Milojevic, Brankica Factors of Urban Transformation in B&H 48th ISOCARP Congress 2012

Influential Factors on the Urban Transformation of Cities in Bosnia

and Herzegovina in the Period of Transition
Brankica Milojevic, Faculty for Architecture and Civil Engeneering University of Banja
Luka, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina

1. Influential Factors of Urban Transformation

Urban transformation of towns in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) in the last twenty years has
in new morphological phase named town in transition under the influence of various factors
in physical, social and economic sphere, which interactions and various intensity create
urban form in direct or indirect way. The thesis confirmed in exploration1 (Milojevic, B. 2010)
is that the factors in social, economy and political spheres create the most influence on the
urban transformation of cities in B&H in the last morphology period.

There is, also, necessity for understanding the urban transformation through the analysis of
achieved level of urban development in light of many aspects which create urban
phenomena, continuum of existing in space and time, including dynamic of changes. Only
with complex analysis of contextual conditions, there is possibility for understanding the
present level of urban development in aim to recognize the capacities and to future changing.
Analysis2 (Milojevic, B. 2010) also confirm that urban transformation of cities in B&H during
the history had generally and specific characteristics. Generally characteristics have
depended on the historical circumstances within the sphere of social-political organization of
Balkan Region and accordingly, there are several morphological phases in urban
development of cities: oriental phase, period under the Austro-Hungarian managing, period
between two world wars, socialistic period of urban development from 1945-1992, and the
last one, which is already present, the period of transition. This division showing us that there
is a direct relation between the urban form and social-political organization of territory.

Urban transformation of each town has also local specifics related with nature characteristic
of space and structures, create unique urban ambient, local history and tradition, some
cultural or sports manifestation or so on.

2. Period of Transition in B&H as the Society Frame of Urban Transformation

At the beginning of the nineties of the twentieth century, a deep crisis of socialism was
resulted in the crash of whole national system of SFRJ. The main problem in the form of
unsustainable national economies had spread to the sphere of political and religious
antagonism which strong intensity of the action and the impossibility of a solution of
accumulated problems through peaceful means resulted in armed conflict in 1992th – 1995th.
During this period, generally in the Balkans and in B&H, an evolutionary process of social
development gave way to the primacy of revolutionary, and dynamics was changed in many
processes and course of action. One of the most powerful was the process of demographic
migration in B&H in which more than 50% of the population started from their place of
residence. Migrations were two-way, so most cities received a significant number of new
residents. Housing and other existential needs of the new population have become a serious
problem in cities that couldn’t be solved adequately for a long time. So, the demographic
characteristics of the population, its needs, culture and habits constitute the significant
factors in the planning of urban functions and its content.

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Milojevic, Brankica Factors of Urban Transformation in B&H 48th ISOCARP Congress 2012

Urban functions are also directly dependent on the new political - territorial organization and
the importance of cities in the new network established within two entities - The Republic of
Srpska, the Federation of B&H and District of Brcko. (Figure 1)

Figure 1: Bosnia and Herzegovina – division of its territory into the entities: Republic of Srpska and
Federation of B&H

One of the biggest transition processes has certainly been the privatization of state capital. It
is followed by the process of transformation and equity of economic capacity of the state in
private and reorganization of the economy on market principles. Land policy has also
changed in the transition period. Urban construction land, after denationalization and
restitution of property to private owners, has become a commodity at the market, which
strongly affecting the intensity and character of building in the cities.

So, in transitional societies, complex changes in the socio-economic relations have a direct
reflection on the process of urbanization. The influential factors in domain of social, cultural,
political, economy aspects result in a recognizable shape of urban form trying to meet
consumer needs, market-oriented society. Globalization, present in all spheres of life, is also
very influential factor of urban changes through which traditional values of urban space very
often give way to international.

3. Main factors of Urban Transformation in Transition Period in B&H

3.1. Population
The population is one of the most influential factors in shaping urban form. It directly affects
the size of cities, cultural pattern of urban environment and character of urban activities,
which directly reflects on the urban space. On the other side, the number of population in
cities throughout the history of B&H is dependent on economic, transportation and military-
strategic importance of cities, which changeable through the various form of state
organization. The variability of demographic factors accompanied by an increase in
population (migration due to economic, political and cultural influence) make the directions of
future development in terms of the need for new construction of residential, business, sports,

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and other facilities of urban standard. The presence of a new population has been critical for
the development of new town - East Sarajevo (with political decisions, economic power of the
community and the interest of private investors), which supports the thesis that the politics
and factors in social sphere have been the most dominant in the urban transformation of
cities in B&H from the end of XX century and at the beginning of the XXI century.

Educational structure of population, through its working potential is directly related to the
form of economic activity and social superstructure. Thus, in the area of East Sarajevo
settled population that has attained its urban standard through the programming of their own
needs in the new space. Banja Luka became the meeting place of migration flowing from
urban centers in Bosnia and Croatia from 1992.-1995., as well as from rural areas of the
Bosnian Krajina. The urban transformation of Banja Luka was created under the interaction
of population, its cultural characteristics and needs, the political importance of the city as the
capital of Republic of Srpska (RS), economic development according to market criteria and
omnipresent globalization. Something similar happened in Sarajevo, Brcko, Trebinje,
Visegrad and most other cities in B&H, and depending on the strength of influence of
individual factors, formed the social and cultural patterns that gave the specific character to
urban form at the beginning of XXI century.

The biggest problem in terms of perception of the current demographic situation and the
planning of future development needs in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the lack
of an official census. The last census was carried out in 1991 year, while the new one
expected only in 2013th. After the war immigration, census question has become political
matter, which is a significant obstacle to sustainable planning in the territory of B&H in the
future.

In the last period, the impact of the Internet and modern communications is present all over,
among the authentic cultural patterns of the population, bringing a new quality of urban life.
After liberation from dogmatic socialism that was trying to suppress religious and national
characteristics, in parallel with the development of the opposite process in the last period
(which favours the cultivation of national and religious specificity), the presence of the
Internet and other modern ways of communication seek to annul the specifics of local culture
and the environment.

3.2. Policy
Policy had strongest intensity of action in relation to other influence factors on urban
transformation in B&H in the period 1992th-1995th. Political decisions have changed the state
border, led to armed conflicts, displacements of demographic, economic transformation and
a number of other processes that have started the society in its transition towards a new form
of public-political, social and economic system. The political factor is, therefore, dominated
over the other, which has made assumptions for changes in urban structure and form of
many cities, especially those which were significant in the strategic-political terms or were
given a prominent position in the new state and organizational structure. Thus, the Banja
Luka and Brcko experienced the expansion and strong momentum in the urban
transformation as the capital of the new entity/district. The new town, East Sarajevo, was
created just few years ago. (The population was the basis for the formation of new city,
whose urban form gradually began to form through the construction of new.

The political factor, as far as strong in intensity, isn’t consistent building block of urban form,
because it is a changeable and variable. This is confirmed in the case of Brcko, which
existed from 1995-1997. within the RS, and since February 1997th the Award of the
international community, it became the capital city of Brcko District, which is a critical impact
on the future course of its urban transformation. In the last ten years, the stabilization of

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political factors, reduced its impact on urban form, so the macro-economic flows, private
investments, population and its need have dominate.

In the last ten years, the stabilization of political factors, reduced its impact on urban form,
so, private investments, population, culture and globalization have greater impact of urban
change.

3.3. Economy
Economy is directly dependent on the state organization and the level of political
development. Last morphological periods were followed by increased intensities of politics
and economy influence - the strong role of government in the period of socialism in the
sphere of political decision-making and funding, and the introduction of activation and
participation of private capital in the transition period. Generally the economic factor
exercised a consistent impact in the period of socialism and the basis of the development
was the state capital placed on the principles of balanced development. Weakening of
economic and political power of the state, caused the weakening development of all cities in
the territory of B&H. The exception was organizing XIV Winter Olympic Games in Sarajevo in
1984. as strong momentum in building the infrastructure and facilities, which have existed up
today in form of town facilities (ice hall Zetra Olympic village in Mojmilo - residential area, the
second block Skenderija, hotel accommodations in the city and the surrounding mountains,
ski slopes, mountain fields arranged around town ...).

Within the transition period, the market is dominated by the criteria placement of private
capital, which is manifested unbalanced development of urban areas. The first phase of
transition was accompanied by a reduced volume of investment in public facilities, as the
result of the present lack of strategic planning. The globalization of the economic segment,
through the strengthening of international corporations, is also an expression of increased
economic effects, and through them, the urban transformation.

3.4. Urban Planning

The role of urban planning in the urban transformation depends on the territory covered by
the plans and scope of their implementation. Many cities in B&H have evolved under the
strong influence of urban planning from the sixties of the twentieth century to the present.
The scope of planning and scale of implementation of plans indicate the economic power of
the society and commitment to strategic planning in order to protect the public interest in
space. It also shows the effectiveness of legislation and local community to act in
accordance with the legal procedures.

Within the area of B&H, there is, unfortunately, still present illegal construction, which
indicates the inefficiency of implementation of legal measures against the illegal building. It
also points to other systemic problems in society for which the state and local community
couldn’t be effective and sustainable subjects to managing spatial resources.

The beginning of transition was accompanied by a lack of strategic planning. Republic of

Srpska adopted the Spatial Plan in 2007 year as the general strategy for spatial development
(Figure 2), while the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FB&H) hasn't done it yet. It is
still expressed a lack of new municipal spatial plans in the whole territory of B&H harmonized
with the changes in the administrative-political, social and economic characteristics of the
region. The general plans of urban development of cities also haven`t been updated for most
cities in B&H. Banja Luka is the town having the updated general urban plan (but hasn't been
adopted yet). (Figure 3.). Flexible planning methodology at the level of urban blocks, not yet
put into force, and only from 2010th has been presented in the legislation in the form of new
type of plan named zonning.

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Milojevic, Brankica Factors of Urban Transformation in B&H 48th ISOCARP Congress 2012

Figure 2: Spatial plan for Republic of Srpska up to 2015th: Administrative organization of space with
Republic border and borders of municipalities. It’s the highest level of planning documentations.

Figure 3: Draft of General Urban Plan of Banja Luka to 2020th

Planning for the period of socialist development, expert-oriented, was generally greater
influence on the change of urban planning than the one in the transition period, when it

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introduced the participation of increasing number of actors in the decision making process.
Despite the presence of participation in the transition phase, planning model is not adjusted
to variability of private capital, so plans change frequently. There is also inconsistency of built
structures with urban solutions, reducing the actual impact on the planning of urban
transformation (illegal construction is directly contrary to the degree of impact of urban
planning). Generally speaking, transition planning, which seeks greater flexibility and
adaptability to different needs of market capital, tends to reduce its impact to urban
transformation than the planning in the period of socialism. Insufficient level of urban
development of cities in B&H points out the necessity of establishing a new planning model
that will, with unquestionable flexibility in the presentation of private interest, clearly define all
the essential elements of spatial regulation in the area of public good. Thus the development
of zoning methodology was very significant in terms of optimal, adaptation, planning needs of
social transition.

3.4.1. Development of Zoning Model

The first pilot projects of zoning, as the new type of plan with flexible frame of urban
conditions for building were realized under the Project GAP (Governance Accountability
Project) in B&H, and donated by USAID, Sida and Holland Embassy in B&H. GAP is present
in the territory of B&H since 2005 year, and supports the reform of spatial planning through
several aspects, with primary goal of strengthening the governance accountability of relevant
departments of local governments. This involves improvement the business operations in the
spirit of contemporary principles, application of information technologies, faster and more
efficiently provide information to citizens, development of flexible planning methodology 3
(Milojevic, 2011, p. 371-382), shortening the administrative procedures for potential
investors, professional training of the official staff and others. Until now, the project included
72 municipalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and its final results were evident in many fields
of expertize. Project has made an active contribution to the new legal solutions, primarily in
the domain of zoning4. (Milojevic, 2012.)

Figure 4 is the example taken from the Pilot Project Zoning for the central area of Banja
Luka, drafted in 2007th year (GAP). The area is divided into zones, defined the basic rules of
building, without parcels of building. Among them are the public spaces of city roads, parks
and squares. It is a more flexible form of the same planning area shown in Figure 5. This is a
planning model for the regulation plan, typical for the period of socialism, specifying all the
elements in space in the same scale (horizontal and vertical measures of buildings, parcels,
ground floor arrangement, etc.), which has become inadequate for changing needs of private
capital.

Figure 4: Pilot project of zoning Figure 5: Regulation plan

Zoning is included in the legislation in the field of planning in B&H in 2010th, but the global
recession and reduced planning in cities, yet haven`t been tested.5

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Milojevic, Brankica Factors of Urban Transformation in B&H 48th ISOCARP Congress 2012

3.5. Legislation in the Field of Spatial Planning in B&H

Urban planning and development in B&H is currently led by the FB&H and RS entities. These
activities are governed in the RS by the Law on Urban Planning and Building (Official
Gazette of RS, no. 55/10) and in the FB&H by the Law on Urban Planning and Land Use
(Official Gazette of the FB&H, no. 2/06, which was changed and amended in 2007, 2008,
and for three times in 2010). Unlike the RS, in the FB&H there are obligatory laws on urban
planning at the cantonal level (there are ten cantons in FB&H). FB&H municipalities
implement these cantonal- level laws, along with municipal decrees on urban planning,
harmonized with the higher-level laws, and more specifically, they establish rules related to
municipal land. Therefore, the complex administrative and political system in the FB&H
resulted in inefficiency and complexity of legislation in the territory of FB&H. (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Urban planning legal authority within FB&H and RS

In the Republic of Srpska, the entity-level law governs urban planning, management of urban
development from the entity level to the municipal level, and the roles for building
construction to territory of RS. In 2011, the Contents, Manner of Preparation and Adoption of
Documents of Urban Development (RS Official Gazette, no. 59/11) and the Rulebook on
Contents and Control of Technical Documentation (RS Official Gazette, no. 8/11) were
adopted and described in detail those activities related to the preparation of urban planning
documentation and technical documentation. These are the main regulatory documents
applicable throughout the RS. Besides these, each municipality enacts a decree on
construction (or urban development) in which all requirements for development reflecting the
specific conditions of the territory are listed.) These decrees must be in line with the RS Law.
In the FB&H, there is Unique Methodology for Preparation of Plans defining the contents and
methodology of preparation of planning documentation from 2006th. Changes and
amendments to the same act from 2010th provide for the preparation of zoning plans, a new
and more flexible planning tool.

3.5.1. Comments on Legislation on Spatial Planning, which Existed from 1995-2010

Until 1992, urban development was regulated by legislation that was based on socialist
development theory. The most recent laws were adopted in 1987, including the Unique
Methodology for Preparation of Planning Documentation (SR B&H Official Gazette, no. 22-
87). In line with the previous legislation, plans were developed by the state and merely
handed down to the lower levels for implementation.

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Milojevic, Brankica Factors of Urban Transformation in B&H 48th ISOCARP Congress 2012

Immediately after the war ended in 1995, new entity-level spatial planning laws were
introduced and implemented from 1996-2010. These laws were flawed, as they did not
create a basis for implementing more flexible planning and development strategies (they
were identical in content with the socialist period), despite the presence of citizens
participation, and were often subject to change. In the RS, the process of plan preparation
was streamlined, and the obligation to include a proper program basis for planning which
implies that roughly define the objectives and expected results of planning was eliminated.
While the loss of this step may have made the procedure faster and more efficient, it
hindered the opportunity to create a harmonized planning strategy of the entity to the local
level and system, crucial to the first phase of establishing the new national spatial planning
system that should ideally provide sufficient and adequate protection of public interests.

In the FB&H, planning was performed using the same methodology as in the previous
(socialist) period, including both the preparation and adoption of the program basis or
preliminary feasibility study (for urban and spatial development plans), which provided more
strategic support for implementation. Due to the complex political organization of cantonal
and municipal administrations, plan preparation lasted from two to three years. Political
changes and the introduction of new program requirements, which would often require
preparation to begin anew, drew out the process. Accordingly, in the FB&H, there was a
problem in terms of the efficiency of procedures and lack of flexibility in the plans.

From 1995-2010, municipal urban planning departments have been strongly influenced by
private investors, who became involved in planning and building operations, to the extent that
there has been a visible change in the development of B&H cities over this period. This
involvement has led to a decline in urban management and building standards, including a
lack of adequate control of technical documentation, insufficient protection of norms and
standards in design, reduction of inspections of construction sites, and a lack of respect
toward the sites being developed. This is highlighted in the housing market, which
commercialized to increase the profit of the building entrepreneurs.

3.5.1. Comments on the current legislation on spatial planning (from 2010th to date)
In addition, the complex administrative procedures involved in issuing urban and building
permits in both entities have been criticized by the domestic and international community.
They rightly comment that foreign and domestic investment is difficult to attract unless a
business-friendly environment exists at the local level. Therefore, the new laws that were
adopted in both entities in 2010th had a common goal: achieving efficiency in the field of
urban planning through the reduction of procedures in administrative tasks and more flexible
planning. The new legislation provides the new types of planning tools, including zoning.
However, the zoning methodology has not been clearly established, despite the fact that the
supporting by-laws have been adopted. Thus, zoning plans have yet to be developed or
piloted.

Implementing the new laws from 2010th has proven difficult one due to problems in issuing
location permits (a new form of urban permit) and building permits too. The institutions
responsible for issuing these permits lack the capacity to perform their functions adequately.
There have also been made multiple changes in legislation by the Department for Spatial
Development of municipalities affecting preparation, adoption, and implementation of plans,
and the application of GIS tools. These are clear indicators of the need for additional
education for staff in departments on the local level in new spatial planning principles.

Legislation in both entities mandates that local governments be directly involved in and
responsible for the urban development in municipalities. Spatial planning and urban
development activities have been influenced not only by legal procedures, but also by
political interests, investor demands (particularly when the level of investment is considered

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significant), and the capacities of municipal departments responsible for the preparation and
adoption of planning and technical documentation.

Frequent changes of legislation in the field of spatial planning in B&H in transition period
point out many problems in terms of defining the optimal regulatory framework for this
domain. One of them is non-compliance with legislation in the field of energy and the need to
implement energy efficiency through a system of planning and construction, which has not
yet been achieved. Therefore, the new law on spatial planning and building in RS is again
found in the process of preparation (the draft appeared in June 2012th).

3.6. Architectural Design

Architectural design has a direct impact on urban space through the shape and the
materialization of which, depending on the degree of integration of the contextual conditions,
considers the architectural creativity directly related to the degree of economic development
of society. In the socialist period, there were notable architectural achievements of social
standard (cultural and sports centres, shopping centres, clinical centres ...) that his
grandiosity, representativeness, and modernity in many cities have become the new urban
rappers. The first phase of transition marked by the domestic private capital to the market
orientation that is not a preferred representation and creativity in architectural design. It
turned out especially in housing, which in terms of functionality and form, as well as the
quality of construction, did not follow current trends. The role of architects in this period is
strongly determined by the requirements of private investors who have become an important
factor not only in planning but also in design and discontinuity in the organization and space
management at the local and national level allow that.

4. Conclusion

The strongest impact on the urban transformation in the transition period in B&H have
achieved factors related to social processes (population, politics, economics, culture) in
society. High intensity of their actions resulted in a shift of national systems in the Balkan
region. Changes in the social relationships could not be followed through the legal system
solution in the beginning of transition, which was reflected directly in the urban space in the
form of illegal construction. The transformation of urban form under the influence of transition
in B&H entails building adapted to the needs of private capital, the denationalization of
construction land in urban areas and its evaluation according to market criteria, which
resulted in the change of approach to the planning of urban space. Participation of owners
and users of space in the process of decision-making has become an integral part of the
planning process.

Planning system from the socialist period was necessary to change the expert-oriented, with
unchangeable and detailed planning solutions to newer one in order to achieve flexibility,
efficiency and sustainability planning. Legislation in the field of spatial planning in B&H until
2010th did not provide the conditions for planning and management of spatial development in
the spirit of new principles and the needs of society in transition. The adoption of new
legislation in this area in the Republic of Srpska and Federation of B&H 2010th created the
prerequisites for installing flexible planning in a form of zoning. Numerous challenges are
found in planning of the transition period, particularly in domain of zoning. The quality of
urban transformation in the future will largely depend on the planning process, through which
it must be achieved optimum balance of flexibility needed to private investors on the one
hand, and the measures necessary urban regulations that will protect public interest,
traditional values and the general urban standards in the urban space.

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Milojevic, Brankica Factors of Urban Transformation in B&H 48th ISOCARP Congress 2012

Pilot projects which have been carried out with the support of project GAP development of
model zoning, as well as increasing urban capacity of municipalities in urban management,
contribute to the reform of planning throughout the territory.

Continuous improvement of legislation in order to have better solutions and complying with
European legislation and the world's best examples is necessary in the future. Particularly
important are issues of energy efficiency in the planning of settlements and construction of
facilities, introduction of measures for prevention and protection from climate change in cities
and so on.

Endnote
1
Milojevic, B. (2010) Influential factors of urban transformation of Cities in B&H in the period 1945-
2005 –Case Study of Five Cities, Doctor’s Dissertation, University of Banja Luka, Banja Luka
2
Milojevic, B. (2010) Influential factors of urban transformation of Cities in B&H in the period 1945-
2005 –Case Study of Five Cities, Doctor’s Dissertation, University of Banja Luka, Banja Luka
3
Milojevic, B. (2011) Pilot Project of Zoning in 11 Municipalities in Bosnia and Herzegovina –
Attachment of New Methodology of Planning in: Acic and Pucar, eds. 2011. Contemporary Theory and
Practice in Construction VII, Banjaluka, p. 371-382
4
Milojevic, B. Milojevic, (2012) GAP’s Initiative to Improve Management of Urban Development of
Cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, New Urbanity Cities VS Global Challlengers, International
Symposium on Sustainable Development and planning, April 2012, Belgrade, Serbia
5
Law on Urban Planning and Construction in the RS, 2010 (RS Official Gazette no. 55/10), Law on
Urban Planning and Land Use 2006, 2007,2008, 2010 (Official Gazette of the FB&H, no. 2/06, which
was changed and amended in 2007, 2008, and three times in 2010)

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Milojevic, B. (2010) Improving the Planning Methodology in the Serbian Republic to More Efficient and
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Milojevic, Brankica Factors of Urban Transformation in B&H 48th ISOCARP Congress 2012

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