Ipe Chapter Summary
Ipe Chapter Summary
Ipe Chapter Summary
I) MANAGING THE GLOBAL ECONOMY SINCE WORLD WAR II: THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
A GLOBAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS BEFORE WWII
1 THE MERCANTILIST PERIOD
2 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND BRITISH HEGEMONY
3 THE DECLINE OF BRITISH HEGEMONY AND WORLD WAR I
4 THE INTERWAR PERIOD
5 THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMWORK BEFORE WWII
B THE FUNCTIONING OF THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, THE WORLD BANK, AND
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE
C THE INTERNATIONAL ECONMIC ORGANIZATIONS AND THE UNITED NATIONS
D POSTWAR ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS AND THE ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL STATES
1 THE IMF, THE WORLD BANK, AND THE WTO
2 THE OECD
3 THE G5, G7, AND G8
4 DIVISONS AMONG THE ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL STATES
a The Stages of Regional Economic Integration
• FREE TRADE AREA (FTA)
•
CUSTOMS UNION (CU)
• COMMON MARKET
• ECONOMIC UNION
• POLITICAL UNION
b The Growing Impact of Regionalism
E POSTWAR ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS AND THE THIRD WORLD
1 LDC EFFORTS TO ALTER THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
a The 1950’S
b The 1960’S
c The 1970’S
d The 1980’S and 1990’S
F POSTWAR ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS AND CENTRALLY PLANNED ECONOMIES
G POSTWAR ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS AND CIVIL SOCIETY
1 WOMEN’S GROUPS
2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND LABOR GROUPS
3 DEVELOPMENT GROUPS
H CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 3
II) THE REALIST PERSPECTIVE
• First important work on international relations: The history of the Peloponnesia War by Thucydides
• Oldest, most influential school of thought in IR, but less important than liberalism in IPE
• Two major strains of realism; one that ignore economic matters, another that is more attuned to economic
political interactions.
• First strain comes from from Thucydides and the mercantilism
a BASIC TENETS OF THE REALIST PERSPECTIVE
• THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL, THE STATE, AND SOCIETAL GROUPS
• No central authority above nationstates, international system is one of “selfhelp”
• Thus principal actor –the state with preservation of national sovereignty and the pursuit of
national interest of primary concern.
• Power necessary for state to retain sovereignty thus pursuit of power primary objective of states.
• The state is a rational, unitary actor seeking to maximize benefits and minimize costs
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• Political importance of subnational and nonstate actors such as interest groups and MNCs
downgraded
• THE NATURE AND PURPOSE OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS
• Security Dilemma as each state seeks to bolster its own security.
• Thus states most concerned with relative gains
• Economic relations among states is a zerosum game
• Most powerful nations shape the rules of international organizations such as IMF, the World
Bank, and the WTO.
• States may either be offensive or defensive
• Aggressive states may use the international economy to promote imperialist expansion of extend
national power over others
• Defensive states may simply seek to maintain the economic position in the system
• Hegemonic state is likely to have very different interests and policies from less powerful states
• Realists are committed to capitalism and are concerned with the redistribution of power within
that system
• THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICS AND ECONOMICS
• Politics assume priority over economics in the realist perspective
• Disagree with liberals who argue that increasing interdependence and globalization are eroding
state control
• Realists argue that globalization only occurs to the extent states allow it
• Realists place considerable emphasis on ability of hegemonic state to create an open and stable
economic order that can further globalization
b THE MERCANTILISTS
• Mercantilism first used as term by Adam Smith
• Played important role in state building and unification after demise of feudalism
• Mercantilists took all measures necessary to increase exports and decrease imports in order to accumulate
gold
• Impossible for all states to have a positive balance of trade thus conflict central to international system
and relative gains more important than absolute gains
• Declined in late 18th century with liberal criticism and gave way to free trade practices
c REALISM AND THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
• Industrialization in realist view, central requirement for states seeking national security, military power,
and economic selfsufficiency.
• Alexander Hamilton, foremost realist thinker around 17551804, considered strengthening and promoting
economic development as essential for preservation of national independence and security. Emphasized
industry over agriculture, government intervention and trade protectionism.
• Friedrich List (17891846) German Civil servant, like Hamilton, emphasized development of
manufacturing industries. In order to catch up to industrialized countries, industrialized countries
needed to have a strong unified state that imposed trade barriers to protect its growing industries,
develop infrastructure and promote human capital
• Liberals, according to List, underestimate the extent to which world is divided by national rivalries and
conflict
B REALISM IN THE INTERWAR PERIOD
• Britain repealed corn laws in 1846 and opened its markets to agricultural imports ushering in period of
free trade
• Under pressure of WWI and interwar period free trade broke down. Realists ideas gained more influence
leading to extreme nationalism and trade protectionism. Great Depression and WWII linked to those
policies
C REALISM IN THE POSTWORLD WAR II PERIOD
D THE REVIVAL OF REALIST IPE
E HEGEMONIC STABILITY THEORY
1 WHAT IS HEGEMONY
2 WHAT ARE THE STRATEGIES AND MOTIVES OF HEGEMONIC STATES?
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3
IS HEGEMONY NECESSARY AND/OR SUFFICIENT FOR PRODUCING AN OPEN ECONOMIC
SYSTEM?
4 IS U.S. HEGEMONY DECLINING?
F REALISM AND THE ROLE OF THE STATE IN IPE
G REALISM AND NORTHSOUTH RELATIONS
H CRITIQUE OF THE REALIST PERSPECTIVE
CHAPTER 4
III) THE LIBERAL PERSPECTIVE
A BASIC TENETS OF THE LIBERAL PERSPECTIVE
1 THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL, THE STATE, AND SOCIETAL GROUPS
2 THE NATIRE AND PURPOSE OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS
3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICS AND ECONOMICS
B ORTHODOX LIBERALISM
C THE INFLUENCE OF JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES
D LIBERALISM IN THE POSTWAR PERIOD
E A RETURN TO ORTHODOX LIBERALISM
F LIBERALISM AND INSTITUTIONS
1 INTERDEPENDENCE THEORY
2 THE LIBERAL APPROACH TO COOPERATION
3 REGIME THEORY
• Regimes can be defined as “sets of implicit or explicit principles, norms rules, and decision
making procedures around which actors expectations converge in a given area of international
relations”
• International regimes are usually associated with International organizations. For example, the
WTO is embedded in the global trade regime, and the IMF is embedded in the global monetary
regime
• Regime principles and norms refer to general beliefs and standards of behavior that determine
how relations are conducted in a specific issue area
a The Formation of Regimes
• Some theorists argue that the existence of a hegemonic state or group of states is
necessary for both the formation and persistence of regimes
• A hegemonic power plays a major role in the creation of regimes through providing
public goods and coercing other states, but it is easier to maintain regimes than it is to
establish them
b Are Regimes Important?
• Regime principles, norms and rules can help to establish standards in specific areas by
which member states can assess their own and others’ actions. In setting standards,
regimes can provide countries with reliable information, decrease the likelihood of
misunderstandings, and increase the possibilities for cooperation.
• Regimes can also induce national governments to follow consistent policies , limit actions
that adversely effect other states, and become less responsive to special intersts
° LIBERALISM AND DOMESTICINTERNATIONAL INTERACTIONS
• Theorists often view international negotiations as a two level game involving a relationship between a
states international interest and obligations (level 1) on the one hand and its economic interactions (level
2) on the other hand.
• International level – states bargain with other states to reach an agreement. At the domestic level, these
representatives bargain with their own domestic constituencies, whose occurrence is often needed to
arrive at legitimate and effective agreements
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° LIBERALISM AND NORTHSOUTH RELATIONS
•Liberals generally agree that the key factors in development are the efficient use of scarce resources and
economic growth, which is often defined as an increase in the total per capita of a country
• ORTHODOX LIBERALS AND NORTHSOUTH RELATIONS
• O.L. consider international economic relations to be positivesum game, they believe that the
growth of interdependence will have a mutually beneficial effect on states.
• Argue that northsouth linkages provide even more benefits to the LDC’s than to the advanced
industrial states
a Domestic Development Factors
• In the 50’s and 60’s, liberal modernization theorists compared traditional and modern
states and traced the development process from traditionalism to modernity
• Modernization theory asserts that the northern industrial states achieved economic
development by abandoning traditional methods of organizing society and that the
north’s development experience serves as an indispensable guide to development for the
south. From the modernization perspective, LDC’s must reduce their traditional values,
institutions, and patterns of activity if they are to overcome the obstacles of development
b Paths to Development
• A number of modernization theorists argued that LDC’s must follow the same path to
development that was previously taken by northern states
• The forces of globalization, the need to compete with advanced industrial states, and the
proliferation of MNC’s all indicate that development today cannot be a repetition of the
earlier western model
c External Development Factors
• In the Liberal Orthodox view, third world countries are more likely to achieve
development if they are closely integrated in the global economy through freer trade and
capital flows
• LDC’s that have few trade and foreign investment linkages with the north are the poorest
and least developed countries. Because LDC’s have shortages of capital and technology,
foreign investment, and the diffusion of advanced technologies are of particular
importance to them. Exports are also of critical importance to LDC’s because of their
small domestic markets, and international trade permits LDC’s to specialize in the goods
they can produce most efficiently
2 INTERVENTIONIST LIBERALS AND NORTHSOUTH RELATIONS
• The interventionists believe that “economic forces left entirely to themselves tend to produce
growing inequality” especially when income distribution is highly distorted (as is the case
between North and South). They therefore recommend a variety of changes that involve some
degree of intervention in the market, including removal of northern trade barriers to southern
states while permitting some degree of protectionism for LDC industries, the provision of
increased financial resources to indebted LDC’s through the IMF and the World Bank, and the
assurance that MNC’s will nto take undue advantage of LDC’s needs for foreign investment and
capital
G CRITIQUE OF THE LIBERAL PERSPECTIVE
• Both the realists and historical structuralists criticize liberals for their inattention to power and
distributional issues. Realists emphasize the relative distribution of gains across states, with the more
powerful states capturing a larger share of the benefits
• Realists argue that economic exchanges are in fact rarely free and equal and that bargaining power based
on monopoly and coercion can have important political effects
• Historicals often accuse liberals of seeking to legitimize inequalities and exploitation
• Liberals are also criticized for putting too much faith in the market and for disregarding the role of the
state
• One liberal assessment NAFTA
CHAPTER 5
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IV) THE HISTORICAL STRUCTURALIST PERSPECTIVE
• “The term structuralist reflects this perspective’s focus on structural means of exploitation, in which one class
dominates another, or rich Northern states in the center or core of the global economy dominate poorer Southern
states in the perisphery.”
• “History has been marked by exploitation, and the mains characteristic of the current system is the
dominance of capitalism, with the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) exploiting the workers (the proletariat).”
• Wide diversity of approaches within this perspective
A BASIC TENETS OF THE HISTORICAL STRUCTURALIST PERSPECTIVE
1 THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL, THE STATE, AND SOCIETAL GROUPS
• Relationship among classes the main factor affecting the economic and political order.
• The state is working as an agent of the dominant classin capitalism, the bourgeoisie.
• State cannot escape from the dependence on the owners of capital.
1. Only when proletarian revolution eliminates private ownership will the state no longer be
required as instrument of class oppression
2 THE NATIRE AND PURPOSE OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS
• Economic relations are conflictual and zerosum.
• Under capitalism private owners extract surplus from workers which it converts into
capital and invests in new means of production.
• Marx and Engels predicted collapse of capitalist system due to its contradictions, but
when this did not happen, Lenin and others maintained that imperialism explained continued
survival of capitalism.
• When imperialism ended with end of colonialism, historical structuralists turned to
neocolonialism as explanation.
• Others explain persistence of capitalism and Third World underdevelopment through
dependency theory and worldsystem theory.
• In dependency theory the world is hierarchically organized, with leading capitalist states
in the core dominating and exploiting poor states in the periphery.
• Under historical structuralism, no meaningful redistribution of wealth and power can
occur under capitalism.
2. Goal of exploited states, i.e. Third World, should be to break linkages with capitalist states
and/or overthrow the capitalist system
3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICS AND ECONOMICS
• Politics subordinate to economics.
• Contradiction between economic mode of production and political system resolved when
changes in mode of production cause the political superstructure to undergo similar changes.
• Instrumental Marxism – formal government institutions are responding in a passive
manner to socioeconomic pressures. State policies reflect the interests of the capitalist class.
• Structural Marxism – new line of thought resulting from fact that industrial states
adopted social policies such as welfare despite opposition from business groups. According to
this view, in contrast to Instrumental Marxism, state is relatively autonomous from direct
political pressure by capitalist class. Although in long run state policies serve the interests of the
capitalist class. State may be better placed to recognize policies which are in the long term
interests of the capitalist class than the business community which may be subject to internal
divisions. The state may not be under the direct control of the bourgeoisie but it shares a long
term commitment to the maintenance of the capitalist system
B KARL MARX AND IPE
• Marx did not write systematically about international relations but did write on India and China arguing
that Western imperialism was necessary in these countries if they were to develop and emerge from their
stagnant mode of production. Capitalism according to Marx was a necessary evil because it was a
prerequisite for moves to socialism and then communism
C MARXIST STUDIES OF IMPERIALISM
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• NonMarxist economist, John Hobson, developed most influential theories of imperialism arguing that
three major problems with capitalism, low wages and underconsumption by workers, oversaving by
capitalists, and overproduction lead capitalists to look abroad for outlet for excess goods and profits
D DEPENDENCY THEORY
• According to dependency theory, capitalist countries either underdevelop or prevent Third
World from achieving genuine autonomous development.
2. This theory developed out of Latin America in the 1960s
1 ORIGINS OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
• 2 major theoretical traditions: Marxism and Latin American structuralism.
Both Marxists and dependency theorists advocate the replacement of
capitalism with socialism
• Unlike Marxists, Dependency Theorists focus exclusively on NorthSouth relations and
development problems in the Third World.
• Dependency theorists also reject Marxist view that industrialized countries are
performing a service to Third World by spreading capitalism.
• Paul Baran, first Marxist to view Third World as important area of study. Capitalists in
North are opposed to industrialization in South. Northern capitalist form alliances with Southern
elites to prevent Third World development. Elites in LDCs include fuedal landed class and
comprador class. Capitalists development occurs at the expense of autonomous development in
the Third World.
From Latin American structuralist tradition come the ideas of Argentine economist, Raul
Prebisch who argued that Third World countries in the periphery suffer from declining terms of
trade. Third World at disadvantage because they export mainly primary commodities and import
finished goods from the core. Demand for finished goods increased with rising incomes, while
demand for primary products remains relatively constant. Third World can develop only
through government involvement to promote industrialization and decrease dependence on
trade with advanced states. Advised countries to adopt ISI policies, impose tariff and nontariff
barriers and emphasize domestic production of manufactures
2 THE BASIC TENETS OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
• Two major strains of dependency theory complicate its analysis.
• First strain from Latin Americans Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Enzo Faletto – less
doctrinaire.
• Second more radical and doctrinaire from André Gunder Frank
a The Source of Third World Problems
• External factors related to global capitalist economy responsible for constraining
the development of Third World.
1. Main political alliances of comprador class with capitalists in Northern countries
reinforce the pattern of Third World dependency
b LDC Possibilities for Development
• Gunder Frank strain argues that development of core economies required the
underdevelopment of the periphery. When undeveloped countries become part of the
periphery, they become underdeveloped as a result of their involvement with the core
countries.
• In CardosoFaletto strain, development in periphery was possible in some cases under
model of “associate dependent development” in which links of dependency were
maintained. This strain gained support over time as it became more difficult to explin
why industrialization was occurring in some LDCs.
• Those writing from dependent development strain are more attuned to the wide variety
of local conditions and dependency relations in the Third World thus certain LDCs can
undergo development when favorable alliances form between foreign capital, domestic
capital and the Third World state.
• Despite apparent success of NIEs, dependency theorists argue that workers in these
countries receive low wages and produce less technologically sophisticated goods and
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production of capital is limited because they depend on imports of machinery,
technology and foreign investment from core
c Prescriptions for Change
• LDCs cannot escape from their dependency on core nations, thus they should
break linkages and/or start a socialist revolution to bring about more social justice and
equality.
2. But autonomy and socialism are not necessarily compatible leading to some
disagreement about which of these two goals is more important
3 CRITIQUES OF DEPENDENCY THEORY
• Does adequately define its concepts. Can’t measure degrees of dependence. Core versus
periphery and developed versus undeveloped very broad categories.
• Failure to consider other forms of exploitation other than capitalism.
• Too much importance on international system and not enough on domestic policies and
behavior as source of third world problems.
• Predictions often wrong.
• Prescriptions for change vague and ill defined.
• Marxists critique dependency theorists for being too nationalistic. Problem is not foreign
control but private control of means of production
E WHITHER THE HISTORICAL STRUCTURALIST SCHOOL OF IPE?
• With breakup of Soviet Union critics have claimed that the historical structuralist perspective is
irrelevant.
• Liberalism is expanding in the Third World.
• Still, historical structuralism is important perspective in IPE because of its emphasis on the poor
and the weak
1 WORLD SYSTEM THEORY
• Worldsystem theory focuses on entire world system where a country’s development
depends more on the nature of the entire global system and less on its internal structures.
• Concerned with relationships among states in the core and with the rise and decline of
hegemonic states as well as exploitation of states in the periphery.
• Use history of capitalism to help explain exploitation of periphery.
• Introduce concept of semiperiphery.
• Capitalist worldeconomy main unit of analysis.
• States not meaningful actors apart from position in world economy.
• Semiperiphery contributes to the stability of the capitalist worldeconomy and continued
predominance of the industrial states in the core.
• Socialism will follow capitalism as worldeconomy according to worldsystem theory but
very vague as to when.
• Critics claim places too much emphasis on relations of exchange and not enough on
relations of production. Too much emphasis on external factors.
• Important alternative approach for IPE providing longterm historical view of social,
economic and political change going back to 16th century
2 GRAMSCIAN ANALYSIS
• Named after Antonio Gramsci, former leader of Italian political party.
• Domination of capitalism only depends partly on economic factors but political,
ideological and cultural aspects of class struggle important as well.
• Dominant class has hegemony when it legimates its power through institutions.
• Historic bloc, referring to the congruence between the power of the state and the
prevailing ideas of society and the economy, makes it difficult for subordinate groups to replace
dominant group. Thus important to develop a counterhegemony.
• Ideas extended to international arena produced the concept of transnational historic bloc
which includes the largest MNCs, international banks, IMF and World Bank etc. Crucial element
is the power and mobility of transnational capital. This bloc is of threat to the ability of elected
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governments to make autonomous decisions. Workers employed by MNCs identify with
transnational capital further dividing workers.
• Civil society can be part of a topdown process in which dominant class gains
acquiescence from most of population or bottomup process where disadvantaged try to replace
capitalist order
3 THE BUSINESS CONFLICT MODEL
• Hybrid approach drawing on more than one theoretical perspective.
• Business groups are most important societal groups affecting government policymaking
but there are major cleavages within business community over policy issues.
• Significant division in business community between internationalist and nationalist
business groups. Nationalists feel threatened by imports and favor trade protectionism.
Internationalists have integrated multinational operations and substantial dependence on exports
resist protectionism and favor open international markets.
• Internationalists benefit from close working relationship with executive branch in the
U.S.
• Business nationalists do not similarly benefit from connections with U.S. foreign policy
establishments and concentrate on influencing Congress.
1. Even internationalists are sometimes divided with labor intensive industries favoring
military governments in Third World countries to maintain discipline in the labor force and keep
wages low. Internationalists that are less labor intensive are less likely to support military action.
F CONCLUSIONS
• Historical perspective may have faltered in recent years but number of promising new theoretical
approaches in this school of thought. Possible this perspective could gain more influence in future.
Return to liberal orthodoxy causing considerable dissatisfaction among havenots
CHAPTER 6
V) INTERNATIONAL MONETARY RELATIONS
A BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
• Records debit and credit transactions by residents, firms, and governments of one country with foreign
countries and international institutions
• Composed of two large categories: the current account and the capital account
• THE CURRENT ACCOUNT
• Includes all transactions related to a countries current expenditures and national income
• Four types of transactions (p. 150)
o Merchandise trade
o Service trade
o Investment income and payments
o Remittance and official transactions
2. CAPITAL ACCOUNTS
• Measures longterm and short term flows of investment
a. CAPITAL EXPORTS – debit items because they involve payments TO foreigners and use
foreign exchange
b. CAPITAL IMPORTS – credit items because they involve payments from foreigners and
earn foreign exchange
• BALANCE OF PAYMENT SURPLUS – a government reduces its liabilities to foreign
governments and/or adds to its holdings of official reserves
• BALANCE OF PAYMENTS DEFICIT – when a government increases its liabilities and/or
reduces its official reserves
B GOVERNMENT RESPONSE TO A BALANCEOFPAYMENTS DEFICIT
• When governments have a BOP deficit they have two basic policy choices:
1 ADJUSTMENT MEASURES
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• MONETARY POLICY – Central Bank raises interest rates to make borrowing more costly,
decreases amount of money available for loans by requiring commercial banks to hold larger
reserves
• FISCAL POLICY – A BOP deficit – government lowers government expenditures and or raises
taxes to withdrawal purchasing power from the public
• COMMERCIAL POLICY – when government uses various combinations of fiscal monetary and
commercial policies such as
a EXTERNAL ADJUSTMENT METHODS – causes foreigners to pay off adjustment costs:
tariffs, import quotas, export subsidies, and tax
b INTERNAL ADJUSTMENT METHODS – causes individuals or groups at home to pay off
adjustment costs: unemployment, a reduction in living standards and business bankruptcy
2 FINANCING
• Governments that choose financing must borrow from external credit sources and/or decrease
their foreign exchange reserves
3 ADJUSTMENT, FINANCING, AND THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
• ORTHODOX LIBERALS – payment deficits result from domestic inefficiencies and that
governments should adopt internal adjustments
• LIBERALS – oppose external adjustment measures
• REALISTS & HISTORICAL STRUCTURSALISTS – often oppose internal adjustment methods.
They interfere with domestic autonomy and policy making
• REALISTS – view such external measures as “fair game” in a state’s efforts to improve its
competitive position towards other states
C INTERNATIONAL MONETARY RELATIONS BEFORE BRETTON WOODS
1 INTERNATIONAL GOLD STANDARD (1870’S TO 1914)
• International gold standard was fixed exchange rrate regime in which each countries currency
was given an official exchange rate in relation to gold
• The gold standard functioned well because it was backed by British hegemony and my
cooperation among the core countries
• The primary objective was to promote monetary openness and stability through the maintenance
of stable exchange rates
2 THE INTERWAR PERIOD (1914 TO 1944)
• A shift to floating rather than fixed exchange rates
• Governments could no longer sacrifice the domestic welfare of its citizens to maintain external
balance in support of the gold exchange standard
D THE FORMATION OF THE BRETTON WOODS MONETARY REGIME
• A gold exchange system in which the value of each countries currency was pegged to gold or the U.S.
dollar
• The interventionist liberals compromise:
1. The postwar gold exchange standard: adjustable pegged
exchange rate system rather than a fixed exchange rate system
2. The creation of the IMF – would provide shortterm loans to
countries with temporary Balance of payments problems
3. The support for national controls over capital flows
E THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
• Was created to promote stable and orderly exchange rate and to provide member states with shortterm
loans for temporary balance of payments problems
• Each IMF member was given a quota based on its relative economic importance, and this quota
determined the size of its subscription, or contribution to the IMF resource pool
• The IMF has a weighted voting system in which the most economically powerful countries have the
largest quotas and subscriptions and the votes
• IMF conditionality has become a major factor in its loan giving: Member agree to adopt specific
economics policies in return for IMF funding
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• IMF usually requires the borrowing country to adopt contractionary monetary and fiscal policies that are
the liberaleconomic in nature
• The 2 main policy making bodies of the IMF: The board of governors & the board of executive directors
• The voting power of each governor depends on the weighted voting system
• The countries with the largest subscriptions and the most votes in IMF: G5 (The U.S., Japan, Germany,
France, and Britain)
• The IMF’s weighted voting system continues to favor the interests and objectives of the advanced
industrial states
F THE FUNCTIONING OF THE BRETTON WOODS MONETARY REGIME
1 THE CENTRAL ROLE OF THE U.S. DOLLAR
• The US opened its market to imports from foreign countries, provided longterm loans and
grants to Europe through the European Recovery Program or Marshall Plan, and supplied the US
dollar as the main source of int’l liquidity
• The Bretton Woods monetary regime was base on a gold exchange standard, but goldmining
sources were limited, so only the US dollar could meet this need for increased liquidity
• The US had a substantial balanceof trade surplus in the post war period, but had even larger
debits because of the economic and military financing it was providing through Marshal Plan
and other assistance programs. As a result, the US had overall balanceofpayments deficit
beginning in 1950
• In 1960, foreign dollar holdings exceeded US gold reserves for the first time
• The Triffin dilemma: It refers to the ploblem confronting a monetary regime that depends on a
sinkle key currency. The liquidity and confidence functions of the currency eventually come into
conflict
2 A SHIFT TOWARDS MULTILATERALISM
• In 1960s, the shift from unilateral to multilateral management was the increased role accorded to
the Bank for Int’l Settlements (BIS). It is in fact the oldest of the int’l financial institutions
• BIS: It was formed in 1930, its main purpose was to promote cooperation among central banks.
The US wanted to transfer functions to the IMF when the Bretton Woods institutions were
established, but European countries would not agree. Now the BIS is the main forum for
cooperation and consultation among central bankers of the advanced industrial states.
• IMF members finally agreed in 1969 to create a new international reserve. Members established
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs): It is artificial international reserves, created and managed by the
IMF with G10, which may be used only by monetary authorities and other official agencies
3 THE DEMISE OF THE BRETTON WOODS MONETARY REGIME
• In 1971, the US had its first balanceoftrade deficit in 1893, indicating that its trade
competitiveness was declining. President Richard Nixon decided to suspend the official
convertibility of the dollar into gold in 1971. He imposed a 10persent tariff surcharge on all
dutiable imports, promising to remove it when other countries. The US share of int’l reserves had
fallen from a postwar level of 50 to 16%.
• The Bretton Woods regime of fixed exchange rates would collapse and would be replaced by a
regime based on floating rates
• A Multitude of Problems confronted the Bretton Woods Monetary Regime:
° Although the US role as the top currency state was premised on the idea that it was
an unrivaled economic hegemon, this no longer seemed to be the case
° As capital flows around the world increased, the Bretton Woods system of pegged
exchange rates become increasingly untenable
°
The 3 characteristics of reservesliquidity, confidence, and adjustment all presented
serious problems
G THE REGIME OF FLOATING (OR FLEXIBLE) EXCHANGE RATES
• In a freefloating regime, member countries do not intervene in currency markets, and the market alone
determines currency valuations
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• 2 problems developed with the floating exchange rate regime:
° 1) Volatility of exchange rate: refers to shortterm instability in the exchange rate
° 2) Misalignment of exchange rate: refers to the longterm departure of an exchange
rate from its competitive level
1. THE PLAZA LOUVRE ACCORDS
• The G5 agreed on joint intervention to raise the value of the major nondollar currencies through
coordinated intervention, and the US in return promised to reduce government spending
• The PlazaLouvre accords marked a shift to managed floating in which the major governments
intervened to correct serious volatility and misalignment of currency rates
H ALTERNATIVES TO THE CURRENT MONETARY REGIME
• 2 interrelated Question about alternatives to current arrangements arise:
1) Are there alternatives to the flexible exchange rate regime?
2) Are there alternatives to the dominance of the US dollar under the current?
I EUROPEAN MONETARY RELATIONS
• Several major changes in the 1960s caused the EC countries to consider proposals for regional monetary
integration more seriously
° Growing US balanceofpayments deficits resulted in decreased confidence in the US
dollar and a threat to exchange rate stability
° Rapid European progress in establishing a customs union and for exchange rate
stability among EC members
• The European Monetary System (EMS) – 1979: 2 Main Features: An exchange rate mechanism (ERM) was
a form of adjustable peg system, similar to the Bretton Woods regime and A European currency units
(ECU) was a new currency based on a weighted basket or average of the EMS countries’ currencies
• In 1986, EC members signed the Single European Act (SEA) calling for completion of the internal market
or the removal of all barriers on the movement of goods, people, and capital within the EC by January 1,
1993
• The Treaty on European Union or Maastricht Treaty: An agreement to establish an EMU in 1999. The
EMU was to include the creation of a central bank and a single currency, central control over the money
supply, and wideraging influence over national tax and financial policies
• Robert Mundell“A Theory of Optimum Currency Areas”: An optimum currency area is an area that
maximizes the benefits minus the costs of using a common currency
J THE ROLE OF THE JAPANESE YEN
• The use of the yen internationally has declined since the mid1990s in response to Japan’s declining
economic fortunes
• In 1997, the Japanese government proposed that Asian Monetary Fund(AMF) be formed to provide
emergency balanceofpayments supports for the economies affected by the East Asian financial crisis,
but the US opposed that.
K THE ROLE OF THE U.S. DOLLAR
• The US dollar continues to serve as the top, albeit negotiated int’l currency
• It is important to note that Dollarization is a highly asymmetrical process. Unlike EMU, in which all
members sacrificed their own currency for a new common currency with collective management of
monetary policy, in Dollarization one country relinquishes its own currency and control over monetary
policy to another country or a group of countries
L CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 8
VI) GLOBAL TRADE RELATIONS
A TRADE THEORY
B GLOBAL TRADE RELATIONS BEFORE WWII
C GATT AND THE POSTWAR GLOBAL TRADE REGIME
D PRINCIPLES OF THE GLOBAL TRADE REGIME
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1 TRADE LIBERALIZATION
2 NONDISCRIMINATION
3 RECIPROCITY
4 SAFEGUARDS
5 DEVELOPMENT
E FORMATION OF THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION
F THE WTO AND THE GLOBAL TRADE REGIME
G THE THIRD WORLD AND GLOBAL TRADE ISSUES
1 THE 1940’S TO EARLY 1960’S: A PERIOD OF LIMITED LDC INVOLVEMENT
2 THE EARLY 1960’S TO EARLY 1970’S: GROWING PRESSURES FOR SPECIAL TREATMENT
3 THE EARLY 1970’S TO 1980: INCREASED NORTHSOUTH CONFRONTATIONS
4 1980 TO 1995: MORE ACTIVE AND COOPERATIVE LDC PARTICIPATION
5 1995 TO THE PRESENT: UNCERTAINTY OVER LDC PARTICIPATION IN THE WTO
H THE EMERGING ECONOMIES AND GLOBAL TRADE RELATIONS
1 THE EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND GATT/WTO
2 CHINA
a Requirements That China Should Liberalize Its Economy
b The Question of China’s Status in the WTO
c The Question of China’s Implementation of Agreements
3 RUSSIA AND OTHER FSU COUNTRIES
I CIVIL SOCIETY AND GLOBAL TRADE RELATIONS
J CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 9
VII) REGIONALISM AND THE GLOBAL TRADE REGIME
• Liberal economists consider GATT/WTO multilateralism to be the best possible route to trade liberalization
because it breaks down regional as well as national barriers to trade
• Liberals support open RTA’s as second best route to trade liberalization when negotiation difficulties in
GATT/WTO pose obstacles to freer multilateral trade
• All member countries will benefit in the long run from RTA even if asymmetrical gains
• Realists and Historical Structuralists believe RTA’s have important distributional effects and that some members
will benefit at the expense of others
• Realists argue that the larger partner will not permit the smaller partner to receive disproportionate benefits or
will expect some side payments in return
• Historical Structuralists believe MNC’s and other sources of transnational capital are the main beneficiaries of
RTA’s. The main losers are the laborers and poor within industrial and Third World countries
1 REGIONALISM AND GLOBALIZATION
• Regionalism reference to interactions among states in a particular geographic area where there is a degree
of economic and often organizational cohesiveness
• Multilateral institutions such as the IMF, GATT/WTO, and the World Bank are better equipped than
regional organizations at handling problems stemming from globalization and interdependence such as
financial crisis, trade wars, and global environmental degradation
• As an organization’s membership increases, higher transaction and information costs interfere with
problem identification and defector identification and sanctioning
• Globalization pressures often lead likeminded states to establish regional institutions better at problem
solving than larger institutions
1 A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS
• Despite early attempts at establishing RTA’s, modern forms did not become established until after WWII
with the European Economic Community then later forms in the 50’s and 60’s and since the mid80’s
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• THE FIRST WAVE OF REGIONALISM
• In 1949 the Soviet Union signed a treaty with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and
Romania establishing the Council for Mutual Economic Agreement (CMEA) – Not considered
true attempt at regionalism because of statecentered orientation
• European integration into the European Community and European Free Trade Association
considered first true wave of regionalism
• EC movement caused spread of RTA’s in Africa and Latin America
• LDC causality differed in that LDC’s were looking to develop larger markets (economies of scale)
within the region, and were designed to pursue import substitution on regional level
• Regionalism was largely unsuccessful outside of Europe because:
a There was a fundamental contradiction between the idea of giving impetus to integration via
trade liberalization and the protectionist logic of import substitution to promote
industrialization
• Industries were concentrated in larger more advanced LDC’s
• Economic inefficiencies arose form bureaucratic countermeasures
b U.S. was opposed to RTA’s during the first wave
• THE SECOND WAVE OF REGIONALISM
• In the mid1980’s he EC widened and deepened its integration with the accession of Spain and
Portugal in ’86 and Austria, Finland, and Sweden in ‘95. Deepening occurred with adoption of
single market in ‘92
• Most significant change was the U.S. turnaround in willingness to participate and promote RTA’s
2 WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR THE RISE OF REGIONALISM?
• REALIST EXPLANATIONS
• Security issues – with U.S./Soviet Union superpowers concerned with global political security
and balance of global power, Europe concentrates on building economic strength and political
influence through regional integration
• U.S. aided Europe through Marshall plan in order to solidify unified noncommunist front against
Soviet Union
• Second wave attributed to shifts in balance of, strategic, and economic power from U.S./Soviet
Union to U.S./E.C./AsiaJapan
• LIBERAL EXPLANATIONS
• Growth of interdependence important in revival of regionalism
° States turn to trade liberalization to promote exports, attract foreign investment, and
upgrade technological capabilities
• Involvement in RTA’s less complicated than multilateral GATT
• Regionalism often improves competitiveness in firms – becomes more efficient compared
to others in region
• Firms became more dependent on imports and exports becoming MNC’s
• Despite low GATT tariffs, RTA’s flourish because elimination of tariff barriers is
advantageous to members
• HISTORICAL STRUCTURALIST EXPLANATIONS
• RTA’s allow MNC’s to exploit cheap labor and lower environmental standards
• Capital has benefited by leaving domestic labor and using cheaper foreign labor
• Regionalism comes form desire of powerful states to establish hegemony over weaker states
• GATT/WTO AND RTA’S
• The United States as a global hegemon after WWII, strongly opposed preferential agreements
and any other type of discrimination in international trade that would interfere with an open
multilateral trade regime. The British, however, wanted to preserve their discriminatory imperial
preferences.
• U.S. views prevailed and GATT called for unconditional MFN treatment (all member nations
treated equally)
• GATT permitted formation of CU’s and RTA’s as long as exterior barriers did not exceed GATT
restrictions and are more trade creating than trade diverting
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3 TRADE DIVERSION
• RTA’s are inevitably trade diverting: intraregional trade with lower barriers more appealing
• Trade diversion from raised protectionist barriers
• CU has common external trade tariffs and may implement CVD’s and ADD’s in response to
pressures from importcompeting companies
• RULES OF ORIGIN – regulations designed to prevent importers from bringing in goods to a free
trade area through member countries with lower duties and then shipping them to partner
countries with high duties <excuse for protectionism>
4 TRADE CREATION
• The main source of trade creation in RTA’s is the increased trade among member countries,
which shifts demands from less efficient domestic country production to more efficient partner
country production
• Set example for increased and more effective multilateral trade negotiations in GATT/WTO
5 GATT ARTICLE 24 AND RTA’S
• GATT Article 24 established to ensure trade creation/diversion regulations
• A.24 stipulates FTA’s and CU’s are to eliminate tariff’s and barriers on substantially all trade
among members
• 1. GATT founders believe removal of all barriers would prevent proliferation of preferential
treatment
• 2. Genuine FTA’s and CU’s facilitate global trade liberalization when involving deeper
multilateral integration
• Exterior tariffs and barriers must not be higher than when initially entered into the FTA/CU
6 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GATT ARTICLE 24
• The 1957 Treaty of Rome establishing the EC dramatically minimized GATT’s ability to exert
authority over RTA’s
• GATT’s influence lay in it’s guidelines that many developing RTA’s adhered to
• GATT’s inability to exert authority lay partly in Article 24’s imprecise wording and the fact that it
does adequately address issues of contingent trade measures such as ADD’s and CVC’s, and
rules of origin
• The GATT UR reached a common understanding on Article 24 and the WTO established a
Committee on Regional Trade Agreements to oversee and evaluate RTA’s
• The GATT UR reached no conclusion on how to deal with restrictive rules of origin in RTA’s nor
have they made unanimous clear interpretations of Article 24 statements
9. SPECIAL TREATMENT FOR LDC’S
a RTA’S Among LDC’S
• RTA’s among LDC’s are less stringently examined than among industrialized nations
• A 1979 enabling clause was added to GATT that removed the requirement to cover
substantially all trade, and to remove all tariff barriers
b The EU’s Association Agreements with LDC’S
• Developed countries have provided LDC’s with nonreciprocal trade preferences
• In EC union, France wanted continued benefits for former colonies in Africa, so
nonreciprocal tariff lowerings were established
• LDC’s not formerly connected with Britain or France pressured for implementation of
MFN status as decreed by GATT
• Historical Structuralists say nonreciprocal trade between EC and LDC’s represents
neocolonialism and perpetuates continual dependency by former European colonies
7 EUROPE
• After WWII, a European unification that consisted of western European states was established with the
help of the United States
• Establishment of the European Community and the EFTA has widened and deepened European
integration
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• THE DEEPENING OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
• European integration into a Customs Union was slowed by France’s Charles de Gaulle in vetoing
Britain’s membership and withdrawing France from the Council of Ministers in protest against
commission proposal for financing of EC budget
• In the 1980’s the collapse of the Bretton Woods monetary regime, the OPEC oil crisis, and global
recession contributed to the stagnation of the unification process
• A unified European market would produce more competitive European firms as a result of
increased specialization and economies of scale.
• Single European Act established freer trade without trade restrictions amongst EC members
thereby deepening integration and strengthening the European economy
• SEA led to desire for establishing EMU and unified security, foreign, and social policy
• Maastricht Treaty wants to establish social policies dealing with welfare and labor laws but has
been most successful in establishing an EMU in early 2002
• THE WIDENING OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
• As economies worsened in 1980’s, eastern European dependency on western Europe deepened
• Gorbachev helped establish an ECCMEA agreement sanctioning trade agreements between
some individual Eastern European states
• The break up of the Soviet Union led to stronger and closer ties between Western and Eastern
European states
• Widening of integration brought problems of relocation of firms because of lower labor costs,
migration of eastern workers to higher paying western area, and financial burdens on EU from
enlargement of population eligible for social and economic development funds
• Obstacles facing CEEC membership into the EU are fears of a twotiered system developing with
CEEC nations, Germany breaking away from France and looking more eastward, and French
concern over Americanization of EU policy
• THE THEORETICAL PRESPECTIVES AND THE EU
• Realists see European integration as a strengthening Europe’s power (economic) visàvis other
major actors such as Japan and U.S.
• US willing to support formation of EC in view of strong Soviet proximity
• Liberals economists concerned with ensuring that the EU is an “open” integration movement
• Some Liberals express concerns of European protectionism: EU’s inward orientation, liberals
point out to the reorientation of trade away from third countries to other EU members following
the creation of the union and the accession of new members
• Content that deepening and widening will contribute to trade creation amongst members
• Interventionist liberals praise social policy agenda but historical Structuralists say it is inadequate
lending to continued disparities of wealth
• Historical Structuralists criticize agreements between EC and LDC’s because it is a mechanism of
neocolonialist dependency
2 THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE
• Characterized by three overlapping regional integrations processes:
a The United States and NAFTA
b Latin American RTA’s – MERCOSUR
c Hemispheric integration through a Free Trade Agreement of the Americas
1. THE FORMATION OF CUSFTA AND NAFTA
• US Protectionism was increasing, Canada wanted to open up freer market between two nations
to counterbalance Canadian exports to US
• Canadian economists wanted more reliance on market forces less government involvement
• In 1988 Canada and U.S. established CUSFTA after having established Automotive free trade
agreement
• Mexico joined to form NAFTA in 1992 to supercede CUSFTA
• Mexico joined for reason of foreign investment issues. Agreement with US would give Mexican
liberalization policies more credibility
• Marked first time LDC was not given special treatment in agreement with an industrialized state
Page 15 of 24
• THE IPE THEORETICAL PRESPECTIVES AND NAFTA
a Orthodox Liberal Perspective
• Wanted to ensure freer trade incentive instead of trade diversion
• NAFTA sets example for GATT –
° NAFTA follows a “negative list” approach to trade in services facilitating trade
creation
° GATS takes a “positive list” approach to services trade facilitating easier trade
diversion
• US established rules that facilitated countervailing duties (CVD’s) which are harsher
towards Canada and Mexico than towards US
• NAFTA has binational panels to assess whether a countries CVD’s adhere to national
codes
b Realist and Historical Structuralist Perspectives
• Both believe NAFTA has significant distributional effects
• Both say that the US, as the larger partner, will get greater benefits
• Canada wanted freer trade for exports during a time of protectionism, US wanted side
benefits
• Mexico gave up claims to receive special and differential treatment
• MERCOSUR
• Mercado Comun del Sur – established as most important 3rd World RTA
• Union of South American LDC’s but significant union because involved two largest South
American economies (Brazil and Argentina)
• Outcome skeptical because integration was inward facing and had been concentrated in Import
Substitution, history between Brazil and Argentina was long and frictional
• Economy was becoming export oriented and they were unilaterally lowing tariffs at the time they
signed the Treaty of Asuncion.
• End of Cold war important change in that it ended reliance on bipolar balance
• Problems began when Argentina and Brazil both introduced import tariffs and no progress or
accords had been made towards deepening the union
• PROBLEMS FACING MERCOSUR:
° Mexican and East Asian financial crisis of the 90’s contributed to lost markets
° MERCOSUR members are primarily LDC’s reliant upon external finance and highly
vulnerable to global financial flows
° It does not have a formal dispute settlement process
° Very asymmetrical system raises doubts as to future integration
° Wide disparity in macroeconomic and monetary policies between two largest
MERCOSUR countries
• FREE TRADE AREA OF THE AMERICAS
• Enterprise for the Americas Initiative (EAI) called for investment promotion, U.S. aid indebt
relief, and the elimination of tariff barriers
• Miami Summit of the Americas (34 participating countries) agreed to begin process of negotiating
FTAA to be concluded no later than 2005
• Highly diverse geographic distribution of foreign trade in western hemisphere poses a potential
problem
• CONDITIONS CONDUSIVE TO FTAA NEGOTIATIONS:
° U.S. decline in global hegemony – wants to establish hemispheric hegemony
° Latin America’s shift from import substitution to exportoriented policies
° Consolidation of civilian rule and democracy generally established within the
Americas
• Brazil and other Latin American countries wanted new agreement started from equal footing, not
an extension of NAFTA (U.S. centric)
2 EAST ASIA
• 1980’s emerged as major center of world production and trade
Page 16 of 24
• Not involved in first wave of regional integrations and are even still only in planning phases
• Rise in intraregional trade due to propensity and willingness to trade with each other
• THE ASEAN
• Subregional agreement in east Asia consisting of 10 member countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia)
• ASEAN FTA went from regional economic linkages to Agreement on Preferential Trading
Arrangements to a Free Trade Agreement
• Financial crisis has created problems with competing ASEAN countries
• Japan threatened with Chinese cooperation with ASEAN
• APEC
• Largest regional initiative involving East Asia with 21 regional and transregional neighbors –
Asia Pacific Economic Community
• Would contain world’s three largest national economies (United States, Japan, and China) and
three of the five permanent members of the Un Security Council (China, Russia, and the U.S.)
• U.S. wants to secure political security and economic access to the region and did not want to be
excluded from largest foreign market’s trading bloc
• First proposed to be transparent by disseminating information about member policies and
promote coordination between economic policies
• Bargaining negotiation discouraged by Asian members so plans are for liberalization to be
reached by certain date
• THE IPE PERSPECTIVES AND EAST ASIAN REGIONALISM
• APEC became the first big international institution after the end of the cold war
• REALISTS view APEC as a non asian attempt to block a regional trading bloc limited to Asians
• HISTORICAL STRUCTURALISTS believe APEC could lead to downward social, economic,
environmental and labor standards and a permanent shift of economic and political power to
MNC’s
B CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 10
VIII) MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS AND GLOBAL PRODUCTION
• The largest MNC’s are in some respects the main agents of globalization
• Critics argue that main problem in the study of IPE is the friction between states and multinational
corporations and not between the state and the market
a DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
• A multi national corporation is one that has holdings in more than one nation. These holdings can be
either portfolio investment which seeks profits without control and the other is Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) which seeks to gain a controlling percentage of profits and decisionmaking power
• There are two types of FDI:
1. GREENFIELD INVESTMENTS –
2. MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS –
a WHY DO FIRMS BECOME MNC’S
•
a THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT
• THE PERIOD BEFORE WORLD WAR II
• Britain was the main force behind the dramatic growth of FDI in the 19th century
• Although no government garanties international institutions, safe guards ensure investment: one,
economic risk were lower under the pre WWI gold standard because currency were convertible
dividends could be easily remitted and exchange rate were reasonable stable, two, political risk
was lower because a large share of the European investment was in colonial territory that
operated under home countries rules, three, lack of restrictions on capital flows facilitated the
growth of FDI, fourth, wars during this period were limited in scope
Page 17 of 24
• 19th century was also a period of rapid advancement in rail and sea transportation, which
facilitated the task of managing FDIs over long distances
• THE MID1940’S TO THE MID1980’S
• Under US leadership FDI under a period of rapid expansion
• Develop countries experienced a sustain period of economic growth from 1950’s to 1973
• There were major improvements in international transportations and communications: faster jets,
and ocean transports, telex and satellite communications and fax machines may contributions to
flow capital
• Most develop countries relax their control over FDIs after return to convertability in their
currencies
• US FDIs has decline steadily since the 60’s mainly due to Japan, Germany, and Western Europe
economic and industrial recovery from WWII
• THE 1980’S TO THE PRESENT
• Reemergence of FDI since the 80’s due mainly to reemergence of orthodox liberalism ending
many restrictions on capital flows and other trade barriers
• Brake up of soviet block open up new market areas for FDI
• Protracted GATT UR negotiations couple with the use on non tariff barriers cost firms to
circunvent barriers thus expending coverage
• Remarkable feature to modern FDI is degree to which BIG 3 direct FDI with each other
(US/EU/Japan)
• Change in int’l arena was: US lost of dominance as a source of FDI, two, erratic upper changes in
Japan change of FDI, three, the develop market economy share of inward FDI has decline and
LDC share has decrease, and the proliferation of firms engaging in FDI and new forms of
investment activities
a MNC’S AND HOST COUNTRY RELATIONS: THEORETICAL APPROACHES
• Liberals: countries has different factor endowments and foreign investment flows to areas where it is
more needed
• Orthodox liberals: MNC operate in perfectly competitive environment
• Challenges: Hymer and Kendalberger, FDI not equited with movement of capital from the home to the
host country. MNC are often finance from home country institutions
• MNCs tend to be oligopolistics by nature, by raising barriers by introducing new technologies, economies
of scale and access to global finance
• Marxist independent theory: believe MNCs prevent third world countries from achieving genuine
autonomus development
• MNCs undermine host country government, culture, and society, by coapting local business and
government elites, imposing political and economic pressure on the host country while altering consumer
taste and attitudes
• Reasearch over years shows effects of MNCs are not as positive as negative as believe, because bargaing
powers come into place
• Countries have more international players to chose from
• State may have to provide insentive to lower MNCs, but MNCs have high technology, brand name
identification, access to capital, product diversity and ability to promote exports as leveraging power
favoring MNCs initially
• With commitment to immoviles resources, state gains upper hand and can later “hostage” resources to
renegotiate in better terms (obsolescing power)
• Obsolescing bargain is less applicable to more sophisticated manufacture industries that are less
dependent on host specific resources
a CHANGES IN HOST COUNTRY POLICIES TOWARDS MNC’S
• Host country policies toward MNCs have varied widely, ranging from nationalization of foreign
investment operations on the one hand to efforts to attract MNCs through concessions and incentives on
the other
• THE SOUTH
• Before WW I few restrictions on MNCs in LDCs in the South.
Page 18 of 24
• In interwar period LDCs shifted to more nationalist policies.
• After WWII change to restrictive policies in South more notable. China, North Korea,
North Vietnam and Cuba.
• In other countries FDI viewed with hostility and limited.
• In 1960s and 1970s LDCs developed more leverage visàvis MNCs: Development of non
U.S. MNC gave LDCs alternative to seek outside finance; LDCs gained more confidence and
began to pressure MNCs to increase benefits and reduce costs of FDI; LDCs developed more
managerial, administrative, and technical capabilities for regulating MNC behavior.
• In UN General Assembly LDC views regarding MNCs were embodied in resolutions that
the G77 passes over objections of industrial states but failed to reach UN agreement on
comprehensive code of behavior for MNCs.
• By late 1970s, LDCs more conciliatory towards MNCs and number of nationalizations
declined.
• In 1980s a number of LDCs liberalized their policies toward MNCs. Mexico liberalized its
policies toward FDI. Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Venezuela took unilateral steps to liberalize
their investment policies. China also was more welcoming to FDI by 1988.
• In 1990s, LDC host countries even more open to FDI.
1. Still some of the poorest LDCs are having difficulty attracting FDI even when liberalize
policies.
• THE NORTH
• Developed host states in the North are generally in a different position visàvis MNCs
than LDC host states in the states in the South.
• MNCs loom larger in LDC economies and create more dependence among LDCs than is
the case for most industrial states.
• Developed countries are often also major home as well as host countries of FDI and thus
are reluctant to restrict incoming foreign investment.
• At the end of WWII the U.S. as the new global hegemon adopted more liberal policies
toward FDI than Western Europe.
• Japan, however, had the most interventionist policy of the developed countries. Japan’s
inward FDI was only 0.7 percent in 1980 as compared to 41.6 percent in Western Europe and 17.2
percent in the U.S.
2. In 1970s many developed countries imposed conditions on FDI but by mid 1980s most
liberalized their economies because: controls on global capital flows were phased out and
orthodox liberalism reemerged under Ronald Reagan; global competitiveness and economic
problems generated pressures to seek foreign FDI; as Japan and Europe became stronger felt
pressures to ease restrictions on incoming FDI; U.S. pressured other nations to open to
investment especially felt in Mexico and Canada.
B THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOME COUNTRIES AND THEIR MNC’S
• Number of home countries for MNCs small. In 1990 six countries accounted for 75 percent of all
MNCs.
• Effects of FDI on home country depend on both the characteristics of home country and of its
MNCs. Realists focus on home country characteristics. Hegemons seem to benefit from outward FD.
Others, focusing on MNCs, claim they are becoming denationalized or stateless.
• Two questions: 1) What are the costs and benefits of FDI for labor groups in the home country? 2)
What is the relationship between competitiveness of a home country and the competitiveness of its
MNCs?
• HOME COUNTRY POLICIES TOWARD THEIR MNC’S
• Home countries normally view outward FDI as an indication of economic and political
strength and as beneficial to their competitiveness. Home countries try to protect and sometimes
use their MNCs as a tool of foreign policy.
• Sometimes home countries associate outward FDI with a decrease in home country exports, a decline in the
country’s industrial base and losses in domestic employment. In such circumstances, home countries try to stem
flow of FDI
Page 19 of 24
b The PreWorld War II Period
• In 19th and early 20th centuries, home countries tried to support and protect their
corporations when they encountered difficulties abroad
c The Early Postwar Period
• In 1950s to 1970s, the U.S. as hegemonic power followed assertive policies in
protecting its MNCs. The U.S. also considered MNCs to be tools of foreign policy visà
vis communist countries.
• The U.S. took actions to control corporate behavior in response to its growing
balanceofpayments deficit.
1. Japan was only major economy that systematically restricted outward FDI for about
two decades after WWII
d The 1980’s and 1990’s
• During this period U.S. was willing and able to take blatant political actions to
control the behavior of their MNCs. Especially, in struggles with the Soviet Union.
• Since breakup of Soviet Union, U.S. extraterritorial actions of this nature have
been aimed mainly at Cuba. 1996 HelmsBurton act penalizes foreign companies for
doing business with Cuba if they use assets or property of U.S. MNCs nationalized after
1959 Cuban revolution.
2. European countries and Japan have been less willing and able to take political actions
with their MNCs but have established closer economic links with their MNCs than the
U.S.
• THE EFFECTS OF MNC’S ON LABOR GROUPS IN HOME COUNTRIES
• Most contentious issues in home countries.
• Liberals hold multinational activity generally positive for labor and MNCs pay higher
wages than domestic firms.
• Labor groups are unconvinced and are often dissatisfied with outward FDI. Mobility of
capital and MNCs they say put labor at distinct disadvantage.
3. Labor unions have been interested in developing a system of multinational collective
bargaining since 1970s but this approach has its serious limitations
• COMPETITIVENESS AND HOME COUNTRY RELATIONS
• From the liberal perspective, MNCs are seeking profitable opportunities around the
world and are becoming disconnected from home nations.
• Liberals maintain that the economic future of the U.S. depends more on the education
and skills of U.S. workers than on U.S. corporate ownership.
• Realists argue that governments should pursue active industrial policies to promote their
own MNCs in hightechnology area.
• Some evidence indicates that large MNCs are becoming more global in their operations
and outlook and less closely tied to their home countries. National boundaries are becoming
blurred as some MNCs have spread their head office functions and listed their shares in stock
exchanges in several countries.
• The increase in crossborder M&As and conglomerate crossholding of shares are
additional complications in defining the nationality of MNCs today. Thus, liberals argue that
policies of home governments must change as the national origins, loyalties, and culture of
MNCs become blurred. Highest priority should be to provide competitive conditions for
businesses in general rather than only for the country’s firms in particular.
• Realists are correct, however, in that most MNCs continue to be homebased and that the
competitiveness of MNCs can affect the competitiveness of its home state. A major factor in
promoting competitiveness is R&D and there is evidence that MNCs in industrial countries keep
much of their basic R&D activity at home.
• It is important to note that there are national differences in operation of MNCs
headquartered in different countries. E.g. U.S. MNCs favor home countries less than Japanese
and German.
Page 20 of 24
4. According to liberal theory, international trade is not a zerosum game. Industrial countries
are each others major trading partners even when they are in competition.
C A REGIME FOR FDI: WHAT IS TO BE REGULATED?
•
D BILATERAL INVESTMENT TREATIES
•
E THE UN
•
F GATT/WTO
•
G REGIONAL APPROACHES: THE EUROPEAN UNION AND NORTH AMERICA FREE TRADE
AGREEMENT
•
H THE ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
•
I PRIVATE ACTORS
•
J CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 11
IX) INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• The average income in the world’s 20 richest economies is 37 times higher thanthe average income in the
world’s 20 poorest economies
• Even the higher income East and Southeast Asian economies experienced a serious financial crisis which
raised questions as to sustainability of rapid economic growth
• LDC’s fear economic linkages contribute to dependency on North and that IMF and World Bank SAL’s
inhibit development efforts
• Developments have induced SouthNorthern link strengthening and trade liberalization:
o 1980’a foreign debt crisis – Banks induced LDC’s to shift to more open economic policies
o Revival of orthodox liberalism
o Growing fear that South has become increasingly marginalized
• Failure of Soviet Bloc has culminated in decline in foreign aid from western bloc – LDC’s have no leverage
and fewer fountains of aid
• Aid is also being dispersed amongst FSU nations instead of solely previous LDC’s
A THE IPE PERSPECTIVES AND NORTHSOUTH RELATIONS
• LIBERALS believe interdependence has widespread benefits and argue NorthSouth relations
have more benefits to LDC’s
• INTERVENTIONIST LIBERALS recognize indifferences in North South relations and believe
Northern governments should apply special treatment to LDC’s
• HISTORICAL STRUCTURALISTS call for a redistribution of resources among core and periphery
a THE WORLD BANK GROUP
• Effects terms under which loans are made to LDC’s
• Composed of five institutions
1. IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
• Established at Bretton Woods for the reconstruction of postwar Europe later to be used for
financing developing countries
• Loans directed to governments or with government guarantee
2. IDA – International Development Association
• Became third World Bank institution to provide softer loans for struggling LDC’s
3. IFC – International Finance Corporation
4. MIGA – Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
• Established to encourage private foreign investment
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5. ICSID – International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
• Established to encourage private foreign investment
• Historical Structuralists and Realists accuse the World Bank of prying sovereign control out
of the hands of national leaders and that they mainly enrich developed country exporters at the expense
of the poor
a IMPORTSUBSTITUTING INDUSTRIALIZATION
• Interventionist Liberals (Keynes) called for more government involvement in market
• Historical Structuralists (Singer and Prebisch) states governments need to decrease primary goods
exportation and focus more on manufacturing and exporting goods
• Prebisch developed the idea of substituting previously imported manufactured goods with domestically
manufactured goods
• Governments need establish protectionist policies to reduce imports while subsidizing local
industrialization
• Countries began replacing agricultural ventures in favor of industrial growth – led to economic and social
disaster during 70’s food crisis
• Countries failed at ISI because they failed to continue to the second stage of ISI… to greater
industrialization including higher technological products
• Countries did not achieve second tier of ISI because most products are capital intensive and require
economies of scale
• After the foreign debt crisis of the 80’s countries finally abandoned ISI strategies and adopted outward
looking economic strategies
a SOCIALIST DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
• After failure of ISI strategy, some countries turned to socialist centrally planned economies
• More concerned with redistributional aspects of economic development
• Had better success at reducing economic and social inequities but they still faced economic problems
• Major problem with Central Planning was that most countries (China being the exception) were too small
to properly engage in Soviet style planning
• Centrally planned nations not major beneficiaries of World Bank aid because aid was intended to
promote private enterprise
a EXPORTLED GROWTH
• Asian NIE’s all adopted export led growth strategies and registered impressive growth rates.
• While maintaining a moderate degree of trade protectionism for domestic markets, they encouraged
exports with tax incentives, export credits, export targets, and dutyfree imports of inputs required by
exporters and their supplies
• THE IPE PERSPECTIVES AND THE EAST ASIAN EXPERIENCE
• Liberals say success of East Asian economy was due to their outward facing strategies
• Realists – key to growth was the strong developmental state
° State provided guidance to the market
° State identified development as its top priority
° State invested heavily in education to ensure populations had skills
° State depended heavily on highly skilled technocratic bureaucracy
• Dependency and World System theorists – development was only example of dependent
development
• Political Culture – (fourth perspective) Larger Asian nations influenced by Confucianism ~
emphasizes respect for authority, role of benevolent government, importance of education, and
family based values leads to economic development based on collective values, hard work,
and enterprise
• THE FINANCIAL CRISIS IN EAST AND SOUTH EAST ASIA
• Japanese yen increased greatly in value as a result of ’85 Plaza Agreement as Japanese exports
became more competitive and markets absorbed a declining share of East Asian exports,
problems of indebtedness and lack of competitiveness in the region increased
• 1997 – Thailand allowed their currency to float and result was drastic devaluation which effected
three other countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Korea)
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• Asian foreign debt crisis different than 80’s foreign debt crisis in two respects:
° 80’s foreign debt crisis in Latin America, SubSaharan Africa and Eastern Europe
held significant shares of debt – Asian was held by smaller countries with private
sector debt
° 80’s – main concerns in debt crisis related to overall indebtedness and high debt
service ratio ~ Asia – short term debt levels and outflows of portfolio investment
• United states aided South Korea and Taiwan with large sums of military and economic aid
• Changes in U.S. economic and strategic position made it less willing to continue support
• SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT – received multilateral approval in ’87 – policy that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs
B THE REVIVAL OF ORTHODOX LIBERALISM
• Two characteristics of developmental state: Highly skilled technocratic bureaucracy and close
cooperation between major economic groupings (labor, agriculture etc.)
• Successful developmental state has often been to some extent authoritarian
• The market rational market ideological approach is the only correct course for development
adopted by World Bank
• World Bank placed conditions on their SAL’s requiring control of inflation, decrease in
government spending, lance of budgets, privatization, deregulations of financial and labor markets, and
liberalization of policies towards trade
• STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT AND THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
• Historical Structuralists believe SAP’s (structural adjustment programs) almost deliberate
perpetuation of export dependency
• Orthodox liberals strongest supporters – SAP’s necessary prescription and discipline based on
Washington consensus (Thatcher Reagan free market policy)
• World Bank and IMF should be doing more to focus on human development aspects of
adjustment (labor, welfare etc.)
• Realists WB and IMF are not following correct policies in downsizing governemtn through
privatization, deregulation, and trade liberalization – late industrializers (no matter who) require
a large amount of government intervention to catch up
• STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT AND QUESTIONS ABOUT ORTHODOX LIBERALISM
• Liberal studies indicate that SAP’s in middleincome countries often reduced government budget
deficits, increased export earnings, increased financing available for private investment, and
enhanced economic stability and growth
• The emphasis of SAP’s on privatization deregulation, and openness gave adequate attention for
the need for effective LDC governments and the World Banks “topdown” approach to structural
adjustment did not give sufficient attention to the need for local participation in “owning”
policies and implementing reforms
• STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT AND SUBSAHARAN AFRICA
• 80’s – economic growth and industrial production stagnated, agricultural output lagged behind
population growth, per capita incomes and investment declined and unemployment increased
• Liberal supporters of SAP’s argue that these programs are often blamed for problems cause by
general economic deterioration. World Bank and IMF were simply reacting to Third World debt
crisis due to inefficient LDC economic policies and a series of unfavorable world economic
changes beginning with oil crisis
• Liberals Failure of ISI strategies led to reaffirmation of World Bank and IMF led strategies
• Critics argue that WB and IMF strategies are ineffective in Africa place too much emphasis on
market oriented policies that do not contribute to economic growth, and their costs fall most
heavily on the poorest groups and countries
• Emphasis on privatization does not take into account of the fact that private firms are often
unwilling or unable to supply essential public goods required for development
• STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT AND THIRD WORLD WOMEN
• IMF and World Banks have largely ignored the plight of women in Third World countries
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• By disregarding the subsidiary role of women, these programs often reinforce male bias and
exacerbate the economic and social problems confronting third world women
• Women spend much more time than men on the average on unpaid subsistence work
• Women are over represented relative to men in the informal sector of the economywork outside
home
• Women are more concentrated in the lower skill, lower wage occupation and are often paid less
than men for equal work
• Women are more important in agricultural labor and less important in industry
• If one combines women lower wages in the formal sector with their over representation in
agricultural, the informal sector, and housework, women incomes are normally significantly less
than those of men
• Because much of women time is spend doing unpaid subsistence work in the household, which
does not appear in production statistic, the World Bank gives little attention to the effect of its
SAPs on women work time
• SAPs usually require the LDCs lower government deficit by facing out food subsidies and
provide incentives to farmers by raising the prices they receive for their tradable goods
• World Bank views cut backs in government spending and subsidies as an indication of increase
efficiency but cost are in fact being shifted from the paid to the unpaid economy where women
do must of the job
a ANOTHER SHIFT IN DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY?
• THE LATE 1980’S TO 1994
• Protracted economic and political problems in the Africans LDCs and Asia led to gradual
recognition by the World Bank that the state had a significant role in economic development
• World Bank began to address the issue of the poors LDCs and most vulnerable groups in the late
1980s and 90s
• Four major bases in World Bank thinking and poverty reduction
° 1945 to late 1960s World Bank focus on large economic projects to contribute to
industrial development
° 70’s World Bank began to give more attention to poverty reduction it develops more
basic human needs projects
° 1980’s similar to first phase World Bank relied on trickle down theories of poverty
reduction condition on implementation of orthodox liberal policy
° Late 80’s to present, similar to second phase
• Dec 1994, World Bank forced to confront shortcomings in development approach when Mexico, a
country western policy had view as a model of economic management failed
2 1995 TO EARLY 2002
• Stiglitz wrote for a stronger role for the state in development and shifted away for World Bank
adherence to Washington consensus
• 1997 World development report – rejects orthodox liberal preference for minimalist state
• Maintain that development requires an effective state, encouraging and complementing activities
of private business and individuals
• 1988 World Bank would devote increase attention and development policy to poorest individuals
in society
• January 1999, Introduction of a comprehensive development framework (CDF) design to take
broader holistic approach to development than structural adjustment
• Emphasizes partnership between donors and the government, and government and civil society
• Constrains of the World Bank relate to reaction of major members, especially the US. Stiglitz
advocate of change critical of the IMF, World Bank and US policies toward third world
a CONCLUSION
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