LAN Topologies

Objective: 1.1 Recognize the following logical or physical network topologies given a diagram,
schematic, or description:

 Star
 Bus
 Mesh
 Ring
 Wireless

The term network topology refers to the layout of a network. The type of topology affects what
networking method is used, as well as what media types and network devices are required.
Topologies are very important, and they serve as the foundation for the information you'll learn
in the following sections..

Before we look at the different types of topologies, we must first examine one of the most
confusing networking principles: the difference between physical and logical topologies. Then
we'll examine the specific physical LAN topologies in use today: bus, star, ring, mesh, and
wireless.

Physical and Logical Topologies

Network topologies can be defined on a physical level or on a logical level. The physical
topology refers to how a network is physically constructed that is, how it actually looks. The
logical topology refers to how a network looks to the devices that use it in other words, how it
actually functions. In a number of commonly implemented network models, the physical
topology differs from the logical topology. It can be difficult to appreciate what that means, so
let's use an example.

The most commonly implemented network model is a physical star/logical bus topology. In this
configuration, computers are connected to a central device, called a hub or switch, which gives
the network the appearance of a star (or a reasonable facsimile thereof). However, the devices
attached to the star see the network as a linear bus topology and use the topology based on its
logical characteristics.

EXAM ALERT
Network Topologies Understanding network topologies and their characteristics is an
objective for the Network+ exam. Therefore, you should make sure that you
understand the concept of topologies.
NOTE

How Did We Get Here? The physical/logical topology discussion can be confusing, so let's
examine its background. When networks were first created, they followed a simple path. For
example, the first Ethernet network was a physical and logical bus (single length of cable). As
you will see in upcoming sections, however, this physical bus approach has a number of
disadvantages; therefore, alternatives were sought. In this case, the solution was to move away
from the single cable segment approach and instead use different types of cable on a physical
star. The media access method and the networking system remained the same, however, resulting
in a physical star/logical bus topology.

The Bus Topology

The bus network topology is also known as a linear bus because the computers in such a network
are linked together using a single cable called a trunk, or backbone. Computers are connected to
this backbone as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6. An example of the bus topology.

EXAM ALERT
Bus Topology Be prepared to identify the bus topology on the Network+ exam.

The computers can be connected to the backbone by a cable, known as a drop cable, or, more
commonly, directly to the backbone, via T connectors. At each end of the cable, terminators
prevent the signal from bouncing back down the cable. In addition, one end of the cable should
be grounded. More information on the specific connectors and connections used in different
networks is provided in Chapter 2, "Cabling Standards, Media, and Connectors."

NOTE

Ethernet Standards The most common implementation of a linear bus is the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.3 standard, 10Base2, which is an Ethernet standard.
Ethernet standards are covered later in this chapter.

Bus topologies are easy and inexpensive to implement because a single-segment bus topology
doesn't require any special networking equipment. However, they are notoriously difficult to
troubleshoot, and a single break in the network cable renders the entire segment useless. For this
and a number other reasons, such as limited speed capacity, bus topologies have been largely
replaced with the physical star topology. Table 1.1 lists the main features, advantages, and
disadvantages of bus topologies.

Table 1.1. Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages of the Linear Bus Topology
Features Advantages Disadvantages
Uses a single length It is inexpensive and It cannot be expanded easily. Doing so may
of cable. easy to implement. render the network inaccessible while the
expansion is performed.
Devices connect It doesn't require A break in the cable renders the entire segment
directly to the cable. special equipment. unusable.
The cable must be It requires less cable It is difficult to troubleshoot.
terminated at both than other topologies.
ends.

EXAM ALERT
Bus Topology Advantages/Disadvantages For the Network+ exam, make sure that
you understand the advantages and disadvantages of the bus topology.

The Star Topology

In a star topology, each device on the network connects to a centralized device via a single cable.
This arrangement creates a point-to-point network connection between the two devices and
overall gives the appearance of a star. Figure 1.7 shows an example of the star topology.

Figure 1.7. An example of the star topology.

EXAM ALERT
Star Topology Be prepared to identify the star topology on the Network+ exam.

Because each device must have its own cable, a star topology requires far more cable than other
topologies such as a physical linear bus. In addition, special equipment is required to create the
star layout, adding to the cost of implementing a star topology. (Chapter 3, "Networking
Components and Devices," explains the function of network devices such as hubs and switches
that are used in a star topology.)

Multiple stars can be combined into a treelike structure known as a hierarchical star. The
hierarchical star allows for high levels of flexibility and expandability. Depending on the
networking equipment used, it also makes it possible to manage traffic and isolate high-traffic
areas of the network. Figure 1.8 shows an example of a hierarchical star topology.

Figure 1.8. An example of the hierarchical star topology.

One of the biggest advantages of the star topology is that computers can be connected to and
disconnected from the network without affecting any other systems. Thus it's easy to add systems
to or remove systems from the network. In addition, the failure of a system or the cable it uses to
attach likewise generally has no effect on other stations on the network. However, in the star
topology, all devices on the network connect to a central device, and this central device creates a
single point of failure on the network.

NOTE

The Ethernet 10BaseT Standard The most common implementation of the physical star topology
is the Ethernet 100 BaseT standard.

The star topology is the most widely implemented network design in use today; you will
definitely encounter it in the real world. Working with and troubleshooting a star topology can be
tricky, however, and you need to know what to look for and where to look. For more information
on troubleshooting star networks and other specific network topology errors, see Chapter 15,
"Troubleshooting Procedures and Best Practices."

Table 1.2 provides the features, advantages, and disadvantages of the physical star topology.

Table 1.2. Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages of the Physical Star Topology
Features Advantages Disadvantages
Devices connect to a It can be easily expanded It requires additional networking
central point. without disruption to existing equipment to create the network
systems. layout.
Each system uses an A cable failure affects only a It requires considerably more cable
individual cable to attach. single system. than other topologies, such as the
linear bus.
Multiple stars can be It is easy to troubleshoot. Centralized devices create a single
combined to create a point of failure.
hierarchical star.

The Ring Topology

In the ring topology, the network layout forms a complete ring. Computers connect to the
network cable directly or, far more commonly, through a specialized network device.

On a ring network, data travels in one direction, passing from one computer to the next until it
reaches the intended destination. Figure 1.9 shows an example of the ring topology.

Figure 1.9. An example of the ring topology.

Ring topologies are more difficult to install and configure than other topologies because breaking
the loop disrupts the entire network. Even if network devices are used to create the ring, the ring
must still be broken if a fault occurs or the network needs to be expanded.

NOTE

Dual Rings To negate the problem of a broken ring making the network unavailable, you can
configure dual rings so that one ring can be used if the other fails. One ring topology that
employs this strategy is FDDI, which is discussed in Chapter 7.

Ring topologies are relatively uncommon; the physical star layout is by far the most popular
topology. For this reason, you are unlikely to actually install a ring topology. Table 1.3 shows the
features, advantages, and disadvantages of the ring topology.

Table 1.3. Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages of the Ring Topology

Features Advantages Disadvantages
Devices are connected in a It is easy to troubleshoot. A cable break can disrupt the
closed loop or ring. entire network
Dual-ring configuration can be Can be implemented in a fault- Network expansion creates
used for fault tolerance. tolerant configuration. network disruption.

Mesh Topology

The mesh topology is unique: It requires each computer on the network to be individually
connected to every other device. This configuration provides maximum reliability and
redundancy for the network. If one cable or link fails, the data can use an alternate path to get to
its destination. Figure 1.10 shows an example of the mesh topology.

Figure 1.10. An example of the mesh topology.

NOTE

Fault Tolerance Although it is impractical to implement, the mesh layout is the most fault
tolerant of all the network topologies. Redundant links exist between all nodes, and the failure of
a single link does not affect the overall functionality of the network.

Given the relative ease with which the other topologies can be created and the complexity of the
mesh layout, you should not be surprised to learn that networks using the mesh layout are few
and far between. In fact, you are unlikely to see a mesh layout in a LAN setting. The mesh
topology is sometimes adopted in WAN configurations that require direct connections between
each and every geographic site.

NOTE

Hybrid Mesh Networks The term hybrid mesh is sometimes used to refer to a mesh network that
has direct links between some systems but not all. Again, such a configuration is more likely to
be seen in a WAN configuration than in a LAN but is becoming more popular with the advent of
Windows 2003.

Table 1.4 lists the features, advantages, and disadvantages of the mesh topology.

Table 1.4. Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages of the Mesh Topology

Features Advantages Disadvantages
A true mesh uses point-to-point Multiple links provide It is difficult to implement.
connectivity between all devices. fault tolerance and
redundancy.
A hybrid mesh uses point-to-point The network can be It can be expensive because it
connectivity between certain expanded with minimal or requires specialized hardware
devices, but not all of them. no disruption. and cable.

Wireless Topologies

The widespread interest in networks without wires and the push toward obtaining "anywhere,
anytime" Internet access has encouraged rapid growth in wireless standards and related
technologies. The IEEE 802.11 wireless standards in particular have experienced considerable
success. Several wireless standards fall under the 802.11 banner each with its own speeds, radio
frequencies, and transmission ranges. These standards create the possibility for wireless local
area networking (WLAN) and puts the possibility of complete mobile computing within reach.

The 802.11 wireless standards use two main types of network topologies: the infrastructure, or
managed, wireless topology and the ad-hoc, or unmanaged, wireless topology.

Infrastructure Wireless Topology

The infrastructure wireless topology is commonly used to extend a wired LAN to include
wireless devices. Wireless devices communicate with the wired LAN through a base station
known as an access point (AP) or Wireless Access Point (WAP). The AP forms a bridge between
a wireless and wired LAN, and all transmissions between wireless stations or between a system
and a wired network client go through the AP. APs are not mobile and have to stay connected to
the wired network and therefore become part of the wired network infrastructure, thus the name.
In infrastructure wireless networks, several access points may provide wireless coverage for a
large area, or only a single access point may provide coverage for a small area such as a single
home or small building. Figure 1.11 shows an example of an infrastructure wireless network
using a single AP and one using multiple APs.

Figure 1.11. Wireless infrastructure topologies.

Ad-Hoc Wireless Networking

In a wireless ad-hoc topology, devices communicate directly between themselves without using
an access point. This peer-to-peer network design is commonly used to connect a small number
of computers or wireless devices. For example, an ad-hoc wireless network may be set up
temporarily between laptops in a boardroom or to connect to systems in a home instead of a
wired solution. The ad-hoc wireless design provides a quick method to share files and resources
between a small number of systems. Figure 1.12 shows and example of an ad-hoc network
design.

Figure 1.12. An ad-hoc wireless topology.

Challenge
You have been asked to recommend a topology for a new network. You have been
asked to consider all options and prepare a document that shows how they compare.
To complete your task, you decide to create a chart showing the advantages and
disadvantages of the various network topologies. For this exercise, complete the
following chart:

Topology Type Key Features Advantages Disadvantages

Star
Bus
Mesh
Ring
Wireless infrastructure

_____________________________________________________________________________________

1.0. Media and Topologies

Understanding media and topologies is important when designing and troubleshooting networks.
Therefore, CompTIA includes many questions on the exam related to commonly used network
media. In addition, the exam includes questions that test your knowledge of the various network
topologies.

Network Types and Physical and Logical Topologies

The following are some of the important aspects of network types:

 There are two types of computer networks:

o Peer-to-peer networks Peer-to-peer networks are useful for only relatively small
networks. They are often used in small offices or home environments.
o Client/server networks Client/server networks, also called server-centric
networks, have clients and servers. Servers provide centralized administration,
data storage, and security. The client system requests data from the server and
displays the data to the end user.

The following are some of the important aspects of network topologies:

 Network topologies can be defined on a physical level or on a logical level.

 The bus network topology is also known as a linear bus because the computers in such a
network are linked together using a single cable called a trunk, or backbone. The
following are important features of the bus topology:
o The computers can be connected to the backbone by a cable, known as a drop
cable, or, more commonly, directly to the backbone, via T connectors.
o At each end of the cable, terminators prevent the signal from bouncing back down
the cable.
o If a terminator is loose, data communications may be disrupted. Any other break
in the cable will cause the entire network to fail.

Table 1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the bus topology.

Table 1. Bus Topology: Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages

Features Advantages Disadvantages
It uses a single length of It is inexpensive and easy It does not scale well that is, it
cable. to implement. cannot be expanded easily.
Devices connect directly It doesn't require special A break in the cable renders the
to the cable. equipment entire segment unusable.
The cable must be It requires less cable than It is difficult to troubleshoot.
terminated at both ends. other topologies.

 In a star topology, each device on the network connects to a centralized device via a
 single cable. The following are important features of the star topology:
o Computers in a star network can be connected and disconnected from the network
without affecting any other systems.
o In a star configuration all devices on the network connect to a central device, and
this central device creates a single point of failure on the network.
o The most common implementation of the physical star topology is the Ethernet
10BaseT standard.

Table 2 lists the features, advantages, and disadvantages of the star topology.

Table 2. Star Topology: Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages

Features Advantages Disadvantages

Devices connect to a It can be easily expanded It requires additional networking
central point. without disruption to equipment to create the network
existing systems. layout.
Each system uses an A cable failure affects only It requires considerably more
individual cable to a single system. cable than other topologies, such
attach. as the linear bus.
Multiple stars can be It is easy to troubleshoot. Centralized devices create a
combined to create a single point of failure.
hierarchical star.

 In the ring topology, the network layout forms a complete ring. Computers connect to the
network cable directly or, far more commonly, through a specialized network device.
Breaking the loop of a ring network disrupts the entire network. Even if network devices
are used to create the ring, the ring must still be broken if a fault occurs or the network
needs to be expanded. Table 3 lists the features, advantages, and disadvantages of the
ring topology.

Table 3. Ring Topology: Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages

Features Advantages Disadvantages
Devices are connected in a It is easy to troubleshoot. A cable break can disrupt
closed loop or ring. the entire network.
Dual-ring configuration can Can be implemented in a Network expansion creates
be used for fault tolerance. fault tolerant configuration. network disruption.


 The mesh topology requires each computer on the network to be individually connected
to each other device. This configuration provides maximum reliability and redundancy
for the network. Table 4 lists the features, advantages, and disadvantages of the mesh
 topology.

Table 4. Mesh Topology: Features, Advantages, and Disadvantages

Features Advantages Disadvantages

A true mesh uses point-to-point Multiple links provide It is difficult to implement.
connectivity between all fault tolerance and
devices. redundancy.
A hybrid mesh uses point-to- The network can be It can be expensive because
point connectivity between expanded with minimal it requires specialized
certain devices, but not all of or no disruption. hardware and cable.
them.


 Wireless networks operating in the infrastructure mode use a centralized device known as
a wireless access point (WAP) that transmits signals to devices with wireless network
interface cards (NICs) installed in them.
 The ad-hoc wireless topology does not use an AP, but rather all devices connect together
in a peer-to-peer configuration.

Standards and Access Methods

The following are descriptions of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
802 standards:

 802.1, internetworking Defines internetwork communications standards between devices

and includes specifications for routing and bridging.
 802.2, the LLC sublayer Defines specifications for the Logical Link Control (LLC)
sublayer in the 802 standard series.
 802.3, CSMA/CD Defines the carrier-sense multiple-access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD) media access method used in Ethernet networks. This is the most popular
networking standard used today.
 802.4, a token passing bus (rarely used) Defines the use of a token-passing system on a
linear bus topology.
 802.5, Token Ring networks Defines Token Ring networking.
 802.6, metropolitan area network (MAN) Defines a data transmission method called
distributed queue dual bus (DQDB), which is designed to carry voice and data on a single
link.
 802.7, Broadband Technical Advisory Group Defines the standards and specifications of
broadband communications methods.
 802.8, Fiber-Optic Technical Advisory Group Provides assistance to other IEEE 802
committees on subjects related to the use of fiber-optics.
 802.9, Integrated Voice and Data Networks Group Works on the advancement of
integrated voice and data networks.
 802.10, network security Defines security standards that make it possible to safely and
 securely transmit and exchange data.
 802.11, wireless networks Defines standards for wireless LAN communication.
 802.12, 100BaseVG-AnyLAN Defines a standard for high-speed LAN technologies.

The Network+ exam focuses on the LAN standards 802.2, 802.3, 802.5, and 802.11.

Access methods govern the way in which systems access the network media and send data.
Following are the key aspects of the CSMA/CD access method:

 CSMA/CD, which is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard, is the most popular media
access method because it is associated with Ethernet networking, which is by far the most
popular networking system.
 CSMA/CD is known as a contention media access method because systems contend for
access to the media.
 Closely connected to the CSMA/CD access method is CSMA/CA. Instead of collision
detection (CD), collision avoidance (CA) is used. Wireless 802.11 standards use the
CSMA/CA access method.

Table 5 shows the advantages and disadvantages of CSMA/CD.

Table 5. Advantages and Disadvantages of CSMA/CD

Advantages Disadvantages
It has low overhead. Collisions degrade network performance.
It is able to utilize all available bandwidth Priorities cannot be assigned to certain nodes.
when possible.
Performance degrades exponentially as devices
are added.

Token passing is an access method specified in IEEE 802.5. Following are the important facts
about token-passing networks:

 On a token-passing network, a packet called a token is passed among the systems on the
network. The network has only one token, and a system can send data only when it has
possession of the token.
 All cards in a token-passing network must operate at the same speed.
 Because a system can transmit only when it has the token, there is no contention, as with
CSMA/CD.
 Ring networks are most commonly wired in a star configuration. In a Token Ring
network, a multistation access unit (MSAU) is equivalent to a hub or switch on an
Ethernet network.
 To connect MSAUs, the ring in (RI) and ring out (RO) configuration must be properly
set.
Table 6 shows the advantages and disadvantages of token-passing networks.

Table 6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Token-Passing Networks

Advantages Disadvantages
No collisions mean more consistent performance The generation of a token creates network
in high-load configurations. overhead.
Performance is consistently predictable, making Network hardware is more complex and
token passing suitable for time-sensitive expensive than that used with other access
applications. methods.
The maximum speed is limited due to the
overhead of token passing and regeneration.

Media Considerations and Limitations

As a data signal travels through a specific media, it may be subjected to a type of interference
known as electromagnetic interference (EMI). Following are important EMI facts:

 Many different factors cause EMI; common sources include computer monitors and
fluorescent lighting fixtures.
 Copper-based media are prone to EMI, whereas fiber-optic cable is completely resistant
to it.

Data signals may also be subjected to something commonly referred to as crosstalk, which
occurs when signals from two cables in close proximity to one another interfere with each other.

Media has maximum lengths because a signal weakens as it travels farther from its point of
origin. The weakening of data signals as they traverse the media is referred to as attenuation.

Two types of signaling methods are used to transmit information over network media:

 Baseband Baseband transmissions typically use digital signaling over a single channel or
frequency; the transmissions themselves take the form of either electrical pulses or light.
Ethernet networks use baseband transmissions.

Using baseband transmissions, it is possible to transmit multiple signals on a single cable

by using a process known as multiplexing.

 Broadband Broadband signaling uses analog signals in the form of optical or

electromagnetic waves over multiple transmission frequencies.

Dialog Modes
There are three main dialog modes:

 Simplex The simplex mode allows only one-way communication through the media. A
good example of simplex is a radio or television signal: There is only one transmitting
device, and all other devices are receiving devices.
 Half-duplex Half-duplex allows each device to both transmit and receive, but only one of
these processes can occur at a time.
 Full-duplex Full-duplex allows devices to receive and transmit simultaneously. A
100Mbps network card in full-duplex mode can operate at 200Mbps.

Wireless

 802.11 represents the IEEE designation for wireless networking. There are four primary
wireless networking specifications under the 802.11 banner: 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b,
and 802.11g. All four use the Ethernet protocol and the CSMA/CA access method. Table
7 reviews 802.11 wireless standards.

Table 7. 802.11 Wireless Standards

Summary of Wireless Standards
IEEE Frequency/Media Transmission Access
Standard Speed Topology Range Method
802.11 2.4GHz RF 1 to 2 Ad- 25 to 75 feet CSMA/CA
Mbps hoc/infrastructure indoors; range
can be
affected by
building
materials.
802.11 2.4GHz RF 1 to 2 Ad- 25 to 75 feet CSMA/CA
Mbps hoc/infrastructure indoors; range
can be
affected by
building
materials.
802.11a 5GHz Up to Ad- 25 to 75 feet CSMA/CA
54 hoc/infrastructure indoors; range
Mbps can be
affected by
building
materials.
802.11b 2.4GHz Up to Ad- Up to 150 feet CSMA/CA
11Mbps hoc/infrastructure indoors; range
can be
affected by
 building
materials.
802.11g 2.4GHz Up to Ad- Up to 150 feet CSMA/CA
54Mbps hoc/infrastructure indoors; range
can be
affected by
building
materials.


 Bluetooth is a wireless standard used for many purposes, including connecting peripheral
devices to a system. Bluetooth uses a low-cost, short-range radio link to create a link to
replace many of the cords that used to connect devices. Table 8 shows the characteristics
of Bluetooth.

Table 8. Summary of Bluetooth

Specification Bluetooth
Topology Ad hoc
Spread spectrum FHSS
Media 2.4GHz RF
Speed 720Kbps
Range 10 meters in optimal conditions


 Infrared wireless networking uses infrared beams to send data transmissions between
devices. Infrared wireless networking offers higher transmission rates reaching 10Mbps
to 16Mbps.

Wireless interference:

 Radio frequency interference Wireless technologies such as 802.11b/g use RF range of

2.4GHz and so do many other devices such as cordless phones, microwaves, and so on.
Devices that share the channel can cause noise and weaken the signals.
 Electrical interference Electrical interference comes from devices such as computers,
fridges, fans, lighting fixtures, or any other motorized devices. The impact electrical
interference has on the signal is depends on the proximity of the electric device to the
wireless access point. Advances in wireless technologies and in electrical devices, have
reduced the impact these types of devices have on wireless transmissions.
 Environmental factors Weather conditions can have a huge impact on wireless signal
integrity. Lighting for instance can cause electrical interference, and fog can weaken
signals as they pass through.
Network Media

There are two distinct types of twisted-pair cable: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded
twisted pair (STP). STP has extra shielding within the casing, so it copes with interference and
attenuation better than regular UTP. UTP is much more common in modern network
implementations.

The Electronic Industries Association/Telecommunications Industry Association (EIA/TIA) has

specified seven categories of twisted-pair cable:

 Category 1 Voice-grade UTP telephone cable. Due to its susceptibility to interference and
attenuation and its low bandwidth capability, Category 1 UTP is not practical for network
applications.
 Category 2 Data-grade cable capable of transmitting data up to 4Mbps. Category 2 cable
is, of course, too slow for networks. It is unlikely that you will encounter Category 2 used
on any network today.
 Category 3 Data-grade cable capable of transmitting data up to 10Mbps. A few years ago,
Category 3 was the cable of choice for twisted-pair networks. As network speeds pushed
the 100Mbps speed limit, Category 3 became ineffective. Category 3 cabling can be used
up to 100 meters.
 Category 4 Data-grade cable that has potential bandwidth of 16Mbps. Category 4 cable
was often implemented in the IBM Token Ring networks.
 Category 5 Data-grade cable capable of transmitting data at 100Mbps. Category 5 is the
cable of choice on twisted-pair networks and is commonly associated with Fast Ethernet
technologies.
 Category 5e Data-grade cable used on networks that run at up to 1000Mbps. Category 5e
cabling can be used up to 350 meters, depending on the implementation.
 Category 6 High-performance UTP cable capable of transmitting data at over 1000Mbps.
Category 6 cabling is rated up to 550 meters depending on the implementation.

The networking standard used defines what speed the network will operate at, not the network
cabling. Cables do not operate at a certain speed. All the network cabling needs to do is support
that speed as a minimum.

Fiber-optic cables are not susceptible to EMI or crosstalk, giving fiber-optic cable an obvious
advantage over copper-based media. The loss of signal strength on fiber-optic cable is referred to
as chromatic dispersion.

Two types of optical fiber are available: single-mode and multimode.

SC, ST, LC, and MT-RJ connectors are associated with fiber cabling. ST connectors offer a
twist-type attachment, and SC and LC are push-on connectors. MT-RJ is somewhat similar in
appearance to an RJ-45 connector but is longer. MT-RJ connectors have a flange, like an RJ-45
connector, to secure the cable in place.

RJ-45 connectors are used with the 8-wire UTP cable used in network implementations. RJ-11
connectors are used with the 4-wire UTP cable associated with telephone systems.

F-Type connectors are used with coaxial cable. In network implementations, they are most
commonly associated with connecting cable modems to incoming cable connections.

IEEE 1394 (FireWire) can use either a 4-pin or a 6-pin connector.

Table 9 summarizes the characteristics of the types of network cable.

Table 9. Summary of Cable Characteristics

Resistance to Resistance to Cost of Difficulty of
Media Attenuation EMI/Crosstalk Implementation Implementation
Thin Moderate Moderate Low Low
coax
UTP Low Low Low Low
STP Moderate Moderate Moderate Low
Fiber- Very high Very high Very high Moderate
optic

IEEE Ethernet Networking Standards

The following tables (Table 10 through Table 15) provide a summary of the IEEE Ethernet
networking standards covered in the Network+ exam objectives.

Table 10. Summary of 10BaseT Characteristics

Characteristic Description
Transmission method Baseband
Speed 10Mbps
Total distance/segment 100 meters
Cable type Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP or STP
Connector RJ-45

Table 15. Summary of IEEE 802.3ae 10 Gigabit Ethernet Characteristics

10GbaseSR 10GbaseLR 10GbaseER
Transmission Baseband Baseband Baseband
method
Speed 10000Mbps 10000Mbps 10000Mbps
Distance 33m/300m 10,000m 40,000m
Cable type 62.5 micron Multimode Fibre/50 Single mode Single mode
Micron Multimode fiber Fiber Fiber
Connector type Fiber Fiber Fiber

Table 11. Summary of 10BaseFL Characteristics

Characteristic Description
Transmission method Baseband
Speed 10Mbps
Total distance/segment 2000 meters
Cable type Single mode/Multimode fiber
Connector Fiber connectors

Table 12. Summary of 100BaseX Standards

Characteristic 100BaseTX 100BaseT4 100BaseFX
Transmission Baseband Baseband Baseband
method
Speed 100Mbps 100Mbps 100Mbps
Distance 100 meters 100 meters 412 meters (multimode, half-
duplex)
10,000 meters (single-mode, full-
duplex)
Cable type Category 5 UTP, Category 3, 4, Fiber-optic
STP 5
Connector type RJ-45 RJ-45 SC, ST, MIC

Table 13. Summary of 1000BaseT

Characteristic Description
Transmission method Baseband
Speed 1000Mbps
Total distance/segment 100 meters
Cable type Category 5 or better
Connector type RJ-45

Table 14. Summary of Fiber-Optic Based 1000BaseX (gigabit Ethernet) Standards

Characteristic 1000BaseSX 1000BaseLX 1000BaseCX
Transmission Baseband Baseband Baseband
method
Speed 1000Mbps 1000Mbps 1000Mbps
Distance Half-duplex 275 (62.5 micron Half-duplex 316 25 meters for both
multimode fiber); half-duplex (multimode and single- full-duplex and
316 (50 micron multimode mode fiber); full-duplex half-duplex
fiber); full-duplex 275 (62.5 550 (multimode fiber); operations
micron multimode fiber); full- full-duplex 5000 (single-
duplex 550 (50 micron mode fiber)
multimode fiber)
Cable type 62.5/125 and 50/125 62.5/125 and 50/125 Shielded copper
multimode fiber multimode fiber; two 10- cable
micron single-mode
optical fibers
Connector type SC connector SC connector 9-pin shielded
connector, 8-pin
Fibre Channel
type 2 connector

Network Devices

Both hubs and switches are used in Ethernet networks. The following facts are relevant to hubs:

 Token Ring networks, which are few and far between, use special devices called multi
station access units (MSAUs) to create the network.
 The function of a hub is to take data from one of the connected devices and forward it to
all the other ports on the hub.
 Most hubs are referred to as active because they regenerate a signal before forwarding it
to all the ports on the device. To do this, the hub needs a power supply.
 Passive hubs do not need power because they don't regenerate signals.

The following facts are relevant to switches:

 Rather than forward data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data only to the
port on which the destination system is connected.
  A switch makes forwarding decisions based on the Media Access Control (MAC)
addresses of the devices connected to it to determine the correct port.
 In cut-through switching, the switch begins to forward the packet as soon as it is received
 In store-and-forward switching, the switch waits to receive the entire packet before
beginning to forward it.
 In fragment-free switching, the switch reads only the part of the packet that enables it to
identify fragments of a transmission.
 Switches reduce collisions by a process called microsegmentation. Each port on a switch
is a dedicated link between the switch and the connected computer.

The following facts are relevant to both hubs and switches

 Hubs and switches have two types of ports: medium-dependent interface (MDI) and
medium-dependent interface crossed (MDI-X).
 A straight-through cable is used to connect systems to the switch or hub using the MDI-X
ports.
 In a crossover cable, Wires 1 and 3 and Wires 2 and 6 are crossed.
 Both hubs and switches use light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to indicate certain connection
conditions. At the very least, a link light on the hub indicates the existence of a live
connection.
 Both hubs and switches are available in managed and unmanaged versions. A managed
device has an interface through which it can be configured to perform certain special
functions.

Bridges are used to divide up networks and thus reduce the amount of traffic on each network.

A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the destination MAC address
written into each frame of data.

Unlike bridges and switches, which use the hardware-configured MAC address to determine the
destination of the data, routers use software-configured network addresses to make decisions.

With distance-vector routing protocols, each router communicates all the routes it knows about
to all other routers to which it is directly attached.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a distance-vector routing protocol for both Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).

Modems translate digital signals from a computer into analog signals that can travel across
conventional phone lines.

Modems are controlled through a series of commands known as the Hayes AT command set:

Command Result
ATA Answers an incoming call
ATH Hangs up the current connection
ATZ Resets the modem
ATI3 Displays modem identification information

Following is a summary of UART chip speeds:

UART Chip Speed (bps)

8250 9,600
16450 115,200
16550 115,200
16650 430,800
16750 921,600
16950 921,600

Table 16 summarizes the various devices used in networks.

2.0. Protocols and Standards

A MAC address is a 6-byte address that allows a NIC to be uniquely identified on the network.
The first three bytes (00:D0:59) identify the manufacturer of the card; The last three bytes
(09:07:51) are the Universal LAN MAC address, which makes the interface unique.

OSI Model

As data is passed up or down through the OSI model structure, headers are added (going down)
or removed (going up) at each layera process called encapsulation (added) or decapsulation
(removed).

Table 17 provides a summary of the OSI model layers, and Table 18 shows how each device
maps to the OSI model.

Table 16. Networking Devices Summary

Device Function/Purpose Key Points

Hub Connects devices on a A hub does not perform any tasks besides signal
twisted-pair network. regeneration.
Switch Connects devices on a A switch forwards data to its destination by using
twisted-pair network. the MAC address embedded in each packet.
Bridge Divides networks to reduce A bridge allows or prevents data from passing
overall network traffic. through it by reading the MAC address.
Router Connects networks together. A router uses the software-configured network
address to make forwarding decisions.
Gateway Translates from one data Gateways can be hardware-or software-based.
format to another. Any device that translates data formats is called a
gateway.
CSU/DSU Translates digital signals CSU/DSU functionality is sometimes
used on a LAN to those used incorporated into other devices, such as a router
on a WAN. with a WAN connection.
Network Enables systems to connect Network interfaces can be add-in expansion
card to the network. cards, PCMCIA cards, or built-in interfaces.
ISDN Connects devices to ISDN ISDN is a digital WAN technology often used in
terminal lines. place of slower modem links. ISDN terminal
adapter adapters are required to reformat the data format
for transmission on ISDN links.
Wireless AP Provides network capabilities An AP is often used to connect to a wired
to wireless network devices. network, thereby acting as a link between wired
and wireless portions of the network.
Modem Provides serial Modems modulate the digital signal into analog
communication capabilities at the sending end and perform the reverse
across phone lines. function at the receiving end.

When you take the Network+ exam, you may be asked to identify at what level of the OSI model
common network devices operate. This information is provided in Table 18.

Application protocols map to the application, presentation, and session layers of the OSI model.
Application protocols include AFP, FTP, TFTP, SFTP, SSH, Telnet, SCP, NNTP, NTP, NCP,
and SNMP.

Transport protocols map to the transport layer of the OSI model and are responsible for the
transporting of data across the network. Transport protocols include ATP, NetBEUI, SPX, TCP,
and UDP.

The NetBEUI protocol uses names as addresses.

Network protocols are responsible for providing the addressing and routing information.
Network protocols include IP, IPX, and DDP.
RIP is responsible for the routing of packets on an IPX/SPX network.

Table 19 provides information on each of the protocol suites included in the Network+ exam.
Table 20 summarizes each of the commonly used protocols in the TCP/IP suite, Table 21 shows
you the TCP/IP port assignments, and Table 22 describes the TCP/IP services covered on the
Network+ exam.

Table 17. Summary of the OSI Model

OSI Layer Major Functions
Application Provides access to the network for applications and certain end-user functions.
Displays incoming information and prepares outgoing information for network
access.
Presentation Converts data from the application layer into a format that can be sent over the
network. Converts data from the session layer into a format that can be
understood by the application layer. Handles encryption and decryption of data.
Provides compression and decompression functionality.
Session Synchronizes the data exchange between applications on separate devices.
Handles error detection and notification to the peer layer on the other device.
Transport Establishes, maintains, and breaks connections between two devices. Determines
the ordering and priorities of data. Performs error checking and verification and
handles retransmissions, if necessary.
Network Provides mechanisms for the routing of data between devices across single or
multiple network segments. Handles the discovery of destination systems and
addressing.
Data-link Has two distinct sublayers: LLC and MAC. Performs error detection and handling
for the transmitted signals. Defines the method by which the medium is accessed.
Defines hardware addressing through the MAC sublayer.
Physical Defines the physical structure of the network. Defines voltage/signal rates and the
physical connection methods. Defines the physical topology.

Table 18. Mapping Devices to the OSI Model

Device OSI Layer at Which the Device Operates
Hub Physical (Layer 1)
Switch Data-link (Layer 2)
Bridge Data-link (Layer 2)
Router Network (Layer 3)
NIC Data-link (Layer 2)
WAP Data-link (Layer 2)

Table 19. Protocol Summary

Protocol Operating System Support Routable? Configuration Primary Use
IPX/SPX Used to be the default Yes Very easymost Primarily used
protocol for NetWare, but information is on legacy
now TCP/IP is preferred; can autoconfigured. Novell
also be used with Linux; Networks.
Windows supports NWLink,
a version of the IPX/SPX
protocol suite created by
Microsoft for cross-platform
compatibility.
NetBEUI Windows only No Easy network Primarily used
configuration, on smaller
requiring only the networks
computer's NetBIOS where routing
name. is not required.
AppleTalk Used by Macintosh; Yes Yes Minimal configuration Used on legacy
with some support on other difficulty; requires a Macintosh
platforms. node address networks.
(automatically assigned
when systems boot)
and a network address.
TCP/IP Used by default with Unix, Yes Comparatively difficult Used on many
Linux, NetWare, and to configure; has a networks of all
Windows systems; supported number of different shapes and
by Macintosh and just about configuration sizes; is the
every other computing requirements. protocol of the
platform available. Internet.

Table 20. Summary of Common TCP/IP Protocols

Protocol Full Name Description

IP Internet Protocol Connectionless protocol used for moving data around
a network.
TCP Transmission Control Connection-oriented protocol that offers flow control,
Protocol sequencing, and retransmission of dropped packets.
UDP User Datagram Connectionless alternative to TCP used for
 Protocol applications that do not require the functions offered
by TCP.
FTP File Transfer Protocol Protocol for uploading and downloading files to and
from a remote host; also accommodates basic file
management tasks.
SFTP Secure File Protocol for securely uploading and downloading files
to and from a remote host. Based on SSH security.
TFTP Trivial File Transfer File transfer protocol that does not have the security or
Protocol error checking of FTP. TFTP uses UDP as a transport
protocol and is therefore connectionless. TFTP is often
used to download operating system updates to network
devices such as routers.
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Mechanism for transporting email across networks.
Protocol
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol for retrieving files from a web server.
Protocol
HTTPS Hypertext Transfer Secure protocol for retrieving files from a web server.
Protocol Secure
POP3/IMAP4 Post Office Protocol Used for retrieving email from a server on which the
version 3/Internet email is tored. Can only be used to retrieve mail.
Message Access IMAP and POP annot be used to send mail.
rotocol version 4
Telnet Telnet Allows sessions to be opened on a remote host.
SSH Secure Shell Allows secure sessions to be opened on a remote host.
ICMP Internet Control essage Used on IP-based networks for error reporting, flow
Protocol control, and route testing.
ARP Address Resolution Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses, to enable
Protocol communication between devices.
RARP Reverse Address Resolves MAC addresses to IP addresses.
Resolution Protocol
NTP Network Time Protocol Used to communicate time synchronization
information between devices.
NNTP Network News Facilitates the access and downloading of messages
Transport Protocol from newsgroup servers.
SCP Secure Copy Protocol Allows files to be copied securely between two
 systems. Uses Secure Shell (SSH) technology to
provide encryption services.
LDAP Lightweight Directory Protocol used to access and query directory services
Access Protocol systems such as Novell Directory Services and
Microsoft Active Directory.
IGMP Internet Group Provides a mechanism for systems within the same
Management Protocol multicast group to register and communicate with each
other.
LPR Line Printer Remote Used to connect to and send print tasks to printers and
print servers.

TCP/IP Addressing

In a network that does not use DHCP, you need to watch for duplicate IP addresses that prevent a
user from logging on to the network.

Following is a description of the classes of IP addresses:

 A Class A address uses only the first octet to represent the network portion, a Class B
address uses two octets, and a Class C address uses three octets.
 Class A addresses span from 1 to 126, with a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0.
 Class B addresses span from 128 to 191, with a default subnet mask of 255.255.0.0.
 Class C addresses span from 192 to 223, with a default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.

The 127 network ID is reserved for the local loopback.

An example of a valid IPv6 address is

42DE:7E55:63F2:21AA:CBD4:D773:CC21:554F

Subnetting is a process whereby parts of the node portion of the IP address are used to create
more network IDs. This results in more network addresses but fewer node addresses per network.
It also increases broadcast domains. New network IDs created through this process are called
subnet IDs.

APIPA is a system used on Windows that allows a system to automatically assign itself an IP
address in the absence of a DHCP server. APIPA uses IP addresses from the 169.254.x.x address
range. APIPA does not assign a default gateway, so communication is limited to the local
network, and only to other systems that also have APIPA assigned addresses.

Public Versus Private Networks

A public network is a network to which anyone can connect, such as the Internet. Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is responsible for assigning IP addresses to public
networks.

A private network is any network to which access is restricted. Reserved IP address ranges are
10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0172.31.0.0, and 192.168.0.0.

WAN Technologies

Table 23 summarizes the WAN technologies.

Table 21. Summary of TCP/IP Port Assignments

Protocol Port Assignment

FTP 20
FTP 21
SSH 22
Telnet 23
SMTP 25
DNS 53
TFTP 69
HTTP 80
POP3 110
NNTP 119
NTP 123
IMAP4 143
SNMP 161
HTTPS 443

Remote Access and Security Protocols

When a connection is made to the RAS server, the client is authenticated, and the system that is
dialing in becomes a part of the network.

RAS supports remote connectivity from all the major client operating systems.

Although the system is called RAS, the underlying technologies that enable the RAS process are
dial-up protocols such as PPP and SLIP:
  SLIP also does not provide error checking or packet addressing, so it can be used only in
serial communications.
 PPP provides a number of security enhancements compared to SLIP. The most important
of these is the encryption of usernames and passwords during the authentication process.

Windows 2000 natively supports SLIP and PPP.

RDP protocol allows client systems to access and run applications on a server, using the
resources of the server, with only the user interface, keystrokes, and mouse movement being
transferred between the client and server computers.

IPSec is designed to encrypt data during communication between two computers. IPSec operates
at the network layer of the OSI model and provides security for protocols that operate at higher
layers of the OSI model.

L2TP is a combination of PPTP and Cisco's L2F technology and uses tunneling to deliver data.
L2TP operates at the data-link layer, making it protocol independent.

SSL is a security protocol used on the Internet. Secure website URLs begin with https:// instead
of http://. HTTPS connections require a browser to establish a secure connection. Secure SSL
connections for web pages are made through port 443 by default.

Kerberos provides a method to verify the identity of a computer system over an insecure network
connection.

The security tokens used in Kerberos are known as tickets.