Food and Nutrition

Don Ross

Oxford Book Company

Jaipur , India
ISBN: 978-93-80179-13-1

Edition: 2010

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 Contents

l. Diet and Health 1

2. Nutrients 51
3. Function of Food 83
4. Digestion and Absorption 132
5. Food Safety and Preparation 136
6. Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 142
7. Meal Planning 163
8. Dietary Guidelines 171
9. Nutrition for Pregnant Women 174
10. Infant Nutrition 177
II. Young Children and Toddlers 181
12. School Age Children 187
13~ Adolescent Nutrition 193
14. Adult Nutrition 196
15. People Living on Low Income 199
16. Nutrition for Senior Citizens 203
17. Vegetarian Diet 206
18. Food Production and Processing 208
19. Wheat 216
20. Fats and Oils 219
21. Sugar 224
22. Milk 230
23. Cheese 234
24. Dried Fruits and Vegetables 238
25. Chutneys, Pickles, Salted Vegetables and Sauces 244
26. Food Additive 252
27. Food Packaging 257
28. Principle of Cooking 260
29. Food Spoilage 262
30. Food Preservation 267
31. Cooking Methods 274
Index 283
 Chapter 1

Diet and Health

INTRODUCTION
The importance of diet to health, especially in the prevention and cure
of illness, is slowly becoming apparent. I endeavour to provide you with
more than the basic, and usually inaccurate information on diet and
nutrition. So whether you are a registered dietitian and want to brush up
on the immense amount of information, or whether you just want to find
out, for the first time what you should be eating, then this site is for you.
First I would like to talk about a very contentious word - diet. Many
people don't like using this word, when referring to their eating habits,
because they feel that it is humiliating to be on a diet. I am the opposite,
as I am always on diet. Whether underweight, overweight, sick or fit, diet,
by its Greek definition means the food eaten by an animal to maintain its
state of health. So, when I talk about a diet I don't mean that you must
necessarily lose weight, what I am referring to is the food that you should
generally be eating, be it to build muscles, put on weight, lose weight or
get rid of a cold.
This topic is as arguable as religion, politics and sex. There are always
many different 'Opinions relating to diet and nutrition. I am only going to
present facts on the subject of nutrition as affirmed by the mainstream
diet and nutrition world. The fallacies of the fringe will not be proposed,
although they have been investigated by myself, so I know what the
quacks are telling "Joe Public".
It has become apparent that the overconsumption of certain dietary
components is now a major concern to people in the Western World.
Foremost among them is the disproportionate consumption of fats,
sodium, and sugars, at the expense of foods that may be more conducive
to good health, such as foods high in complex carbohydrates and fibre
(vegetables, fruit, and whole grain products).
The usual approach of the orthodox medical circles, when dealing
with a disease, is to treat the symptoms with a remedy rather than
removing the cause. Yet, by following the dietary guidelines of the
2 Diet and Health
nutrition and health authorities, that have been proven with epidemiologic
studies to be scientifically correct, it is possible to achieve and maintain
good health.
Dietary factors playa prominent role in five out of the ten leading
causes of death for Americans. Thus, it is important to emphasize the
relationship of diet to the occurrence of chronic disease and to understand
how wholesome food is necessary for good health.
Foods contain nutrients essential for normal metabolic function. An
imbalance in nutrient intake or the consumption of harmful substances is
the underlying factor in many chronic diseases, such as coronary heart
disease, diabetes, obesity, and some cancers.
To acquire these nutrients we have to eat foods that contain them
and make choices about what foods shouldn't be eaten in excess. This is
diff\cult and requires a comprehensive research base and much effort
before it is possible to maintain good health.
Eating is a source of considerable pleasure and an important part of
our lives. It is not necessary to lessen this pleasure by following a healthy
diet plan. By knowing what nutrients are, how they relate to different
diseases, and how to make choices in selecting and preparing foods, it is
quite possible to feel good and enjoy life equally or more.
Better chance of Overcoming Obesity with
a Secondary Medical Diagnoses
Evidence linking diet and chronic diseases has become more firmly
established in recent years. In addition to obesity it is not rare for patients
to have a secondary medical diagnosis with some relationship to obesity.
Many health problems can be overcome by a successful weight loss
programme.
It is interesting to note that, in comparing results of a weight loss
programme, Medical Centre. Study from patients with multiple diagnoses
demonstrated better results, at I-year follow-up, than patients with obesity
and only one other diagnosis. Diets for these patients with multiple
diagnoses were more complex, but perhaps these patients felt more
concerned about their health and thus were more motivated.
Heart disease and cancer are the leading causes of death in the United
States. Healthful eating habits can help prevent those diseases. Studies
have identified three major risk factors for coronary heart disease:
smoking, hypertension, and elevated plasma or serum cholesterol. Other
studies have shown that quitting smoking, and reducing blood pressure
and blood cholesterol reduce the risk for heart disease. Thus, considerable
effort has been devoted to the modification of these risk factors.
Recently, the results of the Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary
Diet and Health 3
Prevention Trial prompted a nationwide effort to increase public
awareness of cholesterol and coronary heart disease and to encourage the
adoption of low-fat, low-cholesterol diets.
Table. Results at i-year Follow-up of Secondary Diagnoses.
Diagnosis No. Maintained Success
or lost weight
Obesity alone 15 13 87%
Diabetes 11 9 82%
High cholesterol 12 6 50%
Hypertension 9 4 44%
Back pain 5 4 80%
Coronary artery disease 4 3 75%
Pulmonary disease 1 1 100%
Diabetes & hypertension 5 5 100%
Hypertension & high cholesterol 5 4 80%
Diabetes & high cholesterol 2 1 50%
Hypertension & arthritis 2 2 100%
Hypertension and lower back pain 1 1 100%
Hypertension and coronary artery
disease 1 1 100%
To implement a cholesterol-lowering diet effectively, a patient must
acquire a substantial body of knowledge. The basic components of a diet
to lower blood lipids include reducing total fat, particularly saturated fat,
maintaining or increasing polyunsaturated fat and changing sources of
monounsaturated fat, decreasing dietary cholesterol, and increasing
carbohydrate and fibre.
In practical terms, this means that individuals must learn to identify
major sources of these macronutrients in foods available for their
consumption. It is not sufficient for patients to know that they must avoid
saturated fats and cholesterol. You need to be able to implement changes
when shopping, preparing food, or eating away from home. The
knowledge required to implement a cholesterol-lowering diet is outlined
as follows:
General knowledge: Understanding the relationship of blood cholesterol
and dietary factors. Processing realistic expectations regarding the effects
of diet. Knowing the effects of dietary lapses on blood lipids.
Understanding genetic influences on blood lipids.
Fats: Understanding the difference between saturated and
polyunsaturated fats. Knowing how to read product labels to determine
appropriateness of fat content. Possessing sufficient knowledge to interpret
ambiguous and sometimes misleading information on product labels, such
4 Diet and Health
as "may contain one of the following ... " or "contains no cholesterol" Gust
lots of saturated fats}.
Cholesterol: Understanding the difference between other fats and
cholesterol. Awareness of which foods are high in cholesterol, including
some awareness as to the amount of cholesterol present in various foods.
Fibre: Knowledge about which foods are high in fibre. Understanding
the importance of soluble versus insoluble fibre.
Cooking techniques: Ability to identify cooking techniques that are least
likely to contribute to high fat content in food. Ability to execute the
appropriate cooking techniques.
Eating in restaurants and Purchasing prepared food: Ability to recognize
which of a variety of food choices is lowest in fat and cholesterol and higher
in fibre. Understanding which questions to ask the food preparer in order
to make the best choices possible.
Eating is a social activity, and is one of the behaviours related to
cardiovascular disease that is influenced by the social environment.
Variability in blood lipids can also be attributed to the environment; there
is evidence that spouses' cholesterol and triglyceride levels are similar
and that husbands and wives consume similar quantities of eggs and
whole milk.
Table. Estimated Total Deaths for the 10 Leading
Causes of Death; l:nited States, 1987.
Rank Cause of Death Number %
Heart diseases 759,400 35.7
(Coronary heart disease) (511,700) (24.4)
(Other heart disease) (247,700) (11.6)
Cancers 476,700 22.4
Strokes 148,700 7.0
Unintentional injuries 92,500 4.4
(Motor vehicle) (46,800) (2.2)
(All others) (45,700) (2.2)
Chronic obstructive lung diseases 78,000 3.7
Pneumonia and influenza 68,600 3.2
Diabetes mellitus 37,800 1.8
Suicide 29,600 1.4
Chronic liver disease and cirrhosis 26,000 1.2
Atherosclerosis 23,100 1.1
All causes 2,125,100 100.0
* Causes of death in which diet plays a part.
The importance of including a patient's spouse or family in
counselling to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease has been
Diet and Health 5
recognized and has received some attention in the literature on weight
loss. Including a spouse or other partner is advocated in obesity treatment
programs. Although application to cholesterol-lowering diets is limited,
there is some empirical evidence that inclusion of the spouse facilitates
weight loss in the treatment of obesity.
Mere inclusion of the spouse as an observer may not be sufficient to
enhance treatment effectiveness and may even be counterproductive.
Spouses should be encouraged to assume an active role in assisting with
adherence to low-fat, low-cholesterol diets.
Coronary Heart Disease: Despite the recent sharp decline in death from
this condition, CHD still accounts for the largest number of deaths in the
United States. In 1985, illness and deaths from CHD cost Americans an
estimated $49 billion in direct health care expenditures and lost
productivity.
Stroke: Strokes occur in about 500,000 persons per year in the United
States, resulting in about 150,000 deaths. Approximately 2 million living
Americans suffer from stroke-related disabilities, at an estimated annual
cost of more than $11 billion.
High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): Hypertension is a major risk factor
for both heart disease and stroke. About 58 million people in the United
States have hypertension. The occurrence of hypertension increases with
age and is higher for black Americans (of which 38 percent are
hypertensive) than for white Americans (2 percent).
Cancer: More than 475,000 persons died of cancer in the United States
in 1987. During the same period, more than 900,000 new cases of cancer
occurred. In 1985 the total costs for direct health care and lost productivity
due to cancer was estimated to be $72 billion.
Diabetes Mellitus: Approximately 11 million Americans have diabetes.
In addition to the nearly 38,000 deaths in 1987 attributed directly to this
condition, diabetes also contributes to an estimated 95,000 deaths per year
from associated cardiovascular and kidney complications. In 1985, diabetes
was estimated to cost $13.8 billion per year.
Obesity: Obesity affects approximately 34 million adults in the United
States. Obesity is a risk factor for coronary heart disease, high blood
pressure, diabetes, and possibly some types of cancer as well as other
chronic diseases.
Osteoporosis: Approximately 20 million Americans are affected by
osteoporosis, which contributes to some 1.5 million bone fractures per year
in persons 45 years and older. The total costs of osteoporosis to the U.S.
economy were estimated to be $10 billion in 1983.
Dental Diseases: Although dental caries among children, as well as
some forms of adult periodontal disease, appear to be declining, the overall
6 Diet and Health
prevalence of these conditions imposes a substantial burden on Americans.
The costs of dental care were estimated at $21.3 billion in 1985.
Diverticular Disease: Because most persons with diverticular disease
do not have symptoms, the true prevalence of this condition is unknown.
In 1980, diverticulosis was accountable for some 200,000 hospitalizations.
In assessing the role that diet might play in prevention of these
conditions it must be understood that they are caused by a combination
of multiple environmental, behavioural, social, andgenetic factors. The
exact proportion that can be attributed directly to diet is uncertain.
Although some experts have suggested that dietary factors overall are
responsible for perhaps a third or more of all cases of cancer, and coronary
heart disease, such suggestions are based on interpretations of research
studies that cannot completely distinguish dietary from genetic,
behavioural, or environmental causes.
Nonetheless, it is now clear that diet contributes in substantial ways
to the development of these diseases and that modification of diet can
contribute to their prevention. The magnitude of the health and economic
cost of diet-related disease suggests the importance of the dietary changes
suggested.
Clearly emerging as the primary priority for dietary change is the
recommendation to reduce intake of total fats, especially saturated fat,
because of their relationship to several chronic disease conditions. Because
excess body weight is a risk factor for several chronic diseases,
maintenance of desirable weight is also an important public health priority.
Evidence further supports the recommendation to consume a dietary
pattern that contains a variety of foods, provided that these foods are low
in calories, fat, cholesterol, and sodium.
Taken together these recommendations promote a dietary pattern that
emphasizes consumption of vegetables, fruits, and wittole grain products
- foods that are rich in complex carbohydrates and fibre and relatively
low in calories. And of fish, poultry, prepared without the skin, lean meats,
and low-fat dairy products selected to minimize consumption of total fat,
saturated fat, a(.ld cholesterol.
The evidence presented here suggests that such overall dietary
changes will lead to substantial improvements in the nutritional quality
of the diet.
The evidence also suggests that most people generally need not
consume nutrient supplements. Although nutrient supplements are
usually safe in amounts corresponding to the Recommended Dietary
Allowances, there are no known advantages to healthy people consuming
excess amounts of any nutrient, and amounts greatly exceeding RDAs can
be harmful. Toxicity has been reported for most minerals and trace
Diet and Health 7
elements, as well as some vitamins, indicating that excessive
supplementation with the~e substances can be hazardous.
Nutrition Fads and Frauds
The folklore and superstition of cultures throughout history have
attributed healing or harmful properties to certain foods. This tendency
has not disappeared with the advent of the sciences of nutrition and
medicine. Food folklore continues today, although in many instances it is
inconsistent with scientific evidence. .
Nutrition fraud is a comprehensive term us~d by the US Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) to describe the abuses that occur as a result
of the misleading claims for traditional foods, dietary supplements, and
dietary products and of the deceptive promotion of other food substances,
processes, and devices.
Food faddism is a dietary practice based upon an exaggerated belief
in the effects of food or nutrition on health and disease.
Food fads derive from three beliefs:
• That special attributes of a particular food may cure disease.
• That certain foods should be eliminated from the diet because
they are harmful.
• That certain foods convey special health benefits.
Food faddists are those who follow a particular nutritional practice
with zeal and whose claims for its benefits are substantially more than
science has substantiated.
Until Einstein's equation, E = mc, which may also be written Calories
= me is invalidated the only way to reduce weight (m) is to reduce the
amount of calories consumed (E). In other words, to lose weight it is
necessary to eat less calories each day than you burn up, and the only
way to gain weight is to eat each day more calories than you use.
Food quackery, which involves the exploitive, entrepreneurial aspects
of food faddism, is the promotion for profit of special foods, products,
processes, or appliances with false or misleading health or therapeutic
claims. A food quack is one who pretends to have medical or nutritional
knowledge and who promotes special foods, products, or appliances with
false or misleading claims, usually for personal financial gain.
Nutrition fraud flourishes today because of the diversity of cultures,
the historical tradition of concern for health and the use of natural
remedies, and the introduction of advanced communication technologies.
Food faddism has its roots in Great Britain, where patent medicines
were advertised and sold by everyone from hawkers to goldsmiths. In
the colonies, legal protection of consumers against fraudulent claims was
first recorded in Massachusetts Bayin 1630. Nicholas Knopp, was whipped
8 Diet and Health
and fined five pounds for selling a cure for scurvy that had "no worth
nor value" and was "solde att a very deare rate".
One of the earliest nutrition faddists was Sylvester Graham, a "back
to nature" reformer who was suspicious of any food altered from its
"natural" condition, such as white flour. His legacy continues among those
who question whether processed food of any type can provide adequate
nutrition.
Although, it must be noted that processed foods should not
necessarily be eliminated from a persons diet because of this belief, it is
true that without fortification the more a food is processed and thus differs
from its natural form the less nutrient dense it will be.
Some groups such as fruitarians actually go a step further, they don't
eat processed or cooked foods. The reason being that when a food is cooked
it is not able to be digested and becomes toxic. There is no scientific
evidence to back this argument to its fullest extent.
Popular interest in nutrition, coupled with concern about food
shortages during World War I, was fostered by the increasing promotion
of the health properties of foods in the early 20th century. Vitamins, by
the very nature of their discovery, became associated with the prevention
or cure of disease and were soon promoted as curative agents.
Today the travelling patent medical man has been largely replaced
by the highly skilled and organized use of electronic means to promote
fraudulent marketing - computers, customized mailing lists, national
advertisements, and other mass media. The medium and the details have
changed, but the message and the goals remain. It is difficult for consumers
to evaluate the validity of the health claims perpetrated by quacks and
faddists.
Purveyors of nutrition fraud capitalize on people's desire to be healthy
and on the lack of certainty in many areas of nutrition and health. No
writer for a lay audience has any special insights into nutrition which are
not known by a substantial part of the scientific community. Magic and
sensational diets are nothing more than exaggerations of one facet of
nutrition at the expense of another, often to the detriment of the willing
victims.
Regulation of Nutrition Fraud
The first Federal legislation, the Pure Food and Drug act of 1906, made
it unlawful to manufacture or introduce into interstate commerce
adulterated or misbranded food or drug products.
Currently, numerous Government, medical and consumer-oriented
organizations are responsible for preventing and controlling fraud. These
agencies work cooperatively, and their antifraud activities have become
Diet and Health 9
more visible in recent years. Private agencies and organizations such as
the American Dietetic Association, the American Cancer Society, the
American Medical Association, the National Council Against Health
Fraud, and other health professional groups are also active against food
fraud.
The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act empowers the FDA to
prohibit the introduction of any food, drug, device or cosmetic that is
adulterated or misbranded. Only factual and nonmisleading information
is allowed on food labels. Most false promotional claims, therefore, are
not made on labels. Instead, they appear in books, lectures, .and mass
media that are protected by constitutional rights. The FDA has the
authority to use its food additive and drug approval processes to control
food products allowed on the market and to remove fraudulent products.
Most fraudulent food products are classified as foods, but when
therapeutic claims are made for them, they are also considered to be drugs.
If a food product is also classified as a drug and is considered by the FDA
to b~ ineffective for its claimed use, it will not have an approved New
Drug Application. For example, if it is promoted for treating a disease
that is not amenable to lay diagnosis, it cannot have adequate directions
for use and will not be approved. .
Health Consequences of Fraud
Nutrition fraud may lead to deleterious health consequences, caused
by the failure to seek legitimate medical care, by potentially toxic
components of foods and products, by nutrient toxicities and deficiencies,
by diversion of monies from essential treatments, and by interference with
sound nutrition education.
Public health and safety can be jeopardized by false promises that
divert or deter individuals from pursuing sound forms of medical
treatment or that encourage them to abandon beneficial therapy for a
disease. Fraud may encourage people to reject legitimate medical advice
and to practice inappropriate self-medication that is less likely to be
helpful, and more likely to be directly harmful, than the medical
technology based on a sound understanding of human biology and
nutrition.
The FDAs annual reports document numerous instances of fraud-
induced failure to obtain appropriate health care. Because early detection
and treatment improve prognosis for many illnesses, unproven
"nutritional" therapies may unnecessarily delay beneficial intervention.
Some diet regimens recommended by health faddists to treat cancer, for
example, are so nutritionally deficient or toxic that adherence to them has
caused death or serious illness.
10 Diet and Health
Public injury can occur when foods and unproven remedies are toxic.
Just because a substance occurs naturally in food does not mean that it is
necessarily safe. Many of the chemicals known to be present in herbs have
never been tested for safety. Some plant foods contain potentially unsafe
pharmacologically active ingredients such as aflatoxin, one of the most
potent carcinogens known.
There has been a substantial increase in the use of herbal products
that contain -pharmacologically active ingredients that can possibly
produce undesirable effects such as an increase in blood pressure.
Occasional poisoniDgs and clinical intoxications are reported after the use
of herbal tea products. Ginseng, one of the most popular herbs, has been
reported to produce oestro-like effects in some people. From present
evidence, it cannot be concluded that all herbal products can be consumed
safely over extended periods of time.
Potentially harmful ingredients have been identified in samples of
other food supplements, such as an oestroic hormone in commercial alfalfa
tablets, arsenic in kelp tablets, and cadmium in dolomite have caused the
FDA to caution against use of these products, particularly by pregnant
women and children. .-
Frauds and fads may induce nutrienttoxicities or deficiencies. Many
people take vitamins as self-medication for the prevention or treatment
of health problems. The use of these products varies with such
demographic factors as geographic region, education, income, and race.
Women are more frequent consumers than men. Intakes range widely,
extending up to 50 times the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
for individual nutrients.
Nutrient supplements are usually safe in amounts corresponding to
the RDA, but the RDA's are already set to provide maximum benefit
consistent with safety. Thus, there is no reason to think that larger doses
will improve health in already healthy people, and excess intake can be
harmful. Mega-dose intakes can have seriously harmful effects. The
toxicity of high dosages of vitamin A and D is well established. Because
the margin is narrow between a safe and a toxic dose of most trace
elements, excessive supplementation with these substances may be
particularly hazardous.
Excessively restrictive dietary practices can also induce serious
medical problems or even death. Popular weight reduction products often
provide very low calorie intakes. Because such products have been
associated with the deaths of some young women, the FDA now requires
warnings on labels to alert consumers of such products.
Many popular diets are potentially harmful because they eliminate
food groups or severely limit food variety. Examples include those that
Diet and Health 11

drastically reduce carbohydrate intake, or advocate excessive fruit

consumption, and those that claim that a person cannot digest protein
and carbohydrates at the same time. This is not true, as can be seen in the
Chapter - The Digestive System, g.ifferent parts of the digestive tract deal
with different nutrients and will absorb those nutrients, besides most foods
usually contain both protein and carbohydrates (eg. legumes which are
often 50% protein and 50% carbohydrate).
Fad diets seldom produce long-lasting weight control. Highly
restricted diets, such as the more extreme forms of Zen macrobiotics, have
led to nutritional deficiencies, starvation, and even death in a few
individuals. Such diets have also been associated with retarded fetal
development and childhood growth or other nutritional problems in
young children.
Commercial interests have capitalized on a heightened public
awareness of nutrition and health issues, but much of the public cannot
evaluate the validity of available weight reduction schemes, supplements,
and services. Self-appointed health and nutrition advisors have expressed
distrust of proven public health measures such as fluoridation and
pasteurization and, instead, have promoted treatment alternatives that
are not supported by accepted medical practice. The public also may be
misled by extravagant claims of health benefits from the use of certain
foods or nutrient supplements.
Economic Consequences of Fraud
People experience economic injury when purported remedies and
cures do not work, are untrue, or are greatly exaggerated or when
purchased products are not needed. Fraudulent products are known to
be extremely profitable to those who sell them. Quackery has become big
business and costs the deluded consumers in excess of $10 billion a year!
Most fraudulent products and services can be very costly yet are
promoted as having nutritional or health benefits that have not been
substantiated in scientific literature.
A vast array of substances are available for a variety of different
purposes. some of them may even appear to work owing to the power of
the placebo effect - if you expect product X will make you feel better, then
it probably will. But these supplements must not be dismissed as placebos
in the sense of being inert pieces of chalk. These substances are what they
say they are, and many of them have powerful pharmacological effects
(though not necessarily those claimed for them). The dangers of
hypervitaminosis is an obvious example. The effects of excess quantities
of isolated amino acid supplements, minerals such as selenium and
substances such as ginseng have never been fully explored and may be
12 Diet and Health
no less hazardous. Even if consumed at a level which is not harmful, their
use is still undesirable:
In most instances they are unnecessary; either providing nutrients
which are surplus to requirements or supposed nutrients which are
probably not needed at all.
Furthermore, those who are most susceptible to health food claims
are perhaps those who can least afford to be.
Table. Health Food Supplements and Remedies
Product Reason foruse Comments
Vitamins To correct Surplus to requirements in most cases.
Minerals dietary Considerable dangers with over use
Kelp
Spirulina
Aloe vera
Vitamins - 813, To supply No evidence that suplements of these
B15, B17 "nutrients" are necessary. B17 (laetrile) has now
Flavonoids deficientina been banned from sale in the u.K.
Inositol normal diet
Selenium
Lecithin
Ginseng To restore Ginseng has certain pha~acologic
Honey vigour, induce effects although these are variable and
Kelp feelings of unpredictable. Extremely expensive.
Pollen well-being Problems with over-use have been
Bee's reported. May provide traces of
royal-jelly vitamins and minerals (at a price) but
Spirulina little in the way of magic
DNA and RNA Rejuvenation The body makes all the DNA andj RNA
and retard it needs. Dietary excess can cause
hyper-uricaea
Cider vinegar To "cleanse' the In the absence of severe liver of renal
Garlic body of toxins disease, the body is quite capable of
doing this for itself
Enzymes To aid digestion Cannot possibly actin this way. Are
or metabolism denatured on reaching the stomach and
then treated as any other protein
Spirulina As a slimming Claims that substances can bum up fat
Cider vinegar aid or stimulate metabolism are nonsense;
Honey if true obesity would be a thing of the
Lecithin past, Honey and Lecithin are significant
sources of calories
Diet and Health 13
Aloe vera As a cure for It should be noted that chronic
Green arthritis and disorders such as rheumatism and
lipped-mussel rheumatism. arthritis have periods of partial
Kelp remission in any case.
Herbal Healing A skilled herbalist may well be able to
remedies relieve minor ailments via the
pharmacologic effects of some plants.
But these effects can be powerful, and
some times toxic, indiscriminate use of
htese remedies by the uninformed can
be dangerous
The public incurs other costs because many products labelled as
"natural" or "organic" sell for higher prices than their "regular"
counterparts, although their special benefits are not generally
demonstrable. "Natural" vitamins often sell at double the price of synthetic
products even though they are chemically identical. In some products
labelled as "natural," only a minor fraction of the vitamin is actually
derived from natural sources.
What is also very difficult to understand is why more natural foods,
like whole wheat bread or unpolished rice, often cost more than their
refined counterparts, white bread or par-boiled white rice, that have
undergone costly processing and packaging which should make them
more, not less expensive.
Drugs Effecting your Health
Prescription drugs may interfere with nutrient absorption, digestion,
metabolism, utilization, or excretion. Similarly, both nutritional status and
diet can affect the action of drugs by altering their metabolism and
function, and various dietary components can have pharmacologic activity
under certain circumstances.
Drugs may act centrally or peripherally to decrease appetite or may
reduce appetite as a result of side effects. Drugs that act centrally include
catecholaminergics, dopaminergics such as levodopa for Parkinson's
disease, serotoninergics, and endorphin modulators such as naloxone.
Peripherally acting agents include those that inhibit gastric emptying, and
bulking agents.
The emetic centre, located in the brain stem, is easily stimulated by
the action of many drugs. Almost all drugs have the potential to alter
gastrointestinal function, causing nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and
constipation. Any drug causing nausea, especially alcohol, can decrease
appetite. For instance, it has been well documented that -digitalis toxicity
14 Diet and Health
leads to anorexia, nausea, weight loss, and wasting. Narcotics, analgesics,
and clofibrate are also commonly associated with nausea and vomiting.
Cancer chemotherapeutic drugs such as methotrexate have a strong
anoretic effect and can cause.gastroenterologic toxicity.
In additj.on, drugs may alter nutritional status, which in turn can result
in anorexia and weight loss. High doses of aluminum or magnesium
hydroxide antacids can cause phosphate depletion, leading to muscle
weakness, anorexia, and even congestive heart failure. Thiazide and
furosemide diuretics can cause sodium, potassium, and magnesium
depletion, resulting in anorexia and muscle weakness. Commonly used
folate antagonists include methotrexate, a cancer chemotherapeutic agent;
triamterene, a diuretic; trimethoprim, an antibacterial agent; phenytoin,
an anticonvulsant; and sulphasalazine, an anti-inflammatory agent.
Sulphasalazine and phenytoin are competitive inhibitors of folate transport
in addition to being folate antagonists. Folate deficiency can lead to weight
loss and anorexia. Penicillamine induces zinc depletion, which may cause
a loss of taste acuity and possibly decreased food intake. Alcohol abuse
also commonly results in deficiencies of thiamin, folate, vitamin B6' vitamin
A, and zinc.
Antacids
About a billion dollars is spent each year in the United States on
antacids, making these products among the most popular over-the-counter
(OTC) drugs. These tablets and liquids are gulped down for the relief of
heartburn, sour stomach, and indigestion. Antacids may also be prescribed
to treat stomach ulcers.
Although many consumers take antacids almost casually, these drugs
are not as harmless as they may seem. Antacids can effect the way other
drugs behave in the body. They can speed the absorption of some
prescription drugs, possibly causing an overdose, or slow it for others,
thus reducing their effectiveness. .
Because of concerns about known interactions between antacids and
other prescription drugs, FDA is proposing to change that label warnings
read:
"Antacids may interact with certain prescription drugs. If you are
presently taking a prescription drug, do not take this product without
checking with your physician."
Effects of Diet on Drug Metabolism
Dietary factors can decrease, delay or enhance the absorption of drugs,
primarily by altering their availability, their solubility, or the amount of
time they spend in the stomach or intestine. Calcium, for example, can
Diet and Health 15
bind tetracycline antibiotics and form a complex that renders both the
drug and nutrient unavailable. The acidity of the gastrointestinal tract also
affects drug disposition. A more acidic environment reduces the
bioavailability of penicillin and isoniazid but increases the absorption of
tetracyclines. Food decreases, delays, or enhances the absorption of certain
antibiotics.
Instructions to take drugs with or between meals, or the coating of
drugs to prevent dissolution, attempt to take advantage of these gastric
properties, but it is uncertain how well patients adhere to such instructions.
The effects of drugs are modulated by their rates of metabolism by
the liver and other tissues. Drugs are metabolized by two basic processes.
The first (Phase I) metabolic step is usually an oxidation reaction that alters
a functional group in the drug. This alteration may either activate the drug
or deactivate it. The second step (Phase II) conjugates the oxidized drug
to an inactive, water-soluble form that can be readily excreted.
The rate of drug metabolism by mixed-function oxidase systems can
be accelerated by the drugs themselves as well as by a variety of dietary
factors. Such factors include protein, cruciferous vegetables (broccoli or
cabbage), and charcoal-broiled meats.
On the other hand, low-protein, high-carbohydrate diets and
deficiencies of several vitamins and minerals reduce levels of drug-
metabolizin~ enzymes and consequently the rate of drug metabolism, so
that the drug concentrations may decline slowly. thus, in many cases the
net effect of nutritional deficiency is to increase drug potency.
Certain drugs can interfere with specific nutrients or non-nutrient
components in foods to cause acute adverse reactions. Such reactions can
be prevented by avoiding the foods when taking the medication. Examples
include interactions between monoamineoxidase inhibitors and foods
containing tyramine, and between alcohol and disulphiram,
hypoglycaemic agents, and many other drugs.
Effects of Pharmacologic Doses of Nutrients
Nutrients are sometimes used in unusually high doses for their
pharmacologic effect. Niacin, for example is used pharmacologically to
reduce blood cholesterol levels. Retinoid derivatives of vitamin A have
been used successfully to treat severe acne and other conditions.
All pharmacologic therapies induce side effects, and high-dose
nutritional therapies are no exception. Although excess water-soluble
vitamins are excreted and usually cause little difficulty, side effects have
been reported in cases of excessively high doses.
High dose niacin induces flushing, and neurologic symptoms have
been reported from excessive intake of vitamin B6 . Excessive intake of fat-
16 Diet and Health
soluble vitamins or their derivatives is well known to induce toxic
symptoms. Excess vitamin A, for example, causes birth defects in animals,
and possibly, in humans. Caution has been urged in its use for women
who are pregnant or likely to become pregnant.
Individuals who are born without the genes to produce key functional
enzymes may require amounts of certain nutrients greatly in excess of
those required by most people. Such inborn metabolic errors have been
identified for enzymes necessary for absorption, metabolism, or storage
of nearly all of the vitamins.
n some cases, higher than normal intake of the vitamin will restore
activity. A classic example of such a vitamin-responsive syndrome is
pernicious anaemia, a condition of impaired absorption of vitamin B12 .
Patients with this condition must have exceedingly high doses of the
vitamin from food supplements, or lower doses by injection.
In other conditions, certain metabolic products cannot be degraded
and, therefore, accumulate to toxic levels. In some cases, such disorders
can be treated with carefully designed dietary preparations having a very
low content of the poorly metabolized nutrient. An example of this type
of condition is phenylketonuria, a genetic lack of the enzyme that converts
the amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine. Patients with phenylketonuria
accumulate phenylalanine and other metabolites that at high levels, are
toxic and cause mental retardation and other neurologic damage. Dietary
treatment is designed to reduce the phenylalanine content of the diet to
levels below those that cause symptoms.
Treatment and Recovery from Chemical Dependency
It is the position of the American Dietetic Association that nutrition
intervention, planned and provided by a qualifiednutrition professional,
is an essential component of the treatment and recovery from chemical
dependency.
It is the position of the American Dietetic Association that nutrition
intervention, planned and provided by a qualifiednutrition professional,
is an essential component of the treatment and recovery from chemical .
dependency.
American consumers tend to be surprisingly conservative in their
responses to common illnesses. More than a third do not treat their
ailments at all, but they are becoming more knowledgeable about the
effects of Over-the Counter remedies.
;, The severity of malnutrition and the need for nutrition therapy in
addiction vary. Mind altering substances (eg. alcohol) are toxic to the body,
causing physical adaption, damage, and malnutrition.
Abuse of drugs accelerates nutrition needs beyond normal, so that
Diet and Health 17
even a well-balanced diet may be inadequate. Nutritional problems are
also caused by an increased nutrient requirement to detoxify and
metabolize drugs, inactivation of vitamins and coenzymes needed to
metabolize energy, inadequate nutrient storage in the liver, malabsorption,
poor utilization of nutrients, breakdown of organs, and increased loss of
nutrients through diuresis and diarrhoea.
Table. Estimated Sales of Over-the-Counter
Internal Medications (Millions of dollars)
Category of Medications 1982 1985 1990
Analgesics 1484 1844 2490
Cough, cold, allergy, sinus 1269 1659 2241
Digestive aids 1228 1393 1654
Motion sickness 25 33 43
Sleep aids/sedatives 41 50 66
Appetite suppressants" 229 280 350
Vitamins and minerals" 1031 1509 2176
$5307 $6768 $9020
Figures are for estimated retail sales through retail outlets.
Nutrition care is defined to include an elevation of the addict's
nutritional status at detoxification, supervision of nutritional rehabilitation
through delivery of palatable, nourishing meals and supplements that
encourage normal eating patterns, and provision of nutritional counselling
to help the addict develop an eating plan supportive of stable recovery.
Chemical dependence is a bio-psychosocial disease. Patients with a
compromised liver function have a narrow therapeutic window for iron
or fat-soluble vitamin supplements and may even be in a condition of
iron overload. Therefore the use of high-potency vitamin or mineral
supplements should be discouraged unless clinical evidence of nutritional
deficiency is present.
The majority of abusers have suppressed immune status, which is
compounded by an inadequate diet. Abusers exposed to the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are thus at greater risk for contracting HIV
infection. Unless rectified, a poor diet may be one factor in stimulating
propagation of the virus toward more severe stages of HIV infection.
If AIDS is diagnosed in the patient in treatment, nutrition monitoring
is essential. Adequate-calorie, nutrient-dense diets, with supportive or
aggressive supplementation if indicated, are essential.
Nutritional recovery is a component of the physical foundation for
rehabilitation that precedes healthy mental, emotional, and spiritual
recovery. Patients need to eat regularly and prudently. An eating pattern
that emphasizes complex carbohydrates, moderate amounts of protein,
18 Diet and Health
and conservative quantities of dietary fats and emphasizes balance,
variety, caloric appropriateness, and regularity will be conducive to
progress in recovery. A high-protein, high-fat diet has been reported to
increase the incidence of drinking.
The menu planner should recognize that the stay of the average addict
in treatment is lengthy. Food offerings should be designed to maximize
attractive appearance and palatability to stimulate appetite and
willingness to eat regular meals as well as to support general morale. The
patient should be encouraged to choose foods freely in a cafeteria or
family-style setting. Social interaction during mealtime facilitates
treatment goals of resocialization without drugs.
Substance substitution, such as the replacement of sugar, caffeine, or
nicotine for the drug of choice, often occurs during recovery.
Substance substitution compromises the quality of nutritional
rehabilitation and perpetuates the behavioural aspect of addiction. The
recovering addict needs to learn how to cope with substitution patterns.
Irregular meals, snacking, and consequent blood sugar fluctuations,
along with a stressful environment, may stimulate cravings that make the
reco';'e'ring addict susceptible to relapsing.
Addicts have been reported to believe that consumption of sweets
helped them maintain sobriety.
Eating disorders are common in chemically dependant women.
Current theories of addiction suggest that compulsive eating, like
alcoholism, is rooted in similar issues of codependency that form the
addictive personality. Eating disorders may Involve an addiction that
occurred long before alcohol or other drugs were abused. However, as
chemical dependency develops, the eating disorder may go into remission,
only to reappear during abstinent recovery. In other patients the abuse of
alcohol and drugs suchas amphetamine and cocaine alters normal appetite,
digestion, and metabolic regulatory systems, stimulating the development
of an eating disorder.
Nutrition counselling should include specific food-related emotional
issues. Self-esteem, responsibility, and socialization skills should be
addressed to change eating habits. Because the family is intimately
involved in the success of recovery, the family member involved with meal
preparation should also receive counselling to prevent the use of food as
a weapon of sabotage.
Besides the usual presentation of nutritional consequences of drug
abuse and food sources for nutrient needs, the dietitian should discuss
practical ways to handle stress and cravings, how to integrate healthy life-
style choices into daily recovery principals, weight management and
eating disorder risks, and avoidance of substance substitutions such as
Diet and Health 19
sugar, caffeine, and nicotine. The dietitian should also counter nutrition
myths touted in the popular literature and circulated among people.
Many debilitating nutritional consequences result from drug and
alcohol abuse. Chronic nutrition impairment causes serious damage to
the liver and the brain, which reinforces th\:! craving for more drugs and
alcohol, and perpetuates the phycological aspect of addiction. During
treatment efforts are concentrated on physical recovery, which prepares
individuals to function at a higher level in treatment - cognitivaly,
mentally, and socially.
Improved nutritional status can make treatment more effective, while
reducing drug and alcohol craving, thereby preventing relapse. Nutrition
professionals should take aggressive action to ensure involvement in
treatment and recovery programs. In addition they are encouraged to
participate in nutrition research activities to strengthen the knowledge
base in this area.
Table. Biological, Psychological, and Social Factors
of Chemical Dependence Disease.
Biological Brain and liver dysfunction caused by chronic alcohol and
drug poisoning.
Psychological Personality disorganization created by progressive brain
dysfunction (often alluded to as the addictive personality).
Social Secondary relationship problems that interfere with the
functioning and support systems at home, on the job, and with
friends.

Guidelines for a Healthy Diet

The Dietary Guidelines published by the USDA and Human Services
recommend that people maintain desirable weight, limit intake of fat and
cholesterol, and consume adequate amounts of starch and fibre.
Although these guidelines are developed by the US Department of
Agriculture and the Department of Health and Human Services for healthy
Americans, they have received the consensus by most authorities, and can
be used by *healthy people throughout the world.
*Healthy refers to people who do not suffer from malnutrition or any
other condition that requires a change in dietary guidelines or nutrient
allowances
People should focus on their total diet in a more positive way,
especially with respect to fat and cholesterol. Most people following a
Western type diet are consuming far too much fat and cholesterol, and
not enough carbohydrate and fibre.
The easy way to overcome this problem is to eat moderate amounts
20 Diet and Health
of foods from all the different food groups, and avoid dietary extremes
that include an excess of fatty foods, cholesterol, or sugars.
Eat a Variety of Foods
All foods that supply calories and essential nutrients, potentially, can
be included in an adequate diet. In some cases, certain groups of people
(eg. pregnant women, vegetarians) should eat foods to obtain a greater
amount of a particular nutrient (eg. calcium-rich foods, iron-rich foods).
But, when choosing a greater variety of foods from the different food
groups, choose low-calorie foods, especially for elderly persons and
persons who are sedentary or trying to loose weight.
No single food can supply all the nutrients in the amounts you need.
To make sure you eat all the nutrients and other substances needed for
health, choose the recommended number of servings from each of the food
groups displayed in the Food Guide Pyramid.
Maintain Healthy Weight:
A healthy weight is the weight a person should be to live a healthy
life, and reduce the chances of conditions that are associated with either
obesl'y or malnutrition caused from hunger and starvation.
"Too lean" is a health problem often found in young women, too
easily influenced -by the peer pressure of modern living. They strive to
loose weight even when they are under-weight.
A healthy weight can be calculated by considering body mass index
and waist-to-hip ratio.
If a person is over-weight, and this is not caused by a weight-related
disease, the importance of following one of the many weight reduction
strategies and the necessity to exercise and increase the amount of energy
expended, is paramount.
To maintain weight you must balance the energy in food with the
amount of energy your body uses.
Table. Body Mass Index Used to Define Desirable Weight and
Overweight for "Ideal" Reference Populations
Mean Overweight Severe Overweight
Men Women Men Women Men Women
22.0 21.5 26.4 25.8 30.8 30.1
Physical activity is an important way to use up food enelgy. To use
up dietary energy spend more time being physically active, like walking
the dog, and less time being inactive, like watching television.
Ratios of weight to height estimate total body mass rather than fat
mass, but they correlate highly with the amount of body fat. The most
Diet and Health 21
commonly used ratio is known as Quetelet's index, or the BMI, and is
usually defined as body weight in kilograms divided by the square of the
height in meters (wt/ht2)
A reasonable weight reduction programme should have a goal of Illh
to 1 pound per week. Loosing more than 1 pound a week is not
recommended, nor should drugs or other extreme means of weight
reduction be used (See chapter on Dietary Fads and Frauds).Extreme
approaches to weight loss, such as self induced vomiting or the use of
laxatives; amphetamines, or diuretics, are not appropriate and can be
dangerous to health.
Table. Lists Healthy Weight Ranges for Adults.
Height Weight (in Pounds)
4' 10" 91 - 119
4' 11" 94 - 124
5' 0" 97 - 128
5' I" 101 - 132
5' 2" 104 - 137
5' 3" 107 - 141
5' 4" 111 - 146
5' 5" 114 - 150
5' 6" 118 - 155
5' 7" 121- 160
5' 8" 125 - 164
5' 9" 129 - 169
5' 10" 132 - 174
5' II" 136 - 179
5' 0" 140 - 184
6' I" 144 - 189
6' 2" 148 - 195
6' 3" 152 - 200
6' 4" 156 - 205
6' 5" 160 - 211
6' 6" 164 - 216
The higher values in the weight r:ange apply to people with more
muscle and bone. Weights above this range are less healthy for most
people.
Choose a Diet Low in Fat, Saturated Fat and Cholesterol
As already stated, there is a need for people following a Western Diet
to reduce the amount of fat, saturated fat and cholesterol that they
consume. Only about 25 percent of calories should come from fats, and
22 Diet and Health
no more than 10 percent from saturated fats.
Risk for heart disease is increased among people with elevated blood
cholesterol levels. It is important to get your blood cholesterol checked
regularly. If blood cholesterol is above 5.2 mmol/L, follow the advice of
health professionals about diet and if necessary medication.
Fat, whether from plant or animal sources, contains more than twice
the number of calories as an equal amount of carbohydrate or protein.
Each gram of fat contains 9 calories. Some foods and food groups are
higher in fat than others. This guideline emphasizes the continued
importance of choosing a diet with less total fat, saturated fat, and
cholesterol.
Choose a Diet·with Plenty of Vegetables, Fruits and Grain Products
Foods that provide complex carbohydrates, dietary fibre, and other
components are linked to good health, mainly by lowering the fat content
in the diet. This guideline is consistent with the scientific evidence that
supports the health benefits of diets with more complex carbohydrates and
a variety of fibre-rich foods. Most of the calories in your diet should come
from grain products, fruits and vegetables.These include bread, cereals,
pasta, rice and potatoes. Dry beans are included in the meat group but can
also count as servings of vegetables. Plant foods are generally low in fats,
depending on how they are prepared and what is added to them. Fibre is
found only in plant foods. Eating a variety of fibre-containing foods is
important for proper bowel function and can reduce the risk of chronic
constipation, diverticular disease, heart disease and some cancers.
Use Sugars in Moderation
Sugars include all simple carbohydrates, such as sucrose, glucose and
lactose, and foods containing them such as candies, honey, and chocolate.
Sugars and foods containing them in large amounts supply energy
but are limited in nutrients. Furthermore, sugars and starches, which break
down in the mouth, can contribute to tooth decay. The importance of
fluoride and dental hygiene in the prevention of tooth decay is also
stressed.
Sugar substitutes do not provide significant calories and may be used
to reduce calorie intake. However, foods containing sugar substitutes may
not always be lower in calories than similar products that do contain sugar.
Unless you reduce the total calories you eat, the use of sugar substitutes
will not cause you to lose weight.
Use Salt and Sodium in Moderation
Sodium plays an essential role in regulating fluids and blood pressure.
Diet and Health 23
However many studies have shown that a high sodium intake is associated
with high blood pressure. Eating foods high in potassium helps to counter
the effects of high sodium consumption on blood pressure.
Using less salt and sodium than is normally used will benefit those
people whose blood pressure goes up with salt intake. Hereditary factors
as well as excessive drinking have also been shown to be related to high
blood pressure. Adults are encouraged to get their blood pressure checked
and, if it is high, to consult a physician about diet.
It is easy to reduce sodium intake by using less salt in cooking and
on the table, but when eating processed foods it is important to look on
the label for sodium substances, as these are used excessively in many
types of sauces and condiments.
If You Drink Alcoholic Beverages, Do So in Moderation:
Alcohol has no net benefit to health and is not an essential nutrient
in any way. If you can not avoid drinking, do so in moderation. One or
two drinks per day are not usually associated with health risks.
Inflammation of the pancreas and damage to the heart and brain are
some of the complications of drinking. Studies have shown that alcohol
is linked to risks of heart attacks, hypertension, haemorrhagic stroke,
cirrhosis of the liver, inflammation of the pancreas, violence, suicide, birth
defects and overall mortality.
Table. A Comparison of Recent Government Dietary
Recommendations for Some Nutrients
Surgeon General's Report on National Research Council's Diet
Nutrition and Health. and Health.
Fat and cholesterol
Reduce consumption of fat Reduce total fat intake to 30% or less.
(especially saturated fat) Reduce saturated fatty acid intake to
and cholesterol. less than 10% of total calories, and
intake of cholesterol to less than
300mg daily.
Energy and weight control
Achieve and maintain a Balance food intake and physical
desirable body weight. To do activity to maintain appropriate body
so, choose a diet in which weight.
caloric intake is consistent with
energy expenditure.
Complex carbohydrate and fibre
Increase consumption of Everyday eat five or more servings of
whole grain foods and a combination of vegetables and fruits,
24 Diet and Health
cereal products, especially green and yellow vegetables
vegetables (including dried and citrus fruits. Increase intake of
beans and peas), and fruits. starches and other complex carbohy-
drates by eating six or more daily ser-
vings of a combination of breads,
cereals, and legumes.
Sodium
Reduce intake of sodium by Limit total daily intake of salt ot 6gm
choosing foods low in sodium or less. Limit salt in cooking and
and limiting the amount of avoid adding it to foods at the table.
salt added in food preparation
and at the table.
Calcium
Adolescent girls and adult Maintain adequate calcium intake.
women should increase
consumption of foods high
in calcium, including
low-fat dairy products.

Calorie Requirements
In additibn to requiring a certain amount of nutrients, your body also
requires a certain amount of calories daily.
Total energy expenditure includes the energy expended in rest, in
physical activity, and as a result of thermogenisis.
These components, in tum, are affected by several variables, including
age, sex, body size and composition, genetic factors, energy intake,
physiologic state (eg. growth, pregnancy, lactation), coexisting
pathological conditions, and ambient temperature.
Table. Daily Calorie Allowance.
MEN WOMEN
Activity level Calories required
Resting 12 per lb. body weight 13 per lb. body weight
Sedentary 16 per lb. body weight 14 per lb. body weight
Light 18 per lb. body weight 16 per lb. body weight
Moderate 21 per lb. body weight 18 per lb. body weight
Active 26-per lb. body weight 22 per lb. body weight

• Resting Metabolic Rate represents the minimum energy needs

of the body, for day and night with no exercise or exposure to
cold.
• Sedentary includes occupations that involve sitting most of the
Diet and Health 25
day, such as office work and studying.
• Light includes activities which involve standing most of the day,
such as teaching or laboratory work.
• Moderate may include walking, gardening, and housework.
• Active includes dancing, skating, and manual labour such as
farm or construction work. ,
Using the chart you can determine the amount of calories you require
daily, depending on your activity level. For example a 130 pound male
waiter requires 2730 calories. (Moderate activity level 21 x 130 lb = 2730
Cal.)
The following table indicates the approximate number of calories used
by the body during a half-hour of the activity.
Table. Energy Expenditure
ACTIVITY ENERGY
(Kcal per 12 hours)
Badminton 220
Basketball 400
Cleaning 95
Cooking, active 110
Cycling, morderate 150
Disco 250
Driving 75
Gardening 150
Golf 170
Jogging 300
Marathon running 495
Sitting 45
Skiing (Nordic) 540
Sleeping 30
Squash 325
Studying 50
Swimming 300
Tennis 250
Walking 160
Watching Television 45
Metabolism
The person who can eat and eat and never gain a pound probably
does not exist, according to a recent US Department of Agriculture study.
The study should help resolve two conflicting schools of thought on
26 Diet and Health
whether a person's metabolism automatically gears up to prevent weight
gain when eating extra calories day after day. The findings show very
little change in metabolism.
For three weeks, seven men consumed 1000 kcal more each day than
they would normally eat. All of them gained weight, on average a A% lb
per day.
After the men stopped overeating, they dropped weight rapidly, even
though they were told not to diet. They unconsciously chose fewer calories
than they would normally eat, primarily by avoiding high-fat foods.
This supports the hypothesis that successful body weight regulation
might be associated with body fat and carbohydrate levels rather than by
a single factor such as total energy level. The men had plenty of fat
reserves, so they selected less fat.
While it's not uncommon for a persons' caloric intake to vary 1000
kcal from day to day, it's not easy to eat an extra 1000 kcal day after day.
The men consumed all the extra food they were given.
A greater potential for error lies in incorrectly estimating the number
of calories needed to maintain weight. It is very difficult to make an
accurate estimate. If researchers underestimate, then some of the "extra"
calories they feed the SUbjects are not really extra, and the subject does
not gain weight.
New Food Technology and Its Effects on Eating a Hhealthy Diet
Clearly, food and dining will mean different things in the future than
they do today. Because of an emphasis on diet and well-being, a need for
quick and convenient meals, and a surge in the synthetic food market.
The dietitian of the future faces uncharted challenges, including:
• The mounting concern among consumers over food safety issues,
ranging from fat substitutes to artificial sweeteners, may result
in unbalanced eating habits. Overall nutrition could be
compromised as consumers become issue-focused eaters and
unknowingly avoid nutrients that are essential to their well-
being.
• Nutritionists and dietitians will have to reacquaint the public
with the idea that food choices can be based on a search for
positive nutrition and taste values, not only on nutrient and
additive avoidance.
• As consumers become selectively educated about the nutrient
content of foods, they may adopt the "save and splurge"
approach to eating. That is, skipping meals or entries to "pig
out" on a favourite rich dessert. Moderation, balance, and variety
will emerge as the theme of the 1990s.
Diet and Health 27
• Nutritional labeling will become widespread as food
manufacturers bow to the health concerns of consumers and
respond to strong directives. Food processors and distributors
will find that products not labelled will become suspect.
Nutrition labelling will spur interest in nutrition and make
possible the tailoring of individual diets.
In the future, dietitians will have to keep up with a rapidly changing
food supply to meet the challenges of the marketplace. Because of the
extraordinary variety in food choices and eating habits that will be
possible, they will be in demand to individualize diets.
Fat and Cholesterol
According to the 1989 Prevention Index report on tl'ie nation's health,
only a small number of adults are conscious of all aspects of diet and
nutrition. One area of marked gain from previous reports is cholesterol.
Forty-eight percent of adults say they "try a lot" to avoid eating to many
high-cholesterol foods. And, nearly half of the households purchased low-
fat or low-cholesterol foods.
Table. Below Food technologies and Products Related to
Low-fat and Low-cholesterol Foods.
TECHNOLOGIES PRODUCTS
DAIRY
Simple substitution of low-fat mild Low-fat and/or low-cholesterol
for whole milk sour cream, butter spreads, ice
Ultrafiltration, a high pressure milk, yogurt and cheese.
microfiltration process.
Converting cholesterol to its
metaboloc by-products through
enzymes.
Supercritical fluid extraction, a
cholesterol removing process.
LIVESTOCK
Selection and breeding of genetically Reduced fat and reduced choles-
lean animals. terol fresh meat.
Hormonal treatment to induce
leanness.
Feeding practices to reduce total fat
and saturated fat.
Trimming visible fat to less than 1/4
inch.
28 Diet and Health
PROCESSED FOODS
Extrusion, a high temperature and Potato chips and peanuts with
high pressure cooking process. less oil. Luncheon meats made
Hihg-amylose, film-forming starch, with soy protein and casein
which reduces oil absorption in meat extenders.
fried foods. Cholesterol-free "eggs".
Steam stripping to remove choles- Low-fat, Low-cholesterol baked
terol from fats and oils. goods. Reduced-fat table spreads
Functional soy proteins and casein and salad dressings.
extenders. Tofu mayonnaise and dips.
Fat substitutes.

Fat Substitutes
Many new food products are being developed to replace the use of
fats in hot and cold foods. Simple pleasures is a frozen dessert made with
Simplese, the first fat substitute approved by the FDA.
Simplese is made from egg white and milk protein blended and
heated in a process called microparticulation, in which the protein is
shaped into microscopic round particles that role easily over one another.
The aim of the process is to create the feel of a creamy liquid with the
texture of fat.
NutraSweet estimates that the full use of Simplese has the potential
to decrease total dietary fat consumption by 14 percent and dietary
cholesterol intake by 5 percent.
Procter and Gamble's fat substitute Olestra is a different matter.
Developed for use in hot foods as well as cold, it is a new substance, that
according to the company, is "almost a carbon copy of regular fat, but
with a molecule of sugar at its core instead of glycerine."
Fat Substitutes
• Sucrose polyester or Olestra (by Proctor & Gamble Company),
A noncaloric fat replacement that is totally nonabsorbable.
Proposed uses include margarine, butter spreads, beverages,
baked goods, dressings and frying.
• Simplese (by The NutraSweet Company),
Based on milk and/or egg white protein, with only 1 calories
per gram. Simplese, recently approved by the FDA, can be used
in products that do not require cooking, such as dressings,
mayonnaise, margarine, butter, ice cream, dips and cheese
spreads.
• Trailblazer (by Kraft Inc.),
Made from "all natural ingredients", (specifics are unknown but
Diet and Health 29
it appears to be an egg white and skim milk derivative.)
Proposed uses include frozen desserts.

Sweeteners
The solution to balancing our tastes with our waists was thought to
be a large selection of low-calorie and reduced-calorie food products
containing artificial sweeteners. More than 78 million people use low-
calorie foods and beverages today, and they continue to generate demands
for new high-intensity sweeteners.
Table Below Food Technologies and Their Application
to Low-calorie Sweeteners.
SWEETENER PRODUCT
Aspartame and saccharin are Low-calorie carbonated soft drinks,
widely used today. milkshakes, juices, yogurt and
Acesulfame K is the latest non- reduced-calorie chocolate milk
nutritive sweetener to be appro- Unlike aspartame it can be used in
ved. Alitame may be among the baked goods.
next sweeteners to be approved Potential uses: beverages, baked
for use. It is a high intensity, goods, toiletries and
noncaloric sweetener (2000 x pharmaceu ticals.
sucrose). Chlorosucrose Potential uses: beverages, baked
(sucralose) may also be among goods, milk products, fruit spreads,
the next sweeteners to be toppings, tabletop sweetener.
approved. Cyclamate. Beverages, baked goods,
fruitspreads, tabletop sweetener.
Dietary fibre
Table Below Applications of Dietary Fibre Products with
Cholesterol lowering Characteristics.
PRODUCTS APPLICA nONS
Chitosan, a natural polymer found in High-energy food hars
shellfish and fungi, may have strong with multiple wources of
cholesterollowening activity when dietary fibre.
consumed at 8 to 15 mg per day. Oat bran breads, muffins,
Rice bran and rice bran oil can reduce and cereals.
blood cholesterol levels. They may taste High-fibre and whole-
better, cost less, and be more efficient grain crackers and breads.
than oat bran. Microwaveable, high-fibre,
Psyllium can also effectively reduce serum low fat snack pellets made
cholesterol. from grains and potatoes.
Psyllium cereals.
30 Diet and Health
Bowel cancer, elevated blood cholesterol and glucose levels,
constipation, and weight control are influenced by dietary fibre. The
number and types of products with extra fibre continue to proliferate.
Salt
Salt consumption continues to be a health issue, especially to those
who are prone to sodium-induced hypertension. The low-sodium market
is growing rapidly. Approximately 182 products introduced in 1987
featured reduced sodium content. There is also an increasing demand for
salt substances without sodium. According to Frost and Sulliva, the salt
substitute and "lite salt" category is a $40 million market, constituting
30% of the table salt sector.
Table Food Technologies and Products, and
the Development of Sodium Replacements.
TECHNOLOGIES PRODUCTS
Noninvasive tests to identify salt-sensitive Salt substitute with 30%
individuals are currently under develop- less sodium per teaspoon.
ment. Salt substitutes and replacers Sodium-free spices and
include: 1l1f2 potassium chloride herb mixes.
1l1f2 Magnesium chloride and calcium Low-salt canned luncheon
chloride meat.
'il1f2 L-ornithylaturine (a synthetic "salty" Low-sodium commercial
peptide that is sodium free) souds.
Reduced-sodium ham and
bacon.
Eating A Balanced Diet

Eating a balanced diet means eating a wide variety of foods. A

traditional way of getting a balanced diet has been to eat a certain number
of portions from certain food groups, as defined by the US Department of
Agriculture.
The five basic groups are vegetables; fruit; bread and cereal; dairy;
and meat, poultry, fish, and legumes (dry beans, lentils and peas).
It's recommended that you have four servings from the fruit and
vegetable group, and should include one good source of vitamin C each
day, such as citrus fruit, and a good source of vitamin A, usually deep-
yellow or dark-green vegetables. From the bread and cereals group, it is
recommended that you get six basic servings including some whole-grain
bread or cereals.
The recommended servings from the milk and cheese group vary with
age, the highest recommendations for teens and nursing mothers (four
Diet and Health 31
servings). Two basic servings from the meat, poultry, fish and bean group
are recommended. Then there's the sixth group: fats, sweets, and alcohol.
It's a group you want to avoid getting too many servings from. Foods in
this group have plenty of calories and not a fair balance of other nutrients.
Eggs, as a protein source, are included in the same group as meat,
poultry, fish and beans. One egg is considered a serving in that group. So
if you eat two eggs for breakfast you have obtained your recommendations
from the protein group and should have no more egg, meat, poultry or
fish that day.
Table Daily Food Choices
FOOD GROUP SUGGESTED ONE SERVING
DAIL Y SERVINGS
Breads, 6 - 11 1 slice of bread
Cereals, and • hamburger bun or
Grain Products english muffin a small roll,
biscuit, or muffin
2 large crackers
• cup cooked cereal, rice,
or pasta 1 ounce of ready-
to-eat breakfast cereal
Fruits 2-4 a whole fruit such as an
apple, banana, or ornge
a melon wedge a small cup
of juice
• cup of beries
• cup cooked or canned fruit
• cup dried fruit
Vegetables 3-5 • cup of cooked vegetables
• cup of chopped raw
vegetables
1 cup of leafy raw vegetables
(lettuce or spinach)
Meat, Poultry, 2-3 amounts should total no
Fish, and more than 7 ounces of
Alternatives cooked lean meat, poultry,
or fish a day
1 egg
• cup cooked beans
Milk, Cheese, 2 1 cup of milk
and Yogurt 8 ounces of yogurt
• ounces of natural cheese
2 ounces of process cheese
32 Diet and Health
The Importance of Diet to Health
The importance' of diet to health, especially in the prevention and cure
of illness, is slowly becoming apparent. We endeavour to provide you
with more than the basic, and usually inaccurate information on diet and
nutrition. So whether you are a registered dietitian and want to brush up
on the immense amount of information, or whether you just want to find
out, for the first time what you should be eating. This topic is as arguable
as religion, politics and sex. There are always many different opinions
relating to diet and nutrition.
Misleading Food Labels
With increasing consumer awareness of nutrition, and the influence
of nutrients on dietary related diseases, the need for accurate and
standardization of nutrition labeling is apparent.
The eating habits of Americans have changed extensively since the
turn of the century. Changes have occurred in the composition of foods
because of improved production methods, new varieties, and advances
in food processing.
The primary changes in the past 70 years have been an increase in
the percentage contributed by fats, oils, sugars, and sweeteners and a
decrease in the percentage contrtbuted by grain products. Although no
change has occurred in the amount of protein consumed, a greater
proportion now comes from animal sources. Dietary fibre is considerably
below the recommended level. In general, intakes of vitamins and minerals
are adequate in the United States today.
From a general marketing standpoint, it is readily apparent that
nutrition "sells" to today's consumer, making nutrition an integral part
of product development and promotion. Consumer feedback is a powerful
mechanism for manufacturers in developing new products that provide
the health and nutrition characteristics sought by the public. Food
marketers guard a product's front panel with fervour for the purpose of
promotion and competition, they oppose any labeling proposals that
threaten their control of this part of food packages.
Americans are increasingly aware of health risks associated with
sodium, fat, and cholesterol and report eating less salt, red meat, butter,
whole milk, and eggs.
Studies on the use of food labels reveal that consumers want
comprehensive nutrition information. About half of consumers report that
labels fail to provide all the information they desire and that more
information should be provided on caloric, fat, and sodium content.
Laboratory analysis provides quantitative nutrient information for
nutrition labeling of food products. Considerable improvement is needed
Diet and Health 33
to validate and standardize analytical m~thods for use in nutrition
labeling. Particular problems exist in the measurement of dietary fibre
and many vitamins, and in databases used for foods for which direct
laboratory analysis is impractical.
If consumers are to make the dietary adjustments recommended by
health experts, they must be able to make informed choices in food
selection, preparation, and consumption. Although about half of packaged
foods currently carry nutrition labeling, the lack of relevant and consistent
information on all food products is a major deterrent to consumers who
wish to make informed choices.
The Committee on the Nutrition Components of Food Labeling,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington D.C., recommends that
nutrition labeling be made mandatory on most packaged foods. There is
no longer a plausible excuse for packaged foods not to provide nutrient
information.
Current dietary recommendations advise consumers to modify their
intake of certain food constituents. In considering those dietary
recommendations, the committee believed that more categories of food
should be required to carry nutrition labeling. That nutrition labeling be
provided at the point of purchase for produce, seafood, meats, and poultry.
In addition restaurants should make information on the nutrient content
of menu items available to consumers on request.
Growing public interest in nutrition has led manufacturers to
characterize their products as nutritionally beneficial through widespread
use of principal display descriptors; this practice has drawn considerable
attention from regulatory bodies and groups concerned with health.
Despite the high popularity of terms such as "low-calorie", "fat free",
"no cholesterol", "fibre rich", and "lite", the potential for confusion,
exaggeration, and deception has prompted proposals that these descriptors
be prohibited. Although it may be truthful to label a food "no cholesterol",
that descriptor would mislead someone if the food also contains substantial
amounts of total fat and saturated fatty acids.
Nutrition information on food labels is a mechanism to provide
information and facilitate behaviour modification. The government should
allow the information to appear and regulate content, format, and
placement. Although information campaigns to promote health are
generally aimed at enhancing knowledge, changing attitudes, and
improving skills, changes in consumer knowledge and attitudes do not
directly result in adoption of health-promoting practices. Consumers need
information to make long-term dietary changes, yet more than just
information is necessary to achieve this goal.
Dietitians are the health professionals most involved in educatix:,g
34 Diet and Health
consumers about the use of food labels in selecting foods to meet dietary
goals. Most diet-related health problems develop gradually, without
immediate or dramatic symptoms. Risk factor reduction and disease
prevention thro~h dietary change require individuals to make long-term
and often arduous changes in food habits.
For the food industry, health professionals, and consumer groups, it
will be of interest in terms of their own objectives in promoting nutrition
labeling changes that are in line with current dietary recommendations
and in product development.
The rules of labeling are set out by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA). The following are excerpts from comments presented to the
Advisory Committee on the FDA's Subcommittee on Food and Veterinary
Medicine, on September 6, 1990, by Nancy S. Wellman, PhD, RD, President
of The American Dietetic Association. FDA needs independence from
politics, particularly in regard to rulemaking. FDA autonomy is essential
to its mission. It has been dismaying for dietitians to see rulemaking
proposals stalled and/or overturned as has happened in the past for health
claims, cholesterol, and various food safety issues such as food colors.
Food labeling is an example where FDA suffers from the lack of
overarching government-wide policy. FDA must be allowed to make
decisions independent of current Administration bias.
Dietitians believe Americans want a stronger, yet reasonable FDA -
an FDA in tune with the times, an FDA with the autonomy to fulfill its
mandate. The FDA must take a more contemporary, broader role in not
only safeguarding, but improving the nutritional status of Americans.
D's have seen FDA's stature diminish in the eyes of consumers
because food labeling reform is overdue. Labeling regulations have not
kept pace with contemporary food and nutrition science or with consumer
demand for more nutrition information. RD's use food labels in everyday
work as teaching tools to help consumers make life-saving or life-
lengthening food choices. RDs are, therefore, keenly aware of the
shortcomings of today's food labeling system.
FDA should use its range of legitimate justifications including public
safety, prevention of consumer confusion, and interstate commerce
concerns. No time resources should be devoted to determining who has
authority. Action should be the goal.
A comprehensive nutrition education programme will be needed to
educate consumers regarding the availability and appropriate use of
improved food labeling. FDA should work to maximize the impact of food
labeling reform on the nutritional status of Americans. A strong
commitment to nutrition education through resource allocation and
advocacy by FDA is essential.
Diet and Health 35
Food Labeling Legislation
The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1989, was the main food
labeling bill in the 10Ist Congress. The House passed it and the Senate
passed the same bill with some minor amendments.
The legislation includes the follo~ing:-
• Mandatory labeling is required for most foods under the
jurisdiction of the Food and Drug Administration but not those
covered by the US Department of Agriculture (Le .. meat and
poultry). The label would include:
Serving size, in standard, common household measures
Number of servings per container
Total calories
Total fat, saturated fat
Cholesterol
Sodium
Total carbohydrates, complex carbohydrates, and sugar
Total protein, and
Dietary fibre.
• The Secretary of Health and Human Services must provide
voluntary nutrition guidelines for fruits, vegetables and raw fish.
The guidelines will apply to 20 varieties of vegetables, fruit and
raw fish most frequently consumed during a year, and the
secretary will decide which foods will come under this
requirement.
• There are exemptions for foods sold in restaurants, infant
formula, foods with insignificant amounts of the nutrients
required to be listed on the label, such as spices, and some other
minor exemptions.
• It also addresses the issue of claims that may be made about
the nutrients in the food. First, content claims, such as "low
salt", or "light" would have to be consistent with terms defined
by the Secretary. Second, there would be a process for the orderly
regulation of disease claims such as "fibre. prevents cancer". FDA
would review the scientific evidence and decide whether a claim
is valid. A disease claim may not be made unless it is consistent
with a final regulation issued by the FDA. Also, a claim may
not be made if it is misleading in light of the level of another
nutrient in the food; it must be based on the totality of scientific
evidence on which there is significant scientific agreement.
• The Secretary will establish a system that evaluates the validity
of health claims for dietary supplements.
36 Diet and Health
• Some descriptors such as "light" or "lite" and "low" will have
standard definitions.
Cholesterol Labeling Rule
The Food and Drug Administration's final rule on Food Labeling:
Definitions of the terms Cholesterol Free, Low Cholesterol, and Reduced
Cholesterol, were published in the July 19, 1990, Federal Register.
Cholesterol Free
• Less than 2 mg of cholesterol per serving; and
• 5 gram or less total fat per serving; and
• 20% or less total fat on dry weight basis; and
• 2 gram or less saturated fatty acids per serving; and
• 6% or less saturated fatty acids on a dry weight basis.
Low Cholesterol
• 20 mg or less cholesterol per serving; and
• 0.2 mg or less cholesterol per gram food; and
• 5 gram or less total fat per serving; and
• 20% or less total fat on dry weight basis; and
• 2 gram or less saturated fatty acids per serving; and
• 6% or less saturated fatty acids on a dry weight basis.
Reduced Cholesterol
The American Dietetic Association (ADA) believes that the descriptor
"reduced cholesterol" should be removed from this regulation as it would
be misleading to the consumer. The average consumer could read the
"reduced cholesterol" label and think that, like the other terms used for
cholesterol, it also applies to foods allowed in a diet to reduce serum
cholesterol. The positive consumer impact from the use of this term is
negligible.
If this term is to be kept in the regulations, ADA believes its use should
definitely be conditioned to specific levels of total fat and saturated fat.
The purpose of this rule is to protect the consumer from misleading food
labels. If consumers are encouraged to reduce their cholesterol intake, but
not told to reduce their intake of total fat and saturated fat, the first advice
would be useless. FDA needs to be consistent in its application of
cholesterol terminology.
Comparative claims
The ADA endorses FDA's decision not to allow terms such as
"lowered" and "less" as food descriptors for foods with a 25 percent or
Diet and Health 37
more reduction of cholesterol. These terms can only be used in comparative
statements. Comparative claims should also be conditioned to specific
levels of total fat and saturated fat to maintain consistency in cholesterol
terminology.
Consumers need to learn to make comparisons among food products
when making purchasing decisions. Allowing manufacturers to make
cholesterol comparisons on labels would benefit consumers.
Fatty Acid Declaration
The FDA requires that saturated and unsaturated fatty acids be
declared in nutrition labeling whenever cholesterol information is
provided, regardless of whether a cholesterol claim is made on the
principal display panel. This is necessary to prevent consumer deception.
Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids
Voluntary differentiation of polyunsaturates into omega-3 or omega-
6 fatty acids is not allowed.· There has been little research done in this
area and it would have the potential for confusing the consumer.
Information on Cholesterol
The National Cholesterol Education Programme (NCEP) encourages
physicians to prescribe stringent dietary therapy of hyper cholesterolemia
for at least 6 months before initiating drug therapy. PhYSicians should
also be cautioned about premature use of hypercholesterolemic
medications: no known study has demonstrated decreased mortality in
recipients of such medications. Dietary therapy should strongly be
encouraged, and phYSicians should adopt mandatory referral to a
registered dietitian or other qualified nutrition professional before dietary
therapy is declared a failure and drug therapy is started.
Lowering cholesterol levels decreases the incidence of heart disease.
In fact, several studies have convincingly shown that adequate
hypercholesterolemic treatment can not only prevent CHD, but can also
reverse it. Recently these topics have been comprehensively reviewed.
Dietary therapy is the cornerstone of all hypercholesterolemic therapy,
and it has been estimated that 60 million adult Americans may be
candidates for dietary instruction.
Findings suggest that blood lipid cholesterol levels predict subsequent
mortality in men, especially those with preexisting cardiovascular disease.
Those with high blood cholesterol levels have a risk of death from
cardiovascular disease, including coronary heart disease, that was 3 times
higher than that for men with a desirable" blood cholesterol level.
U

Familial hypercholesterolemia carries a marked increase in the risk

38 Diet and Health
of coronary heart disease (CHD), but there is considerable variation in
susceptibility to CHD between individuals. Results indicate that an
elevated level of lipoprotein is a strong risk factor for CHD in these
individuals; the risk is independent of age, sex, smoking status, and serum
levels of total cholesterol, triglyceride, or HDL-cholesterol. The higher level
of lipoprotein observed in patients with CHD is the result of genetic
influence.
The efficacy of hypercholesterolemic dietS lowering cholesterol and
in some cases, in preventing CHD, has been convincingly demonstrated.
Such efficacy does depend, however, on the vigour which the physician
and dietitian support dietary therapy. Many physicians have declared
dietary therapy a failure without providing their patients with real dietary
advice and support.
Two factors that probably contribute to physicians disinterest in
dietary therapy are extensive advertising of hypercholesterolemic drugs
compared with the little advertisingof dietary therapy and patient
reluctance to alter diet and life-style. Getting patients to alter their life-
style is often a challenging task. A recent surveysuggests, however, that
the ~ublic is ready and able to embrace dietary therapy as the primary
solution to hypercholesterolemia.
To further facilitate dietary therapy, recent research suggests that
certain forms of fat (eg. fish and monounsaturated fatty acids) may be
hypocholesterolemic, especially if they replace saturated fatty acids in the
diet. Food technology is improving daily in palatably, removing fat from
items like cheese, chips, and crackers. Frozen yogurt has become a popular
replacement for ice cream. Fat substitutes, as they become available, may
also facilitate compliance with a low-fat diet.
Psyllium is an especially attractive hybrid intervention in that it is
well tolerated, lowers LDL-cholesterol by 10% to 20%, has no adverse
effects on triglycerides, high-density-lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or
serum glucose, and is readily available and fairly inexpensive. It has a
long history of use without any evidence of long-term adverse effects.
It is estimated that oat bran supplementation (90 gm per day) was a
much more cost-effective method of lowering serum cholesterol than either
cholestyramine or colestipol. In addition, high-fibre diets may decrease
risk of colon cancer, improve glucose tolerance, lower blood pressure, and
assist in weight loss.
Many physicians think that they or their staff can tell the patient
everything he or she needs to know about hypercholesterolemic diets by
issuing the usual, though imprecise, dietary admonitions (eg. avoid red
meat, whole fat dairy products, and egg yolks) and by photocopying a
few sample menus. Without explanation and reinforcement, the patient
Diet and Health 39
is unlikely to achieve the dietary goals. Even if the patient does reduce
intake of fat and cholesterol from the obvious dietary sources, he or she
may continue to eat other notable, but perhaps somewhat hidden, sources
of saturated fat (eg. baked goods, tropical oils, organ meats).
An additional advantage of dietary over drug therapy is that diet
simultaneously ameliorates several cardiovascular risk factors
(hyperlipidemia, hypertension, obesity, and diabetes) whereas drug
therapy usually deals with only one. In fact, drug therapy for one risk
factor often exacerbates another (eg. beta blockersfor hypertension may
increase serum lipids, and niacin may accentuate glucose intolerance).
Dietitians are the best-qualified health professionals to help patients
lower their cholesterol levels. With the impetus of the NCEP behind them,
RDs should be aggressively promoting their services to physicians and
the public, devising methods to obtain reimbursement, and making
themselves visible as the best-qualified authorities on diet.
The public is increasingly interested in dietary control of
hypercholesterolemia, as evidenced by the widespread media attention
devoted to cholesterol. A major, but clearly surmountable, obstacle is
inadequate referral to dietitians by physicians in their communities, about
their knowledge, skills and availability to counsel clients on the dietary
treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Via these mechanisms, dietitians will
become increasingly recognized as the best sources of nutrition
information, with ultimate benefit to the public.

Milk, Yogurt and

Cheese Group
2-3SerViogs

Fruit Group
2-4 Servings

Fig. Food Guide Py ramid

Info'rmation on Vegetarian Diets

"Nothing will benefit human health and increase chances for survival
of life on Ea rth as much as the evolution to a vegetarian d iet."
- Albert Einstein
40 Diet and Health
This site covers the nutritional and dietary guidelines presented by
the mainstream to the general population. So when vegetarian diets have
a direct effect on a persons state of health, it has been noted. For example
in the Vitamins chapter there is mention of the fact that a strict vegetarian
may need to supplement B12.
Although it is becoming more popular, either for moral or health
reasons, a vegetarian diet still seems to have a strange stigma attached to
it.
Hundreds of millions of people are vegetarian (eg. Hindus for
religious reasons); more health professionals are discouraging the
consumption of animal fats and red meats, that have been shown to
increase the chance of obesity, cancer and other diseases; and the
environmentalists who know that much of the limited resources, on Planet
Earth, are wasted by converting them to meat.
• It takes 2,500 gallons of water, 12 pounds of grain, 35 pounds of
topsoil and the energy equivalent of one gallon of gasoline to
produce one pound of feedlot beef.
~ 70% of US grain production is fed to live stock.
• 5 million acres of rain forest are felled every year in South and
Central America alone to create cattle pasture.
• Roughly 20% of all currently threatened and endangered species
in the US are harmed by livestock grazing
• Animal agriculture is a chief contributor to water pollution.
America's farm animals produce 10 times the waste produced
by the human population.
• There are sound reasons for health, ethically, and ecologically
to be vegetarian. There is nothing strange about being vegetarian.
Definition
Vegetarian, the belief in and practice of eating exclusively vegetable
foods and abstaining from any form of animal food.
To what extent this definition applies; in reality varies, what it refers
to is a strict vegetarian or a vegan.
Lacto-vegetarians include milk and other dairy products in their diet.
Lacto-ovovegetarians eat milk, dairy products and eggs. Those who eat
fish are not vegetarian.
A vegan, excludes animal flesh (meat, poultry, fish and seafood),
animal products (eggs, dairy and honey), and the wearing and use of
animal products (eg. leather, silk, wool, lanolin, gelatin). The vegan diet
consists totally of vegetables, vegetable oils, and seeds.
vegan 've-gen also 've-jen or -,jan \ n [by contr. fr. vegetarian] (1944)
: a strict vegetarian who consumes no animal food or dairy products; also
Diet and Health 41
: one who abstains from using animal products (as leather) _ veganism
've-ge-,ni-zem, 'va-ge-, 've-je- \ n .
Partial vegetarians exclude some groups of animal foods but not
others. A diet that excludes red meat but includes fish is often adopted
for health not moral reasons.
Zen macrobiotic diets. This is a Japanese way of eating based on the
'Yin Yang' theory. It aims to keep the balance between Yin and Yang
(positive and negative) aspects of life for optimal spiritual, mental and
physical welfare. Foods are divided into Yin and Yang, and a spiritual
goal is aimed for by working through ten levels of diet. These gradually
eliminate all animal produce, fruit and vegetables towards the final goal
which is only cereal (brown rice). Fluids are also severely restricted. Many
nutritional deficiencies may develop and death can result. Infants and
children subject to these restrictions are particularly at risk [Thomas et
al., 1988]
This is extreme, not all macrobiotic diets are so extreme and are often"
equivalent to a palanced vegan diet. It is important to eat as much variety
of food as possible and not limit it to one group of foods.
If you are vegetarian or want to become one, start off by giving up
one kind of animal food, the one that offends you most. Once you are
used to supplementing this food with another of vegetable origin, tackle
the next. Progressively reaching the level of vegetarianisim you desire,
slowly over a period of time. This progressive vegetarian is one who
changes their eating habits / lifestyle at a positive rate, by doing so you
allow your body to adjust to the eating of new types of foods or foods
that may have given you troubles before (beans). It also gives you time to
learn more about nutrition and increase your pool of knowledge on the
subject. Thus it is not a fad diet that you will give up the next day but a
progressive change towards a healthy lifestyle.
History
Vegetarianism is an ancient custom. It has long existed among certain
Hindu and Buddhist sects that consider all animal life sacred, and it was
advocated zealously by numerous philosophers and writers of ancient
Greece and Rome. In the Roman Catholic church, it has been practised
monastically by Trappists since 1666, and among Protestants more recently
by Seventh-Day Adventists. As iln active Western movement, it originated
in 1809 near Manchester, England, among members of the Bible Christian
Church. In 1847 the Vegetarian Society, a nonreligious organization, was
founded. The movement spread to continental Europe and the U.S. (1850),
and in 1908 the International Vegetarian Union was founded. Today the
union holds congresses every two years in different countries.
42 Diet and Health
Vegetarian Arguments
Although vegetarianism originated as a religious or ethical practice,
it has also gained acceptance among many for aesthetic, nutritional, and
economic reasons. Humanitarian vegetarians refuse meat because they
believe that the killing of animals is unnecessary or cruel, or that such a
practice can conceivably lead to a disregard for human life; the trades
that the slaughter of animals supports, such as butchering, are considered
degrading. People who adhere to vegetarianism for health reasons believe
that meat is harmful to the human body and that a purely vegetable diet
is more nutritious.
Evolution
Some people believe that humans were originaly vegetarian through
the evolutionary process. It is not in the scope of this book to get into a
complex discussion of evolution, but here are a few background notes
covering the subject
Primates evolved from ancestral mammals more than 60 million years
ago, during the Palaeocene Era. The first known primates resembled small
rodents or tree shrew. Like tree shrews, they probably had huge appetites
and foraged at night for insects, seeds, buds and eggs on the forest floor.
The Hominids probably emerged between 10 million and 5 million
years ago, during the late Miocene. There appear to have been many
varieties of early hominids, but many had three features in common:
• Bipedalism
• Omnivorous feeding patterns
• Further brain expansion and elaboration.
Monkeys have long canines and rather rectangular jaws. Human teeth
are smaller and more uniform in length, and the jaw is bow-shaped. The
jaws and teeth became less specialized during the evolution of forms
leading to humans. Beginning with the earliest primates, there was a shift
from eating insects, then fruit and leaves, and on to a mixed diet.
pe, any member of the primate families Hylobatidae (the lesser apes),
which includes the gibbons (Hylobates), and Pongidae (the great apes),
which includes the orangutan, the chimpanzees, and gorilla. They belong
to the superfamily Cercopithecoidea, the Old World monkeys and apes.
Apes, or anthropoids, are distinguished from other primates by their
complex brains and hence intelligence, their large size, and their lack of
tails. They are mainly vegetarian but, except for the gorilla, occasionally
eat smCill animals.
Remains of skeletons from 4 million old australopiths were found.
They were transitional between the Miocene apes and later hominids.
Diet and Health 43
Unlike apes, their jaw was slightly bow-shaped. And their dentition
suggests that some were omnivores and others, vegetarians.
The omnivores were slightly built and the vegetarians, heavyset
hominids (genus Australopithecus and esp. A. robustus and A. boisei)
were heavily built, taller, and muscular, characterized by heavy molars
and small incisors adapted to a vegetarian diet. A. robustus had strong
jaw muscles and large, heavily cusped molars. This hominid may have
specialized in chewing seeds, nuts, and other tough plant materiaL
A.africanus was probably omnivorous. It's cheek teeth formed a
platform that could grind plants, but its incisors were relatively large, as
in the case for carnivores.
By about 2.5 million years ago, hominids started making stone tools
and are referred to as the" early Homo". Compared to the australopiths,
these "early Homo's", had a smaller face, more generalized teeth, and a
larger brain. This hominid apparently was a scavenger and gatherer of
plant material, small animals, and insects. And it may have been ancestral
to modern humans.
The Protein Myth
It is incredible how often a vegetarian is asked " ... so where do you
get your protein from?" Why is this such a major concern to the majority
of lay people and health professionals? When one considers all the healthy
benefits of a meat-free diet it is sad to see people responding with this
irrelevant concept. It would be like asking meat eaters where do you get
your carbohydrates from? Duh!
The question of protein intake has been raised so often with
vegetarians that it has become a depressingly boring subject. There is no
protein problem, studies consistently show that vegetarians and vegans
have a satisfactory protein intake. An extensive study of several thousand
vegetarian foodstuffs reveal that the following are good sources of protein:
One Cup of Food Grams of Protein
Pumpkin and squash seed kernels, roasted 74.8
soy Flour 47.0
Tofu raw, firm, prepared w/calcium sulphate 39.9
Almonds, blanched 29.6
Oats 26.4
Lentils cooked
Rice brown, long grain, raw 14.7
Chickpeas cooked 14.5
The 1993 position paper of the authoritative and respected American
44 Diet and Health
Dietetic Association summarized its views even more strongly: Plant
sources of protein alone can provide adequate amounts of essential and
nonessential amino acids assuming that dietary protein sources from
plants are reasonably varied and that caloric intake is sufficient to meet
energy needs. Whole grains, legumes, vegetables, seeds, and nuts all
contain essential and nonessential amino acids. Conscious combining of
these foods within a given, as the complementary protein dictum suggests,
is unnecessary.
Additionally, soya protein has been shown to be nutritionally
equivalent in protein value to proteins of animal origin and, thus, can
serve as the sole source of protein intake if desired.
Although most vegetarian diets meet or exceed the Recommended
Dietary Allowances for protein, they often provide less protein than
nonvegetarian diets. This lower protein intake may be associated with
better calcium retention in vegetarians and improved kidney function in
individuals with prior kidney damage. Further, lower protein intakes may
result in a lower fat intake with its inherent advantages, because foods
high in protein are frequently also high in fat.
So, how has this myth of deficiency arisen? Early research (circa 1914)
into protein consisted of experiments on rats. These animals were found
not to grow as quickly when fed plant protein as when given animal
protein.
Hence the idea arose that plant protein was second class, and animal
protein superior. There are a few reasons as to why this happens. The
weaning rat grows at as much faster rate than the human infant and thus
requires a much more concentrated source of nutrients, including protein.
Human breast milk, for example, contains about 7 per cent of caloric
content as protein, while rat milk contains 20 per cent protein.
If rats were fed solely human milk, they would not thrive. Using this
logic one could argue that human breast milk is an inferior protein source.
Obviously this is not true to humans. Humans are not rats, and results of
dietary studies on rat can therefore not be equated to humans.
The second 'protein myth' arose from an unexpected quarter, a book
written in the late 1960s which exposed the terrible wastes inherent in a
meat-centered diet.
Diet for a Small Planet sold over 3 million copies, and popularized
the idea of 'protein complementarity'.
Written with best intentions, its effect was to make plant sources of
protein again seem second class, unless carefully combined with each
other, and to make the whole subject of protein nutrition seem vastly
complex and fraught with danger.
In subsequent editions of the book, this mistake was corrected. But
Diet and Health 45
still the myth lives on, no doubt due in part to the zealous promotional
efforts of the meat industry.
The truth of the vegetarian diet is that if the proper amino acids are
eaten daily or over a few days there is no need to fear that vegetable protein
is inferior. Protein is protein and amino acids are amino acids whether
they come from a cow or a soy bean.
Guidelines for formulating nutritionally balanced vegetarian and
vegan diets
A wide variety of foods should be chosen from the following groups.
• Milk. 1 pint (children) 1 pint (adults) or other dairy products
(cheese or yoghurt). Strict vegetarians can use dairy substitutes
such as soy milk or tofu.
• Proteins. 2 - 3 portions daily of any of the following: pulses and
beans - in casseroles, stews and soup; nuts - in salads, rissoles
and roasts; T.V.P., tofu and other soy products - in casseroles,
stir fry and curries.
• Cereals. 3 - 5 portions daily of any of the following: bread,
breakfast cereals, rice, pasta, flour, crackers, or other cereals such
as millet, bulghar wheat, wheat grain and buckwheat.
• Fruit. 2 - 3 portions daily of: fruits, fresh, dried or juice. This
should include 1 serving of citrus fruit or juice daily.
• Vegetables. 2 - 5 portions daily, lightly cooked or raw, of a
variety that include both dark green leafy and root vegetables.
• Fats. Margarine and oils should be consumed as required. In
contrast to most of the population the diets of vegetarians and
vegans are naturally low in fat. It is therefore unnecessary to
restrict the amounts of fats and oils used in cooking or to
recommend the use of low fat spreads. Furthermore, some
vegetarians may need to increase their consumption of fats and
,;. j oils in order to meet their energy requirements.
Nutritional deficiencies can occur, particularly when an individual
decides to become vegetarian and simply stops eating meat or animal
products, without considering what can be eaten instead.
Vegetarian or vegan infants and children
Breast milk or modified baby milk should provide sufficient nutrients
for the baby until the age of 4 - 6 months. Solid foods should then be
introduced gradually. Vitamin drops should be given from the age of one
month to two yeals and preferably until five years of age.
If no foods of animal origin are to be eaten, either vitamin B12
supplement or a food fortified with vitamin B12 (soy milk) should be
given.
46 Diet and Health
Weaning at 4 - 6 Months
Foods should be introduced one at a time, and the quantities gradually
increased. Suitable first foods include:
• Baby rice and water or baby milk.
• Smooth puree of vegetables, ego carrots.
• Smooth puree of fruit, ego apple, pear or apricot.
If the baby is thirsty it can be given boiled cold water or very dilute
unsweetened fruit juice. No sugar or salt should be added to babies food.
Continue Weaning 5 - 7 Months
New foods can be introduced one at a time. Suitable foods include:
• Well cooked, pureed pulses, ego lentils and split peas.
• Pureed root vegetables.
• Pureed brown rice, brown rice flour and water or baby rice.
• Mixtures of pulses, vegetables and/or rice puree.
• Pureed stewed fruit or well mashed banana.
No sugar or salt should be used added to food and salt free stock
should be used in cooking.
At about six months the baby, under close supervision, can be given
wedges of apple, sticks of carrot or baked wholemeal bread to encourage
chewing. .
Some commercial baby foods are suitable for vegetarian or vegan
babies. These are fortified with some vitamins and minerals.
7 - 9 Months
The baby should still be having 1 pint of milk or equivalent each day.
If cows' milk is not taken, boiled goats' milk or a soy milk substitute may
be used, but not until the baby is eating a variety of other foods and not
without consulting a doctor or health visitor. Foods can now be minced
or finely chopped and new foods can be introduced. Suitable foods
include:
• Wholegrain breakfast cereals and porridge.
• Cheese (grated or finely chopped, cottage), yoghurts and eggs
(if eaten).
• Wholemeal bread.
• Brown rice.
• Well cooked pasta.
• A variety of vegetables.
• Fruit (grated, chopped or stewed, including cooked dried fruit).
• Tofu
• Pulses and beans - well cooked and mashed or pureed, given
with cereal food such as rice or bread.
Diet and Health 47
9 -12 Months
At this stage most babies will be eating three meals a day. Most of
the family's foods will be suitable and a wide variety of foods, flavors
and textures should be encouraged. However, spicy, fatty foods and whole
nuts should be avoided. At least 1 pint of milk or milk substitute should
be consumed daily.
In order to get the best nutritional value from foods, it is essential
that a mixture of foods is eaten at each meal.
Breakfast
Whole grain breakfast cereal
And milk or milk substitute
And wholemeal bread or toast and margarine.
lunch
Mashed bean stew and rice
or lentil and vegetable soup and bread
or mashed nut roast
And vegetables, cooked or raw
And fruit, yoghurt or milk pudding.
Dinner.
Wholemeal bread and margarine
And cheese, lentil pate or peanut butter
And vegetable or bean soup
And salad, vegetables
And fruit, yoghurt or milk pudding.
Planning Your Diet
The fact that more than 20% of the United States adult population is
obese presents a major public health concern. However, the failure to
follow through and maintain weight loss on their own, after termination
of counselling, makes the long-term success of weight loss programs
difficult to achieve.
Health professionals often assume that patients will dutifully comply
with recommendations simply because they are urged to do so. The
magnitude of noncompliance has been well documented. Adherence to
dietary programs is thought to be poorer than to medication regimens.
Dietary regimens are often restrictive, require changes in life-style and
behaviours, interfere with family habits and customs, and are of long
duration.
Weight control methods are considered a success if weight loss is
maintained without expense to overall health. A goal of any successful
48 Diet and Health
weight reduction programme is to promote permanent life-style changes.
The physical and psychological consequences of repeated weight
fluctuations may be more harmful than maintaining some degree of
overweight.
The ultimate goal of all weight loss programs is to reduce nutritional
risk factors associated with chronic diseases by increasing consumer
awareness of healthy food choices.
In 1992 over 49 million people were dieting. The National Council
Against Fraud estimates that quackery costs consumers between $25
billion and $50 billion a year - and nutrition fraud is the most common
type.
Therefore to identify a quality weight loss programme, and not to be
misled by a "fad diet", the following indicators must be considered:
• A variety of foods. Weight control programs should be
individualized to fit people's life-styles and food preferences.
Individualization diminishes feelings of deprivation, which lead
to discouragement, bingeing, and rebound weight gain - all
hallmarks of the yo-yo diet syndrome.
• Enough calories to maintain good health. Consuming less than
1200 kcal a day may result in loss of muscle instead of fat and
may compromise nutritional status as a result of deficient
nutrient intakes.
• Realistic weight loss goals. To lose body fat and not just water,
a maximum weight loss of 2 pounds per week is advised.
• Regular exercise. Especially as we age, exercise can be the key
to weight loss and maintenance of a desirable weight.
• Behaviour modification. Registered dietitians counsel people to
keep lost weight off by helping them alter their eating behaviour
and responses to foods for the rest of their lives.
Unfortunately, a current trend toward the view that a single food is
either a panacea or a poison is being gradually adopted by major health
associations. This "good foodlbad food" dichotomy ignores the consensus
among nutritionists that all foods can be compatible with health when
used in moderation as part of a balanced, varied diet.
Over the past decade people have become obsessed with the
nutritional value of the food they eat. Time and again, nutrition ranks
high among consumer concerns, along with food safety, convenience,
quality, and value. In the United States sales in the "healthy foods"
category accounted for $65 billion in 1985, but are expected to reach $98
billion by 1995.
Consumers are asking for specific information about which foods and,
in particular, which brands of packaged foods to choose from when they
Diet and Health 49

eat or purchase foods. For example the broad guideline to avoid to much
fat, saturated fat and cholesterol require specific behaviour
implementations that include:
• Eat more fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grain breads and
cereals, potatoes, rice noodles, dried beans, peas, and lentils.
• Choose low fat dairy products, including skim, 1%, and 2% milk,
low-fat cheeses, and low-fat yogurt.
• Choose lean meats, fish, chicken and turkey.
Very Low Calorie Weight Loss Diets (VLCD)
It is the position of the American Dietetic Association that while
VLCD's promote rapid weight loss and may be beneficial for certain
individuals, such diets have health risks and should be undertaken only
with the supervision of a multidisciplinary health team with monitoring
by a physician and nutrition counselling by a registered dietitian. Side
effects that have been associated with VLCD's are cold intolerance, fatigue, .
light-headedness, nervpusness, euphoria, constipation or diarrhoea, dry
skin, thinning of hair, anaemia, and menstrual irregularities.
Low Body Weight and Weight Loss
Excessive concern about weight may cause or lead to such unhealthy
behaviors as excessive exercise, self-induced vomiting, and the abuse of
laxatives or other medications. These practices may only worsen the
concern about weight. Excessive exercise may also affect hormone
production, increase the loss of calcium from the bones, and increase the
risk of fractures.
Low body weight and rapid unintentional weight loss are highly
predictive of mortality, especially in the elderly population. Weight loss
is frequently reported in elderly patients.
Acute and chronic diseases are leading causes of involuntary weight
loss. Whereas physical disease probably accounts for a majority of cases
of involuntary weight loss, psychiatric disorders such as dementia and
depression also may result in severe nutritional deficiencies.
Energy requirements decrease because of the lower basal metabolic
rate and reduced physical activity. These low energy requirements make
it more difficult for the elderly to obtain adequate amounts of required
nutrients. Health care professionals must monitor body weight in elderly
persons and carefully evaluate any cases of rapid, unintentional weight
loss to prevent further deterioration of health status.
Weight loss generally consists of both lean body mass and body fat.
Contributions of lean body mass and fat to total weight loss is a function
of body fat content. Excessive loss of lean body mass will result in skeletal
50 Diet and Health
and cardiac muscle wasting and loss of visceral protein. Because lean body
mass declines with age, elderly individuals who are at average or slightly
above average weight may be better able to tolerate weight loss that occurs
with aging or disease than underweight individuals.
It has been well documented that physical disease can lead to weight
loss. Disease may limit dietary intake or may alter physiological processes,
resulting in decreased nutrient digestion or absorption, increased nutrient
excretion, or increased nutrient requirements.
Cancer is the most frequently cited cause of involuntary weight loss,
and weight loss may occur during early stages of tumour growth before
other symptoms emerge. The anorexia of malignancy has been related to
taste alterations; changes in gastrointestinal tract contraction and secretion;
metabolic disturbances resulting in changes of circulating glucose, amino
acid, fatty acid, or lactic acid levels; changes in hypothalamic function;
and weakness leading to decreased motor activity.
In addition to cancer, gastrointestinal disease, uncontrolled diabetes,
and cardiovascular disorders such as congestive heart failure, alcohol
abuse, pulmonary disease, and infection are major causes of involuntary
weight loss. Less common, but still a cause of notable weight loss, is
hyperthyroidism.
Specific nutrient deficiencies and low nutrient intakes, which may
contribute to weight loss, have been documented in patients with
dementia. Deficiencies of folate, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, and vitamin
BI2 and electrolyte imbalance may impair cognitive function and mimic
dementia.
Some nutrient deficiencies that alter mental status may be present in
the elderly population. Altered mental states attributable to nutrient
deficiencies and weight loss can be corrected. Several studies have shown
that folate deficiency leads to confusion and signs of dementia in elderly
individuals, but can be reversed with appropriate supplementation. If
confusion and dementia caused by nutrient deficiencies are not diagnosed
and corrected, they may lead to even lower nutrient intakes and more
severe alterations in mental status.
 Chapter 2

Nutrients

Nutrients are substances derived from food during the process of

digestion. There arp three main groups of nutrients contained in food
which are needed by the body in differing amounts. They are
carbohydrates, proteins, and fat.
These major nutrients are needed by the body for growth, repair,
maintenance and energy.
In addition, the body requires fibre, vitamins and minerals which are
present in varying quantities in different types of food. Good nutrition
requires a balance of the right nutrients, that is, getting the proper amount,
or proportion, of each one.
Our diet should provide adequate amount of all nutrients to maintain
good health and physical efficiency.
Daily food intake should be such that of the total consumption, about
15 to 20% is protein, 40 to 50% is complex Carbohydrates and 20 to 30% is
fat.
Types of Nutrient
Macronutrients are defined in several different ways.
• The chemical elements humans consume in the largest quantities
are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
• The classes of chemical compounds humans consume in the
largest quantities and which provide bulk energy are
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Water and atmospheric oxygen
also must be consumed in large quantities, but are not always
considered "food" or "nutrients".
• Calcium, salt (sodium and chloride), magnesium, and potassium
(along with phosphorus and sulfur) are sometimes added to the
list of macronutrients because they are required in large
quantities compared to other vitamins and minerals. They are
sometimes referred to as the macrominerals.
The remaining vitamins, minerals, or elements, are called
micronutrients because they are required in relatively small quantities.
52 Nutrients
Substances that Provide Energy
• Carbohydrates are compounds made up of sugars.
Carbohydrates are classified by their number of sugar units:
monosaccharides (such as glucose and fructose), disaccharides
(such as sucrose and lactose), oligosaccharides, and
polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose).
• Proteins are organic compounds that consists of the amino acids
joined by peptide bonds. The body cannot manufacture some of
the amino acids (termed essential amino acids); the diet must
supply these. In nutrition, proteins are broken down through
digestion by proteases back into free amino acids.
• Fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached.
Fatty acids are unbranched hydrocarbon chains, connected by
single bonds alone (saturated fatty acids) or by both double and
single bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). Fats are needed to keep
cell membranes functioning properly, to insulate body organs
against shock, to keep body temperature stable, and to maintain
healthy skin and hair. The body does not manufacture certain
fatty acids (termed essential fatty acids) and the diet must supply
these.
Fat has an energy content of 9 kcal/g (-37.7 kJ/g); proteins and
carbohydrates 4 kcal/g (-16.7 kJ/g). Ethanol (grain alcohol) has an energy
content of 7 kcal/g (-29.3 kJ/g).
Substances that support metabolism
• Dietary minerals are generally trace elements, salts, or ions such
as copper and iron. Some of these minerals are essential to
human metabolism.
• Vitamin,s are organic compounds essential to the body. They
usually act as coenzymes or cofactors for various proteins in
the body.
• Water is an essential nutrient and is the solvent in which all the
chemical reactions of life take place.
Nutrients and Plants
The chemical elements consumed in the greatest quantities by plants
are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These are present in the environment
in the form of water and carbon dioxide; energy is provided by sunlight.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur are also needed in relatively
large quantities. Together, these are the elemental macronutrients for
plants, often represented by the acronym CHNOPS. Usually they are
sourced from inorganic (e.g. carbon dioxide, water, nitrate, phosphate,
sulfate) or organic (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins) compounds,
Nutrients 53
although elemental diatomic molecules of nitrogen and (especially) oxygen
are often used.
Other chemical elements are also necessary to carry out various life
processes and build structures; see fertilizer and micronutrient for more
information.
Some of these are considered macronutrients in certain organisms.
The acrqnym C. HOPKiN'S CaFe Mg (to.be used as C. Hopkins coffee
mug) is used by some students to remember the list as: Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Phos'phorus, Potassium (K), Nitrogen, Sulfur, Calcium, Iron (Fe),
and Magnesium (Mg). Silicon, chloride, sodium, copper, zinc, and
molybdenum are sometimes also included, but are in other cases
considered micronutrients.
Oversupply of plant nutrients in the environment can cause excessive
plant and algae growth. Eutrophication, as this process is called, may cause
imblances in population numbers and other nutrients that can be harmful
to certain species.
For example, an algal bloom can deplete the oxygen available for fish
to breathe.
Causes include water pollution from sewage or runoff from farms
(carrying excess agricultural fertilizer). Nitrogen and phosphorus are most
commonly the limiting factor in growth, and thus the most likely to trigger
eutrophication when introduced artificially.
Essential and non-essential nutrients
Nutrients are frequently categorized as essential or nonessential.
Essential nutrients are unable to be synthesized internally (either at all,
or in sufficient quantities), and so must be consumed by an organism from
its environment.
For humans, these include essential fatty acids, essential amino acids,
vitamins, and certain dietary minerals. Oxygen and water are also essential
for human survival, but are generally not considered "food" when •
consumed in isolation.
Humans can derive energy from a wide variety of fats, carbohydrates,
proteins, and ethanol, and can synthesize other needed amino acids from
the essential nutrients.
Non-essential nutrients can still have a significant impact on health,
whether beneficial or toxic.
For example, most dietary fibre is not absorbed by the human
digestive tract, but is important in digestion and absorption of otherwise
harmful substances. Interest has recently increased in phytochemicals,
which include many non-essential nutrients which may have health
benefits.
54 Nutrients
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are sources of energy for vital metabolic processes and
also are constituents of cellular substances such as nucleic acids, arid are
enzyme cofactors and structural components of cell walls and cell
membranes.
The digestive system breaks down the carbohydrates into simple sugars
and ultimately absorbs glucose into the bloodstream. Any excess glucose
is converted into glycogen which is then stored around the body. Thus
an excess of carbohydrates can lead to an increase in body fat and a gain
in weight.
Carbohydrates are conveniently classified into three major groups
polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates), monosaccharides and disaccharides
(simple carbohydrates).
Complex carbohydrates contain many more nutrients than simple
carbohydrates.
These complex carbohydrates, such as whole wheat bread, potatoes
and rice have a high nutrient density and are a good source of dietary fibre,
and sh0uld be a major ingredient in any persons diet. Between 55% and
75% of calories should come from carbohydrates.
They have a low fat content, but are usually consumed with meat,
cheese, oil or butter, all of which are very fattening. It is a good idea to try
and limit the amount of fatty foods and protein rich foods combined with
carbohydrates. For instance a pasta dish with a garlic, chili or tomato sauce
is far healthier than a similar pasta covered in a cream, cheese or meat
topping.
Simple carbohydrates are usually refined foods such as white sugar,
white bread or cola. These foods contain little else besides energy (ie.
empty calories). Any tood that does not have a large variety of nutrients
is considered to have a low nutrient density. Foods that have low nutrient
densities should be limited to small portions and only eaten as a special
treat if the bulk of your diet consists of nutrient dense, natural, wholefoods
(eg. bananas, fruit juice, nuts, granola, beans and green vegetables).
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are simple sugars (glucose, fructose, and galactose)
that do not need to be further digested to be absorbed. The most important
dietary monosaccharide is glucose, also called dextrose. It constitutes about
0.1 % of the blood of mammals and is essential to life. Glucose, either free
or combined with other molecules, is probably the most abundent organic
compound. It is the ultimate hydrolysis product of starch and cellulose.
Fructose, also known as fruit sugar, occurs free, along with glucose
and sucrose, in many fruits, vegetables, and honey.
Nutrients 55
Disaccharides
Are sugars formed from two monosaccharides. Ordinary cane sugar
(sucrose) is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose
monosaccharide units. Sucrose is the most important disaccharide, it
occurs in all photosynthetic plants where it appears to serve as an easily
transported energy source. Its two main commercial sources are sugar
beets and sugar cane. The juices, which contain about 20% sucrose, are
put through a rather extensive purification process to remove impurities.
Maltose is a disaccharide of two glucose molecules and is found in
beer and cereals. It is formed by the action of an enzyme from malt on
starch, further hydrolysis of maltose, catalyzed by the enzyme maltase
(from yeast) gives only glucose. Lactose is the sugar present in milk, human
milk contains five to eight percent and cow's milk, four to six percent. It
is composed of one molecule of glucose and one of galactose.
Polysaccharides
Starch, glycogen, cellulose and most types of fibre are polysaccharides.
Starch is the reserve carbohydrate in many plants and comprises large
percentages of cereals, potatoes, corn, and rice. Under the microscope, the
appearance of the granules of starch from these different sources varies
both in shape and size. Chemically, however, they are similar.
Complete hydrolysis of starch yields glucose but partial hydrolysis
gives maltose as well. Partial hydrolysis of starch transforms it into
dextrins, polysaccharides of smaller molecular weight than starch. They
are more readily digested than starch and are used, mixed with maltose,
in infant foods.
A dried mixture of dextrins, maltose, and milk is the preparation used
for making malted milk. Dextrins are sticky when wet and are used in
manufacturing mucilage (gum) for postage stamps and envelopes. In
laundries, starched materials become stiff and shiny due to the
transformation of the starch to dextrins by the heat of the iron.
When starch is ingested, it is hydrolyzed enzymatically in a stepwise
fashion. Initiated in the mouth by the enzyme amylase, present in saliva,
hydrolysis is continued by additional amylase in the pancreatic juices.
The maltose produced in this way is, in turn, hydrolyzed to glucose with
the aid of an enzyme present in the intestines. The glucose is absorbed
from the intestines into the blood and transported to the liver, muscles,
and other sites where it is converted to another glucose polymer, glycogen,
and stored.
Glycogen, the reserve carbohydrate of animals, is found mainly in
the liver and muscles. Glycogen helps maintain the proper amount of
glucose in the blood by removing and storing excess glucose derived from
56 Nutrients
ingested food or by supplying it to the blood when it is needed by the
body cells for energy.
Cellulose is the main structural material of plant life, being the chief
ingredient of cell walls of cotton, wood pulp, straw, com cobs, and many
other materials. Fibre includes a variety of carbohydrates and other
components.
The chemical linkages in starch and glycogen can be split by the human
intestinal enzymes, but those of polysaccharides found in fibre are indigestible,
although some fibre components can be broken down by enzymes released by
intestinal bacteria to short-chain fatty acids that can be reabsorbed.
Proteins
Proteins are the structural components of the body forming the basis
of cells, tissues and organs. They are a large group of organic compounds
consisting of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen atoms. Some contain
sulphur and phosphorus also. When the proteins are digested they break
down into smaller units called amino acids. Of the 20 basic amino acids
12 can be manufactured by the body and the rest, called the essential I

amino acids' must be obtained from food.

Proteins help to repair worn out or diseased tissues and to build new
ones. It is used in the formulation of hormone, enzymes, red blood cells
and antibodies. It also provides amino acids necessary for growth of fetus
in pregnancy and for the production of milk proteins during lactation.
Proteins are widely found in foods derived both from plant and animal
sources. Plant sources include beans, peas, pulses, whole grains, nuts and
oil seeds; while red meat, poultry, fish, milk, cheese, yogurt and eggs are
obtained from animals. Red meat is a good source of essential amino acids
and iron and is traditionally regarded as 'first class' protein. But too much
consumption of red meat may be harmful as it is a major source of
undesirable saturated fat. One can eat more fish or chicken without the
fatty skin instead of excess red meat. Vegetarians can obtain plenty of
both from plant sources, whole grain cereals and from low fat diary
products. A protein deficiency especially in infants and growing children
can cause growth retardation, severe wasting of muscle etc.
The dietary requirements of protein depend on age and physiological
state. A part of the dietary protein is utilised or wasted to meet the energy
requirements. So calorie intake should be adequate enough to meet the
protein need or its maximum utilisation, taking into account the above
factor.
Fats
Fats, oils, and waxes belong to the group of naturally occuring organic
Nutrients 57
materials called lipids. Lipids are those constituents of plants or animals
which are insoluble in water but soluble in other organic solvents.
Amongst the various foodstuffs, fats provide the body with maximum
energy (9 kcal per gram), approximately twice that for an equal amount
of protein or carbohydrates.
Lipids are concentrated sources of energy as well as structural
components of cell membranes. Everybody needs a certain amount of
dietary fat for normal body functions. When fats are digested, emulsified,
and absorbed, they facilitate the intestinal absorptioh and transport of fat
soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. They are also used to cushion and protect
the heart, kidneys and liver. In certain climates subcutaneous body fat
helps to insulate the body from the cold and prevent heat loss through
the skin. These functions can be met by a daily intake of 15 to 25 grams of
fat.
Lipids enter the body through the mouth and pass to the- stomach,
but are little affected by its acidic environment. They are absorbed
primarily in the small intestines, where they are emulsified by salts of the
bile acids and are hydrolyzed to fatty acids and glycerol by various water-
soluble enzymes (lipases). From the intestines, the hydrolyzed lipids enter
the bloodstream and are transported to other organs, mainly the liver, for
further metabolism. Ultimately the fatty acids may be degraded to carbon
dioxide and water to furnish energy.
There are many types of fatty acids, but they can be grouped into
three divisions - saturated fats, monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated
fats. Polyunsaturated fats consist of two classes, omega-3 and omega-6.
Saturated fats have a profound hypercholesterolemic (increase blood
cholesterol levels) effect. They are found predominantly in animal
products (butter, cheese and meat) but coconut oil and palm oil are
common vegetable sources. Saturated fat raises blood cholesterol levels
more than anything else in the diet, even more than dietary cholesterol.
Intake of monounsaturated fats in oils such as olive oil is thought to
be preferable to consumption of polyunsaturated fats in oils such as com
oil because the monounsaturated fats apparently do not lower high-
density-lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. Evidence for this belief is
derived primarily from metabolic ward studies of relatively short
duration. -
Unsaturated fats come primarily from vegetable oils (safflower, com,
soyabean, cottonseed, sesame, and sunflower oils), nuts and seeds,
although fish is a good source of unsaturated fatty acids. Most of the
essential fatty acids are found in unsaturated fat, so foods high in saturated
fat and cholesterol (animal fat, dairy products and eggs) should be eaten
sparingly.
58 Nutrients
Fats should make up only 10 to 25 percent of the calories (not weight)
in your diet. There is an overwhelming consumption of fats in the average
Western Diet, this has lead to a huge health problem among population
groups with a diet high in animal fats (ice-cream, chocolates, fast foods
and desserts). There are many diet related human disorders that are found
almost exclusively in the Western World, Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
and cancer of the colon, are a few of the more severe.
Cholesterol
Cholesteryl esters are composed of a single fatty acid esterfied to
cholesterol, in which the polar component is an alcohol.
Cholesterol is a major component of all cell membranes. It is required
for synthesis of sex hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D. It is also a
precursor of the steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex and
gonads.
Dietary cholesterol is found only in foods derived from animals (meat,
fish, poultry, eggs and dairy products); it is not present in plants.
Table. Sources of Dietary Cholesterol
Richest All offal, egg yolk, fish roes, mayonnaise and shell fish.
Moderate Fat on meat, duck, goose, cold cuts, whole milks, cream, ice
cream, cheese, butter and most commercially made cakes,
biscuits and pastries.
Poor All fish and fish canned in vegetable oil, very lean meats,
poultry without skin, skimmed milk, low fat yoghurt and
cottage cheese.
Cholesterol All vegetables, and vegetable oils, fruit (including avocados and
olives), nuts, rice, egg white and sugar.
The amount of cholesterol synthesized and metabolized by the body
is far greater than the amount usually consumed in the diet. It must also
be noted that in healthy people little correlation has been found between
the intake of cholesterol and blood cholesterol levels. Yet the level of
cholesterol in the blood is increased with high intakes of dietary saturated
fat and can be lowered by increasing the intake of linoleic acid and fibre,
which leads to a reduction of cholesterol absorption from the intestine
and an increased faecal excretion of dietary cholesterol.
There is some evidence indicating that other nutrients can lower blood
cholesterol levels. Choline emulsifies cholesterol thus helps to control a
build up. Inositol metabolizes fats and cholesterol. Vanadium inhibits the
formation of cholesterol in the blood vessels and aids in preventing heart
attacks. Zinc also helps to decrease cholesterol levels.
If you are on a cholesterol reducing drug, you will suffer a decrease
Nutrients 59
in the absorption of Vitamin A, thus needing to increase the amount
available in your diet.
The Food and Nutrition Board's Committee on Diet and Health
recommend that dietary cholesterol should be less than 300 milligrams
per day. •
Linoleic Fatty Acid
Linoleic acid is an omega-6, polyunsaturated fatty acid, can not be
produced by the body and must be consumed in the diet, it is thus an
essential fatty acid. A minimal adult intake of 3 to ,6 grams per day is
sufficient to prevent both biochemical and clinical evidence of deficiency.
It is important for maintaining the structure and function of cellular
and subcellular membranes. Linoleic fatty acid lowers cholesterol levels
in the blood and helps in the prevention of heart disease.
A, deficiency has been associated with scaly skin, hair loss, and
impaired wound healing in hospital patients.
The best natural sources are vegetable oils, wheat germ, sunflower,
peanuts, pecans, almonds, avocados and eggs.
Omega 3 Fatty Acids
Emerging research has suggested possible health benefits associated
with moderate increases in dietary alpha-linolenic acid, including, reduced
blood clotting tendency and reduced blood pressure. Data from the first
prospective intervention trial to investigate the effects of dietary fat, fish
and fibre, which was conducted in Cardiff, Wales, supported the idea that
omega-3 fatty acids have a positive effect on reducing mortality from
cardiovascular disease.
The principal sources of the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid
are salad and cooking oil, salad dressing, shortening, margarine and
products made from canola or soybean oils.
Vitamins

Vitamins are organic substances functioning to facilitate an essential

biochemical reaction necessary for growth, vitality and the normal
functioning of our bodies. We must obtain them from our diet or take
them in the form of dietary supplements, that are usually derived from
plant and animal products. Crucial to the definition of a vitamin is that
lack of it produces a specific deficiency syndrome, and supplying it cures
that deficiency.
It is almost impOSSible to sustain a healthy way of life by taking only
synthetic supplements and not following a good eating plan. Supplements
should be taken only with some nutrition knowledge or the guidance of a
60 Nutrients
nutritionist and dietitian. Many vitamins and minerals can be toxic if taken
in excess. Often there are sufficient vitamins in your diet, thus by taking
supplements toxicity may occur. Symptoms include hair loss, blurred
vision, bone pain, fatigue and headaches.
The best way of obtaining a healthy balance of vitamins is by eating
a large variety of different foods. One should try not to limit their diet to
a few delicacies. Tryout new dishes, be adventurous.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins. The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, 0, E,
and K. These vitamins are absorbed, transported, metabolized and stored
along with fat. The fat soluble vitamins function as regulators for specific
metabolic activity.
Water-soluble Vitamins. The water-soluble vitamins include vitamin
C, and those of the B-complex group: biotin, folate, niacin, pantothenic
acid, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin B6' and vitamin B12 . They function
mainly as coenzymes.
Vitamin Supplements
No data have yet been published to demonstrate that healthy people
eating a well balanced diet need any vitamin supplements. A well balanced
diet means that what one has eaten during the day should include a wide
variety of foods from each of the five food groups (fruit, vegetables, bread
and grains, meat and milk).
Except in pregnancy, where supplementation of certain vitamins may
be recommended, there are no reports of normal persons eating a well
balanced diet developing vitamin deficiency diseases. The proper role of
vitamin supplementation is in the treatment of deficiency in patients who
have inadequate intake, disturbed absorption, or increased requirements
because of an increased destruction or excretion.
Mega-dose therapy is the treatment with daily quantities of a vitamin
or vitamins substantially above the Recommended Dietary Allowances
(RDA) of the Food and Nutrition Board. The RDAs are the levels of intake
of essential nutrients considered to be adequate to meet the known
nutritional needs of all healthy persons.
Vitamins, like many other substances, may be toxic when taken in
large quantities. Large doses of nicotinic acid frequently cause flushing
and itching, liver damage, dermatoses, elevations of serum glucose
concentration and peptic ulceration may occur. Prolonged excessive intake
of vitamin D can cause anorexia, nausea, weakness, weight loss,
hypertension, anemia, hypercalcemia, irreversible renal failure, and death.
Vitamin E in large doses antagonises the action of vitamin A and also
causes headaches, nausea, fatigue, blurred vision, inflammation of the
mouth, chapping of the lips, gastrointestinal disturbances, muscle
Nutrients 61
weakness, low blood sugar, increased bleeding tendency, and
degenerative changes.
The comments that vitamin doses in excess of the RDA may produce
"optimal" health are pure speculation, unsupported by any facts in human
metabolism, and contradicted by the toxicity of vitamin and mineral doses
in excess of the RDA. "More is better" is a slogan, not science. More is
sometimes better, sometimes worse, but always costlier.
Vitamin A (Retinol, Carotene)
Vitamin A is fat soluble, it is an antioxidant and occurs in two forms
- retinol and carotene. The RDA [Food and Nutrition Board, National
Academy of Sciences - National Research Council- Recommended Dietaty
Allowances. ] for adults is 1000 micrograms RE (Retinol Equivalents. 1
RE = 1 microgram retinol or 6 micrograms carotene).
The allowances, expressed as average daily intakes over time, are
intended to provide for individual variations among most normal persons
as they live in the United States under usual environment stresses. The
RDA's given are the higher of adult males or females, for more precise
data refer to the RDA tables.
Because vitamin A and carotene exist in more than one chemical form,
and because they are not equally active, it is usual to give the name retinol
to the pure vitamin A. Thus the total vitamin A activity of a food, its retinol
equivalent, is determined by how much it contains of retinol, chemicals
very similar to retinol but not as active, and a range of carotenes also of
varying activity.
Vitamin A maintains the skin and mucous membranes. Promotes
growth, strong bones, healthy skin, hair, teeth and gums. Builds up
resistance to respiratory infections and shortens the duration of diseases.
It counteracts night blindness and aids in the treatment of many eye
disorders. Night blindness is an early symptom of a deficiency of vitamin
A:
In a dozen case-control and cohort studies, intakes of fruits and
vegetables containing carotenoids has been associated with a reduced risk
of lung cancer. In contrast little relationship has been found between intake
of preformed vitamin A (retinol) and this disease.
Available data thus strongly support the hypothesis that dietary
carotenoids reduce the risk of lung cancer, but the data also are compatible
with the possibility that some other factor in these foods is responsible
for the lower risk. The recommendation to eat a'varipty of fruits and
vegetables is reasonable, but leaves much to chance; if carotene is the
anticancer agent, intake of specific fruits and vegetables should be advised.
[Willett, W.C, Vitamin A and lung cancer, Nutrition Reviews, 48:201,
62 Nutrients
1990]. The best natural sources are green leafy vegetable tops, carrots, red
peppers, sweet potatoes, yellow fruits, apricots, fish-liver oil and eggs.
Vitamin A is one of the few vitamins in which excess produces definite
and severe effects.
Toxicpymptoms can occur with intake exceeding 100 000 IU's daily.
Hypervitaminosis A leads to loss of appetite, a dry, itchy skin often with
peeling, intense headaches and an enlarged liver. Recovery is fairly rapid
when intake is reduced.
Vitamin 8, (Thiamine)
Vitamin Bl is water soluble like all the B vitamins. It is easily lost and
must be replaced daily. The RDA for adults is 1.5 milligrams.
Thiamine prevents and cures beriberi, a disease of the nervous system.
It aids growth, maintains normal carbohydrate metabolism and nervous
system functioning. It helps alleviate stress conditions, anxiety and trauma.
The best natural sources are dried yeast, spirulina, whole wheat, oats,
peanuts, soybeans, green vegetables and milk.
This vitamin is not toxic, it is easily excreted from the body and not
stored. It is destroyed by heat, caffeine, alcohol and cigarette smoke.
Vitamin 8 2 (Riboflavin)
Vitamin B2 is not stored and must be replaced daily. The RDA for
adults is 1.7 milligrams.
Essential for normal cell growth, helps to metabolize carbohydrates,
fats and proteins. Benefits vision and eye fatigue, promotes healthy skin,
nails and hair. Eliminates sores in mouth, on lips and tongue.
The best natural sources are milk, yeast, cheese, sea vegetables, leafy
green vegetables, mushrooms, fish and eggs.
There are no known toxic effects. It is destroyed by light, alcohol and
'sulfur drugs.
Vitamin 8 3 (Niacin, Nicotinic Acid)
Niacin is a component of an enzyme and can be produced by the body,
some of the amino acid tryptophane is converted into niacin. The RDA for adults
is 19 milligrams.
It is necessary for a wide variety of body processes, reduces high blood
pressure, lowers cholesterol levels and prevents pellagra. Without niacin,
thiamine and riboflavin cannot function properly.
The best natural sources are lean meat, whole wheat, tuna, anchovy,
yeast, eggs, peanuts and avocados.
Niacin is not toxic but people with peptic ulcers or diabetes should
consult a doctor before taking supplements greater than 100 milligrams.
Nutrients 63
Vitamin 8 5 (Pantothenic Acid)
Vitamin Bs is known in other forms - Calcium Pantothenate and
PanthenoL The RDA for adults is 7 milligrams.
It is necessary for the utilization of other nutrients and maintaining
normal growth and development of the nervous system, as well as for
the metabolism of fat and sugars.
The best natural sources are fish, whole grains, wheat germ, green
vegetables and brewers yeast.
There are few known toxic effects, but very large doses have been
known to produce lack of co-ordination in movement and impairment of
sensation. It is destroyed by heat, caffeine and alcohoL
Vitamin 8 6 (Pyridoxine)
B6 has three metabolic forms pyridoxine, pyridoxal and
pyridoxamine. The RDA for adults is 2.0 milligrams.
It is essential in amino acid metabolism, is required for the absorption
of B12 and for the production of antibodies and red blood cells.
The best natural sources are bananas, brewer's yeast, wheat germ,
green and red peppers, nuts, molasses and eggs.
Intake should be increased with diets high in protein. Daily doses of
over 500 mg should be avoided. Doses over 2 g can lead to neurological
disorders. Food processing techniques, canning and alcohol can deplete
vitamin B6 •
Vitamin 8
'2 (Cyancobalimin, Cobalamin)
B12 contains mineral elements - cobalt. The RDA for adults is 2.0
micrograms.
Cobalamins are necessary for protein and fatty acid metabolism and
the production of red blood cells. It maintains a healthy nervous system
and improves concentration and memory.
The best natural sources are clams, oysters, beef, eggs and dairy
products.
It is not found in many plant products except certain soya products,
tempeh and sea vegetables. If you are a strict vegetarian you will need to
take B12 supplements. Although, people who have diets high in protein
need more B12. A deficiency can cause pernicious anemia.
B12 is not easily absorbed and needs to be combined with calcium for
proper absorption. It is destroyed by sunlight, alcohc.l and sleeping pills.
There have been no reports of B12 toxicity.
Vitamin 8
'5 (Pangamic Acid, Pangamate, Calcium Pangamate)
Pangamic acid has not had much research done on it in the USA, but
.I
64 Nutrients
has been approved in Russia and used by athletes to enhance performance.
Pangamic acid is a label not a product. The pills contain anything the seller
chooses to put in them.
The Food and Drug Administration contend that "B IS " is essentially
an untested food additive which is not generally recognized by the
scientific experts as safe for human consumption. Pangamate was
prohibited within Canada for almost two decades. Because of these facts,
any physician who prescribes it should first get informed consent from
his or her patients after informing them that it is not a vitamin, has no
known nutrient value, no known value in the long-term treatment of any
disease, that its safety has not been established, and that it may be
mutagenic (cancer causing).
The allegations that pangamic acid is an antioxidant, protects against
pollutants, increases the life span of cells, relieves symptoms of asthma
and lowers blood cholesterol levels, as well as that it stops the craving for
alcohol and protects the liver from cirrhosis are anecdotal and testimonial
stories rather than studies.
The authors often claim spectacular results from "pangamic acid"
without identifying which of the many chemicals and chemical
combinations which go by that name they are using. Without
distinguishing drug effect from the placebo, and without reporting any
evaluation of patients for short-term or long-term toxic effects.
Vitamin 8
'7 (Laetrile)
Laetrile is the trademark of a compound of two parts glucose and
one part cyanide. There is no vitamin B17, "B 17" is a tradename created
for laetrile by a laetrile proponent. It is naturally present in the kernels of
apricot pits and a number of other stone fruits and nuts. There is no RDA
but doses vary from 0.25 g to 1.0 g a day.
It is believed to have cancer controlling and preventative properties.
Apparently normal cells can tolerate small quantities of cyanide but cancer
cells succumb to it.
Cyanide has no value in sustaining human life. In small amounts it
injures, in larger amounts it kills. No law prevents promoters from trade-
naming nutritionally worthless or poisonous substances.
Cyanide is rapidly absorbed from the intestine and diffuses
throughout the body, knocking out respiration in cells. Eating about 25
apricot kernels can cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, drowsiness, a sharp
fall in blood pressure, breathing difficulties, coma and death.
There have been documented cases of people dying after taking as
few as five laetrile tablets. Not more than 1.0 gram should be taken at any
one time.
Nutrients 65
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Ascorbic acid is water soluble and is easily lost-from the body. The
RDA for adults is 60 milligrams.
It is important for the growth and repair of body tissue cells, bones,
gums and teeth. It fights bacterial infections, protects Vitamin A, some of
the B vitamins and vitamin E from oxidation and is necessary for the use
of iron and oxygen in the body. People who lack this vitamin may have
sore gums and bleeding under the skin.
It helps to reduce blood cholesterol levels, aids in preventing bacterial
and viral infections, and prevents and cures scurvy.
The best natural sources are citrus fruits, hot chili peppers, broccoli,
tomatoes, green leafy vegetables, and sweet potatoes.
Vitamin C is non toxic but people with peptic ulcers, might
hemorrhage and should consult a doctor before taking supplements. It is
lost through water, destroyed by cooking, heat, light and smoking.
Vitamin D (Calciferol)
Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin and can be produced in the skin
with exposure to sunlight. The RDA for adults is 10 micrograms or 400
IU. (as cholecalciferol. 10 micrograms cholecalciferol = 400 IU of vitamin
D.]
It regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism. Aids the assimilation
of vitamin A and helps the treatment of conjuctivites and rickets.
The best natural sources are sardines, herring and dairy products. It
is produced by interaction with sunlight and oils (cholesterol) in the skin.
It can be toxic with doses of over 5000 IU daily. In smog conditions
or when activities reduce exposure to sunlight vitamin D intake should
be increased.
Vitamin E (Tocophero/)
Vitamin E is the term used for eight naturally occurring, fat-soluble
nutrients called tocopherols - alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, eta
and theta. Alpha-Tocopherol is essential, has the highest biological activity,
and predominates in many species. The RDA for adults is 10 IU.
(Designated according to its biological activity in International Units (IU).
With this vitamin 1 IU = 1 mg Alpha Tocopherol Equivalents).
In human beings, vitamin E is the most important fat-soluble
antioxidant. It prevents the potentially harmful oxidation of fat
compounds and enhances the functioning of vitamin A. It is an
antipollutant for the lungs. It helps the healing of scar tissue when taken
internally and also when applied externally.
The best natural sources are wheat germ, whole grains, vegetable oils,
66 Nutrients
soya beans, nuts, apples, apricots and green vegetables. Vitamin E
deficiency may cause anemia, as a result of red blood cell destruction and
neurological dysfunction, myopathies, and diminished erythrocyte life
span. New clinical evidence from heavy drinkers suggests that alcohol
may increase oxidation of Alpha-Tocopherol. Increased demand has also
been observed in premature infants and patients with malabsorption.
It is generally non toxic but some evidence suggests that large intakes
may cause increased levels of blood cholesterol and lipids. It can oxidize
within a few months of being manufactured, so supplements should not
be stored for more than a few months. It is destroyed by heat, freezing,
food processing, chlorine and iron.
Vitamin K (Menadione)
Vitamin K is a fat soluble vitamin usually formed in the body by
intestinal bacteria but also available from some plant and animal sources.
The RDA for adult males is 80 micrograms.
Its primary function is to control the rate of blood clotting and prevent
internal bleeding.
The best natural sources are all leafy green vegetables, cauliflower,
brussel sprouts, broccoli, soybean oil, kelp, cereal grain products, fruits
and yoghurt.
Vitamin K deficiency has been reported in patients treated with
antibiotics and placed on poor diets after surgery. A deficiency can cause
bleeding disorders. Doctors sometimes give women vitamin K before
childbirth to prevent bleeding in the newborn baby. Babies do not have
enough intestinal bacteria to produce adequate amounts of the vitamin
until they are about 2 weeks old.
No toxicity symptoms have been recorded from natural forms but
supplementation of synthetic vitamin K exceeding 500 mcg is not
recommended as it can cause anemia and kernicterus, a condition
characterized by jaundice.
Biotin
Biotin is a member of the B complex family and is water soluble. The
RDA for adults is 100 micrograms.
It is essential for the metabolism of fats and the synthesis of ascorbic
acid. It maintains a healthy skin and helps prevent baldness and hair from
turning grey.
The best natural sources are soya beans, brown rice, nuts, fruit,
brewer's yeast and milk. It can be synthesized by intestinal bacteria.
It is not toxic. Avidin, a substance found in egg white prevents biotin
absorption. Sulfur drugs, food processing and alcohol destroy biotin.
Nutrients 67
Choline
Choline is a cofactor of the B vitamins. There is no RDA but the
average adult diet contains between 500 milligrams to 900 milligrams a
day.
Choline exists in combination with phospholipids which make up part
of the brain and spinal cord tissue. These compounds are called lecithins.
It is essential for growth and is involved in fat transport and in
carbohydrate and protein metabolism. It participates in the metabolism
of fat and emulsifies cholesterol, helping to control the build up in arteries.
It aids in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and helps to remove drugs
and poisons from your system. It is also the precursor of acetylcholine,
which is involved in the transmission of nerveimpulses. It is crucial for
normal brain functioning and memory. It goes directly into the brain cells
and produces a chemical that aids memory.
The best natural sources are soya lecithin, green leafy vegetables, yeast
and wheat germ.
There is no known toxicity. It is destroyed by sulfur drugs, food
processing and alcohol.
Folic Acid (Folate, Folacin)
Folic acid is a cofactor of the B complex vitamins. The RDA for adults
is 200 micrograms.
Folate is essential for cell growth because of its involvement in nucleic
acid and protein synthesis, and for the formation of red blood cells and
protein metabolism. It protects the body against intestinal parasites and
food poisoning. Maintains a healthy skin and helps in the treatment of
anemia.
Megaloblastic anemia caused by folate deficiency is a major problem
in world health, especially among pregnant women and patients with
malabsorption or alcoholism.
The best natural sources are raw leafy vegetables, fruit, carrots, torula
yeast, avocados, beans and whole wheat. Consumption of fresh fruit and
green leafy vegetables daily will ensure against dietary folate deficiency.
In doses of up to 5 mg a day there has been no sign of toxicity.
It is easily lost in boiling water, sunlight, food processing, heat and
by taking sulfur drugs. A heavy drinker also needs to increase folic acid
intake.
Inositol
Inositol is a cofactor of the B complex vitamins. There is no RDA but
the average adult gets about 1 gram per day in their diet.
It works with choline in the metabolism of fat and cholesterol. It is
68 Nutrients
essential for the proper conduction of nerve impulses, lowers cholesterol
levels, promotes healthy hair and prevents balding.
The best natural sources are lecithin, brewer's yeast, lima beans,
peanuts, raisins, wheat germ, cabbage, cantaloupe, grapefruit and
molasses.
It is not toxic but is destroyed by sulfur drugs, food processing, alcohol
and coffee.
PABA (Para-aminobenzoic Acid)
PABA is another member of the B complex family of vitamins. There
is no RDA but about 100 milligrams is usually included in B complex
supplements.
It helps in the assimilation of protein and pantotheniC acid. It is
important for normal skin and hair growth. It can protect you against
sunburn, prevent wrinkles, reduce the pain of bums and restore grey hair
to its natural colour.
The best natural sources are whole grains, wheat germ, brewer's yeast,
rice and molasses.
!\ion toxic, but high doses over a long period of time may cause nausea
and vomiting.
Minerals
Much attention is given to the necessities of vitamins for good health,
but the role of minerals is as important. Even if one mineral is lacking the
body can not function properly.
Minerals are divided into two groups - macro elements and trace
elements. They combine with vitamins, form enzymes and are necessary
for almost every physiological process. Minerals are found in a broad
range of plant and animal foods, as well as in drinking water.
It is not always apparent what the function of minerals are and year
by year new minerals are being included in the list of essentials. Like
vitamins the best way to overcome this problem is by including a very
wide range of foods in your diet.
Calcium
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. The RDA for adults
is 1200 milligrams.
About 99% is found in the bones and teeth. Calcium also has a role to
play in the regulation of various body functions including the
cardiovascular and nervous systems. It keeps your heart beating regularly,
alleviates insomnia and helps to metabolize iron.
The best natural sources are sea vegetables Wakame: 1300, Arame:
Nutrients 69
1170, ,Kelp: 1093, (Mg per lOOg). low-fat yogurt, skim milk, beans, tofu,
sesame seeds, nuts, sardines with bones, salmon and green vegetables.
Calcium absorption is hindered by the presence of oxalate is in the
food. Calcium absorbability of kale (a low-oxalate vegetable) was
compared with that of milk in 11 normal women. Absorption of calcium
was excellent in all subjects. In 9 of the 11 women, kale calcium
absorbability was higher than that of milk calcium.
For optimal calcium absorption, a proper amount of vitamin D is
needed each day. This can be obtained from fortified milk and cereals, or
15 minutes to an hour of midday sunshine.
It appears there is a threshold of calcium intake, below which skeletal
reserves may be used to meet daily calcium needs. Studies show that loss
of estro prompts rapid loss of bone mineral, especially from the spine,
regardless of calcium intake.
Intakes over 2000 milligrams per day may lead to hypercalcemia,
induce constipation, and inhibit the intestinal absorption of iron, zinc, and
other essential minerals.
Chromium
It is difficult to estimate the chromium reqp.irement, but a range of
50 micrograms to 200 micrograms per day is tentatively recommended.
Trivalent chromium is required for maintaining normal glucose
metabolism. Evidence shows that chromium improves glucose tolerance
[Riales, R, & Albrink, M. J., American J. Clin. Nutr., Vol. 34, pg 2670] .
Diabetes and coronary heart disease are associated with low chromium
concentrations in human tissue.
The chemical forms of chromium in foods are not known with
certainty, but the bioavailability of chromium compounds has been found
to be high in brewer's yeast, shell fish, whole wheat bread and mushrooms.
An increased incidence of bronchial cancer has been associated with
exposure to dusts containing chromate. But the carcinogenicity of certain
chromates bears no relevance to the nutritional role of non toxic trivalent
chromium.
Copper
Because of the uncertainty of quantitive human requirements, it is
not possible to establish an RDA. 1.5 milligrams to 3.0 milligrams per day
has been recommended as a safe and adequate range of dietary copper
intake for adults.
Copper is an essential nutrient, necessary for extensive body
functions. It converts iron to hemoglobin, is essential for the utilization
of vitamin C and stops the degeneration of the nervous system. In a s~dyI
70 Nutrients
of 10 men who got less than half the suggested copper intake for 6 weeks,
four of them responded with a significant increase in cholesterol. [Journal
American Dietetic Association, July 1990. Pg 96. response to low-copper
diet ... according to researchers with USDA's Agricultural Research
Service]
The best natural sources are shell fish, sea vegetables, nuts, seeds,
beans and peas. It is found abundantly in tap water because of
contamination from copper pipes.
Toxicity from dietary sources is extremely rare, but supplementation
should be avoided as an excess can lower zinc levels, produce insomnia,
hair loss and depression.
Iodine
Approximately 1 meg per kilogram of body weight is required. The
RDA for adults is 150 micrograms.
Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones thyroxine
and triiodothyronine. It is almost entirely used by the thyroid gland. The
thyroid gland controls metabolism, proper growth, helps bum up excess
fat and gives you more energy.
Deficiency of dietary iodine may result in decreased synthesis of the
iodine-containing thyroid hormones. This can lead to cretinism and mental
retardation. Iodine intake consistently lower than 50 mcg per day usually
leads to thyroid hypertrophy (ie. endemic goiter). In addition,
epidemiological and experimental studies suggest that endemic goiter
predisposes to cancer of the thyroid.
The best natural sources are seafoods and sea vegetables (kelp, arame
and kombu). Iodized salt is a regu.lar source, providing about 75 meg per
gram.
Individuals who are sensitive to iodine may react to excessive
exposure with iododerma, fever, salivary gland enlargement, visual
problems and/or other symptoms. Death from severe forms of iododerma
has been reported. Acute responses to the ingestion or injection of large
doses of an iodine-containing solution include cardiovascular collapse,
convulsions, and asthma attacks.
Adverse effects of iodine have also been reported from dietary
supplements, including seaweed extracts, vitamin and mineral
preparations. Goiter caused by high iodine intakes has been registered in
Japan
The response to excess iodine is variable. Some individuals tolerate
large intakes without side effects, whereas others may respond adversely
to levels close to recommended intakes. Those who are most likely to
respond adversely are those living in endemic goiter areas or for other
Nutrients 71
reasons have habitually had a low intake of iodine, and -those who are
sensitive to iodine.
The maximum tolerable level of iodine appears to range from 200
mcg per day to 1000 mcg per day. These levels of intake are possible from
diets that include milk, iodized salt, seaweed and products containing
the red food coloring erythrosine which has high levels of iodine.
Generally, iodine intakes by the majority of the population in the USA
is considered safe and adequate.
Iron
Iron is a constituent of hemoglobin. Body-iron content is regulated
by the amount absorbed. The absorption is influenced by body stores and
by the amount and type of iron in ingested foods. The RDA for adults is
15 milligrams.
It is a vital component of many enzymes, it can promote resistance to
disease and prevent fatigue. A trend toward reduced risk of melanoma
was observed by Stryker et al when iron intake was increased (not
including supplements). [Styker, W.S., Stampfer, M.J., Stein, E.A, Kaplan,
L., Louis, T.A, Sobre, A, and Willet, W.e.: Diet, plasma levels of beta-
carotene and alphatocopherol, and risk of malignant melanoma. American
Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 131,:612 1990]
A deficiency can cause anemia, resulting in impaired concentration,
reduced physical performance and work capacity, and decrease immune
function. Ascorbic acid is necessary for the proper assimilation of iron.
The best natural sources of iron are sea vegetables, clams, cockles,
mussels, oysters, yeast, molasses, beans, nuts, seeds and cereals.
Tea, coffee, bran and phytates decrease iron absorption.
There are no reported cases of toxicity from foods but iron poisoning
may occur from ingesting large amounts of medicinal iron supplements.
Magnesium
Magnesium is known as the antistress mineral. The RDA for adults
is 350 milligrams.
Many biochemical and physiological processes require magnesium.
It is necessary for vitamin C and calcium metabolism. It keeps teeth
healthy, brings relief from indigestion and can aid in fighting depression.
More than 300 enzymes are known to be activated by magnesium. It
controls cellular metabolism and maintains electrical potentials of nerve
and muscle membranes for the transmission of impulses across junctions..
The best natural sources are whole seeds, nuts, legumes, unmilled
grains, green vegetables and bananas. , ' ,
Phytate or, fi,bre m~y reduce magnesium absorption. Alcohol acts as
72 Nutrients
a diuretic, causing vast quantities to be lost in the urine. There is no
evidence that large dietary intakes of magnesium are harmful to people
with normal renal function. In cases of impaired renal function and use
of magnesium-containing drugs hypermagnesemia may occur. Symptoms
include nausea, vomiting and hypotension. As conditions worsen
respiratory depression, coma and asystolic arrest may occur.
Manganese
Because of the lack of manganese deficiency in adults, the current
dietary intakes satisfy the needs for this mineral. A provisional daily
dietary intake of 5.0 milligrams is recommended.
It is necessary for the use of biotin, Bl and C, by the body. It can help
eliminate fatigue, improve memory, reduce nervous irritability and assure
the proper digestion and utilization of food. A deficiency can cause poor
reproductive performance, growth retardation, abnormal formation of
bone and cartilage, and an impaired glucose tolerance.
The best natural sources are whole grains, cereal products, nuts and
green leafy vegetables. Dairy products, meat, fish, and poultry are poor
sources.
Toxicity has only been observed with workers exposed to high
concentrations of manganese dust or fumes in the air.
Nickel
Nickel is now quite firmly established as an essential nutrient, but
no Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) or Estimated Safe and
Adequate Intake (ESADI) has yet been set for nickel.
Research showed that nickel was to be found in blood and tissues at
quite consistent levels, that it is associated with DNA and RNA in amounts
that suggest physiological significance, and that it occurs also in blood in
amounts which appear biologically meaningful. Nickel is required for
normal growth and reproduction in animals, and presumably in human
beings as well. It appears to have a role in the modulation of the b;nmune
system and in development of the brain. Since brain is depleted in
deficiency more than other tissues, the brain and immune system should
receive attention in future studies of nickel deficiency.·
The best sources of nickel include oatmeal, legumes, nuts, cocoa,
whole wheat bread, and some leafy vegetables such as kale and lettuce.
The danger of nickel toxicity from food appears to be very low, since
large amounts of nickel are required to produce any toxic effects through
ingestion. But in susceptible people, contact with nickel or nickel salts
cause skin irritations.
Chronic exposure at lower levels can cause cancer. Workers exposed
Nutrients 73
to nickel compounds have a higher than normal incidence of cancer of
the respiratory tract, particularly of the nasal cavities and lungs. Nickel
released from burning tobacco isthought to be responsible for at least part
of the carcinogenicity of tobacco smoke. There is no indication of cancer
arising from ingestion of the nickel in food.
Phosphorus
The precise requirement for phosphorus is unknown, but a 1 to 1 ratio
of calcium to phosphorus will provide sufficient phosphorus for most age
groups. The RDA for adults is 1200 milligrams.
Phosphorus is an essential component of bone mineral and is
necessary for normal bone and tooth structure. It is involved in almost all
physiological chemical reactions. It aids in growth and can lessen the pain
of arthritis.
The best natural sources are cereal grains, nuts, seeds, meat, poultry
and fish.
Aluminum hydroxide binds phosphorus, making it unavailable for
absorption. An excess of iron and magnesium have the same effect.
Phosphorus deficiency results in bone loss and is characterized by
weakness, anorexia and pain.
Potassium
Potassium is the principal intercellular cation. There is no RDA but a
minimum requirement of 1600 milligrams per day would be adequate.
Potassium is of great physiological importance, contributing to the
transmission of nerve impulses, the control of skeletal muscle contractility,
and the maintenance of normal blood pressure. Deficiency symptoms
include weakness, anorexia, nausea, drowsiness and irrational behaviour.
Potassium is found in most foods since it is an essential constituent
of all living cells. The richest dietary sources are unprocessed beans, nuts,
leafy green vegetables and fruit.
Low blood sugar levels (hypoglycemia), alcohol or smoking cause
potassium loss.
Acute intoxication (hyperkalemia) can cause cardiac arrest and prove
fatal.
Selenium
The RDA is 70 micrograms for male adults, 55 micrograms for females.
Selenium plays a role in pancreatic function, in hepatiC heme
metabolism, and in the immune response. It has a close metabolic
interrelationship with the antioxidant vitamin E. Deficiency only occurs
simu~taneously with a deficiency of vitamin E and can be cured by
74 Nutrients
supplementation of either. It can neutralize certain carcinogens so possibly
provide protection from some cancers.
The best natural sources of selenium are seafoods, eggs and
depending on the selenium content of the soils in which they are grown,
grains and seeds.
Sodium
Sodium is the principal cation of extracellular fluid. As the rate of
sodium loss can vary under different conditions there is no official RDA,
but the minimum daily requirement for healthy adults is 500 milligrams.
Sodium is crucial for regulating the membrane potential of cells and
is involved in active transport across cell membranes, it is pumped out in
exchange for potassium. It helps the nerves and muscles function properly.
Sodium is found in abundance in most processed foods thus there is
very little chance of a deficiency occurring with the average Western Diet.
The best natural sources are salt, shellfish, anchovy, lox, spirulina,
wakame, cheese and red or green peppers.
The body may be depleted of sodium under extreme conditions of
sweating or chronic diarrhea.
Excessive intake of sodium can result in edema and hypertension.
Sulfur
Sulfur is used to treat many kinds of skin disorders. Sulfur cream,
lotion, ointment, and bar soap are used to treat acne. Sulfur ointment is
used to treat seborrheic dermatitis and scabies. Sulfur may also be used
for other conditions as determined by your doctor.
Zinc
The RDA is 15 milligrams per day for men and 12 milligrams per
day for women. Recent research suggests that men have a higher need
for zinc than do women. Thus, it is appropriate that the RDA is sex-specific
for zinc.
Zinc is an essential trace element that must be supplied in the diet of
human beings so that growth and health can be maintained. It is necessary
for protein synthesis and the metabolism of vitamin A, it helps the healing
process of internal and external wounds, decreases cholesterol deposits
and promotes mental awareness. A deficiency can cause loss of appetite,
growth retardation and immunological abnormalities.
The best natural sources are oysters, nuts, wheatgerm, whole grain
products, brewers yeast meat, eggs, legumes and seeds.
Zinc is more easily absorbed in small amounts than large amounts.
Human studies have shown that milk apparently inhibits zinc absorption.
Nutrients 75
Because cow's milk and milk products are the major sources of calcium
and higher levels of calcium have been recommended in women to protect
against bone loss, this could be a matter for concern.
Its bioavailability is reduced by protein or fibre. Smoking and alcohol
also decreases the absorption of zinc. Ingestion of zinc supplements
exceeding 15 mg per day is not recommended. Toxicity can cause
gastrointestinal irritation and vomiting.
Dietary Fibre
Dietary fibre, sometimes called "roughage", is the indigestible portion
of plant foods that pushes food through the digestive system, absorbing
water and easing defecation. It was discovered in 1949.
Chemically; dietary fibre consists of non-starch polysaccharides such
as cellulose and many other plant components such as dextrins, inulin,
lignin, waxes, chitins, pectins, beta-glucans and oligosaccharides. The term
"fibre" is somewhat of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary
fibre are not fibers at all.
Dietary fibre can be soluble (able to dissolve in water) or insoluble
(not able to dissolve in water). Soluble fibre, like all fibre, cannot be
digested.
But it does change as it passes through the digestive tract, being
transformed (fermentated) by bacteria there. Soluble fibre also absorbs
water to become a gelatinous substance that passes through the body
Insoluble fibre, however, passes through the body largely unchanged
Food sources of dietary fibre are often divided according to whether
they provide (predominantly) soluble or insoluble fibre. To be precise,
both types of fibre are present in all plant foods, with varying degrees of
each according to a plant's characteristics.
Potential advantages of consuming fibre are the production of health-
promoting compounds during the fermentation of soluble fibre, and
insoluble fiber's ability (via its passive water-attracting properties) to
increase bulk, soften stool and shorten transit time through the intestinal
tract.
Sources of Fibre

Dietary fibre is found in plants. While all plants contain some fibre,
plants with high fibre concentrations are generally the most practical
source.
Fibre-rich plants can ue eaten directly. Or, alternatively, they can be
used to make supplements and fibre-rich processed foods, such as those
made by the All Bran, Fibre One and Quaker Oats companies. For example,
76 Nutrients
Fibre One's granola-bar like "chewy bars" contain 9 grams of dietary fibre
and have chickory root, a fibre-rich plant, as their main ingredient.
Plant Sources of Fibre
Some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fibre.
For example plums (or prunes) have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp.
The plum's skin is an example of an insoluble fibre source, whereas soluble
fibre sources are inside the pulp. Soluble fibre is found in varying
quantities in all plant foods, including:
• Legumes (peas, soybeans, and other beans)
• Oats, rye, chia, and barley
• Some fruits and fruit juices (including prune juice, plums, berries,
bananas, and the insides of apples and pears)
• Certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots and Jerusalem
artichokes
• Root vegetables such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, and onions
(skins of these vegetables are sources cif insoluble fibre)
• Psyllium seed husk (a mucilage soluble fibre).
Sources of insoluble fibre include:
• Whole grain foods
• Wheat and corn bran
• Nuts and seeds
• Potato skins
• Flax seed
• Lignans
• Vegetables such as green beans, cauliflower, zucchini (courgette),
and celery, nopal
• The skins of some fruits, including tomatoes
The five most fibre-rich plant foods, according to the Micronutrient
Centre of the Linus Pauling Institute, are legumes (15-19 grams of fibre
per US cup serving, including several types of beans, lentils and peas),
wheat bran (17 grams per cup), prunes (12 grams), Asian pear (10 grams
each, 3.6% by weight), and quinoa (9 grams)
Remarkable among plant foods, the Amazonian palmberry, a~ai
(Euterpe oleracea Mart.), has been analyzed by two research groups
reporting its content of dietary fibre is 25-44% of total mass in freeze-dried
powder.
Rubus fruits such as raspberry (8 grams of fibre per serving) and
blackberry (7.4 grams of fibre per serving) are exceptional sources of fibre.
Fibre Supplements
These are a few example forms of fibre that have been sold as
Nutrients 77
supplements or food additives. These may be marketed to consumers for
nutritional purposes, treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders, and
for such possible health benefits as lowering cholesterol levels, reducing
risk of colon cancer, and losing weight.
Soluble fibre supplements may be beneficial for alleviating symptoms
of irritable bowel syndrome, such as diarrhea and/or constipation and
abdominal discomfort. Prebiotic soluble fibre products, like those
containing inulin or oligosaccharides, may contribute to relief from
inflammatory bowel disease)12j as in Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis
and Clostridium difficile, due in part to the short-chain fatty acids produced
with subsequent anti-inflammatory actions upon the bowel. Fibre
supplements may be effective in an overall dietary plan for managing
irritable bowel syndrome by modification of food choices.
Psyllium Husk
Psyllium seed husk may reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering
cholesterol levels, and is known to help alleviate the symptoms of irritable
bowel syndrome, though it often causes uncomfortable bloating. Psyllium
husk may be used as a bulk-forming laxative.
In clinical studies approved by the FDA, the cholesterol-lowering
benefit of soluble fibre from psyllium, when taken as directed and
combined with a low-fat, low-cholesterol diet, was 4 to 6 percent for total
blood cholesterol and 4 to 8 percent for LDL (bad) cholesterol vs. a low-
fat diet alone.
Inulins
Chemically defined as oligosaccharides occurring naturally in most
plants, inulins have nutritional value as carbohydrates, or more specifically
as fructans, a polymer of the natural plant sugar, fructose. Inulin is
typically extracted by manufacturers from enriched plant sources such as
chicory roots or Jerusalem artichokes for use in prepared foods. Subtly
sweet, it can be used to replace sugar, fat, and flour, is often used to
improve the flow and mixing qualities of powdered nutritional
supplements, and has significant potential health value as a prebiotic
fermentable fibre.
Inulin is advantageous because it contains 25-30% the food energy
of sugar or other carbohydrates and 10-15% the food energy of fat. As a
prebiotic fermentable fibre, its metabolism by gut flora yields short-chain
fatty acids (discussed above) which increase absorption of calcium,
magnesium, and iron, resulting from upregulation of mineral-transporting
genes and their membrane transport proteins within the colon wall.
Among other potential beneficial effects noted above, inulin promotes an
78 Nutrients
increase in the mass and health of intestinal Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium
populations.
Vegetable Gums
Vegetable gum fibre supplements are relatively new to the market.
Often sold as a powder, vegetable gum fibers dissolve easily with no
aftertaste. They are effective for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome
(Parisi, 2002)Jverification needed] Examples of vegetable gum fibers are guar
gum (example brand Benefiber reformulated to wheat dextrin in 2006)
and acacia gum. '
Fibre Intake
Current recommendations from the United States National Academy
of Sciences, Institute of Medicine, suggest that adults should consume 20-
35 grams of dietary fibre per day, but the average American's daily intake
of dietary fibre is only 12-18 grams.
The American Dietetic Association (ADA) recommends a minimum
of 20-35 glday for a healthy adult depending on calorie intake (e.g., a 2000
cal/8400 kJ diet should include 25 g of fibre per day). The ADA's
recommendation for children is that intake should equal age in years plus
5 glday (e.g., a 4 year old should consume 9 g/day). No guidelines have
yet been established for the elderly or very ill. Patients with current
constipation, vomiting, and abdominal pain should see a physician.
Certain bulking agents are not commonly recommended with the
prescription of opioids because the slow transit time mixed with larger
stools may lead to severe constipation, pain, or obstruction.
The British Nutrition Foundation has recommended a minimum fibre
intake of 12-24 g/day for healthy adults
Water
About 70% of the non-fat mass of the human body is made of water.
To function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of
water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the
level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factorsWith physical
exertion and heat exposure, water loss will increase and daily fluid needs
may increase as well.
It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people,
although some experts assert that 8-10 glasses of water (approximately 2
liters) daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. The notion
that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be
traced back to a scientific source. The effect of water intake on weight
loss and on constipation is also still unclear Original recommendation for
Nutrients 79
water intake in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National
Research Council read: An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1
II

milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in

prepared foods."lIOl The latest dietary reference intake report by the United
States National Research Council in general recommended (including food
sources): 2.7 liters of water total for women and 3.7 liters for men.
Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need additional fluids
to stay hydrated. According to the Institute of Medicine-who recommend
that, on average, women consume 2.2 litres and men 3.0 litres-this is
recommended to be 2.4litres (approx. 9 cups) for pregnant women and 3
litres (approx. 12.5 cups) for breastfeeding women since an especially large
amount of fluid is lost during nursing.
For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink
too much waterbut (especially in warm humid weather and while
exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more
water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of
water intoxication, which can be fatal. In particular large amounts of de-
ionized water are dangerous.
Normally, about 20 percent of water intake comes in food, while the
rest comes from drinking water and assorted beverages (caffeinated
included). Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including
urine and feces, sweating, and by water vapour in the exhaled breath.
Energy
For every physical activity, the body requires energy and the amount
depends on the duration and type of activity. Energy is measured in
Calories and is obtained from the body stores or the food we eat. Glycogen
is the main source of fuel used by the muscles to enable you to undertake
both aerobic and anaerobic exercise. If you train with low glycogen stores,
you will feel constantly tired, training performance will be lower and you
will be more prone to injury and illness.
A calorie (cal) is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 19 of water 1DC from 14 0 to 15°e. A kilocalorie (kcal) is
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1000g of water
IDe.
Daily Energy Requirements
Personal energy requirement = basic energy requirements + extra
energy requirements
Basic energy requirements (BER) includes your basal metabolic rate
(BMR) and general daily activities
• For every Kg of body weight 1.3 Calories is required every hoy.t.
80 Nutrients
(An athlete weighing SOKg would require 1.3 x 24hrs x SOKg =
1560 Calories/day)
• For a calculation of your BMR, see the calculator on the Resting
Daily Energy Expenditure (RDEE) page
Extra energy requirements (EER)
• For each hours training you require an additional 8.5 Calories
for each Kg of body weight. (For a two hour training session
our SOKg athlete would require 8.5 x 2hrs x SOKg = 850 Calories)
An athlete weighing SOKg who trains for two hours would require
an intake of approximately 2410 Calories (BER + EER = 1560 + 850)
Energy Fuel
Like fuel for a car, the energy we need has to be blended. The blend
that we require is as follows:
• 57% Carbohydrates (sugar, sweets, bread, cakes)
• 30% Fats (dairy products, oil)
• 13% Protein (eggs, milk, meat, poultry, fish)
The energy yield per gram is as follows: Carbohydrate - 4 Calories,
Fats - 9 Calories and Protein - 4 Calories.
What does a 50 kg athlete require in terms of carbohydrates, fats and
protein?
• Carbohydrates - 57% of 2410 = 1374 Calories - at 4 Calories/gram
= 1374 + 4 = 343 grams
• Fats - 30% of 2410 = 723 Calories - at 9 Calories/gram = 723 + 9 =
80 grams
• Protein - 13% of 2410 = 313 Calories - at 4 Calories/gram = 313 +
4 = 78 grams
Our SOkg athlete requires 343 grams of Carbohydrates, 80 grams of
Fat and 78 grams of Protein
Eating and Competition
What you eat on a day-to-day basis is extremely important for
training. Your diet will affect how fast and how well you progress, and
how soon you reach competitive standard. The page on Nutritional Tips
provides some general nutritional advice to help you manage your weight
and body fat. Once you are ready to compete, you will have a new concern:
your competition diet. Is it important? What should you eat before your
competition? When is the best time to eat? How much should you eat?
Should you be eating during the event? In addition, what can you eat
between heats or matches? A lot of research has been done in this area,
and it is clear that certain dietary approaches can enhance competition
performance.
Nutrients 81

Sources and Requirement of nutrients

Requirements
Nutrients Children Adults Sources
1200-2100 kcal 1900-3900 kcal
Carbohydrate 40-60g/100g of 50-70 g/100g of Glucose (its basic form) and
calories calories sweets, biscuits, chocolates,
pastries, honey, fruits,
cereals, grains, pulses, bread,
beans, potatoes, other
vegetables and
Protein 20-33g 45-55g Legumes, grains, nuts and
seeds; dark leafy greens;
eggs; dairy products
Fat 15g 15g Vegetable oils like soya bean,
mustard, sunflower, ground
nut, olive etc and corn, pean-
uts, seeds, olive, oily fish etc
Vitamins
Vitamin A
Vitamin A 300-600/1g 750/1g Fish liver oils, liver of
Carotine 1200-2400/1g 3000/1g animals, diary products like
butter, ghee, milk and eggs,
green leafy vegetables, red
palm oil, carrot, pumpkin and
ripe mango
Vitamin D 400 LV 200 LV Fiosh liver oils (of cod,
halibut, shark), fat fish
(sardine, salmon, Herring),
egg yolk and dairy products
(butter, ghee, milk).
Vitamin E 1O-20mg 20-25mg Wheat germ oil, corn germ
oil, vegetable oils (Soy bean,
cottonseed, sunflower, gro-
und nut, mustard, coconut
etc) cereals and eggs.
Vitamin K Not known Not known Green leafy vegetables
(spinach, cabbage, kale),
vegetables (cauliflower,
soybean, carrots, potatoes),
wheat bran, wheat germ etc
Vitamin B
Thiamine 03-l.1mg 1.2-2mg Mried yeast, rice polishings,
82 Nutrients
Riboflavin O.5-1.2mg 1.3-2.2mg wheat germ, whole cereals,
Nicotinic Acid 12-17mg 19-26mg liver, fruits, vegetables, milk,
Vitamin B6 O.8-1.4mg 2.0mg peanut, meat, fish, eggs,
Vitamin B12 O.5-1.0Ilg Illg legumes (pulses) and dhals,
leafy vegetables.
Vitamin C 25mg 40mg Citrus fruits and green leafy
vegetables (drumstick leaves,
coriander leaves, cabbage),
Gooseberry, Guava, Pinea-
pple, Cashew fruit, ripe
mango, papaya and tomato.
Vitamin P Not known Not known Fresh fruits (orange, apple,
blackberry, cherry, plum) and
vegetables (spinach, tomato,
lettuce, cabbage, carrot,
cauliflower, pea etc.).
Minerals
Calcium 400mg 600mg Dairy products; dark, leafy
greens, legumes; most nuts
and seeds; molesses; figs,
apricots; dates
Iron 20-28mg 28-30mg Legumes (especially soybea-
ns and soy products other
than oil); dark, leafy greens;
dried fruits; whole and
enriched grains; molasses
Zinc 10-15mg 15mg Eggs, cheese, legumes, nuts,
wheat germ, whole grains,
some kinds of brewer's yeast
Sodium 5-lOg 10-15g Salt
 Chapter 3

Function of Food

Body Composition, the Functions of Food, Metabolism and Energy

The phrase "we are what we eat" is frequently used to signify that
the composition of our bodies is dependent in large measure on what we
have consumed.
The many chemical elements in the human body occur mainly in the
form of water, protein, fats, mineral salts and carbohydrates, in the
percentages shown in Table 8. Each human body is built up from food
containing these five constituents, and vitamins as well.
Food serves mainly for growth, energy and body repair, maintenance
and protection. Food also provides enjoyment and stimulation, since eating
and drinking are among the pleasures of life everywhere. Truly food
nourishes both the body and soul. Even if technology could produce a
perfect diet in terms of content, such a diet could still lack, for example,
the aroma and flavour of a curry, or the stimulating taste of hot coffee.
What controls appetite or the feeling of hunger is not fully understood.
The hypothalamus in the brain has a role, as do other central nervous
system sites. Other probable factors include blood sugar levels, body
hormones, body fat, many diseases, emotions and of course food type and
availability, personal likes and dislikes and the social setting where food
is to be consumed.
Dietary Constituents and the Functions of Food
Human beings eat food, and not individual nutrients. Most foods,
including staples such as rice, maize and wheat, provide mainly
carbohydrate for energy but also significant quantities of protein, a little
fat or oil and useful micronutrients. Thus cereal grains provide some of
the constituents needed for energy, growth and body repair and
maintenance. Breastmilk provides all the macro- and micronutrients
necessary to satisfy the total needs of a young infant up to six months of
age including those for energy, growth and body repair and maintenance.
Cows' milk has the balance of nutrients for all the requirements of a calf.
84 Functlon of Food
Water
Water can be considered the most important dietary constituent. A
normal man or woman can live without food for 20 to 40 days, but without
water humans die in four to seven days. Over 60 per cent of human body
weight is made up of water, of which approximately 61 per cent is
intracellular and the rest ·extracellular. Water intake, except under
exceptional circumstances (e.g. intravenous feeding), comes from the food
and fluids consumed. The amount consumed varies widely in individuals
and may be influenced by climate, culture and other factors. Often as much
as 1 litre is consumed in solid food, and 1 to 3litres as fluids drunk. Water
is also formed in the body as a result of oxidation of macronutrients, but
the water thus obtained usually constitutes less than 10 per cent of total
water.
Water is excreted mainly by the kidneys as urine. The kidneys regulate
the output of urine and maintain a balance; if smaller amounts of fluid
are consumed, the kidneys excrete less water, and the urine is more
concentrated. While most water is eliminated by the kidneys, in hot
climates as much or more can be lost from the skin (through perspiration)
and the lungs. Much smaller quantities are lost from the gut in the faeces
(except in the presence of diarrhoea, when losses may be high).
Table. Chemical Composition of a Human Body Weighing 65 kg
Component Percentage of body weight
Water 61.6
Protein 17
Fats 13.8
Minerals 6.1
Carbohydrate 1.5
Table. Simple classification of dietary constituents
Constituent Use
Water To provide body fluid and to help regulate body
temperature
Carbohydrates As fuel for energy for body heat and work
Fats As fuel for energy and essential fatty acids
Proteins For growth and repair
Minerals For developing body tissues and for metabolic
processes and protecfion
Vitamins For metabolic processes and protection
Indigestible and To form a vehicle for other nutrients, add bulk to
unabsorbable the diet, provide a habitat for bacterial
particles, including flora and assist proper elimination of refuse
fibre
Function of Food 85
Metabolism of sodium and potassium, which are known as
electrolytes, is linked with body water. The sodium is mainly in the
extracellular water and the potassium in the intracellular water. Most diets
contain adequate amounts of both these minerals. In fluid loss caused,
for example, by diarrhoea or haemorrhage, the balance of electrolytes in
the blood may become disturbed. Water intake and electrolyte balance
are particularly important in sick infants. In healthy infants, breastmilk
alone from a healthy mother provides adequate quantities of fluids and
electrolytes without additional water for the first six months of life even
in hot climates. Infants with diarrhoea and disease, however, may require
additional fluids.
While food intake is largely regulated by appetite and food
availability, fluid intake is influenced by the sensation termed thirst. Thirst
may arise for various reasons. In dehydration it may be caused by drying
of the mouth but also by signals from the same satiety centre in the
hypothalamus that controls hunger sensations. Dehydration, an important
feature of diarrhoea.
The phenomenon of water accumulation in the body is manifested in
the condition known as oedema, when disease causes an excess of
extracellular fluid. Two important deficiency diseases in which generalized
oedema is a feature are kwashiorkor and wet beriberi. The excess fluid
may result from electrolyte disturbances and accumulation of water in
the extracellular compartment. A person can have oedema and still be
dehydrated from diarrhoea; this condition is a form of heart failure. Water
can also collect in the peritoneal cavity, in the condition known as ascites,
which may be caused by liver disease.
Body Composition
The human body is sometimes said to be divided into three
compartments, accounting for the following shares of the total body weight
of a well-nourished healthy adult male:
• Body cell mass, 55 per cent.
• Extracellular supporting tissue, 30 per cent.
• Body fat, 15 per cent.
The body cell mass is made up of cellular components such as muscle,
body organs (viscera, liver, brain, etc.) and blood. It comprises the parts
of the body that are involved in body metabolism, body functioning, body
work and so on.
The extracellular supporting tissue consists of two parts: the
extracellular fluid (for example, the blood plasma supporting the blood
cells) and the skeleton and other supporting structures.
Body fat is nearly all present beneath the skin (subcutaneous f~t) and
86 Function of Food
around body organs such as the intestine and heart. It serves in part as an
energy reserve. Small quantities are present in the walls of body cells or
in nerves.
Physiologists and those interested in metabolism have developed
various ways to estimate body composition, including the amount of fluids
in the body and body density. A common determination is to estimate
lean body mass (LBM) or the fat-free mass of the body. These measures
vary from the very simple to the very difficult. The simpler ones are of
course less precise. Anthropometry using weight, height, skinfold
thickness and body circumferences is relatively easy and very cheap to
undertake, and does provide some estimate of LBM and body composition.
In contrast, methods using, for example, bioelectrical impedance,
computerized axial tomography (CAT scans) and nuclear magnetic
resonance require expensive apparatus and highly trained staff.
The fluid in the cells (intracellular fluid) has mainly potassium ions,
and the extracellular fluid is mainly a solution of sodium chloride. Both
also have other ions. Total body water can be estimated using different
methods including dilution techniques to measure, for e?,ample, plasma
volu .. ne.
Body fat is estimated using different methods. Because a large portion
of adipose tissue is present beneath the skin, it can be estimated by using
a skinfold calliper to measure skinfold thickness in different sites. Another
method is to weigh the person both in air and under water using a special
apparatus and tank. This method really provides an estimate of body
density.
The various methods of determining body composition are described
in detail in textbooks of physiology or nutrition.
Body composition is much influenced by nutrition. The two extremes
are the wasting of nutritional marasmus and starvation and the overweight
of obesity. Body composition differs between the genders and, perhaps
only slightly, among races. African Americans have been shown to have
heavier skeletons than whites of the same body build in the United States.
In females pregnancy and lactation influence body composition.
The body composition of children is influenced by their age and
growth. Disturbances of growth resulting from nutritional deficiencies
influence body composition, including the eventual size of the body and
of body organs.
Metabolism and Energy
The general term for all the chemical processes carried out by the
cells of the body is "metabolism". Chief among these processes is the
oxidation (combustion, or burning) of food which produces energy. This
Function of Food 87
process is analogous to a car engine burning petrol to produce the energy
that makes it run. In most forms of combustion, be it in the car or in the
human, heat is produced as well as energy.
Classical physics taught that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed. Although this law of nature is not completely correct (as the
conversion of matter to energy in a nuclear reactor shows), it is still true
in most instances. All three macronutrients in food - carbohydrate, protein
and fat provide energy. Energy for the body comes mainly from food,
and in the absence of food it can be produced only by the breakdown of
body tissues.
All forms of energy can be converted into heat energy. It is possible
to measure the heat produced by burning a litre of petrol, for example.
Food energy can also be and is expressed as heat energy. The unit of
measurement used has been the large calorie (Cal) or kilocalorie (kcal)
(which is 1 000 times the small calorie used in physics), but this measure
is increasingly being replaced by the joule (J) or kilojoule (kJ). The
kilocalorie is defined as the heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1
litre of water from 14.5° to 15.5°C. Whereas the kilocalorie is a unit of
heat, the joule is truly a unit of energy. The joule is defined as the amount
of energy used when 1 kg is moved 1 m by 1 newton (N) of force. In
nutrition the kilojoule (1000 J) is used. The equivalent of 1 kcal is 4.184 kJ.
These are units of measurement in the same way that litres and pints are
measures of quantity, and metres and feet are measures of length. In many
scientific journals the joule is being introduced in place of the kilocalorie,
but the general public and most health workers still prefer to express food
energy in kilocalories rather than joules ..
The human body requires energy for all bodily functions, including
work, the maintenance of body temperature and the continuous action of
the heart and lungs In children energy is essential for growth Energy is
also needed for breakdown, repair and building of tissues. These arc
metabolic processes. The rate at which these functions are carried out while
the body is at rest is the Basal metabolic rate (BMR).
Basal Metabolic Rate
BMR for an individual person is usually defined as the amount of
energy [e'xpressed in kilocalories or megajoules (MJ, per day] expended
when the person is al complete rest, both physical (Le. lying down) and
psychological. It can also be expressed as kilocalories per hour or per
kilogram of weight. BMR provides the energy required by the body for
maintenance of body temperature; for the work of body organs such as
the beating heart and the ?,uscles working for normal, at rest, breathing;
and for the functioning of other organs such as the liver, kidneys and brain.
88 Function of Food
BMR varies from individual to individual. Important general factors
influencing BMR are the person's weight, gender, age and state of health.
BMR is also influenced by the person's body composition, for example
the amounts of muscle and adipose tissue and therefore the amounts of
protein and fat in the body.
In broad terms, bigger people with more muscle and larger body
organs have higher BMR than smaller people.
Elderly people tend to have lower BMR than they had when they
were young, and females tend to have lower BMR than males even on a
per kilogram body weight basis. There are exceptions, however, to all these
generaliza tions.
BMR is important as a component of energy requirements. Table 10
shows BMR of adult men and women according to height and weight,
both per kilogram body weight and as total energy per day.
The table shows, for example, that in females aged 30 to 60 years BMR
ranges from 1 190 to 1 420 kcal per day.
This is the amount of energy required by a woman at complete rest
for 2,~ hours. Of course many adult females in developing countries are
smaller than 1.4 m in height and 41 kg in weight; their BMR might then
be a little lower than 1 190 kcal per day.
Energy Requirements
The mean daily energy requirements of adult men and women doing
work classified as light, moderate and heavy are given in table, expressed
as multiples of BMR.
The table shows, for example, that a woman doing heavy work
requires energy equal to 1.32 times her BMR. If the woman is aged 25
years, is 1.4 m tall and weighs 41 kg, according to Table her BMR would
be 1100 kcal per day. Thus her daily requirements are: 1100 kcal x 1.32 =
2002 kcal.
It is often useful to estimate energy needs for various activities that a
person may do for particular lengths of time.
The energy expenditure is usually calculated by multiplying an
activity factor or metabolic constant, which varies according to the activity,
by the individual's BMR.
Table gives the activity factors for calculating gross energy
expenditure of various activities for adult males and females.
The average human burns energy at his or her BMR only when at
complete rest. All ordinary movements require additional energy, and
physical work, of course, requires more still. For a healthy male with BMR
of 1 kcal/min, an average day may involve the energy expenditure shown
in Table.
Function of Food 89
Table. Average Daily Energy Requirements of Adults by Category
of Occupational Work Expressed as a Multiple of BMR
Classification of work Men Women
Light 1.55 1.56
Moderate 1.78 1.64
Heavy 2.10 1.82
Table. Activity factors for calculating gross energy expenditure (multiply by
BMR)
Activity Adult males Adult females
Sleeping 1.0 1.0
Lying 1.2 1.2
Sitting quietly 1.2 1.2
Standing quietly 1.5 1.5
Walking slowly 2.8 2.8
Walking at normal pace 3.2 3.3
Walking fast uphill 7.5 6.6
Cooking 1.8 1.8
Office work (moving around) 1.6 1.7
Driving lorry 1.4 1.4
Labouring 5.2 4.4
Cutting sugar cane 6.5
Pulling loaded cart 5.9
Playing soccer 6.6 6.3
Fetching water from well 4.1
Pounding grain 4.6
Note: These values apply only as approximate mean values for the
time actually spent on thp activity. They do not allow for rests. In heavy
work individuals usually take frequent pauses or rests.
If the person in this example did instead of eight hours of light work
- five hours of herding and three hours of heavy work, hoeing hard ground
at 8 kcal/min, then his output of energy would be as shown in Table.
If the individual undertaking the activities in the first example gets
exactly 2 640 kcal in his food, his weight will be steady, and he will be
functioning normally.
However, if he then undertakes the activities in the second example
and eats no extra food, his weight will gradually drop, because he will
have to burn up his fuel reserve, which forms part of his own body. He
would fairly soon, however, begin to limit his activities in order to stop
this process.
He would therefore probably work much less hard at hoeing, so that
instead of burning 8 kcal/min he might use only, say, 3.2 kcal/min; he
90 Function of Food
would also tend to be tired at the end of the day, and might well increase
his period of complete rest (at 1 kcal/min) by reducing the period of minor
activities. He would therefore have reduced his energy requirements to 2
646 kcal, as shown in Table 15.
This is just an example. In most in stanc,~s, when people increase their
output of energy, including work, they feel more hungry and increase
their consumption of their staple food, be it rice, millet, maize wheat,
cassava or anything else.
The energy requirements of- ~ human being are affected by several
factors. The important ones are:
• Body size: A small person needs less energy than a large person.
• Basal metabolic rate: BMR varies and can be affected by factors
such as disease of the thyroid gland.
• Activity: The more physical work or recreation performed, the
more energy is required.
• Pregnancy: A woman requires extra energy to develop the foetus
and to carry its additional weight.
• Lactation: The lactating mother needs additional energy to
produce energy-containing milk for the suckling baby. The
relatively long duration of breastfeeding among most Asians and
Africans results in a large proportion of women requiring extra
energy.
• Age: Infants and children need more energy, for growth and
activity, than adults. In older persons, the need for energy is
sometimes reduced because there is a decline in activity and
because their BMR is usually lower.
• Climate: In warm climates, i.e. in most of the tropics and
subtropics, less energy is necessary to keep the body at its normal
temperature than in cold climates.
Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins

Carbohydrates
The main source of energy for most Asians, Africans and Latin
Americans is carbohydrates in the food they eat. Carbohydrates constitute
by far the greatest portion of their diet, as much as 80 per cent in some
cases. In contrast, carbohydrates make up only 45 to 50 per cent of the
diet of many people in industrialized countries.
Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen in the proportions 6:12:6.
They are burned during metabolism to produce energy, liberating
carbon dioxide (C02) and water (H20). The carbohydrates in the human
Function of Food 91
diet are mainly in the form of starches and various sugars. Carbohydrates
can be divided into three groups:
• Monosaccharides, e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose;
• Disaccharides, e.g. sucrose, lactose, maltose;
• Polysaccharides, e.g. starch, glycogen (animal starch), cellulose.
Monosaccharides
The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, or simple
sugars. These sugars can pass through the wall of the alimentary tract
without being changed by the digestive enzymes. The three most common
are glucose, fructose and galactose.
Glucose, sometimes also called dextrose, is present in fruit, sweet
potatoes, onions and other plant substances. It is the substance into which
many other carbohydrates, such as the disaccharides and starches, are
converted by the digestive enzymes. Glucose is oxidized to produce
energy, heat and carbon dioxide, which is exhaled in breathing.
Because glucose is the sugar in blood, it is most often used as an
energy-producing substance for persons fed intravenously. Glucose
dissolved in sterile water, usually in concentrations of 5 or 10 per cent, is
frequently used for this purpose.
Fructose is present in honey and some fruit juices. Galactose is a
monosaccharide that is formed, along with glucose, when the milk sugar
lactose is broken down by the digestive enzymes.
Disaccharides
The disaccharides, composed of simple sugars, need to be converted
by the body into monosaccharides before they can be absorbed from the
alimentary tract.
Examples of disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose
is the scientific name for table sugar (the kind that is used, for example,
to sweeten tea).
It is most commonly produced from sugar cane but is also produced
from beets. Sucrose is also present in carrots and pineapple. Lactose is
the disaccharide present in human and animal milk. It is much less sweet
than sucrose. Maltose is found in germinating seeds.
Polysaccharides
The polysaccharides are chemically the most complicated
carbohydrates. They tend to be insoluble in water, and only some can be
used by human beings to produce energy. Examples of polysaccharides
are starch, glycogen and cellulose.
Starch is an important source of energy for humans. It occurs in cereal
92 Function of Food
grains as well as in root foods such as potatoes and cassava. Starch is
liberated during cooking when the starch granules rupture because of
heating.
Glycogen is made in the human body and is sometimes known as
animal starch. It is formed from monosaccharides produced by the
digestion of dietary starch. Starch from rice or cassava is broken down in
the intestines to form monosaccharide molecules, which pass into the
bloodstream. Those surplus monosaccharides that are not used to produce
energy (and carbon dioxide and water) are fused together to form a new
polysaccharide, glycogen. Glycogen is usually present in muscle and in
the liver, but not in large amounts. ,,",'
Any of the digestible carbohydrates when consumed ion excess of body
needs are converted by the body into fat which is laid down as adipose
tissue beneath the skin and at other sites in the body.
Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and gums are sometimes called
unavailable carbohydrates because humans cannot digest them. Cellulose
and hemicellulose are plant polymers that are the main components of
cell walls.
They are fibrous substances. Cellulose, which is a polymer of glucose,
is one of the fibres of green plants. Hemicellulose is a polymer of other
sugars, usually hexose and pentose. Lignin is the main component of
wood.
Pectins are present in plant tissue and sap and are colloidal
polysaccharides. Gums are also viscous carbohydrates extracted from
plants. Pectins and gums are both used by the food industry. The human
alimentary tract cannot break down these carbohydrates or utilize them
to produce energy. Some animals, such as cattle, have microorganisms in
their intestines that break down cellulose and make it available as an
energy-producing food. In humans, any of the unavailable carbohydrates
present in food pass through the intestinal tract. They form much of the
bulk and roughage evacuated in human faeces, and are often termed
IIdietary fibre".
There is increasing interest in fibre in diets, because high-fibre diets
are now considered healthful. A clear advantage of a high-fibre diet is a
lower incidence of constipation than among people who consume a low-
fibre diet. The bulk in high-fibre diets may contribute a feeling of fullness
or satiety which may lead to less consumption of energy, and this may
help reduce the likelihood of obesity. A high-fibre diet results in more
rapid transit of food through the intestinal tract and is thus believed to
assist normal and healthy intestinal and bowel functioning. Dietary fibre
has also been found to bind bile in the intestines.
It is now recognized that the high fibre content of most traditional
Function of Food 93
diets may be an important factor in the prevention of certain diseases
which appear to be much more prevalent in people consuming the low-
fibre diets common in industrialized countries. Because it facilitates the
rapid passage of materials through the intestine, fibre may be a factor in
the control of diverticulitis, appendicitis, haemorrhoids and also possibly
arteriosclerosis, which leads to coronary heart disease and some cancers.
Frequent consumption of any sticky fermentable carbohydrates, either
starch or sugar, can contribute to dental caries, particularly when coupled
with poor oral hygiene. Adequate intake of fluoride and/or a topical
application is the best protection against caries .
Fats
In many developing countries dietary fats make up a smaller part of
total energy intake (often only 8 or 10 per cent) than carbohydrates. In
most industrialized countries the proportion of fat intake is much higher.
In the United States, for example, an average of 36 per cent of total energy
is derived from fat.
Fats, like carbohydrates, contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They
are insoluble in water but soluble in such chemical solvents as ether,
chloroform and benzene. The term "fat" is used here to include all fats
and oils that are edible and occur in human diets, ranging from those that
are solid at cool room temperatures, such as butter, to those that are liquid
at similar temperatures, such as groundnut or cottonseed oils. (In some
terminologies the word "oil" is used to refer to those materials that are
liquid at room temperature, while those that are solid are called fats.)
Fats (also referred to as lipids) in the body are divided into two
groups: storage fat and structural fat. Storage fat provides a reserve
storehouse of fuel for the body, while the structural fats are part of the
essential structure of the cells, occurring in cell membranes, mitochondria
and intracellular organelles.
Cholesterol is a lipid present in all cell membranes. It has an important
role in fat transport and is the precursor from which bile salts and adrenal
and sex hormones are made.
Dietary fats consist mainly of triglycerides, which can be split into
glycerol and chains of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen called fatty acids.
This action, the digestion or breakdown of fats, is achieved in the human
intestine by enzymes known as lipases, which are present primarily in
the pancreatic and intestinal secretions. Bile salts from the liver emulsify
the fatty acids to make them more soluble in water and hence more easily
absorbed.
The many fatty acids in human diets are divided into two main
groups: saturated and unsaturated. The latter group includes both
94 Function of Food
polyunsaturated and mono-unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids
have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that their chemical
structure will permit. All fats and oils eaten by humans are mixtures of
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Broadly speaking, fats from land
animals (i.e. meat fat, butter and ghee) contain more saturated fatty acids
than do those of vegetable origin. Fats from plant products and to some
extent those from fish have more unsaturated fatty acids, particularly
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). There are exceptions, however. For
example, coconut oil has a large amount of saturated fatty acids.
These groupings of fats have important health implications because
excess intake of saturated fats is one of the risk factors associated with
arteriosclerosis and coronary heart disease. In contrast, PUFAs are believed
to be protective.
PUFAs also include two unsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid and
linolenic acid, which have been termed "essential fatty acids" (EFAs) as
they are necessary for good health. EFAs are important in the synthesis
of many cell structures and several biologically important compounds.
Recent studies have also shown the benefits of other longer-chain fatty
acids in the growth and development of young children, and arachidonic
acid and docosa-hexaenoic acid (OHA) should conditionally be considered
essential during early development. Experiments with animals and studies
in humans have shown definite skin and growth changes and abnormal
vascular and neural function in the absence of these fatty acids, and there
is no doubt that they are essential for the nutrition of individual cells and
tissues of the body.
Fat is desirable to make the diet more palatable. It also yields about 9
kcal/g, which is more than twice the energy yielded by carbohydrates and
proteins (about 4 kcal/g); fat can therefore reduce the bulk of the diet. A
person doing very heavy work, especially in a cold climate, may require
as many as 4 000 kcal a day. In such a case it is highly desirable that a
good proportion of the energy should come from fat; otherwise the diet
would be very bulky. Bulky diets can be a particularly serious problem
in young children as well. A reasonable increase in the fat or oil content
of the diets of young children raises the energy density of predominantly
bulky carbohydrate diets and is highly desirable.
Fat also functions as a vehicle that assists the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins.
Thus fats, and even specific types of fat, are essential to health.
However, practically all diets provide the small amount required.
Fat deposited in the human body serves as a reserve fuel. It is an
economic way of storing energy, because, fat yields about twice as much
energy, weight for weight, as does carbohydrate or protein. Fat is present
Function of Food 95
beneath the skin as an insulation against cold, and it forms a supporting
tissue for many organs such as the heart and intestines.
All fat in the body is not necessarily derived from fat that has been
eaten. However, excess calories from the carbohydrate and protein in, for
example, maize, cassava, rice or wheat can be converted into fat in the
human body.
Proteins
Like carbohydrates and fats, proteins contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, but they also contain nitrogen and often sulphur. They are
particularly important as nitrogenous substances, and are necessary for
growth and repair of the body. Proteins are the main structural
constituents of the cells and tissues of the body, and they make up the
greater portion of the substance of the muscles and organs (apart from
water). The proteins in different body tissues are not all exactly the same.
The proteins in liver, in blood and in specific hormones, for example, are
all different.
Proteins are necessary
• For growth and development of the body;
• For body maintenance and the repair and replacement of worn
out or damaged tissues;
• To produce metabolic and digestive enzymes;
• As an essential constituent of certain hormones, such as thyroxine
and insulin.
Although proteins can yield energy, their main importance is rather
as an essential constituent of all cells. All cells may need replacement from
time to time, and their replacement requires protein.
Any protein eaten in excess of the amount needed for growth, cell
and fluid replacement and various other metabolic functions is used to
provide energy, which the body obtains by changing the protein into
carbohydrate. If the carbohydrate and fat in the diet do not provide
adequate energy, then protein is used to provide energy; as a result less
protein is available for growth, cell replacement and other metabolic needs.
This point is especially important for children, who need extra protein
for growth. If they get too little food for their energy requirements, then
the protein will be diverted for daily energy needs and will not be used
for growth.
Amino Acids
All proteins consist of large molecules which are made of amino acids.
The amino acids in any protein are linked together in chains, called peptide
linkages. The various proteins are made of different amino acids linked
96 Function of Food
together in different chains. Because there are many different amino acids,
there are many different possible configurations, so there are many
different proteins.
During digestion proteins break down to foen amino acids much as
complex carbohydrates such as starches break down into simple
monosaccharides and fats break down into fatty acids. In the stomach and
intestines various proteolytic enzymes hydrolyse the protein, releasing
amino acids and peptides.
Plants are able to synthesize amino acids from simple inorganic
chemical substances. Animals do not have this ability; they derive all the
amino acids necessary for building their protein from consumption of
plants or animals. As the animals eaten by humans initially derived their
protein from plants, all amino acids in human diets have originated from
this source.
Animals have differing abilities to convert one amino acid into
another. In the human this ability is limited. Conversion occurs mainly in
the liver. If the ability to convert one amino acid into another were
unlimited, then the question of the protein content of diets and the
prevention of protein deficiency would be simple. It would be enough
merely to supply sufficient protein, irrespective of the quality or amino
acid content of the protein supplied.
Of the large number of amino acids, 20 are common in plants and
animals. Of these, eight have been found to be essential for the adult
human and have thus been termed "essential amino acids" or
"indispensable amino acids", namely: phenyl-alanine, tryptophan,
methionine, lysine, leucine, isoleucine, valine and threonine. A ninth amino
acid, histidine, is required for growth and is essential for infants and
children; it may also be necessary for tissue repair. Other amino acids
include glYCine, alanine, serine, cystine, tyrosine, aspartic acid, glutamic
acid, proline, hydroxyproline, citrulline and arginine. Each protein in a
food is composed of a particular mixture of amino acids which might or
might not contain all eight of the essential ones.
Protein Quality and Quantity
To assess the protein value of any food it is useful to know how much
total protein it contains, which amino acids it has and how many essential
amino acids are present and in what proportion. Much is now known
about the individual proteins present in various foods, their amino acid
content and therefore their quality and quantity. Some have a better
mixture of amino acids than others, and these are said to have a higher
biological value. The proteins albumin in egg and casein in milk, for
example, contain all the essential amino acids in good proportions and
Function of Food 97
are nutritionally superior to such proteins as zein in maize, which contains
little tryptophan or lysine, and the protein in wheat, which contains only
small quantities of lysine. It is not true, however, to say that the proteins
in maize and wheat are not valuable. Although they contain less of certain
amino acids, they do contain some amount of all the essential amino acids
as well as many of the other important ones. The relative deficiency of
maize and wheat proteins can be overcome by providing other foodstuffs
containing more of the limited amino acids. It is therefore possible for
two foods with low-value protein to complement each other to form a
good protein mixture when eaten together.
Humans, especially children on diets deficient in animal protein,
require a variety of foods of vegetable origin, not just one staple food. In
many diets, pulses or legumes such as groundnuts, beans and cowpeas,
though short of sulphur-containing amino acids, supplement the cereal
proteins, which are often short of lysine. A mixture of foods of vegetable
origin, especially if taken at the same meal, can serve as a substitute for
animal protein.
FAO has produced tables showing the content of essential amino acids
in different foodstuffs, from which it can be seen which foods best
complement each other. It is also necessary, of course, to ascertain the
total quantity of protein and amino acids in any food.
The quality of the protein depends largely on its amino acid
composition and its digestibility. If a protein is deficient in one or more
essential amino acids, its quality is lower. The most deficient of the
essential amino acids in a protein is called the "limiting amino acid". The
limiting amino acid determines the efficiency of utilization of the protein
present in a food or combination of foods. Human beings usually eat food
in meals which contain many proteins; they seldom consume just one
protein. Therefore nutritionists are interested in the protein quality of a
person's diet or meals, rather than just one food. If one essential amino
acid is in short supply in the diet, it limits the use of the other amino acids
for building protein.
Readers who wish to become familiar with the methods used for
determining protein quality are advised to consult comprehensive
textbooks on nutrition, which describe them in detail. One method uses
experiments on growth and nitrogen retention in young rats. Another
involves determination of the amino acid or chemical score, usually by
examining the efficiency of utilization of proteins in the foods consumed
by comparing their amino acid composition with that of protein known
to be of high quality, such as that in whole eggs.
The chemical score may thus be defined as the efficiency of utilization
of food protein in comparison with whole egg protein. Net protein
98 Function of Food
utilization (NPU) is a measure of the amount or percentage of protein
retained in relation to that consumed. As an example, Table 16 gives the
chemical score and NPU of the protein in five foods.
It is not usual or easy to obtain NPU values in people, and in most
studies rats are used. Table 16 suggests that there is a good correlation
between the values in rats and in children, and that chemical score
provides a reasonable estimate of protein quality.
For the professional involved in nutritional activities to help people -
be it a dietitian in a health facility, an agricultural extension worker or a
nutrition educator what is important is that the protein value differs
among foods and that mixing foods improves the protein quality of the
meal or the diet. Table 17 gives the protein content and the limiting amino
acid score of some commonly eaten plant-based foods. Because lysine is
most commonly the limiting amino acid in many foods of plant origin,
the lysine score is also given.
Protein Digestion and Absorption
Proteins consumed in the diet undergo a series of chemical changes
in the gastrointestinal tract. The physiology of protein digestion is
complicated; pepsin and rennin from the stomach, trypsin from the
pancreas and erepsin from the intestines hydrolyse proteins into their
component amino acids. Most of the amino acids are absorbed into the
bloodstream from the small intestine and thus travel to the liver and from
there all over the body. Any surplus amino acids are stripped of the amino
(NH2) group, which goes to form urea in the urine, leaving the rest of the
molecule to be transformed into glucose. There is now some evidence that
a little intact protein is taken up into certain cells lining the intestines.
Some of this protein in the infant may have a role in the passive immunity
conveyed from the mother to her newborn child.
A little of the protein and amino acids released in the intestines is
not absorbed. The unabsorbed amino acids, plus cells shed from the
intestinal villi and acted upon by bacteria, together with gut organisms,
contribute to the nitrogen found in faeces.
Table. Chemical Score and Net Protein Utilization in Selected Foods
Food Chemical score NPU determined in NPU determined
children in rats
Eggs (whole) 100 87 94
Milk (human) 100 94 87
Rice 67 63 59
Maize 49 36 52
Wheat 53 49 48
Function of Food 99
Table. Protein content, Limiting Amino Acid Score
and Lysine Score of Selected Plant Foods
Food Protein Limiting amino Lysine score
content (%) add score
Cereals
Maize 9.4 49 (Lys) 49
Rice (white) 7.1 62 (Lys) 62
Wheat flour 10.3 38 (Lys) 38
Millet 11.0 33 (Lys) 33
Legumes
Kidney beans 23.6 100 118
Cowpea 23.5 100 117
Groundnut 25.8 62 (Lys) 62
Vegetables
Tomato 0.9 56 (Leu) 64
Squash 1.2 70 (Thr) 95
Pepper, sweet 0.9 77 (Lys Leu) 77
Cassava 1.3 44 (Leu) 56
Potato 2.1 91 (Leu) 105
Much of the protein in the human body is present in muscle. There is
no true storage of protein in the body as there is with fat and to a small
extent glycogen. However, there is now little doubt that a well-nourished
individual has sufficient protein accumulated to be able to last several
days without replenishment and to remain still in good health.
Protein Requirements

Children need more protein than adults because they need to grow.
Infants in the first few months of life require about 2.5 g of protein per
kilogram of body weight. This requirement drops to about 1.5 g/kg at nine
to 12 months of age. Unless energy intakes are adequate, however, the
protein will not all be used for growth. A pregnant woman needs an
additional supply of protein to build up the foetus inside her. Similarly, a
lactating woman needs extra protein, because the milk she secretes
contains protein. In some societies it is common for women to breastfeed
their babies for as long as two years. Thus some women need extra protein
for two years and nine months for every infant they bear.
Protein requirements and recommended allowances have been the
subject of much research, debate and disagreement over the past 50 years.
FAO and the World Health Organization (WHO) periodically assemble
experts to review current knowledge and to provide guidelines. The most
100 Function of Food
recent guidelines were the outcome of an Expert Consultation held jointly
by FAO, WHO and United Nations University (UNU) in Rome in 1981
(WHO, 1985). The safe level of intake for a one-year-old child was put at
1.5 g per kilogram of body weight. The amount then falls to 1 glkg at age
six years. The United States recommended dietary allowance (RDA) is a
little higher, namely 1.75 g/kg at age one year and 1.2 g/kg at age six years.
In adults the FAO/WHO/UNU safe intake of protein is 0.8 g/kg for females
and 0.85 g/kg for males.
The safe levels of intake of protein by age and gender, including those
. for pregnant and lactating women, are given in Ann2x 1. Values are
provided both for a diet high in fibre, comprising mainly cereals, roots
and legumes with little food of animal origin, and for a mixed balanced
diet with less fibre and plenty of complete protein. As an example, a non-
pregnant adult woman weighing 55 kg requires 49 g of protein per day
for the first diet and 41 g per day for the second. Fibre reduces protein
utilization.
Inadequate protein intake jeopardizes growth and repair in the body.
Pro. "3in deficiency is especially dangerous for children because they are
growing and also because the risk of infection is greater during childhood
than at almost any other time of life. In children inadequate energy intake
also has an impact on protein., in the absence of adequate energy some
protein needs to be diverted and therefore will not be used for growth.
In many developing countries (though not all), the intake of protein
is relatively low and of predominantly vegetable origin. The paucity of
foods of animal origin in the diet is not always a matter of choice. For
example, many low-income Africans and Latin Americans like animal
products but find them less freely available, more difficult to produce and
store and more expensive than most vegetable products. Diets low in meat,
fish and dairy products are very common in countries where most people
are poor.
Infections lead to an increased loss of nitrogen from the body, which
has to be replaced by proteins in the diet. Therefore children and others
who have frequent infections will have greater protein needs than healthy
persons. This fact must constantly be borne in mind, for in developing
countries many children suffer an almost continual series of infectious
diseases; they may frequently get diarrhoea, and they may harbour
intestinal parasites.
Minerals
Minerals have a number of functions in the body. Sodium, potassium
and chlorine are present as salts in body fluids, where they have a
physiological role in maintaining osmotic pressure. Minerals form part
Function of Food 101
of the constitution of many tissues. For example, calcium and phosphorus
in bones combine to give rigidity to the whole body. Minerals are present
in body acids and alkalis; for example, chlorine occurs in hydrochloric
acid in the stomach. They are also essential constituents of certain
hormones, e.g. iodine in the thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland.
The principal minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulphur, copper, magnesium, manganese,
iron, iodine, fluorine, zinc, cobalt and selenium. Phosphorus is so widely
available in plants that a shortage of this element is unlikely in any diet.
Potassium, sodium and chlorine are easily absorbed and are
physiologically more important than phosphorus. Sulphur is consumed
by humans mainly in the form of sulphur-containing amino acids; thus
sulphur deficiency, when it occurs, is linked with protein deficiency.
Copper, manganese and magnesium deficiencies are not believed to be
common. The minerals that are of most importance in human nutrition
are thus calcium, iron, iodine, fluorine and zinc, and only these are
discusSed in some detail here. Some mineral elements are required in very
tiny amounts in human diets but are still vital for metabolic purposes;
these are termed "essential trace 'elements". .,~
The table giving the nutrient content of selected foods shows the
relative content of some important minerals in different foods.
Calcium
The body of an average-sized adult contains about 1 250 g of calcium.
Over 99 per cent of the calcium is in the bones and teeth, where it is
combined with phosphorus as calcium phosphate, a hard substance that
gives the body rigidity. However, although hard and rigid, the skeleton
of the body is not the unchanging structure it appears to be. In fact, the
bones are a cellular matrix, and the calcium is continuously taken up by
the bones and given back to the body. The bones, therefore, serve as a
reserve supply of this mineral.
Calcium is present in the serum of the blood in small but important
quantities, usually about 10 mg per 100 ml of serum. There are also about
10 g of calcium in the extracellular fluids and soft tissues of the adult body.
Properties and Functions
In humans and other mammals, calcium and phosphorus together
have an important role as major components of the skeleton. They are
also important, however, in metabolic functions such as muscular function,
nervous stimuli, enzymatic and hormonal activities and transport of
oxygen. These functions are described in detail in textbooks of physiology
and nutrition.
102 Function of Food
The skeleton of a living person is physiologically different from the
dry skeleton in a grave or museum. The bones are living tissues, consisting
mainly of a mineralized protein collagen substance. In the living body
there is continuous turnover of calcium. Bone is laid down and resorbed
all the time, in people of all ages. Bone cells called osteoclasts take up or
resorb bone, while others, termed osteoblasts, lay down or form new bone.
The bone cells in the mineralized collagen are called osteocytes.
Up to full growth or maturity (which has usually taken place by age
18 to 22 years), new bone is formed as the skeleton enlarges to its adult
size. In young adults, despite bone remodelling, the skeleton generally
maintains its size. However, as persons get older there is some loss of
bone mass.
A complex physiological system maintains proper calcium and
phosphorus levels. The contrQl involves hormones from the parathyroid
gland, calcitonin and the active form of vitamin D (l,25-dihydroxy-
cholecalciferol) .
Small but highly important amounts of calcium are present in
extracellular fluids, particularly blood plasma, as well as in various body
cells. In serum most of the calcium is in two forms, ionized and protein
bound. Laboratories usually measure only total plasma calcium; the
normal range is 8.5 to 10.5 mg/dl (2.1 to 2.6 mmol/litre). A drop in the
level of calcium to below 2.1 mmol/litre is termed hypocalcaemia and can
lead to various symptoms. Tetany (not to be confused with tetanus
resulting from the tetanus bacillus), characterized by spasms and
sometimes fits, results from low levels of ionized calcium in the blood.
Dietary Sources
All the calcium in the body, except that inherited from the mother,
comes from food and water consumed. It is especially necessary to have
adequate quantities of calcium during growth, for it is at this stage that
the bones develop.
The foetus in the mother's uterus has most of its nutritional
requirements satisfied, for in terms of nutrition the unborn child is almost
parasitic. If the mother's diet is poor in calcium, she draws extra supplies
of this mineral from her bones.
An entirely breastfed infant will obtain adequate calcium from
breastmilk as long as the volume of milk is sufficient. Contrary to popular
belief, the calcium content of human milk varies rather little; 100 ml of
breastmilk, even from an undernourished mother on a diet very low in
calcium, provides approximately 30 mg of calcium (Table 18). A lactating
mother secreting 1 litre will thus lose 300 mg of calcium per day.
Cows' milk is a very rich source of calcium, richer than human milk.
Function of Food 103
Whereas a litre of human milk contains 300 mg of calcium, a litre of cows'
milk contains 1200 mao The difference arises because a cow has to provide
for her calf, which grows much more rapidly than a human infant and
needs extra calcium for the hardening of its fast-growing skeleton.
Similarly, the milk of most other domestic animals has a higher calcium
content than human milk. This does not mean, however, that a child would
be better off drinking cows' milk rather than human milk. Cows' milk
yields more calcium than a child needs. A child (or even a baby) who
drinks larse quantities of cows' milk excretes any excess calcium, so it is
of no benefit; it does not increase the child's growth rate beyond what is
optimal.
Milk products such as cheese and yoghurt are also rich sources of
calcium. Small saltwater and freshwater fish such as sardines and sprats
supply good quantities of calcium since they are usually eaten whole,
bones and all. Small d.ried fish known as dagaa in the United Republic of
Tanzania, kapenta in Zambia and chela in India add useful calcium to the
diet. Vegetables and pulses provide some calcium. Although cereals and
roots are relatively poor sources of calcium, they often supply the major
portion of the mineral in tropical diets by virtue of the quantities
consumed.
Table. Calcium content of Various Milks
Commonly Used in Developing Countries
Source of milk Calcium content (mg1100 ml)
Human 32
Cow 119
Camel 120
Goat 134
Water buffalo 169
Sheep 193
The calcium content of drinking-water varies from place to place.
Hard water usually contains high levels of calcium.
Absorption and Utilization
The absorption of calcium is variable and generally rather low. It is
related to the absorption of phosphorus and the other important mineral
constituents of the bones. Vitamin D is essential for the proper absorption
of calcium. Thus a person seriously deficient in vitamin D absorbs too
little calcium, even if the intake of calcium is more than adequate, and
could h'ave a negative calcium balance. Phytates, phosphates and oxalates
in food reduce calcium absorption.
Persons customarily consuming diets low in calcium appear to have
104 Function of Food
better absorption of calcium than those on high-calcium diets. Unabsorbed
calcium is excreted in the faeces. Excess calcium is excreted in the urine
and in sweat.
Requirements
It is not easy to state categorically the human requirements for
calcium, because there are several factors influencing absorption and
considerable variations in calcium losses among individuals.
Needs for calcium are increased during pregnancy and lactation, and
children require mo~e calcium because of growth. Those on high-protein
diets require more calcium in the diet.
The following are recommended levels of daily calcium intake:
• adults, 400 to 500 mg;
• children, 400 to 700 mg;
• pregnant and lactating women, 800 to 1 000 mg.
Deficiency.states
Disease or malformation caused primarily by dietary deficiency of
calcium is rare. There is little convincing evidence to show that the many
diets of adults in developing countries supplying perhaps only 250 to 300
mg of calcium daily are harmful to health. It is assumed that adults achieve
some sort of balance when intakes of calcium are low. Females who go
through a series of pregnancies and long lactations may lose calcium and
be at risk of osteomalacia. However, vitamin D deficiency, not calcium
deficiency, is more often implicated in this condition. In children the
development of rickets results from vitamin D deficiency, not from dietary
lack of calcium, in spite of increased calcium requirements in childhood.
Calcium balance in childhood is generally positive, and calcium deficiency
has not been shown to have an adverse influence on growth.
Osteoporosis is a common disease of ageing, especially in women .
The skeleton -becomes demineralized, which leads to fragility of bones
and commonly to fractures of the hip, vertebrae and other bones,
particularly in older women. High calcium intake is often recommended
but has not been proved effective in prf"'C11tion ('~ treatment.
Exercise appears to reduce the loss of calcium from bones; this may
explain, in part, why o~eoporosis is less prevalent in many developing
countries, where women work hard and are very active. There is now clear
evidence that providing the female hormone oestrogen to women after
menopause reduces bone loss and osteoporosis.
Iron
Iron deficiency is a very common cause of ill health in all parts of the
Function of Food 105
world, both South and North. The average iron content in a healthy adult
is only about 3 to 4 g, yet this relatively small quantity is vital.
Properties and Functions
Most of the iron in the body is present in the red blood cells, mainly
as a component of haemoglobin. Much of the rest is present in myoglobin,
a compound occurring mainly in muscles, and as storage iron or ferritin,
mainly in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. Additional tiny quantities
are found binding protein in the blood plasma and in respiratory enzymes.
The main, vital function of iron is in the transfer of oxygen at various
sites in the body. Haemoglobin is the pigment in the erythrocytes that
carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Myoglobin in skeletal and
heart muscle accepts the oxygen from the haemoglobin. Iron is also present
in peroxidase, catalase and the cytochromes.
Iron is an element that is neither used up nor destroyed in the properly
functioning body. Unlike some minerals, it is not required for excretion,
and only very small amounts appear in urine and sweat. Minute quantities
are lost in desquamated cells from the skin and intestine, in shed hair and
nails and in the bile and other body secretions.
The body is, however, efficient, economical and conservative in the
use of iron. Iron released when the erythrocytes are old and broken down
is taken up and used again and again for the manufacture of new
erythrocytes. This economy of iron is important. In normal circumstances,
only about 1 mg of iron is lost from the body daily by excretion into the
intestines, in urine, in sweat or through loss of hair or surface epithelial
cells.
Because iron is conserved, the nutritional needs of healthy males and
postmenopausal females are very small. Women of child-bearing age,
however, must replace the iron lost during menstruation and childbirth
and must meet the additional requirements of pregnancy and lactation.
Children have relatively high needs because of their rapid growth, which
involves increases not only in body size but also in blood volume.
Dietary Sources
Iron is present in a variety of foods of both plant and animal origin.
Rich food sources include meat (especially liver), fish, eggs, legumes
(including a variety of beans, peas and other pulses) and green leafy
vegetables. Cereal grains such as maize, rice and wheat contain moderate
amounts of iron, but because these are often staple foods and eaten in
large quantities, they provide most of the iron for many people, in
developing countries. Iron cooking pots may be a source of iron.
Milk, contrary to the notion that it is the "perfect food", is a poor
106 Function of Food
source of iron. Human milk contains about 2 mg of iron per litre and cows'
milk only half this amount.
Absorption and Utilization

Absorption of iron takes place mainly in the upper portion of the small
intestine. Most of the iron enters the bloodstream directly and not through
the lymphatic system. Evidence indicates that absorption is regulated to
some extent by physiological demand. Persons who are iron deficient tend
to absorb iron more efficiently and in greater quantities than do normal
subjects.
Several other factors affect iron absorption. For example, tannins,
phosphates and phytates in food reduce iron absorption, whereas ascorbic
acid increases it. Studies have indicated that egg yolk, despite its relatively
high iron content, inhibits absorption of iron - not only the iron from the
egg yolk itself, but also that from other foods.
Healthy subjects normally absorb only 5 to 10 per cent of the iron in
their foods, whereas iron-deficient subjects may absorb twice that amount.
Therefore, on a diet that supplies 15 mg of iron, the normal person would
absorb 0.75 to 1.5 mg of iron, but the iron-deficient person would absorb
as much as 3 mg. Iron absorption generally increases during growth and
pregnancy, after bleeding and in other conditions in which the demand
for iron is enhanced.
Of greatest importance is the fact that the availability of iron from
foods varies widely. Absorption of the haem iron in foods of animal origin
(meat, fish and poultry) is usually very high, whereas the non-haem iron
in foods such as cereals, vegetables, roots and fruits is poody absorbed.
However, people usually eat meals, not single individual foods, and
a small amount of haem iron consumed with a meal where most of the
iron is non-haem iron will enhance the absorption of all the iron. Thus
the addition of a quite small amount of haem iron from perhaps fish or
meat to a large helping of rice or maize containing non-haem iron will
result in much greater absorption of iron from the cereal staple. If this
meal also includes fruits or vegetables, the vitamin C in them will also
enhance iron absorption. However, if tea is consumed with this meal, the
tannin present in the tea will reduce the absorption of iron.
Requirements
The dietary requirements for iron are approximately ten times the
body's physiological requirements. If a normally healthy man or post-
menopausal woman requires 1 mg of iron daily because of iron losses,
then the dietary requirements are about 10 mg per day. This
recommendation allows a fair margin of safety, as absorption is increased
Function of Food 107
with need. Menstrual loss of iron has been estimated to average a little
less than 1 mg per day during an entire year. It is recommended that
women of child-bearing age have a dietary intake of 18 mg per day.
During pregnancy, the body requires on average about 1.5 mg of iron
daily to develop the foetus and supportive tissues and to expand the
maternal blood supply. Most of this additional iron is required in the
second and third trimesters of pregnancy.
Breastfeeding women use iron to provide the approximately 2 mg of
iron per litre of breastmilk. However, during the first six to 15 months of
intensive breastfeeding they may not menstruate, so they do not lose iron
in menstrual blood.
Newborn infants are born with very high haemoglobin levels (a high
red blood cell count), termed polycythaemia, which provides an extra store
of iron. This iron, together with that present in breastmilk, is usually
sufficient for the first four to six months of life, after which iron from other
foods becomes necessary.
Premature and other low-birth-weight infants may have lower iron
stores and be at greater risk than other infants.
An excess intake of iron over long periods can lead to the disease
siderosis or haemachromatosis. This disease is reported to occur most
commonly where beer or other alcoholic beverages are brewed in iron
cooking pots, particularly in South Africa. In alcoholics siderosis leading
to iron deposits in the liver may be associated with cirrhosis.
Average safe levels of iron intake are provided in Annex 1.
Deficiency States
Consideration of the iron requirements and the iron content of
commonly eaten foods might suggest that iron deficiency is rare, but this
is not the case. Food iron is poorly absorbed. Iron is not readily excreted
into the urine or the gastro-intestinal tract; thus severe iron deficiency is
usually associated with an increased need for iron resulting from
conditions such as pregnancy, blood loss or expansion of the total body
mass during growth. Iron deficiency is most common in young children,
in women of child-bearing age and in persons with chronic blood loss.
The end result of iron deficiency is anaemia.
Hookworm infections, which are extremely prevalent in many
countries, result in loss of blood which may cause iron deficiency anaemia.
In some parts of the tropics schistosomiasis is also common, and this
disease also causes blood loss.
Iodine
The body of an average adult contains about 20 to 50 mg of iodine,
 108 Function of Food
much of it in the thyroid gland. Iodine is essential for the formation of
thyroid hormones secreted by this gland.
Properties and Functions
In humans iodine functions as an essential component of the
hormones of the thyroid gland, an endocrine gland situated in the lower
neck. Thyroid hormones, of which the most important is thyroxine (T4),
are important for regvlating metabolism.
In children they support normal growth and development, including
mental development.
Iodine is absorbed from the gut as iodide, and excess is excreted in
the urine. The adult thyroid gland, in a person consuming adequate iodine,
traps about 60 f.lg of iodine per day to make normal amounts of thyroid
hormones. If there is insufficient iodine, the thyroid works harder to trap
more; the gland enlarges in size (a condition known as goitre), and its
iodine content might become markedly reduced.
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland
influences thyroxine secretion and iodine trapping. In severe iodine
deficiency, TSH levels are raised and thyroxine levels are low.
Dietary Sources
Iodine is widely present in rocks and soils. The quantity in different
plants varies according to the soil in which they are grown. It is not
meaningful to list the iodine content of foodstuffs because of the large
variations in iodine content from place to place, depending on the iodine
content of the soil. Iodine tends to get washed out of the soil, and
throughout the ages a considerable quantity has flowed into the sea. Sea
fish, seaweed and most vegetables grown near the sea are useful sources
of iodine. Drinking-water provides some iodine but very seldom enough
to satisfy human requirements.
In many countries where goitre is prevalent the authorities have
added iodine to salt, a strategy which has successfully controlled iodine
deficiency disorders (IDD). Iodine has usually been added to salt in the
form of potassium iodide, but another form, potassium iodate, is more
stable and is better in hot, humid climates. Iodated salt is an important
. dietary source of iodine.
Deficiency States
A lack of iodine in the diet results in several health problems, one of
which is goitre, or enlargement of the thyroid gland. Goitre is extremely
prevalent in many countries. There are other contributing causes of goitre,
but iodine deficiency is by far the most common. -Iodine deficiency during
Function of Food 109
pregnancy may lead to cretinism, mental retardation and other problems,
which may be permanent, in the child. It is now known that endemic goitre
and cretinism are not the only problems caused by iodine deficiency. The
decrease in mental capacity associated with iodine deficiency is of
particular concern.
IDD, although previously prevalent in Europe, North America and
Australia, is now seen predominantly in developing countries. The greatest
prevalence tends to be in mountaino\ils areas such as the Andes and the
Himalayas and in plateau areas fat from the sea. For example, an
investigation carried out by the author in the Ukinga Highlands of
Tanzania revealed that 75 per cent of th~ population had some
enlargement of the thyroid.
Fluorine
Fluorine is a mineral element found mainly in the teeth and skeleton.
Traces of fluorine in the teeth help to protect them against decay. Fluorides
consumed during childhood become a part of the dental enamel and make
it more resistant to the weak organic acids formed from foods that adhere
to or get stuck between the teeth. This strengthening greatly reduces the
chances of decay or caries developing in the teeth. Some studies have
suggested that fluoride may also help strengthen bone, particularly later
in life, and may thus inhibit the development of osteoporosis.
Dietary Sources
The main source of fluorine for most human beings is the water they
drink. If the water has a fluorine content of about one part per million (1
ppm), then it will supply adequate fluorine for the teeth. However, many
water supplies contain much less than this amount. Fluorine is present in
bone; consequently small fish that are consumed whole are a good source.
Tea has a high fluorine content. Few other foods contain much fluorine.
Deficiency
If the fluoride content of drinking-water in any locality is below 0.5
ppm, dental caries will probably be much more prevalent than where the
concentration is higher.
The recommended level of fluoride in water is between 0.8 and 1.2
ppm. In some countries or localities where the content of fluorine in the
water is less than 1 ppm, it has now become the practice to add fluoride
to the water supply.
This practice is strongly recommended, but it is only practicable for
large piped-water supplies; in some developing countries where mosf ;
people do not have piped water, it is not feasible. The addition of fluoride
110 . Function of Food
to toothpaste also helps reduce dental caries. Fluorine does not totally
prevent dental caries, but it can reduce the incidence by 60 to 70 per cent.
Excess
An excessively high intake of fluoride causes a condition known as
dental fluorosis, in which the teeth become mottled. It is usually caused
by consuming excessive fluoride in water supplies that have high fluoride
levels. In some parts of Africa and Asia, natural waters contain over 4
ppm of fluoride. Very high fluorine intakes also cause bone changes with
sclerosis (added bone density), calcification of muscle insertions and
exostoses. A survey carried out by the author in Tanzania revealed a high
incidence of fluorotic bone changes (as shown by X-ray) in older subjects
who normally drank water containing over 6 ppm of fluoride. Similar
findings have been well described in India. Skeletal fluorosis can cause
severe pain and serious bone abnormalities.
Zinc
Zinc is an essential element in human nutrition, and its importance
to human health has received much recent attention. Zinc is present in
many important enzymes essential for metabolism. The body of a healthy
human adult contains 2 to 3 g of zinc and requires around 15 mg of dietary
zinc per day. Most of the zinc in the body is in the skeleton, but other
tissues (such as the skin and hair) and some organs (particularly the
prostate) have relatively high concentrations.
Dietary Sources
Zinc is present in most foods both of vegetable and of animal origin,
but the richest sources tend to be protein-rich foods such as meat, seafoods
and eggs. In developing countries, however, where most people consume
relatively small amounts of these foods, most zinc comes from cereal grains
and legumes.
Absorption and Utilization
As with iron, absorption of zinc from the diet is inhibited by food
constituents such as phytates, oxalate and tannins. No simple tests of
human zinc status are known, however. Indicators used include evidence
of low dietary intake, low blood serum zinc levels and low quantities of
zinc in hair specimens.
Much research on this mineral has been undertaken in the last two
decades, and a great deal of knowledge concerning zinc metabolism and
zinc deficiency in animals and humans has been gathered. Nonetheless,
there is little evidence to suggest that zinc deficiency is an important public
Function of Food 111
health problem for large numbers of people in any country, industrialized
or developing. However, research now under way may show that poor
zInc status is responsible for poor growth, reduced appetite and other
conditions; in this way zinc deficiency may contribute especially to what
is now called protein-energy malnutrition (PEM).
Zinc deficiency is responsible for a very rare congenital disease known
as acrodermatitis enteropathica. It responds to zinc therapy. Some patients
receiving all of their nutrients intravenously have developed skin lesions
which also respond to zinc treatment. In the Near East, particularly in the
Islamic Republic of Iran and Egypt, a condition has been described in
which adolescent or near-adolescent boys are dwarfed and have poorly
developed genitalia and delayed onset of puberty; this condition has been
said to respond to zinc treatment.
Zinc deficiency has also been reported as secondary to, or as a part
of, other conditions such as PEM, various malabsorption conditions,
alcoholism including cirrhosis of the liver, renal disease and metabolic
disorders.
Other Trace Elements
Numerous minerals are present in the human body. For most of the
trace elements, there is no evidence that deficiency is responsible for major
public health problems anywhere. Some of these minerals are very
important in metabolism or as constituents of body tissues. Many of them
have been studied, and their chemistry and biochemistry have been
described. Experimental deficiencies have been produced in laboratory
animals, but most human diets, even poor diets, do not appear to lead to
important deficiencies. These minerals therefore are not of public health
importance. Other trace elements are present in the body but do not have
any known essential role. Some minerals, for example lead and mercury,
are of great interest to health workers because excess intake has commonly
resulted in toxic manifestations.
Cobalt, copper, magnesium, manganese and selenium deserve
mention because of their important nutritional role, and lead and mercury
because of their toxicity. These minerals are considered in detail in large
comprehensive textbooks of nutrition.
Cobalt
Cobalt is of interest. to nutritionists because it is an essential part of
vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin). When isolated as a crystalline substance,
the vitamin was found to contain about 4 per cent cobalt. However, cobalt
deficiency does not playa part in the anaemia that results from vitamin
B12 deficiency. '
112 Function of Food
Copper
Copper deficiency is known to cause anaemia in cattle, but no such
risk is known in adult humans.
Some evidence suggests that copper deficiency leads to anaemia in
premature infants, in people with severe PEM and in those maintained
on parenteral nutrition. An extremely rare congenital condition known
as Menkes' disease is caused by failure of copper absorption.
Magnesium

Magnesium is an essential mineral present mainly in the bones but

also in most human tissues. Most diets contain adequate dietary
magnesium, but under some circumstances, such as diarrhoea, severe PEM
and other conditions, excessive body losses of magnesium occur. Such
losses may lead to weakness and mental changes and occaSionally to
convulsions.
Selenium
Both deficiency and excess of selenium have been well described in
livestock. In areas of China where the soil selenium, and therefore the
food selenium, is low)'. a heart condition has been described; termed
Keshan's disease, it is a serious condition affecting heart muscle. Chinese
researchers believe it can be prevented by providing dietary selenium.
Selenium deficiency has also been associated with certain cancers.
Lead
Lead is of great public health importance because it commonly causes
toxicity. Human lead deficiency is not known. Lead poisoning is especially
an urban problem and is most important in children. It may lead to
neurological and mental problems and to anaemia. Excess lead intake may
result from consumption of lead in the household (from lead-based paint
or water pipes containing lead) and from intake of atmospheric lead (from
motor vehicle emissions).
Mercury
Mercury deficiency is not known in humans. The concern is with
excessively high intakes of mercury and the risks of toxicity, Fish in waters
contaminated with mercury concentrate the mineraL There is a danger of
toxicity in those who consume fish with high mercury content.
Mercury poisoning resulting from consumption of seeds coated with
a mercury-containing fungicide has been described in Asia, Latin America
and the Near East. The effects include severe neurological symptoms and
paralysis.
Function of Food 113

Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances present in minute amounts in
foodstuffs and necessary for metabolism. They are grouped together not
because they are chemically related or have similar physiological functions,
but because, as their name implies, they are vital factors in the diet and
because they were all discovered in connection with the diseases resulting
from their deficiency.
Moreover, they do not fit into the other nutrient categories
(carbohydrates, fats, protein and minerals or trace metals).
When vitamins were first being classified, each was named after a
letter of the alphabet. Subsequently, there has been a tendency to drop
the letters in favour of chemical names. The use of the chemical name is
justified when the vitamin has a known chemical formula, as with the
main vitamins of the B group. Nevertheless, it is advantageous to include
certain vitamins under group headings, even if they are not chemically
related, since they do tend to occur in the same foodstuffs.
In this only vitamin A, five of the B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin,
niacin, vitamin B12 and folic acid), vitamin C and vitamin D are described
in detail. Other vitamins known to be vital to health include pantothenic
acid (of which a deficiency may cause the burning feet syndrome
mentioned below), biotin (vitamin H), para-aminobenzoic acid, choline,
vitamin E and vitamin K: (antihaemorrhagic vitamin). These vitamins are
not described in detail here for one or more of the following reasons:
• deficiency is not known to occur under natural conditions in
humans;
• deficiency is extremely rare even in grossly abnormal diets;
• lack of the vitamin results in disease only if it follows some
other disease process that is adequately described in textbooks
of general medicine;
• the role of the vitamin in human nutrition has not yet been
elucidated.
None of the vitamins omitted from discussion is important from the
point of view of workers studying nutrition as community health problems
in most developing countries. Those wishing to learn more about these
vitamins are referred to textbooks of general medicine or more detailed
textbooks of nutrition.
Vitamin A (Retinol)
Vitamin A was discovered in 1913 when research workers found that
certain laboratory animals stopped growing when lard (made from pork
fat) was the only form of tat present in their diet, whereas when butter
was supplied instead of lard (with the diet remaining otherwise the same)
114 Function of Food
the animals grew and thrived. Further animal experiments showed that
egg yolk 'and cod-liver oil contained the same vital food factor, which was
named vitamin A.
It was later established that many vegetable products had the same
nutritional properties as the vitamin A in butter; they were found to
contain a yellow pigment called carotene, some of which can be converted
to vitamin A in the human body.
Properties
Retinol is the main form of vitamin A in human diets. (Retinol is the
chemical name of the alcohol derivative, and it is used as the reference
standard.) In its pure crystalline form, retinol is a very pale yellow-green
substance. It is soluble in fat but insoluble in water, and it is found only
in animal products. Other forms of vitamin A exist, but they have
somewhat different molecular configurations and less biological activity
than retinol, and they are not important in human diets.
Carotenes, which act as provitamins or precursors of vitamin A, are
yellow substances that occur widely in plant substances. In some
foodstuffs their colour may be masked by the green plant pigment
chlorophyll, which often occurs in close association with carotenes. There
are several different carotenes. One of these, beta-carotene, is the most
important source of vitamin A in the diets of most people living in non-
industrialized countries. The other carotenes, or carotenoids, have little
or no nutritional importance for humans. In the past, food analyses have
often failed to distinguish beta-carotene from other carotenes.
Vitamin A is an important component of the visual purple of the retina
of the eye, and if vitamin A is deficient, the ability to see in dim light is
reduced. This condition is called night blindness. The biochemical basis
for the other lesions of vitamin A deficiency has not been fully explained.
The main change, in pathological terms, is a keratinizing metaplasia which
is seen on various epithelial surfaces. Vitamin A appears to be necessary
for the protection of surface tissue.
Several studies have shown that adequate vitamin A status reduces
infant and child mortality in certain populations. Vitamin A
supplementation reduces case fatality rates from measles. In other illnesses
such as diarrhoea and respiratory infections, however, there is not strong
evidence that the prevalence or duration of morbidity is reduced by
vitamin A dosing.
Calculalating vitamin A content in foods
1 IV retinol = 0.3 I-lg retinol = 0.3 RE
1 RE = 3.33 IV retinol
1 RE = 6 I-lg beta-carotene
Function of Food 115
.$ince pure crystalline vitamin A, which is' termed retinol al~ohol, is
now available, the vitamin A activity in foods is now widely .expressed
and measured usi,ng retinol equivalents (RE) rather than the iI~ternational
units (IU) previously used. One IU of vitamin A is equivalent to 0.31 f.lg
retinol.
Humans obtain vitamin A in food either as preformed vitamin A
(retinol) or as carotenes which can be converted to retinol in the body.
Beta-carotene is the most important in human diets and is better converted
to retinol than other carotenes. It has been determined that six molecules
of beta-carotene are needed to produce one molecule of retinol; thus it
takes 6 f.lg of carotene to make 1 f.lg of retinol, or 1 RE.
Dietary Sources
Vitamin A itself is found only in animal products; the main sources
are butter, eggs, milk, meat (especially liver) and some fish. However,
most people in developing countries rely mainly on beta..carotene for their
supply of vitamin A. Carotene is contained in many plant foods. Dark
green leaves such as those of amaranth, spinach, sweet potato and cassava
are much richer sources than paler leaves such as those of cabbage and
lettuce. Various pigmented fruits and vegetables, such as mangoes,
papayas and tomatoes, contain useful quantities. Carotene is also present
in yellow varieties of sweet potatoes and in yellow vegetables such as
pumpkins. Carrots are rich sources. Yellow maize is the only cereal that
contains carotene. In West Africa much carotene is obtained from red palm
oil, which is widely used in cooking. The cultivation of the very valuable
oil palm has spread to other tropical regions. In Malaysia it is widely
cultivated as a cash crop, but its products are mainly exported rather than
consumed locally.
Both carotene and vitamin A withstand ordinary cooking
temperatures fairly well. However, a considerable amount of carotene is
lost when green leaves and other foods are dried in the sun. Sun-drying
is a traditional method of preserving wild leaves and vegetables often
used in arid regions. Since serious disease from vitamin A deficiency is
common in these areas, it is important that other methods of preservation
be established.
Absorption and Utilization
The conversion of beta-carotene into vitamin A takes place in the walls
of the intestines. Even the most efficient intestine can absorb and convert
only a portion of the beta-carotene in the diet; therefore 6 mg of beta-
carotene in food is equivalent to about 1 mg of retinol. If no animal
products are consumed and the body must rely entirely on carotene for
116 Function of Food
its vitamin A, consumption of carotene must be great enough to achieve
the required vitamin A level.
Carotene is poorly utilized when the diet has a low fat content, and
diets deficient in vitamin A are often deficient in fat. Intestinal diseases
such as dysentery, coeliac disease and sprue limit the absorption of vitamin
A and the conversion of carotene. Malabsorption syndromes and infections
with common intestinal parasites such as roundworm, which are prevalent
in the tropics, may also reduce the ability of the body to convert carotene
into vitamin A.
Bile salts are essential for the absorption of vitamin A and carotene,
so persons with obstruction of the bile duct are likely to become deficient
in vitamin A. Even in ideal circumstances, infants and young children do
not convert carotene to vitamin A as readily as adults do.
The liver acts as the main store of vitamin A in the human and most
other vertebrates, which is why fish-liver oils have a high content of this
vitamin. Retinol is transported from the liver to other sites in the body by
a specific carrier protein called retinol binding protein (RBP). Protein
defk:~ncy may influence vitamin A status by reducing the synthesis of
RBP.
Storage in the Body
The storage of vitamin A in the liver is important, for in many tropical
diets foods containing vitamin A and carotene are available seasonally. If
these foods are eaten in fairly large quantities when available (usually
during the wet season), a store can be built up which will help tide the
person over the dry season, or at least part of it. The short mango season
provides an excellent opportunity for youngsters, who may happily spend
their leisure hours foraging for this fruit, to replenish the vitamin A stored
in the liver.
Toxicity
If taken in excess, vitamin A has undesirable toxic effects. The most
marked toxic effect is an irregular thickening of some long bones, usually
accompanied by headache, vomiting, liver enlargement, skin changes and
hair loss. Cases of vitamin A toxicity from dietary sources are rare, but
toxicity can be a serious problem with supplemental doses of vitamin A.
A high risk of birth defects is associated with supplements given before
or during pregnancy.
Human Requirements

The intake recommended by FAO and the World Health Organization

(WHO) is 750 pg of retinol per day for adults; lactating mothers nee~ 50
Function of Food 117
per cent more, and children and infants less. It should be noted that these
figures are based upon mixed diets containing both vitamin A and
carotene. When the diet is entirely of vegetable origin, larger amounts of
carotene a're suggested, because the conversion from carotene to retinol
is not very efficient.
Deficiency
Deficiency results in pathological drying of the eye, leading to
xerophthalmia and sometimes keratomalacia and blindness. Other
epithelial tissuE'!s may be affected; in the skin, follicular keratosis may be
the result. These conditions are described in detail in Chapter 15.
Thiamine (Vitamin 8 , )
During the 1890s in Java, Indonesia, Christiaan Eijkman of the
Netherlands noticed that when his chickens were fed on the same diet as
that normally consumed by his beriberi patients, they developed weakness
in their legs and other signs somewhat similar to those of beriberi. The
diet of the beriberi patients consisted mainly of highly milled and refined
rice (known as polished rice). When Eijkman changed the diet of the
chickens to whole-grain rice, they began to recover. He showed that there
was a substance in the outer layers and germ of the rice grain that protected
the chickens from the disease.
Researchers continued to work on isolating the cause of the different
effects of diets of polished and whole-grain rice, but despite many attempts
it was not until 1926 that vitamin Bl was finally isolated in crystalline
form. It was synthesized ten years later, and now the term thiamine is
used, rather than vitamin B1.
Properties
Thiamine is one of the most unstable vitamins. It has a rather loosely
bound structure and decomposes readily in an alkaline medium. Thiamine
is highly soluble in water. It resists temperatures of up to 100°C, but it
tends to be destroyed if heated further (e.g. if fried in a hot pan or cooked
under pressure).
Much research has been carried out on the physiological effects and
biochemical properties of thiamine. It has been shown that thiamine has
a very important role in carbohydrate metabolism in humans. It is utilized
in the complicated mechanism of the breakdown, or oxidation, of
carbohydrate and the metabolism of pyruvic acid.
The energy used by the nervous system is derived entirely from
carbohydrate, and a deficiency of thiamine blocks the final utilization of
carbohydrate, leading to a shortage of energy and lesions of the nervous
118 Function of Food
tissues and brain. Because thiamine is involved in carbohydrate
metabolism, a person whose main supply of energy comes from
carbohydrates is more likely to develop signs of thiamine deficiency if
his or her food intake is decreased. For this reason, thiamine requirements
are sometimes expressed in relation to intake of carbohydrate.
Thiamine has been synthesized in pure form and is now measured in
milligrams.
Dietary Sources
Thiamine is widely distributed in foods of both vegetable and animal
origin. The richest sources are cereal grains and pulses. Green vegetables,
fish, meat, fruit and milk all contain useful quantities. In seeds such as
cereals, the thiamine is present mainly in the germ and in the outer coats;
thus much can be lost during milling. Bran of rice, wheat and other cereals
tends to be naturally rich in thiamine. Yeasts are also rich sources. Root
crops are poor sources. Cassava, for example, contains only about the same
low quantity as polished, highly milled rice. It is surprising that beriberi
is not common among the many people in Africa, Asia and Latin America
whose staple food is cassava. •
Because it is very soluble in water, thiamine is liable to be lost from
food that is washed too thoroughly or cooked in excess water that is
afterwards discarded. For people on a rice diet, it is especially important
to prepare rice with just the amount of water that will be absorbed in
cooking, or to use water that is left over in soups or stews, for this water
will contain thiamine and other nutrients.
Cereals and pulses maintain their thiamine for a year or more if they
are stored well, but if they are attacked by bacteria, insects or moulds the
content of thiamine gradually diminishes.
Absorption and St. rage in the Body
Thiamine is easily absorbed from the intestinal tract, but little is stored
in the body. Experimental evidence indicates that humans can store only
enough for about six weeks. The liver, heart and brain have a higher
concentration than the muscles and other organs. A person with a high
intake of thiamine soon begins to excrete increased quantities in the urine.
The total amount in the body is about 25 mg.
Human Require ......
A daily intake of 1 mg of thiamine is sufficient for a moderately active
man and 0.8 mg for a moderately active woman. Pregnant and lactating
women may need more. FAO and WHO recommend an intake of 0.4 mg
per 1 000 kcal for most persons.
Function of Food 119
Deficiency
Deficiency of thiamine leads to the disease beriberi, which in advanced
forms produces paralysis of the limbs. In alcoholics thiamine deficiency
leads to a condition termed Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. These
disorders are described in Chapter 16.
Riboflavin (Vitamin B~
Early work on the properties of vitamins in' yeast and other foodstuffs
showed that antineuritic factors were destroyed by excessive heat, but
that a growth-promoting factor was not destroyed in this way. This factor,
riboflavin, was later isolated from the heat-resistant portion. It was
synthesized in 1935.
Properties
Riboflavin is a yellow crystalline substance. It is much less soluble in
water and more heat resistant than thiamine. The vitamin is sensitive to
sunlight, so milk, for example, if left exposed may lose considerable
quantities of riboflavin. Riboflavin acts as a coenzyme involved with tissue
oxidation. It is measured in milligrams.
Dietary Sources
The richest sources of riboflavin are milk and its non-fat products.
Green vegetables, meat (especially liver), fish and eggs contain useful
quantities.
However, the main sources in most Asian, African and Latin
American diets, which do not contain much of the products, are usually
cereal grains and pulses. As with thiamine, the quantity of riboflavin
present is much reduced by milling. Starchy foods such as cassava,
plantains, yams and sweet potatoes are poor sources.
Human Requirements
ApprOximately 1.5 mg of riboflavin per day is an ample amount for
an cwerage adult, but rather more may be desirable during pregnancy
and lactation. The FAO/WHO requirement is 0.55 mg per 1 000 kcal in
the diet.
Deficiency
In humans a deficiency of riboflavin is termed ariboflavinosis. It may
be characterized by painful cracking of the lips (cheilosis) and at the
comers of the mouth (angular stomatitis). The clinical manifestations are
described in Chapter 22. Ariboflavinosis is common in most countries but
is not life threatening.
120 Function of Food
Niacin (Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide, Vitamin PP)
As the history of thiamine is linked with the disease beriberi, so the
history of niacin is closely linked with the disease pellagra. beriberi is
associated with the East and a rice diet, and pellagra with the West and a
maize diet.
Pellagra was first attributed to a poor diet over 200 years ago by the
Spanish physician Gaspar Casal. At first, it was believed that pellagra
might be caused by a protein deficiency, because the disease could be
cured by some diets rich in protein. Later it was shown that a liver extract
almost devoid of protein could cure pellagra. In 1926 J. Goldberger, in
the United States, demonstrated that yeast extract contained a pellagra-
preventing (PP) non-protein substance. In 1937 niacinamide or
nicotinamide (nicotinic acid amide) was isolated, and this was found to
cure a pellagra-like disease of dogs known as black tongue.
Because pellagra was found mainly in those whose staple diet was
maize, it was assumed that maize was particularly poor in niacin. It has
since been shown that white bread contains much less niacin than maize.
However, the niacin in maize is not fully available because it is in a bound
form.
The discovery that the amino acid tryptophan prevents pellagra in
experimental animals, just as niacin does, complicated the picture until it
was shown that tryptophan is converted to niacin in the human body.
This work vindicated and explained the early theories that protein could
prevent pellagra. The fact that zein, the main protein in maize, is very
deficient in the amipo acid tryptophan further explains the relationship
between maize and pellagra. It has also been shown that a high intake of
leucine, as occurs with diets based on sorghum, interferes with tryptophan
and niacin metabolism and may cause pellagra.
Properties
Niacin, a derivative of pyridine, is a white crystalline substance,
soluble in water and extremely stable. It has been synthesized. The main
role of niacin in the body is in tissue oxidation. The vitamin occurs in two
forms, nicotinic acid and nicotinamide (niacinamide). Niacin is measured
in milligrams.
Dietary Sources
Niacin is widely distributed in foods of both animal and vegetable
origin. Particularly good sources are meat (especially liver), groundnuts
and cereal bran or germ. As for other B vitamins, the main source of supply
tends to be the staple food. whole-grain or lightly milled cereals, although
not rich in niacin, contain much more than highly milled cereal grains.
Function of Food 121
Starchy roots, plantains and milk are poor sources. Beans, peas and other
pulses contain amounts similar to those in most cereals.
Although the niacin in maize does not seem to be fully utilizable,
treatment of maize with alkalis such as lime water, which is a traditional
method of processing in Mexico and elsewhere, makes the niacin much
more available.
Cooking, preservation and storage of food cause little loss of niacin.
Human Requirements
An adequate quantity for any person is 20 mg per day. Niacin
requirements are affected by the amount of tryptophan containing protein
consumed and also by the staple diet (Le. whether it is maize-based or
not). The FAOIWHO requirement is 6.6 mg per 1000 kcal in the diet.
Deficiency
A deficiency of niacin leads to pellagra, the "disease of the three Ds":
dermatitis, diarrhoea and dementia. Initially manifested as skin trouble,
pellagra, if untreated, can continue for many years, growing steadily
worse.
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
Pernicious anaemia, so named because it invariably used to be fatal,
was known for many years before its cause 'was determined. In 1926 it
was found that patients improved if they ate raw liver.
This finding led to the preparation of liver extracts, which controlled
the disease when given by injection. In 1948 scientists isolated from liver
a substance they called vitamin B12 . When given in very small quantities
by injection, this substance was effective in the treatment of pernicious
anaemia.
Properties
Vitamin B12 is a red crystalline substance containing the metal cobalt.
It is necessary for the production of healthy red blood cells. A small
addition of vitamin B12 or of foods rich in this substance to the diet of
experimental animals results in increased growth. It is meas.ured in
micrograms.
Dietary Sources
Vitamin B12 is present only in foods of animal origin. It can also be
synthesized by many bacteria. Herbivorous animals such as cattle get their
vitamin B12 from the action of bacteria on vegetable matter in their rumen.
Humans apparently do not obtain vitamin B12 by ba<:terial action in their
122 Function of Food
digestive tracts. However, fermented vegetable products may provide
vitamin B12 in human diets .
•
Human Requirements
The human daily requirement of this vitamin is ~uite small, probably
around 3flg for adults. Diets containing smaller amounts do not seem to
lead to disease.
Deficiency
Pernicious anaemia is not caused by a dietary deficiency of vitamin
B12 but by an inability of the subject to utilize the vitamin B12 in the diet
because of a lack of an intrinsic factor in gastric secretions. It may be that
an autoimmune reaction limits absorption of vitamin B12 In pernicious
anaemia the red blood cells are macrocytic (larger than normal) and the
bone marrow contains many abnormal cells called megaloblasts. This
macrocytic or megaloblastic anaemia is accompanied by a lack of
hydrochloric acid in the stomach (achlorhydria). Later, serious changes
take place in the spinal cord, leading to progressive neurological
symptoms. If left untreated, the patient dies.
Treatment consists of injection of large doses of vitamin B12 When
the blood characteristics have returned to normal, the patient can usually
be maintained in good health if given one injection of 250 mg of vitamin
B12 every two to four weeks.
Vitamin B12 will also cure the anaemia ac~ompanying the disease
sprue. This is a tropical condition in which the absorption of vitamin B12,
folic acid and other nutrients is impaired.
The tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum, acquired from eating raw or
undercooked fish, lives in the intestines and has a propensity for removing
vitamin B12 from the food of its host. This results in the development in
humans of a megaloblastic anaemia which can be cured by injection of
vitamin B12 and treatment to rid the patient of the tapeworm.
Some medicines interfere with absorption of vitamin B12 .
Except in the deficiency of vitamin B12 is likely to occur only in those
on a vegetarian diet. Deficiency causes macrocytic anaemia and may
produce neurological symptoms; however, even though strict vegetarians
get very little vitamin B12 in their diet, it appears that macrocytic anaemia
due to vitamin B12 deficiency is not prevalent and is not a major public
health problem.
Folic Acid or Folates
In 1929 Lucy Wills first described a macrocytic anaemia (an anaemia
in which the red cells are abnormally large) commonly found among
Function of Food 123
pregnant women in India. This condition responded to certain yeast
preparations even though it did not respond to iron or any known vitamin.
The substance present in the yeast extract that cured the macrocytic
anaemia was at first called "Wills' factor". In 1946 a substance called folic
acid, which had been isolated from spinach leaves, was found to have the
same effect.
Properties
Folic acid is the group name (also termed folates or folacin) given to
a number of yellow crystalline compounds related to pteroglutamic acid.
Folic acid is involved in amino acid metabolism. The folic acid in foodstuffs
is easily destroyed by cooking. It is measured in milligrams.
Dietary Sources
The richest sources are dark green leaves, liver and kidney. Other
vegetables and meats contain smaller amounts.
Human Requirements
The recommended daily intake for adults has been set at 400 f-lg in
the United States.
Deficiency
Folate deficiency is most commonly due to poor diets, but it may
result from malabsorption. It can be induced by medicines such as those
m:ed in treatment of epilepsy. A deficiency leads to the development of
macrocytic anaemia. Anaemia resulting from folate deficiency is the
second most common type of nutritional anaemia, after iron deficiency.
Folic acid deficiency during pregnancy has been found to cause neural
tube defects in newborn babies. The role of folic acid in prevention of
ischaemic heart disease has also recently received increased attention.
The main therapeutic use of folic acid is in the treatment of nutritional
macrocytic or megaloblastic anaemias of pregnancy and infancy and for
the prevention of neural tube defects. A dose of 5 to 10 mg daily is
recommended for an adult.
Although administration of folic acid will improve the blood picture
of persons with pernicious anaemia, the nervous system symptoms will
neither be prevented nor improved by it. For this reason, folic acid should
never be used in the treatment of pernicious anaemia, except in conjunction
with vitamin B12 .
Vitamin C (Aascorbic Acid)
The discovery of vitamin C is associated with scurvy, which was first
124 Function of Food
recorded by seafarers who made prolonged journeys. In 1497 Vasco da
Gama described scurvy among the crew of his historical voyage from
Europe around the southern tip of Africa to India; more than half the crew
died of the disease.
It gradually became apparent that scurvy occurred only in persons
who ate no fresh food. It was not until 1747, however, that James Lind of
Scotland demonstrated that scurvy could be prevented or cured by the
consumption of citrus fruit. This finding led to the introduction of fresh
food, especially citrus products, to the rations of seafarers. Subsequently
scurvy became much less common.
In the nineteen.th century, however, scurvy began to occur among
infants receiving the newly introduced preserved milk instead of
breastmilk or fresh cows' milk. The preserved milk contained adequate
carbohydrate, fat, protein and minerals, but the heat used in its processing
destroyed the vitamin C, so the infants got scurvy.
Later vitamin C was found to be ascorbic acid, which had already
been identified.
Properties

Ascorbic acid is a white crystalline substance that is highly soluble

in water. It tends to be easily oxidized. It is not affected by light, but it is
destroyed by excessive heat, especially when in an alkaline solution. It is
a powerful reducing agent and antioxidant and can therefore reduce the
harmful action of free radicals. It is also important in enhancing the
absorption of the non-haem iron in foods of vegetable origin.
Ascorbic acid is necessary for the proper formation and maintenance
of intercellular material, particlJ.larly collagen. In simple terms, it is
essential for producing part of the substance that binds cells together, as
cement binds bricks together.
In a person suffering from ascorbic acid deficiency, the endothelial
cells of the capillaries lack normal solidification. They are therefore fragile,
and haemorrhages take place. Similarly, the dentine of the teeth and the
osteoid tissue of the bone are improperly formed. This cell-binding
property also explains the poor scar formation and slow healing of wounds
manifest in persons deficient in ascorbic acid.
It is a common belief, claimed also by some scientists, that very large
doses of vitamin C both prevent and reduce symptoms of the common
cold (coryza). This claim has not been verified. One large study did suggest
a modest reduction in the severity of cold symptoms in those taking
vitamin C medicinally, but the vitamin Did not prevent colds from
occurring. It is not advisable to take very large doses of medicinal vitamin
C for long periods of time.
Function of Food 125
Dietary Sources
The main sources of vitamin C in most diets are fruits, vegetables
and various leaves. In pastoral tribes milk is often the main source.
Plantains and bananas are the only common staple foods containing fair
quantities of vitamin C. Dark green leaves such as amaranth and spinach
contain far more than pale leaves such as cabbage and lettuce. Root
vegetables and potatoes contain small but useful quantities. Young maize
provides some ascorbic acid, as do sprouted cereals and pulses. Animal
products such as meat, fish, milk and eggs contain small quantities.
As vitamin C is easily destroyed by heat, prolonged cooking of any
food may destroy much of the vitamin C present.
Ascorbic acid is measured in milligrams of the pure vitamin.
Human Requirements
Opinions regarding human requirements differ widely. It seems clear
that as much as 75 mg per day is necessary if the body is to remain fully
saturated with vitamin C. However, individuals appear to remain healthy
on intakes as low as 10 mg per day. A recommendation of 25 mg for an
adult, 30 mg for adolescents, 35 mg during pregnancy and 45 mg during
lactation seems to be a reasonable compromise.
Deficiency
Scurvy and the other clinical manifestations of vitamin C deficiency
are described in Chapter 19. Scurvy is not now a prevalent disease.
Out1:?reaks have occurred in famine areas and recently in several refugee
camps in Africa. In its early stages vitamin C deficiency may lead to
bleeding gums and slow healing of wounds.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is associated with prevention of the disease rickets and its
adult counterpart osteomalacia (softening of the bones). Rickets was for
many years suspected to be a nutritional deficiency disease, and in certain
parts of the world cod-liver oil was used in its treatment. However, it
was not until 1919 that Sir Edward Mellanby, using puppies, demonstrated
conclusively that the disease was indeed of nutritional origin and that it
responded to vitamin D in cod-liver oil. Later it was proved that action of
sunlight on the skin leads to the production of the vitamin D used by
humans.
Properties
A number of compounds, all sterols closely related to cholesterol,
126 Function of Food
possess antirachitic properties. It was found that certain sterols that did
not have these properties became antirachitic when acted upon by
ultraviolet light. The two important activated sterols are vitamin D2
(ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol).
In human beings, when the skin is exposed to the ultraviolet rays of
sunlight, a sterol compound is activated to form vitamin D, which is then
available to the body and which has exactly the same function as vitamin
D taken in the diet. Dietary vitamin D is only absorbed from the gut in
the presence of bile.
The function of vitamin D in the body is to allow the proper
absorption of calcium. Vitamin D formed in the skin or absorbed from
food acts like a hormone in influencing calcium metabolism. Rickets and
osteomalacia, though diseases in which calcium is deficient in certain
tissues, are caused not by calcium deficiency in the diet but by a lack of
vitamin D which would allow proper utilization of the calcium in the diet.
Vitamin D is often expressed in international units; 1 IV is equivalent
to 0.025 flg of vitamin D3.
Dietary Sources
Vitamin D occurs naturally only in the fat in certain animal products.
Eggs, cheese, milk and butter are good sources in normal diets. Meat and
fish contribute small quantities. Fish-liver oils are very rich. Cereals,
vegetables and fruit contain no vitamin D.
Storage in the Body
The body has a considerable capacity to store vitamin D in fatty tissue
and in the liver. An adequate store is important in a pregnant woman, to
avoid predisposition to rickets in the child.
Human Requirements

It is not possible to define human dietary requirements, because the

vitamin is obtained both by eating foods containing vitamin D and by the
action of sunlight on the skin. There is no need for adults to have any
vitamin D in their diets, provided they are adequately exposed to sunlight,
and many children in Asia, Latin America and Africa ~urvive in good
health on a diet almost completely devoid of vitamin D. It has been shown
that fish-liver oil containing 400 IV (10 flg) of vitamin D will prevent the
occurrence of rickets in infants or children not exposed to sunlight. This
amount seems to be a safe allowance.
Deficiency
Rickets and osteomalacia, two diseases resulting from a deficiency
Function of Food 127
of vitamin D, are described in Chapter 18. As vitamin. D is produced in
humans by the action of the sun on the skin, deficiency is not common in
tropical countries, although synthesis of vitamin D may possibly be
reduced in darkly pigmented skin. Rickets and osteomalacia are seen
sporadically but are more common in areas where tradition or religion
keeps women and children indoors. Many cases have been reported from
Yemen and Ethiopia. The conditions are manifested mainly by skeletal
changes.
Toxicity
Like other fat-soluble vitamins, vitamin D taken in excess in the diet
is not well excreted. Consumption of large doses which has most
j

commonly resulted from overdosing of children with fish-liver oil

preparations, can lead to toxicity. Overdosing may lead to hypercalcaemia,
diagnosed from high levels of calcium in the blood. Toxicity usually begins
with loss of appetite and weight, which may be followed by mental
disorientation and finally by kidney failure. Fatalities have been recorded.
Other Vitamins
The two fat-soluble vitamins (A and D) and the six water-soluble
vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B12 folates and vitamin C) .
have been described in some detail because these are the vitamins most
likely to be deficient and to be of public health importance in non-
industrialized countries. Five other vitamins, although vital to human
health, are not very commonly deficient in human diets and so are of less
public health importance. These are vitamin B(51 biotin, pantothenic acid,
vitamin E and vitamin K
Vitamin 8 6 (Pyridoxine)
Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble vitamin widely present in foods of both
animal and vegetable origin. It is important as a coenzyme in many
metabolic processes. Primary dietary deficiency is extremely rare, but
vitamin B6 deficiency became common in tuberculosis patients treated
with the drug isoniazid. The patients developed neurological signs and
some times also anaemia and dermatosis. Now it is common to provide
10 mg of vitamin B6 by mouth daily to those receiving large doses of
isoniazid. Vitamin B6 is relatively expensive, however, and the routine
administration of vitamin B6 to patients receiving isoniazid increases the
cost of treatment of tuberculosis.
Biotin
Biotin is another water-soluble vitamin of the B complex group. It is
128 Function of Food
found widely in food, and deficiency in humans is extremely rare. The
vitamin is very important, however, in physiological and biochemical
metabolic processes. Avidin in uncooked egg white prevents absorption
of biotin in animals and humans. Rats fed egg white as their only source
of protein become thin and wasted and develop neuropathies and
dermatitis. Biotin deficiency has been reported in a very few cases, in
people consuming mainly egg white and in a few intravenously-fed
patients with some special forms of malabsorption.
Pantothenic Acid

Pantothenic acid, a water-soluble vitamin, is present in adequate

amounts in almost all human diets. It has important biochemical functions
in various enzyme reactions, but deficiency in humans is very rare. A
neurological condition described as burning feet syndrome, reported in
prisoners of war held by the Japanese between 1942 and 1945, was ascribed
to a deficiency of this vitamin.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Vitamin E, a fat-soluble vitamin, is obtained by humans mainly from
vegetable oils and whole-grain cereals. It has been termed the" anti-sterility
vitamin" or even the" sex vitamin" because rats fed on tocopherol-deficient
diets cannot reproduce: males develop abnormalities in the testicles and
females abort spontaneously.
Because of its relationship to fertility and to many conditions in
animals, vitamin E is widely self-prescribed and is not uncommonly
recommended by physicians for a variety of human ills. However, true
deficiency is probably rare; it occurs mainly in association with severe
malabsorption states (when fat is poorly absorbed), in genetic anaemias
[including glucose-6-phosphatase dehydrogenase (G-6PD) deficiency] and
occasionally in very low-weight babies.
Vitamin E (like vitamin C) is an antioxidant, and because of its ability
to limit oxidation and to deal with damaging free radicals it is sometimes
recommended as a possible preventive for both arteriosclerosis and cancer.
Its presence in oils helps prevent the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K has been termed the "coagulation vitamin" because of its
relationship to prothrombin and blood coagulation, and because it is
successfully used to treat a bleeding condition of newborn infants
(haemorrhagic disease of the newborn). Humans obtain some vitamin K
from food, and some is also made by bacteria in the intestines. Newborn
infants have a gut free of organisms, so they do not get vitamin K from
Function of Food 129
bacterial synthesis. It is now believed that intravenously-fed or starved
patients receiving broad-spectrum antibiotics that kill gut bacteria may
bleed because of vitamin K deficiency. In many hospitals vitamin K is
given routinely to newborn infants to prevent haemorrhagic disease.
FOOD GROUP

Milk and Dairy Products

This group contains milk, yoghurt, fromage frais, milkshakes, cheese
- both hard cheese and soft cheese including soft cheese triangles. These
foods contain protein and calcium and some vitamins like vitamin B12,
vitamin A and vitamin D. Dairy products keep your bones and teeth
healthy. The body absorbs the calcium in dairy foods easily. We should
try and eat three servings of these a day.
One portion of milk and dairy products.
• One glass of milk!
• One pot of yoghurt or fromage frais.
• One matchbox size piece of cheese or two triaflgles. Half a tin
of low-fat custard.

Fig. Milk and Dairy Products

Fruit and Vegetables

This group includes fresh as well as frozen, tinned, dried and juices
of fruits and vegetables. Fruit and vegetables give you lots of vitamins
and chemicals called antioxidants which keep you healthy. These can even
stop you getting some cancers. They also contain fibre to keep your
digestive system healthy. Because fruit and veg are low in calories and
high in fibre (which keep kids feeling full) eating plenty will help control
your weight It is important to eat a wide variety of fruit and vegetables.
This way you get the whole range of all the important nutrients these foods
give. You should eat at least five portions of fruit and vegetables a day.
One portion of fruit and vegetables.
130 Function of Food
• One apple, orange, pear or banana or similar sized fruit.
• Two smaller fruits such as plums, satsumas, kiwi fruit.
• A handful of very small fruits such as grapes, cherries or berries.
• Half to one tablespoon of dried fruits such as raisins, prunes or
apricots.
• A slice of large fruit such as a piece of melon or a slice of
pineapple.
• Three heaped tablespoons of raw, cooked, frozen or canned
vegetables.
• A dessert bowl of salad.
Carbohydrates
This ~oup contains starchy foods such as pasta, rice, oats, potatoes,
noodles, yam, green bananas, sweet potato, millet, couscous, breads,
breakfasts cereals, barley and rye. Carbohydrates give us energy, calcium
and B vitamins. Wholegrain ones give us lots of fibre to help keep the
digestive system healthy. Many breakfast cereals also have extra iron. A
heal~hy diet would include 3-5 servings of carbohydrate a day. These
portions should be spread throughout the day and eaten with every meal,
including snacks.
One portion of carbohydrate is:
• One slice of bread, one roll or half a pizza.
• Six tablespoons of breakfast cereal or porridge.
• Four wholewheat crisp breads.
• Six tablespoons of pasta, rice, millet or couscous.
• Two small new potatoes.
• Two tablespoons mashed sweet potato.
Fats and Sugars
This group contains butter, margarine, cooking oils, cream, salad
dressings, chocolate, crisps, sugary soft drinks, sweets, jam, cakes,
pudding, biscuits and pastries. These foods give us a lot of energy (calories)
but not many nutrients.
Junk foods are often high in fat, sugar and salt. It's important not to
have too many foods from this group too often.
Meat and Vegetable Protein
This group contains meat, fish and eggs as well as vegetable protein,
nuts, beans, peas, lentils, dahl, Quom and soya. These foods give us
protein, iron and some other minerals and vitamins. This helps the body
to grow and repair itself. They are like building blocks for the body. Meat
is a good source of iron. We should eat 2-3 servings of these every day.
Function of Food 131
One portion of meat or vegetable protein
• Two slices of cold ham, turkey and chick€n.
• One medium chicken breast.
• Two sausages.
• Three bacon rashers.
• One beefburger.
• One fillet of fish or fish steak.
• One small can of tuna, salmon, mackerel, sardines.
• Four fish fingers.
• One cup of cooked lentils or beans.
• Half a large can of beans, chickpeas or lentils .
•. A lOOg portion of Tofu or Quom.
 Chapter 4

Digestion and Absorption

DIGESTION
Digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller particles or individual
nutrients. It is accomplished through six basic processes, with the help of
several body fluids-particularly digestive juices that are made up of
compounds such as saliva, mucus, enzymes, hydrochloric acid,
bicarbonate, and bile.
The six processes of digestion involve:
• The movement of food and liquids;
• The lubrication of food with bodily secretions;
• The mechanical breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins;
• The reabsorption of nutrients-especially water;
• The production of nutrients such as vitamin K and biotin by
friendly bacteria; and
• The excretion of waste products.
Comprehension of the tasks or processes needed to break down food
are essential to an understanding of how and when food really begins to
function within the body. For example, not understanding that
carbohydrates break down into glucose could lead one to believe that the
best source of glucose is in liquid form such as a soft drink. This could
cause one to miss out on the nutrients (and great taste) in fruits, vegetables,
and grains. Likewise, not understanding the digestion process could lead
a person to believe in the myth of "food combining," or perhaps to think
it is normal to be hungry all the time. But, in fact, the digestive processes
normal to human physiology can simultaneously handle carbobydrates,
fats, and proteins-and allow people to go several hours between meals,
especially if meals are balanced in fibre and the individual nutrients
needed.
GI Tract Physiology
Digestion begins in the mouth with the action of salivary amylase.
The food material then progresses past the esophagus and into the
Digestion and Absorption 133
stomach. A bolus (soft mass) of chewed food moves by muscular wave
actions, called peristalsis, from the mouth to the pharynx, and then. past
the epiglottis that covers the larynx. The epiglotti3 closes off the air passage
so that one doesn't choke. The cardiac sphincter prevents reflux of stomach
contents into the esophagus.
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
Food mixtures leaving the stomach are called chyme, and this empties
into the small intestine after about two to four hours in the stomach. The
small intestine is where most digestion takes place. A pyloric sphincter
controls the rate of flow of chyme from the stomach into the small intestine.
Most digestion occurs in the upper portion of the small intestine,
called the duodenum. Below the duodenum is the jejunum, and then there
is the last segment, called the ileum. About 5 percent of undigested food
products are broken down in the ileum. This is why some people can have
a small part of their intestine removed and still seem to digest most foods
with little problem.
Digestion of food that enters the small intestine is usually complete
after three to ten hours. Once digestion is essentially finished, waste
pwducts leave the ileum with the help of fibre, and these solids then enter
the large intestine (the colon). In the colon, water is reabsorbed; some
nutrients are produced by friendly bacteria (vitamin K, biotin, vitamin
Bd; fibers are digested to various acids and gases; and minerals, such as
potassium and sodium, are reabsorbed (when needed). Any fibre that is
not broken down-and small amounts of other undigested products-
are excreted in the feces.
Protective Factors
During digestion in the stomach, large proteins break down into
smaller protein forms, and harmful bacteria can become inactive.
Hydrochloric acid is especially important for this because it lowers the
pH of the stomach contents below 2. Along with the uncoiling of protein
in the stomach, a little carbohydrate and lipid are broken down with the
help of enzymes (called amylase and lipase, respectively).
In the stomach, carbohydrates in foods tum to starch, but it is not
until the chyme reaches the small intestine and becomes more neutralized
that starch turns to simple sugars that are then absorbed into the portal
vein, which transports them to the liver. Also in the small intestine, lipids
(mostly in the form of triglycerides) are emulsified and form
monoglycerides and free fatty acids that can then go through the lymph
system to the heart and bloodstream.
As previously mentioned, the mouth, stomach, small intestine, and
134 Digestion and Absorption
colon are the major organs of digestion. However, the liver, gallbladder,
and pancreps are also important to the process. The liver detoxifies foreign
compounds, such as natural toxicants in foods and drugs. The liver also
makes bile, an emulsifier, which enters the small intestine and prepares
fats and oils for digestion. This bile is stored in the gallbladder prior to
delivery to the small intestine. A hormone called cholecystokinin helps
control the release of bile.
The pancreas makes pancreatic juice consisting of enzymes (amylases,
lipases, and proteases) and bicarbonate, which helps neutralize acidic
secretions produced during digestion. The pancreas delivers the pancreatic
juice to the small intestine, in response to a signal of food in the intestine
and the release of the hormone secretin. The pancreas also has another
function, the secretion of the hormones insulin and glucagon, which helps
maintain a steady state of blood sugar in the body (insulin decreases blood
glucose concentration, while glucagon increases it).
Food moves from the mouth ~o the epiglottis, bypassing the trachea,
into the esophagus, past the cardiac sphincter into the stomach, past the
pyloric valve into the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), and
then past the ileocecal valve into the colon. Waste then leaves the colon
through the rectum and anus. When chytl.e reaches the small intestine,
the pancreas and liver contribute to the digestion by providing products
such as bicarbonate, enzymes, and bile.
Absorption
Absorption is the movement of molecules across the gastrointestinal
(GI) tract into the circulatory system. Most of the end-products of
digestion, along with vitamins, minerals, and water, are absorbed in the
small intestinal lumen by four mechanisms for absorption:
• Active transport,
• Passive diffusion,
• Endocytosis, and
• Facilitative diffusion.
Active transport requires energy.
Nutrient absorption is efficient becatse the GI tract is folded with
several surfaces for absorption and these surfaces are lined with villi
(hairlike projections) and microvilli cells .. Efficient absorption can be
compromised due to lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance is not
uncommon in the world, affecting about 25 percent of the U.S. population
and 75 percent of the worldwide population. It is usually due to the lack
or absence of the enzyme lactase, which breaks down milk sugar.
Lactose intolerance is not a food allergy. Food allergies are serious,
even life threatening, but most people with lactose intolerance can digest
Digestion and Absorption 135
small amounts of milk, especially in yogurt and cheese. Protein,
carbohydrate, lipid, and most vitamin absorption occur in the small
intestine. Once proteins are broken down by proteases they are absorbed
as dipeptides, tripeptides, and individual amino acids. Carbohydrates,
including both sugar and starch molecules, are broken down by enzymes
in the intestine to disaccharides called sucrose, lactose, and maltose, and
then finally into the end-products known as glucose, fructose, and galactose,
which are absorbed mostly by active transport. Lipase, an enzyme in the
pancreas and the small intestine, and bile from the liver, break down lipids
into fatty acids and monglycerides; these end-products then are absorbed
through villi cells as triglycerides.
Alcohol is not a nutrient, but 80 percent of consumed alcohol is
absorbed in the small intestine. The other 20 percent is absorbed into the
stomach. Alcohol is absorbed by simple diffusion, which explains why
gastric ulcers are not uncommon in people who drink excessively.
Coordination and Transport of Nutrients into the Blood or to the 'Heart
Hormones and the nervous system coordinate digestion and
absorption. The presence of food, or the thought or smell of food, can cause
a positive response from these systems. Factors that can inhibit digestion
include stress, cold foods, and bacteria.
After foods are digested and I1utrients are absorbed, they are
transported to specific places throughout the body. Water-soluble
nutrients leave the GI tract in the blood and travel via the portal vein,
first to the liver and then to the heart. Unlike the vascular system for water-
soluble nutrients, the lymphatic system has no pump for fat-soluble
nutrients; instead, these nutrients eventually enter the vascular system,
though they bypass the activity of the liver at first.
 Chapter 5

Food Safety and Preparation

HEALTHY WAYS TO USE BREADS, CEREALS

AND OTHER GRAIN PRODUCTS
Vary the taste and texture by choosing among whole-wheat, oatmeal,
pumpernickel, rye, and cornmeal products. Try some of the flavored pastas
available, spinach noodles or whole-wheat spaghetti. Brown rice gives
added texture, fibre, and flavour to many dishes.
Home baking
Use two egg whites in place of each whole egg in quick breads,
cookies, and cakes and use lowfat or skim milk. Add a small amount of
vanilla, cinnamon, or nutmeg to sweet baked products to enhance flavour
when you reduce sugars. Use 3 tablespoons cocoa in place of each ounce
of baking chocolate. If fat is needed, to replace the fat in chocolate in baked
goods, use 1 tablespoon or less of vegetable oil or margarine (in which
the first ingredient on the ingredient label is a liquid as opposed to a
hydrogenated solid fat). Some yeast breads, such as English muffins and
French bread, can be made without any fat. Salt is a part of most baking
products (baking powder and baking soda) so reduce the amount used
or use only half the amount of salt called for in baked products.
INFORMATION ON DIFFERENT COOKING METHODS

Microwave
Microwaving cooks food faster than most other methods. You don't
need to add fat to meat, poultry, or fish, and use little or no water with
vegetables. Microwaving is an excellent way to retain vitamins and colour
in vegetables. When foods are boiled in water and the water is
subsequently discarded the water soluble vitamins and minerals are lost.
Steam
Steaming is a good way of cooking vegetables without using fat. Try
Food Safety and Preparation 137
this method for frozen and fresh vegetables, such as asparagus, broccoli,
carrots, spinach, and summer squash. Use a vegetable steamer or colander
to hold vegetables, place in pot with a little boiling water and cover. Cook
until the vegetables are just tender to preserve colour and vitamins.
Braise
Braising is used mainly for meats that need longer cooking times to
become tender. Root vegetables are also good braised. Brown meat first
in small amount of oil or in its own fat, then simmer in a covered pan
with a little liquid, try using fruit juice, cider, wine, broth, or a combination
of these for added flavour
Barbecue

Roasting foods on a rack or a spit over coals is fun, lower fat way to
prepare meat, poultry, fish, and vegetables too. Barbecuing gives a
distinctive smoked flavour to foods. Trim fat from meat to prevent flare-
up of flames and to reduce calories. If seasoning with sauce, use a home-
made one with less salt, sugar, and fat.
Broil

Broiling is a qUick way of cooking foods under direct heat without

added fat. It's great for poultry, fish, and tender cuts of meat. Use a broiling
pan or rack set in a shallow pan to allow fat to drain away. If basting, use
lemon juice, fruit juice, or both for flavour. Vegetables like onions, zucchini,
and tomatoes can also be broiled.
Sfirfry
Quick and easy, stirfrying requires relatively little fat and preserves
the crispness and colour of vegetables. Heat wok or heavy skillet, add
just enough oil to cover the base of the pan, add food, and stir constantly
while cooking.
If using meat, start with thin strips or diced portions of meat, poultry,
or fish. When meat is almost done, add sma)l pieces of evenly cut
vegetables such as onions, broccoli, cauliflower, zucchini, sprouts, carrots,
green peppers, and mushrooms. Serve with a low-salt "sweat & sour" or
soy sauce.
Roast or Bake
Roasting takes somewhat longer than other methods, _but requires
little work on your part. Poultry and tender cuts of meat may be roasted.
Cook in oven, uncovered on a rack in a shallow roasting pan to drain fat
and allow heat to circulate around meat. Potatoes, sweet potatoes, winter
138 Food Safety and Preparation
squashes, and onions can also be baked. Simply wash, prick skins and
place vegetables on a baking sheet in oven.
Broil or Stew
Foods are cooked in hot liquids in these low-fat, low-salt methods.
The liquid left after cooking can become a tasty broth, base of a sauce or
served together with dish. If keeping sauce separate for future use, chill
liquid first and remove any fat that rises to the top. Starchy or root
vegetables such as potatoes, com-on-the-cob, lima beans, and turnips can
also be broiled.
THE POSITIVE BENEFITS OF FOOD IRRADIATION
FDA issued a rule defining the use of irradiation as a safe and effective
means to control a major source of food-borne illness, Salmonella and other
food-borne bacteri.a in raw chicken, turkey, and other poultry.
People often become ill after eating contaminated poultry. Symptoms
may range from a simple stomach-ache to incapacitating stomach and
intestinal disorders, occasionally resulting in death.
Irradiating food to prevent illness from food-borne bacteria is not a
new concept. Research on the technology began shortly after World War
II, when the US Army began a series of experiments irradiating fresh foods
for troops in the field. Since 1963, FDA has passed rules permitting
irradiation to curb insects in foods and microorganisms in spices, control
parasite contamination in pork, and retard spoilage in fruits and
vegetables.
But to many people the word irradiation spells danger. It is associated
with atomic bomb explosions and nuclear reactor accidents such as those
at Chemobyl and Three Mile Island
Irradiation does not make food radioactive and, therefore, does not
increase human exposure to radiation. The specified exposure times and
energy levels of radiation sources approved for foods are inadequate to
induce radioactivity in the products. The process involves exposing food
to a source of radiation, such as to the gamma rays from radioactive cobalt
or cesium or to x-rays. However, no radioactive material is ever added to
the product. Manufacturers use the same technique to sterilize many
disposable medical devices like syringes and needles.
The World Health Organization believes irradiation can substantially
reduce food poisoning. According to a 35 year WHO study, there has been
a constant increase in the incidence of food-borne diseases, as well as the
emergence of "new" disease-causing organisms, such as Listeria.
Food irradiation would be another weapon in the arsenal against food-
borne illness. FDA and WHO, however, emphasize that irradiation is not
Food Safety and Preparation 139
a substitute for careful handling, storage and cooking of food. Irradiated
poultry can become recontaminated if placed next to contaminated,
nonirradiated poultry, or left unrefrigerated so that the remaining
organisms can grow.
However, as Tanya Roberts of USDA's Economic Research Service
stresses, the future of irradiation depends on consumer acceptance - based
largely on proof that the process can produce safer foods at lower cost.
PREPARING FOODS TO EAT A HEALTHY DIET

By using a few simple techniques in your food preparation routine

you can apply these guidelines, get a balanced diet, and follow the Dietary
Guidelines developed by the US Department of Agriculture for developing
and maintaining a healthier diet:-
• Decrease calories if you need to lose weight
• Avoid too much fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol
• Increase starch and dietary fibre
• Avoid too much sugar and other sweeteners
• Avoid too much salt and other sodium-containing ingredients
Its as simple as that. By keeping these five points high on your agenda
( to-do-list) you will reduce your chances of becoming obese or developing
any of the other adverse conditions covered in chapter on - Secondary
diagnoses. It is not necessary to painstakingly follow an obscure diet that
forbids you to eat your favourite foods, always weigh your foods, or
meticulously count your calorie intake.
Use the recipes and menus that follow, until you are familiar with
this healthy diet plan, and your lifestyle changes have developed to the
stage where you are eating for nutrition and health (eating to live not living
to eat). Only then be adventurous, plan your own menus, and live
healthfully.
Variety and balance are the keys to planning menus. Each day's
menus should include foods from the five major food group spreads,
cereals and grain products; vegetables; fruits; meat, poultry, fish, and
alternatives; milk, cheese and yogurt. Foods in these groups provide the
protein, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibre that you need. Go easy on
foods in the sixth group - fats, sweets, and alcoholic beverages. Also vary
your choices of foods within each group because specific foods differ in
the kinds and amounts of nutrients they provide.
Keep in mind that no system is perfect! No one s£t of menus can satisfy
everyone, nor can you always eat exactly as planned. It's what you do
over the long run, day-to-day, week-to-week, that adds up to good
nutritional health.
In spite of the trend to increased eating out, surveys show that people
140 Food Safety and Preparation
get about 70 percent of their calories from foods eaten at home or packed
in a bag lunches. Keeping nutritious, easy-to-prepare foods on hand for
quick meals and snacks can assure your family a healthful diet.
IMPORTANT FOOD SAFETY INFORMATION
Food-borne microorganisms cause tens of millions cases of intestinal
illness each year. For most healthy people, the distressful vomiting,
abdominal cramps, and diarrhoea are short-lived. But in people with
weakened immunity, such as those with AIDS, symptoms are often severe,
and the infections are so difficult to treat they can be fatal.
Salmonella bacteria frequently contaminate unpasteurized milk and
raw poultry, meat and eggs. Up to 40 percent of marketed raw chickens
carry this bacteria. Cross-contamination from raw poultry to other foods
during storage or food preparation is a major pathway for salmonella into
the diet.
Listeria bacteria are found in unpasteurized milk, cold smoked fish,
and certain cheeses, particularly soft-ripened varieties such as Brie and
Camembert. Even vegeta~les can carry Listeria and, once cut, support its
growth. A quarter of the estimated 1600 listeriosis cases each year end in
death.
Hepatitis A can be transmitted by unsanitary food handling or by
eating raw or undercooked shellfish harvested from contaminated waters.
Common-sense precautions in food selection and preparation can
significantly lessen the hazard of infection from contaminated food.
According to Hawley, M.D., medical director Whitman-Walker Clinic,
Washington, D.C., a cardinal rule is:
"Any raw animal-derived food must be considered to be
contaminated with harmful microorganisms. Under no circumstance
should a high-risk person consume unpasteurized milk or raw or
undercooked eggs, poultry, fish, shellfish or meat."
Look for cleanliness at meat and seafood counters and salad bars.
For example, cooked shrimp lying on the same bed of ice as raw fish could
be contaminated. Buy only Grade A or better eggs. Avoid eggs that are
cracked or leaking. Don't buy any foods whose "sell by" or "best used
by" date has passed. Read the label to see if the food contains raw or
undercooked animal-derived ingredients. Caesar salad dressing, for
instance, traditionally uses raw eggs. Buy only milk and cheeses labelled"
pasteurized. "
Put raw seafood, poultry and meat in plastic bags so drippings can't
contaminate other foods in the shopping cart or bag. Take groceries
directly home and refrigerate cold foods. Hot foods from the deli should
be eaten, kept hotter than 60 degrees Celsius (140 degrees Fahrenheit), or
Food Safety and Preparation 141
refrigerated right away. Leaving foods unrefrigerated for even a few hours
fosters bacterial growth. Store eggs in their original carton in the main
section of the refrigerator. Don't put them in the egg section of the door
because the temperature there is higher.
Wash hands, utensils, counters, and cutting surfaces with hot soapy
(preferably biodegradable) water between preparation of different foods,
particularly after handling raw eggs, meat, poultry, or fish. In other words,
wasn repeatedly during mealpreparation to avoid cross-contamination.
Use plastic or glass cutting boards rather than wooden ones, which are
difficult or impossible to clean adequately. Be sure to disassemble and
thoroughly wash the meat grinder and blender after grinding raw meat
or poultry or blending eggs or vegetables.
Promptly refrigerate or cook foods, including vegetables, after you
cut them up. Bacteria can grow at temperatures above 4°C (40°F) and
below 60°C (140°F), so temperature is vital in keeping foods safe. Cook
beef and lamb to at least 60°C (140°F), pork to 66°C (150°F), and poultry
to 74°C (165°F). Follow the recipe for seafood, but don't undercook it.
Avoid lightly steamed mussels and snails. Fish should be flaky, not
rubbery, when cut. Never eat oysters on the half shell, raw clams, sushi,
or sashimi. Cook eggs thoroughly until both the yolk and the white are
firm, not runny.
Refrigerate leftovers in covered containers to avoid cross-
contamination. Divide hot foods into small portions for quick cooling, and
allow room for circulation around containers to prevent the refrigerator
or freezer temperature from rising. If food looks or smells suspicious throw
it out or put it in a compost heap to use as fertilizer in the garden.
At home don't eat uncooked animal-derived dishes such as steak
tartar, sushi, raw oysters, Hollandaise sauce, and homemade mayonnaise,
eggnog, or ice cream.
When dinning out, if you don't know what's in a particular dish, ask.
Send back undercooked food - poultry that's even slightly pink. When
ordering eggs, specify that scrambled eggs be "dry" and that fried eggs
be well-cooked on both sides. The runnier the yolk, the higher the risk.
A consumer or physician who believes an episode of diarrhoea or
other stomach disorder is related to a particular food or restaurant should
tell the local health department or nearest FDA office. Such reporting can
help others avoid the illness.
 Chapter 6

Nutrition Disorder
Related to Food

Acne
Acne is a disorder of the skin's oil glands (sebaceous glands) that
results in plugged pores and outbreaks of lesions commonly called pimples
or zits. Acne lesions usually occur on the face, neck, back, chest, and
shoulders. Nearly 17 million people in the United States have acne, making
it the most common skin disease. Although acne is not a serious health
threat, severe acne can lead to disfiguring, permanent scarring, which can
be upsetting for people who suffer from the disorder.
Acne vulgaris: A form of acne which results from the bacterial infection
of cysts deep within the skin. Generally requires treatment with antibiotics
and other agents (Isotretinoin). Without treatment cystic acne may result
in scarring.
Acne rosacea: A facial skin disorder which results from chronic
inflammation of the cheeks, nose, chin, forehead, and-or eyelids. This is
often demonstrated by increased redness or acne-like eruptions in these
locations on the face.
The exact cause of acne is unknown, but doctors believe it results from
several related factors. One important factor is rising hormone levels.
These hormones, called androgens (male sex hormones), increase in both
boys and girls during puberty and can cause the sebaceous glands to
enlarge and make more sebum. Another factor is heredity or genetics.
Researchers believe that the tendency to develop acne can be inherited
from parents. For example, studies have shown that many school-age boys
with acne have a family history of the disorder.
There is no scientific evidence that chocolate, french fries or other
greasy foods cause acne. Acne is a skin disorder that can affect people at
all ages, from infancy to old age. The years from adolescence to middle
age tend to be the most troublesome as far as acne is concerned. Acne
treatment seeks to clear up existing acne and prevent more from
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 143
developing. Astringents, benzoyl peroxides, retinoic acids, and glycolic
acids all work to prevent pores from clogging. Antibiotics, either taken
orally or applied topically, can be used to control some types of acne. In
order to decrease the inflammation associated with some cases of acne,
topical corticosteroids are used to suppress immune cells in the acne-
ridden areas.
Topical vitamin A acid preparations such as tretinoin, adapalene, and
tazarotene normalize the shedding of skin at the follicular openings and
serve to unplug pore openings. (Tretinoin is more commonly known by
the brand name Retin-A.) The medication reduces the formation of new
comedones, opens closed comedones, and prompts open comedones to
expel their contents. While this process of "opening up" takes place, acne
may temporarily appear to worsen. Existing lesions may need time to heal
before improvement is noticed. Because of their preventative effect,
patients should continue to use vitamin A acids even in the absence of
active blemishes. The side effects for vitamin A acids include a mild
irritation of the skin that can make a sunburn seem more severe.
Since the exact source of acne is not known, It is important to
remember that there is no single medicine for acne treatment. Here are
some guidelines to follow:
• Wash your skin twice a day with warm water and a gentle pH
balanced soap that does not contain sulfur, chemicals, or
perfume.
• Touch your face only when your hands are' clean, wash them
frequently and avoid touching your nasal area and then your
skin.
• Steam your face a few times a week to open and cleanse your
pores. Boil some water in a pot on the stove, turn off the heat,
cover your head and face with a towel and hang your face over
the pot. Take your face away from the heat whenever you need
to, and when the steam is gone, rinse your face with cold water.
• Check out your diet. Try eating a diet high in fibre (salads, bran,
complex carbohydrates), and lots of water. This will keep your
digestive system working so that your skin is not burdened by
wastes your system can't handle. Keep your diet low in fat and
sugar. Eating healthier foods insures that your skin gets the
nutrients it needs. Food allergies may also contribute to acne.
You might try eliminating dairy products, wheat, and/or food
preservatives.
For severe nodulocystic acne that does not respond to the above
therapies, a doctor may prescribe a vitamin-A derivative taken orally, such
as isotretinoin which is known by the brand name Accutane. Isotretinoin
144 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
has a very high success rate in improving severe acne. Such medication
must be monitored very closely by a doctor because of its potentially
severe side effects, the biggest of which is a likelihood for severe birth
defects in an,unborn child.
Vitamin A, vitamin B complex, vitamin E and zinc work together in
helping overcome most skin disorders. Puberty increases the body's need
for zinc thus a deficiency among adolescents is often the cause of acne.
Iodine worsens acne, so eliminate all processed foods high in iodized salt
from your diet. :
Aging
Life expectancy at birth is now 75 years, compared with about 47 years
at the beginning of the last century. Although it is not inevitable, health
and mobility often change and decline with advancing age. The increasing
life expectancy observed throughout this century suggests that diet,
exercise, and other personal and socioeconomic factors can help prolong
good health for most people.
Nevertheless, the chances are great that an individual in the eighth
or ninth decade of life will be limited in activity and require health and
social services. Many older people (the general term older will refer to
people over ag~ 65) suffer from arthritis, heart disease, hypertension,
hearing loss, diabetes, obesity, gastrointestinal conditions, liver disease,
cancer, and other chronic diseases. Heart disease, cancer, and stroke
account. for over three-quarters of the deaths among older persons and 50
percent of all days of bed confinement. Such chronic conditions as well as
dementia prevent functional independence and increase the need for
dietary and other long-term care services.
Until the early 1970's, nutrition services for the older population, with
the exception of food stamps, were based almost exclusively in hospitals
and long-term care facilities. In 1973, in response to the growing
population of older people, to rising health care costs, and to greater
interest in preventive health care, the Nutrition Programme for the Elderly
was established under the Administration on Aging to expand food and
nutrition services from the hospital to include communities and homes:
Aging is accompanied by a variety of physiologic, psychologic,
economic, and social changes that may compromise nutritional status.
Older persons have a prevalence of chronic disease, use medications
heavily, and are relatively sedentary.
Many physiologic functions, including the senses of smell and
possibly taste, decrease with age. These changes may result in decreased
appetite as well as impaired utilization of nutrients and limitations of
function.
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 145
Dental problems, common in old age, decrease the ability to chew
certain foods. Physical disabilities such as diminution of vision may make
eating less pleasant. The decreases in basal metabolic rate and physical
activity noted with increasing age reduce nutrient needs, however, the
intake of calories and essential nlltrients may be even lower than these
needs. Decreased physical activity also may predispose individuals to the
development of osteoporosis.
Changes such as osteoarthritis can affect mobility and decrease an
older person's ability to purchase and prepare food. Another possible
hinderance to adequate nutrition in the aged is malabsorption, which can
be caused by decrease or absence of gastric acid secretion and by
interaction with medications commonly prescribed for older persons.
The most common psychologic factor affecting nutrition is depression.
Of all psychiatric diagnoses, depression is most strongly correlated with
increased mortality, regardless of the age of the subjects, and is most often
related to chronic disease and to poverty, which are common among older
persons. Neither institutionalization nor solitary living necessarily induces
depression, but such life changes may be associated with poor self-esteem,
which in tum, can lead to significant changes in eating patterns.
Older people as a group have a lower economic status than other
adults. Although the percentage of older individuals living below the
poverty .level has decreased substantially over the past two decades and
is now less than the percentage of those under 65 living in poverty, poverty
continues to be too high. The decline in income most often results from
retirement from the workforce, the effects of inflation on fixed incomes,
death of wage-earning spouse, or failing health. Income and health status
have been found to be important determinants of life satisfaction in the
older population. Low income is also a major risk factor for inadequate
nutrition in older individuals.
Most older people do not live in institutions, although institutional
food is likely to meet minimal standards for nutrient content, factors such
as lack of choice or limited day-to-day variety may increase the risk of
inadequate consumption. Many residents of nursing homes consume a
therapeutic diet that may further discourage adequate intake. An
important issue for demented institutionalized individuals is that they
may not consume the food, not that the menu is inadequate.
Clinical and dietary standards for younger adults may not be
appropriate for older persons, yet few data are available on nutritional
requirements or recommended intakes of older adults. The RDA's for
example, were developed from research on the nutrient needs of younger
healthy people. The present standards for adults over the age 50 are, for
the most part, identical to those for people aged 23 to 50. Because these
146 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
standards fail to consider the great heterogeneity of adults whose ages
may differ by as much as 50 years and because they were often not
developed from actual measurements on older populations, their
appropriateness for older persons is not known.
Energy and Nutrient Status of the Older Population
The national dietary and food consumption surveys conducted during
the 1970' s reported lower energy intakes among older persons than among
younger adults. A study of male executives in the Baltimore Longitudinal
Study of Aging found a steady decline in average energy expenditure from
2700 kcal per day at age 30 to 2100 kcal per day at 80 years of age. The
decline in energy expenditure was attributed to reduced physical activity
and to a decline in basal energy metabolism as a result of a reduction in
lean body mass with age.
Although it is difficult to interpret dietary intake studies of older
persons because of methodological problems, existingstudies almost
always reveal decreases in energy intake with age that may also be
influenced by income, race, food preference, and drug use. A low-calorie
diet may not impair health as long as the nutrient density of the diet is
high and can provide adequate amounts of essential nutrients. However,
this issue has not been examined in great detail because nutrient
requirements in older people remain largely unknown.
Consequently, the increasing level of obesity among older persons,
as indicated by higher weight-for-height with age, requires explanation.
Whether the inconsistency between reported low energy intake and
increasing body weight is due to measurement errors, inappropriate
standards, loss of height with age, or lack of physical activity has not been
established.
A 30-day continuous metabolic balance study of seven men and eight
women, over 70 years of age, who consumed the RDA levels of protein
and energy found that about half were unable to maintain nitrogen balance
on this level of protein (0.8 g of protein per kg per day). The results
suggested that higher intakes were required to meet protein requirements.
Because the RDA for protein includes a substantial safety margin and
because clinical measurements have rarely found signs of protein
deficiency among healthy older persons, it is not possible to conclude from
these data that persons with intake below the RDA are protein deficient
or tha~ they would benefit from additional protein intake.
Older people, especially Caucasian women, lose bone mineral and
have a higher incidence of fractures than younger persons. Metabolic and
ab~orptive factors as well as low intake may contribute to chronic negative
calcium balance. Reduced efficiency of calcium absorption may be due to
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 147
inadequate dietary intake, age related changes in gastric acidity, and/or
interactions of intestinal constituents such as fibre, bacteria, and other
nutrients. Per.haps in some individuals a negative effect on calcium
nutriture may be caused by age-related changes in hormonal control,
abberations in vitamin D metabolism, and imbalances of protein,
phosphorus, alcohol, and electrolytes with calcium.
The RDA for calcium of 800 mg per day may not be sufficient to
maintain calcium balance in populations consuming Western diets.
Calcium intake by older people is often marginal, for example, 43 percent
of women in nursing homes failed to get two-thirds of their calcium
requirement. Women living at home consumed even less calcium than'
those in nursing homes. Older people may have reduced calcium intake
because they avoid dairy products containing lactose, to which they are
intolerant.
As with people of all ages, the frequency with which anaemia occurs
in the older population and determination of its etiology depend on the
criteria used for diagnosis.
Because iron reserves increase with age, studies that examine only
dietary intake of iron in older people need to be interpreted cautiously.
Low dietary iron intake at one point intime does not necessarily increase
the risk for anaemia because iron may still be available from body stores
and because iron absorption increases when intake and stores are low. In
addition, the type of iron and other components of a meal such as ascorbic
acid also influence the amount absorbed. Comparison of older subjects
who took iron supplements with those who did not showed no clinically
significant differences in the biochemical measures of iron status.
Vitamin deficiency may be a result of decreased dietary intake,
absorption defects, decreased hepatic avidity for folate in Laennec's
cirrhosis, decreased storage and ·conversion to active metabolic forms, or
excessive utilization, destruction, or excretion.
No comprehensive study of all vitamins and their related enzyme
systems has been conducted. Most studies have only examined the status
of one or two vitamins. A number of studies have indicated a great risk
for vitamin deficiencies in older persons on the basis of low dietary intakes,
but such deficiencies are not always confirmed by biochemical or clinical
results. In addition, interpretation of biochemical parameters is hampered
by lack of data on normal standards for the older population. For example,
a New Mexico study revealed that more than one-fourth of the older
population consumed less than 75 percent of the RDA's for folate and
vitamins B6 and BI2 from diet alone. However, biochemical studies failed
to confirm that these individuals were at risk for developing clinical
symptoms associated with low intakes of these vitamins. Intake of vitamin
148 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
supplements may explain part of this apparent discrepancy, although
analysis showed little statistical difference in mean dietary intake for those
individuals taking a specific supplement compared with those who did
not take the supplement.
The body pool of ascorbic acid reaches a maximum of approximately
20 milligrams per kilogram. Women require an intake of 75 mg per day
and men require an intake of 150 mg per day to achieve this ascorbic acid
level in plasma. This finding was supported by a clinical trial that showed
that a daily intake of 60 mg was insufficient to maintain this plasma
concentration.
Vitamin A deficiency does not seem to be a particular problem in
older persons, Although NHANES I and NHANES II (the National Health
and Nutrition Examination Surveys) reported that half the study
population over age 65 had vitamin A intakes at or less than two-thirds
of the RDA, only 0.3 percent of the NHANES older population had low
vitamin A blood levels. Whether vitamin A supplement use can account
for the observed discrepancy is unknown, but similar data suggest that
older individuals can maintain normal vitamin blood levels even with
reportedly low dietary intakes.
Previous studies have revealed a generally lowered vitamin D status
in older people, chronically ill individuals, and those living in institutions
with little or no exposure to sunlight. Because the vitamin D endotrine
system is the major regulator of intestinal calcium absorption, a reduced
vitamin D status might promote a negative calcium balance in older
people.
Two studies in the United States have found dietary intake of vitamin
D to be approximately 50 percent of the RDA for older subjects. However,
ultraviolet light induced endogenous production of vitamin D is the main
external factor in maintaining adequate vitamin D status. Because sunlight
exposure activates vitamin D precursors in the skin, it has been
recommended that older people obtain at least minimal sunlight exposure
(10 to 15 minutes) two or three times a week. Increased sun exposure may
help compensate for aging skin's decreased capacity to produce these
precursors. Supplements may be necessary to compensate for inadequate
sunlight exposure due to seasonal variation in northern latitudes.
Moderation of sun exposure should be recommended because
overexposure to the sun is a strong risk factor for skin cancer.
There is no evidence that older individuals are deficient either in
dietary intake or tissue levels of vitamin E. Despite statements that
megadose vitamin E supplements retard the aging process and prevent
atherosclerosis and cancer, its use to treat or prevent other conditions has
not been established,
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 149
Nutritional Supplements
It has been estimated that 37 percent of American adults consume a
daily multivitamin preparation, fuelling a $2 billion per year industry.
NHANES II indicated that the persons most likely to take supplemental
nutrients are less likely to need them, and those most in need of them are
least likely to take them.
In older persons, vitamin use has increased dramatically in the past
decade. Whether such supplements improve the health of these people
cannot be determined from existing data, but it is clear that excessive
supplementation may be harmful. High doses of the fat-soluble vitamins
A and D are toxic.
Allergic Diseases
Allergic diseases are among the major causes of illness and disability.
An allergy is a specific immunologic reaction to a normally harmless
substance, one that does not bother most people.
People who have allergies often are sensitive to more than one
substance.
Types of allergens that cause allergic reactions include pollens, dust
particles, mold spores, food, latex rubber, insect venom, or medicines.
Scientists think that people inherit a tendency to be allergic, meaning
an increased likelihood of being allergic to one or more allergens, although
they probably do not have an inherited tendency to be allergic to any
specific allergens.
Children are much more likely to develop allergies if their parents
have allergies, even if only one parent is allergic. Exposure to allergens at
certain times when the body's defenses are lowered or weakened, such as
after a viral infection or during pregnancy, seems to contribute to the
development of allergies.
Normally, the immune system functions as the body's defence against
invading agents such as bacteria and viruses. In most allergic reactions,
however, the immune system is responding to a false alarm. When an
allergic person first comes into contact with an allergen, the immune
system treats the allergen as an invader and mobilizes to attack. The
immune system does this by generating large amounts of a type of
antibody (a disease-fighting protein) called immunoglobin E, or IgE. Each
IgE antibody is specific for one particular allergenic (allergy-producing)
substance.
The signs and symptoms are familiar to many:
• Sneezing often accompanied by a runny or clogged nose.
• Coughing and postnasal drip.
• Itching eyes, nose, and throat.
 ,
150 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
• Allergic shiners (dark circles under the eyes caused by increased
blood flow near the sinuses).
• The "allergic salute" (in a child, persistent upward rubbing of
the nose that causes a crease mark on the nose).
• Watering eyes.
• Conjunctivitis (an inflammation of the membrane that lines the
eyelids, causing red-rimmed, swollen eyes, and crusting of the
eyelids).
In people who are not allergic, the mucus in the nasal passages simply
moves foreign particles to the throat, where they are swallowed or
coughed out. But something different happens to a person who is sensitive
to airborne allergens.
As soon as the allergen lands on the mucous membranes lining the
inside of the nose, a chain reaction occurs that leads the mast cells in these
tissues to release histamine and other chemicals. These powerful chemicals
contract certain cells that line some small blood vessels in the nose. This
allows fluids to escape, which causes the nasal passages to swell, resulting
1.1 nasal congestion. Histamine also can cause sneezing, itching, irritation,
and excess mucus production, which can result in allergic rhinitis (runny
nose). Other chemicals made and released by mast cells, including
cytokines and leukotrienes, also contribute to allergic symptoms.
A voiding exposure to allergens prevents allergic rhinitis. This means
avoiding animals if you are allergic to them, and staying in doors and
using the air conditioner during times of high pollen counts.
In adults, the most common foods to cause allergic reactions include:
• Shellfish such as shrimp, crayfish, lobster, and crab;
• Peanuts, are one of the chief foods to cause severe anaphylaxis,
a sudden drop in blood pressure that can be fatal if not treated
quickly;
• Tree nuts such as walnuts;
• Fish;
• And eggs.
In children, the pattern is somewhat different. The most common food
allergens that cause problems in children are eggs, milk, and peanuts.
Adults usually do not lose their allergies, but children can sometimes
outgrow them. Children are more likely to outgrow allergies to milk or
soy than allergies to peanuts, fish, or shrimp.
The causes of nonimmunologic adverse reactions to foods include
food toxicities, food poisonings, and pharmacologic or metabolic reactions.
Such intolerances occur more frequently than true food allergies and are
related to dose as well as to the concurrent presence of medications, other
diseases, or genetic errors of metabolism.
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 151
Tartrazine is used in foods, beverages, drugs and cosmetics. It has
been estimated that about 100 000 persons in the United States are sensitive
to this substance. Symptoms of allergy include generalized urticaria,
swelling, often of the face and lips, runny nose, and on occasion even life
threatening asthma. Since tartrazine is found in a large number of
products, tartrazine-sensitive individuals are advised to read labels and
avoid food containing tartrazine.
The allergic-type reactions range from mild to severe, and in some
cases can cause death. "Sulfites" or "sulfating agents" are general terms
used to describe sulfur based substances that have been in widespread
use for many years by the food and drug industries. They include sulfur
dioxide, sodium sulfite, sodium and potassium bisulfite, and sodium and
potassium metabisulfite. Although they have various permitted uses, their
primary function is as a preservative or antioxidant to prevent or reduce
spoilage and discolouration during the preparation, storage and
distribution of many foods.
There is some evidence that some non-asthmatics also can suffer
adverse reactions to sulfites. For example, out of more than 500 reports of
sulfite reactions investigated by the FDA, about one-fourth involved
people who had no known history of asthma.
Approximately 10 percent of people with asthma are sensitive to
ingestion of sulphite, which induces asthma. Foods containing sulfur
dioxide, as a preservative, should be used with caution.
Vitamin C may help alleviate some of the inflammation associated
with chronic allergies and a daily dose of about 400 milligrams of
magnesium should be taken to relieve respiratory problems.
Asthma
Asthma is a Greek word meaning panting. It is a chronic (condition
that has a long duration) lung disease, characterized by recurrent episodes
of breathlessness, wheezing, coughing, and chest tightness, termed
exacerbations. The severity of exacerbations can range from mild. to life
threatening. Exacerbations can be triggered by exposures and conditions
such as: respiratory infections, house dust mites, cockroaches, animal
dander, mold, pollen, cold air, exercise, stress, tobacco smoke and indoor
and outdoor air pollutants. Both the frequency and severity of asthma
symptoms can be reduced by using medications and reducing exposure
to environmental triggers.
It causes bronchoconstriction (narrowing of the airways) due to
inflammation (swelling) and tightening of the muscles around the airways.
The inflammation also causes an increase in mucus production, which
causes coughing that may continue for extended periods.
152 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
Asthma currently affects more than 15 million Americans,
approximately half of whom have mild, but persistent asthma (symptoms
more than twice a week). It is currently estimated to cost the U.S. economy
$11.3 billion in health costs and lost productivity. The additional cost of
treating all patients with mild persistent asthma with daily medication is
estimated at $2 billion.
For the past 15 years, an epidemic of asthma has been underway in
the United States. The steady rise in the prevalence of asthma constitutes
an epidemic, which by all indications is continuing. Even if rates were to
stabilize, asthma would continue to be a profound public health problem.
It is a potentially fatal, chronic disease responsible for over 1.8 million
emergency room visits per year, over 460 thousand hospitalizations per
year and over five thousand deaths per year. Although the burden asthma
affects Americans of all ages, races and ethnic groups, recent data indicate
that children, low-income and minority populations have been most
severely affected.
It is only within the past 20 years that scientists have learned that
ast:"'ma is due to an inflammatory process in the bronchial air passages of
the lungs that causes chronic irritation and narrowing of the airways,
resulting in loss of lung function. In 1991, the NHLBI's "Guidelines for
the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma" emphasized for the first time
the role of inflammation in asthma and called for the use of anti-
inflammatory agents to reduce inflammation over the long term, in
addition to medications to provide symptom relief.
In 1997, the updated Guidelines recommended that patients with mild
persistent asthma take daily medication, such as inhaled corticosteroids
or anti-leukotrienes, to prevent or reverse airway inflammation. Since anti-
leukotrienes were a relatively new class of medication, the guidelines also
called for additional research on them.
Asthma is difficult to diagnose because it has varying degrees of
severity and its symptoms are similar to other lung conditions. Working
closely with your physician to set up a comprehensive management plan
can help reduce the risk of severe attacks and increase your quality of
life. By identifying and eliminating triggers, routinely monitoring your
breathing and properly using medications, you can help control symptoms
and maintain your usual lifestyle. Patients must learn to identify these
triggers and practice avoidance techniques. Patients should be aware of
any circumstances or substances that worsen their asthma.
In most people younger than age 30, asthma is triggered by allergies.
About 40 to 50 percent of adults with asthma are allergic to airborne
particles. Skin testing is the best way to determine to what substances
you may be allergic. Allergens include house dust mites, cockroaches,
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 153
tobacco smoke, pollen, molds and dander from animals, especially cats.
In some people, aspirin and other (Voltaren, Ibuprofen/Advil, Motrin/
Nuprin/Aleve, Ketoprofen / Orudis, Indomethacin, Indocin, Keterolac/
Toradal) nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can worsen
symptoms, causing sudden, severe attacks. Sulfites are preservatives
added to some perishable foods which can cause hives and shortness of
breath in a few people with asthma. The Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) now prohibits sulfites in fresh fruits and vegetables, except potatoes,
and requires warning labels on foods containing the preservatives.
Nutritional supplements that may be helpful include Vitamin B6, of
which a deficiency is common in asthmatics, Magnesium, Selenium,
Vitamin C and Vitamin E.
Bacterial Infections
Bacterial infections are caused by the presence and growth of
microorganisms that damage host tissue. The extent of infection is
generally determined by how many organisms are present and how
virulent (toxic) they are. Worldwide, bacterial infections are responsible
for more deaths than any other cause. Symptoms can include inflammation
and swelling, pain, heat, redness, and loss of function. The most important I

risk factors are burris, severe trauma, low white blood cell counts, very
old or young patients, patients on immunotherapy treatment, and anyone
suffering from malnutrition or vitamin deficiency.
Antibiotic is an agent that weakens or destroys bacteria; antibiotics
are medicinally used to treat various types of bacterial infections. The
various types of antibiotics work either by preventing an infection from
growing or by destroying an existing infection. Antibiotics are produced
either from a mold or a fungus or are produced synthetically. If bacteria
become resistant to the antibiotics or together with the antibiotics these
other remedies can be used:
Bromelain - a proteolytic digestive enzyme, can potentiate (augment
or strengthen) the effects of conventional antibiotics, making them more
effective in killing bacteria.
Arginine - a crystalline basic amino acid, can stimulate antibacterial
components of the immune system when taken in doses ranging from 6
to 20 grams per day. Arginine promotes nitric oxide synthesis, which is
believed to help protect against bacterial infections.
Burns
Bum is an area of tissue damage, caused by heat (including friction
and electricity), by cold, by a caustic chemical, or by radiation. Bums are
classified according to the depth of the tissue damage.
154 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
Each year in the United States, more than 2 million burn injuries
demand medical attention. Ten thousand people die every year of burn-
related infections. Tragically, many burn victims are children. The good
news is that, in recent years, survival statistics for serious burns have
improved dramatically. Twenty years ago, for instance, burns covering
half the body were routinely fatal. Today, patient~ with burns
encompassing 90 percent of their body surface can survive, albeit
sometimes with permanent impairments.
Among the advances that have contributed directly to this public
health benefit are discoveries of the importance of proper wound care,
adequate nutrition, and infection controL
First-degree burns produce a redness of the skin, like a sunburn, and
they heal without scarring.
Second-degree bums cause the destruction of deeper structures within
the skin, resulting in blistering.
Third-degree bums destroy the full thickness of the skin, leaving an
open area. The deeper tissues (fat or muscle) are also destroyed.
First and second-degree burns tend to be more painful than third-
degree burns, because the nerve endings are damaged but not completely
destroyed. Extensive third-degree burns are a life-threatening emergency.
Large areas of burned skin cause the loss of the body fluid of the
surrounding tissues, which can lead to dehydration and the rapid onset
of shock, particularly in children. For this reason, intravenous rehydration
may be necessary, as well as local treatment and painkilling drugs. Third-
degree burns require a skin graft to prevent disfiguring scars. Recent
developments in artificial skin hold great promise for burn victims.
Burn-induced skin loss affords bacteria and other microorganisms
easy access to the warm, moist, nutrient-rich fluids that course through
the body, while at the same time it provides a conduit for the rapid and
dangerous loss of these fluids. Extensive blood loss can thrust a bum or
trauma victim into shock, a life-threatening condition in which blood
pressure plunges so low that vital organs-such as the brain, heart, and
kidneys-simply cannot get enough blood (and thereby oxygen) to
function. Hence, replenishing skin lost to severe burns is an urgent matter
in the care of a burn patient. When a patient has lost 80 or 90 percent of
the skin as a result of direct contact with scalding hot liquids, flames, harsh
chemicals, electrical current, or nuclear radiation, two immediate tasks
come to the fore. First, a burn surgeon must surgically remove the burned
skin, then the unprotected underlying tissue must be quickly covered. Two
classes of biomaterials useful in covering the wound are laboratory-grown
skin cells and artificial skin; the two are sometimes used in combination.
Regardless of the type of burn, the result is fluid accumulation and
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 155
inflammation in and around the wound. Moreover, it should be noted
tha t the skin is the body's first defence against infection by
microorganisms. Damage to the skin can predispose the burn victim to
both infection at the site of the wound as well as internally.
First degree thermal burns can be treated with local skin care such as
Aloe Vera. Many topical antibiotics and antiseptics are available in the
drug store for minor burns.
All second and third degree thermal burns and the complicated
locations listed above need immediate physician evaluation. Special topical
antiseptic creams are used for more serious burns, including silver
sulfdiazine, silver nitrate, and mafenide acetate creams.
PABA (Para-aminobenzoic Acid) helps in the assimilation of protein
and pantothenic acid. It is important for normal skin and hair growth. It
can protect you against sunburn, prevent wrinkles, reduce the pain of
burns and restore grey hair to its natural colour.
Proper nutrition may seem far from the minds of a critically injured
burn patient or his or her doctor. But delivering the wrong mix of nutrients
and minerals into the bloodstream can do more harm than good. NIGMS-
funded research by Dr. David Herndon of the University of Texas Medical
Branch at Galveston contributed to this conclusion by showing that
making the intestinal tract "work" (by feeding the patient by mouth,
instead of intravenously) keeps bacteria that normally live in the stomach
from seeping into the bloodstream and causing body-wide infections that
often lead to deadly septic shock.
The following nutrient combinations are those recommended for the
treatment of burns:
Vitamins: A, C, E (internally & topically)
Minerals: Zinc, Postassium
Amino Acids: L-Arginine, L-Ornithine
Food Supplements : Protein, Chlorophyll
Herbs : Aloe Vera
Cholesterol
Cholesteryl esters are composed of a single fatty acid esterfied to
cholesterol, in which the polar component is an alcohol.
Cholesterol is normally found in the body in cell walls and
membranes, vitamin D, hormones, and fat-digesting enzyme. Excess
cholesterol can get deposited in the walls of blood vessels, leading to
atherosclerosis, or hardening of the arteries. Atherosclerosis leads to heart
attack and stroke. Cholesterol is divided into LDL ("bad" cholesterol),
which carries cholesterol in the blood and can get deposited onto the walls
of blood vessels, causing atherosclerotic plaques. HDL ("good" cholesterol)
156 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
helps clear the blood of cholesterol, and may even remove cholesterol from
atherosclerotic blood vessels.
Cholesterol is a major component of all cell membranes. It is required
for synthesis of sex hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D. It is also a
precursor of the steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex and
gonads.
Dietary cholesterol is found only in foods derived from animals (meat,
fish, poultry, eggs and dairy products); it is not present in plants. Saturated
fats have a profound hypercholesterolemic (increase blood cholesterol
levels) effect. They are found predominantly in animal products (butter,
cheese and meat) but coconut oil and palm oil are common vegetable
sources. Saturated fat raises blood cholesterol levels more than anything
else in the diet, even more than dietary cholesterol.
Findings suggest that blood lipid cholesterol levels predict subsequent
mortality in men, especially those with preexisting cardiovascular disease.
Those with high blood cholesterol levels have a risk of death from
cardiovascular disease, including coronary heart disease, that was 3.45
times higher than that for men with a desirable" blood cholesterol level.
If

Lowering cholesterol levels decreases the incidence of heart disease.

In fact, several studies have convincingly shown that adequate
hypercholesterolemic treatment can not only prevent CHD, but can also
reverse it.
Dietary therapy is the cornerstone of all hypercholesterolemic therapy,
and it has been estimated that 65 million adult Americans may be
candidates for dietary instruction.
The efficacy of hypercholesterolemic diets lowering cholesterol and
in some cases, in preventing CHD, has been convincingly demonstrated.
Such efficacy does depend, however, on the vigour which the physician
and dietitian support dietary therapy. Many physicians have declared
dietary therapy a failure without providing their patients with real dietary
advice and support.
Two factors that probably contribute to physicians disinterest in
dietary therapy are extensive advertising of hypercholesterolemic drugs
compared with the little advertisingof dietary therapy and patient
reluctance to alter diet and life-style. Getting patients to alter their life-
style is often a challenging task.
To further facilitate dietary therapy, recent research suggests that
certain forms of fat (eg. fish and monounsaturated fatty acids) may be
hypocholesterolemic, especially if they replace saturated fatty acids in the
diet. Food technology is improving daily in palatably, removing fat from
items like cheese, chips, and crackers. Frozen yogurt has become a popular
replacement for ice cream. Fat substitutes, as they become available, may
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 157
also facilitate compliance with a low-fat diet. Scientists first suspected a
connection between soy and lower cholesterol levels after observing that
people in Asian countries where diets contain much more soy than in the
United States have significanUy lower levels of heart disease than
Americans. Experts believe natural soy compounds called isoflavones act
like human hormones that regulate cholesterol levels. A 1998 study
concluded that regular consumption of soy isoflavones may reduce total
cholesterol levels by up to 10 percent.
A minimum of 25 grams of soy protein must be consumed daily in
order to reap optimal cholesterol-lowering benefits. Good sources of soy
protein include soy milk, tempeh, tofu, and textured soy protein, a main
ingredient in many meat substitutes.
The amount of cholesterol synthesized and metabolized by the body
is far greater than the amount usually consumed in the diet. It must also
be noted that in healthy people little correlation has been found between
the intake of cholesterol and blood cholesterol levels. Yet the level of
cholesterol in the blood is increased with high intakes of dietary saturated
fat and can be lowered by increasing the intake of linoleic acid and fibre,
which leads to a reduction of cholesterol absorption from the intestine
and an increased faecal excretion of dietary cholesterol.
There is some evidence indicating that other nutrients can lower blood
cholesterol levels. Choline emulsifies cholesterol thus helps to control a
build up. Inositol metabolizes fats and cholesterol. Vanadium inhibits the
formation of cholesterol in the blood vessels and aids in preventing heart
attacks. Zinc also helps to decrease cholesterol levels.
If you are on a cholesterol reducing drug, you will suffer a decrease
in the absorption of Vitamin A, thus needing to increase the amount
available in your diet.
Psyllium is an especially attractive hybrid intervention in that it is
well tolerated, lowers LDL-cholesterol by 10% to 20%, has no adverse
effects on triglycerides, high-density-lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, or
serum glucose, and is readily available and {airly inexpensive. It has a
long history of use without any evidence of10ng-term adverse effects.
Onions, Garlic, and Ginger are also recommended for their ability to help
lower cholesterol levels.
It is estimated that oat bran supplementation (90 gm per day) was a
much more cost-effective method of lowering serum cholesterol than either
cholestyramine or colestipol.
Coughing
Cough is an action that clears an irritated area of the lungs or throat.
It is a common symptom of a number of disorders, such as the common
 158 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
cold, influenza, or a minor respiratory illness. A cough may also
accompany a serious lung disorder or heart disease. Any cough that lasts
for more than a few days should be discussed with a physician.
Coughing is a useful and protective mechanism, and treatment that
completely suppresses it could do more harm than good. When a person
coughs, a deep breath is taken in, the vocal cords close, and pressure builds
up within the lungs. When the cords open, a violent expulsion of air takes
place as the body attempts to expel any foreign material in the throat or
lower respiratory tract.
Cough syrups that help the person to bring up phlegm are called
expectorants, and many kinds are available without prescription. Other
preparations containing antihistamines may help to dry up secretions. A
cough suppressant, sometimes prescribed by a physician, contains a drug
such as codeine or dextromethorphan. Codeine is a narcotic cough
suppressant that may be prescribed for a cough in severe cases. It works
by "turning off" the part of the brain that controls the coughing response.
Codeine is a powerful drug and can have side effects, including nausea,
sleepiness, and constipation. It can also be highly addictive.
The following combinations of vitamins and herbs are those
recommended for a cough:-
Vitamins :- A, C (chewable)
Minerals :- Potassium Chloride
Herbs :- Garlic, Horseradish, Fenugreek, Licorice (Licorice should not
be given to a child with high blood pressure), Herbal Cough Mixture,
Ginger, Slippery Elm.
o Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus (commonly called diabetes) is a condition found in
16 million Americans. About half of these people do not know they have
diabetes and are not under care for the disorder. Diabetes is not a single
disease but rather a syndrome of hyperglycaemia and glycosuria,
accompanied by varying degrees of ketosis and acidosis, with or without
weight loss. It has several causes and mechanisms of inheritance.
As diabetes is a condition characterized by metabolic abnormalities
(the most evident is hyperglycaemia, an elevated concentration of glucose
in the blood), the treatment of it must also prevent or reduce the risk and
severity of other long term complications involving multiple organs, the
eyes, kidneys, nerves and blood vessels. These complications result from
a deficiency of the hormone insulin or a reduction in the effectiveness of
insulin.
The longer the duration of diabetes, and the worse t1iJ.e long-term blood
glucose control, the more likely are the complications to occur.
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 159
There are two major forms of diabetes: Type 1, insulin-dependent,
and Type 2, noninsulin dependent.
Type 1 diabetes is characterized by an absolute deficiency of insulin
caused by beta-cell destruction of the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
Type I diabetes usually appears before the age 40. Typical symptoms are
thirst, fatigue, cramps, excessive urination, increased appetite, and weight
loss.
Treatment requires administration of insulin, diet coordinated with
insulin dosage schedule, and regular physical exercise. Dietary treatment
is primary therapy in Type 2 diabetes and is vital treatment to Type I
diabetes. Presently, there is no known method to prevent the development
of this form of the disease.
Type 2 diabetes, usually appears in midlife, among people who are
overweight or obese. Its onset is gradual, and many people have a long
history of mild symptoms, or display no symptoms at all. In type 2
diabetes, the pancreas usually produces insulin, but for some reason, the
body cannot use the insulin effectively. The end result is the same as for
type 1 diabetes-an unhealthy buildup of glucose in the blood and an
inability of the body to make efficient use of its main source of fuel.
Obesity is strongly associated with the onset and severity of Type 2
diabetes. New cases of this condition can be reduced by approximately
half by preventing obesity in middle-aged adults. The risk of diabetes
increases with the degree of obesity and its duration, as well as (he
distribution of body fat; upper body fat is more associated with Type 2
diabetes than is lower body fat.
Significant caloric reduction lowers blood glucose levels even before
weight loss occurs. Once desirable weight is achieved, control of blood
sugar levels can be accomplished by consuming just enough energy to
maintain it. As weight falls to desirable levels, improvements in
cardiovascular disease risk factors, hypertension and high blood lipid
levels, also occur.
Diabetes is not contagious. People cannot "catch" it from each other.
However, certain factors can increase one's risk of developing diabetes.
People who have family members with diabetes (especially type 2
diabetes), who are overweight, or who are African American, Hispanic,
or Native American are all at greater risk of developing diabetes.
Type 1 diabetes occurs equally among males and females, but is more
common in whites than in nonwhites. Data from the World Health
Organization's Multinational Project for Childhood Diabetes indicate that
type 1 diabetes is rare in most Asian, African, and American Indian
populations. On the other hand, some northern European countries,
including Finland and Sweden, have high rates of type 1 diabetes. The
160 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
reasons for these differences are not known. People with diabetes must
take responsibility for their day-to-day care. Much of the daily care
involves trying to keep blood sugar levels from going too low or too high.
When blood sugar levels drop too low-a condition known as
hypoglycemia-a person can become nervous, shaky, and confused.
Judgment can be impaired. Eventually, the person could pass out. The
treatment for low blood sugar is to eat or drink something with sugar in
it.
On the other hand, a person can become very ill if blood sugar levels
rise too high, a condition known as hyperglycemia. Hypoglycemia and
hyperglycemia, which can occur in people with type 1 diabetes or type 2
diabetes, are both potentially life-threatening emergencies.
The goal of diabetes management is to keep blood glucose levels as
close to the normal (nondiabetic) range as safely possible. A recent
Government study, sponsored by the National Institute of Diabetes and
Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), proved that keeping blood sugar
levels as close to normal as safely possible reduces the risk of developing
major complications of diabetes.
Generally diabetics should avoid foods containing sucrose and
glucose. However, foods containing fructose (fruit sugar) and lactose are
usually safe for diabetics. Very high carbohydrate, high-fibre diets,
providing 70 percent of calories as carbohydrate consistently improve
glucose tolerance. Fibre slows the rate of absorption of sugar into the
bloodstream. The three principal approaches to diabetes management are
diet, exercise, and treatment with oral antidiabetic agents. Overweight
persons can be managed by diet and exercise alone.
Because of the secondary conditions (heart disease, hypertension and
loss of sight) persons with diabetes need to be very selective with other
nutrients besides sugars.
Dietary Recommendations for Persons with Diabetes
Calories Should be prescribed to achieve and maintain a desirable body
weight.
Carbohydrate Should comprise 60% of calories. Unrefined should replace all
refined carbohydrates.
Protein should follow the RDA of 0.8 g per kg of body weight for
adults. Some reduction in protein intake may prevent or delay
the onset of the kidney complications of diabetes.
Fat Should comprise less than 30% of total calories. Replacement
of saturated fats for polyunsaturated fats to reduce the risk of
CHD. \
Cholesterol Should be limited to 300mg or less per day to reduce
cardiovascu lar risk.
Nutrition Disorder Related to Food 161
Sweeteners Both nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners are acceptable in
diabetes management.
Sodium (Salt) Should not exceed 3g per day, to minimize symptoms of
hypertension.
Alcohol Should be moderate and may need to be restricted entirely by
persons with diabetes and insulin-induced hypoglycaemia,
neuropathy, poor control of blood sugar, blood lipids, or
obesity.
Vitamin C Often deficient in diabetics. May help to control blood
cholesterol levels and reduce the chances of other complications.
Selenium Selenium has been shown to reduce the risk of CHD and
hypertension.
Selenium Selenium has been shown to reduce the risk of CHD and
hypertension.
Potassium Potassium regularly produces a decline in blood pressure.
Chromium Chromium is a constituent part of glucose tolerance factor in
the prevention of diabetes.
Magnesium Lost in urine due to the diuretic effect of high blood sugar.
Studies suggest that a deficiency in magnesium may worsen
the blood sugar control in Type 2 diabetes. Scientists believe
that a deficiency of magnesium interrupts insulin secretion in
the pancreas and increases insulin resistance in the body's
tissues. Is also used extensively for the treatment of CHD.
•
Vanadium A recent study found that when people with diabetes were
given vanadium, they deveoped a modest increase in
insulinsensitivity and were able to decrease their insulin
requirements. Currently researchers want to understand how
vanadium works in the body, discover potential side effects,
and establish safe dosages.
In recent years, advances in diabetes research have led to better ways
to manage diabetes and treat its complications. Major advances include:
• New forms of purified insulin, such as human insulin produced
through genetic engineering.
• Better ways for doctors to monitor blood glucose levels and for
people with diabetes to test their own blood glucose levels at
home.
• Development of external and implantable insulin pumps that
deliver appropriate amounts of insulin, replacing daily injections.
• Laser treatment for diabetic eye disease, reducing the risk of
blindness.
162 Nutrition Disorder Related to Food
• Successful transplantation of kidneys in people whose own
kidneys fail because of diabetes.
• Better ways of managing diabetic pregnancies, improving
chances of successful outcomes.
• New drugs to treat type 2 diabetes and better ways to manage
this form of diabetes through weight control.
• Evidence that intensive management of blood glucose reduces
and may prevent development of microvascular complications
of diabetes.
• Demonstration that antihypertensive drugs called ACE-inhibitors
prevent or delay kidney failure in people with diabetes.
In the future, it may be possible to administer insulin through nasal
sprays or in the form of a pill or patch. Devices that can "read" blood
glucose levels without having to prick a finger to get a blood sample are
also being developed.
Researchers continue to search for the cause or causes of diabetes and
ways to prevent and cure the disorder. Scientists are looking for genes
that may be involved in type 2 diabetes and type 1 diabetes. Some genetic
markers for type 1 diabetes have been identified, and it is now possible to
screen relatives of people with type 1 diabetes to see if they are at risk for
diabetes.
 Chapter 7

Meal Planning

Balanced diet is defined as right kind of foods in the right amounts

and proportions, to meet the nutrient needs of the persons.
• What to serve? ' .
• How much to serve?
• How much to spend ?
• Where to shop ?
• How much to buy?
• How to prepare food ?
• How to serve meals, at what time?
MEAL PLANNING
It is a simple exercise which involves applying the knowledge of food,
nutrient requirement, individual preferences to plan adequate and
acceptable meals.
Meal planning for Adequate Nutrition
Meals must look good, smell good, taste good. Meal planning is a
skill, which improves with practice.
Aims of Meal Planning
Fulfill the nutritional needs of the family members (Family size and
composition) Plan meals within the family income. Maximum use of the
money available, in the best possible way. Aid in the proper purchase,
preparation and service of food. Economise on time, labour and fuel.
Provide variety in the diet, by making proper selection of foods from
within each of the three food groups.
Make meals appealing and palatable by proper selection of
food in terms of colour, texture and flavour.
Provide nutrition meals taking into account individual preferences.
Plan meals in advance, so that any pre-preparation required can be
made and also the leftovers from the previous meals can be economically
utilised.
164 Meal Planning
MEAL PLANNING FOR VARIOUS AGE GROUPS IS GIVEN BELOW.

Meal Planning for Infants

Child below 1 year is reffered as infant.
Breast milk only is sufficient during the first 4 months.
A thich yellowish coloured liquid oozes out of the breast after 1 to 3
days of child birth. Colostrum is having life aving properties such as
antibodies, and has high concentration of WBCs.
A child weighs 2.5 kg to 3.0 kgs at birth. The child will attain 3 times
the birth weight by 1 year i.e 7.5 to 9 kgs. The height of the child at birth
will be 50 cms. The child grows to a height of 75 cms by 1 year.
Infancy is the period of intense growth and development. Weight gain
is the best indication of child's growth.
Muscles grow in size and strength.
Brain, kidneys, digestive system improves in their functional capacity.
RDI for energy, protein, iron and B Vitamins are given in terms of
per kg body weight.
In case of adults, energy requirement is 40 Cal/Kg of body weight.
In case of infants it is 108 Cal/Kg of body weight.
In case of adults protein requirement is 1 gram per Kg of body weight.
In case of infants it is 2.05 gram/Kg of body weight.
Nutrients Required for Infants
• Energy giving
• Proteins
• Calcium
• Iron
• Vitamin A
• Vitamin C
Breast milk is available to the infant, after 3 to 4 days after birth.
Breast milk is most nutritious and balanced food for the baby.
I
Introduce supplementary foods after 4 months.
Comparisvn of Nutrients in Various Milk/1 00 ml
Milk Energy Protein Fats Carbohydrates Calcium
(K Cals) (Grams) (Grams) (Grams) (mg)
Human 65 1.1 3.4 7.4 28
Cow'Milk 67 3.2 4.1 4.4 120
Ass's Milk 48 2.1 1.5 6.5 80
Buffalo's Milk 117 4.3 6.5 5.0 210
Goat's Milk 72 3.3 4.5 4.6 170
Meal Planning 165
Advantages of Breast Milk
• It protects the infant from infections and food allergies.
• It is free from contamination.
• It is safe and easily available.
• It is economical.
• It helps to develop strong bond between mother and child.
Supplementary Food
Liquid suppliment: Juices, soups.
Semi-solid supplement: Masted banana, carrot, porridge.
Solid supplement: Buiscits, rusks, toasts.
Meal Planning for Pre School Child
Following points are important in case of Pre School Child.
• The child in the age group of 1 to 6 years is known as Pre School
Child.
• The rate of growth is slow compared to infants.
• Average gain in weight is 2.0 to 2.5 Kgs per year.
• Height of the child increases.
• Increased physical ativity.
• The child becomes independan i.e. it gets control over the body.
• Regular weight gain is the most important sign of the child's
overall health and nutritional status.
• Catch up growth is possible.
Nutrients

• Energy Giving
• Protein
• Calcium
• Iron
• Vitamin A
Points to keep in mind while feeding Pre School Child.
• It is a challenging task to feed the Pre School Child.
• Consider the child's likes and dislikes.
• Snacks should supplement the meal, not substitute the main
meals.
• Allow the child to feed themselves. Child will enjoy eating.
• Introduce new foods one by one.
• Foods served to children must be warm, not cold or hot.
• Donot give spicy food, as it irritates the digestive tract.

.
/'
166 Meal Planning
Meal planning for School Child
• Child in the age group of 7 to 12 years is called as School child.
• Rate of growth of School Child is less than the rate of growth
of Pre School Child.
• Rate of growth of Pre-school child is less than the rate of growth
of infants.
• Growth continues at a steady pace.
• There will be an improvement in the functioning of body tissues
and organs.
• Growth takes place in the form of development of muscles and
bones.
• Preparation for adolescence.
Weight of boys/Girls (7-12 Years)
Age (Years) Boys (10-22 Years) Girls (10-12 years)
7+ 24.46 24.45
8+ 26.42 25.97
9+ 30.00 29.82
10+ 32.29 33.58
11+ 35.26 37.17
12+ ------------------------------
38.78 42.97
Nutrients
• Energy Giving
• Protein
• Iron
• Calcium
Points to be Kept in Mind while Feeding School Child
• Boys have more muscle tissue and less adipose tissue.
• Girls have more adipose tissue and less muscle tissue.
• Shedding of baby teeth takes place and permanant teeth will
emerge.
• Boys and Girl are engaged in more vigourous activities may be
in the form of sports. So, there is a need for more energy.
• More sweating will take place and hence loss of Water, Sodium
and Potassium.
• Fluid intake should be increased.
• Blood volume increases and it pushes up the iron needs.
• Bones will grow due to mineralisation of bones.
Meal Planning 167
• RDIs for energy, protein, calcium, Thiamine (Bl), Riboflavin (B2)
and Niacin increases as age increases.
• RDIs for Vitamin C, folic acid, Vitamin B12, Vitamin A remains
unchanged.
• Iron absorption is more in case of girls.
Meal Planning for Adolescents
Persons in the age group of 13 to 18 years are called as adolescents.
During this period, major physical, mental and emotional changes takes
place. This is a period of rapid phytsical growth. Trere will be sharp
increase in height and weight. Growth and development of skeletal system
and muscular system.
Muscles and bones increase in size and strength. Heart, lungs, stomach
and kidneys attain their final adult size and level of functioning. There
will be an increase in blood volume. Functional capacity of respiratory,
digestive and circulatory system increases. Sexual characters will appear.
Functioning of reproductive system starts. The changes in the body
structure and functioning is guided by harmones, Androgens in males
and Oestrogens in females.
It is a period of physiological stress for the body, because of the
extremely rapid rate of growth. Diet plays a crucial role in promoting and
sustaining growth. This is the last chance to chatch up growth. Pregnancy
during adolescence increases the demand for nutrients.
Nutients
• Energy giving
• Protein
• Iron
• Calcium
Points to be considered while planning meals for Adolescents.
• Be careful about dieting, weight reducing technique.
• Avoid over-eating.
• Exercise is the remedy for over weight.
Meal Planning for Adults
Persons more than 20 years old are called as adults.
Growth in terms of body size is completed.
Nutritional needs is for maintainance of body functions. There will
be a gradual and progressive change in body functioning. Breakdown of
tissue increases, renewla of worn out tissue decreases.
In case of young adult, body has the capacity to replace the worn out
tissues.
168 Meal Planning
In case of older adult, the body has lost the capacity to replace the
worn out tissues.
CHANGES DURING AGING

Kidney functions: Marked reduction in the number of functioning

Kidney cells.
Digestive Tract Functioning
Number of taste buds in the mouth decreases. This reduces sensitivity
to taste.
There will be a rduction in the amount of saliva secreted and hence
the swallowing will become difficult.
Teeth will become loose and chewing will become difficult.
There will be a decrease in the secretion of digestive juices.
So, food is not digested and absorbed properly.
Food stays longer in the stomach.
Muscles of digestive tract becomes weak.
Movement of food in the tract slows down and constipation sets in.
Skeletal System
Skeletal bone losses occurs with aging.
Loss of Calcium and Phosphorus occurs and it results in thinning of
bones.
Osteoporosis is a condition in which bones become weak and brittle
(Mostly in women).
RDls for adults
Sedentary work : Clerk, Teacher
Moderate work : House maid, Postman, Servants
Heavy work: Stone cutter, Richshaw puller
RDIs for energy and B Vitamins are based on activity level.
Basal Physical Total Energy
Requirement + Activity = Requirement
Muscle tissue requires more energy for its activities.
The RDIs for energy changes with age as given below.
Age (Years) % of RD I for Energy
20 - 39 100
40 - 49 95
50- 59 90
60- 69 80
70-79 70
Meal Planning 169
Nutrients
• Energy giving
• Body building
• ProtectivelRegulatory
MEAL PLANNING FOR PREGNANT WOMAN

Physiological Changes

Changes in Body Organs

Uterus and supporting muscles increase in size, to accomodate the
growing foetus.
Breast grows in size and prepares to produce milk
Changes in Body Metabolism
Metabolic rate increases-rapid growth of foetus and mother's tissuses.
Changes in Body Fluids
Increase in blood volume by 50% to facilitate supply of nutrients to
foetus and newly formed tissues.
Haemoglolbin levels falls to 10-11 mg/100 ml.
Changes in Digestive Functioning
Increased absorption of iron/calcium.
Less production/secretion of acid and digestive juices.
Food stays in the stomach for a long time.
Capacity of stomach/speed of digestion decrease because foetus exerts
ph of the stomach.
Food is pushed up into food pipe. nousea, vomitting, heartburn.
The movement of food in digestive tract slows down.
Changes in Body Weight
Growing foetus
Increase in size of the uterus 8-10 Kg incrase in weight as
dev of placenta increase in normal.
breast size increase in blood Max wt gain occurs.
volume deposition of fat in only in 2/3rd trimester.
the body
Nutrients
Energy-giving (+300 cal)
Protein (+15 g)
170 Meal Planning
Calcium
Iron
Provide Iron tablets in the 2nd trimester.
Provide small, but frequent meals.
MEAL PLANNING FOR LACTATING WOMAN
Lactating woman secrets about 500 ml of milk during the first month.
Then the milk production increases to about 1000 ml per day by 4th to
5th month.
At an average a well nourished woman secrets about 850 ml of milk
per day.
Nutritional component of human milk
Nutrient Amount/lOa ml
Energy (Cal) 65
Proteins(grams) 1.1
Carbohydrates(grams) 7.4
Fats(grams) 3.4
Calcium(mg) 28
Iron(mg)
Carotene(ug) 137
Thiamine 2
Riboflavin 2
Niacin
Vitamin C 3
Nutrients
Energy giving
Protein
Calcium
Vitamin A
Vitamin C
Along with increased food intake, the fluid intake should also increase
during lactation. To maintain adequate supply of breast milk, coconut
water, juice, coffee, tea, milk should be consumed.
Food with striong or specific flavour may alter the taste of breast
milk.
Alcohol, drugs etc may enter the breast milk and interfere with infant
development.
 Chapter 8

Dietary Guidelines

Whether you need to lose or maintain weight, you should make

healthy food choices. These guidelines will improve your health, help you
meet your nutrient requirements, and reduce your risk of chronic disease.
The Dietary Guidelines recommend that you get the most nutrition
out of the calories you eat. You need nutrients to perform well, maintain
wellness, and fight disease. But it is important to get those nutrients
without consuming more calories than you need. To do this, you can't eat
too many high-calorie items (defined as foods with more than 400 calories
per serving).
You should also eat a variety of nutrient-rich foods each day. The
Dietary Guidelines recommend that you:
Use Plant Foods as the Foundation of Meals
(Fruits, Vegetables, and Whole Grains)
Most of the calories in your diet should come from a variety of whole
grain products, vegetables, and fruits. Plant foods provide a variety of
vitamins and minerals essential for health and most are naturally low in
fat.
You might want to pay particular attention to the antioxidant
nutrients found in plant foods (e.g., vitamin C, carotenoids, vitamin E,
and certain minerals) for their potentially beneficial role in reducing the
risk for cancer and certain other chronic diseases.
Plant foods, such as whole-grain breads and cereals, vegetables, and
fruits provide fibre, which is important for proper bowel function and
may lower the risk for heart disease and some cancers. Because there are
different types of fibre in foods, choose a variety of foods daily.
Get Enough Calcium-rich Foods
Consume three cups of low-fat or fat-free milk or an equivalent
amount of calcium each day through other calcium rich foods or a dietary
supplement.
Keep saturated and trans fats low (and keep total fat intake moderate)
172 Dietary Guidelines
Saturated fat and trans fatty acids raise blood cholesterol more than
other forms of fat. Keep saturated fats to less than 10 percent of calories
and keep trans fatty acids as low as possible.
The fats from meat, milk, and milk products are the main sources of
saturated fats in most diets, so select lean meats, poultry, fish, and low-
fat milk products. Many bakery products are also sources of saturated
fats and trans fatty acids, such as palm oil and partially hydrogenated
oils.
Fat, whether from plant or animal sources, contains more than twice
the number of calories of an equal amount of carbohydrate or protein.
Choose a diet that provides no more than 30 percent of total calories from
fat.
Restrict Sugar and Salt
Some foods that contain a lot of sugars supply calories but few or no
nutrients. Because maintaining a nutritious diet and a healthy weight is
very important, sugars should be used in moderation by most healthy
people and sparingly by people with low calorie needs.
Many studies in diverse populations have shown that a high sodium
intake is associated with higher blood pressure. Most evidence suggests
that many people at risk for high blood pressure reduce their chances of
developing this condition by consuming less salt or sodium
Eat Moderate Portions
Pay particular attention to portion sizes-the portions in restaurants
and on food labels are often far larger than recommended for weight
management. Be especially careful to limit portion sizes of foods high in
calories, such as baked goods, French fries, and fats and oils.
Use Alcohol in Moderation
Alcohol provides empty calories and is harmful when consumed in
excess. Some people should not drink at all, such as children and
adolescents, pregnant women, those with liver or other diseases, those
taking certain medications that interact with alcohol, and those who can't
restrict their drinking.
Moderation is defined as one drink per day for women and 2 drinks
per day for men. (One drink is 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1.5
ounces of hard liquor.)
Note that some individuals need to follow special diets to address
particular health concerns, such as heart disease. They should follow the
diet recommended by their physician.
Also, an individual's age and health must be factored into their
Dietary Guidelines 173
nutritional choices. Growing children, teenagers, women, pregnant
women, and older adults have a higher need for some nutrients. For
example adult women need almost a third more calcium intake than adult
men of similar age.
Don't Forget to Drink Water
Although it is not formally part of the dietary guidelines, it is
commonly realized that it is important to drink 8-10 glasses of water a
day to help your body's biological processes, especially carrying nutrients
to cells and eliminating wastes. It is best to drink purified water, so
investigate getting a water purifier for your home if you don't already
have one.
 Chapter 9

Nutrition for Pregnant Women

A pregnant woman needs extra care and good nutrition for both
herself and the foetus developing in her womb. As far as the nutrition for
pregnant women is concerned, the would-be mother should develop
healthy nutritional habits. Proper intake of nutrients is necessary for health
pregnancy.
Pregnancy and Nutrition
The nutritional needs of a pregnant is always higher than that of a
non-pregnant woman. As far as nutrition for healthy pregnancy is
concerned, a women needs to include a variety of nutritional items in her
diet. This is needed for getting the amount of calories, vitamins,
carbohydrates and proteins recommended by the physician.
Protein
Both the mother and the baby in the womb requires good amount of
protein. The doctors often advise the expectant mother to have 60 grams
of protein per day. 10 grams of protein are approximately equivalent to
11/z ounces of meat.
Iron
The doctors generally doubles iron contents from 15 milligram per
day to 30 milligram per day at the time of pregnancy. Other than this,
food rich in iron are also recommended by the doctors.
Calories
An expectant mother requires more or less 300 calories per day. This
is needed for the rapid growth of her baby.
Folic Acid
Folic acid plays a significant part in the development of cells. It also
helps in developing the fetal structures. Thus, a pregnant woman must
take food rich in folic acid. According to latest research, consumption of
Nutrition for Pregnant Women 175
folic acid during pregnancy can bring down the risk of Neural Tube
Defects (NTDs) like spina bifida in babies.
Calcium
A pregnant woman is usually recommended 1000 milligram of
calcium per day. Items like yogurt, butter, cheese and milk are full of
calcium.
Nutritional Recommendations for Healthy Pregnancy
Here are few nutritional recommendations for the pregnant women
of India:
• The' pregnant women must drink a minimum of 8-10 cups to
water daily. This is needed for clear urination.
• Intake caffeinated beverages should be limited during'
pregnancy.
• It is always better to avoid carbonated fluids a the time of
pregnancy.
• Fibrous fruits, grains and leafy vegetables should be kept in a
pregnant woman's diet. These are need to avoid constipation.
• Intake of Vitamin is must during pregnancy. However, excessive
intake of Vitamin A has often led to defective births. So, consult
your doctor, before you go in for a particular vitamin.
• The body also requires minerals a the time of pregnancy.
• Avoid tobacco during pregnancy.
• Wash the fruits and vegetables properly before eating.
• It is always better to stay away from the items with fermentative
effects.
Food and Drinks to Avoid During Pregnancy
No level of alcohol consumption is considered safe during pregnancy.
Also, check with your doctor before you take any vitamins or herbal
products. Some of these can be harmful to the developing fetus.
And although many doctors feel that one or two 6- to 8-ounce cups
per day of coffee, tea, or soda with caffeine won't harm your baby, it's
probably wise to avoid caffeine altogether if you can. High caffeine
consumption has been linked to an increased risk of miscarriage, so limit
your intake or switch to decaffeinated products.
When you're pregnant, it's also important to avoid food-borne
illnesses, such as listeriosis and toxoplasmosis, which can be life-
threatening to an unborn baby and may cause birth defects or miscarriage.
Foods you'll want to steer clear of include:
• Soft, unpasteurized cheeses (often advertised as "fresh") such
as feta, goat, Brie, Camembert, and blue cheese
176 Nutrition for Pregnant Women
• Unpasteurized milk, juices, and apple cider
• Raw eggs or foods containing raw eggs, including mousse and
tiramisu
• Raw or undercooked meats, fish, or shellfish
• Processed meats such as hot dogs and deli meats (these should
be well-cooked)
• Fish that are high in mercury, including shark, swordfish, king
mackeral, or tilefish
If you've eaten these foods at some point during your pregnancy, try
not to worry too much about it now; just avoid them for the remainder of
the pregnancy. If you're really concerned, talk to your doctor.
Managing Some Common Problems
Because the iron in prenatal vitamins and other factors may cause
constipation during pregnancy, try to consume more fibre than you did
before you became pregnant. Try to eat about 20 to 30 grams of fibre a
day. Your best sources are fresh fruits and vegetables and whole-grain
breads, cereals, or muffins. Some people also use fibre tablets or drinks
or other high-fibre products available at pharmacies and grocery stores,
but check with your doctor before trying them. (Don't use laxatives while
you're pregnant unless your doctor advises you to do so. And avoid the
old wives' remedy - castor oil - because it can actually interfere with
your body's ability to absorb nutrients.)
If constipation is a problem for you, your doctor may prescribe a stool
softener. Be sure to drink plenty of fluids, especially water, when
increasing fibre intake, or you can make your constipation worse. One of
the best ways to avoid constipation is to get more exercise. You should
also drink plenty of water between meals each day to help soften your
stools and move food through your digestive system. Sometimes hot tea,
soups, or broth can help. Also, keep dried fruits handy for snacking.
Some pregnant women find that broccoli, spinach, cauliflower, and
fried foods give them heartburn or gas. You can plan a balanced diet to
avoid these foods. Carbonated drinks also cause gas or heartburn for some
women, although others find they calm the digestive system. If you're
frequently nauseated, eat small amounts of bland foods, like toast or
crackers, throughout the day. If nothing else sounds good, try cereal with
milk or a sweet piece of fruit. To help combat nausea, you ~an also:
• Take your prenatal vitamin before going to bed after you've
eaten a snack - not on an empty stomach.
• Eat a small snack when you get up to go to the bathroom early
in the morning.
• Suck on hard candy.
 Chapter 10

Infant Nutrition

TWO MONTHS
Baby will get all of his nutrition from breast milk or an iron fortified
infant formula until he is four to six months old. There is no need to
supplement with water, juice or cereal at this time. He should now be on
a more predictable schedule and will probably be nursing or drinking 5-
6 ounces of formula every 3-4 hours.
Feeding practices to avoid are putting the bottle in bed or propping
the bottle while feeding, putting cereal in the bottle, feeding honey,
introducing solids before 4-6 months, or heating bottles in the microwave.
Also, avoid the use of low iron formulas, which are nutritionally
inadequate to meet the needs of a growing infant. These types of infant
formula do not contain enough iron and will put your child at risk for
developing iron deficiency anemia (which has been strongly associated
with poor growth and development and with learning disabilities). Iron
fortified formulas do not cause colic, constipation or reflux and you should
not switch to a low iron formula if your baby has one of these problems.
FOUR MONTHS
At this age, breast milk or formula is the only food that your baby
needs and he should be taking 5-6 ounces 4-6 times each day (24-32
ounces), but you can start to familiarize your baby with the feel of a spoon
and introduce solid baby foods. See the Guide to Starting Solids for more
information, especially if your child is at risk for developing food allergies.
Cereal is the first solid you should give your baby and you can mix it
with breast milk, formula or water and feed it to your baby with a spoon
(not in a bottle). Start by feeding one tablespoon of an iron-fortified Rice
cereal at one feeding and then slowly increase the amount to 3-4
tablespoons one or two times each day. This is a very important source of
iron for your growing infant (especially if you are breastfeeding). You
can then start with vegetables at about six months of age.
Your baby will probably have given up middle of the night feedings
178 Infant Nutrition
by this age. If not, slowly reduce how much you are putting in the bottle
each night and gradually stop this feeding all together.
Feeding practices to avoid are putting the bottle in bed or propping
the bottle while feeding, putting cereal in the bottle, feeding honey, using
a low-iron formula or heating bottles in the microwave.
SIX MONTHS
While continuing to give 4-5 feedings of breast milk or formula (24-
32 ounces) and 4 or more tablespoons of iron fortified cereal each day,
you can now start to give well-cooked, strained, or mashed vegetables or
commercially prepared baby foods. Start with one tablespoon of a mild
tasting vegetable, such as green beans, peas, squash or carrots and
gradually increase to 4-5 tablespoons one or two times each day.
Start fruits about a month after starting vegetables and again,
gradually increase to 4-5 tablespoons one or two times each day. You can
use peeled, cooked, or canned fruits (but only those packed in light syrup
or water) that have been blenderized or strained.
You can also begin to offer 4-6 ounces of 100% fruit juices. Start by
mixing one part juice with two parts of water and offer it in a cup only.
Delay giving finger foods or meat and other protein foods until infants
are eight to nine months old.
To avoid having to supplement with fluoride, prepare powdered/
concentrated formula with fluorinated tap water. If you are using ready-
to-feed formula, or bottled or filtered water only, then your baby may
need fluoride supplements.
Your baby will probably have given up middle of the night feedings
by this age. If not, slowly reduce how much you are putting in the bottle
each night and gradually stop this feeding all together.
Feeding practices to avoid are putting the bottle in bed or propping
the bottle while feeding, putting cereal in the bottle, feeding honey, using
a low-iron formula, offering juice in a bottle or heating bottles in the
microwave.
NINE MONTHS
While continuing to give 3-4 feedings of breast milk or formula (24-
32 ounces) and 4 or more tablespoons of cereal, vegetables and fruit one
or two times each day, you can now start to give more protein containing
foods. These include well-cooked, strained or ground plain meats (chicken,
beef, turkey, veal, lamb, boneless fish, or liver), mild cheese, peanutbutter,
or egg yolks (no egg whites as there is a high chance of allergic reactions
in infants less than 12 months old).
If using commercially prepared jars of baby food, do not use
Infant Nutrition 179
vegetables with meat as they have little meat and less protein and iron
than jars with plain meat.
Start with 1-2 tablespoons and increase to 3-4 tablespoons once each
day. If your baby doesn't seem to like to eat plain meat, then you can mix
it with a vegetable that they already like as you offer it.
You should start to offer soft table foods and finger foods at this age.
Give soft, bite-size pieces of food, such as soft fruit and vegetable pieces,
pastas, graham or saltine crackers, and dry cheerios, but do not give these
foods if the child is going to be unattended in case of choking.
Over the next three months your baby's diet will begin to resemble
that of the rest of the families, with 3 meals and 2 snacks each day. You
can also give4-6 ounces of 100% fruit juice in a cup.
To avoid having to supplement with fluoride, prepare powdered/
concentrated formula with fluorinated tap water. If you are using ready-
to-feed formula, or bottled or filtered water only, then your baby may
need fluoride supplements.
Your baby will probably have given up middle of the night feedings
by this age. If not, slowly reduce how much you are putting in the bottle
each night and gradually stop this feeding all together.
Feeding practices to avoid are changing to regular milk before your
child is twelve months old, putting the bottle in bed or propping the bottle
while feeding, feeding honey, using a low-iron formula, offering juice in
a bottle or heating bottles in the microwave.
TWELVE MONTHS
You may now give your baby homogenized whole cow's milk. Do
not use 2%, low fat, or skim milk until your child is 2-3 years old. Your
baby's diet will begin to resemble that of the rest of the families, with 3
meals and 2 snacks each day.
You should limit milk and dairy products to about 16-24 oz each day
(in a cup or bottle) and juice to 4-6 oz each day (offered in a cup only) and
offer a variety of foods to encourage good eating habits later.
Your child should want to feed himself with his fingers and a spoon
or fork and should be able to drink out of a cup.
The next few months will be time to stop using a bottle. Remember
that your baby's appetite may decrease and become pickier over the next
few years as his growth rate slows.
Your baby will probably have given up middle of the night feedings
by this age.
If not, slowly reduce how much you are putting in the bottle each
night and gradually stop this feeding all together.
To avoid having to supplement with fluoride, use fluorinated tap
180 Infant Nutrition
water. If you are using bottled or filtered water only, then your child may
need fluoride supplements (check with the manufacturer for your water's
fluoride levels).
Feeding practices to avoid are giving large amounts of sweet desserts,
soft drinks, fruit-flavored drinks, sugarcoated cereals, chips or candy, as
they have little nutritional value. Also avoid giving foods that your child
can choke on, such as raw carrots, peanuts, whole grapes, tough meats,
popcorn, chewing gum or hard candy.
 Chapter 11

Young Children and Toddlers

COMPLEMENTARY (WEANING FOODS)

In the first year of life, infants undergo periods of rapid growth when
a good diet is crucial. In fact, nutrition in the early years of life is a major
determinant of healthy growth and development throughout childhood
and of good health in adulthood. Pediatricians and nutritionists have
established nutritional guidelines to meet the specific needs of these early
years. While there is great variety in the types of foods each infant and
young child will gradually add to his or her diet, some generalizations
may be helpful. If you are at all unsure about what or how to feed your
infant during the first year of life, consult with your healthcare provider.
Breast milk is the ideal food for infants during the first six months of
life. It contains still-undiscovered substances that cannot be reproduced
artificially and its overall nutrient composition is superior to any
alternative, including infant formula. In spite of its superiority, breast milk
cannot provide all of the nutrients and calories that allow infants to thrive
after the first six months of life. All infants should continue to receive breast
milk for at least the first year and preferably for the second, but other,
more nutritious foods should be added by the time an infant reaches six
months of age. Formula-fed infants usually require only formula for their
first year, but they should also be introduced to other kinds of foods once
they reach six months of age.
From the age of six months until approximately two years, infants
and young children should gradually be introduced to different types of
semi-solid, solid or complementary foods as they gradually transition from
a diet centered on breast milk or formula. This transition period helps the
child to slowly become accustomed to eating adult-type foods and
familiarizes them with a wide range of textures and tastes.
Most infants begin the transition from liquid to solid foods with the
introduction of infant cereals. When mixed with breast milk or formula,
cereal can be a good starting place. Eating cereals from a spoon takes
practice~ but most 6-month olds are able to adapt quickly. After
182 Young Children and Toddlers
introducing cereal, many mothers next begin offering pureed or mashed
vegetables and fruits. Whether prepared industrially or at home, these
foods are a pleasant introduction to new tastes and textures. Gradually,
the smooth, pureed foods can be replaced with fodds of more solid texture,
such as meat or fish based meals, until the infant begins to eat table food.
Introducing your infant to complementary foods is a gradual and, at
times, trying process. The key to success is to gradually move from fairly
bland and smooth foods to foods that are more robust in texture, taste,
and smell. Be patient and have fun-this exciting and challenging stage
will surely produce many funny memories.
Different Types of Industrially Prepared Complementary Foods
. Many industrially prepared complementary foods are available to
help your infant make the transition from breast milk or formula to solid
food. While some parents choose to prepare their own foods, others find
that industrially prepared foods are convenient, safe, and nutritious
alternatives.
Complementary foods are formulated to satisfy the nutritional needs
of iniants and young children. Some types are sold dried and need
reconstituting (such as infant cereals) while others are sold ready to eat
(such as jars of baby food.) Meat, vegetables and fruit are major
ingredients. Some are based on cereal,>, some on pasta. They run the whole
gamut from biscuits, rusks, and "main meals" to desserts and drinks.
MAIN CATEGORIES OF INDUSTRIALLY PREPARED FOODS:

• Ready to eat baby foods

These consist of prepared recip~s that are cooked and sterilized
and are normally sold in cans and jars. This broad category
includes baby meals, fruit or vegetable based foods, and meat
and fish based foods.
• Dried baby foods
The range of dried foods available is similar to ready-to-eat and
they are prepared according to recipes, but they are dried after
cooking. Dried foods must be mixed with water or milk before
feeding.
• Cereal-based foods
Cereal foods are usually sold dried and ready for reconstitution.
They are based on pre-cooked cereals with additions of meat,
vegetables or fruit. Some are reconstituted with milk, but others
are already mixed with high protein foods and should be
reconstituted with a non-protein containing liquid such as water.
• Pasta
Young Children and Toddlers 183
These foods are available with different pasta shapes and are
used after cooking in boiling water or other appropriate liquid.
Pasta is often used as a main ingredient in "main meal" products.
• Biscuits and rusks
Biscuits and rusks can be offered in dried form or can be soaked
in water or milk. These products can be particularly useful for
teething infants.
• Milk based desserts
Special deserts with controlled sugar content typically contain
yogurt or other milk products as a main ingredient.
• Toddler drink
Special formulations of cow's milk or soy extracts have been
developed to match the specific nutritional needs of young
children over one year of age.
• Other drinks
Industrially prepared complementary foods can be a convenient way
to feed infants and are specially formulated as an introduction to the
texture of adult foods while meeting the strict dietary requirements of
infants and young children. Their manufacturers ensure they are processed
according to the strictest hygiene and safety requirements as well as
formulated to meet nutritional standards established by health authorities
throughout the world.
Whether you are giving your child homemade complementary foods
or industrially prepared foods, remember to keep your child's diet varied
and appropriate to his or her stage of development. The inappropriate
use of adult foods may result in insufficient intake of some nutrients, such
as iron and fat, or an excess of others, such as salt and fibre. Stay with
foods meant for infants at first and then gradually introduce" adult foods."
Fruit, vegetable and herbal drinks also contain controlled amounts
of sugar.
Accurate Time of Offering Complementary or Solid Food to Infants
Although all infants require a liquid diet during the first months of
life, solid foods eventually become the predominant source of nutrition.
No infant should be introduced to solid or complementary fdods before
the age of four months and, in many cases, it may be better to wait until
the infant is at least six months old.
By six months of age, your infant's nutritional needs are beginning
to increase. Breast milk or infant formula, alone, may not provide all the
nutrients your infant needs to continue growing and developing. The
purpose of introducing complementary foods is to provide a more energy-
dense diet with adequate protein for growth and a high proportion of
184 Young Children and Toddlers
calories from fat. In addition, complementary foods are a good way to
introduce new tastes and textures so your infant can eventually graduate
tQ eating the same meals as the rest of your family.
In the past, many mothers started feeding solid foods too early, before
their baby's digestive organs were sufficiently developed. In addition,
semi-solid foods must be fed with a small spoon. Yet, before the age of
four to six months, the infant's nervous system is not sufficiently
developed to allow use of a spoon. Before starting to eat solid foods, your
infant should be able to sit easily with support and coordinate chewing
and swallowing. Solid foods such as cereal should never be placed in a
bottle for feeding.
When starting the transition to complementary foods, milk or an
appropriate formula should continue to be a major part of the infant's
diet. Whole cow's milk or goat's milk, which are widely used by mothers
throughout the world, are not appropriate as an exclusive source of food
for infants. For this reason, and at the request of the medical profession,
follow-on formulas were developed to meet the nutritional needs of older
infa"!1ts. They provide the liquid part of a weaning diet and, because they
contain more iron, more vitamin D and less saturated fat, are nutritionally
more appropriate than whole cow's milk or other animal milks.
Preventive Measures Taken by Babv Food Companies
to Ensure the Safety of Baby Foods
Commercial baby foods are made according to the highest
microbiological and nutritional specifications and all ingredients must
meet strict safety and quality standards. Thorough heat treatment,
combined with strict hygiene standards, ensures the sterility of the product
throughout the manufacturing process.
In addition, companies operate controlled and dedicated supply
chains so that the raw materials can be traced back to their sources.
Suppliers are thoroughly screened and audited using such qualified
inspectors as veterinarians and quality control experts to ensure
compliance with standards. All manufacturing processes are designed to
ensure the microbiological safety of the product. Production and
packaging processes are carefully chosen for maximum protection and to
keep products in the best possible condition throughout theil shelf life.
Amount of Meat Used in Commercial Baby Foods

The meat content of commercial baby foods varies. Generally, baby

foods contain less meat than adult meat-based products do. Large amounts
of meat can be overpowering for babies in terms of taste, smell and texture.
Consequently, manufacturers try to balance the ingredients in meat-based
Young Children and Toddlers 185
baby foods to ensure palatability and good nutrition. The protein content
and protein quality of baby foods are far more important than actual meat
content.
Accordingly, manufacturers control the total amount of protein
(which may include meat) in their products to supply enough for optimal
growth and development of infants without straining their kidneys. They
also pay attention to the mixture of amino acids in baby foods by using a
variety of protein sources including meat, fish, milk, eggs, vegetables and
cereals. As a standard practice, manufacturers provide labels showing the
percentage of meat contained in all packets and jars of commercial baby
foods.
Genetically Modified lingredients Used in Commercial Baby Foods
All baby food manufacturers are very sensitive to consumer concerns
regarding genetic modification (GM) and consider their concerns when
formulating products. In addition, GM ingredients offer no particular
benefit over traditional foods at present.
Infant and Dietetic Foods Association (IDFA) member companies take
all possible steps to ensure that ingredients used in baby foods are not
derived from genetically modified crops. Where the potential exists for
GM material to be present in ingredients, in soya or maize, for example,
companies pur,?hase non-GM, identity-preserved ingredients through
carefully audited suppliers that have undergone rigorous independent
testing.
Organic and Non-organic Baby Foods
Manufacturers cannot claim that individual foods are 'organic' unless
an accredited body, such as the Soil Association in Europe, has certified
that the ingredients comply with specific standards. The most well known
organic standard is the restriction on the use of artificial fertilisers and
pesticides, which protects most organic foods from containing pesticide
residues.
In fact, all baby foods are subject to very strict controls on pesticide
residues as current legislation bans the use of some pesticides and requires
the level of any other to be below 10 parts per billion. Levels of pesticide
residues in commercial baby foods are consistently very low or not
detectable, whether the foods are labeled organic or not.
Additives Used in Commercial Weaning Foods
Infant food manufacturers take a precautionary approach to using
additives in baby foods. Only those additives that have been shown to be
both safe and required for technological processes are permitted by law.
186 Young Children and Toddlers
For example, artificial preservatives, colourings, sweeteners and artificial
flavourings cannot be used in baby foods.
Benefits of Commercial Baby Foods
Sometime around baby's sixth month, when he is just starting to lift
his head and smile, he may be ready to try some solid foods, usually
cereals.
Most mothers understand that commercially prepared baby cereals
are fortified with the correct amounts of iron and other nutrients to help
him grow best while he ;continues to breastfeed. As baby graduates from
cereals to the first vegetables and fruits, many mothers request information
about commercially prepared baby foods.
Commercial baby foods offer many valuable features for growing
babies and their mothers.
• Nutrient content: similar to the best homemade foods.
• Appropriate texture: foods are formulated to contain
recommended textures based on age or stage of development.
• Variety of tastes and ingredients: foods are available in many
flavors and with a large variety of fruits, vegetables and other
foods.
• Food combinations in recommended proportions: foods are
carefully combined and formulated to be acceptable to infants
and provide the right proportion of ingredients.
• Less pesticide contamination: baby foods are made from produce
that is lower in pesticide residues and other chemicals than are
fruits and vegetables purchased at markets for adult use.
• Convenience for home use: commercial baby foods are ready to
use right out of the containers.
• Convenience for travel: containers of baby foods are safe, easy
to store and convenient for travel.
• Stability of ingredients: commercial baby foods are guaranteed
to contain what is listed on the label and will remain unspoiled
for the stated time.
• Exact knowledge of ingredients: every ingredient included must
be listed on the label.
• Hygiene: manufacturers follow strict quality control standards
and monitor the cleanliness of preparation and cooking areas,
the storage conditions of the suppliers and ingredients, and the
clean-up procedures after cooking.
Mothers can feel confident that commercial baby foods provide high
quality, convenient meals for their babies.
 Chapter 12

School Age Children

Child's nutrition is important to her overall health. Proper nutrition

can also prevent many medical problems, including becoming overweight,
developing weak bones, and developing diabetes. It will also ensure that
your child physically grows to her full potential.
The best nutrition advise to keep your adolescent healthy includes
encouraging her to:
• Eat a variety of foods
• Balance the food you eat with physical activity
• Choose a diet with plenty of grain products, vegetables and fruits
• Choose a diet low in fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol
• Choose a diet moderate in sugars and salt
• Choose a diet that provides enough calcium and iron to meet
their growing body's requirements.
You can also help promote good nutrition by setting a good example.
Healthy eating habits and regular exercise should be a regular part of your
family's life. It is much easier if everyone in the house follows these
guidelines, than if your child has to do it alone. You should also buy low..;
calorie and lowfat meals, snacks and desserts, low fat or skim milk and
diet drinks. Avoid buying high calorie desserts or snacks, such as snack
chips, regular soft drinks or regular ice cream.
The Food Pyramid was designed by the US Dept. of Agriculture to
promote healthy nutrition in children over two years of age. It is meant
to be a general guide to daily food choices. The main emphasis of the
Food Guide Pyramid is on the five major food groups, all of which are
required for good health. It also emphasizes that foods that include a lot
of fats, oils and sweets should be used very sparingly.
The Food Guide Pyramid shows a range of servings for each food
group. How much you actually eat depends on your age and activity level.
Schoolage boys and girls require about 1600 to 2400 calories each day,
depending on their age and activity level. Once they hit their growth spurt,
girls require an additional 200 calories and boys 500 calories. School age
children will therefore require between the low and middle range of
188 School Age Children
servings. Children who are overweight and dieting should at least eat the
lowest range of servings.
When determining how many servings to eat, it is important to look
at the serving size. Larger portions should count as more than one serving,
and smaller portions will count as only a part of a serving.
Fats, Oils and Sweets
No more than 30% of your diet should come from fats. For a 1600
calorie diet, that would equal 53g of fat each day and for a 2200 calorie
diet, 73g of fat each day.
The type of fat that you eat is also important. Saturated fats in foods
such as meats, dairy products, coconut, palm and palm kernal oil, raise
cholesterol more than unsaturated fats, which are found in olive, peanut,
and canoia oils, or polyunsaturated fats in safflower, sunflower, corn,
soybean and cottonseed oils. Limit saturated fats to no more than 10% of
daily calories.
Sugars supply a large amount of calories, with little nutritional value.
They include white sugar, brown sugar, corn syrup, honey and molasses
and foods like candy, soft drinks, jams, and jellies.
Selection tips:
• Use lean meats and skim or lowfat dairy products
• Use unsaturated vegetable oils and margarines that list a liquid
vegetable oil as the first ingredient on the label
• Read the nutrition label on foods to check for the amount and
type of fat it includes
• Limit foods that contain a large amount of saturated fats
• Limit foods high in sugar and avoid adding extra sugar to your
foods
Food Servings Grams of Fat
Butter, margarine, 1 tsp. 4
Mayonnaise, 1 tbs. 11
Salad dressing, 1 tbs. 7
Sour cream, 2 tbs. 6
Cream cheese, 1 oz. 10
Chocolate bar, 1 oz. 9
Milk, Yogurt and Cheese
Dairy products provide protein, vitamins and minerals and are an
excellent source of calcium. Your schoolage child should have 2 to 3
servings of milk, yogurt and cheese each day.
Selection tips:
School Age Children 189
• Choose skim milk and nonfat yogurt
• Avoid high fat cheese and ice cream
Food Servings Grams of Fat
Skim milk, 1 cUE 1 Trace
Nonfat r0!2urt, 8 oz 1 Trace
Lowfat mi'lk, 1 cUE 1 5
Whole milk, 1 cUE 1 8
Chocolate milk. 2%, 1 cUE 1 5
Lowfat rou!2urt, 1 cUE 1 4
Process cheese, 2 oz. 1 18
Mozzarella, Eart skin 1 - 1/2 oz 1 7
Cotta!2e cheese, 1/2 cUE 1/4 5
Ice cream, 1/2 cUE 1/3 7
Ice milk, 1/2 cUE 1/3 3
Frozen rO!2urt, 1/2 cUE 1/2 2
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs and Nuts
Foods in this group provide protein, and vitamins and minerals,
including B vitamins, iron and zinc. You should have 2 to 3 servings of
foods from this group each day, including the equivalent of 5 to 7 ounces
of lean meat. Selection tips:
• A serving from this food group can include 2-3 ounces of lean
meat, poultry or fish, which may be an average hamburger or
medium chicken breast half.
• Choices with the least fat include lean meat, poultry without
skin, fish, and dry beans and peas.
• Prepare meats in lowfat ways, by trimming away fat, and
broiling, roasting, or boiling rather than frying.
• Remember that nuts and seed are high in fat, and egg yolks are
high in cholesterol, so you should eat them in moderation.
Food Servings Grams of Fat
Lean meat, £oultry, fish 30z 6
Ground beef, lean 30z 16
Chicken, with skin, fried 30z 13
Bologna, 2 slices 10z 16
E!2!2, 1 loz 5
Drr beans and £eas, 1/2 cup loz Trace
Peanut butter, 2 tbs. loz 16
Nuts, 1/3 cup loz 22
Servings = ounces of meat these items count as.
190 School Age Children
Vegetables
Vegetables supply you with vitamins, including vitamin A and C,
and folate, minerals, such as iron and magnesium, and fibre. Plus they
are low in fat. You should have 2 to 4 servings of vegetables each day.
Selection tips:
• You should eat a variety of vegetables to provide you with all
of the different nutrients that they supply, including dark green
leafy vegetables, deep yellow vegetables, starchy vegetables
(potatoes, corn peas), legumes (navy, pinto and kidney beans),
and other vegetables (lettuce, tomatoes, onions, green beans).
• Do not add a lot of fat to the vegetables you eat, by avoiding
added toppings, such as butter, mayonnaise, and salad dressings.
Food Servings Grams of Fat
Vegs, cooked, 1/2 cup 1 Trace
Vegs, leafy, raw 1 cup 1 Trace
Vegs, nonleafy, raw, 1/2 cup 1 Trace
Potatoes, scalloped, 1/2 cup 1 4
Potato salad, 1/2 cup 1 8
French fries, 10 1 8
Fruits
Fruits and 100% fruit juices provide Vitamin A and C and potassium.
They are also low in fat and. sodium. You should have 2-4 servings of
fruit each day. '
Selection tips:
• Eat fresh fruits and 100 % fruit juices and avoid canned fruit in
heavy syrups and sweetened fruit juices. According to the
American Academy of Pediatrics, 100% fntit juice may substitute
for half of your child's recommended servings of fruit each day.
• Eat whole fruits.
• Eat citrus fruits, melons, and berries, which are high in Vitamin
C.
Food Servings Grams of Fat
Whole fruit 1 Trace
Fruit, raw or canned, 1/2 cup 1 Trace
Fruit juice, unsweetened, 3/4 cup 1 Trace
Avocado, 1/4 whole 1 9
Bread, Cereal, Rice and Pasta

Foods from this group provide complex carbohydrates (starches) and

School Age Children 191
provide vitamins, minerals, and fibre. You need at least 6 to 11 servings
of foods from thi~ food group each day.
Selection tips:
• Choose whole grain breads and cereals for added fibre.
• Choose foods that are low in fat and sugars.
• Avoid adding calories and fat to foods in this group by not
adding spreads or toppings high in fat.
Food Servings Grams of Fat
Bread, 1 slice 1 1
Hamburger roll 2 2
Tortilla 1 3
Rice, pasta, 1/2 cup 1 Trace
Breakfast cereals, 1 oz 1 ?
Pancakes, 2 2 3
Croissant, 1 large 2 12
Doughnut, 1 medium 2 11
Danish, 1 medium 2 13
Cake, frosted, 1 slice 1 13
Cookies, 2 medium 1 4
Calcium Requirements
Calcium is a mineral that is mostly present in your child's bones.
Having a diet with foods that are high in calcium to meet daily
requirements is necessary for the development of strong bones. It is also
an important way to prevent the development of osteoporosis in adults.
School age children require about 800 mg of calcium each day. Once
they begin puberty, their calcium requirements will increase to about 1200
mg each day. See the table for the calcium content of common foods and
check the nutrition label to choose foods high in calcium when you prepare
your families diet. Also choose foods that are fortified with calcium
Food Servings Calcium Content
Milk, whole or lowfat 1 cup 300 mg
White beans 1/2 cup 113 mg
Broccoli, cooked 1/2 cup 35 mg
Broccoli, raw 1 cup 35 mg
Cheddar cheese 1.5 oz 300 mg
....l=:..._ _ __

Yogurt, lowfat 80z 300 mg

Orange juice, calcium fortified 1 cup 300 mg
Orange, medium 1 40-50 mg
Sweet potatoes, mashed 1/2 cup mg
192 School Age Children
Iron Requirements

Iron is another mineral that is important for your child's growth.

Having a diet with foods that are high in iron to meet daily requirements
is necessary for the development of strong muscles and production of
blood.
Adolescents require about 10 to 12 mg of iron each day. See the table
for the iron content of common foods and check the nutrition label to
choose foods high in iron when you prepare your families diet. Also choose
foods that are fortified with iron (cereals, bread, rice, and pasta).
Food Servings Iron content
Beef, chicken, fish
Liver
Peanut butter
Nuts and seeds
Green peas, lima beans
Pinto beans
Spinach
Greens, turnip/collard
Strawberries
Tomato juice
Squash
Whole grain bread
Raisins
Watermelon
 Chapter 13

Adolescent Nutrition

To develop to their optimal potential, it is vital that children are

provided with nutritionally sound diets. Diet and exercise patterns during
childhood and adolescence may spell the difference between health and
risk of disease in later years. Different stages of the life cycle dictate
differing nutrient needs.
The nutritional requirements of young people are influenced
primarily by the spurt of growth that occurs at puberty. The peak of
growth is generally between 11 and 15 years for girls and 13 and 16 years
for boys. The nutrient needs of individual teenagers differ greatly, and
food intake can vary enormously from day to day, so that those with
deficient or excessive intakes on one day may well compensate on the
next. In this period of life, several nutrients are at greater deficiency risk
including iron and calcium
Iron
Among adolescents, iron-deficiency anaemia is one of the most
common diet-related deficiency diseases.
Adolescents are particularly susceptible to iron deficiency anaemia
in view of their increased blood volume and muscle mass during growth
and development. This raises the need of iron for building up
haemoglobin, the red pigment in blood that carries oxygen, and for the
related protein myoglobin, in muscle. The increase in lean body mass
(LBM), composed mainly of muscle, is more important in adolescent boys
than in girls. In preadolescent years, LBM is about the same for both sexes.
Once adolescence starts, however, the boy undergoes a more rapid
accumulation of LBM for each additional kilogram of body weight gained
during growth, ending up with a final LBM maximum value double that
of the girl. Other factors contributing to elevated iron needs are increased
body weight and the beginning of menstruation for girls. All these factors
should be taken into account when assessing iron needs in this group of
age.
One of the most important diet considerations during adolescence is
194 Adolescent Nutrition
an increase in the intake of iron-rich foods such as lean meats and fish as
well as beans, dark green vegetables, nuts and iron-fortified cereals and
other grains. Iron from animal foods (known as haem iron) is much better
absorbed than iron from non-animal sources (non-haem iron). Adolescents
following vegetarian diets are therefore at an increased risk of iron-
deficiency. However, vitamin C (e.g. from citrus fruits) and animal
proteins (meat & fish) assist in the absorption of non-haem iron.
Calcium
The skeleton accounts for at least 99% of the body stores of calcium
and the gain in skeletal weight is most rapid during the adolescent growth
spurt. About 45% of the adult skeletal mass is formed during adolescence,
although its growth continues well beyond the adolescent period and into
the third decade. All the calcium for the growth of the skeleton must be
derived from the diet. The largest gains are made in early adolescence,
between about 10-14 years in girls and 12-16 years in boys.
During peak adolescent growth, calcium retention is, on average,
about 2COmg/day in girls and 300 mg/day in boys. The efficiency of calcium
absorption is only around 30% so it is important that the diet supplies an
adequate calcium intake to help build the densest bones possible. The
achievement of peak bone mass during childhood and adolescence is
crucial to reduce the risk of osteoporosis in later years. By eating several
servings of dairy products, such as milk, yoghurt and cheese, the
recommended calcium intake can be achieved.
As well as a good dietary supply of calcium, other vitamins or
minerals, like vitamin D and phosphorous, are needed for building up
bones. Physical activity is also essential, particularly weight-bearing
exercise, which provides the stimulus to build and retain bone in the body.
Activities such as cycling, gymnastics, skating, ball games, dancing and
supervised weight training for at least 30-60 minutes a day, three to five
times a week can help build bone mass and density. Making the right
dietary and lifestyle choices early in life will help young people develop
health-promoting behaviours that they can follow throughout life.
Food habits:
Dietary habits, which affect food preferences, energy consumption
and nutrient intakes, are generally developed in early childhood and
particularly during adolescence. The home and school environments play
a major role in determining a child's attitude to, and consumption of
individual foods.
Teenagers, as well as being exposed to periodic food fads and
slimming trends, tend to skip meals and develop irregular eating habits.
Adolescent Nutrition 195
One of the most frequently missed meals is breakfast. Studies show that
breakfast plays an important role in providing needed energy and
nutrients after an overnight fast and can aid in concentration and
performance at school.
Snacks generally form an integral part of meal patterns for both
children and teenagers. Younger children cannot eat large quantities at
one sitting and often get hungry long before the next regular mealtime.
Mid-morning and mid-afternoon snacks can help to meet energy needs
throughout the day. Fast-growing and active teenagers often have
substantial energy and nutrition needs and the teaching of food and
nutrition in the school curricula will enable children to have the knowledge
to make informed choices about the foods in their regular meals and
snacks.
Energy needs
Lack of activity plays an important role in the development,
progression and perpetuation of obesity in adolescence. Surveys of young
people have found that the majority is largely inactive and health
professionals and governments are now encouraging higher levels of
physical activity among children and adolescents. Physical inactivity does
not only have a prime role in the development of overweight and obesity,
but also on the development of chronic diseases such as heart disease,
certain cancers, diabetes, hypertension, bowel problems and osteoporosis
in later life. In addition, physical activity is related to improvements in
body flexibility, balance, agility and co-ordination and strengthening of
bones. The current recommendation is for children to try to be physically
active for at least 60 minutes daily.
 Chapter 14

Adult Nutrition

Healthy eating and a healthful way of life are important to how we

look, feel and how much we enjoy life. The right lifestyle decisions, with
a routine of good food and regular exercise, can help us make the most of
what life has to offer. Making smart food choices early in life and through
adulthood can also help reduce the risk of certain conditions such as
obesity, heart disease, hypertension, diabe~es, certain cancers and
osteoporosis.
Consume Wide Variety of Foods
We need more than 40 different nutrients for good health and no
single food can supply them all. That's why consumption of a wide variety
of foods (including fruits, vegetables, cereals and grains, meats, fish and
poultry, dairy products and fats and oils), is necessary for good health
and any food can be enjoyed as part of a healthy diet. Some studies have
linked dietary variety with longevity. In any event, choosing a variety of
foods adds to the enjoyment of meals and snacks.
Eating is one of the life's great pleasures and its important to take
time to stop, relax and enjoy mealtimes and snacks. Scheduling eating
times also ensures that meals are not missed, resulting in missed nutrients
that are often not compensated for by subsequent meals. This is especially
important for school children, adolescents and the elderly.
Breakfast is particularly important as it helps kick-start the body by
supplying energy after the all-night fast.
Balance and Moderation
Balancing your food intake means getting enough, but not too much,
of each type of nutrient. If portion sizes are kept reasonable, there is no
need to eliminate favourite foods. There are no "good" or "bad" foods,
only good or bad diets. Any food can fit into a healthy lifestyle by
remembering moderation and balance.
Moderate amounts of all foods can help ensure that energy (calories)
intake is controlled and that excessive amounts of anyone food or food
Adult Nutrition 197
component are not eaten. If you choose a high fat snack, choose a lower
fat option at the next meal.
Maintain a Healthy Body Weight and Feel Good
A healthy weight varies between individuals and depends on many
factors including gender, height, age and hereditary.
Excess body fat results when more calories are eaten than are needed.
Those extra calories can come from any source - protein, fat, carbohydrate
or alcohol - but fat is the most concentrated source of calories.
Physical activity is a good way of increasing the energy (calories)
expended and it can also lead to feelings of well-being. The message is
simple: if you are gaining weight eat less and be more active.
Fruits and Vegetables

Numerous studies have shown an association between the intake of

these foods and a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease and certain
cancers. An increased intake of fruits and vegetables has also been
associated with decreased blood pressure. People can fill up on fresh fruit
and vegetables because they are good sources of nutrients and the majority
are naturally low in fat and calories.
Nutritionists are paying much more attention to fruits and vegetables
as "packages" of nutrients and other constituents that are healthful for
humans. The" antioxidant hypothesis" has drawn attention to the role of
micronutrients found in fruits and vegetables like vitamins C and E , as
well as a number of other natural protective substances.
The carotenes (beta-carotene, lutein and lycopene), the flavonoids
(phenolic compounds that are widespread in commonly consumed fruits
and vegetables such as apples and onions and beverages derived from
plants like tea, cocoa and red wine) and the phytoestrogens (principally
isoflavones and lignans), are being demonstrated to have beneficial roles
in human health.
Base the Diet on Foods Rich in Carbohydrates
Most dietary guidelines recommend a daily diet in which at least 55
of the total calories come from carbohydrates. This means making more
than half of our daily food intake should consist of carbohydrate-
containing foods such as grains, pulses, beans, fruits, vegetables and
sugars.
Although the body treats all carbohydrates in the same way regardless
of their source, carbohydrates are often split into "complex" and "simple"
carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates that come from plants are called
starch and fibres, and these are found for example in cereal grainf>,
198 Adult Nutrition
vegetables, breads, seeds, legumes and beans. These carbohydrates consist
of long strands of many siJ;Ilple carbohydrates linked together. Simple
carbohydrates (sometimes called simple sugars) are found for example in
table sugar, fruits, sweets, jams, soft drinks, fruit juices, honey, jellies and
syrups. Both complex and simple carbohydrates provide the same amount
of energy (4 calories per gram) and both can contribute to tooth decay,
especially when oral hygiene is poor.
Drink Plenty of Fluids
Adults need to drink at least 1.5 litres of fluid daily, even more if its
hot or they are physically active. Plain water is a good source of liquid
but variety can be both pleasant and healthy. Choose alternative fluids
from juices, soft drinks, tea, coffee and milk.
Fats in Moderation
Fat is a nutrient in food that is essential for good health. Fats provide
a ready source of energy and enable the body to absorb, circulate and
store the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. Fat-containing foods are
needed to supply "essential fatty acids" that the body cannot make.
Too much fat however, especially saturated fats, can lead to adverse
health effects such as overweight and high cholesterol and increase the
risk of heart disease and some <;:ancers.
Limiting the amount of fat, especially saturated fat in the diet -but
not cutting it out entirely- is the best advice for a healthy diet. Most dietary
recommendations are that less than 30% of the day's total calories should
come from fat and less than 10% of the day's total calories should come
from saturated fat.
Balance the Salt Intake
Salt (NaCl) is made up of sodium and chloride. Sodium is a nutrient
and is present naturally in many foods. Sodium and chloride are important
in helping the body to maintain fluid balance and to regulate blood
pressure.
For most people, any excess sodium passes straight through the body
however in some people it can increase blood pressure. Reducing the
amount of salt in the diet of those who are sensitive to salt may reduce
the risk of high blood pressure. However, the relationship between salt
intake and blood pressure is still not known well and individuals should
consult their doctor for advice.
 Chapter 15

People living on low Income

The gap between the diets of people on low incomes and those of the
rest of the population is not as wide as some feared
The dietary pattern of people on low incomes is the same as that of
the general population, although in some aspects it is slightly less healthy.
Before this survey, there had been some concerns that the diets of this
population group were extremely poor and that factors such as restricted
access to choice and a lack of confidence in cooking skills were preventing
people from eating healthily. However, the Food Standards Agency study
did not identify any direct link between dietary patterns and income, food
access or cooking skills. The diet-related problems found to affect people
on low incomes are in general much the same as those facing the
population as a whole, including:
• Not eating enough fruit and vegetables
• Not eating enough oily fish
• Consumption of too much saturated fat and sugar
Levels of obesity were also found to be very high - 62% of men, 63%
of women, 35% of boys and 34% of girls were overweight or obese, which
mirrors the high levels within the general UK population. The
comprehensive survey, involving more than 3,500 people and carried out
over 15 months, looked at the dietary habits and nutritional status of the
low income population.
It was commissioned by the Food Standards Agency to further inform
its and other Government departments' work in the area of diet and
nutrition among low income groups.
Food Standards Agency Head of Nutrition Rosemary Hignett said:
'The encouraging news from this research is that the gap between the diets
of people on low incomes and those of the rest of the population is not as
big as some feared.
'It is also positive that most people in this group are confident about
their cooking skills, have reasonable kitchen facilities and access to large
supermarkets. 'However, the bad news is that this group -like the general
population .- are not eating as healthily as they could be. Poor diets can
200 People Living on Low Income
lead to chronic disease, such as heart disease and cancer, and contribute
to obesity, which is on the rise.
Small changes to diet can make a big difference to health so we urge
everyone to think about the food that they and their family are eating.'
The research found:
• The low income population were less likely to eat wJlolemeal
bread, but drank more sugary drinks and consumed more table
sugar
• Less than 10% of respondents ate the recommended 5 portions
of fruit and vegetables per day - with about 20% eating less
than 1 portion
• Less than a quarter of people ate oily fish during the survey
period
• Adults are getting 13.4% of their energy from saturated fat,
which exceeds the 'no more than 11 %' recommendation
• 51 % of men and 69% of women fell short of the minimum
recommended intake of dietary fibre (12g)
• 65% of children had a non-diet fizzy drink during the 4-day
survey period
• About two-thirds of men and women had cholesterol levels at
levels associated with higher risks of cardiovascular disease
(above 5mmol/l)
• Average daily intakes of all vitamins (apart from A and D) were
above or close to the Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) for all sex
and age groups; the RNI is the amount sufficient, or more than
sufficient, for about 97% of people
The survey also looked at other lifestyle-related factors, including
alcohol consumption, smoking and exercise. It found higher levels of
smoking and alcohol consumption, together with lower levels of activity
within this low income group.
Nutrient Intakes
Protein
In common with the general population, mean daily intake of protein
exceeded recommended levels in all sex and age groups.
The protein providers in adults and children were: meat and meat
products (37% and 34% respectively), followed by cereals and cereal
products (23% and 25% respectively) and milk and milk products (17%
and 19% respectively).
Fat
Total fat intakes as a proportion of food energy were broadly similar
People Living on Low Income 201
to those in the general population dietary recommendation. However,
intakes of saturated fatty acids were above recommended levels. Mean
daily intake of total fat was 79.1g for men, 59.4g for women, 76.7g for
boys and 67.0g for girls.
These correspond to percentages of food energy from total fat of
35.9%, 35.2%, 36.1 % and 35.7%, respectively.
The main contributors to total fat intake in adults' diets were meat
and meat products (24%), cereals and cereal products (18%), milk and milk
products (15%), fat spreads (15%), potatoes & savoury snacks (9%). In
contrast to adults, children obtained a higher proportion of fat intake from
potatoes and savoury snacks (19% vs 9%) and confectionery (6% vs 3%)
but a lower proportion from fat spreads (10% vs 15%).
Saturated Fat
As in the general population, mean intakes of saturated fat exceeded
the recommendation of not more than 11 % of food energy in all age groups.
This was most noticeably in adults aged 65 and over and children aged
2-10 years.
Trans Fatty Acids
Intakes of trans fatty acids as a percentage of food energy were below
the recommendation of not more than 2% in adults and children.
Fibre
Cereal and cereal products were the largest source of non-starch
polysaccharides (NSP) for adults and children, providing 37% and 38%
of intake respectively. Among adults, 51 % of men and 69% of women fell
short of the minimum recommended intake 18g per day.
Vitamins and Minerals
• Average daily intakes of all vitamins from food sources, with
the exception of vitamins A and D, were above or clos~ to the
required recommended intake for men and women in all age
groups.
• Intakes of many minerals also met recommendations. However,
average intakes of total iron, magnesium, potassium and zinc
fell below requirements for a large proportion of respondents
(mostly women for iron).
• There was evidence of inadequate levels of iron, folate and
vitamin D.
This pattern of intakes is broadly similar to the wider population.
202 People Living on Low Income
Sodium/salt intake
Adults and children both got one-third of their sodium intake
(excluding salt added at the table or in cooking) from cereals and cereal
products, the largest single contributor to which was white bread (12%).
The survey was only able to measure sodium/salt from food sources, so
the figures below almost certainly underestimate total salt intake.
Mean daily consumption of salt from food sources only (because the
methods used could not quantify salt added in cooking or at the table)
was in men about 7g, and in women 5g.
It is likely that true salt intake (taking into account salt added to food)
will be in excess of the target of no more than 6g per day for both men
and women.
Health Effects of Poor Diet
•
Eating a lot without taking enough exercise can lead to weight gain
and, ultimately, obesity.
With obesity comes a substantially increased risk of diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, some cancers and
osteoarthritis. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that diets low in fruits,
vegetables and pulses are associated with an increased risk of cancer and
heart disease.
High salt consumption is linked to increased blood pressure and this
is a risk factor for coronary heart disease. Saturated fats are the main
dietary factor in increase\i blood cholesterol. 61% of men and 65% of
women had raised cholesterol at levels linked with a higher risk of
cardiovascular disease.
Frequent consumption of foods high in sugars increases the risk of
tooth decay.
 Chapter 16

Nutrition for Senior Citizens

The life span of humans increases dramatically. Unfortunately,

knowledge of the nutritional needs changes. Most experts agree that
nutrition is a factor in the aging process. Age-related changes in body
composition and metabolism require seniors to keep a sharp eye on their
food choices.
Too many seniors are undernourished as a result of:
• Aging,
• Eating processed and refined foods that often have lost their
nutritional value,
• Reduced metabolism,
• Diminished appetite, and
• Effects of medication.
Metabolic changes, along with decreased physical activity, require
obtaining the same amount of nutrients from a lower caloric level. As one
gets older the chances of suffering a chronic illness are greater, and health
experts believe that poor eating habits contribute to some of those ailments.
AGING CHANGES HAVE NUTRITIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
First, older people produce less saliva and often have poor dentures.
This causes difficulty with very dry foods.
An estimated 30% of seniors lose their ability to make stomach acid,
and this interferes with the absorption of some nutrients such as vitamin
B12 and folic acid. Deficiencies in these nutrients, as well as vitamin B6,
can c'ause neurological changes such as decline in alertness, loss of
memory, and numbness of the extremities.
The reduction of the natural movement of food and enzyme activity
in the gastrointestinal tract, known to be associated with aging, often
results in digestive difficulties in dealing with certain foods. Also, this
reduction in the natural movement of food through the intestines causes
food to remain in the intestines for a longer period of time, producing
harder stools and resulting in constipation.
Aging affects certain senses, such as taste, smell, vision, and in tum
204 Nutrition for Senior Citizens
affects the types of foods that will be chosen. Salty and sweet taste
sensations can decline markedly with age, causing some to prefer foods
that are richly seasoned. However, certain spicy foods produce gas. Many
older persons complain of "heartburn,". that often is not caused by
increased acidity but by gas production. Others resort to extra salt in order
to overcome their gradual loss of taste. Sodium and its role in water
retention and high blood pressure may then become a problem.
Due to particular diseases, such as heart disease or osteoporosis, as
we age we need less of some minerals (such as sodium to lower blood
pressure) and more of others (such as calcium for bone mass). Bones tend
to weaken with age; evidence suggests that seniors require at least 1500
milligrams of calcium a day.
Depression and loneliness can further contribute to a disinterest in
eating. Many seniors do not have the economical means, knowledge, or
willingness to ensure the most nutritious choices in food selection and
meal preparation, the result being malnutrition and potential health
problems.
Because of changes in the body and decreasing physical activity, older
people usually need fewer calories as the rate at which the body uses
energy tends to decrease. For some, food intake generally is lower, and
the amount of lean body tissue decreases while the amount of body fat
increases. Yet others maintain old eating habits not realizing that most
people gain weight more easily as they age
There are Nutritional Guidelines for Seniors that can
be Derived from Conventional Wisdom
They are as follcws:
• Eat a variety of foods from five of the six major food groups
(fruits; vegetables; breads and cereals; milk and cheeses; meat,
poultry, fish, and dry beans) to obtain all the nutrients needed
for good health.
• A void foods high in cholesterol.
• Limit total fat intake to less than 30% of your calories and keep
intake of saturated fats to less than 10%.
• Increase your intake of dietary fibre.
• Be selective of foods that cause gas problems.
• Prepare moister or softer foods, or smaller portions, if you have
difficulty with dry foods.
• Limit the use of salt and sodium compounds.
• Increase your calcium intake, especially women.
• Avoid too much sugar.
• Drink at least eight (8 ounce) glasses of water daily.
Nutrition for Senior Citizens 205
• If you drink alcoholic beverages, do so in moderation.
• Drugs interact adversely with certain nutrients. If in doubt,
before you take them, find out.
The guidelines cannot guarantee health and well-being as health
depends on many things, including heredity, lifestyle, personality traits,
mental health and attitudes, and environment, in addition to one's meals.
Food alone cannot make you healthy, but good eating habits based
on moderation and variety can keep you healthy and even improve your
health. Experts from Health Agencies agree that following these guidelines
and eating well-balanced meals support:
• Adequate energy to carry out daily tasks.
• Good mental health and mental abilities.
• Resistance to disease.
• Recovery from illness, accident, or surgery.
• Medication effectiveness.
• Better management of chronic health problems to improve
quality of life, mobility, and independence.
 Chapter 17

Vegetarian Diet

Vegetarian diets can meet all the recommendations for nutrients. The
key is to consume a variety of foods and the right amount of foods to
meet your calorie needs. Follow the food group recommendations for your
age, sex, and activity level to get the right amount of food and the variety
of foods needed for nutrient adequacy. Nutrients that vegetarians may
need to focus on include protein, iron, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12 .
Nutrients to Focus on for Vegetarians
Protein has many important functions in the body and is essential for
growth and maintenance. Protein needs can easily be met by eating a variety
of plant-based foods. Combining different protein sources in the same meal
is not necessary. Sources of protein for vegetarians include beans, nuts, nut
butters, peas, and soy products (tofu, tempeh, veggie burgers). Milk
products and eggs are also good protein sources for lacto-ovo vegetarians.
Iron functions primarily as a carrier of oxygen in the blood. Iron sources
for vegetarians include iron-fortified breakfast cereals, spinach, kidney
beans, black-eyed peas, lentils, turnip greens, molasses, whole wheat breads,
peas, and some dried fruits (dried apricots, prunes, raisins). Calcium is used
for building bones and teeth and in maintaining bone strength.
Sources of calcium for vegetarians include fortified breakfast cereals,
soy products (tofu, soy-based beverages), calcium-fortified orange juice, and
some dark green leafy vegetables (collard greens, turnip greens, bok choy,
mustard greens). Milk products are excellent calcium sources for lacto
vegetarians. Zinc is necessary for many biochemical reactions and also helps
the immune system function properly. Sources of zinc for vegetarians
include many types of beans (white beans, kidney beans, and chickpeas),
zinc-fortified breakfast cereals, wheat germ, and pumpkin seeds. Milk
products are a zinc source for lacto vegetarians. Vitamin B12 is found in
animal products and some fortified foods. Sources of vitamin B12 for
vegetarians include milk products, eggs, and foods that have been fortified
with vitamin B12 . These include breakfast cereals, soy-based beverages,
veggie burgers, and nutritional yeast.
Vegetarian Diet 207
Tips for Vegetarians

• Build meals around protein sources that are naturally low in

fat, such as beans, lentils, and rice. Don't overload meals with
high-fat cheeses to replace the meat.
• Calcium-fortified soy-based beverages can provide calcium in
amounts similar to milk. They are usually low in fat and do not
contain cholesterol.
• Many foods that typically contain meat or poultry can be made
vegetarian. This can increase vegetable intake and cut saturated
fat and cholesterol intake. Consider:
• Pasta primavera or pasta with marinara or pesto sauce
• Veggie pizza
• Vegetable lasagna
• Tofu-vegetable stir fry
• Vegetable 10 mein
• Vegetable kabobs
• Bean burritos or tacos
A variety of vegetarian products look (and may taste) like their non-
vegetarian counterparts, but are usually lower in saturated fat and contain
no cholesterol.
• For breakfast, try soy-based sausage patties or links.
• Rather than hamburgers, try veggie burgers. A variety of kinds
are available, made with soy beans, vegetables, and/or rice.
• Add vegetarian meat substitutes to soups and stews to boost
protein without adding saturated fat or cholesterol. These
include tempeh (cultured soybeans with a chewy texture), tofu,
or wheat gluten (seitan).
• For barbecues, try veggie or garden burgers, soy hot dogs,
marinated tofu or tempeh, and veggie kabobs.
• Make bean burgers, lentil burgers, or pita halves with falafel
(spicy ground chick pea patties).
• Some restaurants offer soy options (texturized vegetable protein)
as a substitute for meat, and soy cheese as a substitute for regular
cheese.
• Most restaurants can accommodate vegetarian modifications to
menu items by substituting meatless sauces, omitting meat from
stir-fries, and adding vegetables or pasta in place of meat. These
substitutions are more likely to be available at restaurants that
make food to order.
• Many Asian and Indian restaurants offer a varied selection of
vegetarian dishes.
 Chapter 18

Food Production and Processing

Agriculture refers to the production of food and goods through

farming and forestry. Agriculture was the key development that led to
the rise of civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and
plants (i.e. crops) creating food surpluses that enabled the development
of more densely populated and stratified societies. The study of agriculture
is known as agricultural science (the related practice of gardening is
studied in horticulture).
Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties. Cultivation of
crops on arable land and the pastoral herding of livestock on rangeland
. remain at the foundation of agriculture. In the past century a distinction
has been made between sustainable agriculture and intensive '-farming.
Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and
technological improvements have sharply increased yields from
cultivation. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry
such as intensive pig farming (and similar practices applied to the chicken)
have similarly increased the output of meat. The more exotic varieties of
agriculture include aquaculture and tree farming.
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods,
fibers, fuels, raw materials, pharmaceuticals and illegal drugs, and an
assortment of ornamental or exotic products. In the 2000s, plants have
been used to grow biofuels, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics, and
pharmaceuticals. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, and
meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials
include lumber and bamboo. Drugs include tobacco, alcohol, opium,
cocaine, and digitalis. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such
as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel.
Cut flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are
some of the ornamental products.
In 2007, about one third of the world's workers were employed in
agriculture. However, the relative significance of farming has dropped
steadily since the beginning of industrialization, and in 2003 - for the first
time in history - the services sector overtook agriculture as the economic
 Food Production and Processing 209
sector employing the most people worldwide. Despite the fact that
agriculture employs over one-third of the world's population, agricultural
production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product
(an aggregate of all gross domestic products).
CROP PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available
resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government
policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and
culture of the farmer. Shifting cultivation (or slash and bum) is a system
in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of
annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years.
Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to
a new plot, returning after many more years (10-20). This fallow period is
shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients
(fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation
is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This
requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs. Further
industrialization lead to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar is
planted on a large acreage. Due to the low biodiversity, nutrient use is
uniform, and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of
pesticides and fertilizers. Multiple cropping, in which several crops are
grown sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops
are grown at the same time are other kinds of annual cropping systems
known as polycultures.
In tropical environments, all of these cropping systems are practiced.
In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture
may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a
year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops
are grow.n (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as
agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were
predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive annual cropping
is the dominant farming system.
The last century has seen the intensification, concentration and
specialization of agriculture, relying upon new technologies of agricultural
chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides), mechanization, and plant breeding
(hybrids and GMO's). In the past few decades, a move towards
sustainability in agriculture has also developed, integrating ideas of socio-
economic justice and conservation of resources and the environment
within a farming system. This has led to the development of many
responses to the conventional agriculture approach, including organic
/ agriculture, urban agriculture, community supported agriculture,
210 Food Production and Processing
ecological or biological agriculture, integrated farming, and holistic
management.
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and
dogs, are often used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other
animals, and transport farm products to buyers. Animal husbandry not
only refers to the breeding and raising of animals for meat or to harvest
animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis, but also
to the breeding and care of species for work and companionship. Livestock
production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland -
based, mixed, and landless. Grassland based livestock production relies
upon plant material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding
ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure
is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system
is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible
due to climate or soil, representing 30-40 million pastoralists. Mixed
production systems use grassland, fodder crops and grain feed crops as
feed for ruminant and monogastic (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs)
livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for
crops. Approximately 68% of all agricultural land is permanent pastures
used in the production of livestock. Landless systems rely upon feed from
outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock
production found more prevalently OECD member countries. In the U.S.,
70% of the grain grown is fed to animals on feedlots. Synthetic fertilizers
are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure utilization
becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.
PRODUCTION PRACTICES
Tillage is the practice of plowing soil to prepare for planting or for
nutrient incorporation or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from
conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil,
incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more
prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing
CO2, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.
Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects/mites, and
diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical
(tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop
rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, compost, avoidance, and
resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these
methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause
economic loss, and -recommends pesticides as a last resort.
Food Production and Processing 211
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs
for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of manure
produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic
fertilizers, manure, green manure, compost and mined minerals. Crop
nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop
rotation or a fallow period. Manure is utilized either by holding livestock
where the feed crop is growing such as in Managed intensive rotational
grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on
cropland or pastures.
Water management is where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which
occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use
irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains
in the U.S., farmers u~e a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for
growing a crop in the following year. Agriculture represents 70% of
freshwater use worldwide'
FOOD PROCESSING
Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to
transform raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms
for consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food
processing industry. Food processing typically takes clean, harvested crops
or slaughtered and butchered animal products and uses these to produce
attractive, marketable and often long-life food products. There are several
different ways in which food can be produced.
One Off Production. This method is used when customers make an
order for something to be made to their own specifications, for example a
wedding cake. The making of One Off Products could take days depending
on how intricate the design is and also the ability of the chef making the
product.
Batch Production. This method is used when the size of the market
for a product is not clear, and where there is a range within a product
line. A certain number of the same goods will be produced to make up a
batch or run, for example at Greg's Bakery they will bake 1 certain number
of chicken bakes. This method involves estimating the amount of
customers that will want to buy that product.
Mass production. This method is used when there is a mass market
for a large number of identical products, for example, chocolate bars, ready
meals and canned food. The product passes from one stage of production
to another along a production line.
Just in Time. This method of production is mainly used in sandwich
bars such as Subway, it is when all the components of the product are
there and the customer chooses what they want in their product and it is
212 Food Production and Processing
made for them fresh in front of them. Extreme examples of food processing
include the delicate preparation of deadly fugu fish or preparing space
food for consumption under zero gravity.
Food Processing Methods
Common food processing techniques include:
• Removal of unwanted outer layers, such as potato peeling or
the skinning of peaches.
• Chopping or slicing e.g. diced carrots.
• Mincing and macerating
• Liquefaction, such as to produce fruit juice
• Fermentation e.g. in beer breweries
• Emulsification
• Cooking, such as boiling, broiling, frying, steaming or grilling
• Deep frying
• Baking
• Mixing
• Addition of gas such as air entrainment for bread or gasification
of soft drinks
• Proofing
• Spray drying
• Pasteurization
• Packaging
HISTORY
Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude
processing incorporated slaughtering, fermenting, sun drying, preserving
with salt, and various types of cooking (such as roasting, smoking,
steaming, and oven baking). Salt-preservation was especially common for
foods that constituted warrior and sailors' diets, up until the introduction
of canning methods. Evidence for the existence of these methods exists in
the writings of the ancient Greek, Chaldean, Egyptian and Roman
civilisations as well as archaeological evidence from Europe, North and
South America and Asia. These tried and tested processing techniques
remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution.
Examples of ready-meals also exist from pre industrial revolution times
such as the Cornish pasty and the Haggis
Modem food processing technology in the 19th and 20th century was
largely developed to serve military needs. In 1809 Nicolas Appert invented
a vacuum bottling technique that would supply food for French troops,
and this contributed to the development of tinning and then canning by
Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and somewhat
Food Production and Processing 213
--
hazardous due to the lead used in cans, canned goods would later become
a staple around the world. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur
in 1862, was a significant advance in ensuring the micro-biological safety
of food.
In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and the rising
consumer society in developed countries (including the United States)
contributed to the growth of food processing with such advances as spray
drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the introduction of artificial
sweeteners, colouring agents, and preservatives such as sodium benzoate.
In the late 20th century products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted
fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were
developed.
In western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th
century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of convenience, food processors
especially marketed their products to middle-class working wives and
mothers. Frozen foods (often credited ~o Clarence Birdseye) found their
success in sales of juice concentrates and "TV dinners". Processors utilised
the perceived value of time to appeal to the postwar population, and this
same appeal contributes to the success of convenience foods today.
BENEFITS
More and more people live in the cities far away from where food is
grown and produced. In many families the adults are working away from
home and therefore there is little time for the preparation of food based
on fresh ingredients. The food industry offers products that fulfil many
different needs: From peeled potatoes that only have to be boiled at home
to fully prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwave
oven within a few minutes.
Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation,
easing marketing and distribution tasks, and increasing food consistency.
In addition, it increases seasonal availability of many foods, enables
transportation of delicate perishable foods across long distances, and
makes many kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating spoilage and
pathogenic micro-organisms. Modem supermarkets would not be feasible
without modem food processing techniques, long voyages would not be
possible, and military campaigns would be significantly more difficult
and costly to execute.
Modem food processing also improves the quality of life for allergists,
diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some common food
elements. Food processing can also add extra nutrients such as vitamins.
Processed foods are often less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh
foods, and are better suited for long distance transportation from the
214 Food Production and Processing
source to the consumer. Fresh materials, such as fresh produce and raw
meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g.
Salmonella) capable of causing serious illnesses.
DRAWBACKS

In general, fresh food that has not been processed other than by
washing and simple kitchen preparation, may be expected to contain a
higher proportion of naturally occurring vitamins, fibre and minerals than
the equivalent product processed by the food industry. Vitamin C for
example is destroyed by heat and therefore canned fruits have a lower
content of vitamin C than fresh ones.
Food processing can lower the nutritional value of foods. Processed
foods tend to include food additives, such as flavourings and texture
enhancing agents, which may have little or no nutritive value, or be
unhealthy. Some preservatives added or created during processing such
as nitrites or sulphites may cause adverse health effects.
Processed foods often have a higher ratio of calories to other essential
nutrients than unprocessed foods, a phenomenon referred to as "empty
calories". Most junk foods are processed, and fit this category.
High quality and hygiene standards must be maintained to ensure
consumer safety and failures to maintain adequate standards can have
serious health consequences.
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR FOOD PROCESSING

When designing processes for the food industry the following

performance parameters may be taken into account:
• Hygiene, e.g. measured by number of micro-organisms per ml
of finished product
• Energy consumption, measured e.g. by "ton of steam per ton of
sugar produced"
• Minimization of waste, measured e.g. by "percentage of peeling
loss during the peeling of potatoes'
• Labour used, measured e.g. by "number of working hours per
ton of finished product"
• Minimization of cleaning stops measured e.g. by "number of
hours between cleaning stops"
Trends in Modern Food Processing

Health
• Reduction of fat content in final product e.g. by using baking
instead of deep-frying in the production of potato chips
Food Production and Processing 215
• Maintaining the natural taste of the product e.g. by using less
artificial sweetener.
Hygiene
The rigorous application of industry and government endorsed
standards to minimise possible risk and hazards. In the USA the standard
adopted is HACCP.
Efficiency
• Rising energy costs lead to increasing usage of energy-saving
technologies[21, e.g. frequency converters on electrical drives, heat
insulation of factory buildings and heated vessels, energy
recovery systems
• Factory automation systems (often Distributed control systems)
reduce personnel costs and may lead to more stable production
results
WHOLESALE AND DISTRIBUTION
A vast global transportation network is required by the food industry
in order to connect its numerous parts. These include suppliers,
manufacturers, warehousing, retailers and the end consumers. There are
also those companies that, during the food processing process, add
vitamins, minerals, and other necessary requrements usually lost during
preparation. Wholesale markets for fresh food products have tended to
decline in importance in OECD countries as well as in Latin America and
some Asian countries as a result of the growth of supermarkets, which
procure directly from farmers or through preferred suppliers, rather than
going through markets.
Retail
With populations around the world concentrating in urban areas, food
buying is increasingly removed from all aspects food production. This is
a relatively recent development, taking place mainly over the last 50 years.
The supermarket is a defining retail element of the food industry, where
tens of thousands of products are gathered in one location, in continuous,
year-round supply.
Food preparation is another area where change in recent decades has
been dramatic. Today, two food industry sectors are in apparent
competition for the retail food dollar. The grocery industry sell fresh and
largely raw products for consumers to use as ingredients in home cooking.
The food service industry offers prepared food, either as finished products,
or as partially prepared components for final "assembly".
 Chapter 19

Wheat

Wheat (Triticum spp.), is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant

region of the Middle East. Globally, after maize, wheat is the second most-
produced food among the cereal crops just above rice. Wheat grain is a
staple food used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads;
cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, juice, noodles and couscous; and
for fermentation to make beer alcohol, vodkaor biofuel. Wheat is planted
to a limited extent as a forage crop for livestock, and the straw can be
used as fodder for livestock or as a construction material for roofing thatch.
Although wheat supplies much of the world's dietary protein and food
supply, as many as one in every 100 to 200 people has Coeliac disease, a
condition which results froIh an immune system response to a protein
found in wheat: gluten
Asa Food
Raw wheat can be powdered into flour; germinated and dried creating
malt; crushed and into cracked wheat; parboiled (or steamed), dried,
crushed and de-branned into bulgur; or processed into semolina, pasta,
or roux. Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread, porridge,
crackers, biscuits, Muesli, pancakes, pies, pastries, cakes & cupcakes,
cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, boza (a fermented beverage),
and breakfast cereals (e.g. Wheatena, Cream of Wheat, Shredded Wheat,
and Wheaties)
Nutrition
00 grams of hard red winter wheat contain about 12.6 grams of
protein, 1.5 grams of total fat, 71 grams of carbohydrate (by difference),
12.2 grams of dietary fibre, and 3.2 mg of iron (17% of the daily
requirement); the same weight of hard red spring wheat contains about
15.4 grams of protein, 1.9 grams of total fat, 68 grams of carbohydrate (by
difference), 12.2 grams of dietary fibre, and 3.6 mg of iron (20% of the
daily requirement). Gluten, a protein found in wheat (and other Triticeae),
cannot be tolerated by people with celiac disease (an autoimmune disorder
Wheat 217
in -1 % of Indo-European populations). Much of the carbohydrate fraction
of wheat is starch. Wheat starch is an important commercial product of
wheat, but second in economic value to wheat gluten. The principal parts
of wheat flour are gluten and starch. These can be separated in a kind of
home experiment, by mixing flour and water to form a small ball of dough,
and kneading it gently while rinsing it in a bowl of water. The starch falls
out of the dough and sinks to the bottom of the bowl, leaving behind a
ball of gluten
Health Concerns
Roughly 1% of the population has coeliac (also written as celiac)
disease-a condition that is caused by an adverse immune system reaction
to gliadin, a gluten protein found in wheat (and similar proteins of the
tribe Triticeae which includes other cuItivars such as barley and rye). Upon
exposure to gliadin, the enzyme tissue transglutaminase modifies the
protein, and the immune system cross-reacts with the bowel tissue, causing
an inflammatory reaction. That leads to flattening of the lining of the small
intestine, which interferes with the absorption of nutrients. The only
effective treatment is a lifelong gluten-free diet. While the disease is caused
by a reaction to wheat proteins, it is not the same as wheat allergy.
Production and Consumption Statistics
In 2003, global per capita wheat consumption was 67 kg, with. the
highest per capita. consumption (239 kg) found. Unlike rice, whe~t
production is more widespread globally though China's share is almost
one-sixth of the world.
While winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze, wheat
normally requires between 110 and 130 days between planting and
harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions. Crop
management decisions require the knowledge of stage of development of
the crop. In particular, spring fertilizer applications, herbicides, fungicides,
growth regulators are typically applied at specific stages of plant
development,
For example, current recommendations often indicate the second
application of nitrogen be done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is
about 1 cm in size (Z31 on Zadoks scale). Knowledge of stages is also
interesting to identify periods of higher risk, in terms of climate. For
example, the meiosis stage is extrem.ely susceptible to low temperatures
(under 4°C) or high temperatures (over 25°C). Farmers also benefit from
knowing when the flag leaf (last leaf) appears as this leaf represents about
75% of photosynthesis reactions during the grain-filling period and as such
should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield.
218 Wheat
Several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the Feekes and
Zadoks scales being the most widely used. Each scale is a standard system
which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the
agricultural season.
Diseases
Estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant
diseases vary between 10-25% in Missouri.l A wide range of organisms
infect wheat, of which the most important are viruses and fungi.
 Chapter 20

Fats and Oils

Vegetable fats and oils are lipid materials derived from plants.
Physically, oils are liquid at room temperatu.re, and fats are solid.
Chemically, both fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, as contrasted
with waxes which lack glycerin in their structure. Although many different
parts of plants may yield oil, in commercial practice, oil is extracted
primarily from seeds.
The melting temperature distinction between oils and fats is
imprecise, since definitions of room temperature vary, and typically
natural oils have a melting range instead of a single melting point.
Vegetable fats and oils may be edible or inedible. Examples of inedible
vegetable fats and oils include processed linseed oil, tung oil, and castor
oil used in lubricants, paints, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and other
industrial purposes.
Although thought of as esters of glycerin and a varying blend of fatty
acids, fats and oils also typically contain free fatty acids, monoglycerides,
and diglycerides.
Uses of Triglyceride Vegetable Oil
Oils extracted from plants have been used in many cultures, since
ancient time. As an example, in a 4,000 year old "kitchen" unearthed in
Indiana's Charlestown State Park, archaeologist Bob McCullough of IPFW
found evidence that natives used large slabs of rock to crush hickory nuts,
then boiled them in water to extract the oil.
Culinary Uses
Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or used directly as
ingredients in food - a role that they share with some animal fats, including
butter and ghee. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:
• Shortening - to give pastry a crumbly texture.
• Texture - oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together
less.
• Flavour - while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, oils
220 Fats and Oils
such as olive oil or almond oil may be chosen specifically for
the flavour they impart.
Flavour base - oils can also" carry" flavors of other ingredients,
since r.nany flavors are present in chemicals that are soluble in
oil.
Secondly, oils can be heated, and used to cook other foods. Oils that
are suitable for this purpose must have a high flash point. Such oils include
the major cooking oils - canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut etc. Some
oils, including rice bran oil, are particularly valued in Asian cultures for
high temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash point.
Hydrogenated Oils
Unsaturated vegetable fats and oils can be transformed through
partial or complete hydrogenation into fats and oils of higher melting
point. The hydrogenation process involves "sparging" the oil at high
temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst,
typically a powdered nickel compound. As each double-bond is broken,
two hydrogen atoms each form single bonds with the two carbon atoms.
The elimination of double-bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called
saturation; as the degree of saturation increases, the oil progresses towards
being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be hydrogenated to increase
resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its physical characteristics.
As the degree of saturation increases, the oil's viscosity and melting point
increase.
The use of hydrogenated oils in foods has never been completely
satisfactory. Because the centre arm of the triglyceride is shielded
somewhat by the end fatty 'acids, most of the hydrogenation occurs on
the end fatty acids. This makes the resulting fat more brittle. A margarine
made from naturally more saturated oils will be more plastic (more
"spreadable") than a margarine made from, say, hydrogenated soy oil. In
addition, partial hydrogenation results in the formation of large amounts
trans fats in the oil mixture, which, since the 1970s, have increasingly been
viewed as unhealthy.
Industrial Uses
Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many
manufactured products.
• Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products,
candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic
products.
• Some oils are particularly suitable as drying agents, and are used
in making paints and other wood treatment products. Dammar
Fats and Oils 221
oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar resin), for example, is
used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats.
• Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical
industry as insulators as vegetable oils are non-toxic to the
environment, biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and
fire points. However, vegetable oils are less chemically-stable,
so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed
to oxygen, and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate.
Two examples are FR3 by Cooper Power and Biotemp by ABB.
Midel 7131 by M & I materials is a synthetic tetraester, like a
vegetable oil but with four fatty acid chains compared to the
normal three found in a natural ester, and is manufactured by
an alcohol plus acid reaction. Tetraesters generally have high
stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants.
• Vegetable oil is being used to produce bio-degradable hydraulic
fluid and lubricant. Common vegetable oil has also been used
experimentally as a cooling agent in PCs.
One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such
oils eventually chemically decompose turning rancid. Oils that are more
stable, such as Ben oil or mineral oil, are preferred for some industrial
uses. Vegetable-based oils, like castor oil, have been used as medicine and
as lubricants for a long time. Castor oil has numerous industrial uses,
primarily due to the presence of hydroxyl groups on the fatty acid chains.
Castor oil, and other vegetable oils which have been chemically modified
to contain hydroxyl groups, are becoming increasingly important in the
production of polyurethane plastic for many applications. These modified
vegetable oils are known as natural oil polyols.
Pet Food Additive
Vegetable oil is used in production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines
vegetable oil, in this context, as the product of vegetable origin obtained
by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible
purposes. In some poorer grade pet foods, the oil is listed only as
"vegetable oil", without specifying the particular oil.
Fuel
Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel, which can be used
like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified
vehicles but straight vegetable oil, also known as pure plant oil, needs
specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to
reduce its viscosity. The vegetable oil economy is growing and the
availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing.
222 Fats and Oils
Extraction
The "modern" way of processing vegetable oil is by chemical
extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is
quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-
derived hexane. This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial
oils such as soybean and com oils.
Another way is physical extraction, which does not use solvent
extracts. It is made the "traditional" way using several different types of
mechanical extraction. This method is typically used to produce the more
traditional oils (e.g., olive), and it is preferred by most "health-food"
customers in the USA and in Europe. Expeller-pressed extraction is one
type, and there are two other types that are both oil presses: the screw
press and the ram press. Oil seed presses are commonly used in
developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods
would be prohibitively expensive. The amount of oil extracted using these
methods varies.
Production
Crude oil, straight from the crushing operation, is not considered
edible in the case of most oilseeds. The same is true for the remaining
meal. For instance, animals fed raw soy meal will waste away, even though
soy meal is high in protein.
Researchers at Central Soya discovered that a trypsin inhibitor in
soybeans could be deactivated by toasting the meal, and both licensed
their invention, and sold soy meal augmented with vitamins and minerals
as MasterMix, a product for farmers to mix with their own grain to produce
a high quality feed.
The processing of soy oil is typical of that used with most vegetable
oils. Crude soy oil is first mixed with caustic soda. Saponification turns
triglycerides into soap. The soap is removed with a centrifuge. Neutralized
dry soap stock (NDSS) is typically used in animal feed, more to get rid of
it than because it is particularly nourishing. The remaining oil is
deodorized by heating under a near-perfect vacuum and sparged with
water. The condensate is -further processed to become vitamin E food
supplement, while the oil can be sold to manufacturers and consumers at
this point.
Some of the oil is further processed. By carefully filtering the oil at
near-freezing temperatures, "winter oil" is produced. This oil is sold to
manufacturers of salad dreSSings, so that the dressings do not tum cloudy
when refrigerated.
The oil may be partially hydrogenated to produce various ingredient
Fats and Oils 223
oils. Lightly hydrogenated oils have very similar physical characteristics
to regular soy oil, but are more resistant to becoming rancid.
Margarine oils need to be mostly solid at 32°C (90 OF) so that the
margarine does not melt in warm rooms, yet it needs to be completely
liquid at 37 °C (98 OF), so that it doesn't leave a "lardy" taste in the mouth.
Another major use of soy oil is for fry oils. These oils require
substantial hydrogenation to keep the polyunsaturates of soy oil from
becoming rancid.
Hardening vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil
and a catalyst in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing
hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds
with other carbons, each carbon forming a new single-bond with a
hydrogen atom. Adding these hydrogen atoms to the oil makes it more
solid, raises the smoke point, and makes the oil more stable.
Hydrogenated vegetable oils differ in two major ways from other oils
which are equally saturated. During hydrogenation, it is easier for
hydrogen to come into contact with the fatty acids on the end of the
triglyceride, and less easy for them to come into contact with the centre
fatty acid. This makes the resulting fat more brittle than a tropical oil; soy
margarines are less "spreadable". The other difference is that trans fatty
acids (often called trans fat) are formed in the hydrogenation reactor, and
may amount to as much as 40 percent by weight of a partially
hydrogenated oil. Trans acids are increasingly thought to be unhealthy.
Sparging
In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to
near the smoke point, and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil.
The water immediately is converted to steam, which bubbles through the
oil, carrying with it any chemicals which are water-soluble. The steam
sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors
to the oil.
 Chapter 21

Sugar

Sugar is a class of edible crystalline substances, mainly sucrose,

lactose, and fructose. Human taste buds interpret its flavour as sweet.
Sugar as a basic food carbohydrate primarily comes from sugar cane and
from sugar beet, but also appears in fruit, honey, sorghum, sugar maple
(in maple syrup), and in many other sources. It forms the main ingredient
in much candy. Excessive consumption of sugar has been associated with
increased incidences of type 2 diabetes, obesity and tooth decay.
As a Food
Originally a luxury], sugar eventually became sufficiently cheap and
common to influence standard cuisine. Britain and the Caribbean islands
have cuisines where the use of sugar became particularly prominent.
Sugar forms a major element in confectionery and in desserts. Cooks
use it as a food preservative as well as for sweetening.
Human Health
.
Studies have indicated potential links between processed sugar
consumption and health hazards, including obesity and tooth decay. John
Yudkin showed that the consumption of sugar and refined sweeteners is
closely associated with coronary heart disease. It is also considered as a
source of endogenous glycation processes.
Tooth Decay
Tooth decay has arguably become the most prominent health hazard
associated with the consumption of sugar. Oral bacteria such as
Streptococcus mutans live in dental plaque and metabolize sugars into lactic
acid.
High concentrations of acid may result on the surface of a tooth,
leading to tooth demineralization. The American Dental Association sees]
tooth decay as caused "mostly" by starchy foods like breadsticks, cereals
and potato chips that linger on teeth and prolong acid production, not by
simple sugars that dissolve rapidly in the mouth.
Sugar 225
Diabetes
Diabetes, a disease that causes the body to metabolize sugar poorly,
occurs when either:
• The body attacks the cells produc~ng insulin, the chemical that
allows the metabolizing of sugar in the body's cells (Type 1
diabetes)
• The body's cells ignore insulin (Type 2 diabetes)
When glucose builds up in the bloodstream, it can cause two
problems:
• In the short term, cells become starved for energy because they
do not have access to the glucose
• In the long term, frequent glucose build-up increases the acidity
of the blood, damaging many of the body's organs, including
the eyes, kidneys, nerves and/or heart
Authorities advise diabetics to avoid sugar-rich foods to prevent
adverse reactions.
Obesity
a scientific/health debate has started over the causes of a steep rise in
obesity in the general population - and one view posits increased
consumption of carbohydrates in recent[update] decades as a major factor.
Obesity can result from a number of fadors including:
• An increased intake of energy-dense foods - high in fat and
sugars but low in vitamins, minerals and other micronutrients
(see United Nations advice below); and
• Decreased physical activity. The National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey I and Continuous indicates that the
population in the United States has increased its proportion of
energy consumption from carbohydrates and decreased its
proportion from total fat while obesity has increased. This
implies, along with the United Nations report cited below, that
obesity may correlate better with sugar consumption than with
fat consumption, and that reducing fat consumption while
increasing sugar consumption actually increases the level of
obesity
Gout
Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge
in cases of the painful joint disease gout
Cancer
A link between sugar and cancer has been conjectured for some time
226 Sugar
but this remains a controversial topic. Some recent studies lend support
to this theory. However no major medical or nutritional organization
currently recommends reducing sugar consumption to prevent cancer.
Production
Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar
crops predominate: sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) and sugar beets (Beta
vulgaris), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry
weight. Some minor commercial sugar crops include the date palm
(Phoenix dactylifera), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), and the sugar maple (Acer
saccharum). In the financial year 2001/2002, worldwide production of sugar
amounted to 134.1 million tonnes.
The first production of sugar from sugarcane took place in India.
Alexander the Great's companions reported seeing "honey produced
without the intervention of bees" and it remained exotic in Europe until
the Arabs started cultivating it in Sicily and Spain. Only after the Crusades
did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began
cultivating sugarcane in the West Indies in 1506 (and in Cuba in 1523).
The Portuguese first cultivated sugarcane in Brazil in 1532.
Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, such as
Brazil, India, China, Thailand, Mexico and Australia, the top sugar-
producing countries in the world. Rrazil overshadows most countries, with
roughly 30 million tonnes of cane sugar produced in 2006, while India
produced 21 million, China 11 million, and Thailand and Mexico roughly
5 million each. Viewed by region, Asia predominates in cane sugar
production, with large contributions from China, India and Thailand and
other countries combining to account for 40% of global production in 2006.
South America comes in seco!1d place with 32% of global production;
Africa and Central America each produce 8% and Australia 5%. The
United States, the Caribbean and Europe make up the remainder, with
roughly 3% each.
Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and
eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States
(including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing
season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting
and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of
processing plant capacity, and the weather both influence the duration of
harvesting and processing - the industry can lay up harvested beet until
processed, but a frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable.
The European Union (EU) has become the world's second-largest
sugar exporter. The Common Agricultural Policy of the EU sets maximum
quotas for members' production to match supply and demand, and a price.
Sugar 227
Europe exports excess production quota (approximately 5 million tonnes
in 2003). Part of this, "quota" sugar, gets subsidised from industry levies,
the remainder (approximately half) sells as "e quota" sugar at market
prices without subsidy. These subsidies and a high import tariff make it
difficult for other countries to export to the EU states, or to compete with
the Europeans on world markets.
The United States sets high sugar prices to support its producers, with
the effect that many former consumers of sugar have switched to corn
syrup (beverage manufacturers) or moved out of the country
(cand ymakers).
The cheap prices ()f glucose syrups produced from wheat and corn
(maize) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with
artificial sweeteners, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very
low-cost goods.
Culinary Sugars
So-called raw sugars comprise yellow to brown sugars made by
clarifying the source syrup by boiling and drying with heat, until it
becomes a crystalline solid, with minimal chemical processing raw beet
sugars result from the processing of sugar beet juice, but only as
intermediates en route to white sugar. Types of raw sugar include demerara,
muscovado, and turbinado. Mauritius and Malawi export significant
quantities of such specialty sugars. Manufacturers sometimes prepare raw
sugar as loaves rather than as a crystalline powder, by pouring sugar and
molasses together into molds and allowing the mixture to dry. This results
in sugar-cakes or loaves, called jaggery or gur in India, pingbian tang in
China, and panela, panocha, pile, pilon cillo and piio-de-aflkar in various parts
of Latin America. In South America, truly raw sugar, unheated and made
from sugarcane grown on farms, does not have a large market-share.
Mill white sugar, also called plantation white, crystal sugar, or
superior sugar, consists of raw sugar where the production process does
not remove colored impurities, but rather bleaches them white by exposure
to sulfur dioxide. Though the most common form of sugar in sugarcane-
growing areas, this product does not store or ship well; after a few weeks,
its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping.
Blanco directo, a white sugar common in India and other south Asian
countries, comes from precipitating many impurities out of the cane juice
by using phosphatation - a treatment with phosphoric acid and calcium
hydroxide similar to the carbonatation technique used in beet sugar
refining. In terms of sucrose purity, blanco directo is more pure than mill
white, but less pure than white refined sugar.
White refined sugar has become the most common form of sugar in
228 Sugar
North America as well as in Europe. Refined sugar can be made by
dissolving raw sugar and purifying it with a phosphoric acid method
similar to that used for blanco directo, a carbonatation process involving
calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies.
It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of activated carbon
or bone char depending on where the processing takes place. Beet sugar
refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate
raw stage. White refined sugar is typically sold as granulated sugar, which
has been dried to prevent clumping.
Granulated sugar comes in various crystal sizes - for home and
industrial use - depending on the application:
• Coarse-grained sugars, such as sanding sugar (also called "pearl
sugar", "decorating sugar", nibbed sugar or sugar nibs) adds
"sparkle" and flavour for decorating to baked goods, candies,
cookies/biscuits and other desserts. The sparkling effect occurs
because the sugar forms large crystals which reflect light.
Sanding sugar, a large-crystal sugar, serves for making edible
decorations. It has larger granules that sparkle when sprinkled
on baked goods and candies and will not dissolve when
subjected to heat.
• Normal granulated sugars for table use: typically they have a
grain size about 0.5 mm across
• Finer grades result from selectively sieving the granulated sugar
Caster (or castor) (0.35 mm), commonly used in baking
Superfine sugar, also called baker's sugar, berry sugar, or bar
sugar - favored for sweetening drinks or for preparing
meringue
• Finest grades
Powdered sugar, lOX sugar, confectioner's sugar (0.060 mm), or
icing sugar (0.024 mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine
powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of
anticaking agent to prevent clumping - either cornstarch
(1 % to 3%) or tri-calcium phosphate.
Retailers also sell sugar cubes or lumps for convenient consumption
of a standardized amount. Suppliers of sugarcubes make them by mixing
sugar crystals with sugar syrup. Jakub Krystof Rad invented sugarcubes
in 1841 in the Austrian Empire.
Brown sugars come from the late stages of sugar refining, when sugar
forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white
refined sugar with a cane molasses syrup. Their colour and taste become
stronger with increasing molasses content, as do their moisture-retaining
properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere,
Sugar 229
although proper handling can reverse this. The World Health Organisation
and the Food and Agriculture Organization of thE: United Nations expert
report (WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the
Prevention of Chronic Diseases) defines free sugars as all monosaccharides
and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer,
plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices. This
includes all the sugars referred to above. The term distinguishes these
forms from all other culinary sugars added in their natural form with no
refining at all.
Natural sugars comprise all completely unrefined sugars: effectively
all sugars not defined as free sugars. The WHO Technical Report Series
916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases approves only
natural sugars as carbohydrates for unrestricted consumption. Natural
sugars come in fruit, grains and vegetables in their natural or cooked form.
 Chapter 22

Milk

Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the mammary glands of

female mammals (including monotremes). It provides the primary source
of nutrition for newborn mammals before they are able to digest other
types of food.
The early lactation milk is known as colostrum, and carries the
mother's antibodies to the baby.
It can reduce the risk of many diseases in the baby. The exact
components of raw milk varies by species, but it contains significant
amounts of saturated fat, protein and calcium as well as vitamin C. Cow's
milk has a pH ranging from 6.4 to 6.8, making it slightly acidic.
MODERN PRODUCTION
In the Western world today, cow milk is produced on an industrial
scale. It is by far the most commonly consumed form of milk in the western
world.
Commercial dairy farming using automated milking equipment
produces the vast majority of milk in developed countries. Types of cattle
such as the Holstein have been specially bred for increased milk
production. 90% of the dairy cows in the United'States and 85% in Great
Britain are Holsteins. Other milk cows in the United States include
Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey, and Milking Shorthorn. The
largest producers of dairy products and milk today are India followed by
the United States and China. In India, Amul, a cooperative owned jointly
by 2.6 million small farmers was the engine behind the success of
Operation Flood.
Processing
In most Western countries, a centralised dairy facility processes milk
and products obtained from milk (dairy products), such as cream, butter,
and cheese. In the United States, these dairies are usually local companies,
while in the southern hemisphere facilities may be run by very large
nationwide or trans-national corporations.
Milk 231
Pasteurization

Pasteurization is used to kill harmful microorganisms by heating the

milk for a short time and then cooling it for storage and transportation.
Pasteurized milk is still perishable and must be stored cold by both
suppliers and consumers. Dairies print expiration dates on each container,
after which stores will remove any unsold milk from their shelves. In many
countries it is illegal to sell milk that is not pasteurized.lcitation needed]
Milk may also be further heated to extend its shelf life through ultra-
high temperature treatment (UHT), which allows it to be stored
unrefrigerated, or an even longer lasting sterilization process.

1&1
9 13
i:~1

=-
Ct~~~ct
Heating medium
.~~_
-
Cold Water
Ice Water

Creaming and Homogenization

Upon standing for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk has a tendency to separate
into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream
is often sold as a separate product with its own uses; today the separation
of the cream from the milk is usually accomplished rapidly in centrifugal
cream separators. The fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk
because fat is less dense than water. The smaller the globules, the more
other molecular-level forces prevent this from happening. In fact, the
cream rises in cow milk much more quickly than a simple model would
predict: rather than isolated globules, the fat in the milk tends to form
into clusters containing about a million globules, held together by a
number of minor whey proteins. These clusters rise faster than individual
globules can. The fat globules in milk from goats, sheep, and water buffalo
do not form clusters so readily and are smaller to begin with; cream is
very slow to separate from these milks .
Milk is often homogenized, a treatment which prevents a cream layer
232 Milk
from separating out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressures
through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through
turbulence and cavitation. A greater number of smaller particles possess
more total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the
original fat globule membranes cannot completely cover them.
Casein micelles are attracted to the newly-exposed fat surfaces; nearly
one-third of the micelles in the milk end up participating in this new
membrane structure.
The casein weighs down the globules and interferes with the
clustering that accelerated separation. The exposed fat globules are briefly
vulnerable to certain enzymes present in milk, which could break down
the fats and produce rancid flavors. To prevent this, the enzymes are
inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immediately before or during
homogeniza tion.
Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in the mouth
than unhomogenized; it is whiter and more resistant to developing off
flavors. Creamline, or cream-top, milk is unhomogenized; it mayor may
not have been pasteurized. Milk which has undergone high-pressure
homogenization, sometimes labeled as "ultra-homogenized," has a longer
shelf life than milk which has undergone ordinary homogenization at
lower pressures. Homogenized milk may be more digestible than
unhomogenized milk.
Concerns exist about the health effects of consuming homogenized
milk. Work by Kurt A. Oster, M.D. in the 1960s through the 1980s
suggested a link between homogenized milk and arterosclerosis, due to
the release of bovine xanthine oxidase (BXO) from the milk fat globular
membrane (MFGM) during homogenization. While Oster's work has been
widely criticized, it is apparent that homogenization introduces changes
the MFGM and the exposure of its proteins, and the effects of these changes
on food safety have not been thoroughly investigated.
Nutrition and Health
The composition of milk differs widely between species. Factors such
as the type of protein; the proportion of protein, fat, and sugar; the levels
of various vitamins and minerals; and the size of the butterfat globules
and the strength of the curd are among those than can vary. For example:
• Human milk contains, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2% fat, 7.0%
lactose (a sugar), and supplies 72 kcal of energy per 100 grams.
• Cow milk contains, on average, 3.4% protein, 3.6% fat, and 4.6%
lactose, 0.7% minerals and supplies 66 kcal of energy per 100
grams. See also Nutritional value further on.
Donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content, while the mills of
Milk 233
seals ,and whales can contain more than 50% fat. High fat content is not
unique to aquatic animals, as guinea pig milk has an average fat content
of 46%
Nutritional Value
Processed milk began containing differing amounts of fat during the
1950s. A serving (1 cup or 250 ml) of 2%-fat milk contains 285 mg of
calcium, which represents 22% to 29% of the daily recommended intake
(DR!) of calcium for an adult. Depending on the age, 8 grams of protein,
and a number of other nutrients (either naturally or through
fortification)induding:
Biotin
pantothenic acid
Iodine
Potassium
Magnesium
Selenium
Thiamine
Vitamin A
Vitamin B12
Riboflavin
Vitamins 0
Vitamin K
The amount of calcium from milk that is absorbed by·the human body
is disputed. Calcium from dairy products has a greater bioavailability than
calcium from certain vegetables, such as spinach, that contain high levels
of calcium-chelating agents, but a similar or lesser bioavailability than
calcium from low-oxalate vegetables such as kale, broccoli, or other
vegetables in the Brassica genus.
 , .-

, -:~ ; ..

Chapter 23

"
,
"Cheese
"

.: ;.," ..... I. ,

Cheese is a food consisting of proteins and fat from milk; Wlually the,
milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. It is produced by coagulation of
the milk protein casein. Typically, the milk is acidified and,additi?n of
the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are then separa.ted :and
pressed into final form. Some cheeses also contain molds, either on the
outer rind or throughout. ,- :, " '," "
Hundreds of types of cheese are produced. Their different,styles,
textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk (indu(iing the
animal's diet), whether it ha~ been pasteurized, butterfat content, the
species of bacteria and mold, and the processing includillg the,length of
aging. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents.
The yellow to red colour of many cheeses is a result of adding. aJ!llatto.
Cheeses are eaten both on their own and cooked in various dishes; most
cheeses melt when heated.,
few cheeses, the milk is curdled Py adding ac;ids ~uch as vinegar
",. For a few.
or, lemon juice. Most cheeses are acidified to a le~ser degree ,by. ,bacteri.~
which turn milk sugars int9 lactic acid, then the ~4ditiol1.Qf
~4dition"Qf rennet,
c()mpietes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to renn~t are available;
most are produced by fermentation of the fungus M1/.cor miehei, but others
have been extracted from various species of the Cynara thistle family.
Cheese has served as a hedge against famine[citation needed] and is a good
travel food. It is valuable for its portability, long life, and high content of
fat, protein, calcium, and phosphorus. Cheese is more compact and has a
longer shelf life than the milk from which it is made. Cheesemakers near
a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower
shipping costs. The long storage life of cheese allows selling it when
markets are more favorable
Making Cheese

Curdling
The only strictly required step in making any sort of cheese is
Cheese 235
s~pilraijngthe milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually this is done'
by acidifying (souring) the milk and adding rennet.
, The ~cidification is accomplished directly by the addition of an: acid
like vinegar in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco), but usually starter
bacteria are employed instead. ,.
These starter bacteria convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The same
bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also playa large role in the
eventual flavour of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter
bacteria from the Lactococci, Lactobacilli, or Streptococci families. SWiss
starter cultures also include Propionibacter shermani, which produces carbon
dioxide gas l?ubbles during aging, giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its
holes. , ".' "., '.
Some fre$h cheeses are curdled only by acidity~but moSt cheeses also'
use.rennet. Rennet sets the cheese into a strong and rubbery gel compa;red
to t~e '£r~gile, curds produced by acidic coagulation alone. It alio a.llows'
cl.li~ling cit, a)ower acidity-important because flavour-making bacteria
are inhibit~d in high-~cidityenvironments: In general, softer,sinailer;
fre~4er die~ses 'are curdled with a greater prbportion of acid to rerinet
than harder, farger, longer-aged varieties.' "
Curd Processing
.' ,At this point, the cheese has set into a very moist gel. Some 'soft cheeses'
are. l1ow essentially complete: they are drained, salted, and packaged. For
most of the rest, the curd is cut into small cubes. This allows water'to
dia.~ fr6p:l the individual pieces of curd. "
. ,Some' hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of
35 °C-:55 cC (100 °F-130 OF). This forces more whey from the cut cUrd. It
also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial
culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher
temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria which
survive this step-either lactobacilli or streptococci. ,
, . Salt has a mlmber of roles in cheese besides adding a salty flavour. It
preserves cheese from spoiling, draws moisture from thE! curd, and firms
up a cheese's texture in ~n interaction with its proteins. Some cheeses are
saJtedfrom,the outside with dry salt or brine washes. Most cheeses have
the salt mixed directiy into the c u r d s . ' ,
A number of other techniques can be employed to influence the
cheese',!. final texture and flavour. Some examples: ' . ,
. "Stre~ching: (Mozzarella, ProvQlone) The curd is stretched and kneaded
in hot' water,. developing a stringy, fibrous body. ,.
. Cheddaring: (Cheddar, other English cheeses) The cut curd is
rep~atedry piled up, pushing more moisture away. The curd also mixedis
236 Cheese
(or milled) for a long period of time, taking the sharp edges off the cut
curd pieces and influencing the final product's texture.
Washing: (Edam, Gouda, Colby) The curd is washed in warm water,
lowering its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese.
Most ~heeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed
into a mold or form. The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied.
The pressure drives out moisture-the molds are designed to allow water
to escape-and unifies the curds into a single solid body.
Aging
A newborn cheese is usually salty yet bland in flavour and, for harder
varieties, rubbery in texture. These qualities are sometimes enjoyed-
cheese curds are eaten on their own - but normally cheeses are left to rest
under carefully controlled conditions. This aging period (also called
ripening, or, fromthe French, affinage) can last from a few days to several
years. As a cheese ages, microbes and enzymes transform Its texture and
intensify its flavour. This transformation is largely a result of the
breakdown of casein proteins and milkfat into a complex mix of amino
acids, amines, and fatty acids.
Some cheeses have additional bacteria or molds intentionally
introduced to them before or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking,
these microbes might be already present in the air of the aging room; they
are simply allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses. More often
today, prepared cultures are used, giving more consistent results and
putting fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages. These
cheeses include soft ripened cheeses such as Brie and Camembert, blue
cheeses such as Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and rind-washed cheeses
such as Limburger.
Health and Nutrition
In general, cheese supplies a great deal of calcium, protein, and
phosphorus. A 30-gram (1.1 oz) serving of Cheddar cheese contains about
7 grams (0.25 oz) of protein and 200 milligrams of calcium. Nutritionally,
cheese is essentially concentrated milk: it takes about 200 grams (7.1 oz)
of milk to provide that much protein, and 150 grams (5.3 oz) to equal the
calcium.
Cheese potentially shares milk's nutritional disadvantages as well.
The Centre for Science in the Public Interest describes cheese as America's
number one source of saturated fat, adding that the average American
ate 30lb (14 kg) of cheese in the year 2000, up from 11lb (5 kg) in 1970.
Their recommendation is to limit full-fat cheese consumption to 2 oz (57 g)
a week. Whether cheese's highly saturated fat actually leads to an
Cheese 237
increased risk of heart disease is called into question when considering
France and Greece, which lead the world in cheese eating (more than 14 oz/
400 g a week per person, or over 45 Ib/20 kg a year) yet have relatively
low rates of heart disease. This seeming discrepancy is called the French
Paradox; the higher rates of consumption of red wine in these countries is
often invoked as at least a partial explanation.
Some studies claim to show that Cheddar, Mozzarella, Swiss and
American cheeses can help to prevent tooth decay,l19][20] Several
mechanisms for this protecti~n have been proJ>Osed:
The calcium, protein, and phosphorus in cheese may act to protect
tooth enamel.
Cheese increases saliva flow, washing away acids and sugars.
Cheese may have an antibacterial effect in the mouth.
World Production and Consumption
Worldwide, cheese is a major agricultural product. According to the
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, over 18 million
metric tons of cheese were produced worldwide in 2004. This is more than
the yearly production of coffee beans, tea leaves, cocoa beans and tobacco
combined. The largest producer of cheese is the United States, accounting
for 30% of world production, followed by Germany and France.
---The biggest exporter of c~ese, by monetary value, is France; the
second, Germany (although it is first by quantity). Among the top ten
exporters, only Ireland, New Zealand, the Netherlands and Australia have
a cheese production that is mainly export oriented: respectively 95%, 90%,
72%, and 65% of their cheese production is exported. Only 30% of French
production, the world's largest exporter, is exported. The United States,
the biggest world producer of cheese, is a marginal exporter, as most of
its production is for the domestic market.
Germany is the largest importer of cheese. The UK and Italy are the
second- and third-largest importers. Greece is the world's largest (per
capita) consumer of cheese, with 27.3 kg eaten by the average Greek. (Feta
ac~ounts for three-quarters of this consumption.)
seconci biggest consumer of cheese, with 24 kg by
France is the second
Em~~f(used
inhabitant. EmmentaI (used mainly as a cooking ingredient) and
Camembert/a~ are the most common cheeses in France Italy is the third
biggest con
consumerer by person with 22.9 kg. In the U.S., the consumption of
che _ is quickly increasing and has nearly tripled between 1970 and 2003.
cheese
J:he
The consumption per person has reached, in 2003, 14.1 kg (31 pounds).
Mozzarella is America's favourite cheese and accounts for nearly a third
of its consumption, mainly because it is one of the main ingredients of
pizza -
 Chapter 24

Dried ,Fruits and Vegetables

Drying removes most of the water from fruits and vegetables to

extend their shelf life and to increase their ,convenience and value. The
reduction in weight and bulk also makes transport cheape): and easi~r
although many dried foods are fragile and require packing in boxes 'to
prevent them from being crushed. Different categories of dried foods can
be described as high-volume, lower-value crops such as staple cereals and
. low-volume, higher-value foods such as dried fruits, vegetables herbs artd
spices. This second category offers better opportunities for profitable
production by small scale processors.
Air dried products are the most common type of dried fruit and
. vegetables and other more expensive methods, such as freeze drying, are
. not considered in this book. Some products may be blanched or sulphured/
sulphited to protect their natural'colourand help preserve them.
Crystallized fruits, peels for marmalade and cake production and
osmotically dried fruits (lmown as 'osmasol' products when dried'in a
solar dryer) are fruit pieces that are soaked in hot concentrated sugar
syrups to extract some of the water before air drying.
Examples of fruit cutters suitable for small scale production .

The preparation procedures needed for dried fruits and vegetables

are summarized in Table 6 and production methods are shown in the
Process Chart (Figure 10).
Some vegetables and a few fruits such as limes may also be salted
 vegetabfes
Dried Fruits and Vegetables 239
beforedrying~In
before drying. In this case the 'high
high salt concentration preserves the food
anti-microbial properties
by both drawing out water by osmosis and by the anti-microbial
oftli.e
of salt."Sait
the salt. micr()-'organislt\.s begin
Salt tolerant micro-organisms begihto.grow while'tlieproduct
to grow while the product
i'Ssuri
is sun dried and thesethese' produce
produ<:e acids and characteristic
charircteristic flavours, High
·salt.concentrations
salt concentrations alsoaiso'pievent
prevent the action of some enzymes, which would
cause a loss 'in
carise in q1ialitybf Vegetables· must
quality of the dried food during storage. Vegetables,
be'
be washed to lower
ldwer,the eoncentrationbefor.e
the salt eoncentration befor.e they are eaten
eaten.: .' '
" Fruits and vegetables must'be carefully selected before drying:
'drying: If fruits
·in
ill particular
partitular are dver..ripe'they
dver--ripe'they ate easily
.easily damaged and may'be difficult
to dry. If they are under-ripe, they have a ,poOrer flavour, colour rolour and
hygiene';H'e essential because any
'appearance. Care and attention to hygiene';H·e
bacteria or 'iIi6ulds' ~at 'contaminate Vegetables
·'bacteria 'Vegetables before "drying
'drying are' likely
·'to
to SUM~ on: the 'dried: food. The temperatUre of drying is not high enoogh
''toldlHherrt
to 'kilHhem 'and When
when the 'food is re-hydrated, they can grow again and
cause food poi p oi s o n in g . ' ,.,
, ." ,,', , . ("

Blanching
Blanching. i:'; ...

BIanchihg destroys' eilzy'1'tles

eilzytnes and prevents dl'anges
dlanges in (!olotlt,' flaVour
ih <':olotlt"flati-our
,and texttiredi1rihgstorage;H6wever~ 'by;itsetf; it dees nof preselrve;tne
'and texturedi1ringstorage;H6wever~
f6dd 'and vegetables p:thst: mUst: Uierefore be:further~:proc:;essed'-'by' 'drying'
Uierefoi'e be:furttter~:processed'-'by' <drying' to
lif-e:Vegetables
achieve a'lOng' shelf life: Vegetables are blanched by heatirig in'hot water
or~team:fQr,a,shorttlm~''lnd,the{\cqoled on trays~,FQr pr9dvct~<,>n prodvct~<,>n at a
s.mal1. sc.al~, b_eplac,E~9 in a.: wire baske~ and immersed
sCAl~, v~g~tabl~s qlD. b_eplaq:~9 imIllersed in in
boiling',wate'r.":'·'
boiling',wate'r. ,',,',' , '
, :h\ste}l!l1,pl,an<;hiI).& yeg~~al?l~are
:h\ste}l!l1,pl,an<;hiI).&, yeg~~al?l~ are placed in. ill straine.r ~md. .this is th~n
in.ilstraine.r
fitted OVer a pan' of boiling'water andcove·red
andcove,red with,a lid- lid· to -prevenUhe
steam escaping: Steami1l'g takes, takes. a: few minutes longer than water
blanching, but has the advantage of l'etaining more nutrients as they are
not lost into the water.
Thet:e"an:~ optional ch,~micaJ tr.eo:tmel1ts that help.to
_Thet:e.,ar~ ~o.l?1.H
help,to ret~~n th.~ ~o.l?llr
Forexampl.e,:the bright
and texture of-some dried ,fruits and 'vegetables., Forexampre,:the
greencalbur of i~afy vegetables, peas etcO'can ,be retained ,by adding
greenc01bur
'sodium'bicarbonate
sodium bicarbonate to-blancher water and1he texture of some-vegetables,
· suth: as okra and green beaitsi can be maintained by blanching ,in a calcium
chloride solution. Both 'chemicals are usually available from pharmacies
in major towns.
--Sulphuringa~ -Sulphiting"
--Sulphurmga~ Sulphiting~ , .
For most fruits, 350-400g sulphur are used per
pet 10CJ'kg tiuit~ burning
ido'k'g' ffuit, bfirriirlg
for 1-3 -hours.
,hours. Sulphur dioxide prevents browning in fubds such
-such as'apple,
apricot'and coconut; although it'should
it-should not'be ~sedwith ied'iruitsas it
., bleaches the colour: Sulphuring (using sulphur 'dioxide ,gas) is, achieved
240 Dried F1'uitv!nJ!y{esetables
by exposing pieces of cut or shredded fruits to burning sulphur in a
sulphuring cabinet.
The·amount of sulphur used and the time of exposure depend on the
type of fruit, its moisture content and limits placed by law in some
countries on the residual amounts of sulphur dioxide in the final product
or by commercial limits set by importers. This should be checked with a
local Bureau of Standards. There is an increasing consumer resistance to
sulphited fruits in some industrialised countries and if the product is
considered for export the local Export Development Board or import
agents should be consulted.
In sulphiting, the sulphur dioxide is dissolved in water, rather than
as the gas used in the sulphuring process. Sodium sulphite, sodium
metabisulphite or potassium metabisulphite are made into solutions, either
by adding one of them to the blanching water or more often, by soaking
the food for 5-10 ~inutes in a sulphite dip.
About two thirds of the weight of sodium metabisulphite is formed
as sulphu~ dioxide when it is dissolved in water. For example, to form a
0.001 % solution which is equivalent to 1000 ppm, 1.5g is dissolved in a
litre of water to form 19 of sulphur dioxide per litre. At this concentration,
sulphiting can also be used as a method of intermediate storage of fruits
to spread production over several months throughout the year.
Preparation Procedures for Fruits and Vegetables Before Drying
Cleaning Sorting! Peeling Size Blanching Salting Sulphur dioxide
Grading reduction treatment
Fruits Needed Important Required Cutting Not Very For some fruits
for all for all for most larger usually few to prevent
fruits fruits products-fruits for done browning
faster for fruits
drying
Vege- Needed Important Used Slicing Commonly For some Used with a
tables for all for all for for lar- used for salted few light col-
vege- vege- some ger vege- softening vege- oured vegetab
tables tables vege- tables or and pre- table -les to prevent
tables shredding venting products browning
cabbage browning (e.g.)
cabbage)

Syrup Pre-treatment
This method can be used to remove up to half of the water in fruit
and is ~erefore a cheap way of increasing the production rate of a dryer
or for part-processing fruits for intermediate storage so that production
 Dried Fruits and Vegetables 241
can be extended throughout the year. In general the method gives good
retention of colour in the dried food and produces a sweeter, blander
tasting product. However, aci1s are also removed from fruits during the
process ;and the lower acidity of the product may alloW mould growth if
_ the food is not properly dried and packaged.
In a more complex method to that described in Figure 10, fruit is first
boiled in 20% syrup and then soaked overnight. The fruit is then strained
. from the syrup and transferred each day to 40% and 60% syrups in tum,
with optional boiling for 10 minutes at each transfer.
After soaking, the syrup is diluted to approximately half of the
original concentration. Each day the most dilute syrup (10%) is used for
other products and a new 60% syrup is made up. The advantages of this
method include reuse of sugar syrups and a softer texture in the final
product. In Figure 11, the containers therefore circulate 'backwards' as
they contain more dilute syrup. Some producers have even more stages
in the process and may uansfer fruit into increasing sugar concentrations
each day for up to fourteen days. This results in a succulent, soft texture
in ,the final product.
Types of Dryers
The higher value of dried fruit and vegetable products, compared
for example to cereals crops, may justify the higher capital investment in
a fuel-fired dryer or electric dryer and the extra operating costs for the
fuel or electricity. These types of dryer allow higher drying rates and
greater control over drying conditions than do solar or sun drying and
they can therefore result 'in a higher product quality.
However it is necessary to make a careful assessment of the expected
increase in income from better quality products compared to the additional
expense, to make sure that this type of dryer is cost-effective. Sun drying
is only possible in areas where, in an average year, the weather allows
foods to be fully dried immediately after harvest. The main advantages
of sun drying are the low capital and operating costs and the fact that
little expertise is required.
Packaging
If the climate is dry, it may not be necessary to package dried foods
as they will not pick up moisture from the air. However a humid climate
is likely to vesult in dried foods gaining moisture and going mouldy. The
~ stability of· dried foods depends not only on the humidity of the air at
,vhich it ~ood neither gains nor loses weight (the 'Equilibrium Relative
Humidity'), but also on the type of food. Different foods can be grouped
according to their ability to absorb moisture from the air. The two groups
242 Dried Fruits and Vegetables
arehygroscbpic, which absorb mOisture easilY' and'non..h'ygroscopic,which
-do' not absorb moisture. ThedCissic,exatnple is salt -and pepper, where
salt is very hygroscopic and pepper is non-hygr.oscopic;-but similar
exatnp1esexlst for fruit and veg~table products. This',difference determinE:s
the packaging requirement for different fruit and, vegetable products. The
moisture content at which ,a food is stable 'is known as the Equt'Iibrium
'Moisture,CiJntentand examples of 'this for- different fruits and vegetab1es
the
are shown ,in, Table 8;- together with packaging requirement for different
groups of foods. . .
'Dried fruits and vegetables are usually packaged in one of the many
different types of plastic filn'h The 'selection of the correct type of packaging
material~depends on a complex mix of considerations 'which include:
, • The temperature and humidityoHhe air in which the product
is stored
-. Thecapacity'ofthe productto pickup moistur~ fromthe air'
, • - Reactions within the' product caused by air or' sunlight during
storage
• The expected shelf life
• Marketing considerations
• Cost and availability of different packaging materials:
-"lrt 'general~ altho'ttgh thin polythene fihn is usually the' cheapest and
'mosfWidely a.'vailable' marerial, it is only"suitable for storing dried fruits
. and vegetables' for a short time before they pick up moisWre,"soften,and
· go InQulcfy:' " '
'PolypropYrene' has' better barrier- prop~rtiesandtherefure gives. a
longer shelf life, but ins 'usually more' expensive and it may not be
·'ava-lIable in many countries.' Other ·more complex films, .such as laminated
·'films made ft6mpolythene: and aluminium foil, offer much ·better
"pr'otection to dried. foods, but'are considerably more expenSive and more
difficult to find in developing couhtries.· , ' .
,'Moisture Contents;at wmen Selected Foods are Stable
'. 'and Packaging Requirements'
Food Moisture content (%) Degree of
protection required
Fresh fruit and 78-85 Package to prevent moist:ure lOss:
v~getables 35
, .;!

, . , -
7.
Fruit sweets 3 . H)'groscopic:- Package to prevent.
moisture uptake
_:' Most dried foods also ne~d a sturdy box or, carton 'to both preY~nt
crushing and: to exclude light which causes loss of colour and development
Dried Fruits and Vegetables 243
of off-flavours during storage. The properties of different packaging
materials for dried foods are shown in Table.
From the table, it can be seen that some types of packages provide
good protection against air and roojs.~e, pickup for example, whereas
other protect against light, crushing; ·~tc.' It is therefore common for dried
foods to be packed in airtight and moisture-proof bags, which are then
placed in an o~~r~,~~t~ner' t)?)pt~t~! a~aiI\SJ.:U~N,:~shing, etc.
Properties of Packaging Materials for Dried Fruits and Vegetables

, "Moisture"Light, Air « ,Heat· Micro- ' . , Dust" Crnshing Animals &

odours organisms
insects
.,
Clear glass 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 ,3 '.

~olo¥red glass" . 3 ,,2. , ,3 ~, ,3' .1'

3, ~, 3
Ceramic P9t 1 ·,,3, 3 3 3 ,3 3 ,3
, Metal tin " , ", .3 "
3' ,3 1 ., ,,3 3 3 .,3
Metal foil 2 3 2 1 2 3 1 1
Pla~'tic' pot , 3 : :'3 c 3 2: ·3 3 2 2
WOddel't'chest' . , ;2 , ·';,3 '1' ;3 I '. 3 3 ,2.
Paper board
(~ardbo'ard") box' t ' . j l' 3 1 3 '2 "
1
.j ,,- .
;~ibr~b~ard "d~'~~ l' ~ 1 3 2 3 3 2

,r;aR~; ~~£I
"
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 .i "

Polythene film 2 1 1 .. 1 2 3 1 l'

i. )

C~I~u19se Jih~ 3, 1 3 1 2 3 1 1
If
"
Polypropylen~ film . ,3 1 3 1 2 3 1 i
C0~tofl:0F: Jutf ~i1¢'" 1,
,I 2 : ,1,;" J" J .2 ,1 ~
"
d, .'

" : ",'f,-"

,; ,
 Chapter 25

Chutneys, Pickles, Salted

Vegetables and Sauces

CHUTNEYS
Chutneys are thick, jam-like mixtures made from a variety of fruits
and vegetables, sugar, spices and sometimes vinegar. Any edible sour fruit
can be used as a base for a chutney, to complement the sweet taste from
the sugar.
The high sugar content has a preservative effect and vinegar addition
is not always necessary, depending on the natural acidity and maturity
of the fruits that are used.
Most products are boiled, which not only produces a caramelised
syrup and alters the taste, colour and thickness, but also pasteurises the
product and thus adds to the preservative action of the sugar and acids.
Other products are allowed to ferment naturally and the acids produced
by a mixture of bacteria preserve the product.
Depending on the types of spices that are added, these may also have
a preservative effect, in addition to their contribution to flavour.
Fruits can also be sulphited as a method of intermediate storage to
spread production over several months throughout the year. The process
chart uses a formulation for mango chutney as a typical product of this
type.
Natural acids from the fruit, from vinegar or those produced by
fermentation, together with the high sugar content, are used to preserve
the chutney after a jar has been opened.
A correct balance between the levels of sugar and acid is required to
prevent mould growth and a Preservation Index can be used to calculate
the amounts of ingredients to be added. Alternatively, when sugar is the
main ingredient or the product is boiled, a refractometer can be used to
check that the final sugar content of the syrup is 68-70%. Sugar is added
before heating if a dark product is required or towards the end of boiling
to produce a light coloured product.
C1:Jutneys, Pickles, Salted Vegetables and Sauces 245
I

The Preservation Index is a measure of the preserving power of

combinations of acid and sugar (sugar is measured as 'total solids'). This
is used to assess whether a chutney or pickle is safe from food spoilage
and food poisoning micro-organisms. The value can be calculated as
follows:
Total acidity x 100
(100 - total solids) = not less than 3.6%
Details of how to measure acidity and total solids are given in Section
2.7.2. However, if a manufacturer has no access to basic laboratory
equipment or is not sure how to carry out the calculation, it is best to take
a sample of product to a Bureau of Standards, University Food Science
Department or food testing laboratory which can analyse it and
recommend adjustments to the recipe if necessary.
Pickles
Vegetables such as cucumber, cabbage, olive and onion are fermented
by lactic acid bacteria which can grow in low concentrations of salt. The
bacteria ferment sugars in the food to form lactic acid, which then prevents
the growth of food poisoning bacteria and moulds or other spoilage micro-
organisms.
The amount of added salt controls the type and rate of the
fermentation. If for. _~Fimple 2-5% salt is used, a natural sequence of
different types of bacteria produce the lactic acid.
If higher concentrations of salt (up .to 16%) are used, a different
product called 'salt stock' pickle is prq9.yfed, which is preserved by the
salt and not by fermentation.
Fruits and vegetables can be preserved in this way as a method of
intermediate storage to spread production over several months throughout
the year.
Sometimes, sugar is added to increase the rate of fermentation or to
make the product sweeter.
Alternatively, vegetables may be packed in vinegar (acetic acid), salt
and sometimes sugar to produce a variety of pickled products. Because
these vegetables are not fermented they have a different flavour and
texture. They are usually pasteurised. Sweet pickles are made from single
fruits or mixtures of fruits and vegetables. They are preserved by the
combined action of lactic or acetic acid, sur;ar and in some cases added
spice~: .

Salted Vegetables
Salted vegetables are made by building up alternate layers of chopped
Chutneys, Pick!.efi, Salted Vegetalrles and Sauces, 247
(refracto- , destroys enzymes and ,,:
, meter- ,miCJ:o-~rganisItlS :which, ';
optional), , toge*er with high s~gar ,
Ferment Check level, spices & acid ,fJ;'QID
temperature COvered, the vinegqr, helps to " ,
and, al;>~ence pans ,preserve product.
of insects , Naturalf.ermentatipu over
·2-3: days peoduces ~cids
to assist preservation.
Traditionally such produ- "
FiII&Seal + - Jars! cts were not pasteutised. . "
~ lids Check fill- funnel or Packaging contains the
Cool, Label & Store weight pasic contents and prevents/te.::.' .v

": ' " .and ., , filler, contamination. Hot till '

corre~tly. scales into pre7$teri1~sed jal's,and
seal.ed PC;lck haIKi, seC}llids, - see text
Check label, for alternatives.
& storage ,In boxes, ,on I;acks, with ~
conditions cool ciry atmosphere.,
or shredded vegetabtesuch as cabbage~ with layers 6£ salt in 'a sealed drutrt.
The salt' has two preservative actions: it draws out water from the
to
vegetabie's by osmosis form a concentrated brine in the base of the drum;
and salt also has a direct anti-microbial action. ",,',
The high levels of salt are reduced by washing the products before'
they are eaten.' , , c'
. Examples of Different
,
Types of Fruit' or VegetablePickfes
Pr9d~l;t, Salt Sugar Vinegar Process
Fermented 5% then 3% 1-2%, then 3%, O,then 5% Ferm~nted for 1-2 week~ then,
sweet pickle repack in vinegar +. salt + sugat
(optiorial pastt~uiizationr

Fer~ented 5% then 3% °th~~ 0 °then 5°10 ~, • ~ <' ,

s~ur pickle repack in vin~g~r + ~,'IJt (optio~

naLpciBteuri:zatiRn). '. ".
Salt-stock ,.,1, ~5%., <' ·.0,. , , " Stor~ W}til rf'!qu(r;ed. Then_,!wash.
~
> { , t _ ,.> ¥ . " -;!. - • ~ ~'

pickle out salt and repack as

;unfen'nented picl<le,. '.,. " , ...
"Pkkl~~ wricb.hqy~ an~dequa~e ,Pr~serva.ti9!1 In,dex,do not peed to
be. pasteurised..,' . " , " .
'".,' ,
- . i ,,' ~~~~~t;t :~ ,a~ ~dQitioMl, meC\s~re to p'r~yent spoilage,' t~~y' car: .b~~
248 Chutneys, Pickles, Salted Vegetables and Sauces
pasteurised or the sugar/salt/vinegar mixture can be heated, added to the
vegetables and the jars filled while product is still hot. lit this way the hot
product forms a partial vacuum in the jar when it cools and further aids
preservation.
Glass jars are the most commonly used packaging material, but if a
shorter shelf life is expected, pickles may also be packed in small quantities
in polythene pouches and sealed with an electric heat sealer.
To avoid seepage of product, which can damage paper labels and
make the package unattractive, a double pouch can be used comprising
an inner pack that contains the product and an outer pouch with a label
between the two.
Sauces
Sauces are thick viscous liquids, made from pulped fruit and/or
vegetables with the addition of salt, sugar, spices and vinegar. They are
pasteurised to give the required shelf life, but the basic principle of
preservation is the use of vinegar, which inhibits the growth of spoilage
and food poisoning micro-organisms.
Other ingredients such as salt and sugar contribute to the preservative
effect and the correct Preservation Index (Section 2.2.4) ensures that the
product does not spoil after opening and can be used a little at a time.
Some may contain a preservative such as sodium benzoate, but this is not
necessary if an adequate Preservation Index is achieved. Sauces can be
made from almost any combination of fruit or vegetables, but in practice
the market in many countries is dominated by tomato sauce, chilli sauce
and to a lesser extent, mixed fruit sauces such as 'Worcester' sauce, which
contains apples and dates in addition to tomatoes.
Depending on the scale of production, pulping and sieving out seeds
and skins can be done by hand or using special pulper-finisher machines
The process for making sauce is outlined in the process chart below, using
tomato sauce as an example. Similarly, at a small scale, sauces can be made
using simple open boiling pans, provided that care is taken to heat slowly
with constant stirring to avoid localised burning of the product, especially
at the end of heating. At a larger scale, processing is done using steam
heated, stainless steel' double jacketed' pans.
Pulper Finisher Used Extract Fruit Pulp Without Seeds or Skins

Bottled and Canned Products

Bottling and canning are essentially similar processes in that food is
filled into a container and heated to destroy enzymes and micro-
organisms. Fruits can be packed into jars with a hot, sugar syrup and
Chutneys, Pickles, Salted Vegetables and Sauces 249
vegetables can be packed into a hot brine. The filled jars are sealed and
pasteurized so that an internal vacuum forms when they are cool. The
sealed container then preserves the food by preventing re-contamination
and excluding air and sometimes light. Preservation depends on an
adequate heat treatment and an air-tight (or 'hermetic') seal.
There are three grades of syrup: a light syrup contains 200g sugar
per"litre, a medium syrup 400-600 gil and a heavy syrup SOOg/I.
The concentration of salt in brine is usually 15 gil. Acidic fruits require
relatively mild heating conditions for pasteurization (e.g. 90-100°C for 10-
20 minutes) to destroy yeasts and moulds, whereas less acidic vegetables
require more severe heat sterilization to destroy food poisoning bacteria
(e.g. 121°C for 15-40 minutes, depending on the size of the container).
Fruits can also be part-processed and stored until required in sugar
syrup or sodium metabisulphite solution (equivalent to 1000 ppm.) to
allow production to take place for a larger part of the year.
It is not advisable for inexperienced small scale processors to bottle
vegetables unless they are acidified, because of the risk of poisoning from
inadequately processed foods. Vegetables can however be processed by
pasteurization if the acidity is first adjusted using citric acid or vinegar.
'Double Jacketed' Pan for larger Scale Hoiling
250 Chutneys, Pickles, Salted Vegetables and Sauces
Small Scale Peeler for Fruits

Canning is not suitable for small scale processing for the following
reasons: the time and temperature of canning are critically important and
must be carefully controlled. If the cans are under-processed, there is a
risk of serious food poisoning and even death from a type of micro-
organism named Clostridium botulinum. If cans are over-processed, the
vegetables lose much of their texture, colour, vitamins and flavour and
are not saleable. The establishment of correct heating conditions depends
on the type of food, the size and shape of the can and the initial level of
contamination of the vegetables. This requires the skills of a qualified food
technologist or microbiologist.
When foods are heated in sealed cans during the canning process,
the temperature of sterilization is above 100°C and the pressure outside
the can must equal that inside, to prevent the cans from exploding. This
is achieved using high pressure steam and a strong vessel named a'retort'.
Both steam boiler and retort are expensive and likely to be beyond the
means of a small scale processor. Additionally, compressed air is needed
to maintain the pressure while cans are being cooled, which together with
the necessary controllers, adds to the capital cost of equipment.
Even if cans are available in a particular country, they are usually
more expensive than other forms of packaging. Different types of product
also require a particular internal lacquer to prevent the metal from
corroding when it is in contact with the fruits or vegetables and such
lacquers may not always be available. In addition a 'seamer' is needed to
seal the lid onto the can and regular checks and maintenance are necessary
to ensure that the seam is properly forined. Failures in seams are one of
the main causes of spoiled or dangerous canned foods.
It is therefore necessary to ensure that seamer operators are fully
trained and experienced in adjusting the machines and a 'seam
micrometer' is another necessary capital expense to be able to do this. In
Chutneys, Pickles, Salted Vegetables and Sauces 251
summary therefore, canning requires a considerable capital investment,
trained and experienced staff, regular maintenance of relatively
sophisticated equipment, a regular supply of the correct types of cans and
a comparatively high operating expenditure.
Because of the more acidic nature of fruits, a lower processing
temperature is adequate and this process is suitable for small scale
operations. In all cases, a food technologist should be consulted to advise
on process times and conditions for bottled products.
 Chapter 26

Food Add itive

Food additives playa vital role in today's bountiful and nutritious

food supply. They allow our growing urban population to enjoy a variety
of safe, wholesome and tasty foods year-round. And, they make possible
an array of convenience foods without the inconvenience of daily
shopping.
Although salt, baking soda, vanilla and yeast are commonly used in
foods today, many people tend to think of any additive added to foods as
complex chemical compounds. All food additives are carefully regulated
by federal authorities and various international organizations to ensure
that foods are safe to eat and are accurately labeled. The purpose of this
brochure is to provide helpful background information about food
additives, why they are used in foods and how regulations govern their
safe use in the food :upply.
Additives Used in Foods
Additives perform a variety of useful functions in foods that are often
taken for granted. Since most people no longer live on farms, additives
help keep food wholesome and appealing while en route to markets
sometimes thousands of miles away from where it is grown or
manufactured. Additives also improve the nutritional value of certain
foods and can make them more appealing by improving their taste,
texture, consistency or colour.
Some additives could be eliminated if we were willing to grow our
own food, harvest and grind it, spend many hours cooking and
canning, or accept increased risks of food spoilage. But most
people today have come to rely on the many technological,
aesthetic and convenience benefits that additives provide in food.
Additives are used in foods for five main reasons:
• To Maintain product consistency. Emulsifiers give products a
consistent texture and prevent them from separating. Stabilizers
and thickeners give smooth uniform texture. Anti-caking agents
help substances such as salt to flow freely.
Food Additive 253
• To improve or maintain nutritional value. Vitamins and minerals
are added to many common foods such as milk, flour, cereal
and margarine to make up for those likely to be lacking in a
person's diet or lost in processing. Such fortification and
enrichment has helped reduce malnutrition among the U.S.
population. All products containing added nutrients must be
appropriately labeled.
• To maintain palatability and wholesomeness. Preservatives
retard product spoilage caused by mold, air, bacteria, fungi or
yeast. Bacterial contamination can cause foodborne illness,
including life-threatening botulism. Antioxidants are
preservatives that prevent fats and oils in baked goods and other
foods from becoming rancid or developing an off-flavour. They
also prevent cut fresh fruits such as apples from turning brown
when exposed to air.
• To provide leavening or control acidity/alkalinity. Leavening
agents that release acids when heated can react with baking soda
to help cakes, biscuits and other baked goods to rise during
baking. Other additives help modify the acidity and alkalinity
of foods for proper flavour, taste and colour.
• To enhance flavour or impart desired colour. Many spices and
natural and synthetic flavors enhance the taste of foods. Colors,
likewise, enhance the appearance of certain foods to meet
consumer expectations. Examples of substances that perform
each of these functions are provided in the chart "Common Uses
of Additives."
Many substances added to food may seem foreign when listed on
the ingredient label, but are actually quite familiar. For example, ascorbic_
acid is another name for Vitamin C; alpha tocopherol is another name for
Vitamin E; and beta-carotene is a source of Vitamin A. Although there
are no easy synonyms for all additives, it is helpful to remember that all
food i~ made up of chemicals. Carbon, hydrogen and other chemical
elements provide the basic building blocks for everything in life.
Food Additive
In its broadest sense, a food additive is any substance added to food.
Legally, the term refers to "'any substance the intended use which results
or may reasonably be expected to result-directly or indirectly-in its
becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any
food." This definition includes any substance used in the production,
processing, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage of food.
If a substance is added to a food for a specific purpose in that food, it
254 Food Additive
is referred to as a direct additive. For example, the low-calorie sweetener
aspartame, which is used in beverages, puddings, yogurt, chewing gum
and other foods, is considered a direct additive. Many direct additives
are identified on the ingredient label of foods.
Indirect food additives are those that become part of the food in trace
amounts due to its packaging, storage or other handling. For instance~
minute amounts of packaging substances may find their way into foods
during storage. Food packaging manufacturers must prove to the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that all materials coming in contact
with food are safe, before they are permitted for use in such a manner.
Colour Additive
A colour additive is any dye, pigment or substance that can impart
colour when added or applied to a food, drug, or cosmetic, or to the human
body. Colour additives may be used in foods, drugs, cosmetics, and certain
medical devices such as contact lenses. Colour additives are used in foods
for many reasons, including to offset colour loss due to storage or
processing of foods and to correct natural variations in food colour.
Colors permitted for use in foods are classified as certified or exempt
from certification. Certified colors are man-made, with each batch being
tested by the manufacturer and FDA to ensure that they meet strict
:,pecifications for purity. There are nine certified colors approved for use
in the .united States. One example is FD&C Yellow No.6, which is used in
cereals, bakery goods, snack foods and other foods.
Colour additives that are exempt from certification include pigments
. derived from natural sources such as vegetables, minerals or animals. For
example, caramel colour is produced commercially by heating sugar and
other carbohydrates under strictl,y controlled conditions for use in sauces,
gravies, soft drinks, baked goods and other foods. Most colors exempt
from certification also must meet certain legal criteria for specifications
and purity.
Regulation of Additives
Additives are not always byproducts of 20th century technology or
modern know-how. Our ancestors used salt to preserve meats and fish;
added herbs and spices to improve the flavour of foods; preserved fruit
with sugar; and pickled cucumbers in a vinegar solution.
Over the years, however, improvements have been made in increasing
the efficiency and ensuring the safety of all additive~. Today food and
colour additives are more strictly regulated that at any otller time in
history. The basis of modern food law is the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic (FD&C) Act of 1938, which gives the Food and Drug
Food Additive 255
Administration (FDA) authority over food and food ingredients and
defines requirements for truthful labeling of ingredients.
The Food Additives Amendment to the FD&C Act, passed in 1958,
requires FDA approval for the use of an additive prior to its inclusion in
food. It also requires the manufacturer to prove an additive's safety for
the ways it will be used.
The Food Additives Amendment exempted two groups of substances
from the food additive regulation process. All substances that FDA or the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) had determined were safe for use
in specific food prior to the 1958 amendment were designated as prior-
sanctioned substances. Examples of prior-sanctioned substances are
sodium nitrite and potassium nitrite used to preserve luncheon meats.
A second category of substances excluded from the food additive
regulation process are generally recognized as safe or GRAS substances.
GRAS substances are those whose use is generally recognized by experts
as safe, based on their extensive history of use in food before 1958 or based
on published scientific evidence. Salt, sugar, spices." vitamins and
monosodium glutamate are classified as GRAS substances, along with
several hundred other substances. Manufacturers may also request FDA
to review the use of a substance to determine if it is GRAS.
Since 1958, FDA and USDA have continued to monitor all prior
sanctioned and GRAS substances in light of new scientific information. If
new evidence suggests that a GRAS or prior sanctioned substance may
be unsafe, federal authorities can prohibit its use or require further studies
to determine its safety.
In 1960, Congress passed similar legislation governing colour
additives. The Colour Additives Amendments to the FD&C Act require
dyes used in foods, drugs, cosmetics and certain medical devices to be
approved by FDA prior to their marketing.
In contrast to food additives, colors in use before the legislation were
allowed continues use only if they underwent further testing to confirm
their safety. Of the original 200 provisionally listed colour additives, 90
have been listed as safe and the remainder have either been removed from
use by FDA or withdrawn by industry.
Both the Food Additives and Colour Additives Amendments include
a provision which prohibits the approval of an additive if it is found to
cause cancer in humans or animals. This clause is often referred to as the
Delaney Clause, named for its Congressional sponsor, Rep. James Delaney
(D-N.Y.).
Regulations known as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) limit the
amount of food and colour additives used in foods. Manufacturers use
only the amount of an additive necessary to achieve the desired effect.
256 Food Additive
Additives Approved for Use in Foods
To market a new food or colour additive, a manufacturer must first
petition FDA for its approval. Approximately 100 new food and colour
additives petitions are submitted to FDA annually. Most of these petitions
are for indirect additives such as packaging materials.
A food or colour additive petition must provide convincing evidence
that the proposed additive performs as it is intended. Animal studies using
large doses of the additive for long periods are often necessary to show
that the substance would not cause harmful effects at expected levels of
human consumption. Studies of the additive in humans also may be
submitted to FDA.
In deciding whether an additive should be approved, the agency
considers the composition and properties of the substance, the amount
likely to be consumed, its probable long-term effects and various safety
factors. Absolute safety of any substance can never be proven. Therefore,
FDA must determine if the additive is safe under the proposed conditions
of use, based on the best scientific knowledge available.
If an additive is approved, FDA issues regulations that may include
the types of foods in which it can be used, the maximum amounts to be
used, and how it should be identified on food labels. Additives proposed
for use in meat and poultry products also must receive specific
authorization by USDA. Federal officials then carefully monitor the extent
of Americans' consumption of the new additive and results of any new
research on its safety to assure its use continues to be within safe limits.
In addition, FDA operates an Adverse Reaction Monitoring System
(ARMS) to help serve as an ongoing safety check of all additives. The
system monitors and investigates all complaints by individuals or their
physicians that are believed to be related to specific foods; food and colour
additives; or vitamin and mineral supplements. The ARMS computerized
database helps officials decide whether reported adverse reactions
represent a real public health hazard associated with food, so that
appropriate action can be taken.
 Chapter 27

Food Packaging

Food packaging is packaging for food. It requires protection,

tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs.
It also shows the product that is labeled to show any nutrition information
on the food being consumed.
Functions of Good Packaging
Packaging has several objectives
• Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may
require protection from, among other things, shock, vibration,
compression, temperature, etc.
• Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapour, dust,
etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design.
Some packages contain desiccants or Oxygen absorbers to help
extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled
atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages.
Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the intended shelf
life is a primary function.
• Containment or agglomeration - Small items are typically
grouped together in one package for reasons of efficiency.
powders, and granular materials need containment.
• Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate
how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or
product. Some types of information are required by
governments.
• Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers
to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package
design has been an important and constantly evolving
phenomenon for several decades. Marketing communications
and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package
and (in many cases) the point of sale display.
• Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the
security risks of shipment. Packages can be made with improved
258 Food Packaging
tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-
evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be
engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage: Some
package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some
have pilfer indicating seals. Packages may include authentication
seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not
counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such
as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags,
that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and
require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this
way is a means of retail loss prevention.
• Convenience - Packages can have features which add
convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale,
opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.
• Portion control - Single serving packaging has a precise amount
of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt)
can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for
individual households. It is also aids the control of inventory:
selling sealed one-liter-bottles of milk, rather than having people
bring their own bottles to fill themselves.
Food Packaging Types

Packaging type Type of Food examples

container
Aseptic Primary Liquid whole eggs
processings
Plastic trays Primary Portion of fish
Bags Primary Potato chips
Boxes Secondary Box of Coca-Cola
Cans Primary Can of Campbell's Tomato soup.
Cartons Primary Carton of eggs
Flexible packaging Primary Bagged salad
Pallets Tertiary A series of boxes on a single pallet used
to transport from the manufacturing
plant to a distribution centre
Wrappers Tertiary Used to wrap the boxes on the pallet for
transport
Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is
being processed. Secondary packaging combines the primary packages
into one box being made. Tertiary packaging combines all of the secondary
packages into one pallet.
Food Packaging 259
There are also special containers that combine different technologies
for maximum durability:
• Bags-In-Boxes (used for soft drink syrup, other liquid products,
and meat products)
• Wine box (used for wine)
Packaging Machines
A choice of packaging machinery includes technical capabilities,
labour requirements, worker safety, maintainability, serviceability,
reliability, ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost,
floorspace, flexibility (change-over, materials, etc.), energy usage, quality
of outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, phamaceuticals, etc.),
throughput, efficiency, productivity, ergonomics, etc.
Packaging machines may be of the following general types:
• Blister, Skin and Vacuum Packaging Machines
• Capping, Over-Capping, Lidding, Closing, Seaming and Sealing
Machines
• Cartoning Machines
• Case and Tray Forming, Packing, Unpacking, Closing and
Sealing Machines
• Check weighing machines
• Cleaning, Sterilizing, Cooling and Drying Machines
• Conveying, Accumulating and Related Machines
• Feeding, Orienting, Placing and Related Machines
• Filling Machines: handling liquid and powdered products
• Package Filling and Closing Machines
• Form, Fill and Seal Machines
• Inspecting, Detecting and Checkweighing Machines
• Palletizing, Depalletizing, Pallet Unitizing and Related Machines
• Product Identification: labelling, marking, etc.
• Wrapping Machines
• Converting Machines
• Other speciality machinery
 Chapter 28

Principle of Cooking

To cook foods successfully, you must understand the science and

principles of cooking.
Cooking is simply the transfer of energy from a heat source to a food.
To cook foods successfully, you must understand the ways in which heat
is transferred: conduction, convection and radiation.
Most important, specific to the principles of cooking, you must
understand the methods used to transfer heat: broiling, grilling, roasting
and baking, sauteing, pan-frying, deep-frying, poaching, simmering,
boiling, steaming, braising and stewing.
Heat Transfer
According to the principles of cooking, heat is a type of energy. When
a substance gets hot, the molecules have absorbed energy, which causes
the molecules to vibrate rapidly. The molecules start to expand and bounce
off one another. As the molecules move, they collide with nearby
molecules, causing a transfer of heat energy.
Heat transfer can be transferred to foods through conduction,
convection, or radiation. Heat travels through foods by conduction.
CONDUCTION
Conduction, one of the most basic principles of cooking, is the
movement of heat from one item to another through direct contact. For
example, when a flame touches the bottom of a pan, heat is conducted to
the pan.
Generally, metals are good conductors. Copper and aluminum are
the best conductors, while liquids and gases are poor conductors.
Conduction is a slow method of heat transfer because there must be
physical contact from one molecule to another.
CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat through a fluid. The fluid may be
in a liquid or gas state. According to the principles of cooking, there are 2
types of convection: natural and mechanical.
Principle of Cooking 261
Natural convection causes a natural circulation of heat because warm
liquids and gases have a tendency to rise while cooler ones fall.
Mechanical convection causes heat to circulate more evenly and
quickly through fans or .,stirring.
RADIATION
Radiation is energy transferred by waves of heat or light striking the
food. Two types of radiant heat are infrared and microwave.
Infrared cooking is commonly used with toasters and broilers. These
devices use an electric or ceramic element heated to such a high
temperature that it gives off waves of radiant heat.
Microwave cooking relies on radiation generated by an oven to heat
the food.
THE EFFECTS OF HEAT

Proteins Coagulate
Coagulation is when proteins transform from a liquid state to a solid
state. Examples: the firming of meat fibers and egg whites changing from
a clear liquid to a white solid when heated.
Starches Gelatinize
. When a mixture of starch and liquid is heated, starch granules swell.
The liquid thickens because the starch granules swell to occupy more
space. Examples: The thickening of sauces when starch is added.
Sugars Caramelize
As sugars cook, they turn brown and change flavour. Caramelized
sugar is used in many sugars, candies, and desserts. In fact, caramelization
is used in most flavors we associate with cooking.
Water Evaporates
All foods contain some water. The evaporation of water drys foods
during cooking.
Fats Melt
Fats are a greasy, smooth substance that do not dissolve in water.
Oils are fats that remain liquid at room temperature. Fats melt when heated
and then gradually liquefy. Fats will not evaporate.
 Chapter 29

Food Spoilage

Most natural foods have a limited life. Perishable foods such as fish,
meat, milk, bread, tomatoes and potatoes have a short life span. Other
foods keep for a considerably longer time but decompose eventually. Once
food has been harvested, gathered or slaughtered it begins to deteriorate
until eventually it becomes unfit for consumption. This deterioration is
known as decay and leads to food spoilage.
Causes of the Spoilage of Food

Microbial Spoilage

There are three types of microorganisms that cause food spoilage -

yeasts, moulds and bacteria.
• Yeasts growth causes fermentation which is the result of yeast
metabolism. There are two types of yeasts true yeast and false
yeast. True yeast metabolizes sugar producing alcohol and carbon
dioxide gas. This is known as fermentation. False yeast grows as
a dry film on a food surface, such as on pickle brine. False yeast
occurs in foods that have a high sugar or high acid environment.
• Moulds grow in filaments forming a tough mass which is visible
as 'mould growth'. Moulds form spores which, when dry, float
through the air to find suitable conditions where they can start
the growth cycle again.
• Mould can cause illness, especially if the person is allergic to
molds. Usually though, the main symptoms from eating mouldy
food will be nausea or vomiting from the bad taste and smell of
the mouldy food.
Food Spoilage 263
• Both yeasts and moulds can thrive in high acid foods like fruit,
tomatoes, jams, jellies and pickles. Both are easily destroyed by
heat. Processing high acid foods at a temperature of lOooe
(212°F) in a boiling water canner for the appropriate length of
time destroys yeasts and moulds.
Fungal Spoilage

Fig. Storage Rot in Grapes Caused by Botrytis cinerea.

Fig. Storage Rot in Strawberry Caused by BotnJtis cinerea.

Fig. Blue Mould Rot in Tomato Caused by Penicilliumi spp. (also by Fusarium spp.)

Fig. Black Mummy Rot of Grapes Caused by Guignardia bidwellii

264 Food Spoilage

Fig. Watery Soft Rot in Apple Caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Fig. Blue Mould on Oranges Caused by Penicillium digitatum .

• Bacteria are round, rod or spiral shaped microorganisms.
Bacteria may grow under a wide variety of conditions. There
are many types of bacteria that cause spoilage. They can be
divided into: spore-forming and nonspore-forming. Bacteria
generally prefer low acid foods like vegetables and meat. In
order to destroy bacteria spores in a relatively short period of
time, low acid foods must be processed for the appropriate
length of time at 116°C (240 0 P) in a pressure canner.
(Temperatures higher than 100°C [212°P] can be obtained only
by pressure canning.)
• Eating spoiled food caused by bacteria can cause food poisoning.
Bacterial Spoilage

Autolysis
• Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins found in all plants and animals. If uncooked
foods are not used while fresh, enzymes cause undesirable changes in
colour, texture and flavour. Enzymes are destroyed easily by heat
processing.
• Oxidation by air
Atmospheric oxygen can react with some food components which
may caLIse rancidity or colour changes.
Food Spoilage 265
Other Factors
• Infestations (invasions) by insects and rodents, which account
for huge losses in food stocks.
• Low temperature injury - the internal structures of the food are
damaged by very low temperature
Low Temperature Injury

Fig. Internal Mahogany Browning of Potato

Caused by Low Temperature Injury.

Chilling Injury in Cucumber Caused by Low

Temperature. Note the Watery Surface

Types of Food Decay

Putrefaction.

Biological decomposition of organic matter, with the production of

ill-smelling and tasting products, associated with anaerobic (no oxygen
present) conditions.
Formula of putrefaction:
protein fds + protelytic microorganisms
J-
amino acids + ammonia + hydroge sulphide
Fermentation

Fermentation, chemical changes in organ ic substa nces produced by

 266 . Food Spoilage
the action of enzymes. This g~neral definition includes virtually all
chemical reactions of physiological importance, and scientists today often
restrict the term to the action of specific enzymes, called ferments,
produced by minute organisms such as molds, bacteria, and yeasts. For
example, 'lactase, a ferment produced by bacteria usually found in milk,
causes the milk to sour by changing lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid.
Formula of fermentation:
carbohydrate foods + saccharolytic microorganisms
J,
acids + alcohol + gases(carbon dioxide)
Rancidity
Microbial Rancidity
Like all food components, fats undergo deteriorative changes with
time, which result in undesirable flavors and odors. These changes in fats
are given the term "rancidity".
Formula of microbial rancidity:
fatty foods + lipolytic microorganisms
J,
fatty acids + glycerol
Hydrolytic Rancidity
Fatty acids formed through hydrolysis of the lipid(fat) by the water
which it contains. Some of the liberated fatty acids are volatile, and some
have very unpleasant odours and flavours. Formula of hydrolytic rancidity
o
CH o-l-c
2 0
H
17 35 I
CHpH 0
I 1/ 1/
H (5) + H O{l)-C,!i35 C0 2 H(aq) + CHO-C- C17H35 (I)
CHO-C-C
0 17 35 2 IO
I 1/
CH O-C-C H
1/
CHP-C-C,!i35
2 17 35

Trioctadecanoylglycerol + Water-Octandecanoic acid + Dioctadecanoylglycerol

(tristearin) (stearic acid) (disterin)

Oxidative Rancidity
The oxidation of acylglycerols which occurs in air, without the
presence of enzymes, is called autoxidation. Among the products of
autoxidation are hydroperoxides, ROOH. These have no taste, but they
decompose easily to form aldehydes, ketones and acids, which give
oxidised fats and oils their rancic~ flavours. It can be slow down by addition
. of antioxidants.
 Chapter 30

Food Preservation

Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop

or greatly slow down spoilage (loss of quality, edibility or nutritive value)
caused or accelerated by micro-organisms. Some methods, however, use
benign bacteria, yeasts or fungi to add specific qualities and to preserve
food (e.g., cheese, wine). While maintaining or creating nutritional value~
texture and flavour is important in preserving its value as food; this is a
culturally dependent. What qualifies as food fit for humans in one culture
may not qualify in another culture.
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria,
fungi, and other micro-organisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of
fats which cause rancidity. It also includes processes to inhibit natural
ageing and discolouration that can occur during food preparation such
as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples which causes browning
when apples are cut. Some preservation methods require the food to be
sealed after treatment to prevent recontamination with microbes; others,
such as drying, allow food'to be stored without any special contair.ment
for long periods.
Common methods of applying these processes include drying, spray
drying, freeze drying, freezing, vacuum-packing, canning, preserving in
syrup, sugar crystallisation, food irradiation, and adding preservatives
or inert gases such as carbon dioxide. Other methods that not only help
to preserve food, but also add flavour, include pickling, salting, smoking,
preserving in syrup or alcohol, sugar crystallisation and curing.
Preservation Processes
Preservation pr~cesses incltlde~\
• Heating to kill or denature organisms (e.g. boiling)
• Oxidation (e.g. use of sulphur dioxide)
• Toxic inhibition (e.g. smoking, use of carbon dioxide, vinegar,
alcohol etc)
• Dehydration (drying)
• Osmotic inhibition ( e.g. use of syrups)
 268 Food Preservation
• Low temperature inactivation (e.g. freezing)
• Ultra high water pressure (e.g. fresherized, a kind of "cold"
pasteurization, the pressure kills naturally occurring pathogens,
which cause food deterioration and affect food safety.)
• Many combinations of these methods
• Chelation
Drying
One of the oldest methods of food preservation is by drying, which
reduces water activity sufficiently to prevent or delay bacterial
growth.lcitation needed] Drying also reduces weight, making food more
portable. Most types of meat can be dried; a good example is beef jerky.
Many fruits can also be dried; for example, the process is often applied to
apples, pears, bananas, mangoes, papaya, apricot, and coconut. Zante
currants, sultanas and raisins are all forms of dried grapes. Drying is also
the normal means of preservation for cereal grains such as wheat, maize,
oats, barley, rice, millet and rye
Freezing
Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes
commercially and domestically for preserving a very wide range of food
induding prepared food stuffs which would not have required freezing
in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the
freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool-dark place to ensure
many months' storage. Cold stores provide large volume, long-term
storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many
countries ..
Vacuum Packing
Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in
an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of
oxygen needed for survival, slowing spoiling. Vacuum-packing is
. commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavour from oxidation.
Salt

Salting or curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of

osmosis. Meat is cured with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two.
Nitrates and nitrites are also often used to cure meat and contribute the
characteristic pink colour, as well as inhibition of Clostridium botulinum.
Smoking
Meat, fish and some other foods may be both preserved and flavored
Food Preservation 269
through the use of smoke, typically in a smokehouse. The combination of
heat to dry the food without cooking it, and the addition of the aromatic
(phenolic)hydrocarbons from the smoke preserves the food.
Sugar
Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as
apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums or in crystallized form where the
preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallisation and
the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins
of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica and ginger. A modification of this
process produces glace fruit such as ,glace cherries where the fruit is
preserved in sugar but is then extracted from the syrup and sold, the
preservation being maintained by the sugar content of the fruit and the
superficial coating of syrup. The use of sugar is often combined with
alcohol for preservation of luxury products such as fruit in brandy or other
spirits. These should not be confused with fruit flavored spirits such as
cherry brandy or Sloe gin.
Pickling
Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible anti-microbial
liquid. Pickling can be broadly categorized as chemical pickling (for
example, brining) and fermentation pickling (for example, making
sauerkraut).
In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits
or kills bacteria and other micro-organisms. Typical pickling agents
include brine (high in salt), vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oil, especially
olive oil but also many other oils. Many chemical pickling processes also
involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes
saturated with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods
include cucumbers, peppers, corned beef, herring, and eggs, as well mixed_
vegetables such as piccalilli, chow-chow, giardiniera, and achar.
In fermentation pickling, the food itself produces the preservation
agent, typically by a process that produces lactic acid. Fermented pickl~s
include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi, surstromming, and curtido. Some
chemically pickled cucumbers are also fermented.
In commercial pickles, a preservative like sodium benzoate or EDTA
may also be added to enhance shelf life.
Lye
Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth.
Lye will saponify fats in the food, which will change its flavour and texture.
Lutefisk uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern
270 Food Preservation
recipes for century eggs also call for lye. Masa harina and hominy use lye
in their preparation, but not for preservation.
Canning and Bottling
Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile cans or jars, and
boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form
of sterilization. Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection
against spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a pressure
cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to can
and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as tomatoes
require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Low acid
foods, such as vegetables and meats require pressure canning. Food
preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the
can or bottle has been opened.
Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of
water or micro-organisms. Most such failures are rapidly detected as
decomposition within the can causes gas production and the can will swell
or burst. However, there have been examples of poor manufacture
(underprocessing)and poor hygiene allowing contamination of canned
food by the obligate anaerobe, Clostridium botulinum which produces an
acute toxiJl within the food, leading to severe illness or death. This
organism produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by
taste or smell. Its toxin is denatured by cooking, though. Cooked
mushrooms, handled poorly and then canned, can support the growth of
Staphylococcus aureus, which produces a toxin that is not destroyed by
canning or subsequent reheating.

Jellying
. Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form
Food Preservation 271
a gel. Such materials include gelatine, agar, maize flour and arrowroot
flour. Some foods naturally form a protein gel when cooked such as eels
and elvers, and sipunculid worms which are a delicacy in the town of
Xiamen in Fujian province of the People's Republic of China. Jellied eels
are a delicacy in the East End of London where they are eaten with mashed
potatoes. Potted meats in aspic, (a gel made from gelatine and clarified
meat broth) were a common way of serving meat off-cuts in the UK until
the 1950s. Many jugged meats are also jellied.
Fruit preserved by jellying is known as jelly, marmalade, or fruit
preserves. In this case, the jellying agent is usually pectin, either added
during cooking or arising naturally from the fruit. Most preserved fruit is
also sugared. Heating, packaging and acid and sugar provide the
preservation.
Potting
A traditional British way of preserving meat (particularly shrimp) is
by setting it in a pot and sealing it with a layer of fat. Also common is
potted chicken liver; compare pate.
Jugging
Meat can be preserved by jugging, the process of stewing the meat
(commonly game or fish) in a covered earthenware jug or cassE.\l"ole. The
animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly-sealed
jug with brine or gravy, and stewed. Red wine and/or the animal's own
blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid. Jugging was a popular
method of preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century.
Irradiation
Irradiation of food is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation; either
high-energy electrons or X-rays from accelerators, or by gamma rays
(emitted from radioactive sources as Cobalt-60 or Caesium-137). The
treatment has a range of effects, including killing bacteria, molds and insect
pests, reducing the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses
inducing sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it
is sometimes called 'cold pasteurization', as the product is not heated.
Irradiation is not effective against viruses or prions, it cannot eliminate
toxins already formed by microorganisms, and is only useful for food of
high initial quality.
The radiation process is unrelated to nuclear energy, but it may use
the radiation emitted from radioactive nuclides produced in nuclear
reactors. Ionizing radiation is hazardous to life; for this reason irradiation
facilities have a heavily shielded irradiation room where the process takes
272 Food Preservation
place. Radiation safety procedures ensure that neither the workers in such
facility nor the environment receive any radiation dose from the facility.
Irradiated food does not become radioactive, and national and
international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as wholesome.
However, the wholesomeness of consuming such food is disputed by
opponents and consumer organizations. National and international expert
bodies have declared food irradiation as 'wholesome'; UN-organizations
as WHO and FAO are endorsing to use food irradiation. International
legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide
from no regulation to full banning.
It is estimated that about 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated
per year worldwide in over 40 countries. These are mainly spices and
condiments with an increasing segment of fresh fruit irradiated for fruit
fly quarantine.
Modified Atmosphere
is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it.
Salad crops which are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being
packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to reduce the
oxygen (02) concentration and increase the carbon dioxide (C0 2)
concentration. There is concern that although salad vegetables retain their
appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation
may not retain nutrients, especially vitamins. - - Grains may be preserved
using carbon dioxide. A block of dry ice is placed in the bottom and the
can is filled with grain. The can is then "burped" of excess gas. The carbon
dioxide from the sublimation of the dry ice prevents insects, mold, and
oxidation from damaging the grain. Grain stored in this way can remain
edible for five years. - Nitrogen gas (N2) at concentrations of 98% or higher
is also used effectively to kill insects in grain through hypoxia. However,
carbon dioxide has an advantage in this respect as it kills organisms
through both hypoxia and hypercarbia, requiring concentrations of only
80%, or so. This makes carbon dioxide preferable for fumigation in
situations where an hermetic seal cannot be maintained.
Burial in the Ground
Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of factors: lack of light,
lack of oxygen, cool temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil. Burial
may be combined with other methods such as salting or fermentation.
Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no
other preservation other than storage in cool dark conditions, for example
by burial in the ground, such as in a storage clamp.
Century eggs are created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other
Food Preservation 273

alkaline substance) resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through

raised pH instead of spoiling. The fermentation preserves them and breaks
down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler
more flavorful ones.
Most foods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty (thus a
desiccant), or soil that is frozen.
Cabbage was tr.aditionally buried in the fall in northern farms in the
USA for preservation. Some methods keep it crispy while other methods
pr<?duce sauerkraut. A similar process is used in the traditional production
of kimchi.
Sometimes meat is buried under conditions which cause preservation.
If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash
can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination.
If buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator.
Controlled Use of Micro-organism
Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers will keep for a
long time because their production uses specific micro-organisms that
combat spoilage from other less benign organisms. These micro-organisms
keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic for themselves
and other micro-organisms by producing acid or alcohol. Starter micro-
organisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures, controlled
(usually low) levels of oxygen and/or other methods are used to create
the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms
that produce food fit for human consumption.
High Pressure Food Preservation
High pressure food preservation refers to high pressure used for food
preservation. "Pressed inside a vessel exerting 70,000 pounds per square
inch or more, food can be processed so that it retains its fresh appearance,
flavour, texture and nutrients while disabling harmful microorganisms
and slo~ng spoilage." By 2001, adequate commercial equipment was
developed so that by 2005 the process was being used for products ranging
from orange juice to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold.
 Chapter 31

Cooking Methods'

Food preparation is an important step in meeting the nutritional needs

of the family. Food has to be pleasing in appearance and taste in order to
be consumed.
Foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts can be eaten raw but most foods
are cooked to bring about desirable changes. The process of subjecting
food to the action of heat is termed as cooking.
Objectives of Cooking

• Cooking sterilizes food: Above 40°C the growth of bacteria

decreases rapidly. Hence food is made safe for consumption.
• Cooking softens the connective tissues of meat and the coarse
fibre of cereals, pulses and vegetables so that the digestive period
is shortened and the gastro intestinal tract is less subjected to
irritation.
• Palatability and food quality is improved by cooking: Appearance,
flavour, texture and taste of food are enhanced while cooking.
• Introduces variety: Different dishes can be prepared with the same
ingredients. (Eg.) Rice can be made into biriyani and kheer.
• Increases food consumption: Cooking brings about improvement
in texture and flavour thereby increasing consumption of food.
• Increases availability of nutrients: Example in raw egg, avidin binds
biotin making it unavailable to the body. By cooking, avidin
gets denatured and biotin is made available.
COOKING METHODS
Moist Heat Dry Heat Combination
Boiling Roasting Braising
Stewing Grilling
Steaming Toasting
Pressure Cooking Baking
Poaching Sauteeing
Blanching Frying
Cooking Methods 275
MOIST HEAT METHODS

Boiling
Boiling is a method of cooking foods by just immersing them in water
at lOO°C and maintaining the water at that temperature till the food is
tender. Rice, egg, dhal, meat, roots and tubers are cooked by boiling.
Merits
• Simple method: It does not require special skill and equipment.
• Uniform cooking can be achieved.
Demerits
• Continuous excessive boiling leads to damage in the structure
and texture of food.
• Loss of heat labile nutrients such as Band C vitamins if the
water is discarded.
• Time consuming: Boiling takes more time to cook food and fuel
may be wasted.
• Loss of colour: Water soluble pigments may be lost.
Stewing
It refers to the simmering of food in a pan with a tight fitting lid using
small quantities of liquid to cover only half the food. This is a slow method
of cooking. The liquid is brought to boiling point and the heat is reduced
to maintain simmering temperatures (82°C - 90°C). The food above the
liquid is cooked by the steam generated within the pan. Apple, meat along
with roots, vegetables and legumes are usually stewed.
Merits
• Loss of nutrients is a voided as water used for cooking is not
discarded.
• Flavour is retained.
Demerits
• The process is time consuming and there is wastage of fuel.
Steaming
It is a method of cooking food in steam generated from vigorously
boiling water in a pan. The food to be steamed is placed in a container
and is not in direct contact with the water or liquid. Idli, custard are made
by steaming. Vegetables can also be steamed.
276 Cooking Methods
Merits
• Less chance of burning and scorching.
• Texture of food is better as it becomes light and fluffy. Eg. Idli.
• Cooking time is less and fuel wastage is less.
• Steamed foods like idli and idiappam contain less fat and are
easily digested and are good for children, aged and for
therapeutic diets.
• Nutrient loss is minimised.
Demerits
• Steaming equipment is required.
• This method is limited to the preparation of selected foods.
Pressure Cooking
When steam under pressure is used the method is known as pressure
cooking and the equipment used is the pressure cooker. In this method
the temperature of boiling water can be raised above lOO°e. Rice, dhal,
meat, roots and tubers are usually pressure cooked.
Merits
• Cooking time is less compared to other methods.
• Nutrient and flavour loss is minimised.
• Conserves fuel and time as different items can be cooked at the
same time.
• Less chance for burning and scorching.
• Constant attention is not necessary.
Demerits
• The initial investment may not be affordable to everybody.
• Knowledge of the usage, care and maintenance of cooker is
required to prevent accidents.
• Careful watch on the cooking time is required to prevent over
cooking. .
Poaching
This involves cooking in the mInImUm amount of liquid at
temperatures of 80°C - 85°C that is below the boiling point.
Egg and fish can be poached.
Merits
• No special equipment is needed.
Cooking Methods 277
• Quick method of cooking and therefore saves fuel.
• Poached foods are easily digested since no fat is added.
Demerits
• Poached foods may not appeal to everybody as they are bland
in taste.
• Food can be scorched if water evaporates due to careless
monitoring.
• Water soluble nutrients may be leached into the water.
Blanching

In meal preparation, it is often necessary only to peel off the skin of

fruits and vegetables without making them tender.
This can be achieved by blanching. In this method, food is dipped in
boiling water for 5 seconds to 2 minutes depending on the texture of the
food. This helps to remove the skin or peel without softening food.
Blanching can also be done by pouring enough boiling water on the
food to immerse it for some time or subjecting foods to boiling
temperatures for short periods and then immediately immersing in cold
water. The process causes the skin to become loose and can be peeled off
easily.
Merits
• Peels can easily be removed to improve digestibility.
• Destroys enzymes that bring about spoilage.
• Texture can be maintained while improving the colour and
flavour of food.
Demerits
• Loss of nutrients if cooking water is discarded.
• Dry heat methods.
Roasting
In this method food is cooked in a heated metal or frying pan without
covering it. Eg. Groundnut.
Merits
• Quick method of cooking.
• It improves the appearance, flavour and texture of the food.
• Spices are easily powdered if they are first roasted.
278 Cooking Methods
Demerits
• Food can be scorched due to carelessness.
• Roasting denatures proteins reducing their availability.
Grilling
Grilling or broiling refers to the cooking of food by exposing it to
direct heat. In this method food is placed above or in between a red hot
surface. Papads, corn, phulkas, chicken can be prepared by this method.
Merits
• Enhances flavour, appearance and taste of the product.
• It requires less time to cook.
• Minimum fat is used.
Demerits
• Constant attention is required to prevent charring.
Toasting
This is a method where food is kept between two heated elements to
facilitate browning on both sides. Bread slices are cooked by toasting.
Merits
• Easy and quick method.
• Flavour improved.
Demerits
• Special equipment required.
• Careful monitoring is needed to prevent charring.
Baking
In this method, the food gets cooked in an oven or ovenlike appliance
by dry heat. The temperature range maintained in an oven is 120°C -
260°C. The food is usually kept uncovered in a container greased with a
fat coated paper. Bread, cake, biscuits, pastries and meat are prepared by
this method.
Merits
• Baking lends a unique baked flavour to foods.
• Foods become light and fluffy - cakes, custards, bread.
• Certain foods can be prepared only by this method - bread,cakes,
• Uniform and bulk cooking can be achieved. Eg. bun, bread.
• Flavour and texture are impro,":ed
Cooking Methods 279
• Variety of dishes can be made.
Demerits
• Special equipment like oven is required.
• Baking skills are necessary to obtain a product with ideal texture,
flavour and colour characteristics.
• Careful monitoring needed to prevent scorching.
Sauteing
Sauteing is a method in which food is lightly tossed in little oil just
enough to cover the base of the pan. The pan is covered with a lid and the
flame or intensity of heat is reduced. The food is allowed to cook till tender
in its own steam. The food is tossed occasionally, or turned with a spatula
to enable all the pieces to come in contact with the oil and get cooked
evenly.
The product obtpined by this method is slightly moist and tender but
without any liquid or gravy. Foods cooked by
sauteing are generally vegetables which are used as side dishes in a
menu. Sauteing can be combined with other methods to produce variety
in meals.
Merits
• Takes less time.
• Simple technique.
• Minimum oil is used.
Demerits
• Constant attention is needed as there is chance of scorching or
burning.
Frying
In this method, the food to be cooked is brought into, contact with
larger amount of hot fat. When food is totally immersed in hot oil, it is
called deep fat frying. Samosa, chips, pakoda are examples of deep fat
fried foods. In shallow fat frying, only a little fat is used and the food is
turned in order that both sides are browned. Eg. Omlette, cutlets, parathas.
Merits
• Very quick method of cooking.
• The calorific values of food is increased since fat is used as the
cooking media.
280 Cooking Methods
• Frying lends a delicious flavour and attractive appearance to
foods.
• Taste and texture are improved.
Demerits
• Careful monitoring is required as food easily gets charred when
the smoking temperature is not properly maintained.
• The food may become soggy due to too much oil absorption.
• Fried foods are not easily digested.
• Repeated use of heated oils will have ill effects on health.
• COMBINATION OF COOKING METHODS
Braising
Braising is a combined method of roasting and stewing-in a pan with
a tight fitting lid. Flavourings and seasonings are added and food is
allowed to cook gently. Food preparations prepared by combination
methods are:
Uppuma - Roasting and boiling.
Cutlet - Boiling and deep frying.
Vermicilli payasam - Roasting and simmering.
MICROWAVE COOKING
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves of radiant energy with wave
lengths in the range of 250 x 106 to 7.5 x 109 Angstroms.
The most commonly used type of microwave generator is an electronic
device called a magnetron which generates radiant energy of high
frequency. A simple microwave oven consists of a metal cabinet into which
the magnetron is inserted. The cabinet is equipped with a metal fan that
distributes the microwave throughout the cabinet. Food placed in the oven
is heated by microwaves from all directions.

Microwave oven
Cooking Methods 281
• Door release button
• See -through window
• Door safety lock system
• External air vents
• Control panel
• Identification plate
• Glass tray 8.Roller ring
Moist foods and liquid foods can be rapidly heated in such ovens.
Food should be kept in containers made of plastic, glass or china ware
which do not contain metallic substances. These containers are used
because they transmit the microwaves but do not absorb or reflect them.
Merits
• Quick method - 10 times faster than conventional method. So
loss of nutrients can be minimised.
• Only the food gets heated and the oven does not get heated .
.• Food gets cooked uniformly.
• Leftovers can be reheated without changing the flavour and
texture of the product.
• Microwave cooking enhances the flavour of food because it cooks
quickly with little or no water.
Demerits
• Baked products do not get a brown surface.
• Microwave cooking cannot be used for simmering, stewing or
deep frying.
• Flavour of all ingredients do not blend well as the cooking time
is too short.
SOLAR COOKI NG
Solar cooking is a very simple technique that makes use of sunlight
or solar energy which is a non-conventional source of energy.
Solar cooker consists of a well insulated box which is painted black
on the inside and covered with one or more transparent covers.
The purpose of these transparent covers is to trap heat inside the solar
cooker. These covers allow the radiation from the sun to come inside the
box but do not allow the heat from the hot black absorbing plate to come
out of the box. Because of this, temperature upto 140e C can be obtained
which is adequate for cooking.
Merits
• Sirr:ple technique - requires no special skill.
282 Cooking Methods
• Cost effective as natural sunlight is the form of energy.
• Original flavour of food is retained.
• There is no danger of scorching or burning.
• Loss of nutrients is minimum as only little amounts of water is
used in cooking.
Demerits
• Special equipment is needed.
• Slow cooking process.
• Cannot be used in the absence of sunlight - rainy season, late
evening and night.

Solar cooker
• Solar plane mirror
• Cooking container
• Glass sheet
• Cover
• Insulation material glass
• Outer box
• Handle
• Mirror support
• Hinged adjuster and guide
 Index

A Bacterial Spoilage 264

Baking 136, 138, 212, 214, 228,
Absorption 13,14,15,16,28,50, 252,253,260
53,57,58, 59, 60, 63, 66,69, Bar~e137
71, 73, 74, 75, 77, 94, 102, Basal metabolic 49, 79, 145
128,134,135,141,145,146, Beverages 28, 29, 79, 107, 139,
158,160, 163, 164, 167, 169, 151,175,197,205,206,207,
185,186,194,201,202,203, 254
214,217,222,226,231,233, Biotin 60, 66, 72, 113, 127, 128,
257,279,280,282 132,133,274
Acne 15, 74, 142, 143, 144 Blanching 239, 240, 277
Adolescents 125, 144, 167, 172, Broil 137, 138
193,195,196
Aging 50,148,168,203,234,235, c
236
Alcoholic 107, 139,\205 Calorie 10, 17, 20, 22, 29, 33, 56,
Allergic 149, 150, 1~1, 152, 178, 78,79,87,139,146,171,172,
262 187,188,206,254
Amino acids 44, 45, 52, 53, 59, Carbohydrates 1,6,11,17,22,35,
95, 96, 97, 98, 101, 135, 185, 43, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 62,
236,265 77,80, 83, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94,
Antacids 14 95, 96, 113, 118, 132, 133,
Ascorbic acid 66, 106, 123, 124, 143,160,174,190,197,198,
125,147,148,253 225,229,254
Asthma 64, 70, 151, 152, 153 Carotene 61, 71, 114, 115, 116,
Autolysis 264 117,197,253
Chemical dependency 16, 18
B Cholesterol 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 15, 19,
Bacterial infections 65, 153 20,21,22,23,27,28,29,30,
284 Index

32,33,34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 49, E

57, 58, 59, 62, 64,65, 66, 67,
68,70,74,77,125,139,155, Economic 6, 11, 42, 94, 144, 145,
156,157,161,172,187,188, 208, 209, 210, 217
189,198,200,202,204,207 Evolution 39, 42
Choline 67, 113 Extraction"27,222
Chromium 69, 161
Cobalamin 63 F
Cobalt 63, 101, 111, 121, 138 Fatty acid 23, 50, 58, 59, 63, 155,
Complementary 44, 181, 182, 221,223
183,184 Fermentation 75, 216, 234, 244,
Crop production 210 245,247,262,266,269,272,
Cyancobalimin 63 273
D Fluorine 101, 109, 110
Folacin 123
Deficiency States 104, 107, 108 Folate 14, 50, 60, 67, 123, 147,
Diabetes mellitus 4, 158 190,201
Diagnoses 2, 139, 145 Folic acid 67, 113, 122, 123, 167,
Dietary 1, 3, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 15, 174,175,203
16,18,19,20,22,28,29,30, Food labels 9, 32, 33, 34, 36, 172,
32, 33, 34, 35, 37,38,39,40, 256
44, 47, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, Food processing 32, 66, 67, 68,
76,77,78,79,80,84,92,93, 211,212,213,214,215
112, 116, 122, 126, 127, 139, Food technology 38, 156
157,171,173, 183, 194, 196, Fungal Spoilage 263
204,216
Dietary fiber 22, 29, 30, 33, 53, G
54,75,76,78,139,204,216
Digestion 12, 13, 18, 50, 51, 52, Gelatinize 261
53, 72, 92, 93, 96, 98, 132, Gout 225
133,134,135,169 Grilling 212, 260
Digestive functioning 169 H
Digestive tract 11, 53, 75, 165,
168,169 Healthy diet 2,26,130,139,196,
Disaccharides 52, 54, 91, 135, 229 198
Drug 8, 9, 13, 14, 15,18, 19, 37, Healthy weight 20,172,197
39,58,64,127,146,151,155, Hydrogenated oils 172, 220, 223
157, 158, 254 Hygiene 22, 93, 183, 184, 198,
Dry beans 30, 189, 204 214,239,270
Index 285

I 134, 136, 139, 155, 171, 175,

188,189,190,191,194,201,
Ingredients 10, 28, 139, 140, 182, 204,211,214,215,222,225,
184,185,186,211,213,215, 232,253,254
219,220,237,244,248,255, Misleading 3, 7, 35, 36
274,281 Moderation 23, 48, 172, 189, 196,
Inositol 12, 58, 67, 157 205
Inulins 77 Monosaccharides 52, 54, 55, 91,
Irradiation 138, 139, 267, 271, 92,96,229
272
N
J
Niacin 15,39,50,60, 62, 113, 120,
Jellying 271 121,127
Jugging 271 Nicotinamide 120
L Nicotinic acid 60, 120
Non-essential nutrients 53
Laetrile 12, 64 Nutrition 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 16, 17,
Legislation 8, 35, 185, 255, 272 19,26,27,32,33,34,35,37,
Linoleic 58, 94, 157 86, 87, 94, 97, 98, 101, 102,
Livestock production 210,211 145,154,155,163,171,174,
177, 181, 183, 185, 187, 188,
M 191,192,195,199,203,230
Macronutrients 3, 51, 52, 53, 84, o
87
Magnesium 14,51,71,72,73,77, Obesity 2, 5, 12, 20, 39, 40, 86,
101,111,112,151,161,190, 92, 144, 146~ 159, 161, 195,
201 196,199,200,202,224,225
Metabolism 12, 13, 15, 16, 26, 52, Omega 37, 57, 59
57, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 69,
70, 71, 73,74, 77, 85, 86, 90, P
108,110,111,113,117,118, Pangamic acid 63, 64
120,123,126,146,147,150, Para-aminobenzoic 68, 155
169,203,262 Pasteurization 11, 247, 249, 268,
Microbial spoilage 262 271
Microwave 177, 178, 179, 213, Pharmacologic 12, 13, 15, 150
261,280 Physiological SO, 56, 68, 71, 72,
Minerals 6, 11, 12, 15, 17, 32, 46, 73, 100, 102, 106, 113, 117,
51,52,53,60,68,69,85,101, 128, 167, 266
105,111, 113, 124, 130, 133, PhYSiology 86, 98, 101, 132
286 Index

Plenty 26, 31, 56, 100, 129, 176, 200,201,207,230,236

187 Sauteing 260, 279
Poaching 260 Selenium 74, 101, 111, 112
Polysaccharides 52, 54, 55, 56, 75, Skeletal system 167
91,92,201 Small intestine 98,106, 133, 134,
Potassium 14, 23, 30, 51, 52, 73, 135,217
74,85,86,100,101,108,133, Sparging 220, 223
151,190,201,240,255 Sweeteners 26, 29, 32, 139, 161,
Poultry 6, 30, 31, 33, 35, 40, 56, 186,213,224,227
58,7473,80,106,136,137,
138,139,140,141,156,172, T
189,196,204,207,256 Thiamine 62, 113, 117, 118, 119,
Pregnancy 24, 5'6, 60, 86, 104, 120,127
105, 106, 107, 109, 116, 119, Toasting 222, 278
123,125,149,174,175,176 Tocopherol 128
Protein 11, 12, 15, 17, 18, 22, 28, Toxicity 10, 13, 14, 60, 61, 63, 66,
31,32, 35, 43, 44, 45, 50,51, 67,71,72,111,112,116,127
54, 56, 57, 63, 67, 68, 74, 75,
Triglyceride 4,38,219, 220, 223
98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104,
121,124,128,129,130,131, U
157,160,164,167,172,174,
189,193,197,200,206,207, Utilization 13, 17, 63, 69, 72, 97,
234,236,237,271 98, 100, 117, 126, 144, 147,
Protein Myth 43 210,211
Psyllium husk 77
Putrefaction 265 v
Pyridoxine 63, 127 Vegan infants 45
R Vegetarian diets 40, 44, 194
Vitamins 7, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17,1
Radiation 138,153,154,260,261, 32, 33, 46, 51, 53, 57, 60, 62,
271,272,281 65, 67, 68, 83, 94, 113, 117,
Rancidity 220, 264, 266, 267 136,137,139, 147, 149, 158,
Retinol 61, 114,115,116, 117 190,191,194,197,198,200,
Riboflavin 50,62,113,119,127 232,250,255,272,275

S Y
Saturated fat 3,6,21,22,23,27, Yogurt 27,29,31,38,49,56,69,
35,36, 37, 39, 49, 56, 57, 58, 1:?5, 139, 156, 175, 183, 188,
139,157,184,187,198,199, 189,254