RC Chapter03 2016

Reinforced Concrete Design © Prof. Dr.
Ng Chee Khoon
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN FOR FLEXURE:

ULTIMATE STRENGTH ANALYSIS, DURABILITY AND
SERVICEABILITY
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 Required Strength and Design Strength
The basic safety equation for flexure is:
Eurocode 2: Design strength ≥ Factored load effects ( M Rd ≥ M Ed ) (3.1)
where MRd = nominal moment capacity of a cross section; and MEd = moment due to the
combination of actions.
3.1.2 Positive and Negative Moments
A moment that causes compression on the top surface of a beam and tension on the bottom
surface will be called a positive moment. The compression zones for positive and negative
moments are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1 Cross-sectional dimensions
At ultimate limit state, the concrete in the compression zone will crush as shown in Fig. 3.2.
Chapter 3: Design for Flexure: Ultimate Strength Analysis, Durability and Serviceability 15
Reinforced Concrete Design © Prof. Dr. Ng Chee Khoon
Fig. 3.2 Appearance of test beam after failure
3.2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
3.2.1 Types of Reinforced Concrete Sections in Flexure
Fig. 3.3 shows some examples of reinforced concrete beams that one may find in practice.
(i) singly reinforced beam (ii) doubly reinforced beam

(a) rectangular sections
(i) T-section beam (ii) L-section beam

(b) flanged beams
Fig. 3.3 Types of reinforced concrete beam sections
Any of the arrangements of reinforcement as shown in Fig. 3.3 can be employed in

conditions where the beam is simply supported or where it is continuous over the supports
(see Fig. 3.4).
(a) simply supported (b) continuous

Fig. 3.4 Conditions of beam supports
Where beams are used in a continuous situation, care must be taken to correctly locate the
reinforcement in the tension face of the beam.
3.2.2 Stress and Strain Compatibility and Equilibrium
Two requirements are satisfied throughout the analysis and design for flexure:
(i) Stress and strain compatibility.
(ii) Equilibrium.
b Peak
Compression εcu stress
zone
x C
d
jd
d–x
εs T
(a) beam section (b) strain distribution (c) stress distribution
Fig. 3.5 Strain and stress distributions in a beam cross-section at ultimate limit state
From stress and strain compatibility, the stress at any point in a member must correspond to
that point [see Figs. 3.5(a) and (b)].
From equilibrium, total internal force in the section must be zero [see Fig. 3.5(c)], i.e., C = T.
The couple produce by the forces C and T, Cjd = Tjd, will be the moment of resistance of the
section which is equal to the bending moment due to external load effects.
3.2.3 Tension, Compression and Balanced Failure
Depending on the properties of a beam, flexural failures may occur in three different ways:
(i) Tension Failure. Reinforcement yields before concrete crushes. Such a beam is said
to be under-reinforced.
(ii) Compression Failure. Concrete crushes before steel yields. Such a beam is said to be
over-reinforced.
(iii) Balanced Failure. Concrete crushes and steel yields simultaneously. Such a beam
has balanced reinforcement.
Fig. 3.6 illustrates the modes of failure for the beam sections.
Tension failure [Fig. 3.6(a)] is ductile in nature. As a result, the occupants of the building
have warning of the impending failure and therefore have an opportunity to leave the building
before the final collapse, thus reducing the consequences of collapse. Compression and
balanced failures are brittle and catastrophic in nature. Therefore, the occupants of the
building have no warning of structural failure, and as a result, such failures may have serious
consequences.
b
εcu
εs > ε y
(a) Beam A – Tension failure
b
εcu
εs < εy
(b) Beam B – Compression failure
b
εcu
εs = εy
(c) Beam C – Balanced failure
Fig. 3.6 Tension, compression and balanced failures
To reduce the chance that brittle failures will occur, Eurocode 2 requires that beams normally
have properties which ensure that tension failures with fst = fyk would occur.
3.3 Design Formulae for Singly Reinforced Section
Fig. 3.7 shows the cross section, strain and stress distributions based on Eurocode 2. The
actual stress distribution of the concrete in compression as shown in Fig. 3.5(c) is simplified
to an equivalent stress block as shown in Fig. 3.7. The factor λ defining the effective height
of the concrete compression zone is given as
λ = 0 .8 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (3.1a)
λ = 0.8 − ( f ck − 50) / 400 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa (3.1b)
The factor η defining the effective concrete strength is given as
η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (3.2a)
η = 1.0 − ( f ck − 50) / 200 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa (3.2b)
–2
Fig. 3.7 Stress and strain distributions and simplified stress block for singly reinforced beam
(Eurocode 2)
The design concrete compressive strength fcd is given as
f cd = α cc f ck / γ c (3.3a)
where αcc = the coefficient taking account of long term effects on the compressive strength
and of unfavourable effects resulting from the way the load is applied. From MS EN 1992-1-
1:2010 Malaysia National Annex, αcc = 0.85 for compression in flexure. Therefore,
f cd = 0.85 f ck / 1.5 = 0.567 f ck (3.3b)
According to Table 3.1 in Eurocode 2, the ultimate strain of concrete in compression εcu2 is
0.0035 [Fig. 3.8(b)] for fck ≤ 50 MPa. Therefore the strain and stress distributions for a
singly-reinforced rectangular beam section are shown in Fig. 3.8 for fck ≤ 50 MPa.
Henceforth, all the design formulae derived herein are for normal strength concrete, i.e., fck ≤
50 MPa.
From equilibrium [see Fig. 3.8(c)],
Concrete compression = Steel tension
0.567 f ck (0.8 x)b = 0.87 f yk As
x f A
= 1.918 yk s (3.4)
d f ck bd
0.567fck
b 0.4x
εcu2 = 0.0035
x 0.8x 0.4536fckbx
d
z = d – 0.4x
d–x
As
εs 0.87fykAs
Fig. 3.8 Stress and strain distributions and simplified stress block for singly reinforced beam
(Eurocode 2)
The moment M corresponding to the forces in Fig. 2.3(c) is simply the concrete compression
or the steel tension times the lever arm z, where
z = d − 0 .4 x (3.5)
Using the concrete compression, say,
M = (0.4536 f ckbx)(d − 0.4 x)
⎛ x ⎞⎛ x⎞
= ⎜ 0.4536 ⎟⎜1 − 0.4 ⎟ f ckbd 2
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d⎠
M = Kf ck bd 2 (3.6a)
As expected, M increases with x/d and hence with As [see Eq. (3.4)]. Eurocode 2 limits x/d ≤
0.45 (see Example 3.1) so that the steel reinforcement yields at ultimate limit state.
Substituting xbal/d = 0.45 into Eq. (3.6a), we get the ultimate moment of resistance of a singly
reinforced section or the balanced moment Mbal as
M bal = 0.167 f ck bd 2
M bal = K bal f ck bd 2 (3.6b)
in which Kbal = 0.167.
Example 3.1 Determination of Limiting Value of x/d.
For fyk = 500 MPa, design strength 0.87fyk = 435 MPa and εs = 435/Es = 0.0022. Therefore,
from the geometry of Fig. 3.8(b),
0.0035 0.0022
=
x d−x
x = 0.614d
Therefore, for x/d not exceeding 0.614, tension reinforcement of fyk = 500 MPa (or less) will
reach the design strength 0.87fyk at the ultimate limit state. Eurocode 2 limits the x/d ratio to
0.45 so that the steel reinforcement yields at ultimate limit state.
Using the steel tension, say,
M = 0.87 f yk As z
M
As = (3.7)
0.87 f yk z
Eq. (3.7) is the design formula for tension reinforcement in singly reinforced section. This
equation cam be used to design the area of tension reinforcement in a singly reinforced
concrete section to resist an ultimate moment M. However, the moment arm z in Eq. (3.7)
needs to be determined before the area of tension reinforcement As can be calculated.
From Eq. (3.5),
d−z
x= (3.8)
0.4
From Eq (3.6a),
⎛ x ⎞⎛ x⎞
K = ⎜ 0.4536 ⎟⎜1 − 0.4 ⎟ (3.9)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d⎠
Substitute Eq. (3.8) into Eq. (3.9),
⎡ ⎛ d − z ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ d − z ⎞⎤
K = ⎢1.134⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ d ⎠⎦
⎡ ⎛ z ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ z ⎞⎤
K = ⎢1.134⎜1 − ⎟⎥ ⎢1 − ⎜1 − ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ d ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ d ⎠⎦
⎛ z ⎞⎛ z ⎞
0.882 K = ⎜1 − ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d ⎠
2
⎛z⎞ ⎛z⎞
⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + 0.882 K = 0
⎝d ⎠ ⎝d ⎠
z 1 ± (−1) 2 − 4 × 1 × 0.882 K
=
d 2
The viable solution is
z K
= 0.5 + 0.25 −
d 1.134
⎛ K ⎞
z = d ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟
⎟ (3.10)
⎝ 1.134 ⎠
Eqs. (3.7) and (3.10) are used in the design of the area of tension reinforcement for a singly
reinforced concrete beam section with K < Kbal. For beam sections with K > Kbal,
compression reinforcement is required which will be discussed in Section 3.4.
The provided area of tension reinforcement should be within the minimum area As,min and
maximum area As,max, where, according to MS EN 1992-1-1:2010 Section 9.2.1.1,
f ctm
As, min = 0.26 bt d </ 0.0013bt d (3.11)
f yk
and
As, max = 0.04 Ac = 0.04bh (3.12)
where fctm = concrete tensile strength that can be obtained from Table 3.1 of MS EN 1992-1-
1:2010; bt = mean width of the tension zone of which for a T-beam with the flange in
compression, only the width of the web is taken into account in calculating the value of bt; Ac
= cross-sectional area of the concrete beam; and h = total height of the beam.
Example 3.2 Designing the Area of Tension Reinforcement
The design ultimate moment M for a rectangular beam of width b = 250 mm and effective
depth d = 650 mm is 300 kNm. fck = 35 MPa and fyk = 500 MPa. The total beam height h =
700 mm.
Step (a)
Check whether x/d ≤ 0.45. From Eq. (3.6a),
M 300 × 106
K= = = 0.081 < K bal = 0.167
f ck bd 2 (35)(250)(6502 )
Since K < Kbal, x/d < 0.45.
Step (b)
Find lever arm z. From Eq. (3.10),
⎛ K ⎞
z = d ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟
⎟
⎝ 1.134 ⎠
⎛ 0.081 ⎞
z = 650⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟
⎝ 1.134 ⎟⎠
z = 600 mm
Step (c)
Find As. From Eq. (3.7),
M
As =
0.87 f yk z
300 × 106
As =
0.87(500)(600)
As, req = 1150 mm 2
Provide 4H20 (As,prov = 1257 mm2)
From Eq. (3.11),
f ctm
As, min = 0.26 bt d </ 0.0013bt d
f yk
From Table 3.1 of MS EN 1992-1-1:2010, fctm =3.2 MPa for fck = 35 MPa, so
⎛ 3.2 ⎞
As, min = 0.26⎜ ⎟(250)(650) = 270 mm </ 0.0013(250)(650) = 211 mm
2 2
⎝ 500 ⎠
From Eq. (3.12),
As, max = 0.04 Ac = 0.04bh = 0.04(250)(700) = 7000 mm 2
As, min < As, prov < As, max ∴O.K.
3.4 Design Formulae for Doubly Reinforced Section
3.4.1 Design Formulae with Assumption of Yielding in the Compression

Reinforcement
From section 3.3, if the value of x/d is found to be greater than 0.45 for a given design
ultimate moment [i.e., M exceeds Kbalfckbd2 of Eq. (3.6b)], then compression reinforcement is
needed [see Fig. 3.9(a)] to resist the excess moment, M – Kbalfckbd2, so that the value of x/d is
brought back to the maximum permitted value of 0.45 as shown in Fig. 3.9(b).
0.567fck
d' b 0.87fykAs' 0.18d
εcu2 = 0.0035
As'
εs' x = 0.45d 0.36d 0.204fckbd
d
z = 0.82d
0.55d d – d'
As
εs = 0.0043 0.87fykAs
Fig. 3.9 Stress and strain distributions and simplified stress block for doubly reinforced beam
(Eurocode 2)
Taking moment at the level of tension reinforcement of Fig. 3.9(c), we get
M = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + 0.204 f ck bdz
M = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + 0.204 f ckbd (0.82d )
M = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + 0.167 f ck bd 2
M = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + K bal f ck bd 2 (3.13)
Substituting Eq. (3.6a) into Eq. (3.13), we have
Kf ck bd 2 = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + K bal f ck bd 2
0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) = Kf ck bd 2 − K bal f ck bd 2 (3.14)
( K − K bal ) f ck bd 2
As ' = (3.15)
0.87 f yk (d − d ' )
Eq. (3.15) is the design formula for compression reinforcement of doubly reinforced section
based on Eurocode 2. There is no requirement for minimum compression reinforcement,
there is only requirement for maximum reinforcement which is the same as tension
reinforcement in Eq. (3.12), that is,
A's, max = 0.04 Ac = 0.04bh (3.16)
From equilibrium of Fig. 3.9(c),
0.87 f yk As = 0.204 f ck bd + 0.87 f yk As ' (3.17)
Multiplying Eq. (3.17) by the lever arm z which is equal to 0.82d, we get
0.87 f yk As z = 0.204 f ckbdz + 0.87 f yk As ' z
0.87 f yk As z = 0.204 f ck bd (0.82d ) + 0.87 f yk As ' z
0.87 f yk As z = 0.167 f ck bd 2 + 0.87 f yk As ' z
K bal f ck bd 2
As = + As ' (3.18)
0.87 f yk z
Eq. (3.18) is the design formula for tension reinforcement of doubly reinforced section
according to Eurocode 2. The requirements for minimum and maximum reinforcements
follow the singly reinforced section, i.e., Eqs. (3.11) and (3.12), respectively.
3.4.2 Stress in Compression Reinforcement When it is Not Yielding
Equations (3.15) and (3.18) were derived assuming that the compression reinforcement has
yielded, i.e., the stress in the compression reinforcement has reached 0.87fyk. If the strain in
the compression reinforcement εs' [see Fig. 3.9(b)] is less than the yield strain of steel, then
the stress in the compression reinforcement is less than 0.87fyk, which has to be determined
from the stress-strain diagram of steel.
From Fig. 3.9(b),
x − d'
εs ' = (0.0035)
x
For the compression reinforcement to reach the yield strength,
0.87 f yk
εs ' ≥
Es
Therefore,
0.87 f yk x − d'
≤ (0.0035)
Es x
For fyk = 500 MPa and Es = 200000 MPa, we have
0.87(500) ⎛ d ' ⎞
≤ ⎜1 − ⎟(0.0035)
200000 ⎝ x⎠
d'
≤ 0.38 (3.18)
x
Therefore, as long as d'/x does not exceed 0.38, the compression reinforcement can be
assumed to reach the design strength or yield strength of 0.87fyk. If d'/x exceeds 0.38, a
reduced stress fs' should be used. From Fig. 3.9(b),
x − d'
εs '= (0.0035)
x
fs ' x − d '
= (0.0035)
Es x
⎛ d'⎞
f s ' = 700⎜1 − ⎟ (3.19)
⎝ x⎠
The value of stress in the compression reinforcement from Eq. (3.19) must be used in the
denominator of Eq. (3.15) in place of 0.87fyk in order to calculate the area of compression
reinforcement As', that is,
As ' = (3.20)
f s ' (d − d ' )
The formula for the area of tension reinforcement from Eq. (3.18) has to be rewritten to give
K bal f ckbd 2 ⎛ fs ' ⎞

As = + As ' ⎜ ⎟ (3.21)
0.87 f yk z ⎜ 0.87 f ⎟
⎝ yk ⎠
3.4.3 Effect of Moment Redistribution on Kbal
Moment redistribution can be carried out in a continuous structural member to take into
account of formation of plastic hinges at the sections with the largest moments at ultimate
limit state. Therefore, the moments derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed
based on the assumption that plastic hinges are formed. The formation of plastic hinges
requires relatively large rotations with yielding of the tension reinforcement. To ensure large
strain in the tension reinforcement, the code of practice restricts the depth of the neutral axis
to correspond with the magnitude of the moment redistribution carried out. The equation for
this according to MS EN 1992-1-1:2010 Section 5.5 for fck ≤ 50 MPa is as follows:
xbal
δ ≥ k1 + k2
d
(δ − k1 )d
xbal ≤ (3.22)
k2
where δ = is the ratio of the redistributed moment to the elastic bending moment; k1, k2 =
constants from Eurocode 2; xbal = maximum value of neutral axis depth where it shall not be
more than 0.45d for fck ≤ 50 MPa; and d = effective depth.
From Fig. 3.8(c), if x = xbal, then
M bal = 0.567 f ck b(0.8 xbal )(d − 0.4 xbal )
and
M bal 0.567(0.8 xbal )(d − 0.4 xbal ) xbal 2

xbal
K bal = = = 0.454 − 0.182
f ck bd 2 d2 d d2
Substituting Eq. (3.22), we have
2
δ − k1 ⎛ δ − k1 ⎞
K bal = 0.454 − 0.182⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
k2 ⎝ k2 ⎠
According to MS EN 1992-1-1:2010 Malaysia National Annex, k1 = 0.4 and k2 = 0.6 +

0.0014/εcu2 = 0.6 + 0.0014/0.0035 = 1 for fyk ≤ 500 MPa. Therefore,
K bal = 0.454(δ − 0.4) − 0.182(δ − 0.4) 2 (3.23)
It is important to note that Eq. (3.23) gives a non-conservative value of Kbal for design in
flexure. If the Eurocode 2 recommended values of k1 = 0.44 and k2 = 1.25(0.6 + 0.0014/εcu2)
= 1.25(0.6 + 0.0014/0.0035) = 1.25 are used, then
K bal = 0.363(δ − 0.44) − 0.116(δ − 0.44) 2 (3.24)
Eq. (3.24) is a more conservative equation for determining Kbal and therefore this equation
will be used throughout this course.
Example 3.3 Designing the Area of Tension and Compression Reinforcements
Repeat Example 3.2 if M = 750 kNm. Assume d' = 60 mm. What is that x/d ratio of the
beam so designed?
Step (a)
Check whether x/d ≤ 0.45. From Eq. (3.6a),
M 750 × 106
K= = = 0.203 > K bal = 0.167
f ck bd 2 (35)(250)(6502 )
Since K > Kbal, x/d > 0.45. Therefore compression reinforcement is required to reduce x/d to
0.45.
Step (b)
Find compression steel area As'. From Eq. (3.15),
( K − K bal ) f ckbd 2 (0.203 − 0.167)(35)(250)(6502 )

A's, req = = = 518 mm 2
0.87 f yk (d − d ' ) 0.87(500)(650 − 60)
A's, max = 0.04 Ac = 0.04bh = 0.04(250)(700) = 7000 mm 2
Step (c)
Find tension steel area As. From Eq. (2.8),
K bal f ck bd 2 0.167(35)(250)(6502 )
As, req = + A's, req = + 518 = 3180 mm 2
0.87 f yk z 0.87(500)(0.82 × 650)
As, min = 211 mm 2
As, max = 7000 mm 2
Provide 2H20 top bars (A's,prov = 628 mm2), A's, prov < A's, max ∴O.K.
Provide 4H32 bottom bars (As,prov = 3220 mm2), As, min < As, prov < As, max ∴O.K.
Step (d)
The x/d ratio. As discussed in the preceding section, the x/d ratio is 0.45, so x = 0.45 × 650 =
293 mm.
Step (e)
Check d'/x ratio. d'/x = 60/293 = 0.204 < 0.38, so the compression reinforcement has reached
its yield strength. No modification on compression steel stress is needed.
3.5 Design Procedure for Rectangular Beams (Eurocode 2)
Step 1
Calculate K using Eq. (3.6a)
M
K=
f ck bd 2
Calculate Kbal using Eq. (3.24)
K bal = 0.363(δ − 0.44) − 0.116(δ − 0.44) 2
If K ≤ Kbal then proceed to Step 2. If K > Kbal then proceed to Step 3.
Step 2
For K ≤ Kbal, the tension reinforcement is given by Eq. (3.7)
M
As =
0.87 f yk z
where the lever arm z is given by Eq. (3.10)
⎛ K ⎞
z = d ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟
⎝ 1.134 ⎟⎠
Step 3
For K > Kbal, compression reinforcement is required and is given by Eq. (3.15),
As ' =
0.87 f yk (d − d ' )
If d'/x > 0.38, where x = 0.45d, then use Eq. (3.19) to calculate the compressive stress in the
compression reinforcement,
⎛ d'⎞
f s ' = 700⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ x⎠
in place of 0.87fyk in the equation for As', i.e., Eq. (3.20),
As ' =
f s ' (d − d ' )
The area of tension reinforcement As is computed from Eq. (3.18) if d'/x ≤ 0.38,
K ' f cu bd 2
As = + As '
0.95 f y z
where z is given by Eq. (3.10) by substituting K = Kbal into the equation, i.e.,
⎛ K ⎞
z = d ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − bal ⎟⎟
⎝ 1.134 ⎠
If d'/x > 0.38, then use Eq. (3.21) to calculate the area of tension reinforcement As, i.e.,
K bal f ckbd 2 ⎛ fs ' ⎞

As = + As ' ⎜ ⎟
0.87 f yk z ⎜ 0.87 f ⎟
⎝ yk ⎠
3.6 Design Formulae and Procedure for Flanged Beams
beff beff
hf hf
d d
As As
bw bw
(a) T-section beam (b) L-section beam

Fig. 3.10 Dimensions of flanged beams
For a T-beam or L-beam as shown in Fig. 3.10, the effective flange width beff should be taken
as (Eurocode 2 Clause 5.3.2.1):
beff = ∑ beff,i + bw ≤ b (3.25)
where
beff,i = 0.2bi + 0.1l0 ≤ 0.2l0
and
beff,i ≤ bi
in which l0 = distance between points of contra-flexure (zero moment) along the span of the
beam; and the other notations are shown in Fig. 3.11 (Figures 5.2 and 5.3 of Eurocode 2).
Fig. 3.11 Definition of l0 and effective flange width parameters (Figures 5.2 and 5.3 of
Eurocode 2)
3.6.1 Design Procedure
Step 1
Check x/d ratio. Compute
M
K=
f ck beff d 2
and get z and x from
⎛ K ⎞
z = d ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟
⎟
⎝ 1.134 ⎠
d−z
x=
0.4
If 0.8x ≤ hf, proceed to Step 2. If 0.8x > hf, proceed to Step 3.
Step 2
For 0.8x ≤ hf, the Eurocode 2 rectangular stress block lies wholly within the flange thickness.
The steel reinforcement As is determined as for a rectangular beam using Eq. (3.7)
M
As =
0.87 f yk z
with
⎛ K ⎞
z = d ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟
⎟
⎝ 1.134 ⎠
Step 3
For 0.8x > hf, the Eurocode 2 rectangular stress block lies partly outside the flange. Check
the design ultimate moment:
M ≤ βf f ck beff d 2 (3.26)
where βffckbeffd2 = ultimate moment of resistance of the section for which the derivation is
shown later, where
⎛ bw ⎞⎛
⎟⎟⎜1 − f ⎞⎟ + 0.167 w
hf h b
βf = 0.567 ⎜⎜1 − (3.27)
d ⎝ beff ⎠⎝ 2d ⎠ beff
The derivation of βf is as follows:
Compute the ultimate moment of resistance of the flange Mf (see Fig. 3.12):
(a) from concrete compression:
M uf = 0.567 f ck (beff − bw )hf (d − 0.5hf )
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎛ h ⎤
⎟⎟⎜1 − f ⎞⎟⎥ f ck beff d 2
h b
M uf = ⎢0.567 f ⎜⎜1 − w (3.28a)
⎣ d ⎝ beff ⎠⎝ 2d ⎠⎦
(b) from steel tension:
M uf = 0.87 f yk Asf (d − 0.5hf ) (3.28b)
beff – bw
0.567fck
beff hf 0.5hf
0.567fck(beff – bw)hf
d
d – 0.5hf
Asf
0.87fykAsf
bw
(a) beam section (b) flange and web (c) stress distribution
components
Fig. 3.12 Stress distribution in the flange of a flanged beam section
Compute the ultimate moment of resistance of the web (see Fig. 3.13) with x/d = 0.45:
From concrete compression,
M uw = 0.454 f ck bw (0.45d )(0.82d )
M uw = 0.167 f ck bw d 2 (3.29)
0.567fck
beff hf bw 0.4x
0.454fckbwx
d
d – 0.4x
Asw
0.87fykAsw
bw
(a) beam section (b) flange and web (c) stress distribution
components
Fig. 3.13 Stress distribution in the web of a flanged beam section
The total ultimate moment of resistance for the flanged section is given as:
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎛ h ⎤
⎟⎟⎜1 − f ⎞⎟⎥ f ck beff d 2 + 0.167 f ck bw d 2
h b
M uf + M uw = ⎢0.567 f ⎜⎜1 − w
⎣ d ⎝ beff ⎠⎝ 2d ⎠⎦
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎛ b ⎤
⎟⎟⎜1 − f ⎞⎟ + 0.167 w ⎥ f ck beff d 2 = βf f ck beff d 2 (verified)
h b h
M uf + M uw = ⎢0.567 f ⎜⎜1 − w
⎣ d ⎝ beff ⎠⎝ 2d ⎠ beff ⎦
If M ≤ βffckbeffd2, then x/d ≤ 0.45 as in Fig. 3.13. Therefore the moment of resistance of the
web is:
(a) from concrete compression:
⎛ x ⎞⎛ x⎞
M w = (0.454 f ck bw x)(d − 0.4 x) = ⎜ 0.454 ⎟⎜1 − 0.4 ⎟ f ck bw d 2 = K w f ck bw d 2 (3.30a)
⎝ d ⎠⎝ d⎠
(b) from steel tension:
M w = 0.87 f yk Asw z (3.30b)
in which z is given by:
⎛ K ⎞
z = d ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − w ⎟⎟ (3.31)
⎝ 1.134 ⎠
Hence, total moment of resistance of the section is
M = M uf + M w = M uf + K w f ck bw d 2
M − M uf
Kw = (3.32)
f ck bw d 2
Step 4
Calculate Kw from Eq. (3.32).
Total area of steel reinforcement As = Asf + Asw. From Eqs. (3.28b) and (3.30b),
M uf Mw
As = +
0.87 f yk (d − 0.5hf ) 0.87 f yk z
M uf M − M uf
As = + (3.33)
0.87 f yk (d − 0.5hf ) 0.87 f yk z
For further simplification, we can conservatively assume that Mw = Muw and z = 0.82d in Eq.
(3.33), from which
M − M uw M uw
As = +
0.87 f yk (d − 0.5h f ) 0.87 f yk (0.82d )
M − 0.167 f ck bw d 2 0.204 f ck bw d
As = +
0.87 f yk (d − 0.5h f ) 0.87 f yk
M − 0.167 f ck bw d 2 + 0.204 f ck bw d (d − 0.5hf )

As =
0.87 f yk (d − 0.5hf )
M + f ck bw d (0.204d − 0.167 d − 0.1hf )

As =
0.87 f yk (d − 0.5hf )
M + 0.1 f ck bw d (0.36d − hf )
As = (3.34)
0.87 f yk (d − 0.5hf )
In the unlikely event of M > βffckbeffd2, compression reinforcement is needed. The excessive
moment M – βffckbeffd2 has to be resisted by the compression reinforcement. Therefore,
0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) = M − βf f ck beff d 2 (3.35)
from which the required area As' of the compression steel is obtained.
The tension steel area As is then determined from the equilibrium of forces:
0.87fykAs = flange compression + web compression + steel compression
0.87 f yk As = 0.567 f ck (beff − bw )hf + 0.567 f ck bw (0.36d ) + 0.87 f yk As '
0.87 f yk As = 0.567 f ck (beff − bw )hf + 0.204 f ck bw d + 0.87 f yk As ' (3.36)
from which the required area As of the tension steel is obtained.
3.7 Durability Requirement
A structural element has to have enough durability during its service life. The durability
includes the resistance to exposure condition and fire protection.
3.7.1 Concrete Cover
Concrete cover is provided to the steel reinforcement to prevent corrosion and protect it in the
event of fire. The cover must be provided in such that it allows the steel reinforcement to
develop good bond with the concrete. Eurocode 2 specifies the nominal cover (see Fig. 3.14)
as follows:
cnom = cmin + Δcdev (3.37)
where cmin = minimum cover set to satisfy bond requirement, exposure condition and fire
protection; and Δcdev = allowance for construction inaccuracy and should be taken as 10 mm
unless where an approved quality control system on cover is specified, in which case it can be
reduced to 5 mm.
The minimum cover for bond is denoted as cmin,b in accordance with Table 4.2 of Eurocode 2.
For separated bars, cmin,b = diameter of bar. For bundled bars, cmin,b = equivalent diameter in
accordance with section 8.9.1 of Eurocode 2.
The minimum cover for exposure condition is denoted as cmin,dur in accordance with the
exposure class and structural class in Table 4.1 and Table 4.3N of Eurocode 2, respectively.
The recommended structural class (design working life of 50 years) is S4 for the indicative
concrete strengths given in Annex E of Eurocode 2. The value of cmin,dur is then determined
from Table 4.4N with the corresponding exposure and structural classes.
The minimum cover for fire protection is mentioned in Eurocode 2: Part 1-2. Rather than
specifying the minimum cover, the nominal axis distance a is specified. The axis distance is
the distance from the centre of the main reinforcing bar to the surface of the member as
illustrated in Fig. 3.15. Therefore,
a ≤ cnom + φlink + φbar/2 (3.38)
The permissible combinations of member dimensions and axis distances are give in Table 5.5
and 5.6 of Eurocode 2: Part 1-2.
Link
diameter,
φlink
Clear
spacing Nominal
cover, cnom
cnom Spacing
Fig. 3.14 Nominal concrete cover and bar spacing
Fig. 3.15 Definition of axis distance, a
Example 3.4 Determination of concrete cover.
An interior beam of a building with moderate air humidity is going to be designed. The
member size and concrete cover needs to be determined for the design calculation. The
building is to be designed for fire resistance of 1 and a half hour. For a preliminary
calculation, the beam may be assumed as simply supported. The main reinforcing bar
diameter and link diameter can be assumed as 20 mm and 8 mm, respectively. The main
reinforcing bars may be assumed to be separated. The design working life of the structure is
50 years.
There is no description on quality control of concrete, therefore,
Δcdev = 10 mm
From Table 4.1 of Eurocode 2, the exposure class is XC3.
From Table E.1N of Eurocode 2, the indicative strength class is C30/37, i.e., the minimum
concrete strength is class C30/37 for the structural element to be classified as structural class
S4. Hence, we are going to specify concrete C30/37 for the design of this beam.
Now let us refer to Table 4.3N of Eurocode 2. There is no increase of reduction in structural
class for this beam, so the structural class remains as S4.
According to Table 4.2 of Eurocode 2, for separated bars,
cmin,b = diameter of bar = 20 mm
According to Table 4.4N of Eurocode 2, the minimum cover for exposure class XC3 and
structural class S4 is,
cmin,dur = 25 mm
To satisfy both bond and exposure requirements,
cmin = 25 mm
From Eq. (3.37),
cnom = 25 + 10 mm = 35 mm
For fire resistance of 90 minutes for a simply supported beam, Table 5.5 of Eurocode 2: Part
1-2 specifies that the combination of minimum beam dimension of 150 mm and axis distance
of 55 mm is possible. Another 10 mm is added to the axis distance for the corner bar with
single layer of reinforcement (asd). Therefore, the beam width can be specified as 150 mm.
From Eq. (3.38),
55 + 10 ≤ cnom + 8 + 20/2
cnom ≥ 47 mm
Hence, the minimum cover is 47 mm to satisfy all bond, exposure and fire protection
requirements.
3.7.2 Minimum Distance Between Bars
The minimum distance between bars is to permit concrete flow around reinforcement during
construction and to ensure that concrete can be compacted satisfactory for the development of
adequate bond. The clear distance between bars should not be less than the maximum of (i)
the largest bar size, (ii) the largest aggregate size + 5 mm, or (iii) 20 mm as specified in
section 8.2 of Eurocode 2 and the Malaysia National Annex.
3.7.3 Anchorage of Bars
Bars should be provided with appropriate embedment length or other form of end anchorage.
The basic required anchorage length is given in section 8.4.3 of Eurocode 2 as follows [Eq.
(8.3) of Eurocode 2]
lb,rqd = (φ / 4)(σsd / f bd ) = (φ / 4)(0.87 f yk / f bd ) = ( f yk / 4.6 f bd )φ (3.39)
where fbd = the design ultimate bond stress = 2.25η1η2fctd [Eurocode 2 Eq. (8.2)]; in which η1
= quality of bond and position of bar coefficient = 1.0 for “good condition” or 0.7 for all
other cases; η1 = bar diameter coefficient = 1.0 for φ ≤ 32 mm or (132 – φ)/100 for φ > 32
mm; and fctd = design concrete tensile strength.
The design anchorage length lbd is given by [Eq. (8.4) of Eurocode 2]
lbd = a1a2 a3a4 a5lb,rqd ≥ lb,min (3.40)
where a1, a2, a3, a4, and a5 = coefficients given in Table 8.2 of Eurocode 2; and lb,min = the
minimum anchorage length, in which lb,min = max {0.3lb,rqd; 10φ; 100 mm} for tension bars
[Eq. (8.6) of Eurocode 2]; and lb,min = max {0.6lb,rqd; 10φ; 100 mm} for compression bars [Eq.
(8.7) of Eurocode 2].
Typical values of design anchorage length for “good” and “poor” bond condition are given in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Typical values of anchorage and lap lengths as a multiple of bar size
Concrete strength fck (MPa)
Condition/ Situation Bond condition
20/25 25/30 30/37 32/40
Anchorage length Good 47 40 36 34
(tension or compression) Poor 67 58 51 49
Lap length Good 54 46 42 39
(tension or compression) Poor 77 66 59 56
Notes:
1. It is assumed that the bar size is not greater than 32 mm and a1, a2, a3, a4, and a5 are all
equal to 1.
2. It is assumed that not more than 33% of the bars are lapped at one place, a6 = 1.15.
For other situations refer to MS EN 1992-1-1 Section 8.4.4.
3.7.4 Laps in Reinforcement
The purpose of lapping is to transfer effectively the axial force from the terminating bar to the
connecting bar with the same line of action.
Laps are achieved by overlapping the bars over certain length, thereby enabling the transfer
of axial force from the terminating bar to the connecting bar through the mechanism of
anchorage or development bond with the surrounding concrete. The length of laps should be
based on the minimum anchorage length modified to take into account factors such as cover,
etc. The design lap length required is given by [Eq. (8.10) of Eurocode 2]
l0 = a1a2 a3a4 a5 a6lb,rqd ≥ l0,min (3.41)
where a1, a2, a3, a4, and a5 = coefficients given in Table 8.2 of Eurocode 2 (for the calculation
of a3, ΣAst,min should be taken as 1.0As(σsd/fyd), with As = area of one lapped bar); a6 =
(ρ1/25)0.5 but not exceeding 1.5 nor less than 1.0 and and ρ1 is the percentage of
reinforcement lapped within 0.65l0 from the centre of the lap length being considered; lb,rqd =
(8.3) of Eurocode 2; and l0,min = max {0.3a6lb,rqd; 15φ; 200 mm}.
Requirements for laps are provided in Section 8.7 of Eurocode 2. The code recommends
that:
(1) Laps between bars should be staggered and should not occur in regions of high stress.
(2) The arrangement of lapped bars should comply with Fig. 3.16.
(3) Transverse reinforcement must be provided around laps unless lapped bars are less than
20 mm diameter or there is less than 25% lapped bars. In these cases minimum
transverse reinforcement provided for other purposes such as shear links will be adequate.
Otherwise transverse reinforcement must be provided as shown in Fig. 3.17 having a total
area of not less than the area of one lapped bar.
Fig. 31.6 Adjacent laps (Fig. 8.7 of Eurocode 2)
(a) Bars in tension (b) Bars in compression

Fig. 3.17 Transverse reinforcement for lapped bars (Fig. 8.9 of Eurocode 2)
Typical values of lap length for “good” and “poor” bond conditions, and assuming not more
than 33% of the bars are lapped at one place are given in Table 3.1.
3.7.5 Curtailment of Reinforcement
It is a common practice to cut off bars where they are not required to resist moment. Each
curtailed bar should extend a full anchorage length beyond the point at which it is no longer
needed.
The curtailment of the tension reinforcement is based on the enveloped tensile forces Fs
derived from the bending moment envelope as shown in Fig. 3.18 such that at any location
along the span,
Fs = MEd/z + ΔFtd (3.41)
where MEd = design bending moment from the moment envelope; z = lever arm; and ΔFtd =
additional tension obtained from the design for shear.
ΔFtd is maximum where the shear force is maximum at sections of zero moment and ΔFtd is
zero at maximum moment locations near to midspan and the exterior supports.
Fig. 3.18 Curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement (Fig. 9.2 of Eurocode 2)
When considering the curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement, the following rules must be
followed:
(1) At least 25% of the bottom reinforcement should extend to the support.
(2) The bottom reinforcement at the end support should be anchored into the support as
shown in Fig. 3.19.
(3) At an end support where there is little or no fixity, the bottom steel should be designed to
resist a tensile force of 0.5VEd to allow for the tension induced by the shear with a
minimum requirement of 25% of the reinforcement provided in the span.
(4) At an end support where there is fixity but it has been analysed as a simple support, top
steel should be designed and anchored to resist at least 25% of the midspan moment.
(5) At internal supports the bottom steel should extend at least 10φ beyond the face of
support. To achieve continuity and resistance to such factors as accidental damage or
seismic forces, splice bars should be provided across the support with a full anchorage lap
on each side as shown in Fig. 3.20.
(a) Direct support (b) Indirect support

Fig. 3.19 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at end supports (Fig. 9.3 of Eurocode 2)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.20 Anchorage at intermediate supports (Fig. 9.4 of Eurocode 2)
Simplified rules for curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement in different types of beam are
illustrated in Fig. 3.21.
50% 100% 50%
0.08l 0.08l
l
(a) Simply supported beam
0.3l + al
*Reduced to 25% for equal span 0.15l + al
35%* 60% 100%

30% 100% 30%
0.3l – al 0.3l – al
l
(b) Continuous beam
Notes
1. l is the effective span
2. al is the distance to allow for tensile force due to shear force = zcotθ/2. It can be
conservatively taken as 1.125d.
3. lbd is the design anchorage length.
4. Qk ≤ Gk
5. Minimum of two spans required.
6. Applies to uniformly distributed load only.
7. The shortest span must be greater than or equal to 0.85 times the longest span.
8. Applies where 15% redistribution has been used.
Fig. 3.21 Simplified detailing rules for beams [Source: Brooker, O., et al. (2006), “How to
design concrete structures using Eurocode,” The Concrete Centre]
3.8 Serviceability Requirements of Reinforced Concrete Beams
The two common serviceability requirements of reinforced concrete elements are deflection
and cracking. Excessive deflection and cracking are not desirable in a structure.
3.8.1 Deflection
For control of deflection, two alternative methods are described in section 7.4 of Eurocode 2:
1. Limiting span to depth ratio (deemed to satisfy condition) as described in section 7.4.2 of
Eurocode 2, and
2. Calculation of actual deflection and checking it with a limiting value as described in

section 7.4.3 of Eurocode 2. The limiting value depends on the nature of the structure
and its loading, but for reinforced concrete building the following are considered as
reasonable guide:
(a) Final deflection of a beam, slab or cantilever subjected to quasi-permanent load
should not exceed span/250.
(b) For the deflection which takes place after the application of finishes or fixing of
partitions should not exceed span/500 to avoid damage to fixtures and fittings.
Eurocode 2 suggests that deflection should be calculated under the action of the quasi-
permanent load combination, assuming this loading to be of long-term duration. Hence
the total loading to be used in the calculation will be the permanent load plus a proportion
of the variable load, typically 30% of the variable load for office type building.
In this course, we will only the deemed to satisfy condition, i.e., limiting the span to depth
ratio. The basic span to depth ratio to control deflection to a maximum deflection of
span/250 is given in Eurocode 2 as:
l ⎡ ρ0 ⎛ ρ0 ⎞ ⎤
3/ 2
= K ⎢11 + 1.5 f ck + 3.2 f ck ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ⎥ if ρ ≤ ρ0 (3.42a)

d ⎢⎣ ρ ⎝ρ ⎠ ⎥⎦
l ⎡ ρ0 1 ρ' ⎤
= K ⎢11 + 1.5 f ck + f ck ⎥ if ρ > ρ0 (3.42b)
d ⎣ ρ − ρ' 12 ρ0 ⎦
where K = the factor to take into account the different structural systems as given in Table
7.4N of Eurocode 2; ρ0 = the reference reinforcement ratio = f ck × 10 −3 ; ρ = the required
As, req
tension reinforcement ratio = ; and ρ' = the required compression reinforcement ratio
bd
A's,req
= .
bd
The value of the basic span to depth ratio is to be modified in particular cases as follows:
(1) For flanged section where the ratio of the flange width to the web width exceeds 3, the
value should be multiplied by 0.8.
(2) For beam and slab, other than flat slab, with span exceeding 7 m, with support partitions
liable to be damaged by excessive deflection, the value should be multiplied by 7/span.
(3) Where more tension reinforcement is provided (As,prov) than that calculated (As,req),
multiply the value by As,prov/As,req (upper limit = 1.5).
3.8.2 Cracking
Only the control of cracking without direct calculation in accordance with section 7.3.3 of
Eurocode 2 will be discussed here. Flexural cracking is generally controlled by providing a
minimum area of tension reinforcement (see preceding section) and limiting the bar spacing
or the bar sizes.
The recommended values for maximum crack width wmax is given in Table 7.1N of Eurocode
2.
The maximum bar spacing for crack control is given in Table 7.3N of Eurocode 2. The
maximum bar spacing depends on the stress in the reinforcement which should be taken as
the stress under the action of the quasi-permanent loadings. The quasi-permanent loading is
taken as the permanent action Gk plus a proportion of the variable action Qk depending on the
type of structure. The calculation of stress level fs can be complicated and an acceptable
approximation (for office and domestic situations) is to be taken as
f yk Gk + 0.3Qk A 1
fs = × × s,req × (3.43)
1.15 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk As,prov δ
where δ = ratio of moment redistribution.
The maximum bar size for crack control is given in Table 7.2N of Eurocode 2.
Example 3.5 Full flexural design with durability and serviceability considerations.
A simply-supported beam with an effective span of 7.5 m has to carry a uniformly distributed
permanent action of 10 kN/m on top of its self weight and a uniformly distributed variable
action of 30 kN/m. The beam has a rectangular section with width b = 400 mm and height h
= 600 mm as shown in Fig. 3.22. The beam is inside a building with moderate humidity and
the design working life is 50 years. Fire resistance requirement is 1 hour. Take fck = 30 MPa,
fyk = 500 N/mm2, unit weight of concrete = 25 kN/m3 (Table A.1 of MS EN 1991-1), main
tension reinforcement diameter of 25 mm with separated bars, main compression
reinforcement diameter of 12 mm (if any) and link diameter of 8 mm.
Compression reinforcement or hanger bars 1
Main tension reinforcement 1
l = 7.5 m
d h = 600 mm
As
1-1
Fig. 3.22 Beam dimensions
1 5
30 MPa 500 MPa
NCK
LSL
Table 4.1 Exposure class XC3
Table E1N XC3/ Indicative strength class C30/37 Structural class S4
Table No increase or reduction in structural class Structural class S4

4.3N
Table 4.2 Separated bars
cmin,b = diameter of bar = 25 mm
Table cmin,dur = 25 mm cmin = 25 mm

4.4N
4.4.1.3 Δcdev = 10 mm Δcdev = 10 mm

(1)P
To satisfy both bond and exposure requirements,
Eq. (4.1) cnom = 25 + 10 mm = 35 mm
MS EN bmin > 300 mm, a = 25 mm

1992-1-2 bmin > 200 mm, no increase in axis distance for corner bars of single
Table 5.5 layer
25 ≤ cnom + 8 + 25/2
Cnom ≥ 4.5 mm cnom = 35 mm
Assuming single layer of tension and compression reinforcements,

effective depth
d = 600 – 35 – 8 – 25/2 = 544 mm d = 544 mm
d'= 35 + 8 + 12/2 = 49 mm d'= 49 mm
Self weight of beam = 0.4 × 0.6 × 25 = 6 kN/m
Design action = 1.35(6 + 10) + 1.5(30) = 66.6 kN/m
2 5
66.6 kN/m
249.8 kN 249.8 kN
7.5 m
V = 249.8 kN
SFD
V = 249.8 kN
BMD
M = 468.3 kNm
6.1 MAIN REINFORCEMENT
Kbal = 0.167 (δ = 1, i.e., no redistribution)
M 468.3 × 106
K= = = 0.132 < 0.167
f ck bd 2 30 × 400 × 5442
No compression reinforcement required.
⎛ K ⎞ ⎛ 0.132 ⎞
z = d ⎜⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 − ⎟ = d ⎜ 0.5 + 0.25 −
⎟ ⎜
⎟ = 0.87d
⎟
⎝ 1.134 ⎠ ⎝ 1.134 ⎠
M 468.3 × 106
As = =
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.87 × 544
As,req = 2275 mm 2 As,req = 2275 mm2
f ctm
9.2.1.1 As, min = 0.26 bt d </ 0.0013bt d
f yk
Table 3.1 fctm = 2.9 MPa
⎛ 2.9 ⎞
As,min = 0.26⎜ ⎟(400)(544) = 328 mm > 283 mm
2 2
∴O.K. As,min = 328 mm2
⎝ 500 ⎠
3 5
As,max = 0.04Ac = 0.04bh = 0.04 × 400 × 600 = 9600 mm2 As,max = 9600 mm2
Use 5H25 (As,prov = 2455 mm2) As,prov = 2455 mm2
(The calculation of shear reinforcement should appear here)
7.4 DEFLECTION
As,req 2275
ρ= = = 0.0105
bd 400 × 544
ρ0 = f ck × 10−3 = 30 × 10−3 = 0.0055
ρ'= 0
Table K = 1.0
7.4N
ρ > ρ0 use Eq. (7.16.b)
Eq. l ⎡ ρ0 1 ρ' ⎤
= K ⎢11 + 1.5 f ck + f ck ⎥
(7.16.b) d ρ − ρ' 12 ρ0 ⎦
⎣
l ⎡ 0.0055 1 0 ⎤
= 1⎢11 + 1.5 30 + 30 ⎥
d ⎣ 0.0105 − 0 12 0.0105 ⎦
⎛l⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 15.3
⎝ d ⎠ basic
Modification factor for span greater than 7 m

= 7/span = 7/7.5 = 0.93
Modification factor for steel area provided

= As,prov/As,req = 2455/2275 = 1.08
Therefore the allowable span to depth ratio,

⎛l⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 15.3 × 0.93 × 1.08 = 15.4
⎝ d ⎠allowable
Actual span to depth ratio,

⎛l⎞ 7500 ⎛l⎞
⎜ ⎟ = = 13.8 < ⎜ ⎟ (= 15.4) ∴O.K.
⎝ d ⎠actual 544 ⎝ d ⎠ allowable
4 5
CRACKING
Table Limiting crack width, wmax = 0.3 mm wmax = 0.3 mm

7.1N
Steel stress,
f Gk + 0.3Qk A 1
f s = yk × × s,req ×
1.15 1.35Gk + 1.5Qk As,prov δ
500 16 + 0.3(30) 2275 1
= × × ×
1.15 1.35(16) + 1.5(30) 2450 1
= 151.5 N/mm 2
Table Maximum bar spacing for crack control = 300 mm

7.3N
Bar spacing,
b − 2 × cnom − 2 × φlink − 2 × φbar /2

s=
no. of bars in one layer − 1
400 − 2 × 35 − 2 × 8 − 2 × 25/2
=
5 −1
s = 72 mm < 300 mm ∴O.K.
s s s s
5 5
DETAILING
H8-300
2H12 1
5H25 1
7500
400
600
1-1

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Reinforced Concrete Design © Prof. Dr.

DESIGN FOR FLEXURE:

3.1.1 Required Strength and Design Strength

The basic safety equation for flexure is:

Eurocode 2: Design strength ≥ Factored load effects ( M Rd ≥ M Ed ) (3.1)

3.1.2 Positive and Negative Moments

Fig. 3.1 Cross-sectional dimensions

Fig. 3.2 Appearance of test beam after failure

3.2 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

3.2.1 Types of Reinforced Concrete Sections in Flexure

(i) singly reinforced beam (ii) doubly reinforced beam

(i) T-section beam (ii) L-section beam

Any of the arrangements of reinforcement as shown in Fig. 3.3 can be employed in

(a) simply supported (b) continuous

3.2.2 Stress and Strain Compatibility and Equilibrium

3.2.3 Tension, Compression and Balanced Failure

3.3 Design Formulae for Singly Reinforced Section

λ = 0 .8 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (3.1a)

λ = 0.8 − ( f ck − 50) / 400 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa (3.1b)

The factor η defining the effective concrete strength is given as

η = 1.0 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (3.2a)

η = 1.0 − ( f ck − 50) / 200 for 50 < fck ≤ 90 MPa (3.2b)

The design concrete compressive strength fcd is given as

f cd = 0.85 f ck / 1.5 = 0.567 f ck (3.3b)

From equilibrium [see Fig. 3.8(c)],

Concrete compression = Steel tension

0.567 f ck (0.8 x)b = 0.87 f yk As

Using the concrete compression, say,

M = (0.4536 f ckbx)(d − 0.4 x)

M bal = K bal f ck bd 2 (3.6b)

in which Kbal = 0.167.

Example 3.1 Determination of Limiting Value of x/d.

Using the steel tension, say,

From Eq. (3.5),

Substitute Eq. (3.8) into Eq. (3.9),

The viable solution is

As, max = 0.04 Ac = 0.04bh (3.12)

Example 3.2 Designing the Area of Tension Reinforcement

Since K < Kbal, x/d < 0.45.

As, req = 1150 mm 2

Provide 4H20 (As,prov = 1257 mm2)

From Eq. (3.11),

From Eq. (3.12),

As, max = 0.04 Ac = 0.04bh = 0.04(250)(700) = 7000 mm 2

As, min < As, prov < As, max ∴O.K.

3.4 Design Formulae for Doubly Reinforced Section

3.4.1 Design Formulae with Assumption of Yielding in the Compression

Taking moment at the level of tension reinforcement of Fig. 3.9(c), we get

M = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + 0.204 f ck bdz

M = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + 0.204 f ckbd (0.82d )

M = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + 0.167 f ck bd 2

M = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + K bal f ck bd 2 (3.13)

Substituting Eq. (3.6a) into Eq. (3.13), we have

Kf ck bd 2 = 0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) + K bal f ck bd 2

0.87 f yk As ' (d − d ' ) = Kf ck bd 2 − K bal f ck bd 2 (3.14)

A's, max = 0.04 Ac = 0.04bh (3.16)

From equilibrium of Fig. 3.9(c),

0.87 f yk As = 0.204 f ck bd + 0.87 f yk As ' (3.17)

0.87 f yk As z = 0.204 f ckbdz + 0.87 f yk As ' z

0.87 f yk As z = 0.204 f ck bd (0.82d ) + 0.87 f yk As ' z