Contents

1. LIFT & ANGLE OF ATTACK................................................................................................1-2

2. DRAG & ANGLE OF ATTACK.............................................................................................2-4
3. AEROFOIL EFFICIENCY & ANGLE OF ATTACK...............................................................3-6
4. EFFECTS OF FRONTAL AREA ON DRAG.........................................................................4-8
5. EFFECTS OF SHAPE ON DRAG......................................................................................5-10
6. EFFECTS OF AIRSPEED ON DRAG................................................................................6-12
7. EFFECT OF AIRSPEED ON DRAG...................................................................................7-13
8. STALLING.......................................................................................................................... 8-16
9. TRIM CURVES DEPENDENT ON CENTRE OF GRAVITY................................................9-17
10. ANGLE OF ATTACK & LIFT COEFFICIENT...................................................................10-18
11. AIRFLOW THROUGH A VENTURI..................................................................................11-19
1. LIFT & ANGLE OF ATTACK

Aim: An investigation into the relationship between Lift and Angle of Attack.

Equipment Required:
Wind Generator
Stand, Clamps, Pulleys etc (see diagram)
Weights
Aerofoil section
Graduated Scale / angle of attack indicator

Introduction: Refer to 'Mechanic of Flight' (A C Kermode) and familiarise yourself with the graph of lift
coefficient verses angle of attack.

 Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram, so as to measure lift.

 Adjust the balance weights to zero the scale reading.

 Using a constant airspeed, present the aerofoil to the airflow and measure the lift force, by placing
weights on the balance pan.

 Record the weight and the angle of attack.

 Repeat this for different angles, ranging from -4 through to +20, at 2 intervals.

Results:
Tabulate the results and then plot a graph of lift forces verses angle of attack.

Does your graph have the same shape as that in the text book?

What is the angle of attack, corresponding to the maximum lift?

What is the angle of attack when the lift is zero?

2. DRAG & ANGLE OF ATTACK

Aim: An investigation into the relationship between Drag and Angle of Attack.

Equipment Required:
Wind Generator
Stand, Clamps, Pulleys etc (see diagram)
Weights
Aerofoil section (this should be the same as for task No. 1)
Graduated Scale / angle of attack indicator

Introduction: Refer to 'Mechanic of Flight' (A C Kermode) and familiarise yourself with the graph of drag
coefficient verses angle of attack.

 Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram, so as to measure drag.

 Adjust the balance weights to zero the scale reading.

 Using a constant airspeed, present the aerofoil to the airflow and measure the drag force, by placing
weights on the balance pan.

 Record the weight and the angle of attack.

 Repeat this for different angles, ranging from -4 through to +20, at 2 intervals.

Results:
Tabulate the results and then plot a graph of drag forces verses angle of attack.

Does your graph have the same shape as that in the text book?

What is the angle of attack, corresponding to the minimum drag?

3. AEROFOIL EFFICIENCY & ANGLE OF ATTACK

Aim: An assessment of aerofoil efficiency, by comparing lift and drag values resulting from previous
experiments.

Equipment Required:
No equipment is required for this exercise.
However, results or graphs of lift verses angle of attack and drag verses angle of attack must be available
(see tasks (1) and (2)). Ensure that the same aerofoil was used in both tasks.

Introduction: Refer to 'Mechanic of Flight' (A C Kermode) and familiarise yourself with the basic shape or
characteristics of a graph showing lift / drag ratio verses angle of attack.

 Inspect each set of results or graph carefully and extract values for lift and drag for different angles of
attack, ranging from -4 through to +20, at 2 intervals.

Results:
Tabulate the results

For each angle of attack, divide lift by drag and record the quotient in each case.

Plot lift/drag ratio verses angle of attack.

Does your graph have a similar shape as that in the text book?

What is the angle of attack, corresponding to the maximum lift/drag ratio?

What is the value of maximum left/drag?

4. EFFECTS OF FRONTAL AREA ON DRAG

Aim: To investigate the relationship between Drag and Cross-sectional Area. (c.s.a.)

Equipment Required:
Wind Generator
Stand, Clamps, Pulleys etc (see diagram)
Weights
Circular Discs

Introduction: Refer to 'Mechanics of Flight' (A C Kermode) and investigate the drag equation.
The drag equation suggests that the Drag (D) is proportional to the cross-sectional area (S). This
experiment seeks to confirm this, using circular discs of differing areas.

 Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram below so as to measure Drag.

 Adjust the balance weights to zero the scale reading.

 Using a constant airspeed, clamp each disc in turn into the airflow and measure the drag force by
placing weights onto the balance pan.

 Record the weight required to achieve balance (w) for each disc.

 Measure the diameter of each disc used.

Results:
Calculate the area of each disc (S).

Construct a graph by plotting the (balance) weight in each case against the c.s.a (S).

Comment on the shape of the graph. Does the graph confirm the implications of the Drag equation?

Are there any obvious errors in the results?

5. EFFECTS OF SHAPE ON DRAG

Aim: To investigate the relationship between drag and shape.

Equipment Required:
Wind Generator
Stand, Clamps, Pulleys etc (see diagram)
Weights
Solid bodies of varying shape, but same cross-sectional profile

Introduction: Refer to 'Mechanics of Flight' (A C Kermode) and investigate the Drag equation, particularly
with regard to shape and Drag Coefficient.
The experiment seeks to confirm that Drag is related to shape.

 Set up equipment as shown in the diagram below, so as to measure Drag.

 Adjust the balance weights to zero the scale reading.

 Using a constant airspeed, present each shape in turn to the airflow and measure the drag force, by
placing weights on the balance pan.

 Record the weight required to achieve balance (w) for each shape.

Results:
Tabulate the results, detailing each shape and its associated drag force. Divide this drag force in each
case by the drag force associated with the flat disc, and express as a percentage (%).

Do these percentages coincide with equivalent text - book values?.

6. EFFECTS OF AIRSPEED ON DRAG

Aim: To investigate the aerodynamic effect of an aerofoil fitted with trailing – edge flaps.

Equipment Required:
This experiment should be undertaken after the student has successfully completed experiment No. 1
(relating lift to angle of attack).
The equipment and procedure in this experiment will be the same, but using an aerofoil fitted with a trailing-
edge flap.

Introduction: Refer to 'Mechanics of Flight' (A C Kermode) and familiarise yourself with principles of lift
augmentation. Study the theory if the flapped aerofoil.

 Set up equipment as shown in the diagram so as to measure lift.

 Following the same procedure as in experiment No. 1 but in addition, whenever a reading of Lift force is
made following a change in angle of attack, a second reading should also be made, but with the flap in
the extended position.

Results:
Record these 2 lift values, for different angles of attack, ranging from -4 through to +20, at 2 intervals.
7. EFFECT OF AIRSPEED ON DRAG

Aim: To investigate the performance of an aerofoil in a basic wind-tunnel.

Equipment::
Wind-tunnel (including model and balance)
Operating Notes

Introduction: Wind-tunnels are an essential design tool in the design-process wherever the flow of air is
involved. This experiment aims to give the student an introduction to this.

 Refer to the operating notes, with particular reference to the section dealing with the experiment
investigating lift, consequent on angle-of-attack variation, and carry out the experiment.

 Note values of density, air-speed and size (area) of the aerofoil.

 Also note the visible effect on the “tufts” on the top-surface.

Results:
Calculate the value of ½N2S. Hence calculate CL for each value of lift, and plot against its related angle of
attack. Indicate where the wing is beginning to Stall.
Test Procedure - Management of the Wind Tunnel

A minimum of two students is required to run the test programme; it may be found convenient to employ a
group of four, with two members recording the results.
One student sits facing the working section and the other on the opposite side of the tunnel facing the
casing that contains the support linkage.
An interlock ensures that the fan may only be started with the throttle fully closed. As the throttle lever is
pushed forward the tunnel speed, shown by the airspeed indicator, will increase. When the needle of the
airspeed indicator reaches the green mark the aircraft may be made to “take-off” by drawing the control
column slowly back.
A degree of skill is required to maintain the aircraft in level flight and some practice is required to co-
ordinate throttle and control column movements. The model becomes more difficult to control as the centre
of gravity is moved aft. It is therefore advisable to obtain experience in using the tunnel with the
jockeyweight set as far forward as possible, giving maximum stability. Care should be taken to revent
violent oscillation of the model with heavy impact against the stop limiting its travel in a vertical direction. If
due to inexperience in the handling of the controls such oscillations build up it is recommended that the
throttle should be closed and the flight restarted.
If it is desired to maintain a certain elevator position, the control column may be clamped by means of a
knob located beneath the cross bar supporting the hand grips. Forward movement of the control column
will then be prevented but backward movement will still be possible.
Five scales indicate various parameters associated with the aircraft model:
A. A scale engraved on a quadrant on the upper surface of the control column indicates elevator
(tailplane) angle in degrees.

B. A scale towards the base of the support linkage casing indicates the attitude  (angle of attack) of
the aircraft.
C. The inner of the two scales to the right of the support linkage casing indicates the elevation of of the
aircraft relative to its landing position.
D. When the spring balance and deadweight are coupled to the support linkage, see following chapter
“Aerofoil Characteristics), the outer scale to the right of the support linkage casing gives a direct
reading of the lift force.
E. A jockeyweight carried on a screwed rod, in turn connected to the stem supporting the aircraft
model, permits adjustment of the position of the centre of gravity of the model. The axis of the
model support spindle passes through the ‘quarter chord point’ of the mainplane and thus
approximately coincides with the line of action of the lift force on the mainplane. The position of the
centre of gravity relative to the quarter chord point is indicated by the position of the bevelled
circumference of the jockeyweight relative to a scale graduated in millimetres.
Displacement transducers indicating respectively the altitude and angle of attack of the model are fitted to
the support linkage.
As an optional extra, a smoke generator by means of which a smoke filament may be injected into the
working section upstream of the model in order to make visible the flow pattern around the mainplane, is
available.

Aerofoil Characteristics: Relation between Lift Force and Angle of Attack

The tunnel may also be employed to give an indication of the characteristics of the aerofoil. To measure lift
forces remove the cover of the support linkage casing, screw the spring balance connecting pin into the
centre of the balance weight, couple the spring balance to the pin and place the extra balance weight over
the air, ensuring that the cut-out part of the weight clears the spring balance.
The aircraft will then be suspended in balance at approximately mid tunnel height. Adjust the position of
the centre of gravity so that this coincides with the axis of the model supporting spindle. Thus ensuring that
the lift force acts through this axis and also minimises the influence of the tailplane in contributing to lift.
Select an airspeed of about 35 knots, record airspeed, stagnation pressure, also barometric pressure and
air temperature. Then take a series of readings of lift force and angle of attack.
The lift coefficient, which reaches a maximum of about 1.1, is higher than would be expected for an aerofoil
of this size. This is due partly to tunnel blockage effects, as a result of which the velocity of flow past the
model is greater than that indicated by the airspeed indicator, which communicates with a pitot tube and
static tapping upstream of the model, and partly as a result of lift forces exerted in the model fuselage. A
maximum lift coefficient of about 0.9 is to be expected.
8. STALLING
Aim: To investigate the behaviour of the airflow surrounding an aerofoil as the angle of attack increases
towards the 'stalled' condition.

Equipment:
The wind-tunnel model is already 'tufted' with short strips of cotton thread adhering to the upper surface.
A separate smoke generator may be available. If so, it should be positioned up-stream of the model
leading-edge so that the smoke filament passes just above or below the model aerofoil.

 Check that no loose articles can either pass through or block the tunnel.

 Connect the electrical supply and set the airspeed at around 35 knots.

 Progressively reduce the airspeed but maintain the position of the aircraft within the tunnel section.
(This will require progressive upward movement of the elevator).

 If the smoke generator is available, position it so that the smoke filament passes just over the upper
surface.

 Observe the effect of the reducing airflow velocity on (a) the tufts of thread and (b) the smoke filament.

Results:
What did you observe on the behaviour of the tufts as the airspeed was reduced?

What conclusions can you make from the previous question?

Why did the airflow behave as it did?

Draw a series of simple sketches showing the changing appearance of the smoke filament.
9. TRIM CURVES DEPENDENT ON CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Aim: To construct trim curves and hence deduce the neutral point.

Equipment:
In this experiment, readings involving several parameters will be taken, for several different centre of gravity
positions. The experiment should be conducted for a minimum of four positions.
It is suggested that these should be:
1. 10 mm fwd of ¼ chord

2. at ¼ chord

3. 10 mm aft

4. 20 mm aft

Adjust the centre of gravity to the forward position

 Check that no loose articles can either pass through or block the tunnel.

 Connect the electrical supply and set the airspeed to maximum.

 Take a series reading of elevator angle, aircraft altitude (angle of attack) and airspeed.

 Record these in tabular form.

 Repeat the procedure for the three other centre of gravity positions.

Results:
From the results plot elevator angle against angle of attack for each centre of gravity position as a series
of lines.

Measure the slope of these lines and plot the values of slope against centre of gravity position.

Extrapolate this plot so as t intercept the axis representing the centre of gravity position. This is the position
of the neutral point.

A third graph may be constructed, by plotting elevator angle against airspeed.

Conclusions:
What conclusions can be drawn from the first graph?

The second graph revealed the neutral point. What are the implications of adjusting the centre of gravity so
that it coincides with neutral point?

What do the series of curves associated with the third graph indicate?
10. ANGLE OF ATTACK & LIFT COEFFICIENT
Aim: To investigate the relationship between Lift and Angle of Attack, using the faculty wind-tunnel.

Equipment:
To measure lift force, a spring-balance arrangement is used.
Before using the tunnel, check that the balance is correctly connected, so that the lift force is applied to and
resisted by the spring. The balance should support the model at approximately mid tunnel height.
Adjust the centre of gravity so that it coincides with the spindle supporting the model.

 Check that no loose articles can either pass through or block the tunnel.

 Connect the electrical supply so that the fan rotates.

 Using the throttle lever, adjust the airspeed to approximately 35 knots.

 Record the airspeed.

 Take a series reading of lift force and the corresponding angle of attack.

 Record these in tabular form.

Results:
It is usual to express the lift force in terms of a dimensionless lift coefficient,
CL =
values for  and s can be assumed to be 1225 kg/m3 and 0033 m2 respectively.
To convert knots to m/s, multiply by 0515. CL can now be computed.

From the results table, plot CL against Angle of Attack.

11. AIRFLOW THROUGH A VENTURI
Aim: To investigate Bernoulli's Theorem by measuring the static pressure and the velocity of air flowing
through a venturi.

Equipment:
Venturi tube with electrically driven blower.
Pressure probe connected to three manometers.

The pressure probe consists of two co-axial tubes.

The centre tube measures total pressure which is the sum of static pressure and dynamic pressure,
(caused by velocity) and the outer tube measures static pressure only.
The static and total pressure tubes are connected to one side of their respective manometers, the other
side of the manometer being open atmosphere. The centre manometer measures velocity by measuring
the different between total and static pressures.
Introduction: Bernoulli's Theorem states that the total energy possessed by a moving stream of fluid
remains constant. Air in motion has two major forms of energy: Pressure energy and Kinetic energy.
According to Bernoulli:
Kinetic Energy + Pressure Energy = A Constant

 Withdraw the probe from the venturi until the end of the probe is level with the zero graduation.

 Switch on the blower and allow the airstream to settle.

 Record the height of the column of water in each manometer in a table of the type below.

Position of Static Velocity Total

Probe
0
1
2

 Move the probe into the venturi by one division (10 mm) at a time, allowing the airflow to settle and
record each manometer reading.

Note: When the static pressure drops below atmospheric it should be recorded as a negative value. This
will be shown by the water rising in the right hand tube of the static manometer.

Results:
Draw graphs of the Static Pressure, Velocity and Total Pressure (vertical) and Probe Position (horizontal)
on the same axes.

Conclusions:

Comment on the shape of each graph.

Was Bernoulli's Theorem proven to be correct for air in motion? Select values from your results table to
support your answer.
Suggest reasons why the Total Pressure line does not remain constant (horizontal) but decreases as air
flows through the venturi.