C/P Review Notes

 ghis the formula for the pressure of static fluid

 The Cathode is positive and the Anode is negative in galvanic cells but opposite in electrolytic
 Trigonal bipyramidal is when there are five ligands attached to a central atom
 SeeSaw is when there are 4 ligands and a lone pair SN=5
 T shaped is when there are 3 ligands and 2 lone pairs SN=5
 Square planar is 4 ligands and 2 lone pairs which is SN = 6
 If you want a pure sample distill with pure N2 because it isn’t reactive, regular air could oxidize it
 Hydrophobic columns rely on high salt concentrations to keep hydrophobic things in the column
 Electrons flow toward the positive terminal
 Visible light 390-700
 C=E0A/Dis the capacitance equation it is linear with area and distance
 Higher Gas chromatography retention time indicates higher boiling point
 Retention time and resolution of peaks in GC are better at low T but it takes longer
 Induced fit mechanism stabilizes the TS state to lower the activation energy
 V0 =Vmax[S]Km+[S]is the michaelis-menten equation
 Magnetic field strength in a solenoid is calculated by the equation B=0nI
 The standard solenoid model assumes the solenoid is much longer than it is wide
 Avogadro’s number is 6 E^23
 Pancreatic glucokinase lacks quaternary structure and has cooperativity unlike hexokinase
 Premolten globules are proteins at the beginning of folding and is extended relative to final globular protein
 Larger moves faster in size exclusion chromatography
 Anion exchange columns have positive beads, ion chromatography is named by the thing that it captures not by the charge of
the resin within the column itself
 Tryptophan fluorescence changes can be used to measure the rate of protein folding
 R= either 8.3 when pressure is in pascals or .08 when pressure is in atm
 1 atm is 100 kPa
 (3/2)RT = KE for gas; R is .08 in this case
 273K is 0 C
 If you want to find the pressure of gas in a container that is producing more gas by a reaction you just add the pressure of the
moles of created gas to the original pressure; the same could be done for pressure
 With a converging lens further than focal is real and inverted, closer is virtual upright
 1/di+ 1/do= 1/f is the thin lens equation to find out where you would need to place an object given the focal length and the
distance of the image or any of the other ones given two of the three
 Check to make sure that molecules have the same number of atoms when asked which option would be least likely to occur
in a reaction
 Action reaction pairs must work on different objects they are not normal force
 The more conjugated a system the higher the wavelength of absorbed light
 Chelating agents bind cofactors to inhibit enzymes and affect activity like a competitive inhibitor
 Oxidation number assumes that the more EN species has all electrons shared
 P = FV
 Zeroeth order reactions are the linear ones first order is curved
 6.6 E^-34 is planck’s constant
 Fibroin has B pleated sheets as its major secondary structure, its the protein in silk
 Total energy is the sum of potential and kinetic energy and any change in one comes from change in other
 Gravitational potential energy equation is mgh; mgh = PEgrav
 Isochoric = isovolumetric
 Adiabatic means no heat is exchanged so change in internal energy is work only
 Isothermal means that the temperature is constant meaning that the internal energy of the system is constant which would say
that any heat exchange is due to an equal exchange in work
 W = PV
 U = q -W; q is heat added to system and work is work done by system
 Convection can only occur between fluids
 Heat capacity equation is C = mc ; c is the specific heat, so the overall amount of heat energy held in a system is determined
by the mass and the amount of energy to heat a mass unit of the system
 Calorimetry equation is q = CT= mcT; this is the amount of heat energy released by a bomb calorimeter can be determined
by the change in Temp in the fluid surrounding it if you know the mass and heat capacity of what surrounds it
 Specific Rotation equation : the specific rotation is equal to the observed rotation divided by the length of the capillary in
decimeters and the concentration of the species in g/ml
 Glucose enters the intestinal cells through an Na+ symporter
 IR Absorption spectra
o Hydroxyl or amine 3600/cm
o Sp C-H 3300/cm
o Sp2 C-H 3100/cm
o Sp3 C-H 3000/cm
o Carbonyl 1600-1800/cm
 Downfield is to the left and it occurs when there is more deshielding
 Inductive effect is the donation of electrons through sigma bonds
 Triglyceride fatty acids need not be identical
 Geometric isomers are cis/trans isomers and can have different physical properties like BP
 Constitutional isomers are also called structural isomers and have different connectivity
 RP-HPLC is reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography the mobile phase is polar stationary is non polar and
high pressure is used to push the fluid
 Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry adds charge to molecules by adding proteins, so for every + charge added the
molecule is one mass unit larger, but the m/z ratio is much more telling of the species than the mass itself so its worth it
 if Ka is n x 10^-m then pKa is m - .n
 Boyle’s Law pressure and volume are inverses
 Charles’ Law V and T are Proportional
 Avogadro’s Law V and n are proportional
 Gay-Lussac’s Law P and T are proportional


 Amides and hydroxyls have far deshielded nmr’s
 Amides are readily hydrolyzed but less reactive than esters
 Nothing can do work on itself, if you’re running then the ground does work on you
 KE(initial) + Work = KE (Final)
 pKa is constant
 Newton’s 2nd Law only describes unbalanced forces
 Hooke’s Law’s; F = kx and PEspring = ½ kx^2
 V = (2gh)^½
 Z is cis
 Sugars are always invertible epimers even if they’re in compounds
 Prodrugs are only useful if the inactive form is inactive before cleavage and active after, so you would need to test where the
drugs become active in the body to find out if it is effective or not
 If two objects are applying force on another object in opposite directions the one putting more force on the thing is the thing
pushing or pulling in the direction of acceleration
 Q = CV; PEcapacitor = ½ CV^2
 Disulfide bonds are the strongest stabilizers in a protein and dominate if there are cysteines present
 Carbonic anhydrase facilitates the removal of H20 from H2CO3 to produce CO2 and H20 and the opposite reaction, the
opposite is used more in the body
 ENZYMES ONLY AFFECT RATES NOT EQUILIBRIA
 760 torr/mmHg = 1atm = 100 kpa
 N>O>C>H in terms of energy needed when removing an electron
 Sound intensity decreases as a square with distance but decibels are 10 times the log of intensity over the minimum intensity
heard by the human ear
 Tosylates make alcohols good leaving groups so if you want to synthesize and ether then you use an alcohol and a
tosylate
 Inertia is not velocity dependent it is the same for all things of the same mass
 Cultured cells are considered a good approximation of in vivo cells
 Iron can coordinate 6 ligands and they’re coordinate bonds
 Transesterification includes thioesters so all of the acetylations done with acetyl CoA are transesterification
 A single carbon cannot be E or Z those have to describe bonds, so if something asks for the configuration of a carbon atom it
has to be R or S
 If two straight-current-carrying wires run in the opposite directions they will repel each other
 Dipole moment is the product of charge and distance, it increases linearly with both of those variables
o µ = qr is the equation
 Deposition occurs at cathode due to reduction; the electrolytic cells use external energy sources to do this within the same
container even though the signs of the electrodes are flipped
 Anode is oxidation;;;;;cathode is reduction ALWAYS


 Steric # (SN) = the # of sigma bonds + the # of lone pairs
 Phosphoanhydride bonds like those in ATP hydrolyze at low activation energy
 Causing a premature stop codon does not cause misfolding
 Capacitors and Resistors are opposites when it comes to series and parallel; capacitance adds when in parallel and decreases
when in series in the opposite way to resistors which decrease in the way that you know they do when in parallel but add
when in series
 Resistors are conductors they’re just bad at conducting, if they were insulators then they couldn’t have any current
 Having longer alkyl chains on Carboxylic Acids raises the pKa by destabilizing negative charge by the inductive effect
 If you add a solution A to solution B that doesn’t contain any of the solutes of solution B in it then it will dilute solution B,
because of the added water; if you add amine to a saline then you dilute the saline, because you didn’t add any sodium or
chloride to the solution but you did add water
 Venturi effect is the decrease in fluid pressure when a pipe passes through a narrow section due to increase velocity; this is
also called Bernoulli Effect sometimes
 There are 3 things needed for triglyceride synthesis
o Fattyacyl CoA
o Glycerol
o Phosphate 3-acyltransferase
 CHCl3 is non polar
 Diopters are a measure of the power of the lens and equal 1/f where f is the focal length
 Focal length is the distance between the center of the lens to the focal point
 Positive = Convex; focal point behind the lens image is real and inverted always
 LENS PNEUMONIC
o PRI NVU

o Positive Real Inverted

o Negative Virtual Upright

 Secondary Amines are amines that have 2 carbons attached to them they are not amines on secondary carbons
 DMSO is a polar aprotic solvent
 Where the lenses coincide will be the focal point for a lens in a ray diagram; and it makes sense cause it should be on top of
the object that is being observed if you want to see it
 When you go from a material of higher index of refraction to lower index of refraction then the light will bend away from the
normal i.e toward the interface of the materials; the opposite will be true if its from lower index of refraction to higher
 Speed of light reduces in higher index of refraction materials which are usually the denser material but as far as I know not
necessarily
 Converging = Negative; NVU
 An “attacking” enolate should have the negative charge on the carbon not the oxygen
 Reflux is when you distill something heated under a condenser so vapor continually condenses and returns to solution; so you
are adding heat to it
 If a question on atomic radii has an atom with a negative charge chances are its that one and there will be a cation with the
same number of electrons, but since it has a negative charge and negative charges repel the radius will be larger
 If an acid or base is weak in concentration the concentration of it doesn’t matter as much for pH determination as it does for
strong acids, like .1 M HCl has a pH of 1 where 1 M has a pH of 0 but .1M isn’t that much less than 1M weak acid
 For something to be a base it must be hydrolyzed to produce OH ions there is no other way
 Ionization Constant is Ka so it is much less than 1 for weak acids and the most anything could be is 1
 At the equivalence point is when you have equal acid and base; its equal to 7 for strong acids and bases mixeds; its less than
7 for weak base with strong acid; and it’s more than 7 for weak acid and strong base
 The electric field unit is V/m which equals N/C; V equals joules per coulomb newtons are joules/meter so that’s the
dimensional analysis that shows that
 Ksp is the same as any other equilibrium in terms of the way that you calculate it concentration of products over that of
reactants
 A coordination compound is going to be anything that has a central metal atom with a bunch of other atoms around it and if
you see it then you should know that the bond that puts them together is a coordinate bond
 If AnBm → A- + B+ then Ksp = (n[A-])^n [B+]^m ; most of the time a question that requires this knowledge will be about
something like NaCl which dissociates evenly into positive and negative ions and only has one so you would take the square
root of Ksp to get the concentration of any given species. If it was Cu2S then Ksp would be 4x^3 so you would divide by 4
and take the cube root to find the concentration of each

 The one that isn’t labelled is a hydrazone

 Strecker synthesis produces alpha amino acids the steps are
o Attack an aldehyde with the R-group of the amino acid you want to produce with an amine after acidifying carbonyl
o Attack the carbon that was a part of the carbonyl with a cyanide releasing a water since it was protonated with acid
too
o Then hydrolyze the cyanide group with water in acidic conditions to turn it to a carboxylic acid
o This method produces L and D amino acids and starts with the R group and produces the backbone whereas gabriel
starts with the backbone and produces the R group
 Gabriel synthesis produces amino acids and the steps are

o It is also called malonic ester synthesis because you start out with malonic ester
 There has to be a leaving group on the middle carbon though
o A nitrogen is added by an SN2 reaction at the alpha carbon (the one in the middle) with potassium phthalimide

o After they react, you’ll do a reaction in conjugate base of an alcohol that matches the ester group, so ethanol for the
malonic ester in the image 2 above along with the R-group you want to add attached to a leaving group, this will add
the R group to the alpha carbon
o Then you put the product in acidic conditions to convert it to carboxylic acids on either side which will then kick out
one of the carboxylic acid groups by beta keto acid decarboxylation
 If n1 is greater than n2 total internal reflection can occur if you’re at a high incident angle
 F=kq1q2/r^2=E/q=U/r=Vq/r
 Sphingolipids have a sphingosine group instead of a glycerol at the top of the fatty acids, the combo of sphingosine and fatty
acid is called a ceramide; basically if you see it and it isn’t regular its probably a sphingo lipid; sphingolipids have amide
linkages connecting the fatty acid, below is what a sphingolipid looks like

o
 Waxes are long chain esters made from a long chain alcohol attaching to a carbonyl group

o
 This is choline

 This is carnitine’s structure

 sphingomyelin
 The total cross sectional area of the capillaries is bigger than the arteries so that's why resistance goes down and the flow is
slower
 The arterioles have the largest drop in pressure
 What is a gram-mole
 Lipases hydrolyze fatty acids from glycerol in triglycerides
 Products are contaminated if a homogenous catalyst, meaning that the catalyst is the same phase as the reactants, cannot be
removed from the products, which makes sense, because contamination is any time that you have something in the products
other than the intended products
 Grinding up a heterogenous catalyst increases reaction rate, because you're increasing the surface area with with the reactants
can interact with the catalyst
 Positive Ecell is spontaneous, the Ered of the thing that is being oxidized must be subtracted from the overall Ecell, when the
Ered of the oxidized thing is negative then you are making it more spontaneous
 If a reaction involves a carbocation intermediate then it most readily occurs at a tertiary carbon
 The index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vaccuum by the speed of light in the medium Ex: light
goes 2.1 x 10^8 m/s in a medium then it's index of refraction i.e "n" is 1.4 since 3 divided by 2.1 is 1.4
 In a micelle there are a bunch of different proteins or fats that come together in a sphere, so if one is made of proteins and
they all have cysteine residues then the thing that likely holds them all together is intermolecular covalent bonds between
adjacent cysteine residues
 Pay attention to amino acid substitutions, what they start out as and what they change to, and if something changes from an
arginine lysine or histidine to a aspartic or glutamic acid then there has been a -2 net change in charge, because you're going
from +1 to -1
 If they describe the structure of something in a specific way then there's a good chance that that is going to be important and
if you have outside knowledge then that isn't going to matter as much
 The ratio of the image height to the object height is equal to the ratio of the lens-image distance to the object lens distance, so
if the image is 3 times the focal length then 1/3 + 1/x = 1/1 and 1/x = 2/3 and x = 3/2 so the ratio is 3 : 3/2 which is equivalent
to 1 : 1/2, so the height of the image would be 1/2 of the object
 (ft x lb)/s is a unit of power; also be more careful when you're deriving that you're derivation actually matches what the unit
is
 Positive torque is counterclockwise
 Friction is equal to the applied force times the friction coefficient

 Mechanical advantage is MA = length of incline/ height of incline = Force out / Force in

 These are the equations for thermal expansion

 9/5 C + 32 is the degrees in F
 5/9 F - 32 is the degrees in C
 273 + C is the degrees in K
 The zeroeth law of thermodynamics says that when 2 systems have the same temperature there is no net heat exchange
between them
 The first law of thermodynamics equation is U = Q -Wthe change in internal energy is the heat added to the system minus the
work done by the system
 The second law of thermodynamics says that entropy always increases within the universe
 The absolute pressure is the pressure of the fluid plus the pressure of air on the fluid, every 10 m of depth increases pressure
by ~1atm


 Buoyant force is (Rho)Vg
 Specific Gravity is the density of something divided by the density of water
 Blood pressure is equal to velocity times area times resistance

 E = Fe/q = k ( q1 x q2 /r^2)
 1.6 x 10^-19 C is the charge of an electron
 Electric dipole equation p = q x d
 Voltage unit is joules/ Coulomb; the equation is U/q

 C = Q/V; E = V/d this describes the strength of the electric field between capacitor plates


 Lyman, balmer, paschen : n → 1, n → 2, n → 3 : Ultraviolet, visible, infrared
o In order of highest to lowest energy and frequency and lowest to highest wavelength



 Rechargable batteries have electrolytic charging states and galvanic discharging states
 These are all different isomers


 Magnetism always comes in the form of a dipole with a positive and negative side, electricity can be either charge
 Magnetism is defined by its effect on a moving positive charge, a tesla is a N x S / C x m newton seconds per coulomb meter
 If you pretend that you’re holding a wire with your fingers wrapped around it pointing your thumb out then the direction of
the magnetic field is in the same direction as your fingers are pointing and the force of the magnetic field is perpendicular to
your palm
o B= I/2 ris the strength of the magnetic field
 o
o Solenoids have uniform magnetic fields that are strong in the middle and really weak ones on the outside,
 KE (original) + work = KE (final)
 V=Ed; F = Eq
 UV absorption causes excitation of bound electrons
 Ketones boil at lower temperatures than alcohols
 If the activity curve is sigmoidal at all then there is cooperativity, this means that if the curve doesn’t look like the michaelis
menten curve then its cooperative, there can’t be concave up and down and not be cooperative, if it isn’t then its just concave
down
 Boiling point is the best characteristic to use to estimate vapor pressure
 Keq more than 1 is spontaneous toward products, if its less than 1 it favors the reactants
 Lewis acid base interactions with a metal cation and an electron pair donor is a coordinate covalent bond, basically what I’m
getting at is that complex ions use coordinate covalent bonds
 Le Chatelier’s says that if acid is added then the side with more basic species will be favored more even if there is no explicit
OH or H+ on either side of the equation, ex: if acid is added to a solution with a reaction that has amine in the reactants and
water in the products then the reactants are favored, because the amine is more basic than the water since it has a pka of 35
instead of like 15
 The number of ligands bound to a central atom is the coordination number which is different than the steric number which is
the number of ligands and lone pairs connected I think
 Coordination number + # of lone pairs = Steric Number


 A silk scarf removes electrons from a glass rod
 22.4 L is the 1 mol volume at STP
 Hydrogen bonding of Backbone amides with backbone carbonyls are what cause secondary structural elements to form
 A phosphorylated hydroxylic amino acid is best replaced by an acidic amino acid since the phosphoryl group has a negative
charge, make sure to take note if the residues that are changed are said to be modified before making a decision about what
residues would best replace them
 REMEMBER HENDERSON HASSELBALCH is pH = pKA + log (CONJ. BASE/ACID), don’t question it just use the
formula, because you missed a question second guessing the formula on AAMC FL2
 A C-H bond is shorter than a polar bond, because H is so small that the nuclei of the two can get a lot closer to each other
than C-O or something even though they’re stronger bonds.
 A negative focal length means that a lens is diverging, and when a lens is diverging its image is virtual and upright if an
image is further than the focal length the image is reduced in size
 Light waves with electric fields perpendicular to the axis of polarization are absorbed in linear polarizers
 in this image the place where
the rays originate is the object distance and where they converge is the image distance so to find the focal length you would
do 1/do + 1/di = 1/f, the focal length isn’t one of the numbers given
 Kinetic energy of a photoelectron is hf - the work function of the material the electrons are ejected from
 sN is the maximum value of the kinetic friction, where N is the normal force, the maximum value of kinetic friction will
always be greater than the constant value for kinetic friction, because the coefficient of kinetic friction must be smaller than
that of static friction
 If a board is unbalanced on something and you are given the weight of the board and told or left to assume that the weight is
evenly distributed you should consider the weight to be centralized in the middle of each of the sides, so if one side of the
board was six feet from the middle at the end and one was two then the weights of the board for torque calculation purposes
should be considered at 3 feet and 1 foot respectively


 The work done on an object can be determined by its change in kinetic energy, by the work-energy theorem
 Machines give a mechanical advantage by spreading out the force over a longer distance, so like with pullies or ramps or
something you’re lifting the thing that would be hard with one rope or hard to lift straight up, because you can produce force
for a longer distance to manage the work of lifting. With the ropes you spread it out over a longer distance due to the ropes
going through the spinny things
 Mgh is gravitational potential energy
 The efficiency of a simple machine like a pulley or a wedge is the load weight times the load distance divided by the effort
times the effort distance; this can never be 100%
 Buoyant force is (rho)Vg, where rho is the density of the fluid, V is the volume displaced by the object and g is the
gravitational constant, i.e the weight of displaced fluid; this is archimedes’ principle
 Pressure is force per area
 Absolute/hydrostatic pressure is the total pressure exerted on a submerged object and is calculated by the equation
P=P0+gzwhere P0 is the incident or ambient pressure i.e the pressure at the surface of the fluid and z is the depth of the
object, the other two variables you should know
 Gauge pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure i.e gz
 Pascal’s principle is the idea that in a closed container full of fluid an applied pressure to one place will distribute evenly to
the rest of the container
 Hydraulics work because the smaller piston is pushed a much larger distance, so P = F1/A1 = F2/A2 so if you apply a force
to a small piston connected by fluid to a large one it will exert a much larger force on whatever is above the larger piston, but
the distance of displacement for the two is proportional to that change in force applied.
 Adhesion concave miniscus, cohesion convex
 Poiseuille’s: rate of flow increases with radius to the fourth power, so small changes make large differences


 In venturi flow meter problems there is a tube that water or some other fluid will rise up into from a pipe with the fluid
flowing through it, and the height in the tube is dependent on the radius of the pipe at the point that the tube is located, with
smaller radii causing lower tube heights, because the fluid is moving faster and therefore exerts less pressure
 The continuity equation says that linear speed of fluid must increase in a thinner pipe while flow rate is constant
 P=IV; the uniform electric field between the plates of a capacitor is equal to the voltage over the distance between the plates
 C=Q/V, where Q is the absolute value of the charge on either plate
 If a block is held by tension and is sitting against a wire and the force of tension is less than the force of gravity then the
difference between tension and gravity is the force of friction holding it in place
 Light is a transverse wave and sound is longitudinal; transverse is the typical sinusoidal path that you think of, the
oscillations are perpendicular to propagation, but longitudinal the oscillations are parallel to the propagation so it moves and
compresses and decompresses in the same direction
 Hz is per second, its a unit of frequency
 Period is 1/f, f being frequency and it means the number of seconds per cycle instead of cycles per second
 Principle of superposition is the idea that describes the additive behavior of waves contributing to constructive, destructive,
and partial interference
 Standing waves are caused in a string that is bound at both ends, it basically makes it so that the only movement in the string
is fluctuation of amplitude at fixed points along the length of it, nodes are points that don’t change and have 0 amplitude at
any given point, antinodes are the points that have maximum amplitude
 20Hz to 20,000Hz is the human range of hearing
 The speed of sound in a medium is equal to the square root of the quantity of the bulk modulus divided by the density of the
medium, so denser things cause it to move slower, but bulk modulus increases much faster than density when going from gas
to liquid to solid, so a low-density solid is the fastest sound propagator and a high density gas is the slowest sound propagator
other than a vaccuum which would not be able to harbor sound
 Speed of sound at STP is 343 m/s in air
 Infrasonic means below 20Hz and Ultrasonic means above 20,000 Hz


 Intensity of sound is the power per area, W/m^2\
 When a wave is in an open pipe (open at both ends) it acts like a string bound at both ends (except that instead of nodes at
both ends of the pipe there are antinodes, the math works the same other than the observation that n = the number of nodes
minus one, for the open pipe n = the number of nodes) and for both of them, the length of the string corresponds to a multiple
of half wavelengths depending on the frequency of the wave (L = gamma/2, 2 gamma/2, 3 gamma/2…)
 The equation to calculate the wavelength of a standing wave from L is =2 Ln where n is a positive non-zero integer
corresponding to the harmonic, so the wavelength gets smaller from harmonic to harmonic meaning that the frequency goes
up from harmonic to harmonic
o The frequencies possible for a string therefore are determined by the equation nv2 L , the lowest frequency is the
first harmonic/fundamental frequency
o The first overtone is the second harmonic i.e n = 2 for these equations
o n = the number of nodes on the wave minus 1 for standing waves like these
 For closed pipes its a little different, closed means a pipe is closed at one end but open on the other so there is an antinode at
the openning and a node at the closed end, meaning that closed pipes support quarter wavelengths (the distance between a
node and the nearest antinode) rather than half wavelengths ( the node to node distance). This makes it so that there can only
be odd harmonics.
o The wavelength of a standing wave in a closed pipe is 4 Ln
where n is a positive odd integer
 There’s no such thing as the second harmonic in a closed pipe just first, third, fifth…
o The frequency then ust be f=nv4 Lfor each of the harmonics
 M= -io the magnification is negative 1 times the distance of the image divided by the distance of the object, if the number
is negative then the image is inverted, if the image is inverted then it’s real, if not then its virtual
 1/f = 1/o + 1/i = 2/r for a spherical mirror; r being the radius or the distance from the center of curvature to the mirror center
o The image distance is the distance from the mirror or lens and where the image forms, so where the light actually
hits, this would be the distance from the lens to the retina in the eye, the object distance is wherever the light
originates from
 A concave mirror is converging/positive, a convex mirror is diverging/negative
 A virtual image means that the image appears to form behind the mirror

o This is the same for lenses too
 Power is in diopters and its unit is 1/f,
 For multiple lens systems the focal length is determined, the reciprocal of the focal length of the system is the sum of the
reciprocals of all the focal lengths i.e 1/f = 1/f1 + 1/f2 +...
o The power of the system is the sum of the powers of the individual lenses and the magnification is the product from
multiplying the magnifications of all the lenses together i.e m = m1 x m2 x …
 Higher wavelengths refract less so violet bends best, red bends least, in terms of the visible spectrum
 Dispersion is when wavelengths separate from each other due to refraction in a medium
 Spherical aberration is blurring of the periphery of an image due to inadequate reflection of parallel beams through a
converging lens
 Chromatic aberration is a dispersive effect in a spherical lens that causes white light to split into component colors when
they’re converged through the lens, it also has a blurring like spherical aberration so it looks like a halo kind of
 The pattern of interference from young’s double slit depends only on the wavelength and the size of the slit
 In a Converging lens if the object is closer than the focal length it is virtual if it is
further then it is real
 Convex lens convergent, concave lens divergent, convex mirror divergent, concave mirror convergent
 To calculate the concentrations of the ions of some compound dissolving in a solvent, you take the Ksp and solve by this Ksp
= [A][B], x2=Kspfor something simple like NaCl or Ksp = [A][2B2]2so 4x3=Kspfor something like BaF2
 If the product of solute concentrations contributing to Ksp is more than Ksp then the solutes will precipitate out of solution
 The electric field lines of an axon during an action potential point into the axon interior because electric field lines point in
the direction of the movement of positive charges
 If you have a reducing sugar in a solution of Ag2O and NH3 will cause silver to deposit on the reaction vessel
 The principal quantum number approximates the radial size of an atom
 When there is a chain that has a hydroxyl attack a carboxyl it turns into a lactone not a hemiacetal
 Glasses for myopia/near-sightedness are diverging lenses
 Phosphate groups have a -2 charge
 An electron volt is a unit of energy corresponding to the energy 1.6 x 10^-19 joules, it isn’t a voltage
 A volt is a joule per coulomb so an electron volt by dimensional analysis is 1.9 E-19 C/ electron times 1 Joule / coulomb
 Sodium ions are smaller than chloride ions because sodium ions are the same size as helium whereas chloride is the size of
neon, ions are missing electrons otherwise sodium is bigger than chloride since the trend is bigger down and left


 Ka is the opposite of Kd and Kd is the same as Km, so Ka means that the higher value is the stronger binding, remember this
because you missed a question thinking all Kx’s are high affinity for low values
 The ratio of density of an object to the density of the fluid its submersed in is equal to the ratio of the weight of the object in
air to the difference between the submersed weight and the weight in air
 To extract an amide byproduct from a reaction between amine and carboxylic acid anhydride you would add .1 M NaOH to
quench unreacted anhydride then add diethyl ether and separate the layers, the amide can be obtained from the ether by
evaporating the solvent
 e^ln(x) = x, so when you use delta g = -RTln(Q) the answer will be in the e^x format or you have to figure it out
 If you are monitoring the formation of something that absorbs light, like something with a conjugated pi system then you
would monitor the increased absorbance of a specific wavelength to figure out the rate of formation or you could monitor the
decrease in transmission, (PAY ATTENTION TO WHETHER THEY’RE ASKING ABOUT ABSORBANCE OR
TRANSMISSION)
 Insulin is a peptide protein, so its in the aqueous phase in a separation
 Glucose is an aldose along with galactose
 If a chemical changes to a different conformation when mixed then it is under thermodynamic control, but if it remains the
same no matter what its probably under kinetic control
 If a transition metal is an ion like Co(II) then the electrons come from the S shell so instead of [Ar] 4s24d5it’d be [Ar] 3d7
 The equivalence point is the point at which the added titrant is equal to the amount of unknown thing
 The equivalence point is where the pH is equal to the pKa
 Protein fingerprinting requires hydrolysis into component pieces
 Kinases are transferases
 Hyperbolic is the shape of a michaelis menten curve
 Uncompetitive causes decrease in Km and Vmax
 If a protein requires a lot of salt to elute from an anion exchange column then it is very negatively charged
 Cytosine has the most H-bond acceptors of any base
 The pH of solution, ionic strength of solution and length of DNA strands all contribute to the melting temperature of dsDNA
in a denaturation experiment
 Guanosine is the heaviest base of all of them
 Maltose is a reducing disaccharide with only one anomeric carbon involved in a glycosidic bond
 A ternary complex is when two substrates bind to the same enzyme and an ordered mechanism is when there are steps that
happen always in the same order
 Bovine serum albumin can prevent enzymes from adhering to vessel walls
 C5 is on the left of cytosine and C6 is the top so you move from 1 to 6 from top right to top clockwise in pyrimidines
 If monomers are held by noncovalent bonds then SDS under non reducing conditions is enough to break them into their
monomeric components
 To figure out the yield from a purification you multiply the activity or percentage of whatever in the supernatent and multiply
it by the overall amount of supernatent and that is the total amount contained originally then you divide the quantity of the
end activity or percentage in the final solution times the total amount of whatever is left,
 Unfolding of proteins is cooperative, so the curve is sigmoidal