Songs, Verse and Games for Teaching

Grammar
Arif Saricoban & Esen Metin
arifs [at] hacettepe.edu.tr
Hacettepe University & Cankaya University (Ankara, Turkey)

Introduction
Grammar teaching has often been regarded as a structure based, formal activity. After the
integration of several sources and techniques, which are mainly based on communicative
activities, the teaching of grammar gained a new insight. In the teaching of grammar,
technique-resource combinations are often modified to structure-discourse match and if
well developed, they can be used effectively for all phases of a grammar lesson. In order
to make a grammar lesson effective, beneficial, and interesting a teacher should use some
well-developed and fascinating techniques in the classroom. In the present paper, the
examples of such integrated sources and techniques -the use of songs, verse, games, and
problem solving activities- will be clarified and several examples will be provided.

Using Songs and Verse

Songs

Since the meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, it is important to

contextualize any grammar point. Songs are one of the most enchanting and culturally
rich resources that can easily be used in language classrooms. Songs offer a change from
routine classroom activities. They are precious resources to develop students abilities in
listening, speaking, reading, and writing. They can also be used to teach a variety of
language items such as sentence patterns, vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm, adjectives,
and adverbs. As stated by Lo and Fai Li (1998:8), learning English through songs also
provides a non-threatening atmosphere for students, who usually are tense when speaking
English in a formal classroom setting.

Songs also give new insights into the target culture. They are the means through which
cultural themes are presented effectively. Since they provide authentic texts, they are
motivating. Prosodic features of the language such as stress, rhythm, intonation are
presented through songs, thus through using them the language which is cut up into a
series of structural points becomes a whole again.

There are many advantages of using songs in the classroom. Through using contemporary
popular songs, which are already familiar to teenagers, the teacher can meet the
challenges of the teenage needs in the classroom. Since songs are highly memorable and
motivating, in many forms they may constitute a powerful subculture with their own
rituals. Furthermore, through using traditional folk songs the base of the learners
knowledge of the target culture can be broadened. Correctly chosen, traditional folk
songs have the dual motivating attack of pretty tunes and interesting stories, plus for
many students- the added ingredient of novelty (Hill, 1999:29). Most songs, especially
folk songs, follow a regularly repeated verse form, with rhyme, and have a series of other
discourse features, which make them easy to follow.

In consequence, if selected properly and adopted carefully, a teacher should benefit from
songs in all phases of teaching grammar. Songs may both be used for the presentation or
the practice phase of the grammar lesson. They may encourage extensive and intensive
listening, and inspire creativity and use of imagination in a relaxed classroom
atmosphere. While selecting a song the teacher should take the age, interests of the
learners and the language being used in the song into consideration. To enhance learner
commitment, it is also beneficial to allow learners to take part in the selection of the
songs.

Teaching Procedure

There are various ways of using songs in the classroom. The level of the students, the
interests and the age of the learners, the grammar point to be studied, and the song itself
have determinant roles on the procedure. Apart from them, it mainly depends on the
creativity of the teacher.

For primary students, the best songs would be those that are either familiar to the children
or those, though maybe not familiar, which have an international nature, such as Old
MacDonald. Since there is not a strict teaching procedure, the teacher can mainly
concentrate on what to teach rather than on how to teach. For instance, while teaching
them individual letter sounds or spelling the words, the traditional camp song 'Bingo', or
while teaching them counting 'Johnny Works with One Hammer' will be useful. In order
to make the songs more meaningful and more enjoyable, motions can be added to the
song which parallel the words of the song. Since most children enjoy singing fun and
nonsensical lyrics, using easy children songs will be useful. Furthermore, choosing lively
action songs through which they can dance or act while singing will ensure a lively
atmosphere.

For teenagers or adults in the intermediate or advanced level, it is better to use more
meaningful or popular songs, which not only review or introduce grammar points but also
reflect cultural aspects. At the primary level of singing the song, the prosodic features of
the language is emphasized. At the higher levels, where the practice of grammar points is
at the foreground, songs can be used with several techniques. Some examples of these
techniques are:

 Gap fills or close texts

 Focus questions
 True-false statements
 Put these lines into the correct sequence
 Dictation
  Add a final verse
 Circle the antonyms/synonyms of the given words
 Discuss

A teacher's selection of a technique or a set of techniques should be based on his or her

objectives for the classroom. After deciding the grammar point to be studied, and the
song and the techniques to be used, the teacher should prepare an effective lesson plan.
Since songs are listening activities, it is advisable to present them as a listening lesson,
but of course it is necessary to integrate all the skills in the process in order to achieve
successful teaching.

When regarding a lesson plan, as a pre-listening activity, the theme, the title, or the
history of the song can be discussed. By directing the students toward specific areas,
problem vocabulary items can be picked up in advance. Before listening to the song, it is
also beneficial to let the students know which grammar points should be studied. At this
stage, pictures may also be used to introduce the theme of the song. In the listening stage,
some of the techniques listed above can be used, but among them gap filling is the most
widely used technique. Through such gaps, the vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation
are highlighted. This stage can be developed by the teacher according to the needs of the
students and the grammar point to be studied.

In the follow-up, integrated skills can be used to complete the overall course structure.
Since many songs are on themes for which it is easy to find related reading texts, it may
lead the learner to read a text about the singer or the theme. Besides, many songs give a
chance for a written reaction of some kind. Opinion questions may lead the learner to
write about his own thoughts or reflections. Some songs deal with a theme that can be re-
exploited through role plays. Acting may add enthusiasm to the learning process. Finally,
some songs deal with themes, which can lead to guided discussion. By leading the
students into a discussion, the grammar point could be practiced orally and, in a way,
naturally.

Exploitation of songs for grammatical structures can be illustrated through several

examples. For present tense 'Let It Be' by the Beatles, for past tense 'Yesterday' by the
Beatles, for present progressive 'Sailing' by Rod Stewart, for present perfect 'Nothing
Compares to You' by Sinead Occonor, for past perfect 'Last Night I Had...' by Simon and
Garfunkel, for modals 'Blowing in the Wind' by Bob Dylan, and for conditionals 'El
Condor Pasa' by Simon and Garfunkel can be used. However, it should be kept in mind
that songs, which provide frequent repetitions, or tell a story, or provide comments about
life, or introduce cultural themes are the effective ones, since they provide authentic and
meaningful material.

As a consequence, the use of songs in language classrooms provides many advantages.

They entertain and relax the learners while they are learning or practicing a structure, and
they often eliminate the students negative attitude towards learning. Through providing
authenticity and context they make the grammar points more understandable and easy. As
language teachers, we can benefit from using songs, since our concern is to motivate the
students and draw their utmost attention on the subject during teaching.

Poems

Poems, like songs, contextualize a grammar lesson effectively. Since poetry is often
spoken, repeated, dealt with, and considered, it acts as an effective tool for practicing a
specific grammatical structure. Through repeating and considering the poem, the
grammatical structures become more deeply internalized. Thus, poetry not only provides
a rewarding resource for structured practice of grammar, but also a proper basis for
review. If a poem that exemplifies a particular structure is also a good poem, it engages
the eye, the ear and the tongue simultaneously while also stimulating and moving us; this
polymorphic effect makes poetry easier to memorize than other things for many students
(Celce-Murcia and Hills, 1988:123).

Like songs, poems exaggerate the rhythmic nature of the language. Thus it is an
important aspect to be taught, since English is a syllable timed language with stressed
syllables being spoken at roughly equal time pauses, even in everyday speech. Similar to
songs, poems have an enormous linguistic value as they provide authenticity and cultural
views. A poem's capacity to comfort the reader or the listener also increases its
effectiveness as a teaching resource. Once a poem or song has been learned, they stay in
the minds of the students for the rest of their lives, with all the rhythms, grammatical
features and vocabulary.

Poems may bring the use of creativity and the rhythm into the language classroom,
though they may also bring some difficulties. Poems are not constructed in a simple way
and syntactically they are at a higher level than prose, thus it might be very difficult for a
foreign language learner to comprehend them completely. As stated by Povey (cited in
Celce-Murcia and Hills, 1988) there are three main barriers for literature including
poetry. They are linguistic, cultural, and intellectual barriers. Linguistic difficulties are
the problems caused by the syntax or the lexicon of the poem. Cultural difficulties
include imagery, tone, and allusion. At the intellectual level, the students should be
intellectual and mature enough to understand the theme of the poem. These difficulties
could be easily removed if the teacher provides a poem which is syntactically and
thematically appropriate to the level, age and the interests of the students. Thus, by
removing or minimizing the potential problems, poetry can provide an enormously rich,
enjoyable and authentic context for foreign language learners.

In the selection of a poem, the teacher should first consider the grammatical structure to
be presented, practiced, or reviewed, then the level and the age of the students, next the
theme and the length of the poem and its appropriateness to the classroom objectives. It is
advisable to select a poem from 20th century poets. As older poems often provide a more
difficult lexicon and syntax, and as they reflect some old-fashioned ideas, it is more
convenient to use contemporary poems than older ones. Poems, which reflect cultural
themes, universal features, humanistic values, or emotional aspects, will be more relevant
to the foreign language learners. Finally, through taking the classroom objectives into
consideration, a teacher should effectively benefit from poems as teaching aids.

Teaching Procedure

At the teaching stage of a poem, it is not advisable to talk about the meaning of the poem
in advance. Since they offer a reading and listening activity, poems could be presented
through a reading plan. At the pre-reading stage, students might be motivated through
some enthusiastic talks about poetry or the poet. Some necessary vocabulary can also be
handled at this stage. At the reading stage, in order to create images and stress the
prosodic features, the teacher may want the students to close their eyes while he/she is
reading the poem. After the poem has been read at least twice, it is better to elicit the
primary responses of the students about the poem. Next, after distributing the poem to
students, students may be asked to read it either loudly or silently. In order to practice the
determined grammar point, students may be asked to paraphrase the poem. Through
transforming the verse into prose students get acquainted with the structure.

After easing the grammar and understanding the vocabulary, students get an idea about
the theme of the poem. Reading the paraphrased poem reinforces the grammatical
structure under consideration. Asking questions about context may follow the reading.
Through asking Wh- questions, providing additional information about the culture, and
asking students to share their experience with the subject matter, the cultural content of
the poem becomes more real and vivid. Words, pictures, and shared experiences can
eliminate the gap that is created by different cultures, as no one can deny that poems
cannot always evoke the same sounds, sights, smells, and associations for both native
speakers and foreign language learners. After discussing the surface content of the poem,
students may again asked to close their eyes and visualize the poem while listening to it.

As a follow-up activity a discussion may be held. After reviewing the plot of the poem
and providing adequate artful questions, the students will eventually discover the deeper
meaning of the poem. As being a facilitator, a teacher should always avoid telling the
meaning. After each student grasps his or her own meaning, it is proper to discuss the
depth of the poem. In this procedure, the teacher's aim is to support the students in their
attempts to understand the poem and make it relevant to their lives. Once they have
understood it and perceived its relevance, they will have no objection to practicing the
poem or even memorizing it, for it will have become special for them (Celce-Murcia and
Hills, 1988:126). At the follow-up stage, providing the determined structure, students
may also be asked to write a poem about anything they want. In such a procedure the four
skills are effectively integrated to practice or present any grammar point.

Since every class is different, teachers should creativity determine the teaching
procedure. It is not advisable to apply one procedure too strictly. A teacher should adopt
the activities according to the needs of the learners. However, it might not be very useful
to use poems for young students or for beginners. Instead of poems, using nursery rhymes
or songs would be more helpful since they provide more joyful and easier contexts. From
pre-intermediate to advanced levels, it is really beneficial to use either songs or poems.
Several poems can be adopted from contemporary poem books. The poems of the W.H.
Auden, Robert Frost, Stanley Kunitz, Delmore Schwartz, W.D. Snodgrass, Theodore
Roethke, Gary Snyder, Richard Wilbur, and Robert Lowell, etc. are suggested for the
language teachers who want to use poems in their grammar lessons.

Using Games and Problem-Solving Activities

The latest concern of the foreign language teachers is to make the students use the
language communicatively. After the realization of communicative competence ,
activities or techniques that are task-oriented and that lead students to use the language
creatively have gained importance. Games and problem-solving activities, which are
task-based and have a purpose beyond the production of correct speech, are the examples
of the most preferable communicative activities. Such activities highlight not only the
competence but also the performance of the learner. Yet they are the indispensable parts
of a grammar lesson, since they reinforce a form-discourse match. In such activities the
attention is on the discourse context.

Both games and problem-solving activities have a goal. Games are organized according
to rules, and they are enjoyable. Most games require choral responses or group works,
whereas problem-solving activities (though they are structured) require individual
response and creative solutions. Games and problem-solving activities are generally used
after the presentation, in the practice part, because such communicative tasks can only be
handled after mastering sufficient grammar and lexical points.

Through well-planned games, learners can practice and internalize vocabulary, grammar
and structures extensively. Play and competition that are provided by games enhance the
motivation of the students. They also reduce the stress in the classroom. While playing
games, the learners attention is on the message, not on the language. In a way, students
acquire language unconsciously since their whole attention is engaged by the activity. By
providing personal, social, and cross-cultural issues to define, they sometimes simulate
real life situations. Many grammar games can be found in teaching grammar or course
books.

There is a great overlap between games and problem solving activities. Though games
generally place an emphasis on competition and wining, they also require some type of
problem-solving activity. Like games, problem-solving activities have communicative
purposes. Questions which require students to use available evidence to reach a
conclusion and the logic problems which assist language learning by challenging students
to demonstrate their understanding of English in an interesting way are the types of
problem-solving activities. In problem solving activities, the problems are either based on
real or imaginary situations. In the activities students are given a real or an imagery
situation, and they are expected to find solutions for the problems.

Games and problem solving activities can be used for all levels. By regarding the
proficiency, age and experience of the learners, appropriate activities might be applied
successfully. It is also important to design clear and easy directions for the games or the
activities.

Through problem solving activities students utmost attention is to the detail and to the
meaning. The solution part of the problem can be used to generate any specific grammar
point. In such activities a teacher should act as a facilitator rather than a director. It is also
possible to integrate all skills in such activities. Reading or listening to a situation, a
problem, or a question; responding or commenting either through speaking or writing. It
is also advisable to keep in mind that such activities provide entertaining opportunities to
practice thinking clearly while focusing on the form unconsciously.

In sum, games and problem solving activities provide favorable usages for extended
communicative practice of grammar. They are both motivating and challenging. They
encourage students to interact and communicate. Through such activities students match
the discourse with the context of the game or the problem solving activity. So these
activities create a meaningful context for language use. The use of such activities both
increases the cooperation and competition in the classroom. Thus, potential classroom
ideas come into being, and a successful, joyful and enthusiastic learning is provided.

Conclusion
So far, the usage of songs, poems, games, and problem solving activities are clarified.
The advantages and some key points are explained. It is now more apparent that the
teaching of grammar can be supported effectively by using such resources. According to
the needs analysis of a classroom, several techniques can be integrated with such
resources. Since teaching is a developing art, which requires innovative and creative
ideas to enrich its effectiveness, we must not hesitate to use such resources in our
classrooms. These resources can assist our teaching of grammar while providing a
relaxed atmosphere and motivated students. Such activities are student centered, hence,
by using them we give a chance to our students to express themselves, enjoy themselves
during learning, and use the reserves of their minds. As, it should be born in mind that all
these resources require the activation of both left and right hemispheres. Thus, we let our
students use their long-term memory and learn effectively during such activities. So there
is an undeniable fact that if our concern is to provide a successful and beneficial teaching,
we must not hesitate to use songs, poems, games, and problem solving activities, which
bring the structural, pragmatic, prosodic and communicative aspects of language together,
in our language classrooms.

Bibliography
 Celce-Murcia, M. & Hilles, S. (1988). Techniques and resources in teaching
grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Cross, D. (1992). A practical handbook of language teaching. G.B.: Prentice Hall.
 Eken, D.K. (1996). Ideas for using songs in the English language classroom.
English Teaching FORUM, 34/1:46-47
  Graham, C. (1993). Grammar chants. Oxford: Oxford University Press
 Hill, D.A. (1999). Traditional folk songs in class. MET, 8/2:28-33
 Horner, D. (1993). Classroom ideas: songs and music. MET, 2/3:33-39
 Hutchinson, T. (1997). Lifelines: elementary- teachers book. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
 Hutchinson, T. (1999). Lifelines: pre-intermediate-teachers book. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
 Kim, L.S. (1995). Creative games for the language class. English Teaching
FORUM, 33/1: 35-36
 Lo, R. & Fai Li,H.C. (1998). Songs enhance learner involvement. English
Teaching FORUM, 36/3:8-11
 McKay, S.L. (1987). Teaching grammar. G.B.: Prentice Hall.
 Murphey, T. (1992). Music and song. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Rinvolucri, M. & Davis,P. (1995). More grammar games. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
 Towndrow, P. (1999). Logic problems and English language learning. MET,
8/1:34-37

A Brainstorming Activity for ESL/EFL

Students
Hall Houston
City University of Hong Kong, English Language Centre (Hong Kong, China)
hallhouston ( at ) yahoo.com
www.hallhouston.com

Introduction
While brainstorming is a commonplace activity for generating new ideas, many students
have not had guided practice. This lesson will enable them to brainstorm more
effectively.

Lesson
1. Ask the class, "How do artists and businesspeople come up with new ideas?" Give
them a couple of minutes to think, then call on a few students to give you their answers.

2. Tell the class you are going to do an activity called brainstorming. Ask students to
raise their hands if they have ever participated in a brainstorming session before, then call
on anyone with their hand up to describe their experience.

3. First, put the students into two groups, Team A and Team B. Assign one student in
each group to be a leader. Give the team leaders the following slips:
Team A - Leader:
Your job is to encourage the other students to contribute ideas on how to improve this
English class. However, you do not want to waste any time. If a student states an idea
which seems useless, tell the student "That’s no good" or "Bad idea", then move on to
another student.

Team B - Leader:
Your job is to encourage the other students to contribute ideas on how to improve this
English class. Ask one student in the group to write down all ideas. Offer praise for
everyone's contributions and don't criticize any of the ideas. Make sure all ideas are
written down.

4. Give students ten minutes to do the brainstorming activity.

5. Now ask for feedback. Which group produced more ideas? Which group enjoyed the
activity more?

6. Ask both group leaders to read out their slips of paper. Ask the class to guess which
one was brainstorming the right way.

7. Write these rules of successful brainstorming on the board:

 write down all ideas
 the more ideas, the better
 wild, unusual ideas are welcome
 feel free to take someone else's idea and expand on it
 save criticism until the end of the session

8. Now have the students do the same activity again with the rules on the board, but with
a different topic. Some suggested topics are "How to save money" or "How to make
friends".

9. When they are finished, have both groups choose their three best ideas and write them
up on the board. Ask a few students how they feel about brainstorming.

10. Now, tell the class you want to arrange a brainstorming activity for a future lesson.
(Note: While it might be tempting to turn this discussion into another brainstorming
activity, I would recommend changing the format to add variety to the lesson.)

Give each student an index card and tell them you want them to write the answers to the
following questions:
 Topic: Which topic should we work on?
 Location: Where should we have our brainstorming activity?
 Time: When should it take place?
 Duration: How long should we spend brainstorming?
 Number of groups: How many brainstorming groups will we have?
  Participants: Who will be in each group?
 Leader: Who will be the leader of each group?
 Secretary: Who will take notes in each group?
 Other considerations: What else would make our brainstorming activity more
productive (music, pictures, snacks, etc.)?
 End product: How should we present our best ideas (poster, presentation, role
play, short essay)?

Ask one student to lead the class in a discussion in order to decide on answers to all the
questions.

11. Take notes and mark your calendar for the brainstorming session.

12. After the students' scheduled brainstorming session, ask for some feedback. What did
they like about the brainstorming session? What could have been improved? Would they
like to do more brainstorming in a future lesson?

Conclusion
Brainstorming is just one of a wide range of creativity exercises you can use to develop
students' thinking skills. If you are interested, you can look into other variations of
brainstorming such as rolestorming (students role play different characters to brainstorm),
brainwriting (students write down ideas and pass them on to other students who expand
on them) and reverse brainstorming (students come up with ideas for producing a
problem instead of solving it). Better yet, you might come up with your own twist on
brainstorming.

Team Teaching Tips for Foreign

Language Teachers
Rebecca Benoit
rebeccabenoit [at] hotmail.com
Bridget Haugh
brihaugh [at] hotmail.com

Introduction
This article seeks to provide team teachers with specific tips on how to function
effectively as equal partners working together in the same classroom. These step-by-step
tips are a basic guide to help you establish a dynamic team so you can experiment and
find the approach that works best for you. For teachers who have never had a chance to
team teach, or have perhaps avoided doing it for a variety of reasons, perhaps this article
will help allay fears and give teachers a sense of what exactly team teaching 'looks like'
within the class.

From our work team teaching with one another and others in a variety of contexts
(elementary, high school, junior high school, and international schools) in Canada,
Mexico and Japan, we've had the chance to experience everything from wonderful to
disastrous team teaching relationships. Based on these experiences, we have assembled a
brief series of tips to help you and your classroom partner.

Background Literature
Team teaching, in the most general sense, encompasses a wide variety of arrangements.
One specific form, which has become quite prevalent in recent years, is having two
teachers in the classroom teaching simultaneously. This is becoming more and more
common throughout Japan and in other Asian countries. Each year on the Japan
Exchange and Teaching (JET) Programme alone, nearly 6,000 Assistant Language
Teachers (ALT) come to Japan to assist Japanese Language Teachers (JLT) in foreign
language classrooms (Horwich par. 22). Recently, Hong Kong launched a programme
similar to JET called the Native-speaking English Teachers Programme (NET)
Programme that also employs team teaching.

In foreign language teaching, particularly teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL),

usually one in the pair is a native speaking assistant of the target language. We’ll use the
acronym NSA (native speaking assistant) to describe these teachers. The main teacher on
the other hand, is usually more experienced and not a native speaker of the target
language (hence the desire for a native speaking target language assistant). These teachers
will be referred to as NNSLT (non-native speaking language teachers).

In some countries where the target language (in this case English) is a second language
(TESL), student teachers are native speakers of the target language and work either with
other student teachers or cooperative teachers. These pairs share the same L1, are native
speakers of the target language and share the same culture as their partner. These pairs
usually do not experience the intercultural difficulties that some TEFL teachers
experience and since they are in the process of becoming certified (in the case of student
teachers), do not necessarily experience the same conflicts that some JTE/AET or
HKTE/NET experience in Japan or Hong Kong and elsewhere.

One of the advantages of team teaching is that it ostensibly produces a lower teacher-
student ratio, but having two teachers in the class sharing turns speaking does not
accomplish this. Only by running separate activities, dividing the class into groups -
having both teachers circulate and interact with students is the ratio effectively lowered.
Ideally, both teachers should constantly be actively involved in managing and teaching
the class.

Aside from these government sponsored programmes, there are countless others which
are privately organised also resulting in the presence of a second teacher in the classroom.
Team teaching is most common in the domain of foreign language education, but is also
starting to be used in a variety of other subject areas. It is a pedagogical approach rapidly
gaining in popularity.

Successful team teaching has the potential to benefit all concerned. Teachers stand to gain
in terms of their professional development. Team teaching provides teachers with a
partner to help them set objectives, make plans, implement lessons and evaluate the
results. They have someone from whom they can draw inspiration and who can provide
them with constructive feedback on their teaching. Students benefit from the increased
quality of the lessons and a lower student to teacher ratio.

Unfortunately, most teachers destined to work together do so with little training in how to
team teach. For example, in Japan most training is done by observation of team teaching
lessons with little analysis of the strategies/techniques employed by the team, often
leaving Japanese Teachers of English nervous about team teaching.

Horwich explains that this lack of training can lead to friction between team teachers and
unsuccessful lessons (par. 18). Browne and Evans similarly explain that: "Unfortunately,
the implementation of team teaching to date often seems haphazard and lacking in clear
objectives. Assistant Language Teachers (ALTs), Japanese Teachers of English (JTEs)
and students seem to have different expectations about the purpose of team taught
lessons, with the result often being unsuccessful lessons" (17).

Many teachers refuse to team teach because in a sense, teachers are by definition 'solitary
creatures' reluctant to share the limelight or 'be observed' by a colleague. However, in a
successful team you should not feel judged or upstaged by your partner. Furthermore, in
some situations teachers may not have been given a choice to work together and may not
see the benefits of team teaching, or worse, not respect or get along well with their
assigned partner.

Horwich, in a survey of 141 Japanese Teachers of English in Ibaraki Prefecture (Japan) in

1999, found that only 56% were "satisfied with their team teaching" (par. 12). Since
using two teachers in the same classroom simultaneously is a relatively new educational
phenomenon, it is not easy to find practical advice from senior teachers or professional
publications.

Many articles written about team teaching merely provide lesson plans that demonstrate
which teacher will speak on what topic or lead a particular activity (Wiltshier and Honma
1999). Others discuss the philosophy and history of team teaching exploring the cultural
background and the challenges faced by team teachers from different countries
(Shimaoka and Yashiro; Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture 1994).
Unfortunately, few articles offer practical step-by-step guidelines to establishing a
successful team, perhaps because there is a fear that following a prescriptive formula
might in fact restrict the team and cause them to fall into strict use of fossilized patterns
(Smith 87).
In the Classroom: Team Teaching Tips
The Golden Rule: Never take anything for granted; explicitly discuss everything.
"When expectations are unclear or vastly different, this essential rapport quickly breaks
down" (Horwich par.15).
Clear communication on the part of both members of the teaching team is essential to the
success of the relationship and the realisation of your teaching objectives.
Communication is perhaps rendered more difficult for teams made up of teachers from
different cultural backgrounds which value radically different communication styles
(Kobayashi 168). Nonetheless, it is essential that you do your utmost to keep this in mind
and endeavour to respect and understand one another.

Talking things through at every stage will help you define your individual roles within the
team. This is essential in developing a better understanding of one another's teaching
philosophy along with the personal and cultural factors that have shaped it and affect its
practical applications. Honest discussion also clears up any potential misunderstandings
before they have the chance to hamper the flow of a lesson and ensure that you are taking
equal responsibility for staying on course towards your established objectives. These
meetings will help ensure that you are both feeling comfortable and productive within the
team.

Sometimes, despite your best intentions, you have doubts about the strength of your team.
In these situations, frank discussion with departmental management about pair
reassignment, or if this is not possible, problem solving with your assigned teaching
partner and above all maintaining a professional demeanour, may help diffuse potentially
unsatisfactory pairings.

Personal conflicts, whether they are gender-based, cultural or personal have no place
within the classroom. Despite your differences of opinion, each teacher should remain
respectful and professional towards the other in the classroom. Students will be quick to
pick up on any tensions and may try to exploit them. In the classroom, the most important
people are the students: teachers should set aside personal difficulties and make teaching
their number one priority.

Step-by-step Tips: Planning

You first need to work together to analyse your individual strengths and abilities and
determine how these can be used within your team context. Remember to consider what
skills each of you bring to the classroom. For example, is one better at drawing or
singing? Does one of you have better handwriting on the blackboard? Does one of you
have more experience with a particular school setting or group of students? Have one of
you worked with this particular textbook before?

Work out how you complement one another and how you can facilitate improving your
partner's skills in various areas (voice projection and articulation/diction, pacing, giving
instructions, teacher-student interaction etc.). Ideally, both partners will take an active
part, to a greater or lesser extent, in all aspects of the teaching and not fall into a rigid
pattern of acting/teaching only within 'partner 1's domain' and 'partner 2's domain'.

Once you have explored your skill-set as a team, you can begin to set goals for the term
and the year. You'll need to consider what goals both of you want the students to achieve
so that you can plan lessons according to a timetable. If your school sets department-
wide tests, you'll have to discuss goals with the teachers working within the same grade.
In situations like these, homogeneity of teaching approach and materials used is critical to
ensuring fairness to all students.

Making your timetable (of tests, assignments, presentations, homework), setting

objectives together and making sure the other is well aware of the long range agenda, is a
wonderful way of determining what, when and how you can each contribute to the team.
It also helps ensure that your teaching is focused and dynamic. It is difficult to
successfully guide students through a lesson, a chapter, or a term, unless you both know
what you will be exploring along the way and where you want to end up.

Eye Contact and Signalling

Maintaining eye contact with each other is critical in the team teaching classroom. You'll
often need to signal each other for transitions to new activities, communicate when to
bring activities to a close or modify an activity. Try to keep an eye on each other at least
every few minutes. There are often times when Teacher A can 'signal' Teacher B using
eye contact about a situation happening near Teacher A. This is particularly useful for
classroom management, but is also helpful in pacing and for assisting students who may
have questions or need help. In language classrooms where some translation is
performed, maintaining eye contact with your partner is a good way to ensure smooth
transitions between L1 and L2 instructions.

Circulating in the Classroom

One of the benefits of having two teachers in the classroom is that you can increase the
teacher's physical proximity to a greater number of students and thus, hopefully, keep a
greater number of students more actively engaged in the lesson more of the time. It may
be necessary for you both to stand at the front to address the class for various activities,
but this limits the benefits of team teaching's increased teacher-student proximity. It
should not be the main classroom position you adopt in your teaching.

During student-centred activities, it is best for both teachers to circulate at a 180-degree

angle to one another. For example, if teacher A is at the front, teacher B is at the back; if
teacher A is on the left side of the class, teacher B is on the right side. This minimizes the
amount of time it takes for a teacher to address a student concern and maximizes the
supervision provided by the teachers. It is important to watch where the other teacher is
in the classroom and to try to complement their presence.

Individual Roles
In some team teaching pairs, roles in the class can be quite unbalanced. Some NNSLT
provide only L1 translation, while the NSA is largely responsible for most of the target
language 'talking' in the class. In other situations, these NSAs perform as 'live tape-
recorders', undermining student perception of their usefulness in the class (Horwich par.
15).

The NNSLT should be encouraged, as often as possible, to make a concerted effort to use
the target language in the classroom that in turn provides students with a role model who
has successfully learned the target language.

It is best to avoid having one teacher addressing the class, while the other stands idly by.
In the table below we've provided examples of how both teachers can be intensively
involved in team teaching. Both teachers should interchange the roles of
'leader/supporter' throughout the lesson to ensure equality and responsibility.

Teacher A (leader) Teacher B (supporter)

Circulates amongst students keeping them
Explaining an activity 'on-task', answers student queries.
(make eye contact with Teacher B, ask (Maintain eye contact with Teacher A while
Teacher B if they have anything to add to the evaluating their instructions and thinking of
instructions) something they may have unclear or omitted
that can be restated or added).
Writes the instructions given by Teacher A
on board for visual reinforcement, or,
Giving students instructions.
circulates amongst students to evaluate
understanding of instructions.
Echoes Teacher A while circulating which
Leading choral pronunciation while
gives students in all areas of the class a
circulating in the class.
chance to 'hear' the teacher well.
Evaluating student presentations
Administers the activity (calling students,
(While making note of grades, signalling
ensuring that students are listening
Teacher B when you've completed your
attentively.
evaluation so they can cue the next students).
Notes which student responded for
Calls on a student to answer a question.
evaluation/participating grading.

Echoing
There are two ways to employ 'echoing': L1 to L2, or L2 repetition. Echoing is useful
during choral pronunciation to provide students with an alternative form of
pronunciation, in addition to making it easier for students in another part of the class to
hear more easily (as the supporting teacher is located at another part of the classroom).
Echoing is also useful where some translation from L1 to L2 is required for student
comprehension. Echoing can be done at varying speeds (natural speed or slow speed).
The 'supporting' teacher is often in a good position to determine what speed/amount of
echoing students may require.

Transitions, Timing and Pacing

To keep the pace of the class going smoothly, teachers should always keep an eye on each
other, and the clock. Having two teachers in the class can be a real advantage with time
keeping. While Teacher A leads an activity or gives instructions, Teacher B watches the
clock and makes sure that the lesson proceeds in a timely fashion.

It is useful to develop a subtle system of signalling each other (hand-signals, eye contact,
and verbal cues) to make transitions between activities smooth. Explicit discussion of
what is to be done next in the classroom is extremely disruptive to the flow of the lesson
and gives off the impression that you are ill prepared to teach the class.

Ideally, both teachers will share in giving directions, taking the initiative to move on to
the next activity, and in adapting or curtailing an activity that is not working. Remember
to have mutually agreed upon back-up activities, so that you will be able to work together
in guiding the class from an unsuccessful activity to the back-up plan.

Classroom Management
Each teacher has a different threshold of tolerance for student misbehaviour. Before your
students become disruptive, you'll both need to establish a set of guidelines and agree on
what type of behaviour is not acceptable in your class, and consequences for students
who disrupt the class. Without a common consensus as team teachers on what is
permissible and what is unacceptable, you'll invariably find yourselves in disagreement
and have potentially inconsistent reactions by teachers to student misbehaviour in the
class.

To prevent this before it occurs, sit down together and make a list of what constitutes
unacceptable classroom behaviour by students (a list of class rules). Next, you'll need to
determine what consequences you can implement should these rules be broken. Lastly,
you'll have to develop a 'warning' procedure that teachers will give to students (for
example, three 'warnings' lead to one 'consequence'). You will have to check what types
of consequences are acceptable with other department members, possibly your Parent
Teachers Association and of course the Principal and Vice-Principal(s).
It is particularly important in discussing the implementation of consequences for the team
teachers to do so in complete agreement and support of each other in front of students.
Some students may attempt the 'divide and conquer' strategy, making requests of the
teacher who is perceived as 'softer' than the other. The gender of teachers will most likely
also play a factor here, particularly if students view the male teacher as an 'enforcer',
while the female teacher is perceived as the 'softer' of the team teaching pair. Both
genders must emit confidence and enforce consequences where necessary.

In the case of NNSLT and NSAs, an open and frank discussion of the roles that each
teacher will play is particularly important. NSAs are, in every case, considered 'junior' to
their NNSLT counter-parts. It should remain the primary responsibility of the NNSLT to
initiate warnings and follow-up on consequences.

There are also considerable cultural differences in classroom management between

NNSLTs and NSAs that require explicit discussion. Many NSAs find themselves in the
frustrating position of being the sole 'enforcer' in the classroom simply because the
NNSLT and NSA have not discussed what kind of behaviour is unacceptable. As a JTE
states: "Every year, I have to explain this is not the school where you were taught. This is
a school in a different country with students very different from the high school where
you graduated" (quoted in Horwich par. 20).

Lesson and Student Evaluation

The first consideration when it comes to evaluation is that it should be meaningful and
fair. Too often, teachers create tests or assignments with little regard to practical time
restrictions or pedagogical considerations (not matching the test to material covered in
class or making a test or assignment simply to fill the grading book).

Having two teachers makes evaluation, both in and out of class, much easier.

Once you have a one-year plan for student evaluation, you can determine how your in-
class evaluation will work. Some teachers like to assign participation grades, or make
notes of which students answered questions. While Teacher A asks a student to answer a
question Teacher B records the student participation in a grading book.

Outside of class, having two teachers clearly reduces the correcting workload. At many
schools, there is only one NSA and many NNSLTs. Consequently, without adequate inter-
departmental management of the NSA’s correcting workload, they can easily become
overburdened.

Here are a few other key points about evaluation to keep in mind:

 Work together to make tests and assignments based on what and how you have
been teaching to ensure consistency and fairness to students.
 Evaluate students based on a mutually agreed up system.
  Keep up your communication with frequent checks of how you are progressing,
always keeping in mind the objectives you set out together.
 Work together to change things that are not working as you go along.

Summary
Team teaching can be an extremely beneficial and professionally rewarding experience if
all goes well. In order to accomplish this however, both teachers need to maintain respect
for each other both inside and outside the classroom. By following the few simple tips
provided above, we hope that your team teaching experience will be a true success and
not simply a tolerable compromise.

What to Do with Failing Students

by Marty Dawley
Mrvolvo [at] aol.com
Spring International Language Center
5900 S. Santa Fe Drive, Littleton, Colorado, USA 80120
Why does failure bother teachers so much? When the student fails, we feel we have
failed.

Over the years I have found that one of the biggest problems my colleagues have is the
feeling of personal failure that comes when their teaching doesn't work, when they teach,
but some students just won't learn. I always encourage them not to ignore the problem,
but instead to make it their responsibility to try to help those failing students find a way
to succeed. Success does not always mean passing a class or even learning the material.
Sometimes it means students must learn other lessons about themselves and how to work
in school and the world. Sometimes the results of your work still seem negligible or even
negative, but trying to help is our solemn responsibility. Looking at the whole student and
trying to help him learn how to accomplish his goals or choose other goals is a major part
of our jobs. What is failure? Failure is when a student doesn't leave the class knowing
more than when he entered. There are many types of failing students. They all deserve
our help.

Helping Students to Succeed: A Twelve Step Program

1. Identify failure early and act on it. This includes getting evidence of students level
and abilities within the first week of class through testing, in class writing, and
interviews.
2. Confront the student privately with facts (test papers, lack of study and
homework, class requirements including time, etc.). Many students are anxious to
deny there is a problem. "Don't worry, teacher. No problem." Be specific and
 blunt. " There is not a single correct sentence in this composition." Also use your
good judgment. Some students need this more than others.
3. Get the student to verbalize her own problem and identify causes and solutions.
Don't allow the student to minimize the problem. Analyze the problem with the
student. This self recognition is the key to any self help program. The student
must recognize the problem and decide she wants to fix it.
4. Listen. Be honest and direct in your responses. Offer respect and encouragement.
Listen and look with great attention. Look at the distance a student holds the book
from him as he reads. Listen to what she says about her study time. Let the time
you spend with this student be exploratory. You may have only seen symptoms of
the problem, but not have any idea of its source.
5. Help the student create a plan of action with realistic goals. Help her to move
back to a reasonable starting place. Help her develop steps to reaching her goal.
Don't guarantee her a passing grade. Offer her a chance to make progress.
6. Make sure the student adopts the plan as his own set of goals and responsibilities.
Let him write or articulate his plans. Check carefully to see if you are on the same
track. Make sure he includes his own ideas.
7. Follow up on the plan daily or each time you meet. Let the student know you are
interested in her success. Congratulate her on daily successes in front of others if
it's appropriate. "Your grammar was much better in this paper." "This is your
highest grade this term." Your reinforcements can become less regular as the
student improves.
8. Remind the student of his goals. Be positive, but firm. Don't reinforce the
student's bad reputation. Don't make negative comments in front of the class, but
do ask him to come and see you. He may need help. Watch for backsliding. Old
habits are hard to break.
9. Be a resource. Offer or locate additional instruction and materials at an
appropriate level. Keep files to help you come up with materials easily. Peer
tutors are another valuable tool. Know what other classes and community
resources are available to help a student in need.
10. Vary your approach to help keep students interested and to accommodate varied
learning styles, and intelligences. Give your failing student a chance to shine.
Don't lower your standards to accommodate a student who is "working hard."
Your whole class will benefit from this step.
11. Acknowledge growth even when it does not include passing a test or class. Make
sure you spend time with that student before she receives an F on a major paper, a
test, or the class. A minute before class begins is all it takes to say, "Those passive
verbs are still really hard for you, but I could see you worked on them. Let's try
again." Once again, let the student verbalize his own growth. "Do you read better
now than you did nine weeks ago?" "Yes, I do. I know more words, and I read
better." Don't give a student a passing grade for trying hard. It only takes her to a
harder, more impossible level.
12. Keep a professional outlook. If you have followed this plan, you have done your
best. The student is responsible for his successes and failures.
 Using Creative Thinking to Find New
Uses for Realia
Simon Mumford
simumford [at] yahoo.com
http://semumf.tripod.com
Izmir University of Economics (Turkey)
The use of realia is well known to teachers. However, this article suggests different ways
of using realia. By thinking creatively we can find new teaching uses for the everyday
objects that surround us, by relating them to language and looking at them in new ways.

Introduction
We like using realia, i.e. objects in the class because it adds interest and relates language
to the real world. I have found my use of realia fall into three main areas, first for
descriptions, and second as props in drama and another type of activity is a creative
thinking exercise, finding different uses for an object, e.g. a ruler could be a weapon,
musical instrument, a symbol of authority and so on. However, there is another
possibility suggested by this last use. If we ask our students to find other uses for
everyday objects, why shouldn't teachers find uses for objects for teaching? This means
making a connection between objects and language. Here are some ideas, looking at
specific grammar points, drills, and free speaking.

1. Specific Grammar Points

Scissors and the Present Perfect Tense

Write three sentences representing different uses of the present perfect tense on the board.
Hold the scissors pointing up, so the class can see, with one hand on each handle. Open
the blades by moving the left hand up, keeping the right hand still. Now say the first
sentence, 'I have lived in London all my life', slowly closing the blades with your right
hand. Open the scissors as before, read the second sentence: 'I have seen that film three
times', but this time stop the blade three times on the way, to represent the three times.
For the last sentence, 'I have just had lunch', open the scissors slightly then snap them
shut. Note: The upright blade represents the present and the moving blade represents time
moving between the past and present. By moving the blades you can show that all three
sentences have the connection between past and present in common, even though the last
sentence is dealing with a very short time ago. As you are facing the class, you should
move your left hand, not right, so that the students will see the 'past' blade moving toward
the present, from their left to right.

A Corkscrew, a Bottle Opener, Action and State Verbs

The different ways of opening wine and beer bottles can be related to state and action
verbs. Explain that when you open a beer bottle the bottle is either open or closed, i.e. it
is in one state or the other. Compare this to the opening of a wine bottle. This is a process
which you can see, as the screw is pushed in and pulled out. Hold a corkscrew in one
hand and a bottle opener in the other. Say a verb and hold up the appropriate instrument
(bottle opener for state verb, corkscrew for action verb). Get volunteer students to do the
same. (NB some verbs e.g. 'think' can be both, so you may need a tool that does both!)

A Pencil Sharpener and Reduced Relatives Clauses

Again, metaphor can make the unfamiliar more familiar. Students may not be familiar
with reduced relatives such as 'The man (who was) killed in the accident was my
neighbour' where the words in brackets can be omitted. Explain that by taking out the two
words, you make the sentence better, more economical, and sharper, as a native speaker
would. The metaphor of a pencil sharpener works like this: you cut off something to
make the pencil sharper and more efficient.

A Tie and Prepositions.

Show the students how to tie a tie. 'Put the tie round your neck. Cross the ends in front of
you, then pull the smaller end under, then over, then under again, over again, then up,
behind the knot, through the knot, then down. Pull the knot up.' Get the students to tie
the tie, (real or imaginary) with you, chanting the prepositions as they do so.

A Stapler and Relative Clauses

Write two sentences on the board, an object and a subject relative clause, as follows:
'The man that I saw was crying.' 'The man that cried was taken to the police station.' Point
out that the first sentence has two pronouns (personal and relative), 'that' and 'I', and the
second has one, 'that'. Now take two pieces of paper and staple them together twice. This
represents the first sentence. Staple two more pieces of paper, just once. This represents
the second sentence. Remove one staple from the first two pieces of paper and they will
still be joined together. However , if you remove the staple from the second pair of
pieces of paper, they will come apart. The conclusion? The relative pronoun is
unnecessary in the first sentence.

2. Drills
A Whistle and a Pronunciation Drill

Write the vocabulary that you want to practise on the board. Mark the stressed syllable(s).
Now use the whistle to demonstrate which word you want the students to repeat by
blowing the syllable pattern, e.g. blow 'long short short' to elicit 'confident' and 'short
short long short' for 'population'. You need a variety of word lengths and syllable patterns
for this.
A Ruler and a Drill

Use a ruler or any similar object to 'conduct' a drill as follows: Write a sentence on the
board. Practise the sentence, marking the stressed syllables. When the students can
remember it, go to the back of the class, and ask them to turn and face you. Now conduct
the drill, using the ruler as a baton. Looking at the board, beat the stressed syllables with
the ruler while the students take their cue from you.

An Empty Bottle and a Drill

Say a sentence into a bottle. Screw the lid on and tell the class that the sentence is in the
bottle. Now open the bottle and let the sentence out one word at a time, that is, students
repeat the sentence one word at a time. Put another sentence in the bottle, and tell
students to pass the bottle round the class, letting one word out at a time, one word per
student. Then let students fill the bottle in the same way. The point here is to get students
to listen and focus on word order.

3. Free Speaking Activities

Discussion and a Microphone

This is suggested by television programme hosts, who control conversations by the use of
the microphone. Put students in groups, and give one student the microphone (imaginary,
or a real microphone, disconnected, or something to represent a microphone). Say a
group of six students are talking about 'holidays', the person with the microphone can
move around the group giving different people the chance to speak, ensuring everyone
gets an equal chance to contribute.

Tennis Balls and Conversation

A tennis match can be a metaphor for a conversation. Put students in pairs facing each
other, as in doubles tennis. They should be about 1 meter apart. Give one student a tennis
ball. He starts talking about a subject then throws the ball to someone on the other team,
who should continue on the same subject, before returning the ball to someone on the
other team. They should keep the conversation moving swiftly. You can have a referee to
penalise slow turns, 'foul' throws and dropped balls, and keep the score as in tennis, e.g.
15 love.

Conclusion
Classroom aids are all around us, but sometimes we need to think about the best ways to
use an object. 'Mapping' the use of an object onto a language point, or finding a language
related use of an object are two ways of using realia in class. Have look around the
staffroom. The teaching aids you need may be closer than you think.