LABORATORY MANUAL

MECHANICS OF SOLID
SUBJECT CODE: 3130608
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
B.E. 3RD SEMESTER

NAME:

ENROLLMENT NO:

BATCH NO:

YEAR:

Amiraj College of Engineering and Technology,

Nr.Tata Nano Plant, Khoraj, Sanand, Ahmedabad.

1
 Amiraj College of Engineering and
Technology,
Nr.Tata Nano Plant, Khoraj, Sanand, Ahmedabad.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. / Ms. ___________________________________________

Of class____________________ Enrolment NO________________________has
Satisfactorily completed the course in _______________________________as
by the Gujarat Technological University for ____ Year (B.E.) semester___ of
Civil Engineering in the Academic year ______.

Date of Submission:-

Faculty Name and Signature Head of Department

(Subject Teacher) (Civil Department)

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Practical
Practical Name Date Sign
no.

1 Universal force table Equilibrium of

coplanar, concurrent forces
2 Wheel and differential axle

3 Single purchase crab

4 Co-efficint of friction

5 Brinell hardness test

6 Compression test on timber

7 Tension test on metals

8 Izod impact test

9 Simply supported beam

10 Law Of Parallelogram Forces

PRACTICAL NO: 1 DATE:

UNIVERSAL FORCE TABLE

EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR, CONCURRENT FORCES

OBJECT : To verify the polygon law of forces for a system in equilibrium, both
analytically and graphically.

APPARATUS :Aforce table with five attached pulleys, weights.

THEORY :Concurrent forces in equilibrium can be represented by a polygon. The

respective sides being parallel and proportional to their respective forces. If
forces are not in equilibrium then the closing side of polygon shown the resultant
of the system of forces.

POLYGON LAW OF FORCES (STATEMENT)

PROCEDURE : Five stings radiating from a single point. These string pass over
smooth pulleys freely slidable along the circumference of a horizontal forces table
with graduations for measuring angles. Attach five known weights to five strings
arranged at particular angles. Note down the readings when the central ring is at
center of forces table.As this system is in equilibrium,the resultant is to be found
out which should be zero. But due to errors, the resultant forces is obtained
analytically as well as measured on force table and show the respective
forces.Using Bow’s notation draw force (vector) diagram, which will be the
polygon. For the system is the equilibrium, the sidesof polygon should be five but
due to error polygon remains open & hence the closing side in reverse order will
represent the resultant.
CONCLUSIONS:

- State the law and comment on the verification of law.

- What are the reasons for these error ?

FIGURE:
OBSERVATION TABLE :

Angle Components
Force Value of P
θ FX = P COSθ F = P Sinθ
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5

Signature :

Date :
PRACTICAL NO: 2 DATE:

WHEEL AND DIFFERENTIAL AXLE

Object : To determine the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, ideal effort,

frictional effort, ideal load, frictional load and efficiency of a given wheel and
different axle.

THEORY : The wheel and differential axle acts on the differentialprincipal. It is

a simple device to achieve very high velocity ratio by keeping very small
difference in diameters of two axles. The axle is made up two cylinders B and C of
different diameters. The wheel A and the cylinder B and C turn about a common
axis. One string is wound round the wheel A and to the one end of which the
effort P is applied. The second string is wound round the two cylinders B and C.
This string goes around a pulley to which the load W is attached. This string is
wound on the two cylinders in such a way that as the cylinders turn, it unwinds
on the small cylinders and winds at the same time on the cylinder, lifting the load
W attached to the pulley.

For one revolution of the wheel and axel, the displacement of

the effort P is equal to the length of the string. That unwind from the wheel A
=πD.

The length of the string that unwind from the Smaller cylinder C=πd2

The length of the string that winds on the larger cylinder B =π d1

The load string shortens by = π d1- πd2

Therefore, the displacement of the load W

Velocity Ratio = (πD1) / ((πd1-πd2)/2)

= 2 πD1 / (πd1-πd2)

=
For a larger velocity ratio, d1 and d2 are made nearly equal.

APPARATUS : Wheel and differential axel, weights, calipers, meter rules etc.

PROCEDURE :

1. Measure the dimensions of wheel and axels & note total load applied to the
system.
2. Increase the effort gradually in such a way that at minimum effort the load
just starts moving upload. Note this value of effort.
3. Change the load applied and find corresponding effort.
4. Take six sets of readings.
5. Plot the graphs of load on X axis V/S (i)actual effort (p) (ii) ideal effort (p)
(iii) frictional effort (P - W/V. R) (iv) efficiency (n) on Y AXIS. Use same
scale for all effort Curves and different scale for efficiency. It is desirable to
draw all graph on same graph paper.
6. Work out the law of machine P = mW + C where, P is actual effort
required to raise the load W. and M is the slope of the graph, C is the initial
effort required the start the machine which are machine constants c is
the intercept of graph on Y axis.

OBSERVATION

1. Circumference of Effort wheel: πD1

2. Circumference of bigger axle: πd1

3. Circumference of smaller axle: πd2

4. Distance travelled by effort: Sp = πD1

5. Distance travelled by load: Sw= (πd1-πd2)/2

6. Velocity Ratio = Sp/Sw = (πD1) / ((πd1-πd2)/2) = 2 πD1 / (πd1-πd2)

OBESERVATION TABLE

Load η% =
Sr. Effort (Pa) M.A = Pi =
(W) M.A./V.R. Pf= Pa - Pi
No Newton W/Pa * 100 W/V.R
Newton
PRACTICAL NO: 3 DATE:

SINGLE PURCHASE CRAB

OBJECT : To determine the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, ideal effort,

frictional effort, ideal load frictional load and efficiency of a given
single purchase crab.

THEORY : The single purchase crab is a simple Lifting machine in which velocity
ratio is achieved using gearing. (Draw figure of this machine and write
the working phenomenon)

APPARATUS : Single purchase crab, weights, weights, caliper, meter rules etc.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the required dimensions of machine. Note the total load applied
and corresponding effort required to raise the load with a slow uniform
Motion.

2. Take six reading with uniform increase in load and corresponding effort
required

3 Plot the graphs with (i) actual effort (ii) ideal effort (iii) frictional effort and
(iv) efficiency on Y axis and Load on X axis. Use same scale for all effort
curves.

CALCULATON :

1) Give sample calculation for all quantities for any one of observation table.
 1) For law of machine, P = mW + C select any two points on graph of actual
effort and determine the value of m.

1. Maximum mechanical advantage = 1/m = .

2. Maximum efficiency = 1/(m X VR)= .

CONCLUSION :

SIGNATURE DATE
PRACTICAL NO: 4 DATE:

CO-EFFICINT OF FRICTION
OBJECT: To determine the co-efficient of friction between two surfaces.

APPARATUS: An adjustable inclined wooden plane with pulley at one end,

wooden block, weight, hanger, etc.

THEORY: when there is a relative motion between two bodies in contact, a

resistance to the motion is set up. This resistance to movement is called force of
friction. Friction acts along the surface of contact. Magnitude will vary with
respect to the nature of the surface under the equilibrium condition.

When a body of the self-weight ‘W’ is at the point of sliding up an inclined

plane by the application of forces (effort) ‘P’ parallel to the plane relation
between ‘P’ and ‘W’ will be.

P=w Sin(α+β)
Cosϕ
Similarly when the body is at the instant of sliding down
P=w Sin(α-β)
Cosϕ where, w= load
P=effort
ϕ= angle of friction
α= inclined of friction
Co-efficient of friction (µ): it is defined as the ratio of the limiting force of friction
(F) to the normal reaction (R) between two bodies.
µ=F/R hence F=µR where F=P

PROCEDURE:

When the block just started to slide up, the angle of inclination of the plane
and weights of the blocks to move up and down along the plane was measured
and noted. Then one end of the block was tied to a string and the other end of the
string was kept at the bottom of the plane and is made to pass through a pulley
provided on the plane. The weights were put on the hanger till the block just
started to move up. The experiment was repeated by varying the inclination and
the weights on the block.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

INCLINED FRICTION

SLIDING FRICTION

Angle of co-efficient
Sr. inclination of load of
effort Types of
no plane with the moved friction(µ)= remark
applied(P) surface
. horizontal α in (w) P-wsinα
degree. wcosα
glass
& wooden

glass & Steel

carpet

glass &
wheel

glass &
glass

INCLINED FRICTION

Surfaces (inclined friction) co-efficient of friction(µ)

glass & wooden
glass & Steel plate
glass & roller
glass & glass
SLIDING FRICTION

Surfaces (sliding friction) co-efficient of friction(µ)

glass & wooden
glass & carpet
glass & wheel
glass & glass

CONCLUSION: Value of co-efficient

SIGNATURE DATE
PRACTICLE 5

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST DATE:

OBJECT :

To determine the Brinell hardness number of given metal speciments by

Brinell hardness test.

EQUIPMENT :

Brinell hardness testing machine.

APPARTUS :

Microscope

MATERIALS :

Steel, Brass, Alluminium, Copper, Cast Iron

RELATED IS CODES :

IS 3034 – 1965 : Method for Brinnel hardness test for copper & copper alloys.

IS 1500 – 1983 : Method for Brinnel hardness test for steel

IS 1790 – 1961 : Method for Brinnel Hardness test for light metals & their
alloys.

SALIENT FEATURES :

Hardness is basically an important mechanical property of the metals and is

defined as the resistance given by metal specimen to indentation, scratching
or abrasion on its surface. Brinnel hardness is a method of finding hardness of
given specimen by indentation and was introduced by J.A. Brinnel in 1900. This
method uses a steel ball (or Indentor) of standard known diameter (D) on
which a standard load (F) is applied gradually. The hardness tester is shown in
figure below.

The hardness number is then calculated from the depth of the indentation (of
diameter d) produced by the load applied. Thus, it is an indirect method of
finding hardness. Brinenl hardness is defined as the ratio of the load applied to
the spherical area of the indentation formed on the specimen surface and is
equivalent to kgf/mm2.

Figure shows the identation on the metal surface.

BHN = Test (kgf) / surface area of indentation ( mm2).

h = depth of indentation

= ½ [ D – D2-d2]

d
OBSERVATION TABLE

BALL DIAMETER OF
TEST LOAD P
SR.NO METAL DIAMETER d INDENTATION
kg
mm D mm

CALCULATIONS

SR.NO METAL BHN REMARKS

 CONCLUSIONS

SIGNATURE DATE
PRACTICAL NO: 6 DATE:

COMPRESSION TEST ON TIMBER

OBJECT: To determine the compressive strength of the timber specimen and to

study its behavior when subjected to load up to its fracture.

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine with an attachment to test specimen in

compression, vernier caliper, timber.

UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

THEORY: Wood exhibits under compressive loading, a very characteristic

behavior. I t is a homogeneous material, being composed of cell formed by
organic growth which align themselves to form a series of tubes or column in the
direction of grain alignment. As a result of this structure, the elastic limit is
relatively low, there is no definite yield point and considerable sets takes place
before failure. These properties vary with orientation of the load with respect to
the direction of the grain. For load normal to the grain the load that causes lateral
collapse of the tubes of filter is the significant load. For load parallel to the grain,
not only is the elastic strength important but also the strength at rupture.
Rupture often occurs because of collapse of the tubular fiber structure.

Important variables which affect compressive strength of timber are:

(1) Shape and size of the specimen

(2) Capping on top and bottom of the specimen
(3) Speed of testing

In this test standard specimen are compressed between two plates under axial
load.fig. 2.1 shows the line diagram of the machine. The mechanical properties
such as yield strength, ultimate compressive strength, modulus of toughness is
determined by studying the behavior of the specimen under load. Since in this
experiment the basic aim is to find and compare the strength of timber under
different orientation, important is given only to find ultimate strength of the
specimen. The possible patterns of the failure of the specimen are shown in the
fig. figure 2.2A and 2.2B show the failure of the specimen under two different
orientations.

SPECIMEN: The size of the test specimen shall be 50 x 50 X 200mm or 20X 20 X

80mm, if it is to be subjected to load parallel to the grain and its size shall be 50 X
50 X 150 mm or 20 X 20 X 100mm if it is subjected to load perpendicular to the
grain. Fig. 2.3A and 2.3B shows the arrangement of the specimen when subjected
to load. The specimen shall be free from defects and shall not have slope of grain
more than 1 in 20 parallel to its longitudinal edges. The end plane of the specimen
shall be perfectly at right angle to the length of the specimen.
PROCEDURE:

1. Check the specimen for any defect and ensure that the ends are plane
and fibers are parallel to its longitudinal edges.
2. Measure the cross-section of the specimen and length of the specimen
with vernier caliper.
3. Place the specimen in the lower cross head such that the load is applied
parallel to the grain.
4. Applied the load up to failure of the specimen and observe the type of
the failure.
5. For second case place another specimen such that the load is applied
perpendicular to the grain.
6. Repeat step 4.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Specimen should be placed carefully in the centre so that the applied

load will be exactly an axial load and no eccentricity for the load would
occur for the proper transfer of load.
2. When the load approaches to its failure value, it is preferable to move at
a safe distance from the machine.
OBSERVATION TABLE

LOAD CASE
LOAD APPLIED
LOAD APPLIED PARALLEL
PARPENDICULAR TO
TO GRAIN
GRAIN
Cross sectional area
(mm2) l X b X h
Load at failure (N)
Ultimate strength
(N/mm2)

COLNCLUSION :

SIGNATURE DATE
PRACTICAL NO: 7 DATE:

TENSION TEST ON METALS

OBJECT : To study the behavior of metallic materials under the tensile load
the help of stress – strain curve on universal testing machine.

EQUIPMENT : Universal testing machine

APPARATUS :Vernier-calliper

TOOLS :

MATERIALS : Mild steel and cast iron.

CALIBRATION :

The machine is calibrated with the help of a pivot ring. The pivot
ring is kept on lower cross head and compressive force is applied on it.The
deflection of the dial of pivot ring is completed with standard values provided by
manufacturer. If the values so obtained do not fit in desired accuracy of 1% the
counterweight on the pendulum is adjusted to bring the readings with in
permissible limits.

RELATED I.S. CODES

IS : 1608-1995 ; Mechanical testing of metals –Tensile testing

IS : 1816-1979 ; Methods of tensile test for light metals & their alloys

SALIENT FEATURES

This test is performed on Universal Testing machine. The machine is also used for
testing materials subjected to tension, compression, bending and shear, Figure
shows the line diagram of the universal testing machine.

The test consist of straining a test piece by force, generally to

fracture for the purpose of determining one or more mechanical properties viz.
Percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area, moduls of elasticity, yield
stress, ultimate stress and breaking stress.

Metals used in engineering structures are mostly ductile e.g steel,

aluminum, bras, copper, etc. but some Like cast iron are brittle. When specimens
are tested under tensile (axial) load, both these types behave differently. Ductile
metals undergo comparatively large elongations, along the direction of loading,
accompanied necessarily, of course, with contractions, in the transverse direction.
At a certain stress level, the specimen ceases to take any additional load but the
elongation continues to a certain level, where after additional load is required to
increase the elongation. At fracture, ultimately the specimen breaks at or very
near the narrowest section. The fracture is not along a plane right angle; it is
along an inclined palen and has an appearance of a cup and cone shape. Figure
shows a typical fracture of a mile steel specimen. Obviously, therefore fracture is
not due to insufficient tensile resistance but due to insufficient shear resistance
on inclined planes.

Thus the stages which a ductile material undergoes are yield-ultimate

breaking stress. The values of breaking if calculated with respect to its original
area of the specimen, comes to be lesser than ultimate stress and is known as
nominal breaking stress, whereas if breaking stress is calculated taking into
consideration the instantaneous cross-sectional area, its value comes to be
greater than unlimate stress and is known as actual breaking stress or true stress.
Since engineering design takes into consideration the loads with respect to yield
stress, true stress is generally not plotted in the stress-strain curve.

Brittle metals have inadequate tensile resistance, they do not undergo any
worthwhile elongation ; they fracture is comparatively abrupt and the fractured
surface is an clean right section. In such metals the maximum load is also the
breaking load.

SIGNATURE DATE
PRACTICAL NO: 8 DATE:

IZOD IMPACT TEST

OBJECT:To determine the impact value for various metals like Cast iron,
Aluminum, Brass, Steel etc.

APPARATUS: Standard specimen of different metals, impact testing machine etc.

THEORY: To evaluate the suitability of any metal to resist shock or impact loading,
the impact value should have to be determined. The capacity to absorb the
energy imparted by the sudden load like impact/shock effect is limited for any
metal and as such the energy absorbed by the standard test specimen in causing a
fracture of the specimen can be measure of its toughness i.e. its capacity to resist
the shock /impact loading.

In the test machine the heavy hammer is being raised through a certain
height and being released to permit it to swing under its own weight. The
hammer when released swing like a pendulum and the potential energy gets
converted in to kinetic energy and this energy is registered on the dial provided
on the machine. Considering the loss of energy due to friction, vibration etc. as
negligible, the difference in potential energy between the starting and the end of
the swing is the energy absorbed to fracture the specimen.

PROCEDURE:

(1) Lift the hammer in position. Put the stop bar and set the indicator on the
scale.
(2) Fix the specimen between the jaws properly such that the notch is level
with the anvil and faces the hammer side and level of the specimen is in the
line with the striking edge of the hammer.
(3) Release the hammer by removing the stop bar and note the reading on the
scale indicated by the pointer after the specimen is fractured.

IZOD IMPACT TESTING MACHINE

PRECAUTIONS:

(1) Use the stop bar before trying to fix the specimen.
(2) Check the position of the pointer before releasing the hammer.
(3) Check the nothing and nobody is in the path of swing of the hammer before
releasing the hammer. It is dangerous to be on the opposite side of the
hammer.
 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Impact value for

Sr. no. Specimen N-mm

1 Cast Iron
2 Aluminum
3 Brass
4 Steel

SIGNATURE DATE
PRACTICAL NO: 9 DATE:

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

OBJECT:
To determine the reactions at supports and verify the condition of
equilibrium for a beam simply supported at ends.

THEORY: Beam is structural element carrying transverse loads.

Analytical condition of equilibrium

1) Algebraic sum of horizontal forces must be equal to zero. i.e. ∑ Fx = 0.
2) Algebraic sum of vertical forces must be equal to zero. i.e. ∑ Fy = 0.
3) Algebraic sum of moments of forces about any point is zero.
Graphical conditions of equilibrium

1) Force polygon should close which indicates that there is no motion of

translation.
2) Funicular polygon should close which indicates that there is no motion of
rotation.
PROCEDURE:

1) Note down the self Weight of the beam, weight of hook and weight of
hangers.
2) Put the known three loads at various point along the length of the beam. So
that total weights are W1,W2,W3.
3) Measure the horizontal distances of these loads from one of the support.
( X1, X2, X3)
4) Observe the reactions in the compression spring balances provided at each
support.
CONCLUSION :

Observation: Length of short arm L = cm.

OBSERVATION TABLE :

PxL WxD
P=P2- %
No. W kg D cm P1 kg P2 kg kg X kg X
P1 kg Error
cm cm

SIGNATURE : DATE:
PRACTICAL NO: 10 DATE:

LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM FORCES

Aim: To verify the Parallelogram Law of Forces.

Apparatus: Drawing sheet, pins, mirrors, weight pan, weights and pulleys.

Theory: The parallelogram law of forces enables us to determine the single

force called resultant which can replace the two forces acting at a point with
the same effect as that of the two forces. This law was formulated based on
experimental results. This law states that if two forces acting simultaneously
on a body at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through the
point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces.
Where R is the resultant force

Procedure:

1) Fix the Drawing Sheet On the Boar of apparatus with The help of
drawing Pin
2) Pass two long String Over the Pullies and attch pan at the end of each
the string.
3) Attached the third string with pan at the joint of two string
4) Place the different weight in the three pans and let the system comes to
rest and joint of string is centered of the drawing sheet
5) Mark at at least two points of the position of each string
6) Record the magnitude of forces P , Q and E (R ) including pan in
Observation table
7) Remove the drawing Sheet and draw line from respective points mark
which meets at O were line OA and OB represents P and Q respectively
OC and OC’ represents equilibrant forces and the resultant forces
respectively in figure
8) Measure the angles AOB represents ‘q’ and measure the angle AOC
represents ‘a’ Record it
9) Take at least three to four sets of readings
10) Calculate the magnitude and direction of resultant using equation of all
readings. Record it in observation table
11) Represent the forces P and Q vectorially with Suitable scale and
Complete parallelogram draw the diagonal from intersection of forces.
Find magnitude and direction of resultant by measuring diagonal and it’s
inclination and record it in fig
12) Compare the results obtain experimentally analytically and graphically
should very near to each other