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SOCIOLOGY NOTES 3. Cultural Diversity – contrary to cultural universals,

though societies share commonality in some aspects in
INTRODUCTION culture, each culture carries a distinct and different
 defined as the systematic and objective study of element.
human society and social interaction
 the basic assumption that is made by sociologists is 4. Cultural Relativism – the principle holds that one
cannot truly understand or evaluate cultural, social
that all human behaviors are shaped by the society and
and psychological facts except in terms of the larger
social circumstances (i.e. families, organizations, culture and society of which they are a part.
communities, ethnic groups, societies and historical eras). a. Ethnocentrism – tendency to evaluate other
The focus of sociology is not on the individual act, but cultures in terms of one’s own and to consider one’s
rather on the social environment or circumstance in which own culture as superior.
the act takes place. b. Xenocentrism – belief that the views, styles or
products of other cultures are better than those of
I. The Role and Scope of Sociology one’s own culture.
A. Nature of Sociology
1. “Sociology is the scientific study of social problems like 5. Cultural Changes – results when there is cultural
race relations, crime, divorce, etc.” integration. Sources of Cultural Changes:
2. Sociology contributes to the understanding of social a. Innovation – production of a new culture trait
problems but it is a science, not a philosophy. A science is (i.e. norm or value)
a body of tested knowledge, while a philosophy is a set of b. Invention – creation of new cultural products
ideas about how men ought to behave and treat one c. Cultural Diffusion – process by which cultural
another. A social science studies how men behave without traits are transmitted from one group or society to
trying to say what they ought to do. another

B. The Task of Sociology as Science 6. Cultural Integration – occurs when cultural traits
The major task of sociology is to study human groups. are logically consistent with one another, but may be
logically inconsistent or simply neutral in relation to one
C. Sociology and Social Science another.
1. Sociology occupies a middle position between the
disciplines which seek to describe the past and those are B. Society and Social Structure
which devoted to analyzing the specific segment of human 1. Social Status – socially defined position in a group or
life which is of current concern. society
2. The major task of sociologist is to study human groups, a. Master Status – status that dominates others and
and by so doing he helps the specialized sciences in their thereby determines a person’s general social position
tasks and from them obtains more data which may be b. Achieved Status – status that can be gained by a
used in the analysis of group conduct. person’s direct effort usually through competition
c. Ascribed Status – a social position to which a person
II. Elements of Sociological Analysis is assigned according to standards that are beyond his
A. Culture – shared products of a human group or or her control
society. May either be nonmaterial culture (values,
language, beliefs, traditions) material culture (physical 2. Social Roles – behavior expected of someone with a
objects, machines, books, clothing, artifacts, money) given status in a group or society
a. Role Set – whole set of roles associated with a single
1. Subculture and Counterculture – when a group of status
people within a society has a style of living that b. Role Expectation – society’s definition of the way a
includes features of the main culture and also certain role ought to be played
cultural elements not found in other groups, this is c. Role Performance – the way a person usually plays
known as subculture. When that subculture challenges a role
the values, beliefs, ideals and other elements of the d. Role Conflict – situation whereby opposing demands
dominant culture, it is known as counterculture. are made on a person two or more roles
e. Role Strain – personal stress caused by such
2. Cultural Values and Norms – a value is an idea opposing demands
shared by the people in a society about what is good
and bad, right and wrong, desirable and undesirable. 3. Types of Societies
Norms are expectations of how people are supposed to A. Mode of Subsistence
act, think or feel in specific situations. i. Hunting and Gathering Societies – oldest and
a. Folkways – norms that have little strength and may simplest societal type; nomadic way of life and
within limits, be easily broken primitive technology; family primary concern and
b. Mores – strongly held norms that are considered there is little specialization
essential and which are strictly enforced ii. Horticultural Societies – cultivate cereal grains and
c. Laws – norms that have been enacted by the state eat wild plants and animals as supplement; form
to regulate human conduct permanent communities; make tools and household

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objects; produce small surplus; inequalities start to b. Cooperation – interaction in which people or groups
arise act together in order to achieve common interests or goals
iii. Pastoral Societies – rely on capturing, breeding that might be difficult or impossible to realize alone.
and taming of animals as food source; came into 1. Spontaneous Cooperation – mutual aid
existence at the same time as horticultural societies 2. Traditional Cooperation – spontaneous
through are more of nomadic than stationary. cooperation that becomes fixed in a society’s customs
iv. Agrarian Societies – developed the plow which 3. Directed Cooperation – directed by a third party
produced larger surplus and the end of the need to in a position of authority
move to new fields on a regular basis. Social changes 4. Contractual Cooperation – formal agreement to
such as further stratification, establishment of cooperate on a certain way with the duties of each
bureaucracies, the rise of cities and the development clearly spelled out
of a money economy occurred. c. Conflict – struggle for a commonly prized object or
v. Industrial Societies – used machinery to do many value; conflicts arise because the benefits and rewards of
forms of work and densely populated cities a society are limited.
developed. Large gov’ts, large bureaucracies and ever d. Competition – a kind of conflict governed by rules
more specialized social institutions and social roles that make the goal being sought more important than the
developed. defeat if any opponents.
vi. Post–Industrial Societies – offices replaced e. Coercion – tendency for one person or group to force
factories; computer took over from the machines and its will on another.
metropolitan areas supplanted towns and cities; main
economic enterprise is service. D. Groups and Social Organization
Social Group can be defined as two or more people who
B. Social Structure have a common identity and some feeling of unity and
i. Gemeinschaft – individual relationships are based who share certain goals and expectations about each
on common feelings, kinships or memberships in the other’s behavior.
community (communal) 1. Primary and Secondary Groups
ii. Gesellschaft – rational order, neutral involvement, a. Primary groups are small, personal and unspecialized.
and obligations to institutions are dominant Although relating to one another in many different roles,
(associational) their members communicate openly and intimately.
iii. Mechanical Solidarity – members are held b. Secondary groups by contrast are larger, more
together because they perform similar roles and share specialized groups in which members interact in a
the same values limited, impersonal way.
iv. Organic Solidarity – member are held together 2. Ingroups and Outgroups
because they perform very specialized roles and are a. Ingroups – the groups to which people belong and feel
therefore highly dependent on one another loyal
v. Communal Society – little division of labor; family b. Outgroups – the groups to which we do not belong and
most important unit; social relationships are personal which are regarded with suspicion and as less worthy
and long lasting; behavior is governed mainly by than their own
custom and tradition 3. Group Processes
vi. Associational Society – there is division of labor 4. Basic Patterns of Social Organization
and roles are highly specialized; family loses influence a. Social bonds e. conformity
and many of its activities are replaced by other b. Kinship f. rational coordination
institutions (i.e. economic, religious and political); c. fealty
many social relationships are impersonal and short d. status
lived; behavior is governed by law rather than by
custom. E. Social Disorganization, Deviance and Social
Control
C. Socialization – is the process through which people 1. Social Disorganization – refers to breakdown of
acquire personality and learn the ways of a society or social institutions. Results when deviance is practiced by
group; socialization occurs through social interaction large numbers of people over long periods of time; when
Social Interaction – is the process in which people it undermines belief in the value of basic social
act toward or respond to others in a mutual and institutions or when it produces conflict that cannot be
reciprocal way contained.
Types:
1. As product of: a. aberrant behavior vs nonconforming behavior aberrant
a. Biological interplay – accept validity of social rules but break them for
b. parent-child interaction some personal gain; nonconforming – hope to attract
c. social learning attention to their rule-breaking behavior in an attempt
d. The Self and human nature to cause the rule to be changed.
2. Take the forms of: b. socially approved deviance vs socially deviance
a. Exchange Relationships – in which a person or c. inability to conform vs failure to conform – insanity,
group acts in a certain way toward another in order to physical and mental incapability or illness disable one
receive a reward in return.
to conform without punishment
d. individual vs group deviance

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2. Deviance – behavior that violates the social norms 2. Varieties

of a group or society a. Intergenerational mobility – change in social position
between generations
Four types of “deviant adaptations” b. Intragenerational mobility – occurs in the same
a. Innovation – accepting goals but rejecting society’s generation
means of achievement
b. Ritualism – accepting the means but not the goals Ethnic and Racial Minorities
c. Retreatism – rejecting both the goals and the 1. Minority group – any group in a society that consists of
means people whose particular biological or social traits cause
d. Rebellion – rejecting the goals and the means and them to become the object of prejudice or
substituting new ones discrimination.
2. Ethnic group – a group that is socially distinguished
3. Social Control – means or ways to condition or limit from other groups, has developed its own subculture,
the actions of people in order to make them want to and has a shared feeling of peoplehood.
conform to social norms most of the time 3. Race – group of people who others believe share certain
 Internal Social Control – “internalization” is one’s physical traits and are genetically distinct.
acceptance of the norms of a group or society as part 4. Prejudice – judgment of people, objects or situations in
of one’s identity. It is the most effective means of terms of stereotypes or generalizations.
socially controlling deviant behavior. 5. Discrimination – unfair or unequal treatment of
 External Social Control – involve the use of social individuals or groups.
sanctions which may be applied informally (thru 6. Patterns of acceptance:
actions of people we are with on a daily basis); others a. Assimilation – absorption of an incoming group into
are applied formally (agents given that task by the dominant society.
society, eg. Law enforcers, etc.) b. Amalgamation – biological merging of an ethnic or
racial group with the native population.
F. Social Inequalities c. Cultural pluralism – pattern of partial assimilation by
Class Inequalities which the dominant society allows minorities to achieve
1. Slavery – extreme system of stratified inequality in full participation, yet at the same time lets them keep
which freedom is denied to one group in a society. many of their cultural social differences.
2. Caste – system of stratified inequality in which status 7. Patterns of rejection:
is largely determined at birth and people are locked into a. Annihilation – process by which a dominant group
their parents’ social positions. causes the deaths of a large number of minority group
3. Estate – stratification associated with type of agrarian members.
society similar to feudalism. b. Expulsion – forcing people out of an area of a society.
c. Partitioning – political reorganization of a nation in
Class Systems – most common type of stratification; a order to make political boundaries correspond more
relatively open system based on economic position. closely to ethnic or racial ones.
1. Bourgeoisie – upper classes; have access to the means d. Segregation – involuntary separation of residential
of production; own and control production and exploit areas, services or facilities on the basis of the ethnic or
the labor of the lower classes. racial characteristics of the people using them.
2. Proletariat – lower classes; provide labor to production.
Gender
Social Stratification – an enduring pattern based on the 1. Gender role – social role associated with being a male
ranking of people in social positions according to their or female.
access to desirables. 2. Gender identity – conception of ourselves as either male
1. Three dimensions as classified by Max Weber: or female.
a. Wealth b. Power c. Prestige
2. Theories Age and Health in Society
a. Functionalist – inequality is not only required to the 1. Age status – status based on a person’s age
functioning of the society but is also inevitable. 2. Age norms – standards of behavior that are appropriate
b. Conflict – social inequality is not a necessary part of the for various age
operation of societies rather, the desirables of the 3. Age roles – expectations about a behavior of people
society are in limited supply and the powerful determine holding particular age statuses
which groups of people will fill which jobs and who will 4. Age deviance – behavior that violates the age norms of
get what rewards. a group or society
c. Lenski’s theory – power, based on economics and 5. Gerontology – study of aging and the special problems
political leadership and some inequality are important in of the elderly
the functioning of the society. 6. Geriatrics – study of the medical aspects of aging and
medical practice that emphasizes aging and elderly
Social Mobility – refers to the movement of a person patients
from one status or social class to another.
1. Types
a. Upward b. Downward c. Horizontal

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III. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 5. Simple supernaturalism – type of religion that does not
The Family recognize specific gods or spirits but that does believe in
1. Kinship – social network of people who are related by supernatural forces that influence humanity
common ancestry or origin or by marriage and 6. Animism – religion that recognizes active/animate spirits
adoption operating in the world.
2. Nuclear – family group which consists of a couple and
their children usually living apart from other relatives Education
3. Extended – group which consists of one or more Perspectives:
nuclear families plus other relatives 1. Functionalist – five main functions of education:
4. Patriarchal Family – family structure in which the a. Socialization
authority is held by the eldest male b. Social control
5. Matriarchal Family – authority is held by the eldest c. Selection and allocation
female. d. Assimilation and subculture maintenance
6. Egalitarian Family – family structure in which the e. Innovation and change
husband and wife are equal in authority and privileges 2. Conflict – education as a tool used by the ruling classes
7. Patrilocal Residence – married couple living in the to perpetuate social inequality both by controlling access
household or community of the husband’s parents to education and by training docile, disciplined workers
8. Matrilocal Residence – married couple living in the
household or community of the wife’s parents Economy and Work
9. Neolocal Residence – married couple living apart from Economic Order – consists of those organizations and
either spouse’s parents or other relatives processes through which goods and services are produced
10. Patrilineal Descent – father’s side of the family is and distributed
defined as kin
11. Matrilineal Descent – mother’s side of the family is Five General Factors that Respond to Economic
defined as kin System:
12. Bilateral Descent – children’s kinship is tied to both 1. Resources and Technology: In a preindustrial economy,
sides of the family the primary sector (agriculture) dominates and the
13. Endogamy – marriage within one’s own group economy is labor intensive, relying heavily on human
14. Exogamy – marriage outside one’s own group labor. In an industrial economy, the secondary sector
15. Homogamy – marriage with the same social, racial, (good producing) dominates and the economy is capital
ethnic and religious background intensive, relying the machine production. In post-
16. Monogamy – marriage between one man and one industrial economy, the tertiary sector (service)
woman dominates.
17. Polygamy – marriage involving more than one 2. Decentralized Economy – decision-making is held by a
husband or wife large number of individuals, households, cooperatives or
18. Polygyny – one man with several wives firms; in a centralized economy, the power is in the
hands of a small number of individuals or firms.
Religion – system of beliefs and practices by which a 3. In a market economy, consumers are the key decision
group of people interprets and responds to what they feel makers; the economy responds to consumer
is supernatural and sacred preferences. In a planned economy, the ultimate
decision-makers are the planners.
Types 4. Property Ownership; in a system of private ownership,
1. Ecclesia – religious organization that claim as its the rights to transfer title of ownership to others, the
membership the entire population of a society; country’s right to use the property as the owner sees fit and the
official religion right to full use of the products, services or surpluses
2. Church – stable, institutionalized organization of the property generates belong to individuals or groups
religious believers of individuals. In a system of public ownership these
3. Denomination – several religious organizations rights belong to the state and in a system of
considered socially acceptable by a society cooperative ownership these rights are held by a
4. Sect – less formally organized than a church; usually cooperative enterprise, a voluntary economic
composed of people occupying the lower occupational association created for the mutual benefit of its
and educational status members.
5. Cults – reject some aspects of established religions; 5. Incentives: A reward system or incentive system is a
devise new symbols, rituals and teachings. system of motivating people to act, to buy and sell, to
produce and consume and to use their resources and
Forms technology in particular ways and means. Material
1. Monotheism – belief in one God incentives – increased wages, greater profits, bonuses
2. Polytheism – belief in more than one God and other monetary rewards. Moral incentives – appeal
3. Transcendental Idealism – centers on a set of ethical, to peoples’ sense of responsibility to the community,
moral or philosophical principles society or religion.
4. Totemism – worship and veneration of an animal;
practiced by preliterate people and preindustrial
societies

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Economic Systems Collective Behavior and Social Movements-

1. Capitalism – an economic system based on the private Collective behavior is behavior that occurs in some
ownership of wealth. The elements of capitalism response to a common influence or stimulus in relatively
include:private property; profit; competition; laissez spontaneous, unstructured, and unstable situations.
faire.
2. Socialism – means of production and distribution are Forms of Collective Behavior:
owned collectively rather than privately. The state is 1. Crowd – a temporary grouping of people, physically
usually the collective owner, but in some forms of close together with a common focus or interest
socialism, the owner might be a small community or Types of Crowd
someone who works for a particular enterprise. a. Casual Crowd – passive crowd involving a minimum
3. Market Socialism – represents an effort to join features emotional engagement and action by the participants
of socialism, public ownership and a relatively equal (eg: people looking into a department store window).
distribution of income, with emphasis on market forces b. Conventional Crowd – follows conventional norms, but
and decentralized decision-making characteristic of interaction is minimal (eg: passengers on an airplane)
capitalist economies. c. Expressive Crowds – provide opportunities for
emotional expression and release (eg: Times Square
Politics and Government on New Year’s Eve)
Politics – process by which some people and groups d. Solidaristic Crowds – contain many mutually supportive
acquire power and exercise it over others relationships and give a sense of social solidarity or
Power – capacity of people or groups to control or unity (eg: charismatic and religious groups)
influence the actions of others, whether those others wish e. Acting Crowds – group action that is focused on some
to cooperate or not goal or object. They are typically angry and hostile and
1. Legitimate – generally recognized and socially right and their activities violate conventional norms. (eg: mobs,
necessary riots)
2. Illegitimate – without support of social approval f. Public – scattered grouping of people who have a
common interest, concern or focus of opinion
Authority – legitimate power that is institutional in nature
1. Traditional Authority – conferred by custom and Theories on Crowding
accepted practice a. Contagion Theory – Gustave Le Bon suggested that the
2. Charismatic Authority – generated by the personality or crowd was a single organism with one collective mind. He
exceptional personal appeal of an individual said that the crowd’s ability to “hypnotize” individuals was
3. Legal-rational Authority – rests on rationally established based on three factors: a feeling of invincibility, the great
rules (i.e. rules that reflect a systematic attempt to power that comes from sheer numbers; contagion, the
adjust means to ends, to make institutions to what they rapid spread of new ways of thinking; and suggestibility, a
are supposed to do) state of fascination in which people are not conscious of
their acts.
Forms of Government b. Convergence Theory – emphasizes that people in a
1. Democracy – “rule of the people” crowd tend to release their underlying personal
2. Totalitarianism – form of government run by a single tendencies, reveal their true selves in a crowd.
party in which there is a governmental surveillance and c. Emergent Norm Theory – stresses the social aspects of
control over all aspects of life a crowd. It emphasizes the function of social norms in
3. Authoritarianism – form of government in which the shaping crowd behavior, and seeks to explain how new
ultimate authority is vested in a single person; the ruler norms are established and maintained.
may be either a monarch, a hereditary ruler or a
dictator 2. Mass Behavior – collective behavior in diffuse social
groupings
IV. SOCIAL CHANGE AND CURRENT TRENDS a. Panic – form of mass behavior in which people, faced
Population and Ecology – Ecology is the study of the with a threat, react in a seemingly irrational and fearful
relationships between organisms and their environment manner.
b. Mass Hysteria – rare form of collective behavior that
Elements of Population Change occurs when people find themselves in ambiguous,
1. Fertility 2. Mortality 3. Migration threatening situations
c. Disaster Behavior – follows natural or other types of
Zero Population Growth – the point at which there is disasters that provoke a “crisis crowd” behavior
no natural increase in the population characterized by a convergence of people on the
disaster scene
Relative Deprivation – condition in which what people d. Fad – or craze is a temporary activity that large
think they deserve is not what they actually have. numbers of people enthusiastically pursue
e. Fashion – currently acceptable style of dress or behavior
Social Facilitation – augmentation in behavior due to
the presence of other individuals. 3. Social Movements – socialized effort to change society
through collective action
Social Loafing – decrease in motivation to exert effort
because of presence of others.

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Types of Social Movements Theories of Social Change

a. Reform Movement – seeks to improve society as a 1. Sociocultural Evolution Theory – the change and
whole by changing certain aspects of the social development of societies over time in either unilinear or
structure multilinear fashion
b. Revolutionary Movements – seek more radical change in 2. Cyclical Theory – cultures and societies go through
society. Their goal is to overthrow the existing social continual cycles of growth and decay, challenge and
structure and replace it with new one response
c. Resistance Movements – aim to prevent change, or 3. Functionalist Theory – analyzes function of change in
reverse a change that has already been achieved preserving social order as a whole
d. Expressive Movements – are attempts to provide their 4. Conflict Theory – real societies are not as stable as the
members with some type of personal transformation, functionalists imply and that the theory is unable to
which may include emotional satisfaction, a new identity account for many kinds of changes.
or a different ideology.
Important Figures in the Development of
Stages Leading to Eventual Sociology:
Acceptance by Society  Auguste Comte – coined the term “sociology.” He was
a. Preliminary Stage – marked by restlessness in the a French philosopher who believed that the social and
society, conflict between various groups, and inefficient natural worlds obeyed the same rules.
and insufficient efforts at dealing with social problems  Karl Marx – saw in society continuous conflict and
b. Popular Stage – the discontented become aware that change. Marx believed that societies follow historical
others share their views and see that united action, laws determined by economic forces.
through a social movement, is possible.  Emile Durkheim – he argued that the main concern of
c. Formal Organization Stage – excitement of the masses sociology should be what he called “social facts” (e.g.
is formalized. Ideologies are developed that help to give laws, customs and institutions), which are external to
the movement direction and unity. Values and goals people but which exert control over them. He developed
become clear, and the movement develops an an analysis of suicide based on group connections. He
organizational structure with a hierarchy of leaders. described four types of suicide:
d. Institutional Stage – movement becomes an accepted  Egoistic Suicide – the individual does not feel
and institutionalized part of society. connected to the larger society; the person is not
4. Communication and Collective Behavior affected by social constraints against suicide;
a. Gossip – idle talk about the personal or private affairs  Altruistic Suicide – the individual places the group’s
of others welfare above his or her own life;
b. Rumor – an untrue or unverified report that is  Fatalistic Suicide – the individual commits suicide
informally communicated from person to person and it is because of feelings of powerlessness to regulate his
not as limited in its subject as is gossip or her life;
c. Public Opinion – attitudes about an issue that are held  Anomic Suicide – the individual commits suicide
by a public when society lacks social order
d. Propaganda – calculated manipulation of ideas in a
way that appeals to people’s emotions and prejudice  Max Weber – best known for his studies of
bureaucracy and capitalism. Much of Weber’s thought
Cities Urbanization and Community Change contrasts strongly with that of Marx. He believed that
Urbanization – movement of people from rural to urban social scientists can find objective solutions to problems
areas only if they suspend their own value judgments (value
Over urbanization – a disparity between the number of free sociology).
people flooding into the cities and the actual opportunities  Charles Cooley – one of the earliest sociologists to
and services available to them develop a theory of the self. He coined the term
Urbanism – patterns of culture and social structure that “LOOKING GLASS SELF” – people’s sense of self reflects
are characteristic of cities and how they differ from the what they think others think of them
culture of rural communities
SOCIOLOGICAL TERMS
V. Social Change and Future Trends
Factors of Social Change Theoretical Perspective - A theory is a statement that
1. Physical environment and population organizes a set of concepts in a meaningful way by explaining the
2. Technology relationship among men. Theory makes the facts of small lift
comprehensible. It places seemingly meaningless events in a
3. Nonmaterial culture
general framework that enables us to determine cause and effect,
4. Cultural Diffusion – process by which culture traits to explain, and to predict.
spread from one group or society to another.
5. Modernization – refers to the major internal social Functionalist Perspective -The functionalist perspective draws
changes that occur when a traditional preindustrial its original inspiration from the work Herbert Spencer and Emile
society develops economically and becomes Durkheim. Spencer compared society sometimes to living
industrialized and urbanized organisms. Any organism has a structure – that is, it consists of a
. number of interrelated parts such as a head, limbs, a heart and
so on, that play a function in the life of the total organism. In the
same way, Spencer agreed that a society has a structure. Its
interrelated parts are the family, religion, the military and so on.

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Conflict Perspective - The conflict perspective in modern A society relying on agriculture as a subsistence strategy thus has
sociology derives its inspiration from the work of Karl Marx, who a far more complex social structure and culture than any of the
saw the struggle between social classes as the “engine” of history less involved types of societies. The number of statuses and roles
and the main source of change. multiplies, population size increases, cities appear, new
Conflict theories assume that sometimes are in the constant institutions emerges, social classes arise, political and economic
stable of change, in which conflict as a permanent feature. inequality becomes built into the social structure, and culture
“Conflicts” does not necessarily mean outright violence; it becomes much more diversified.
includes tension, hostility, competition, and disagreement among
our goals and values. Industrial Societies - Industrialism is based on the application
Conflict theorists that do not see social conflict as a necessarily of scientific knowledge to the technology of production, enabling
destructive force, although they admit that is may sometimes new energy sources to be harnessed and permitting machines to
have that effect. They argue that conflict can often have positive do the work that was previously done by people or animals. It is a
results. It bonds groups together as they pursue their own highly efficient subsistence strategy, for it allow relatively small
interest, and the conflict among competing groups focuses portion of the population to feed the majority. Family and kinship
attention on social problems and leads to beneficial changes that becomes progressively less important in the social culture. The
might otherwise have occurred. family losses many of its earlier functions. It is no longer a unit of
economic production, nor thus it has the main responsibility for
Interactionist Perspective - The interactionist perspective in the education of the young. Kinship ties are weakened, and
sociology was strongly influenced by Max Welies, who people live with their immediate family but apart from more
emphasized the importance of understanding the social world distant kin. People no longer share similar life experiences and
from the individuals who acts within it. It is concerned primarily consequently hold many different and competing values and
with the everyday social interaction that takes place as people go beliefs. Science, however, emerges as a new and important social
about their lives. institution, for technological innovation depends on growth and
refinement of scientific and for the first time, formal education
Hunting and Gathering Societies - Hunting and gathering becomes compulsory for the many rather than a luxury for the
people live in small privacy groups that rarely exceed in members. few.
The groups are based on kinship, with most members being
related by ancestry or marriage. They are constantly on the move Group - A group is a collection of people interacting together in
because they must leave an area as soon as they have exhausted an orderly way on the basis of shared expectation about each
its food resources. Warfare is extremely uncommon among other’s behaviour. As a result of this interaction, members feel a
hunting and gathering people, partly because they have so little common sense of “belonging”.
in the way of material goods to.
The social structure of these societies is necessarily very simple, Primary Group - A primary group consists of a small member of
and their culture cannot become elaborate and diversified. people who interact in direct, intimate and personal ways. His
relationship among the members is emotionally depth, and the
Pastoral Societies - Pastoralism is a much more reliable and group tends to endure over time. Typical primary groups include
productive strategy than hunting and gathering. Not only is a the family, gang or a college per group.
steady food supply assured, but the size of the herds can be
increased over time through careful animal husbandry. An Secondary Group - Consists a number of people who have few,
important result is that societies can grow much larger, perhaps if any emotional ties with one another. The members come
to include hundreds or even thousands of people. Equally together for some specific, practical purpose, such as making
significant, the greater productivity of pastoralism permits the committee decision or attending a convention.
accumulation of a surplus of livestock and food.
The substance strategy of pastoral societies thus provides Small Group - A small group is one that contains sufficiently few
distinctive social cultural opportunities and limitations. Population members for the participants to relate to one another as
become larger, political economic institutions begin to develop individuals. Whether the small group is a primary or secondary
and born social structure and culture become more complex. depends on the nature of their relationships among its members.

Horticultural Societies - Horticulturalists are essentially Leadership - A leader is someone who by virtue of certain
gardeners, cultivating demonstrated plants by hand or with hoes personality, the characteristics is consistently able to influence the
or digging sticks, although must periodically move their gardens behavior of others. Groups always have leaders even if the leader
or villages in short distances. do not hold formal positions of authority.
Because they live in relatively permanent settlements,
horticulturalists can create more elaborate cultural artifacts than Accommodation - Peaceful adjustment between hostile or
can hunters and gatherers or pastoralists. The settled way of life competing groups; ”antagonistic cooperation”.
and relative large populations of those societies thus permit more
complex social structures and cultures. Acculturation - Acquisition by a group or individual of the traits
of another culture
Agricultural Societies - About 6,000 years ago, the plow was Achieved Status - Status reached by individual effort.
invented and the agricultural revolution was underway. The use
of the plow greatly improves the productivity of the land; it brings Aggregate - Gathering of people without conscious interaction
to the surface nutrients that have sunk out of reach of the roots
of plants, and it returns weeks to the soil to act as fertilizers. As a Amalgamation - Biological inter-breeding of two or more
result, food output is greatly increased and a substantial supply peoples of distinct physical appearance until they become one
can be produced. stock.
Agricultural societies tend to be almost constantly at war,
sometimes engaged in systematic empire-building. These Anomie - A situation in which a large number of person lack
conditions demand an effective military organization, and interaction with stable institutions, leaving them rootless and
permanent armies appear for the first time. The need for efficient normless.
transport and communications in these large societies leads to
the development of roads and novices, and previously isolated Community Organization - A term used to describe both the
communities are brought into contact with one another. institution structure of communities and also the process by

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which the functions of various aspects of community living are Matrilocal Residence - The condition in which a married couple
continuously brought into close integration with each other. live in the family home or locality of the wife.

Concept - A term that expresses generalized or common Norm - Standard behaviour. Statistical norm is a measure of
element found in a number of specific cases. actual conduct; cultural norm states the expected behaviour of
the culture
Conflict - Seeking to monopolize rewards by eliminating or
weakening the competition. Extended Family - The nuclear family plus other kin with whom
important relation are maintained. The other kin may or may not
Conjugal Family - A married couple and their dependent live in the same house
children.
Folkways - Customary, normal, habitual behaviour characteristic
Consanguine Family - Extended clan of blood relatives with of the members of the group
their mates and children.
Gesellschaft - A type of community life in which impersonal,
Ascribed Role - Heredity status without regard to individual superficial, and business like relationship prevail, secondary group
ability or performance. contacts of a transitory sort predominate. The large urban centers
are the prime example of a gesellschaft community.
Assimilation - Mutual cultural diffusion through which persons
or groups come to share a common culture. Ideology - A system of ideas which sanctions a set of norms

Attitude - A tendency to feel and act in a certain way. Inductive Method - The method of arriving at general
principles from actual observation of behaviour of what is being
Bureaucracy - Administration characterized by rules, hierarchy studied.
of office and centralized authority.
Polygamy - A plurality of mates
Caste System - A stratified society in which social position is Polygymy - A form of polygamy in which a husband has several
entirely determined by parentage, with no provision for achieved wives
status.
Nuclear Family - The same as conjugal Family
Clique - A small group of intimates with intense in-group feeling
based on common sentiments and interest. Particularistic - The tendency to govern actions by special
relations to an individual or group rather than by criteria equally
Community - A group of people who have a certain sense of applicable to all men. Nepotism is an example.
belonging together and who reside in a given geographical area.
Patriarchal Residence - A consanguine family, usually patilineal
Deviation - Failure to conform to the customary norms of and patrilocal, in which an elderly man is functional head
society.
Discrimination - A practice that trails equal people as non- Patrilocal Residence - The condition in which a married couple
equals; limiting opportunity or reward according to race, religion live in the family home – or locality – of husband
or ethnic group.
Polyandry - A form of polygamy in which plural husband share a
Ethnic Group - A number of people with a common cultural wife
heritage which sets them apart from others in variety of social
relationships. Reference Groups - Groups whose norms we respect and
generally adapt
Xenocentrism - The tendency of each group to take for granted
the superiority of its own culture. Role - The behavior of one who holds a certain status

Exogamy - A requirement that one mates on selected people Sect - A religious group including only a small proportion of the
outside some specified groups population. There is frequently a marked contrast between the
ethical ideals dominant in the total culture
Cultural Relativism - The concept that the function, meaning
and desirability of a trait depend upon its cultural setting. Secular Society - A society with a diversity of folkway and
mores. The term is also used as an adjective describing any
Cultural Pluralism - The toleration of cultural differences within group in which religious influence is minimized
a common society; allowing different groups to retain their
distinctive cultures Secularization - Movement from a sacred to a rationalistic,
utilitarian and experimental viewpoint
Cultural Trait - The smallest unit of culture as perceive by a
given observer Social Control - Means and processes by which society secures
its members conformity to its norms and values.
Culture - The total heritage which the individual receives from
the group; a system of behaviour by the members of society. Social Distance - Degree of closeness to or acceptance of
members of other groups
Culture Complex - A cluster of related traits organized around a
particular activity. Embodies certain common values and Social Mobility - Movement from one class level to another.
procedures and meet certain basic needs of society.
Social Processes - Respective forms of behaviour commonly
Interaction - A process in which the responses of each partly found in social life.
successively become stimuli for the responses of the other

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Socialization - The process by which one internalizes the

patters of the groups so that distinct self-unique to the individual
emerges

Society - A group of people who share a common culture

Stereotype - A false ideas or belief which regards all members

of a group as having identical traits.

Status - The position of individual in a group

Subculture - A cluster of behaviour patter=n related to the

general culture of a society yet distinguishable from it. The
behaviour patterns of the distinct group within the general
society.

Values - Measures of goodness or desirability

Competition - The struggle of possession or rewards which are

in limited supply – money, good, status, power, love - anything.
It may be formally defined as the process of seeking to obtain a
reward by surpassing all rivals

Assimilation - This process of mutual cultural diffusion through

which person and groups come to share the common culture

Formal Organization - Large social groups that are deliberately

rationally designed to achieve specific objectives. They have a
carefully designed structure that coordinates the activities of the
member of the interest of the organization’s goals

Social Inequality - Social inequality exists when people’s access

to social rewards (such as money, influence, or respect) is
determined by their personal or group characteristics

Social Stratification - The structured inequality of entire

categories of people, who have different access to social rewards
as a result of their status in the social hierarchy

Expressive Leadership - The kind to leadership necessary to

create harmony and solidarity among members

LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB – NMAT REVIEWER