq. (Na2CO3) + eq(NaHCO3) = eq (HCl)
 3 W 250
1.92  10   = 18  0.12  10–3 
 84 
W
20
.in
ps
1.92  10–2 + = 2.7  10–2
84
For NaHCO3 W = 0.6552 gm in 250 ml = 26.2 gm /litre = 0.312 M
te
eq. of bicarbonate = eq of NaOH

yS
100 W
0.78  10–2  =  W = 1.248 gm
25 40
ud
Problem 15 :
One litre of a mixture of O 2 and O3 at NTP was allowed to react with an excess of
St
acidified solution of KI. The iodine liberated required 40 mL of M/10 sodium

thiosulphate solution for titration. What is the weight per cent of ozone in the mixture?
Ultraviolet radiation of wavelength 300 nm can decompose ozone. Assuming that one
photon can decompose one ozone molecule, how many photons would have been
required for the complete decomposition of ozone in the original mixture?
Solution :
O 3  2KI  H 2 O 
 2KOH  I 2  O 2
I 2  2 Na 2 S 2 O 3 
 Na 2 S 4 O 6  2 NaI
1
 Milli mole of O3 = milli mole of I2 =  mM of Na 2S2 O3 (mM  M  Vin ml )
2
1 1
=  40   2mM  0.002mole
2 10
Total milli mole of O2 and O3 in mixture are calculated from PV = nRT
1  1  n  0.0821  273  n = 0.044 mole
 Mole of O2 = 0.044 – 0.002 = 0.042
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MOLE CONCEPT 49
Now weight of O2 = 0.042  32g  1.344g , Weight of O3 = 0.002  48g  0.096g

0.096
 % of O3 =  100 = 6.7 %
1.344
0.096  6.023  10 23
= 1.2  10
21
No. of photon or molecules of ozone =
48
Problem 1 :
It takes 2.56  10–3 equivalent of KOH to neutralize 0.1254g H 2XO4. The number of
neutrons in is
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 7 (d) 32
Solution : (a)
0.1254
Mole of H 2 XO 4  [M x  Atomic mass of x]
M x  66
‘n’ factor of H2XO4 = 2  [
0.1254 .in
H 2 XO 4 is dibasic acid]
ps
 2.56 × 10 –3 = 2  Mx = 31.96 g/mol = 32 g/mol
M X  66
Then X is sulphur which has 16 nutrons
te
Problem 2 :
yS
How many grams of sodium bicarbonate are required to neutralize 10.0 ml of 0.902 M
vinegar?
ud
(a) 8.4g (b) 1.5g (c) 0.75g (d) 1.07g

Solution : (c)
St
NaHCO3 + CH 3 COOH CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O

Vinegar
10  0.902
Equivalent of acid = ; Equivalent of NaHCO 3 = 9.02 × 10–5
1000
Amount of NaHCO3 = 9.02  10-5  1000

10  84 = 0.758
Problem 3 :
A sample of hard water contains 244 ppm of HCO3 ions. What is the minimum mass
of CaO required to remove HCO 3 ions completely from 1 kg of such water sample
(a) 56 mg (b) 112 mg (c) 168 mg (d) 244 mg
Solution : (b)
Mass of HCO3– in 1 kg or 106 mg water = 244 mg
Millimoles of HCO 3– = 244
61 = 4
2HCO3– + CaO  CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 + 2e–
millimoles of CaO = 2, mass of CaO = 56 × 2 = 112 mg
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50 MOLE CONCEPT
Problem 4 :
100 ml of each of 0.5 N NaOH, N/5 HCl and N/10 H 2SO4 are mixed together. The
resulting solution will be
(a) Acidic (b) Neutral (c) Alkaline (d) None
Solution: (c)
Meq. of NaOH = 100 × 0.5 = 50
Meq. of HCl = 15  100 = 20; Meq. of H2SO4 = 10 1  100 = 10
Total meq. of acid = 20 + 10 = 30 Total meq. of NaOH = 50

 meq. of NaOH left = 50 – 30 = 20 [Hence solution is alkaline]
Problem 5 :
The chloride of a metal (M) contains 65.5% of chlorine. 100 ml of the vapour of the
chloride of the metal at STP weight 0.72g. the molecular formula of the metal
chloride is :
(a) MCl3 (b) MCl (c) MCl2 (d) MCl4
Solution : (a)
Molecular mass of chloride of metal = weight of 22,400 ml vapour of metal at STP
0.72  22, 400
.in
=  161.28g
100
100g of metal chloride contains = 65.5 g chloride
ps
65.5  161.28
 161.28g metal chloride contains = = 105.6g
100
te
Therefore, the number of mole of chlorine atoms per mole of metal chloride
yS
= 105.6/35.5 = 3
Hence the molecular formula of metal chloride is MCl3
ud
Problem 6 :
If 0.5 mole of BaCl 2 is mixed with 0.2 mole of Na 3PO4 the maximum number of moles
of Ba3(PO4)2 that can be formed is
St
(a) 0.7 (b) 0.5 (c) 0.3 (d) 0.1

Solution : (d)
3BaCl2 + 2Na3PO4  Ba3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl
From the molar ratio we see that Na3PO4 is limiting reagent
BaCl2 : Na3PO4 : Ba3(PO4)2 : NaCl
3 : 2 : 1 : 6
 2 mole of Na3PO4 gives = 1 mole of Ba3(PO4)2
 0.2 mole of Na3PO4 gives = 0.1 mole of Ba 3(PO4)2
Problem 7 :
The percent loss in weight after heating a pure sample of potassium chlorate
(Molecular weight = 122.5) will be
(a) 12.25 (b) 24.50 (c) 39.18 (d) 49
Solution : (c)
2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
245 g KClO3 on heating shows a weight loss of 96 gm
96  100
 100g KClO3 on heating shows a weight loss of =  39.18%
245
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MOLE CONCEPT 51
Problem 8 :
For the reaction
MnO 4  C 2 O 24  H  
 Mn 2  CO 2  H 2 O
the correct coefficients of the reactants for the balanced reaction are
MnO 4 C 2 O 24 H
(a) 2 5 16
(b) 16 5 2
(c) 5 16 2
(d) 2 16 5
Solution : (a)
The above reaction can be balanced by using the ion electron method as under:
Oxidation reaction: C 2O42–  CO2 ; Reduction reaction: MnO4–  Mn2+
Balancing atoms other than O
C2O42–  2CO2 ; MnO4–  Mn2+
Since medium is acidic
C2O42–  2CO2 (oxygen is already balanced)
8H+ + MnO4–  Mn2+ + 4H2O
Balancing charge
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C2O42–  2CO2 + 2e– …(1)
5e– + 8H+ + MnO4–  Mn2+ + 4H2O …(2)
ps
Multiplying equation (1) by 5 and equation(2) by 2 and adding, we get
5C2O42– + 2MnO42– + 16H+  10CO2 + 2Mn2+ + 8H2O
Alternatively
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‘n’ factor of C 2O42– is 2 and that of MnO 4– is 5

 they would react in the molar ratio of 5:2
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Problem 9 :
ud
In an experiment, 50 ml of 0.1 M solution of a salt reacted with 25 ml of 0.1 M solution

of sodium sulphite. The half equation for the oxidation of sulphite ion :

SO 22(aq)  H 2 O 
 SO 4(aq)
2
 2H (aq)

St
If the oxidation number of the metal in the salt was 3, what would be the new oxidation
number of the metal?
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4
Solution : (c)
SO32– get oxidised and its ‘n’ factor is 2
The metal must have been reduced
Applying the law of equivalence
50 × 0.1 × (3 – n) = 25 × 0.1 × 2  n = 2
Problem 10 :
A mixture of magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate is known to contain 0.6
moles of chloride ions and 0.2 moles of sulphate ions. The number of moles of
magnesium ions present is
(a) 0.4 (b) 0.5 (c) 0.8 (d) 1.0
Solution : (b)
In MgCl2, the ratio of moles of Mg+2 to Cl– is 1:2. Therefore, 0.6 moles of chloride combine
with 0.3 moles of magnesium. In MgSO 4, 0.2 moles of sulphate combine with 0.2 moles of
magnesium. Therefore, the number of moles of magnesium ion present is 0.3 + 0.2 = 0.5.
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52 MOLE CONCEPT
Problem 11 :
3.0 molal NaOH solution has a density of 1.110 g/ml. The molarity of the solution is
(a) 2.97 (b) 3.05 (c) 3.64 (d) 3.050
Solution : (a)
Mole = 3 , weight of solvent = 1000g
 wt. of solution = 100 + 3 × 40 = 1120g
1120 3
 volume of solution = ml  M  2.97
1.110 1120
1.110 1000
Problem 12 :
The chloride of a metal contains 71% chlorine by weight and the vapour density of it
is 50. The atomic weight of the metal will be
(a) 29 (b) 58 (c) 35.5 (d) 71
Solution : (a)
Molecular weight of metal chloride = 50 × 2 = 100
29 71
Let metal chloride be MCl n then, Eq. of metal = eq. of chloride, or 
E 35.5
.in
29
 E
2
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Now a + 35.5n = 100 or n.E + 35.5n = 100  n=2
Therefore a = 2 × E = 2 × 29/2 = 29
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Problem 13 :
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Element X reacts with oxygen to produce a pure sample of X 2O3. In an experiment it is

found that 1.00g of X produces 1.16g of X 2O3. Calculate the atomic weight of X.
Given: atomic weight of oxygen, 16.0 g mol –1.
ud
(a) 67 (b) 100.2 (c) 125 (d) 150

Solution: (d)
St
The mass of O atoms = 1.16 – 1.00 = 0.160g

0.160
Number of moles of O atom =  0.01
16
No. of moles of X 2
In X2O3 , 
No. of moles of O 3
2 0.02
No. of moles of X =  0.01   0.00666
3 3
mass in g 1 .0
Atomic weight of X =   150
no. of moles 0.00666
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MOLE CONCEPT 53
Problem 14 :
The reaction between aluminium metal and dilute hydrochloric acid produces H 2(g)
and Al3+ ions. The molar ratio of aluminium used to hydrogen produced is
(a) 1:2 (b) 2:1 (c) 2:3 (d) 3:2
Solution: (c)
3
Al(s) + 3H (aq )  H + Al3+ (aq.)
( from HCl)
2 2(g)
3
The molar ratio of Als) used to H2 produced is 1: or 2:3.
2
Problem 15 :
In an aqueous solution of barium nitrate, the [NO 3–] is 0.80M. This solution is
labelled as
(a) 0.080 N Ba(NO 2)2 (b) 0.160 M Ba(NO 3)2
(b) 0.040 M Ba(NO 3)2 (d) 0.080 MNO3–
Solution: (c)
In Ba(NO3)2, the molar ratio of Ba(NO3)2 to NO3– is 1:2. Therefore, the molarity of the Ba(NO3)2
1
 0.080 = 0.040M.
.in
solution is
2
ps
te
yS
ud
St
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MOLE CONCEPT 1

Mol. wt. of substance

Volume of the gas at STP

Rules For Calculation Of Oxidation Number

2. In combined state oxidation no. of

(b) O is –2. In peroxides it is –1, in superoxides it is –1/2. However in F2 O it is +2.

(d) HNC (e) Fe0.94O (f) Fe3O4

5. Find the oxidation number of bold lettered atoms :

Oxidation : It is a process in which electrons are lost by an atom, ion or molecule.

(1) Oxidants are substances which :

(c) show electronation.

M1 + M2+n  M1+n + M2 Redox reaction

(As MnO 4 is accepting 5e–, so it is being reduced and hence it is an oxidant.)

Guidelines for the Identification of Oxidizing and Reducing Agent

Common Oxidising and Reducing Agents

Oxidising agent Effective Change Decrease in Oxidation

1. Identify the reactants, if any, oxidized or reduced .

(f) AlCl3 + K  Al + 3KCl

(j) SnS2 + S–2  SnS3–2

2. Select the oxidants and reductants in the given reactions .

(A) Ion electron method

5C2+3 + 2Mn+7  10C+4 + 2Mn+2

5H2C2O4 + 2KMnO4  10CO2 + 2MnO + K2O + 5H2O

(b) Acidic medium :

Produced like neutral medium for step 1 to 4.

Balancing of Half reactions

This is balanced half reaction.

Example 2. S2O3–2  SO2

Step 2. Balance O atom by H 2O and OH– as reported earlier.

Step 3. Balance charge by electrons.

1. Balance the following equation using desired medium –

The concentration of a solution can be expressed in a number of ways. The important

(iii) Percent mass by volume :

(iv) Parts per million (ppm) :

No. of moles of solute

Relation between molarity and % solute by mass :

weight and molarity as formality.

Formality = i.e., molarity

(x) Specific gravity of solution

(iii) No. of moles of Na+ ions = 2 × No. of moles of Na 2S2O3 = 2 × 3 = 6

No. of moles of Na  ions 6

1. 214.2 g of sugar syrup contains 34.2 g of sugar. Calculate :

water (density = 1.00 g ml–1).

The concentration of H2O2 is usually represented in terms of volume. If a sample of H 2O2 is

 22400 ml of O2 gas is liberated by 68g of H2O2 solution

N = 0.59 (Normality of H 2SO4)

1. Calculate the strength of “30 V” H2O2 in the terms of :

of water, is equal to the percentage labeling of oleum.

= mass of H2SO4 initially present

1. Calculate % of free SO3 and H2SO4 in 104.5 % oleum sample.

MgCl2, Ca(HCO3)2 etc.

or 111g CaCl2  100g CaCO3

1. (a) Calculate the degree of hardness of water containing :

2. Calculate the degree of hardness of water containing :

Let us consider a balanced chemical equations

mole of NO2 (4 × 46 g) and 1 mole of O 2 (32 g).

MnO2 + 4HCl  MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

the O2 is excess reagent.

So 0.2 mole of O2 will react with 0.1 mol of CH 4 to give 2.24 L of CO 2.