Sunscreen

Sunscreen on back under normal and UV light

Synonyms Sun screen, sunblock, suntan lotion, sunburn

cream, sun cream, block out[1]

[edit on Wikidata]

Sunscreen, also known as sunblock, sun cream or suntan lotion, is a lotion, spray, gel or
other topical product that absorbs or reflects some of the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation and thus
helps protect against sunburn. Diligent use of sunscreen can also slow or temporarily prevent the
development of wrinkles, moles and sagging skin.
Depending on the mode of action, sunscreens can be classified into physical sunscreens (i.e.,
those that reflect the sunlight) or chemical sunscreens (i.e., those that absorb the UV light).
Medical organizations such as the American Cancer Society recommend the use of sunscreen
because it aids in the prevention of squamous cell carcinomas.[2] The routine use of sunscreens
may also reduce the risk of melanoma.[3] However, many sunscreens do not block UVA (UVA)
radiation, yet protection from UVA has been shown to be important for the prevention of skin
cancer.[4]
To provide a better indication of their ability to protect against skin cancer and other diseases
associated with UVA radiation (such as phytophotodermatitis[5]), the use of broad-spectrum
(UVA/UVB) sunscreens has been recommended. The use of the term "Broad Spectrum" on the
label sunscreen products is regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[6]
Sunscreens are commonly rated and labeled with a sun protection factor (SPF) that measures
the fraction of sunburn-producing UV rays that reach the skin. For example, "SPF 15" means that
1
⁄15 of the burning radiation reaches the skin through the recommended thickness of sunscreen.
Other rating systems indicate the degree of protection from non-burning UVA radiation.
Sunscreens are designed to remain effective at original strength for up to three years, and are
generally of doubtful value after that period. Some sunscreens include an expiration date — a
date indicating when they are no longer expected to be effective.[7]

Contents
 1Health effects
o 1.1Benefits
o 1.2Potential risks
 2Measurements of protection
o 2.1Sun protection factor and labeling
o 2.2UVA protection
o 2.3Sunblock
 3Active ingredients
 4Application
 5Regulation
 6Environmental effects
 7History
 8Research
 9Notes

Health effects[edit]
See also: Health effects of sunlight exposure

Benefits[edit]
Sunscreen use can help prevent melanoma[8][9][10] and squamous cell carcinoma, two types of skin
cancer.[11] There is little evidence that it is effective in preventing basal cell carcinoma.[12]
A 2013 study concluded that the diligent, everyday application of sunscreen can slow or
temporarily prevent the development of wrinkles and sagging skin.[13] The study involved
900 white people in Australia and required some of them to apply a broad-spectrum sunscreen
every day for four and a half years. It found that people who did so had noticeably more resilient
and smoother skin than those assigned to continue their usual practices.[13]
Minimizing UV damage is especially important for children and fair-skinned individuals and those
who have sun sensitivity for medical reasons.[14]

Potential risks[edit]
In 2009, the Therapeutic Goods Administration of Australia updated a review of sunscreen safety
studies and concluded: "The potential for titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc
oxide(ZnO) nanoparticles in sunscreens to cause adverse effects depend primarily upon the
ability of the nanoparticles to reach viable skin cells. To date, the current weight of evidence
suggests that TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles do not reach viable skin cells."[15] Sunscreen
ingredients typically undergo extensive review by government regulators in multiple countries,
and ingredients that present significant safety concerns (such as PABA) tend to be withdrawn
from the consumer market.[16]
Concerns have also been raised about potential vitamin D deficiency arising from prolonged use
of sunscreen. Typical use of sunscreen does not usually result in vitamin D deficiency; however,
extensive usage may.[17] Sunscreen prevents ultraviolet light from reaching the skin, and even
moderate protection can substantially reduce vitamin D synthesis.[18][19] However, adequate
amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs,
averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week without sunscreen. (The darker the complexion, or the
weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed, approximating 25% of the time
for minimal sunburn.) Vitamin D overdose is impossible from UV exposure thanks to an
equilibrium the skin reaches in which vitamin D degrades as quickly as it is created.[20][21][22]

Measurements of protection[edit]
Sunscreen helps prevent sunburn, such as this, which has blistered.

Sun protection factor and labeling [edit]

Two photographs showing the effect of applying sunscreens in visible light and in UVA. The photograph on
the right was taken using ultraviolet photography shortly after application of sunscreen to half of the face.

The sun protection factor (SPF rating, introduced in 1974) is a measure of the fraction of
sunburn-producing UV rays that reach the skin. For example, "SPF 15" means that 1⁄15 of the
burning radiation will reach the skin, assuming sunscreen is applied evenly at a thick dosage of 2
milligrams per square centimeter[23] (mg/cm2). A user can determine the effectiveness of a
sunscreen by multiplying the SPF by the length of time it takes for him or her to suffer a burn
without sunscreen.[24] Thus, if a person develops a sunburn in 10 minutes when not wearing a
sunscreen, the same person in the same intensity of sunlight will take 150 minutes to develop a
sunburn of the same severity if wearing a sunscreen with an SPF of 15.[24] It is important to note
that sunscreens with higher SPF do not last or remain effective on the skin any longer than lower
SPF and must be continually reapplied as directed, usually every two hours.[25]
The SPF is an imperfect measure of skin damage because invisible damage and skin aging are
also caused by ultraviolet type A (UVA, wavelengths 315–400 or 320–400 nm), which does not
primarily cause reddening or pain. Conventional sunscreen blocks very little UVA radiation
relative to the nominal SPF; broad-spectrum sunscreens are designed to protect against both
UVB and UVA.[26][27][28] According to a 2004 study, UVA also causes DNA damage to cells deep
within the skin, increasing the risk of malignant melanomas.[29] Even some products labeled
"broad-spectrum UVA/UVB protection" have not always provided good protection against UVA
rays.[30] Titanium dioxide probably gives good protection, but does not completely cover the UVA
spectrum, as early 2000s research suggests that zinc oxide is superior to titanium dioxide at
wavelengths 340–380 nm.[31]
Owing to consumer confusion over the real degree and duration of protection offered, labeling
restrictions are enforced in several countries. In the EU, sunscreen labels can only go up to SPF
50+ (initially listed as 30 but soon revised to 50).[32] Australia's Therapeutic Goods
Administration increased the upper limit to 50+ in 2012.[33][34] In its 2007 and 2011 draft rules, the
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed a maximum SPF label of 50, to limit
unrealistic claims.[35][6][36] (As of February 2017, the FDA has not adopted the SPF 50 limit.[37])
Others have proposed restricting the active ingredients to an SPF of no more than 50, due to
lack of evidence that higher dosages provide more meaningful protection.[38] Different sunscreen
ingredients have different effectiveness against UVA and UVB.[39]

UV sunlight spectrum (on a summer day in the Netherlands), along with the CIE Erythemal action
spectrum. The effective spectrum is the product of the former two.

The SPF can be measured by applying sunscreen to the skin of a volunteer and measuring how
long it takes before sunburn occurs when exposed to an artificial sunlight source. In the US, such
an in vivo test is required by the FDA. It can also be measured in vitro with the help of a specially
designed spectrometer. In this case, the actual transmittance of the sunscreen is measured,
along with the degradation of the product due to being exposed to sunlight. In this case, the
transmittance of the sunscreen must be measured over all wavelengths in sunlight's UVB–UVA
range (290–400 nm), along with a table of how effective various wavelengths are in causing
sunburn (the erythemal action spectrum) and the standard intensity spectrum of sunlight (see the
figure). Such in vitro measurements agree very well with in vivo measurements[attribution needed].
Numerous methods have been devised for evaluation of UVA and UVB protection. The most-
reliable spectrophotochemical methods eliminate the subjective nature of grading erythema.[40]
The ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) is a similar scale developed for rating fabrics for sun
protective clothing. According to recent testing by Consumer Reports, UPF ~30 is typical for
protective fabrics, while UPF ~6 is typical for standard summer fabrics.[41]
Mathematically, the SPF (or the UPF) is calculated from measured data as

where is the solar irradiance spectrum, the erythemal action spectrum,

and the monochromatic protection factor, all functions of the wavelength . The
MPF is roughly the inverse of the transmittance at a given wavelength.
The above means that the SPF is not simply the inverse of the transmittance in the UVB
region. If that were true, then applying two layers of SPF 5 sunscreen would always be
equivalent to SPF 25 (5 times 5). The actual combined SPF may be lower than the square of
the single-layer SPF.[42]

UVA protection[edit]
Persistent pigment darkening[edit]
The persistent pigment darkening (PPD) method is a method of measuring UVA protection,
similar to the SPF method of measuring sunburn protection. Originally developed in Japan, it
is the preferred method used by manufacturers such as L'Oréal.
Instead of measuring erythema, the PPD method uses UVA radiation to cause a persistent
darkening or tanning of the skin. Theoretically, a sunscreen with a PPD rating of 10 should
allow a person 10 times as much UVA exposure as would be without protection. The PPD
method is an in vivo test like SPF. In addition, Colipa has introduced a method that, it is
claimed, can measure this in vitro and provide parity with the PPD method.[43]
SPF equivalence[edit]

The UVA seal used in the EU

A tube of SPF 15 sun lotion

As part of revised guidelines for sunscreens in the EU, there is a requirement to provide the
consumer with a minimum level of UVA protection in relation to the SPF. This should be a
"UVA PF" of at least 1/3 of the SPF to carry the UVA seal.[44]
A set of final US FDA rules effective from summer 2012 defines the phrase "broad spectrum"
as providing UVA protection proportional to the UVB protection, using a standardized testing
method.[6]
Star rating system[edit]
In the UK and Ireland, the Boots star rating system is a proprietary in vitro method used to
describe the ratio of UVA to UVB protection offered by sunscreen creams and sprays. Based
on original work by Brian Diffey at Newcastle University, the Boots Company in Nottingham,
UK, developed a method that has been widely adopted by companies marketing these
products in the UK.
One-star products provide the lowest ratio of UVA protection, five-star products the highest.
The method was recently revised in light of the Colipa UVA PF test and the revised EU
recommendations regarding UVA PF. The method still uses a spectrophotometer to measure
absorption of UVA versus UVB; the difference stems from a requirement to pre-irradiate
samples (where this was not previously required) to give a better indication of UVA
protection and photostability when the product is used. With the current methodology, the
lowest rating is three stars, the highest being five stars.
In August 2007, the FDA put out for consultation the proposal that a version of this protocol
be used to inform users of American product of the protection that it gives against UVA;[35] but
this was not adopted, for fear it would be too confusing.[38]
PA system[edit]
Asian brands, particularly Japanese ones, tend to use The Protection Grade of UVA (PA)
system to measure the UVA protection that a sunscreen provides. The PA system is based
on the PPD reaction and is now widely adopted on the labels of sunscreens. According to
the Japan Cosmetic Industry Association, PA+ corresponds to a UVA protection factor
between two and four, PA++ between four and eight, and PA+++ more than eight. This
system was revised in 2013 to include PA++++ which corresponds to a PPD rating of sixteen
or above.

Sunblock[edit]
Sunblock typically refers to opaque sunscreen that is effective at blocking both UVA and
UVB rays and uses a heavy carrier oil to resist being washed off. Titanium dioxide and zinc
oxide are two minerals that are used in sunblock.[45]
The use of the word "sunblock" in the marketing of sunscreens is controversial. Since 2013,
the FDA has banned such use because it can lead consumers to overestimate the
effectiveness of products so labeled.[6] Nonetheless, many consumers use the words
sunblock and sunscreen synonymously.
For total protection against damage from the sun, the skin needs to be protected from UVA,
UVB, and also IRA (infrared-A light).[46] Roughly 35% of solar energy is IRA.[citation needed].
However, note that there is continuing debate within the dermatology community over the
impact of sun-sourced IRA: Some sources indicate that early morning IRA exposure may be
protective against further sun exposure by increasing cell proliferation and initiating anti-
inflammatory cascades; these effects are not observed for artificial sources of intense IRA.[47]

Active ingredients[edit]
In addition to moisturizers and other inactive ingredients, sunscreens contain one or more of
the following active ingredients, which are either chemical or mineral in nature:

 Organic chemical compounds that absorb ultraviolet light.

 Inorganic particulates that reflect, scatter, and absorb UV light (such as titanium
dioxide, zinc oxide, or a combination of both).[45]
 Organic particulates that mostly absorb UV light like organic chemical compounds, but
contain multiple chromophores that reflect and scatter a fraction of light like inorganic
particulates. An example is Tinosorb M. The mode of action is about 90% by absorption
and 10% by scattering.
The principal active ingredients in sunscreens are
usually aromatic molecules conjugated with carbonyl groups. This general structure allows
the molecule to absorb high-energy ultraviolet rays and release the energy as lower-energy
rays, thereby preventing the skin-damaging ultraviolet rays from reaching the skin. So, upon
exposure to UV light, most of the ingredients (with the notable exception of avobenzone) do
not undergo significant chemical change, allowing these ingredients to retain the UV-
absorbing potency without significant photodegradation.[48] A chemical stabilizer is included in
some sunscreens containing avobenzone to slow its breakdown; examples include
formulations containing Helioplex[49] and AvoTriplex.[50] The stability of avobenzone can also
be improved by bemotrizinol,[51] octocrylene[52] and various other photostabilisers. Most
organic compounds in sunscreens slowly degrade and become less effective over the course
of several years if stored properly, resulting in the expiration dates calculated for the
product.[53]
Sunscreening agents are used in some hair care products such as shampoos, conditioners
and styling agents to protect against protein degradation and color loss.
Currently, benzophenone-4 and ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate are the two sunscreens most
commonly used in hair products. The common sunscreens used on skin are rarely used for
hair products due to their texture and weight effects.
The following are the FDA allowable active ingredients in sunscreens:

Permitte
Maximum d in Results of
UV UV
UV-filter Other names concentra these safety
A B
tion countrie testing
s

Protects
against skin
15% (EU:
tumors in
banned
mice.[54][55][56] S
from sale
hown to
p-Aminobenzoic to USA,
PABA increase DNA X
acid consumers AUS
defects,
from 8
however, and
October
is now less
2009)
commonly
used.

8% (EU,
USA, AUS)
10% (JP)
OD-PABA, EU,
Padimate O octyldimethyl- (Not USA, X
PABA, σ-PABA currently AUS, JP
supported
in EU and
may be
delisted)

4% (US,
Phenylbenzimid Ensulizole, EU,
AUS) 8% Genotoxic in
azole sulfonic Eusolex 232, USA, X
(EU) 3% bacteria[57]
acid PBSA, Parsol HS AUS, JP
(JP)
2-Ethoxyethyl p- 3% (US) USA,
Cinoxate X X
methoxycinnamate 6% (AUS) AUS
USA,
Dioxybenzone Benzophenone-8 3% X X
AUS
Banned
6% (US)
Benzophenone-3, EU, in Hawaii start
10% (AUS,
Oxybenzone Eusolex 4360, USA, ing in 2021 - X X
EU) 5%
Escalol 567 AUS, JP harmful
(JP)
to coral[58]
 10% (EU, EU,
Homomethyl
Homosalate JP) 15% USA, X
salicylate, HMS
(US, AUS) AUS, JP
Menthyl USA,
Meradimate 5% X
anthranilate AUS
Eusolex OCR,
Parsol 340, 2-
EU,
Cyano-3,3- Increases RO
Octocrylene 10% USA, X X
diphenyl acrylic S[59]
AUS, JP
acid, 2-
ethylhexylester
Octinoxate, EMC,
OMC, Ethylhexyl Banned
7.5% (US)
Octyl methoxycinnamate EU, in Hawaii start
10% (EU,
methoxycinnam , Escalol 557, 2- USA, ing in 2021 - X
AUS) 20%
ate Ethylhexyl- AUS, JP harmful
(JP)
paramethoxycinna to coral[60]
mate, Parsol MCX
Octisalate, 2-
5% (EU, EU,
Ethylhexyl
Octyl salicylate USA, AUS) USA, X
salicylate, Escalol
10% (JP) AUS, JP
587,
2-Hydroxy-4-
Methoxybenzophe
none-5-sulfonic
acid, 3-Benzoyl-4- 5% (EU) EU,
Sulisobenzone hydroxy-6- 10% (US, USA, X X
methoxybenzenes AUS, JP) AUS, JP
ulfonic acid,
Benzophenone-4,
Escalol 577
Trolamine Triethanolamine USA,
12% X
salicylate salicylate AUS
1-(4-
methoxyphenyl)-3-
(4-tert-butyl
phenyl)propane- 3% (US)
EU,
1,3-dione, Butyl 5% (EU,
Avobenzone USA, X
methoxy AUS) 10%
AUS, JP
dibenzoylmethane, (JP)
BMDBM, Parsol
1789, Eusolex
9020
EU, AUS
(US:
approved
Mexoryl SX, in certain Protects
Terephthalylidene formulati against skin
Ecamsule 10% X
Dicamphor ons up to tumors in
Sulfonic Acid 3% via mice[61][62][63]
New
Drug
Applicati
 on (NDA)
Route)
25% (US) EU,
Titanium
CI77891 No limit USA, X X
dioxide
(JP) AUS, JP
Protects
25% (US) EU,
against skin
Zinc oxide No limit USA, X X
tumors in
(AUS, JP) AUS, JP
mice[61]

Zinc oxide was approved as a UV filter by the EU in 2016.[64]

Other ingredients approved within the EU[65] and other parts of the world,[66] that have not
been included in the current FDA Monograph:

Maximum Permitted
UV-filter Other names
concentration in

4-
Enzacamene, Parsol 5000, Eusolex
Methylbenzylidene 4%* EU, AUS
6300, MBC
camphor

Bisoctrizole, Methylene Bis-

Parsol Max, EU, AUS,
Benzotriazolyl 10%*
Tinosorb M JP
Tetramethylbutylphenol, MBBT

Bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol
Parsol Shield, 10% (EU, AUS) EU, AUS,
methoxyphenol triazine,
Tinosorb S 3% (JP)* JP
Bemotrizinol, BEMT, anisotriazine

Tinosorb A2B Tris-Biphenyl Triazine 10% EU

Bisdisulizole Disodium, Disodium

phenyl dibenzimidazole
Neo Heliopan AP 10% EU, AUS
tetrasulfonate, bisimidazylate,
DPDT

Mexoryl XL Drometrizole Trisiloxane 15% EU, AUS

Uvinul DS 49, CAS 3121-60-6,

Benzophenone-9 Sodium Dihydroxy Dimethoxy 10% JP
Disulfobenzophenone [67]
 Octyl triazone, ethylhexyl triazone, 5% (EU, AUS)
Uvinul T 150 EU, AUS
EHT 3% (JP)*

Diethylamino Hydroxybenzoyl Hexyl

Uvinul A Plus 10% (EU, JP) EU, JP
Benzoate

Iscotrizinol, Diethylhexyl butamido 10% (EU) 5%

Uvasorb HEB EU, JP
triazone, DBT (JP)*

Dimethico-diethylbenzalmalonate, EU, AUS,

Parsol SLX 10%
Polysilicone-15 JP

Isopentyl-4-methoxycinnamate,
Amiloxate Isoamyl p-Methoxycinnamate, IMC, 10%* EU, AUS
Neo Heliopan E1000

*
Time and Extent Application (TEA), Proposed Rule on FDA approval originally expected
2009, now expected 2015.
Many of the ingredients awaiting approval by the FDA were relatively new, and developed to
absorb UVA.[68] The 2014 Sunscreen Innovation Act was passed to accelerate the FDA
approval process.[69][70]

Application[edit]
The dose used in FDA sunscreen testing is 2 mg/cm2 of exposed skin.[48] If one assumes an
"average" adult build of height 5 ft 4 in (163 cm) and weight 150 lb (68 kg) with a 32-inch (82-
cm) waist, that adult wearing a bathing suit covering the groin area should apply
approximately 30 g (or 30 ml, approximately 1 oz) evenly to the uncovered body area. This
can be more easily thought of as a "golf ball" size amount of product per body, or at least six
teaspoonfuls. Larger or smaller individuals should scale these quantities
accordingly.[71]Considering only the face, this translates to about 1/4 to 1/3 of a teaspoon for
the average adult face.
Some studies have shown that people commonly apply only 1/4 to 1/2 of the amount
recommended for achieving the rated sun protection factor (SPF), and in consequence the
effective SPF should be downgraded to a square root or 4th root of the advertised value.[42] A
later study found a significant exponential relation between SPF and the amount of
sunscreen applied, and the results are closer to linearity than expected by theory.[72]
Claims that substances in pill form can act as sunscreen are false and disallowed in the
United States.[73]

Regulation[edit]
This section needs
expansion. You can help
by adding to it. (January 2018)

United States
Sunscreen labeling standards have been evolving in the United States since the FDA first
adopted the SPF calculation in 1978.[74] The FDA issued a comprehensive set of rules in
June 2011, taking effect in 2012–2013, designed to help consumers identify and select
suitable sunscreen products offering protection from sunburn, early skin aging, and skin
cancer:[6][75][76]

 To be classified as "broad spectrum", sunscreen products must provide protection

against both UVA and UVB, with specific tests required for both.
 Claims of products being "waterproof" or "sweatproof" are prohibited, while "sunblock"
and "instant protection" and "protection for more than 2 hours" are all prohibited without
specific FDA approval.
 "Water resistance" claims on the front label must indicate how long the sunscreen
remains effective and specify whether this applies to swimming or sweating, based on
standard testing.
 Sunscreens must include standardized "Drug Facts" information on the container.
However, there is no regulation that deems it necessary to mention whether the contents
contain nanoparticles of mineral ingredients. (The EU has stricter regulation against the
use of nanoparticles, and in 2009 introduced labeling requirements for nanoparticle
ingredients in certain sunscreens and cosmetics.)[77]

Environmental effects[edit]
Certain sunscreens in water under ultraviolet light can increase the production of hydrogen
peroxide, which damages phytoplankton.[78] Oxybenzone damages coral.[79]Nanoparticles of
titanium dioxide, an ingredient in some sunscreens, can accumulate in coastal waters and be
ingested by marine animals.[78]

History[edit]

Sama-Bajau woman from Maiga Island, Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia, with traditional sun
protection called burak

Early civilizations used a variety of plant products to help protect the skin from sun damage.
For example, ancient Greeks used olive oil for this purpose, and ancient Egyptians used
extracts of rice, jasmine, and lupine plants whose products are still used in skin care
today.[80] Zinc oxide paste has also been popular for skin protection for thousands of
years.[81] Among the nomadic sea-going Sama-Bajau people of the Philippines, Malaysia,
and Indonesia, a common type of sun protection was a paste called borak or burak, which
was made from water weeds, rice and spices. It was used most commonly by women to
protect the face and exposed skin areas from the harsh tropical sun at sea.[82]
Early synthetic sunscreens were first used in 1928.[80] The first major commercial product was
brought to market in 1936, introduced by the founder of L'Oreal, French chemist Eugène
Schueller.[83]
Among widely used modern sunscreens, one of the earliest was produced in 1944 for the US
military by Benjamin Green, an airman and later a pharmacist, as the hazards of sun
overexposure became apparent to soldiers in the Pacific tropics at the height of World War
II.[16][83][84][85] The product, named Red Vet Pet (for red veterinary petrolatum), had limited
effectiveness, working as a physical blocker of ultraviolet radiation. It was a disagreeable
red, sticky substance similar to petroleum jelly. Sales boomed when Coppertone improved
and commercialized the substance under the Coppertone girl and Bain de Soleil branding in
the early 1950s.
In 1946, Swiss chemist Franz Greiter introduced what may have been the first effective
modern sunscreen. The product, called Gletscher Crème (Glacier Cream), subsequently
became the basis for the company Piz Buin, which is still today a marketer of sunscreen
products, named in honor of the mountain where Greiter allegedly received the sunburn that
inspired his concoction.[86][87][88] In 1974, Greiter adapted earlier calculations from Friedrich
Ellinger and Rudolf Schulze and introduced the "sun protection factor" (SPF), which has
become a worldwide standard for measuring the effectiveness of sunscreen.[16][89] It has been
estimated that Gletscher Crème had an SPF of 2.
Water-resistant sunscreens were introduced in 1977,[83] and recent development efforts have
focused on overcoming later concerns by making sunscreen protection both longer-lasting
and broader-spectrum, as well as more appealing to use.[16]