Structural Conceptualization1 Revised

Prepared By: Engr. Manny Wendell B.
Amor, CE, RMP
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio -dAVAO 1

Building and Structures and its Foundation
components Piles
Retaining walls
Codes and References Pre stress members
Engineering Mechanics Structural Steel
Forces and Loads Steels and Carbon
Strength of Material Methods of design
Stress and Strain Structural Steel Section
Types of Beam, Supports and Load Compression members
Moment of Inertia and Section Modulus Flexural members
Structural System (truss and frames) Welding
Reinforced Concrete Wood
Properties of Material Properties of woods
Concrete Proportioning Classification of Lumbers
Design Methods Wood Columns
Beam Wood Beams
Columns Miscellaneous
Development Lengths Tagalog to English Construction
Slabs terms
Sample Questionnaire
32 item review test
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 2

Civil Engineering
is the application of the knowledge of the forces
of nature, principles of mechanics, and the
properties of materials to the evaluation, design
and construction of civil works.

Building is any structure used or intended
Building-
for supporting or sheltering any use or
occupancy.
Structure – is that which is built or

constructed, an edifice of building of any
kind, or any piece of work artificially built up
or composed of parts joined together in some
definite manner.

Codes (concerning Structures)
◦ NBCP – National Building Code of the Philippines
◦ NSCP – National Structural Code of the Philippines (2001, 2010)
◦ ASTM – American Society of Testing and Materials
◦ AISC – American Institute of Steel Construction
◦ AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
◦ AWS – American Welding Society
◦ ASEP –Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
◦ ACI –American Concrete Institute, 318-08
Government Policies and Enforcements

◦ Building Official – is the officer or other designated authority charged with
the administration and enforcement of the codes, or the building official’s
duly authorized representative.
◦ Implementing Rules and Regulations
◦ Building Permits
◦ Inspections
◦ Certificate of Occupancy

STRUCTURES
Civil Engineer – is a professional engineer licensed

to practice in the field or civil engineering.
Structural Engineer – is a registered Civil

Engineer with special qualification in the practice of
Structural Engineering as recognized by the Board of
Civil Engineering of the Professional Regulation
Commission (PRC) of the Philippine and Instituted of
Civil Engineers (PICE) through the Association of
Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP)
Materials Engineer

GEOLOGY
Engineering Geologist –
is a licensed
geologist
experienced and
knowledgeable in
Engineering Geology.
◦ Engineering Geology is
an application of
geological knowledge
and principles in the
investigation and
evaluation of naturally Somewhere in Bislig, Philippines
occurring rocks and soil
for use in the design of
civil works.

SOIL
Geotechnical Engineer is an
engineer experienced and
knowledgeable in the practice of
Geotechnical Engineering. Also
term as Soil Engineer
◦ Geotechnical Engineering is
the application of the
principles of soil and rock
mechanics in the
investigation, evaluation and
design of civil works involving
the use of earth materials and
the inspection or testing of
the construction thereof.

1. APPROVAL shall mean that the proposed work or completed work
conforms to this section in the opinion of the building official.
2. AS GRADED is the extent of surface conditions on completion of
grading.
3. BEDROCK is in-place solid rock.
4. BENCH is a relatively level step excavated into earth material on which
fill is to be placed.
5. BORROW is earth material acquired from an off-site location for use on
grading on a site.
6. COMPACTION is the densification of a fill by mechanical means.
7. EROSION is the wearing away of the ground surface as a result of the
movement of wind, water or ice.
8. EXCAVATION is the mechanical removal of earth material.
9. FILL is a deposit of earth material placed by artificial means.

10. GRADE is the vertical location of the ground surface.
11. GRADE,
GRADE EXISTING,
EXISTING is the grade prior to grading.
12. GRADE,
GRADE FINISH,
FINISH is the final grade of the site that conforms to the
approved plan.
13. GRADE,
GRADE ROUGH,
ROUGH is the stage at which the grade approximately conforms
to the approved plan.
14. GRADING is any excavating or filling or combination thereof.
15. KEY is a designed compacted fill placed in a trench excavated in earth
material beneath the toe of a proposed fill slope.
16. SITE is any lot or parcel of land or contiguous combination thereof,
under the same ownership, where grading is performed or permitted.
17. SLOPE is an inclined ground surface the inclination of which is expressed
as a ratio of vertical distance to horizontal distance. rise / run
18. SOIL is naturally occurring superficial deposits overlying bedrock.
19. TERRACE is a relatively level step constructed in the face of a graded
slope surface for drainage and maintenance purposes.

MAJOR BACKGROUNDS (subject) OF STRUCTURAL
Engineering Mechanics
◦ Covers the relations between forces acting on ideally rigid
bodies: in statics, the bodies are in equilibrium, whereas in
dynamics, they are accelerated but can be put in equilibrium
by applying correctly placed inertia forces.
Strength of Materials
◦ Deals with the relations between externally applied loads and
their internal effects on bodies.
◦ Bodies are no longer assumed rigid and deformation, however
small, are of major interest.
◦ It involves the effects properties of materials and dimensions.
◦ Strength and Rigidity

Covers the relations between forces acting on ideally rigid bodies

FORCE
◦ anything that cause an object at rest to move or a moving
object to move in a different direction or cause an internal
change on the body of the object.
Properties forces
◦ MAGNITUDE (Scalar)
the amount of force (length, area, volume, mass, density)
◦ DIRECTION
refers to the orientation of its path or line of action. It is usually
described by the angle that the line of action makes with some
reference.
◦ VECTOR
A Quantity possessing both magnitude and direction, represented by
an arrow whose length is proportional to the magnitude and whose
orientation in space represents the direction.
(weight, force, acceleration, lift)
◦ SENSE
refers to the manner in which it acts along its line of action

Forces System
COPLANAR
o all acting in a single plane of a vertical
wall
COLLINEAR
o Concurrent forces having the same line of
action, vector sum of which is the algebraic
sum of the magnitude of the forces, acting
along the same line of action.
PARALLEL
◦ all having the same direction
CONCURRENT
◦ all having their lines of action intersect at a
common point.
MOMENT (Force x Distance)
◦ moment can be about any point called
Center of Moment
MOMENT ARM
◦ distance from center of moment to force
◦ shortest or perpendicular distance from the
center of moment to line of action of force. d
F
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor,

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ARC Studio
MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS AND LATERAL FORCES
LOADS (NSCP sec 203) are forces or other actions that result from the weight of all
building materials, occupants, and their possessions, environmental effects, differential
movements, and restrained dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in
which variations over time are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are variable
loads.
1. Dead Load, D
2. Live Load, L
3. Wind Load, W
4. Earthquake Load, E
Other Minimum Loads

5. Fluid Pressure, F
6. Lateral Soil Pressure, H
7. Ponding Loads, P
8. Self-Straining Loads, T

LOADS (NSCP sec 203)

1. Dead Load, DL
consist of the weight of all materials and fixed equipment incorporated
into the building or other structure.
2. Live Load, LL
Are those loads produced by the use and occupancy of the
buildings or other structure and do not include dead load,
construction loads, or environmental loads such as wind, snow,
rain load, earthquake load and flood load.

ILLUSTRATION
1. Dead Load, DL
2. Live Load, LL
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Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio
MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS Definition of Terms:
AND LATERAL FORCES
LOADS (NSCP sec 203) SPEED V is a 3-second
BASIC WIND SPEED,
gust speed at 10 meters above the
3. Wind Load, W ground in Exposure C and
associated with an annual
probability of 0.02 of being equaled
or exceeded (50-year mean
LEEWARD recurrence interval).
DESIGN PRESSURE,
PRESSURE P, is the
equivalent static pressure to be used
in the determination of wind loads
WINDWARD for buildings.
R FACTOR I, is a factor
IMPORTANCE FACTOR,
W that accounts for the degree of
P = Ce Cq qs (Iw)
Iw) hazard to human life and damage to
where:
here: property.
Ce, combined height, exposure and MAIN WIND-
WIND-FORCE RESISTING
gust factor coefficient. SYSTEM is an assemblage of
structural elements assigned to
Cq,
Cq, pressure coefficient provide support and stability for the
Iw,
Iw, Importance factor overall structure. The system
generally receives wind loading from
qs , wind stagnation pressure more than one surface.
Wind Zone Map of
the Philippines
(figure taken from NCSP,
Chapter 2)
December 3, 2012
Super Typhoon Pablo
250 Kph winds
November 7, 2013
Super Typhoon Yolanda
315 Kph winds

MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS Definition of Terms:
BASE is the level at which
AND LATERAL FORCES
the earthquake motions are
LOADS (NSCP sec 203) considered to be imparted to the
structure or the level at which the
4. Earthquake Load, E structure as a dynamic vibrator is
supported.
F3 Story drift
SHEAR V, is the total
BASE SHEAR,
Seismic gap design lateral force or shear at the
F2 base of the structure.
SHEAR V, is the
STORY SHEAR,
summation of design lateral
F1 forces above the story under
consideration.
STORY DRIFT-The horizontal
movement of one level of a
structure relative to the level
Base shear above or below.

Definition of terms:
terms:
Seismograph
A device that measures and records the movement of the earth during the earthquake.
An apparatus to measure and record vibrations within the earth and the ground.
Accelelograph
An instrument used to measure velocity & acceleration of an earthquake
Richter Scale
a scale used to measure the magnitude of energy released by an earthquake.
Mercalli Scale
a scale used to measure the intensity or severity of the damage of an earthquake.
Epicenter
a point directly above the hypocenter, from which the shock waves of an earthquake
apparently emanate.
Hypocenter
the point of origin of an earthquake. also called focus.
Fault
A break in the earth’s crust accompanied by a dislocation in the plane of the fracture.
Plate
Any of the huge movable segments into which the earth’s crust is divided.

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (WSD) is a method of proportioning structural

elements such that computed stresses produced in the elements by the
allowable stress load combinations do not exceed specified allowable stress
(also called working stress design).
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD is a method of proportioning structural

elements such that the computed forces produced in the elements by the
factored load combinations do not exceed the factored element strength. The
term “strength design” is used in the design of concrete and masonry structures.
Combination of Loads:
Required Strength, U= 1.4DL + 1.7LL
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7W)
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.87E)
LOAD FACTORS
dead load, DL………………… 1.40
live load, LL…………………… 1.70
wind load, WL………………… 1.70
earthquake, E………………… 1.87
earth or water pressure, H…… 1.70
STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR Ø

Flexure w/o axial load 0.90
Axial tension & axial tension w/ flexure 0.90
Shear and torsion 0.85
Axial compression & axial compression w/ flexure
◦ a. spiral reinforcement 0.75
◦ b. tie reinforcement 0.70
Bearing on concrete 0.70

Deals with the relations between externally applied loads and their
internal effects on bodies.

Structural Properties of Materials
Simple Stress
Simple Strain
Beams
Type of Beams
Type of Supports
Type of Loads
Shear and Moment Diagram
Moment of Inertia
Section of Modulus
Maximum Moments and Deflections

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES
◦ Stress
The intensity of force per unit area, σ = P/A
Applied loads are
1. Axial Force
2. Shear Force
3. Torque
4. Bending Moment

◦ Stress
The intensity of force per unit area
Applied loads is
1. Axial Force – pulling or pushing action over the section
1. Tensile force – the act of stretching or state of being pulled apart,
resulting in the elongation of an elastic body.
2. Compressive force – an applied force producing or tending to produce
compression in an elastic body, tends to shorten the member.
σ= P Where: σ = axial stress , Mpa

A P = axial force, Mpa
A = cross-sectional area, mm2
◦ Stress
A stress produced by a force acting parallel to the area.
Applied loads is
2. Shear Forces – an applied force producing or tending to
produce shear in the body, designate by “V”
1. Shear – the lateral deformation produced in a body by an
external force that causes one part of the body to slide
relative to an adjacent part in direction parallel to their plane
contact.
τ= V
A Where: τ = shear /tangential stress
V = shear force
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, A = surface area
ARC Studio 28
◦ Stress
Applied load is
3. Torque – (T) the moment of a force system that causes or
tends to cause rotation or torsion (the twisting of an
elastic body about longitudinal axis cause by two equal
and opposite torques, producing shearing stresses in the
body).
τ= Tr ø = TL
T J JG
T = twisting moment
T r T r = radius of solid circular shaft

ø J = polar moment of inertia
L G = shear modulus in Mpa

◦ Stress
A stress produced by a bending moment
Applied loads is
4. Bending Moments – measures the resistance to bending
the member about an axes, denotes by My, Mz
σf = Mc = M Where: σf = bending stress , Mpa

I S M = bending moment, Nm
c = dist. from neutral axis to
outer most fiber (mm)
I = moment of inertia (mm4)
s=I/c = Section Modulus (mm3)
ARC Studio 30
DESIGN LOADS AND LATERAL FORCES
Definition of Terms:
TENSION-
TENSION the act of stretching or state of being pulled apart, resulting in the
elongation of an elastic body
STRESS the tensile or compressive stress that develops to resist axial

AXIAL STRESS-
force, assumed to be normal to and uniformly distributed over the area of
the cross section. Also called direct stress, normal stress
COMPRESSION the act of shortening or state of being pushed together,

COMPRESSION-
resulting in the reduction in size or volume of an elastic body
FORCE a force applied parallel to the longitudinal axis of a

ECCENTRIC FORCE-
structural member but not to the centroid of the cross section, producing
bending and uneven distribution of stresses in the section. Also called
eccentric load.

Definition of Terms:
STRESS-
STRESS the internal resistance or reaction of an elastic body to external
forces applied to it. Equal to the ratio of force to area and expressed in units
of force per unit of cross- sectional area. Also called unit stress.
TENSILE STRESS-
STRESS the axial stress that develops at the cross section of an
elastic body to resist the collinear tensile forces tending to elongate it.
TENSILE STRENGTH-
STRENGTH the resistance of a material to longitudinal stress,
measured by the minimum amount of longitudinal stress required to rupture
the material
COMPRESSIVE STRESS-
STRESS the axial stress that develops at the cross section of
an elastic body to resist the collinear compressive forces tending to shorten
it.

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Types of Deformations:
Types
1. Axial deformation
Elongation or shortening of members along its longitudinal axis.
STRAIN GAUGE
An instrument for measuring
minute deformations in a
test specimen caused by
compression, tension etc.
Also called EXTENSOMETER
δ= PL Where: P = internal axial force, N

AE A = cross-sectional area, mm2
δ = axial deformation , mm
L = Original Length, mm
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, E = modulus of elasticity, Mpa
ARC Studio 33
◦ Strain
The deformation of a body under the action of an applied
force. It is a dimensionless quantity, equal to the ratio of the
change in size and shape to the original size and shape of a
stressed element. € = δ/L
Compressive Strain
Tensile Strain

34
ARC Studio
STRAIN-
STRAIN-HARDENING RANGE
σ = P/A PLASTIC RANGE
The range of unit stresses for
The range of unit stresses for which a material exhibits
ELASTIC RANGE which a material exhibits increased strength w/ some loss
The range of unit plastic deformation of ductility.
stress for which a
materials exhibits ULTIMATE STRENGTH, fu
elastic
deformations RUPTURE
YIELD POINT, fy
YIELD POINT
PROPORTIONAL
LIMIT The stress beyond which a
The stress beyond marked increase in strain
which the ratio of occurs in a material without a
stress to strain for
material no longer concurrent increase in stress.
remains constant. ELASTIC LIMIT ELASTIC LIMIT
The maximum stress that can
ALLOWABLE be applied to a material
STRESS without causing permanent
deformation.
ELASTICITY € = δ/L
The property of a material that enables it
to deform in response to an applied
force to recover its original size and
shape upon removal of the force
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ARC Studio
BEAMS:
Types of beams according to support:
1. Simply supported beam
2. Overhanging beam

36
BEAMS:
Types of beams according to support:
3. Cantilever beam
4. Propped beam
5. Fully restrained beam

Types of Supports:
1. Roller Support Rh
2. Hinge Support Rv Rv
Rh
Rv
3. Fix Support 4. Link Support

38
Kinds of LOADS
1. Concentrated Load
P
A Load acting on a very small area or
particular point of a supporting structural
element.
2. Uniformly Distributed Load W

A distributed load of uniform magnitude.

39
Kinds of LOADS
3. Uniformly varying Load

W (N/m)
4. Applied couple M

40
a) SHEAR DIAGRAM :
a graphic representation of the variation W
in magnitude of the external shears
present in a structure for a given set of
transverse loads and support conditions L
concentrated loads produce external
shears which are constant in magnitude Rv Rv
between the loads uniformly distributed
loads produce linearly varying shears
+V
b) MOMENT DIAGRAM:
DIAGRAM: a)
a graphic representation of the variation -V
in magnitude of the bending moment +M
present in a structure for a given set of
b)
transverse load and support conditions.
c)
ARC Studio 41
SAMPLE EXERCISE:
20N
Solution:
FOR SHEAR DIAGRAM
4N/m
8N-m VA = 0
C D VAR = 0+21 = 21 N
A
VBL = 21-4(6) =-3N
B
VBR = -3-20 =-23N
6m 2m 4m
VCL = -23+0 =-23N
Rav=21N
Rcv=23N VCR = -23+23 =0
21N VC = 0+0 =0
0.75m
V-diagram
5.25m
-3N
FOR MOMENT DIAGRAM
MA = 0
-23N
MM = 0 + ½ (21)(5.25) = 55.125 N-m
55.125N.m
54N.m
MCB = 55.125 – ½(3)(0.75) = 54
point of inflection
MC = 54 - (23)(2) =8
M-diagram MDL = 8 + 0 =8
-8N.m -8N.m MDR = 8 - 8 =0

ARC Studio 42
Moment of Inertia ( I ):: element areas multiplied by
the square of the moment arm about the reference axis.
b
h/2 2h/3
r=d/2
h/2 r=d/2
h/3
b
Io = bh3 Io = πd4 Io = bh3

12 64 36
= πr4
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, 4 center of gravity
43
ARC Studio
Section Modulus ( S=I/c ):: a geometric property of a cross
section, defined as the moment of inertia of the section divided by
the distance from the neutral axis to the most remote surface.
h/2 2h/3
r=d/2
h/2 r=d/2
h/3
b
S = bh2 S = πd3 S = bh2
6 32 24
Note:
Note the efficiency of a beam is increased by configuring
the cross section to provide the required moment of inertia
center of gravity
or section modulus with the smallest possible area, usually
by making the section deep with most of the material at the
extremeties where the maximum bending stresses occur. ARC Studio 44
Maximum Moments and Deflection of Beams:
Where: P = Concentrated Load
W = Distributed Load
EI = Flexural Rigidity
y = Max. Deflection
1. Simply supported beam

W P
L/2 L/2
M = wL2 y = 5wL4 M = PL y = PL3

8 38EI 4 48EI
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC
45
Studio
2. Fully restrained beam
w P
L/2 L/2
L
-M = wL2 +M = wL2
y = wL4
12 24
384EI M = PL y = PL3
@ support @ midspan
8 19EI
3. Cantilever beam
W P
L L
M = wL2 y = wL4 M = PL y = PL3

2 3EI 3EI
4. Propped beam Where: P = Concentrated Load

W = Distributed Load
EI = Flexural Rigidity
y = Max. Deflection
W
M = wL2 y = 0.005416 wL4

8 EI
STRUCTURE
A stable assembly of structural elements designed and constructed to function as a whole in
supporting and transmitting applied loads safely to the ground without exceeding the allowable
stresses in the members.
Refers to a system of connected parts that can support loads while performing primary functions. Must
be design for Safety, Serviceability, Aesthetics, Economy and Environmental Conditions.
CLASSIFICATION
1. Civil Structure– building, bridges, towers and etc. intended for public use or civilian use
2. Military Structure– ships, aircrafts frames, tanks etc. used for military.
BASIC TYPES OF STRUCTURE

1. Frames
2. Trusses
3. Cables and Arches – Used for long span ,usually flexible and carry their loads in tension only.
4. Surface Structures – Membrane , plates and shell type with much less thickness compared to its
dimensions.
- the structure is subjected to in-plane (tension and compression mainly)
- may be shaped as folded plates and cylinders.

BASIC STRUCTURAL FRAME SYSTEM
(NSCP sec 208.4.6)
1. Bearing wall system

2. Building frame systems
3. Moment – resisting frame
system
4. Shear-
Shear-Wall-
Wall-Frame Interaction
Systems
5. Cantilevered column system
6. Dual systems

BASIC STRUCTURAL FRAME
SYSTEM (NSCP sec 208.4.6)
1. Bearing wall system –

A structural system without a
complete vertical load-carrying
space frame. Bearing walls or
bracing systems provide
support for all or most gravity
loads. Resistance to lateral load
is provided by shear walls or
braced frames.

BASIC STRUCTURAL FRAME SYSTEM (NSCP sec 208.4.6)
WALLS
BEARING WALL is any wall meeting either of the following
classifications: (minimum thickness 100mm)
Any metal or wood stud wall that supports more than 0.5
KN per linear meter of superimposed load.
Any masonry or concrete wall that supports more than 1.0
KN per linear meter superimposed loads, or any such wall
supporting its own weight for more than one story.
EXTERIOR WALL is any wall or element of a wall, or any member

or group of members, that defines the exterior boundaries or
courts of a building and that has a slope of 60 degrees or
greater with the horizontal plane.
CURTAIN WALL an exterior wall supported wholly by the

structural frame of a building and carrying no loads other than
its own weight and wind loads.
NONBEARING WALL is any wall that is not a bearing wall
PARAPET WALL is the part of any wall entirely above the roof
line.
RETAINING WALL is a wall designed to resist the later

displacement of soil or other materials.

BASIC STRUCTURAL FRAME SYSTEM (NSCP sec 208.4.6)
2. Building frame systems –

A structural system with an essentially
complete space frame providing support for
gravity. Resistance to lateral load is provided by
shear walls or braced frames.
Photo By I Structures Engineers

BASIC STRUCTURAL
3. Moment – resisting
frame system.
A structural system with
an essentially complete space
frame providing support for
gravity. Moment-resisting
frames provide resistance to
lateral load primarily by
flexural action of members.

BASIC STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
(NSCP sec 208.4.6)
4. Shear-
Shear-Wall-
Wall-Frame
Interaction Systems
Vertical Diaphragm acting as a
thin, deep, cantilever beam in
transferring lateral loads to the
ground foundation.
Horizontal Diaphragm – a rigid
floor or roof plane acting as a thin,
deep beam in transferring lateral
forces to vertical shear walls,
braced frames or rigid frames.

BASIC STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
(NSCP sec 208.4.6)
208.4.6)
5. Cantilevered column
system.
A structural system
relying on cantilevered column
elements for lateral resistance.

BASIC STRUCTURAL FRAME
6. Dual systems – with the
following features:
An essentially complete
space frame that provides
support for gravity.
Resistance to lateral load is
provided by shear walls or
braced frames and moment-
resisting frames.

TRUSSES
A structural frame based on
the geometric rigidity of the
triangle (same plane)
All members are PIN
connected (free to rotate).
Load that cause entire truss to
bend are converted into axial
and compressive force.
Frequently used as support for
bridges and roof.
Can span ranges from 30 ft to
400ft.

TYPES of TRUSSES
Howe Truss Fan Truss
Pratt Truss
Sawtooth Truss
Pink Truss Scissor Truss

Reinforced Concrete + Steel + Wood

The process of arranging, interconnection, sizing, and
proportioning the members of a structural system in order to
safely carry a given set of loads without exceeding the allowable
stresses of the materials
MATERIALS
Concrete
Reinforcements
Steels
Wood
Glass
Masonry
STRUCTURES
Reinforced Concrete and Structural Steels
Footing , Foundation and Piles
Beams (includes grade beams, lintel beams)
Columns (Short and Long columns)
Walls (Bearing and Non-Bearing walls)

Concrete + Reinforcements

Concrete
Is a mixture of sand, gravel or crushed rock, or other aggregates b
held together in a rocklike mass with a paste of cement and
water.
Reinforcements
A system of steel bars, strands or wires for absorbing tensile,
shearing and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete h
member or structure.
Cement
A calcined mixture of clay and limestone, finely pulverized and
used as an ingredient in concrete and mortar.
Portland Cement
A hydraulic cement made by burning a mixture of clay and
Concrete Beam
limestone in a rotary kiln and pulverizing the resulting clinker
into a very fine powder.
REINFORCED CONCRETE:
CONCRETE:
is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the
r=d/2
steel reinforcement provides the tensile strength lacking in
the concrete. Steel Reinforcing is also capable of resisting
compressive forces and is used in columns as well. r=d/2
Concrete Column
ARC Studio 66
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
Compressive Strength:
Strength:
Cast-in-place production of concrete with ordinary aggregates is
usually in the range of 21 to 41 Mpa.
Mpa
Pre-cast and Prestressed application ranges 27.
27.6 to 55.
55.1 Mpa.
Mpa
Compression Test
A test for determine the
compressive strength of a concrete batch,
using a hydraulic press to measure the
maximum load a test-cylinder can support in
axial compression before fracturing.
Test cylinder
H=12
H=12”
12” A cylinder of concrete 6inches in
diameter and 12inches high, cast form a
representative batch and cured in a laboratory
or in the field under controlled condition.
Rebound Hammer
an apparatus that provides a relative
indication of the strength or hardness of
concrete based on the rebound distance of a
spring-driven mass after it impacts a rod in
contact with the concrete surface.
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ARC Studio
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS: b
Concrete
Is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other
aggregates held together in a rocklike mass with a h
paste of cement and water.
fc = allowable compressive stress of
concrete (Mpa)
= 0.45 fc’ Concrete Beam
fc’ = specified compressive strength
of concrete at 28 days curing ( Mpa)
= 21Mpa, 25Mpa, 28 Mpa
r=d/2
γconcrete = unit weight
= 23 KN/m3 r=d/2
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
= 4,700 (fc’ ) Mpa
Concrete Column
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ARC Studio
STRAIN-
stress for which a
elastic
deformations RUPTURE
YIELD POINT, fy
YIELD POINT
PROPORTIONAL
which the ratio of occurs in a material without a
stress to strain for
remains constant. ELASTIC LIMIT ELASTIC LIMIT
deformation.
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ARC Studio
Concrete Proportioning (mix design)
the most economical selection and proportioning of cement, water,
and aggregate to produce concrete or mortar having the required properties of
workability, strength, durability and water tightness.

Concrete Proportioning
Water –Cement ratio
the ratio mix
of cement and water.
It controls the
strength, durability,
and watertightness
of hardened
concrete.
Slump Test
a
method for determining the
consistency (flow) and workability (can be
handled) of freshly mixed concrete by
measuring the slump of a test specimen.

ARC Studio 71
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS: b
Reinforcements
A system of steel bars, strands or wires for
absorbing tensile, shearing and sometimes the h
compressive stresses in a concrete member or
structure.
fs = allowable tensile stress of steel (Mpa)
= 0.60 fy Concrete Beam
fy = yield stress of steel ( Mpa) with top bars
= 275Mpa, 345Mpa, 415 Mpa
γ = unit weight of steel
= 77.01 KN/m3
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete d
= 200,000 Mpa
Concrete Spiral
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, Column 72
ARC Studio
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:
Reinforcements Designation

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ARC Studio
Spacing Limits for Reinforcements
According to Sec 5.7.6 of NSCP, the minimum clear spacing between
parallel bars in a layer should be db but not less than 25mm.
For two to more layer, upper layers should be placed directly above bars
in the bottom layer with cleat distance between layers not less than 25mm.
In spirally reinforced or tied reinforced compression members, clear
distance between longitudinal bars shall be not less than 1.5db nor 40mm.
Concrete Cover for Reinforcements
25mm
a. Concrete cast permanently exposed to earth … 75mm
b. Concrete not exposed to earth
25mm Slabs, walls and joists ………………………………… ............... 20mm
Beams and Columns ……………………………… 40mm
h
d
b thk
Footing rebars 75mm Concrete Cover

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ARC Studio
Minimum Requirement of Reinforcements for RC columns
b
b
≥6”
h
h
Square and Rectangular Column
h
r=d/2
d
r=d/2
b
Circular Column Triangular Column

STRAIN-
stress for which a
elastic deformations
RUPTURE
YIELD POINT, fy
PROPORTIONAL
YIELD POINT
which the ratio of
stress to strain for occurs in a material without a
remains constant.
ELASTIC LIMIT ELASTIC LIMIT
deformation.
ELASTICITY
€ = δ/L
shape upon removal of the force Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor,
ARC Studio 76
DESIGN METHOD:
1. WSD – Working Stress Design (STRAIGHT –LINE DESIGN)
The Dead Load and Live Load to be supported , called the
working loads or Service Load, were first estimated. Then the
members of the structure were proportioned so the stresses
calculated by an elastic analysis did not exceed certain
permissible or allowable stress.
Mc = ½ (fc) kj bd2 - concrete
Ms = (As) (fs) jd - steel
2. USD – Ultimate Strength Design (Strength Design Method):

is a method of proportioning structural elements such
that the computed forces produced in the elements by the
factored load combinations do not exceed the factored element
strength. The term “ Strength Design” is used in the design of
concrete and masonry structures.

Type of Problems
1. Design – given the load, determine the size
2. Investigation – given the size, determine the load.
Criteria for design:

1. Safety
2. Economy
3. Practicability / Aesthetics

Type of Structural Design :
1. BALANCED SECTION
a concrete in which the tension reinforcement theoretically
reaches its specified yield strength as the (same time) concrete in
compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain (0.003)
2. OVERREINFORCED SECTION
a concrete section in which the concrete in compression reaches its
assumed ultimate strain before the tension reinforcement reaches its
specified yield strength. This is a dangerous condition since failure of
the section could occur instantaneously without warning
3. UNDERREINFORCED SECTION
a concrete section in which the tension reinforcement reaches its
specified yield strength before the concrete in compression reaches its
assumed ultimate strain. This is desirable condition since failure of the
section would be preceded by large deformations giving prior warning
of impending collapse

SIGN CONVENTION :
Positive : moment that produces a concave curvature of the member
Negative : moment that produces a convex curvature of the member
Positive shear Negative shear

BEAM
b
a rigid structural member designed to carry
and transfer transverse loads across spaces NA c
supporting elements. h
BENDING MOMENT, M
an external moment tending to cause part a @ supports @ midspan
structure to rotate or bend, equal to the
algebraic sum of the moments about the
neutral axis of the section under BENDING STRESS, fb
consideration A combination of
compressive and tensile
RESISTING MOMENT, M’ stresses developed at a
cross section of a
an internal moment equal and opposite to a
structural member to
bending moment, generated by a force
resist transverse force
couple to maintain equilibrium of the section
being considered
SIMPLE BENDING THEORY
M = M’
M = fb INA
C
fb = M c , Bending stress
INA
since
S=I /c , Section Modulus
fb = M
S

STRENGTH DESIGN FOR BEAMS
(Ultimate Strength Design, USD)
Load Factor
ultimate load-carrying ability of member U.
U = 1.4DL + 1.7LL
U = 0.75(1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7W)
U = 0.9DL + 1.3 W
U = 1.3 DL + 1.1 LL + 1.1 E
Capacity Reduction Factor Ø

(for uncertainties, dimensions , workmanship)
0.90 bending in Reinforced Concrete

0.85 shear and torsion
0.70 bearing on concrete

b 0.85 fc’ €c
C Effective depth
c a c is the distance
N.A. d measured from
As T d-c extreme
€s compression
fiber to centroid
Beam section Beam elevation Strain diagram of tension
reinforcement.
STRENGTH DESIGN FOR BEAMS
RESISTING MOMENT:
Mu = Ø ω fc’ b d2 (1- 0.59ω) ………… Concrete

Mu = Ø As fs (d –a/2) ………… Steel
where : ω = ρ fy and ρ = As/bd, ρmin =1.4/fy

fc’

TYPICAL FOR BEAM DETAIL :
STIRRUPS
Any of the U-shaped or closed hoop
bars placed perpendicular to the longitudinal
reinforcements of a concrete beam to resist the
vertical components of diagonal tension.
LAP SPLICE
A splice for transferring tensile and
compressive stresses from one longitudinal bar
to another.

Shear Design for RC Beams
◦ There area also inclined stresses resulting from combined effects of bending
and shearing.
◦ Without stirrups, there is nothing to stop the concrete from splitting due to
diagonal tension
τ=V Where: τ = shear stress or tangential stress

bd V = critical shear force at distance “d” from support
b,d = surface area, beam dimension
d Vn = Vc + Vs
Vu≤ Ø Vn
d Vc = 0.17√fc’ bw d
S=Av fyt d
SS Vs
critical section

Shear Design for RC Beams column
CORBEL-
CORBEL-
◦ or bracket is a short- beam
haunched cantilever and is Vu
used to support a beam or
girder.
◦ It is usually supports pre-cast
(2/3)d
structural system as pre-cast d
beam and stressed beams.
◦ Corbels are cast
stirrups
monolithically with the
column element or wall Primary
element. Tension
reinforcement

COLUMN
a rigid, relatively slender-structural member
designed primarily to support compressive load
applied (bending load) at the member ends.
Slenderness ratio
The ratio of the effective length (unsupported) of a column to its
radius of gyration. SR = Lu/r
Radius of gyration,r
The radial distance from any axis to a point at which the mass of
a body could be concentrated without altering the moment of
inertia of the body about that axis. r= √ I/A

SHORT COLUMN
P≥ Pc
A thick column subject to failure by crushing rather
than by buckling. Failure occurs when the direct
stress from an axial load exceeds the compressive
strength of the material available in the cross section.
P= Pc
INTERMEDIATE COLUMN
A column having a mode of failure between that of a
short column and a long column. Often partly
inelastic by crushing and partly elastic by buckling. P<Pc
LONG COLUMN
A slender column subject to failure by buckling rather
than by crushing.

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ARC Studio
SHORT COLUMN LONG COLUMN

90
ARC Studio
Concrete COLUMN
terms:
Buckling
The sudden lateral or torsional instability of a slender structural member induced by
the action of a compressive load. Buckling can occur well before the yield stress of the
material is reached.
Critical Buckling load
The maximum axial load that can theoretically be applied to a column without causing
it to buckle.
P-delta Effect
An additional moment developed in a structural member as its longitudinal axis
deviates from the line of action of compression. P∆
Post
A stiff vertical support, especially a wooden column in timber framing.
h/6 h/6
Kern
A central area of any horizontal section of b/6
a column with which the resultant of all
compressive loads must pass. b b/6
h
STRENGTH DESIGN FOR COLUMN
SHORT AXIALLY LOADED:
Pu = Ø 0.80 [0.85(fc’) ( Ag - Ast ) + fy Ast ] ……Tied Column
Pu = Ø 0.85 [0.85(fc’) ( Ag - Ast ) + fy Ast ] ……Spiral Column
where : Ag is area gross of section

Ast is the total area of longitudinal reinforcement
ACI Specs:
1. Ast = 0.01 Ag - 0.06 Ag
b
2. Min conc. Cover is 40mm
3. Min. Longitudinal rebars:
1. 4-16mm for rectangular section
r=d/2 h 2. 6-16mm for circular
4. Min. Lateral ties is 10mm for<32mm
r=d/2
5. Spacing of ties: (use smallest of)
a) 16 longitudinal bar diameter
b) 48 lateral tie bar diameter
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, c) Least column dimension
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ARC Studio
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
Development length of straight bars
◦ Bar development length Ld is the embedment necessary
to assure that a bar can be stressed to its yield point
with some reserved to insure member toughness.
For deformed 32mm bar & smaller
Concrete
F =Ab fy Basic development length of bars in tension*
Ldb = 0.02 Ab fy / √fc’
but not less than 0.06 db fy
Ld Basic development length of bars in compression

Ldb = 0.24 db fy / √fc’
but not less than 0.04 db fy
*Note: basic development length shall be multiplied by the application

modification factors m

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:
SLAB:
A rigid planar structure of concrete designed to act together with principal
and secondary reinforcement in resisting applied forces.
ONE-
ONE-WAY SLAB
A concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in the direction and
cast integrally with parallel supporting beams. Suitable only for relatively
short spans. Short/Long side ratio, m< 0.5
TWO-
TWO-WAY SLAB
A concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in two direction
and cast integrally with supporting edge beams or bearing walls on 4 sides.
Short/Long side ratio, m≥0.5
FLAT SLAB
A slab resting directly on columns without beams.

TYPICAL SLAB PLAN DETAILS:
DETAILS:

ONE-
ONE-WAY SLAB, ACI Code Specification:
Specification:
10mm temp bars
1. Minimum main bars diameter shall be d h

12mm
12mm
2. Minimum temperature bar diameter shall 12mm main bars
be 10mm
10mm Cover + db
3. Minimum clear concrete cover shall be
20mm A ρ bh
main bars =
4. Minimum slab thickness:
t= L (0.4 + fy/700) ……… cantilever slab ρ min= 1.4/fy
10
SPACINGmain bars≤3h or 45Omm
t= L (0.4 + fy/700) ………simply supported
20
t= L (0.4 + fy/700) ……… one-end continuous A 0.002 bh

temp bars =
24
SPACINGtemp bars≤5h or 45Omm
t= L (0.4 + fy/700) …… both-end continuous
28
L = Length or span of short side (m)

FOUNDATION
the lowest division of a building or other construction, partly or
wholly below the surface of the ground, designed to support and
anchor the superstructure and transmit its loads directly to the earth.
Footing
the part of a foundation bearing directly upon the
supporting soil, set below the frostline and
enlarged to distribute its load over a greater area.
Allowable Bearing Pressure
The maximum unit pressure a foundation is
permitted to impose vertically or laterally on a
supporting soil mass.
Active Earth Pressure
The horizontal component of pressure that a soil
mass exerts on a vertical retaining structure.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION (shallow)
1. STEPPED FOOTING – a continuous or strip footing that changes levels
in stages to accommodate a sloping site or bearing stratum
2. STRIP FOOTING – the continuous spread footing of a foundation wall
3. ISOLATED FOOTING – a single spread footing supporting a free

standing pier or column.
4. CONTINUOUS FOOTING – a reinforced concrete footing extended to
support a row of columns
5. COMBINED FOOTING – a reinforced concrete footing for a perimeter
column or foundation wall extended to support an interior column.
6. MAT – a thick, slab like footing of reinforced concrete supporting a
number of columns or an entire building. RAFT
7. CANTILEVER FOOTING – a reinforced concrete footing connected by
a tie beam to another footing in order to balance an symmetrically
imposed load, as at the perimeter of a building site. Strap footing.

98
TYPES OF FOOTING ILLUSTRATION

DESIGN OF FOOTING
(isolated type)
1. Solve for Pn.
2. Compute for
required footing
area.
3. Compute for qu
and qa.
4. Check “d” for
punching shear
5. Check for bending
6. Compute for steel
area requirement.
7. Check for required
development
length

DEEP FOUNDATION
A foundation system that extends down through
unsuitable soil to transfer building loads to a more
appropriate bearing stratum well below the
superstrucuture.
Pile cap
a reinforced concrete slab or mat joining the heads of a
cluster of piles to distribute the load from a column or
grade beam equally among the piles.
Pile
A long slender column of wood, steel, or reinforced
concrete , driven or hammered vertically into the earth to
form part of a foundation system.
Pier
A cast-in-place concrete foundation formed by boring
with a large auger or excavating by hand a shaft in the
earth to a suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft
with concrete.
Caisson
A pier esp. when the boring is 2ft. (610mm) or larger in
diameter to permit inspection of the bottom.
Engr. Manny Wendell B.

Amor, ARC Studio 101
Piles are commonly used for the following purposes:
purposes:
1. To carry the superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum. Both vertical and lateral
loads may be involved.
2. To resist uplift, or overturning, forces, such as for basement mats below the water table or
to support tower legs subjected to overturning from lateral loads such as wind.
3. To compact loose, cohesionless deposits through a combination of pile volume displacement
and driving vibrations. These piles may be later pulled.
4. To control settlements when spread footings or a mat is on a marginal soil or is underlain
by a highly compressible stratum.
5. To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes of vibration and
the natural frequency of the system.
6. As an additional safety factor beneath bridge abutments and/or piers, particularly if scour
is a potential problem.
7. In offshore construction to transmit loads above the water surface through the water and
into the underlying soil. This case is one in which partially embedded piling is subjected
to vertical (and buckling) as well as lateral loads.
Foundation and Analysis By Joseph Bowles

Engr. Manny Wendell B.
Amor, ARC Studio 102
PILE FOUNDATION P P P
Classification of piles as to:
A. Material
1. Timber Loose
2. Reinforced Concrete Soil Skin
Friction
3. Steel
c.
B. Installation a. b.
1. Bored or Cast-
Cast-in place P P
2. Driven or Pre-
Pre-cast
C. Use or Purpose
a. End Bearing Pile
b. Compaction Pile
c. Friction Pile e.
d. Batter Pile d. P f.
e. Uplift Pile
f. Fender Pile
g. Sheet Pile
Sand Pile
h.
h.
g.

PILE FOUNDATION
Definition of terms
Pile driver
A machine for driving piles, usually composed of a tall framework supporting
machinery for lifting a pile in position before driving, a driving hammer, and vertical
rails or leads for guiding the hammer.
Anvil
the component of a pile hammer, located just below the ram that transfers the driving
force to the pile head.
Driven Shoe
The hard, pointed or rounded foot of a pile caisson for piercing underlying soil.
Friction pile
A pile depending principally on the frictional resistance of surrounding earth for
support.
Sand Pile
A base for a footing in soft soil, made by compacting sand in a cavity left by a timber
pile.
Precast concrete pile
a precast, often prestressed concrete column, having a round, square or polygonal
section and sometimes an open core, driven into the earth by a pile driver until it
meets the required resistance.

PILE FOUNDATION
Batter Pile
A pile driven at a specified
angle to the vertical in
order to provide
resistance against lateral
forces.

RETAINING WALL
A wall of treated timber, masonry or concrete for holding in
place a mass of earth.
A retaining wall can fail by overturning, sliding or settling.
Also called as breast wall.
Active Earth Pressure
The maximum unit pressure a foundation is
permitted to impose vertically or laterally on
a supporting soil mass.
Passive Earth Pressure
The horizontal component of resistance
developed by a soil mass against the
horizontal movement of a vertical structure
through the soil.
Toe
The forward, lower tip of the base of a
footing or retaining wall, extended to give
broader bearing and greater stability.
TYPES OF RETAINING WALL
a) Gravity retaining wall
use up to about 10ft to 12ft in height, it is usually constructed with plain concrete and
depends completely on its own weight against overturning and sliding.
b) Semi Gravity retaining wall
for approximately the same range of height as the gravity walls (10ft to 12ft), it depends
on their own weights plus the weight of some soil behind the wall to provide stability.
c) Cantilever retaining wall
generally used for height from about 10ft to 25ft. Vertical walls termed as stem. The part
of the footing that is pressed down into the soil is called toe while the part being lifted is the
heel. The concrete and reinforcement so design to resist the soil behind the wall causing
overturning.
d) Buttress retaining wall
use up to about 20ft to 25ft in height, resisting moment is augmented
by a cross walls are visible (that is from the toe side).
e) Counterfort walls
use up to about 20ft to 25ft in height, resisting moment is augmented
by a cross walls behind the stem (inside the soil, not visible)
f) Bridge Abutment wall

Abutment may very well have wing wall extensions on the sides to retain the soil in the
approach are. Also supports the end reaction from the bridge.
107
ARC Studio
TYPES OF
RETAINING WALL
108
TYPES OF
RETAINING WALL

PRESTRESSIONING
Concrete reinforced by pretensioning or

posttensioning high-strength steel tendons within
their elastic limit to actively resist a service load.
The tensile stresses in the tendons are transferred
to the concrete, placing the entire cross section of
a flexural member in compression. The resulting
compressive stresses counteract the tensile
bending stresses from the applied loads, enabling
the prestressed member to deflect less, carry
greater load, or span a greater distance than
conventionally reinforced member of the same
size, proportion and weight.

PRESTRESSIONING
Tendons
A high-strength steel strands or bar for prestressing concrete.
Strands
A cable composed of high-strength steel wires twisted about a core
Abutment
A structure for anchoring the reinforcing tendons in the pretensioning of a
concrete member.
Anchor
A mechanical device for locking a stressed tendon in position and
delivering the prestressing force to the concrete, either permanently in a
post tensioned member or temporarily during hardening of a pretensioned
concrete member. Also called anchorage.
anchorage.
Jacking Force
A hydraulic device for stretching and stressing tendons in the prestressing
of concrete member.

The PRESTRESS in a structure is influenced by
either of the two processes:
1. PRETENSIONING
To prestress a concrete member by tensioning the

reinforcing tendons before the concrete is cast.
The tendons are first stretched between two abutment
until a predetermined tensile force is developed.
Concrete is then cast in formworks around the
tendons and fully cured.
Finally, the tendons are cut ,and the tensile stress in
the tendons are transferred to the concrete through
bond stress.

1. PRETENSIONING

The PRESTRESS in a structure is influenced by
either of the two processes:
2. POSTTENSIONING
To prestress a concrete member by tensioning the

reinforcing tendons after the concrete has set.
Unstressed tendons are placed in between sheaths
(hollow ducts or conduits) before Concrete is cast in
formworks around the tubes.
After the concrete has cured, the tendons are clamped on
one end and jacked against the concrete on the other end
until the required force is developed.
The tendons are then anchored on the jacking end and
the jack removed.

2. POSTTENSIONING

Steel
◦ any of various iron-based alloys having a carbon (usually less than1% ) content less
than of cast iron and more than that of wrought iron, and having qualities of
strength,
strength hardness,
hardness and elasticity varying according to composition and heat
treatment.
◦ Modulus of Elasticity, E
Ranges from 193,000 to 207,000 Mpa
Value used for design is taken as 200,000 Mpa
◦ Unit Weight : 7,850 kg/m3
◦ Fy = 250 Mpa (ASTM A-36)
terms
a. Carbon Steel :
Ordinary, unalloyed steel in which the residual elements, such as carbon,
manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon are controlled. Any increase in carbon
content increase the strength and hardness of the steel . ASTM A-36, fy=250 Mpa
b. Mild Steel:
Steel:
A low-carbon steel containing from 0.15% to 0.25% carbon.
Also called as soft steel.
c. Medium Steel:
Steel:
A carbon steel containing from 0.25% to 0.45%.
d. Hard Steel :
A high-carbon steel containing from 0.45% to 0.85%.

Factor of Safety:
◦ The ratio of the strength of the member to its
maximum anticipated stress.
Method of Steel Design:

Design
1. WORKING STRESS OR ELASTIC DESIGN
2. INELASTIC OR PLASTIC DESIGN
3. LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)
is a method of proportioning structural elements
using load and resistance factors such that no applicable
limit state is reached when the structure is subjected to
all appropriate load combination. The term “LRFD” is
used in the design of steel and wood structures.

STRAIN-
stress for which a
elastic deformations
RUPTURE
YIELD POINT, fy
PROPORTIONAL
YIELD POINT
which the ratio of
stress to strain for occurs in a material without a
remains constant.
ELASTIC LIMIT ELASTIC LIMIT
deformation.
Structural Steel:
◦ Steel that is hot-rolled and cold formed in a variety of
standard shapes and fabricated for use as load-bearing
member or elements.
I-beam
A rolled or extruded metal beam having
a cross section resembling the capital
Pipe column letter I.
Flange -a broad ridge or pair if ridge
Box column
projecting at a right angle from the
edge of a structural shape in order to
strengthen or stiffen it.
Plate girder Web – an integral part of a beam that
forms a flat, rigid connection between
two broader, parallel parts, such as the
flanges of a structural shape.

Steel Shapes and Sections:
tf
◦ W-shape bf
A hot rolled structural steel section
having a H-shape with wide parallel d
flanges, designated by the prefix W tw
followed by the size and weight of the
member. Also called as wide flange.
W 410x100
◦ S-shape
having an I-shape with sloped inner
surfaces, designated by the prefix S
followed by the size and weight of the
member. Also called as American
Standard Beam.
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, S 380x74 122
ARC Studio
tf
◦ C-shape bf
having a rectangular C-shape with d tw
sloped inner flanges surfaces, designated
by the prefix C followed by the size and
weight of the member.
C 10x30
◦ M-shape
A hot rolled structural steel shape similar
tf
to but not classified as a W-shape, bf
designated by the prefix M followed by
the size and weight of the member.
These are wide flanges with thicker webs d tw
used as piles.
Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, M 410x100 123
ARC Studio
◦ T-shape tf
bf
from W,S, M-shape and having a T-
d
shape. It is designated by the prefix tw
WT, ST, or MT followed by the size and
weight of the member. WT 205x50
◦ L-shape
A hot rolled structural steel having an
L-shape, designated by the prefix L
followed by the length of each leg and
their thickness. t
L
Varies from equal leg angle, unequal
leg and double angle.
L 50x50x1.2 124
ARC Studio
terms:
◦ Plate girder
A steel girder built up from plates or shapes that are welded or
riveted together.
Cover plate -A plate fastened to the flanges of a plate girder to
increase its section modulus in areas subject to high bending
stresses.
Flange angle- one of the angle forming the top or bottom
flange of a plate girder.
Web plate – a steel plate forming the web of a plate girder.
Shear plate – a plate fastened to the web of a plate girder to
increase its resistance to shearing stresses.
◦ Box Girder
A Steel beam built up from shapes and having a hollow,
rectangular cross- section.

terms:
◦ Steel Column
A Column consisting of a single or built-up structural steel
section. The allowable compressive load on a steel column
depends not only on the area of the cross section but also on its
shape.
The slenderness ratio for a primary column should generally not
exceed 120.
For bracing and other secondary members, the S.R. should not
exceed 200.
◦ Box Column
A built up steel column consisting of a single or multiple
shafts rigidly connected by lacing or cover plates.
◦ Pipe Column
A section of structural steel pipe used as a vertical
support.

Tension Members:
Members:
◦ A component of a structure resisting tension loads along its
longitudinal axis.
◦ Among the many examples of tension members are the
bottom chords of roof and bridges trusses, certain web
members of trusses, steel cables supporting suspension
bridges and cable supported roofs, elevator cables, hangers
for stairwells and platforms, selected web members of
transmission and communication towers, ski lifts and other
similar applications:
Gross area
Ft = 0.60 Fy
Maximum Allowable Stress: Effective area

Fy = yield stress of steel Ft = 0.50 Fy
Fu = ultimate stress of steel
On Net area
Ft = 0.45 Fy

Compression Members:
In general, if a compression member supporting a
compressive load is sufficiently long, it is termed as
column.
column For shorter length, the member is called a
compression block.
block
Basis for classification is the slenderness ratio, L/r
L/r>60, Column
Where:
L/r<60, Short Column
Ixx and Iyy is
moment of
inertia about
Radius of gyration: its axis “x” and
“y” respectively
rx = Ix / A A = cross
ry = Iy / A sectional area

Compression Members:
In general, if a compression member supporting a
compressive load is sufficiently long, it is termed as
column.
column For shorter length, the member is called a
compression block.
block
AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS
Cc= 2π
2π2E/F
E/Fy NSCP/AISC Specs
When KL/r > Cc (long column) When KL/r < Cc (short column)
Fa = 12 π 2 E Fa = 1 – (KL/r)2 Fy
23 ( KL/r )2 2Cc2 F.S.
F.S. = 5 + 3(KL/r)2 - (KL/r)3

3 8Cc2 8Cc3
Types of Steel Columns
1. Strut of one or two angle (1.)
2. Starred angles
3. Latticed Columns (2.)
4. Rolled H-Columns
5. Built-up Columns
6. Top chord sections
(4.)
7. Column for bents (3.) (8.)
8. Battened Columns
d
ARC Studio (5.)
130
Flexural Members:
beams (frequently horizontal in position) are usually said
to be member that support transverse loads.
among the many types of beams are:
1. Girders - indicates a large beams into which smaller beams are framed.
2. Joists - these are closely spaced beams supporting the floors and roofs of
building.
3. Lintels - over openings in masonry walls (windows and doors)
4. Spandrels – supports the exterior walls of buildings and part of the floor
and hallways loads,
5. Stringer-
Stringer- beams in bridge floors parallel to roadways.
6. Floor Beams –beams perpendicular to roadways.
Criteria for Beam Section Selection:

1. Lightest Member
2. High Section Modulus @ x-axis

Web buckling and crippling
(a) Web buckling is due to a combination of large

d/tw ratio and large bending stress.
(b) Web crippling occurs at the junction of the
flange and web due to stress concentration in this
area, where compression is being transferred from
relatively wide flange to the narrow web.
tw
d
(b) (a)
The process of connecting metals by heating the two pieces
until they melt enough to fuse.
Welding process:
1. Electric Arc Welding – in which the welding heat is obtained
from an electric arc between the base metal and an electrode or
between two electrodes.
a) SMAW, Shielded Metal Arc Welding – use carbon dioxide and/or argon gas and suited for
field use. The metal welding rod is coated with flux,
flux which melts and covers the molten
metal, shielding it from the atmosphere.
b) SAW, Submerged Arc Welding - where powdered flux is automatically spread ahead of
electrode and completely covers the welding arc and also protects the new weld metal.
c) Flux-
Flux-cored Arc Welding - where the welding rod consists of a core of flux surrounded by
weld metal. This is used to facilitate continuous feeding of the electrode ad welding takes
place.
2. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) – uses oxyacetylene where a coil of

electrode wire is constantly fed to a holder as the electrode melts.

Slot Weld
Types of Welds:
◦ The two principal type: Plug Weld
1. Fillet weld – triangular in cross-section End Fillet T
and its placed at a right angle joint Weld
formed by the pieces to be connected.
2. Groove or butt weld – the ends are
butted together and welded. The
abutting edges may be smooth, flat
surfaces, or shaped to form a groove. Side Fillet
Weld
Other types: T
3. Plug weld – consists of filling with Back/ bead
weld metal a circular hole. weld
4. Slot weld – consists of filling with weld
an oblong hole.
5. Back/ bead weld – where two steel
members are pressed together to form T
a thicker plate and the two edges are
welded.
End Return

Classification of welds according to position:
1. Vertical
2. Horizontal
3. Overhead
4. Flat
Welding Rod
E 70 2 1
E – Electrode
70 – two or three digits specifying the ultimate tensile
strength (Ksi or Mpa)
2 – number indicating welding position
1 – all position including vertical and overhead
2 – flat and horizontal
3 – flat only
1 – digit indicating current supply: ac, dc, dc polarity, dc
reversed, polarity

FILLET WELDS
◦ Are triangular in shape with each leg in contact
along the surface of one member.
◦ Hypotenuse may be concave or convex shaped.
Weld face Applied shear stress:
leg throat fv = V / 0.707(L)(B)
root leg Where:

V= shear force (N)
CONVEX FILLET WELD L = size of weld/leg (mm)
B = length of weld
Fv = allowable shear
stress of 145Mpa for E70
on A35 steel
CONCAVE FILLET WELD
wood ⇒ log ⇒ timber

the tough, fibrous cellular-substance that makes
up most of the stems and branches of tress
beneath the bark.
Properties of wood:
wood
a. Hardness
This is measured by the compression which a piece of
timber undergoes when a weight is applied to it.
b. Flexibility –
The amount of piece will bend before breaking.
Softwoods are generally brittle while most hardwoods
are flexible.
c. Strength
d. Durability

Classification of Lumber:
Lumber
a. Yard Lumber
comprises the material less than 5” thick used for
general building purposes. Example: boards, siding, flooring,
studding, rafters.
b. Structural Material –
includes lumber 5” or more in thickness and width.
They are generally referred to as timbers.
timbers
Classified as:
I. Joists and planks – 2” to 4” and 4” wide or more
II. Beams and Stringer – 5” or more thick and 8” or more wide
III. Posts and Timbers – 5” x 5” and larger.
c. Factory and shop lumber

◦ Timber – Wood suitable for use as a building material
◦ Log – A length of trunk or large limb of a felled tree,
ready for sawing.
◦ Lumber – The timber product manufacturing by sawing,
resawing, passing lengthwise thru a planing machine,
cross-cutting to length and grading.
◦ Rough Lumber – Lumber that is sawn, edged and
trimmed, but not surfaced.
◦ Dressed Lumber – that is surfaced with a planing
machine to attain a smooth surface and uniform size.
◦ Air Dried – of a pertaining to lumber seasoned by
exposure to the atmosphere.
◦ Kiln Dried – pertaining to lumber seasoned in a kiln
under controlled conditions of heat, air, circulation and
humidity.

◦ Kiln Dried – of a pertaining to lumber that

has been dried to reduce its moisture
content and improve its serviceability.
◦ Nominal dimension – the dimension of
lumber before drying and surfacing.
◦ Dressed size – the dimension of lumber
after seasoning, from 3/8” to ¾” less than
the nominal size.
◦ Board Foot-
Foot a unit of quantity for lumber
equal to the volume of a piece whose
nominal dimensions are 12 in square and 1
inch thick. Bdft =bxhxL/12

◦ Solid Column–
Column a wood column consisting of
a single piece of solid-sawn or glued-
laminated timber.
◦ Built-
Built-up Column–
Column a wood column formed by
fastening or gluing cover plates of two or
more parallel planks.
◦ Box Column–
Column a Built-up column having a
hollow, square or rectangular cross-section
◦ Spaced Column –A wood column consisting
of two or more parallel members separated
at their ends and midpoint by blocking and
joined at the ends.

◦ Box Beam–
Beam a beam having a hollow,
rectangular cross-section made by gluing
two or more plywood or oriented
strandboard webs to sawn or laminated
veneer lumber flanges.
◦ Built-
Built-up Beam–
Beam a vertically laminated wood
beam made by fastening together two or
more smaller members by bolts. Lag screws
or spikes.
◦ Plywood – A wood panel product made by
bonding veneers together under heat and
pressure, usually with the grain at angle to
each other and symmetrical about the center
ply.

143
THANK
YOU
FOR LISTENING
Study more , Aim High and God Bless !!

This book/slides presentation is a compilation of materials,
information, photos, journals, books, internet, several reviews
centers and other sources of publications for the purpose of
further studying structures and structural engineering.
ArcStudio,
ArcStudio its offices, members and lecturers assumed no
liability whatsoever and do not claim any express or implied
authorship, patents relating to all contents found herein.
Some content herein may be claim by the rightful owners.
This material should be read with an open mind, studied
carefully, and critically analyzed. Errors and or corrections
should be immediately reported to ArcStudio.
ArcStudio
References:
◦ Estimates by Max Fajardo Jr.
◦ Design of Reinforced Concrete, 2nd Edition by J.C. McCormack
◦ Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete Design by DIT Gillesania
◦ Structural Engineering and Construction 3rd Edition by DIT Gillesania
◦ A visual Dictionary of Architecture ,2nd Edition by Francis D.K. Ching
◦ Strength of Materials, 3rd Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer / Andrew Pytel
◦ Structural Steel Design 3rd Edition by J.C. McCormack
◦ NSCP – National Structural Code of the Philippines (2001, 2010)
◦ ACI –American Concrete Institute, 318-08
◦ www.theconstructor.org

Tagalog-
Tagalog-English Construction Terms Tagalog-
Tagalog-English Construction Terms
Agwat distance Kagamitan equipment

Andamyo Scaffolding Kamada stockpile
Anggulo angle Kasangkapan apparatus
Anilyo stirrups Kasukat equal
Asero steel Katam planer
Asinta
Asin a hollow block laying Kilo truss
Asintado alignment Kinatatayuan site
Bakal iron Kola glue
Bakod na pader party wall Kostura grout
Balangkas framework Kubiko cube
Banghay diagram Kupola dome
Barakilan bottom chord Kuta parapet
Baras rod Kuwadrado square
Barena auger Kuwarto room
Bareta long pointed steel Dibisyong dingding curtain wall
rod for digging soil Dibuho design
Barote girt Desague downspout
Biga beam Entrada threshold
Buhos poured concrete Gilian girder
Kabilya reinforcing bar Gusali edifice

Tagalog-
Haligi column/post Palas na bubong roof decking

Hamba jamb Palatandaan land mark
Harapan ng gusali facade Palitada plaster
Hulog plumb bob Pamantayan standard
iskwala right angle Papilipit spiral
itunton mount Parapet parapet
Lalim depth Parilya foundation bars
Lapad,
Lapad, Lawak area Patayo vertical
Leebel level patungan pedestal
Listong Kahoy wood lath Pilarete vertical studs
Lupa ground Pilote piles
Luwang width Pindulo king post
Malapad at Pison roller
makapal na tipak slab Plano diagram
Paana na haligi footing Plano ng gawain working drawing
Pako nail Poste post
Pagdaragdag reinforce Pruportion proportion
Pagpapalas decking Pulgada inch
Pagpantay ng lupa grading of soil Pundasyon foundation
Palapag floors Pupuruhan to smoothen with pure
cement
Rampa ramp

Tagalog-
Rodela wood trowel Uri grade

Sahig flooring Yerong Galbanisado Galvanized Iron
Sala sala lattice
Senepa fascia Board/stair riser
Sepo girt plate
Sibi gable
Siruho tile joints
Surelas floor joist
Tabike siding
Tantiyahin estimate
Takip Silipan riser
Tahilan top chord, rafter
Tambak filling
Tibagin to demolish
Tirahan dwelling
Tisa tile
Tornilyo bolt, screw
Tubo de bajada downspout
Tulis point
Unang palapag ground floor

1. What are piles at an inclination to resist forces that are not critical?
a. Guide pile c. Slope pile
b. Batter pile d. Fender pile
2. Short pieces of wood that secure the purlins to the rafters or top chord.
a. joists c. bridging
b. studs d. cleats
3. What is a concrete beam placed directly on the ground to provide foundation for
the superstructure.
a. strap beam c. grade beam
b. gerber beam d. tie beam
4. The minimum bar diameter for longitudinal bars for columns is:
a. Ø10mm c. Ø16mm
b. Ø12mm d. Ø20mm
5. The section at which the moment changes from positive to negative is called:
a. neutral axis c. section of zero shear
b. inflection point d. maximum moment
6. The time required for the removal of a form works of a concrete footing:
a. 24 hours c. 48 hours
b. 36 hours d. 12hours

7. An S 380x74 steel section is a:
a. wide flange c. channel
b. I-beam d. angle
8. The separation of concrete materials in a fresh concrete mix as lighter materials
move up and heavier ones going down:
a. segregation c. honeycomb
b. efflorescence d. bleeding
9. Length of embedded reinforcement required to develop the design strength of
reinforcement at a critical section :
a. effective length c. embedment length
b. development length d. None of the above
10. The ratio of allowable stress to the ultimate stress of a material is:
a. Poisson’s ratio c. factor of safety
b. Stiffness ratio d. NOTA
11. The ratio of lateral to longitudinal deformation is called:
a. Poisson’s ratio c. factor of safety
b. Stiffness ratio d. NOTA
12. The gradual deformation of concrete under continuously applied load or stress:
a. fatigue c. relaxation
b. creep d. strain

13. The ultimate strain of concrete is:
a. 0.001 c. 0.003
b. 0.002 d. 0.004
14. A type of concrete floor system which has no beam:
a. flat slab c. two-way slab
b. one-way slab d. flat flooring
15. A method of concrete building construction in which floor (and roof) slabs are
cast usually at ground level and then raised into position by jacking:
a. lift construction c. conventional construction
b. left construction d. construction
16. What is method of analyzing indeterminate modular building frames by
assuming hinges at the center of beam spans and column height?
a. Cantilever method c. free body diagram
b. Moment Distribution method d. Portal Method
17. RCPC means
a. Rapid curing pipe concrete
b. Rust and corrosion protection cement
c. Rapid curing pre cast concrete
d. Reinforced concrete pipe culvert

18. Also known as Shear modulus.
a. Modulus of Elasticity c. Modulus of rigidity
b. Modular ratio d. Modulus of rupture
19. The maximum deflection of a restrained beam with concentrated load at midspan.
midspan
a. PL3/48 EI c. PL3/192 EI
b. PL3/386 EI d. PL3/8 EI
20. The principle used to locate centroid of lines, areas, and volumes:
a. Hooke’s Law c. Pythagorean Theorem
b. Poisson’s Ratio d. Varignon’s Theorem
21. The most efficient section to be used as steel beam:
a. W shape c. L shape
b. C shape d. structural zee
22. A wood planks is a piece of lumber that is:
a. 2” to 5” thick c. 6” to 8” thick
b. 5” to 7” thick d. 8” up thick
23. An anchor for a guy line, usually a beam, block, or other heavy item buried in the
ground, to which a line is attached.
a. dead load c. footing
b. deadman d. dead end
24. The National Building Code of the Philippine was promulgated into law by:
a. PD 1196 c. PD 1296
b. PD 1096 d. PD 1396
25. The process of producing metal shapes of a constant cross section by forcing the
hot metal through an orifice in a die by means of a pressure ram is:
a. die casting c. forging
b. extrusion d. NOTA
26. How is a 90 degree bend standard hook for concrete reinforcement constructed?
a. 90 degree bend plus 10db extension, at free end of bar
b. 90 degree bend plus 12db extension, at free end of bar
c. 90 degree bend plus 6db extension, at free end of bar
d. 90 degree bend plus 4db extension, at free end of bar
27. Spacing of main bars in slab shall not exceed:
a. 450mm c. both a and b
b. 3 times slab thickness d. NOTA
28. The maximum allowable bending stress of compact, hot-hot-rolled, and laterally
supported W shaped steel beams:
a. 0.45Fy c. 0.66Fy
b. 0.60Fy d. 0.75Fy

29. A mass of stones encased in a cyclone wire or interlinked placed on a sloping
ground in benches to prevent landslides and erosion:
a. riprap c. mole
b. groin d. gabion
30. A hard, brittle, inorganic substance , ordinarily translucent or transparent,
produced be melting a mixture of silicon, a flux and a stabilizer:
a. plastic c. glass
b. acetate d. marble
31. In column, the distance from the column centroid to the point of application of the
compressive load:
a. span c. moment arm
b. eccentricity d. effective length
32. What is a round, steel bolt embedded in concrete or masonry to hold down
machinery steel columns or beams, casting., shoes, bam plates and engine heads ?
a. retaining bolt c. anchor bolts
b. foundation bolt d. volt-in

1. b 11. a 21. a 31. b
2. d 12. b 22. a 32. c
3. a 13. c 23. b
4. c 14. a 24. b
5. b 15. a 25. a
6. c 16. d 26. b
7. b 17. d 27. c
8. a 18. c 28. c
9. b 19. a 29. d
10. c 20. d 30. c

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Prepared By: Engr. Manny Wendell B.

Amor, CE, RMP

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio -dAVAO 1

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 2

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 3

Structure – is that which is built or

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 4

Government Policies and Enforcements

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 5

Civil Engineer – is a professional engineer licensed

Structural Engineer – is a registered Civil

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 6

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 7

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 8

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 9

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 10

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 11

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 12

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 13

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor,

Other Minimum Loads

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 15

LOADS (NSCP sec 203)

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 16

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 19

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 20

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 21

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (WSD) is a method of proportioning structural

STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD is a method of proportioning structural

STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR Ø

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 23

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 24

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 25

Applied loads are

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 26

σ= P Where: σ = axial stress , Mpa

T r T r = radius of solid circular shaft

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 29

σf = Mc = M Where: σf = bending stress , Mpa

STRESS the tensile or compressive stress that develops to resist axial

COMPRESSION the act of shortening or state of being pushed together,

FORCE a force applied parallel to the longitudinal axis of a

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 31

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio

δ= PL Where: P = internal axial force, N

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor,

1. Simply supported beam

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio

5. Fully restrained beam

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio 37

3. Fix Support 4. Link Support

2. Uniformly Distributed Load W

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio

3. Uniformly varying Load

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor, ARC Studio

Engr. Manny Wendell B. Amor,

Io = bh3 Io = πd4 Io = bh3

1. Simply supported beam

M = wL2 y = 5wL4 M = PL y = PL3