Thesis UV and Knitted Fabric

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ULTRAVIOLET PROTECTION
OF KNITWEAR FABRICS
WONG WAI YIN
Ph.D
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
2015
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Institute of Textiles & Clothing
ULTRAVIOLET PROTECTION
OF KNITWEAR FABRICS
WONG WAI YIN
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
December 2014
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge
and belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written, nor material that
has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma, except where due
acknowledgement has been made in the text.
(Signed)
Wong Wai Yin (Name of student)

ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT
The alarming increase of incidence of skin cancer has hastened the development and
research of ultraviolet (UV) protective clothing. Although various fabric parameters
that affect the ultraviolet radiation (UVR) transmission were studied by researchers,
most of them focused on woven fabrics and chemical approaches for enhancing UV
protection. Knitwear is an indispensable clothing in summer but there were few studies
concerning knitted fabrics, in particular the influence of fabric constructions on
ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) and structural properties. This thesis aimed at
studying the UV protective property of knitted fabrics at a fundamental level by
investigating the influence of different knit structures upon UPF with the three main
knit stitches incorporated in the cotton knitted fabric constructions, namely, knit, tuck
and miss stitches. The impacts of yarn characteristics, fabric constructions, coloration,
end-use conditions including stretching, wetting and laundering, on UV protection
were comprehensively studied. A metallic biaxial stretching equipment was specially
developed for the evaluation of UV protection of fabrics in stretched condition.
The results showed that fabrics with different knit structures have distinct
performances in UV protection. A fabric with miss stitches offered remarkable UV
protection whereas a fabric with tuck stitches exhibited poor UV protection. The
colored knitted fabric with miss stitches imparted relatively better UV protection in a
lighter color depth than the fabric with tuck stitches that were dyed in a darker shade.
It infers the potential for reducing usage of dyestuffs and chemical auxiliaries in
manufacturing UV protective clothing. Besides, knitted fabrics with miss stitches
retained good UV protection under the stretched and wet conditions that simulating
I
ABSTRACT
the daily wearing conditions of knitwear. The results of this study would provide
value-added information to textile designers, manufacturers, and consumers for the
enhancement of UV protection and selection of UV protective knitwear.
II
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Journal Papers
1. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam, C.W. Kan and R. Postle, ‘Influence of reactive
dyes on ultraviolet protection of cotton knitted fabrics with different fabric
constructions’, Textile Research Journal, June 2015 (online published, doi:
10.1177/0040517515591776).
2. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam, C.W. Kan and R. Postle, ‘In vitro assessment of
ultraviolet protection of colored cotton knitted fabrics with different structures
under stretched and wet conditions’, Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 164(3), 325-
334, April 2015.
3. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam, C.W. Kan and R. Postle, ‘Ultraviolet Protection of
Knitted Fabrics’, Textile Progress, 2015 (under revision).
4. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam, C.W. Kan and R. Postle, ‘Impacts of yarn twist
and staple length on UV protection of plain knitted cotton fabrics’, The Journal of
the Textile Institute, 2015 (under review).
5. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam, C.W. Kan and R. Postle, ‘Influence of fibre types
on UV protection of plain knitted fabrics’, The Journal of the Textile Institute,
2014 (submitted).
6. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam, C.W. Kan and R. Postle, ‘Influence of knitted
fabric construction on the ultraviolet protection factor of greige and bleached
cotton fabrics’, Textile Research Journal, 83(7), 683-699, May 2013.
III
Conference Papers
1. W.Y. Wong and Jimmy K.C. Lam. ‘Knitted fabric stretching and UV protection’,
The 89th Textile Institute World Conference 2014, Wuhan, China, November 2-
6, 2014, pp. 39.
2. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam and C.W. Kan, ‘Evaluation on Fabric Hand of Warp
Knit Fabrics with PhabrOmeter’, The 12th Asian Textile Conference, Shanghai,
China, October 23-26, 2013, pp. 151.
3. W.Y. Wong and Jimmy K.C. Lam, ‘Effect of Stretching on UV Protection of
Knitted Fabrics’, Proceedings of the 6th International Textile, Clothing and Design
Conference, Dubrovnik, Croatia, October 7-10, 2012, pp. 607-611.
4. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam and C.W. Kan, ‘A Study on Fabric Porosity and
UV Protection of Knitted Fabrics’, Abstract Book of the Fiber Society’s Spring
2012 Conference, EMPA, St. Gallen, Switzerland, May 23-25, 2012, pp. 189.
5. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam and C.W. Kan, ‘Influences of knitted fabric
construction and color on ultraviolet protection’, Program & Abstract Book of the
11th Asian Textile Conference, EXCO, Daegu, Korea, November 1-4, 2011, pp.
96.
6. W.Y. Wong, Jimmy K.C. Lam and C.W. Kan, ‘Ultraviolet Protection for Knitwear
Fabric’, Abstract Book of the Fiber Society’s Spring 2011 Conference, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, May 23-25, 2011, pp. 167.
Award
Outstanding Research Presentation Award, 3rd Institute of Textiles & Clothing
Research Seminar, Hong Kong, April 2011.
IV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chief-supervisor, Dr. Jimmy K.C.
Lam, Teaching Fellow of Institute of Textiles & Clothing at The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, for his patient guidance, invaluable advice, and consistent
encouragement throughout my research study.
I would also like to express my profound gratefulness to my co-supervisor, Dr. C.W.
Kan, Associate Professor of Institute of Textiles & Clothing at The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, for his considerate supports and insightful suggestions to the
successful completion of the research work.
I would also like to convey my heartfelt thankfulness and respect to Professor Ronald
Postle, Emeritus Professor of Textile Physics of School of Chemistry at the University
of New South Wales, for his thoughtful enlightenment and generous advice on this
research project.
My grateful thanks are also extended to all the laboratory technicians for their cordial
helps and useful opinions in the experimental works.
Last but not least, special thanks go to my family and friends for their consistent
support.
V
CONTENTS
CONTENT
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................. I
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ....................................................................................... III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ V
CONTENT ................................................................................................................. VI
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... XI
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... XV
ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................. XVII
Chapter 1 Introduction............................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives...................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Methodology ................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Significance ................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Thesis outline ................................................................................................ 7
Chapter 2 Literature Review.................................................................................. 8
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Ultraviolet radiation ...................................................................................... 8
2.3 Assessment of ultraviolet protection of textiles .......................................... 10
2.3.1 In vivo method..................................................................................... 10
2.3.2 In vitro method.................................................................................... 11
2.3.3 Comparison of the in vivo and in vitro methods .................................. 12
2.3.4 International testing standards ............................................................. 14
2.3.4.1 Australian/New Zealand Standard................................................ 14
2.3.4.2 British and European Standard ..................................................... 15
2.3.4.3 The American Association of Textile Chemist and Colorists
Standard 16
2.4 Major factors affecting ultraviolet protection of textiles ............................ 17
2.4.1 Fiber types............................................................................................ 17
2.4.2 Yarn properties.................................................................................... 20
2.4.3 Fabric construction.............................................................................. 26
2.4.3.1 Fabric weight, thickness and stitch density .................................. 29
2.4.3.2 Cover factor and tightness factor.................................................. 31
2.4.4 Coloration ............................................................................................ 35
2.4.4.1 Influence of color on UV protection............................................ 35
VI
CONTENTS
2.4.4.2 Reactive dye.................................................................................. 38

2.4.5 Chemical additives ............................................................................... 43
2.4.6 End-use conditions ............................................................................... 45
2.4.6.1 Wetness......................................................................................... 46
2.4.6.2 Stretch ........................................................................................... 48
2.4.6.3 Laundering .................................................................................... 50
2.5 Fundamentals of weft-knitted fabrics .......................................................... 54
2.5.1 Major stitch types ................................................................................. 56
2.5.2 Fabric structures ................................................................................... 58
2.6 Conclusion................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 3 Experimental Details............................................................................ 62
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 62
3.2 Materials ...................................................................................................... 62
3.2.1 Fiber ..................................................................................................... 62
3.2.2 Yarn...................................................................................................... 63
3.2.3 Fabric................................................................................................... 63
3.3 Scouring and bleaching ............................................................................... 66
3.4 Dyeing ......................................................................................................... 66
3.5 Laundering.................................................................................................. 68
3.6 Evaluation of yarn characteristics ............................................................... 69
3.6.1 Twist.................................................................................................... 69
3.6.2 Twist multiplier.................................................................................... 70
3.6.3 Hairiness and Unevenness................................................................... 70
3.7 Evaluation of fabric characteristics ............................................................. 71
3.7.1 Thickness ............................................................................................. 71
3.7.2 Weight .................................................................................................. 71
3.7.3 Stitch density........................................................................................ 71
3.7.4 Loop length .......................................................................................... 71
3.7.5 Tightness factor .................................................................................... 72
3.7.6 Fabric Porosity ..................................................................................... 73
3.7.7 Air permeability ................................................................................... 74
3.7.8 Visual assessment of fabric constructions ........................................... 74
3.8 Evaluation of ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) ....................................... 74
3.8.1 Evaluation of UPF under wet condition............................................... 75
VII
CONTENTS
3.8.2 Evaluation of UPF under stretched condition ...................................... 76

3.8.3 Visual assessment of fabric pores under stretched condition .............. 78
3.9 Evaluation of color properties ..................................................................... 78
3.9.1 Color strength...................................................................................... 79
3.9.2 CIE color coordinates .......................................................................... 79
3.10 Evaluation of dimensional changes after laundering .................................. 80
3.11 Data analysis ............................................................................................... 81
3.11.1 One-way independent analysis of variance......................................... 81
3.11.2 Factorial independent analysis of variance .......................................... 82
3.11.3 Two-way mixed design of analysis of variance................................... 83
3.11.4 Kendall’s tau non-parametric correlation analysis .............................. 83
3.11.5 Factor analysis ..................................................................................... 84
3.11.6 Multiple linear regression analysis ...................................................... 85
3.11.7 Hierarchical regression analysis .......................................................... 86
3.12 Conclusion.................................................................................................. 86
Chapter 4 Influence of Fiber Types on UV Protection......................................... 87
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 87
4.2 UV protection of different fiber types......................................................... 87
4.3 Conclusion.................................................................................................. 96
Chapter 5 Influence of Yarn Characteristics on UV Protection ........................... 99
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 99
5.2 Influence of yarn twist level on UPF .......................................................... 99
5.3 Influence of staple length of yarn on UPF ................................................ 108
5.4 Conclusion................................................................................................ 113
Chapter 6 Influence of Fabric Construction on UV Protection .......................... 115
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 115
6.2 Preliminary study on UV protection of different single knit structures .... 115
6.3 Influence of fabric construction on UV protection ................................... 119
6.3.1 UPF of bleached single knitted fabrics .............................................. 119
6.3.2 UPF of bleached double knitted fabrics............................................. 123
6.4 Influence of fabric characteristics on UV protection ................................ 127
6.4.1 Thickness of bleached single knitted fabrics ..................................... 127
6.4.2 Thickness of bleached double knitted fabrics .................................... 129
6.4.3 Weight of bleached single knitted fabrics.......................................... 132
VIII
CONTENTS
6.4.4 Weight of bleached double knitted fabrics........................................ 134

6.4.5 Stitch density of bleached single knitted fabrics................................ 137
6.4.6 Stitch density of bleached double knitted fabrics .............................. 138
6.4.7 Tightness factor of bleached single knitted fabrics............................ 141
6.4.8 Tightness factor of bleached double knitted fabrics .......................... 143
6.4.9 Air permeability of bleached single knitted fabrics ........................... 147
6.4.10 Air permeability of bleached double knitted fabrics.......................... 148
6.4.11 Fabric porosity of bleached single knitted fabrics ............................. 150
6.4.12 Fabric porosity of bleached double knitted fabrics ............................ 152
6.5 Estimation of UPF by fabric characteristics of knitted fabrics ................. 155
6.5.1 Bivariate correlations between fabric characteristics of bleached single
knitted fabrics ................................................................................................... 155
6.5.2 Factor analysis and multiple linear regression analysis of bleached
single knitted fabrics ......................................................................................... 158
6.5.3 Bivariate correlations between fabric characteristics of bleached double
knitted fabrics ................................................................................................... 162
6.5.4 Factor analysis and multiple linear regression analysis of bleached
double knitted fabrics....................................................................................... 165
6.6 Conclusion................................................................................................. 169
Chapter 7 Influence of Color on UV Protection ................................................. 171
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 171
7.2 Effects of color depth and knit structures on UPF and K/Ssum .................. 171
7.2.1 UPF and K/Ssum of single knitted fabrics ........................................... 171
7.2.2 UPF and K/Ssum of double knitted fabrics.......................................... 178
7.3 Effects of color and color depth on UPF ................................................... 185
7.4 Effect of chemical structures of reactive dye on UPF and K/Ssum ............ 189
7.5 Correlation analysis of UPF and CIE color coordinates ........................... 198
7.6 Conclusion................................................................................................. 203
Chapter 8 Influence of End-Use Conditions on UV Protection ......................... 205
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 205
8.2 Influence of wearing condition on UV protection.................................... 205
8.2.1 UPF of single knitted fabrics under stretched and wet conditions..... 205
8.2.2 UPF of double knitted fabrics under stretched and wet conditions ... 213
8.2.3 Influence of fabric openness under stretched condition..................... 222
8.3 Influence of laundering on UV protection ................................................ 229
IX
CONTENTS
8.3.1 UPF of bleached knitted fabrics after laundering .............................. 230

8.3.2 Dimensional changes of bleached knitted fabrics after laundering ... 232
8.3.3 Changes in fabric characteristics of bleached knitted fabrics after
laundering ......................................................................................................... 239
8.4 Conclusion................................................................................................ 241
Chapter 9 Conclusion and Recommendations.................................................... 243
9.1 Conclusion................................................................................................ 243
9.2 Recommendations for future work............................................................ 245
APPENDIX I ........................................................................................................... 248
APPENDIX II .......................................................................................................... 249
APPENDIX III......................................................................................................... 250
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 256
X
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1. Comparison of bulkiness between the conventional cotton yarn (top) and
Estex cotton yarn (bottom) [94] ................................................................................. 23
Figure 2-2. Knit stitch ................................................................................................ 57
Figure 2-3. Tuck stitch ............................................................................................... 57
Figure 2-4. Miss stitch ............................................................................................... 57
Figure 2-5. Needle positions for production of the three stitch types [265] .............. 57
Figure 2-6. Typical rib gating [106].......................................................................... 59
Figure 2-7. Typical interlock gating [106] ................................................................. 60
Figure 3-1. Single knit structures in preliminary study............................................. 64
Figure 3-2. Yarn path diagram of different knitted fabric constructions ................... 65
Figure 3-3. Benchmarks on fabric specimens for laundering .................................... 69
Figure 3-4. Metallic biaxial stretching equipment ..................................................... 77
Figure 3-5. Fabric dimensions at different stretch levels ........................................... 78
Figure 3-6. A three-dimensional illustration of CIE LAB color space [288] ............ 80
Figure 4-1. Normalized UPF of plain knitted fabrics with different fiber contents... 89
Figure 4-2. Chemical structure of a lignin polymer [301] ......................................... 90
Figure 4-3. Genistein compound in soybean [309].................................................... 90
Figure 4-4. Chemical structure of spandex [323] ...................................................... 93
Figure 4-5. Chemical structure of nylon 6.6 [223] .................................................... 94
Figure 4-6. Formula of polyester ............................................................................... 95
Figure 4-7. Cross-section of Coolmax fiber [325] ..................................................... 95
Figure 4-8. Light reflection by fibers with different cross-sectional shapes............. 96
Figure 5-1. Micrographs of bleached plain knitted fabrics made of different cotton
yarns before laundering............................................................................................ 102
yarns after laundering.............................................................................................. 104
Figure 5-3. Twist angle of yarn................................................................................ 106
Figure 5-4. Micrographs of bleached plain knitted fabrics made of normal-twisted
conventional cotton yarn before and after laundering............................................. 111
Supima conventional cotton yarn before and after laundering ................................ 112
XI
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 6-1. Micrographs of greige and bleached single knitted fabrics (fabric
face)......................................................................................................................... 120
Figure 6-2. UPF of bleached single knitted fabrics ................................................. 121
Figure 6-3. Tuck loops on the fabric back ............................................................... 121
Figure 6-4. Miss loops on the fabric back............................................................... 122
Figure 6-5. UPF of bleached double knitted fabrics ................................................ 123
Figure 6-6. Micrographs of greige and bleached double knitted fabrics (fabric
face)......................................................................................................................... 124
Figure 6-7. Thickness of bleached single knitted fabrics ........................................ 128
Figure 6-8. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric thickness of bleached single knitted
fabrics....................................................................................................................... 128
Figure 6-9. Thickness of bleached double knitted fabrics ....................................... 130
Figure 6-10. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric thickness of bleached double knitted fabrics
.................................................................................................................................. 131
Figure 6-11. Weight of bleached single knitted fabrics ........................................... 133
Figure 6-12. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric weight of bleached single knitted
fabrics....................................................................................................................... 133
Figure 6-13. Weight of bleached double knitted fabrics......................................... 134
Figure 6-14. Effect of tuck loops on fabric dimension [326] .................................. 135
Figure 6-15. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric weight of bleached double knitted
fabrics....................................................................................................................... 136
Figure 6-16. Stitch density of bleached single knitted fabrics................................. 137
Figure 6-17. Scatterplot of UPF and stitch density of bleached single knitted
fabrics....................................................................................................................... 138
Figure 6-18. Stitch density of bleached double knitted fabrics ............................... 139
Figure 6-19. Scatterplot of UPF and stitch density of bleached double knitted
fabrics....................................................................................................................... 140
Figure 6-20. Tightness factor of bleached single knitted fabrics............................. 141
Figure 6-21. Scatterplot of UPF and tightness factor of bleached single knitted fabrics
.................................................................................................................................. 143
Figure 6-22. Tightness factor of bleached double knitted fabrics ........................... 143
Figure 6-23. Scatterplot of UPF and tightness factor of bleached double knitted fabrics
.................................................................................................................................. 146
XII
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 6-24. Air permeability of bleached single knitted fabrics ............................ 147
Figure 6-25. Scatterplot of UPF and air permeability of bleached single knitted fabrics
.................................................................................................................................. 148
Figure 6-26. Air permeability of bleached double knitted fabrics ........................... 149
Figure 6-27. Scatterplot of UPF and air permeability of bleached double knitted fabrics
.................................................................................................................................. 150
Figure 6-28. Fabric porosity of bleached single knitted fabrics.............................. 151
Figure 6-29. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric porosity of bleached single knitted
fabrics ....................................................................................................................... 152
Figure 6-30. Fabric porosity of bleached double knitted fabrics ............................. 153
Figure 6-31. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric porosity of bleached double knitted fabrics
.................................................................................................................................. 154
Figure 7-1. UPF and K/Ssum of blue single knitted fabrics ...................................... 172
Figure 7-2. UPF and K/Ssum of red single knitted fabrics ........................................ 172
Figure 7-3. UPF and K/Ssum of yellow single knitted fabrics .................................. 173
Figure 7-4. UPF and K/Ssum of black single knitted fabric ...................................... 173
Figure 7-5. UPF and K/Ssum of blue double knitted fabrics ..................................... 179
Figure 7-6. UPF and K/Ssum of red double knitted fabrics ....................................... 179
Figure 7-7. UPF and K/Ssum of yellow double knitted fabrics ................................. 180
Figure 7-8. UPF and K/Ssum of black double knitted fabrics ................................... 180
Figure 7-9. Mean UPF of colored knitted fabrics at different color depths ............. 186
Figure 7-10. UPF and K/Ssum of blue knitted fabrics ............................................... 190
Figure 7-11. UPF and K/Ssum of red knitted fabrics................................................. 191
Figure 7-12. UPF and K/Ssum of yellow knitted fabrics ........................................... 191
Figure 7-13. UVR transmission of blue knitted fabrics ........................................... 193
Figure 7-14. UVR transmission of red knitted fabrics............................................. 195
Figure 7-15. UVR transmission of yellow knitted fabrics ....................................... 196
Figure 7-16. UPF and color properties of plain knitted fabrics ............................... 199
Figure 8-1. UPF of all knit under stretched and wet conditions .............................. 206
Figure 8-2. UPF of knit & tuck under stretched and wet conditions ....................... 207
Figure 8-3. UPF of knit & miss (50%) under stretched and wet conditions............ 207
Figure 8-4. UPF reduction of black single knitted fabrics under stretched and wet
conditions ................................................................................................................. 210
XIII
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 8-5. UPF of 1x1 rib under stretched and wet conditions.............................. 215
Figure 8-6. UPF of half cardigan under stretched and wet conditions .................... 216
Figure 8-7. UPF of half Milano under stretched and wet conditions...................... 216
Figure 8-8. UPF of full Milano under stretched and wet conditions ....................... 217
Figure 8-9. UPF of interlock under stretched and wet conditions ........................... 217
Figure 8-10. UPF reduction of black double knitted fabrics under stretched and wet
conditions................................................................................................................. 219
Figure 8-11. Micrographs of bleached fabrics under different stretch levels .......... 223
Figure 8-12. Relationship between UPF and fabric pores (P%) of bleached knitted
fabrics....................................................................................................................... 227
Figure 8-13. UPF change of bleached single knitted fabrics by laundering ............ 231
Figure 8-14. UPF change of bleached double knitted fabrics by laundering.......... 231
Figure 8-15. Mean width change of bleached single knitted fabrics ....................... 233
Figure 8-16. Mean length change of bleached single knitted fabrics ...................... 233
Figure 8-17. Mean width change of bleached double knitted fabrics...................... 236
Figure 8-18. Mean length change of bleached double knitted fabrics ..................... 236
XIV
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1. UV Index exposure category [37] ............................................................ 10

Table 2-2. UPF classification system [32] ................................................................. 15
Table 2-3. Some common reactive groups of reactive dyes [181]............................. 42
Table 3-1. Specification of yarn samples ................................................................... 62
Table 3-2. Manufacturing information of cotton yarns.............................................. 63
Table 3-3. Dyes for studying the effect of colors on UV protection of fabrics ......... 67
Table 3-4. Reactive dyes with different chemical structures (reactive groups) ......... 68
Table 3-5. Washing and drying conditions [51, 269]................................................ 68
Table 3-6. Tension for straightening yarn [277] ........................................................ 72
Table 3-7. Summary of statistical analysis methods.................................................. 81
Table 4-1. UPF and specification of plain knitted fabrics with different fiber types. 88
Table 5-1. Characteristics of cotton yarns............................................................... 100
Table 5-2. UPF and specification of plain knitted fabrics before and after
laundering................................................................................................................ 100
Table 6-1. UPF and fabric characteristics of single knitted fabrics in preliminary study
.................................................................................................................................. 116
Table 6-2. Knit structures and micrographs (magnification: 25X) of greige and
bleached single knitted fabrics in preliminary study............................................... 117
Table 6-3. One-way ANOVA results of UPF and fabric characteristics of bleached
single knitted and double knitted fabrics ................................................................. 119
Table 6-4. Descriptive statistics of bleached single knitted fabrics ......................... 155
Table 6-5. Pearson correlation coefficients between fabric characteristics of bleached
single knitted fabrics ................................................................................................ 156
Table 6-6. Factor analysis results of bleached single knitted fabrics....................... 159
Table 6-7. Multiple regression analysis results of bleached single knitted fabrics.. 160
Table 6-8. Descriptive statistics of bleached double knitted fabrics........................ 162
double knitted fabrics ............................................................................................... 163
Table 6-10. Factor analysis results of bleached double knitted fabrics ................... 165
Table 6-11. Multiple regression analysis results of bleached double knitted
fabrics ....................................................................................................................... 166
XV
LIST OF TABLES
Table 7-1. Factorial ANOVA results of the impacts of knit structure and dye
concentration on UPF and K/Ssum of single knitted fabrics ..................................... 174
concentration on UPF and K/Ssum of double knitted fabrics.................................... 182
Table 7-3. Factorial ANOVA results of impacts of color and color depth on UPF of
knitted fabrics.......................................................................................................... 186
Table 7-4. One-way ANOVA results of the effect of chemical structures of reactive
dye on UPF and K/Ssum of knitted fabrics................................................................ 189
Table 7-5. Kendall's tau coefficients (τ) between UPF and the color properties..... 199
Table 8-1. Factorial ANOVA results of impacts of stretch and wetness on UPF of
black single knitted fabrics ...................................................................................... 208
black double knitted fabrics ..................................................................................... 214
Table 8-3. Fabric pores (%) and UPF of bleached knitted fabrics under different stretch
levels ........................................................................................................................ 224
Table 8-4. Hierarchical regression analysis of UPF and fabric pores (P%) ............ 227
Table 8-5. Variations in fabric characteristics of bleached single knitted fabrics across
laundering cycles ..................................................................................................... 240
Table 8-6. Variations in fabric characteristics of bleached double knitted fabrics across
laundering cycles ..................................................................................................... 241
XVI
ABBREVIATIONS
ABBREVIATIONS
ANOVA analysis of variance

CIE International Commission on Illumination
DCC dichloroquinoxaline
E knitting machine gauge (needle per inch)
FA factor analysis
FCP difluorochloropyrimidine
FWAs fluorescent whitening agents
H2O2 hydrogen peroxide
L.R. liquor ratio
MCT monochlorotriazine
MFT monofluorotriazine
MLR multiple linear regression
OBAs optical brightening agents
OE open-end yarn
o.w.f. % chemical percentage of weight of fabric
SPSS statistical product and service solutions
T% percentage of transmittance
TiO2 titanium dioxide
TFP trifluoropyrimidine
UPF ultraviolet protection factor
UV ultraviolet
UVA ultraviolet radiation in the range 315 to 400 nm
UVB ultraviolet radiation in the range 280 to 315 nm
UVC ultraviolet radiation in the range 100 to 280 nm
UVR ultraviolet radiation in the range 280 to 400 nm
VS vinyl sulphone
WOB detergent without optical brighteners
ZnO zinc oxide
XVII
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Many people enjoy spending their leisure time outdoors in the sunshine and attempt
to achieve a healthier lifestyle by participating in more outdoor activities. Small
amounts of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) on the skin benefit human beings through
production of the vitamin D that is essential for the growth and maintenance of healthy
bones. However, both acute and chronic damage to the skin, eyes and immune system
may occur as a result of over-exposure to UVR. Excessive exposure to UVR is the
predominant cause of skin cancers worldwide, especially for people with fair skin and light
outdoor occupational needs [1-5].
Skin cancers are common in the United States (US), accounting for half of all cancers
in the country with more than 3.5 million cases diagnosed each year [1]. In the United
Kingdom (UK), the rates of skin cancers have risen faster than the current top 10
cancers over the past 30 years with more than 76,000 new cases diagnosed each year
[6, 7]. Skin cancer is also the most common cancer type in Canada accounting for an
estimated one-third of all new cases of cancer and its incidence rate continues to rise
[8]. Australia has the highest incidences of skin cancer in the world with between 2 to
3 times the incidence rates of the US and UK because of its proximity to the ozone
hole located over Antarctica [9]. Skin cancers account for 80% of all newly diagnosed
cancers in Australia and two out of three Australians will be diagnosed with skin
cancer by the time when they reach the age of 70 [10]. In Hong Kong, skin cancer is
the eighth of the top 10 cancers; although the incidence rate of skin cancers is lower
here than in the other countries mentioned above, the number of new cases continues
1
to rise each year [11]. According to the ten-year analysis of the UV Index data from 1
August 1999 to 31 July 2009 conducted by the Hong Kong Observatory, the daily
maximum UV Index reached the ‘high’ (UV Index 6 – 7) or above levels for about
66% of the time and the ‘extreme’ level (UV Index ≥11) for about 17% of the time
[12].
The deleterious impacts caused by over-exposure to UVR have increased public
awareness of the need for personal UV protective strategies such as wearing hats,
sunglasses, and adopting sunscreens. However, the UV protection provided by
sunscreens is not long-lasting and requires regular re-application due to continuous
perspiration. Inappropriate usage of sunscreens such as applying insufficient thickness
patchily on the skin may weaken the proposed UV protective ability claimed by the
products. The UV protective ability of a sunscreen is evaluated at a thickness of 2
mg/cm2, but most people apply it at a lower thickness of 0.5 – 1.2 mg/cm2 [13].
Besides, some dermatological studies revealed that sunscreens are not suitable for all
people because the chemicals in sunscreens may have the potential to induce
hypersensitivity, they are not recommended for infants [14-17]. The chemicals in
sunscreens may be decomposed by UVR forming potentially toxic photo-products
[17-21]. Moreover, some studies also found that people who use sunscreens have a
higher chance for developing melanomas and nevi (birthmarks) [22-24].
The performance shortcomings demonstrated for sunscreens indicates possible
advantages of clothing over sunscreens for personal UV protection. Clothing provides
more durable protection against harmful UVR than sunscreens. It acts as a ‘second
skin’ for human beings, which provides built-in protection against harmful UVR, and
2
the market value of UV protective clothing is worth noting. Nevertheless, not all
clothing provides sufficient UV protection to act as an effective sun-blocker and this
is especially the case for knitwear, which is relatively more porous and extensible than
the woven garments. Many textile manufacturers have attempted to improve the UV
protective performance of garments by adopting chemical approaches with the use of
dyes, whitening agents or UV absorbers. However, reduction in efficiency of optical
brightening agents and photochemical degradation of fabric dyes occur after
prolonged exposure to UVR were detected [25]. The potential hazards to humans, of
the by-products generated in the photochemical degradation, have not been fully
investigated. Therefore, sustained effectiveness of the intended function provided by
chemical UV protective finishes on textile products cannot be ensured. Pollution and
excessive water consumption brought about by chemical treatments also give rise to
environmental concerns.
From the literature review, fabric construction has been proposed as one of the most
important variables affecting UVR transmission especially for garments with light or
pastel colors [26]. Modification of fabric construction was deemed to present the
simplest and safest solution for achieving good UV protection without the application
of any additional chemical finishing process [27]. This study aimed at investigating
the improvement of UV protection of knitted fabrics at a fundamental level by
considering how the modification of fabric structure might enhance the UV protective
performance of knitwear. The UV protection of knitted fabrics under end-use
conditions is also studied in a practical point of view.
3
1.2 Objectives
This study aimed at investigating UV protection of cotton knitted fabrics with different
knit structures and the major factors influencing UV protection of knitted fabrics. The
objectives of this study are summarized as follows:
1. To examine the influence of fiber types and yarn characteristics including yarn
twist and staple length of cotton fiber on UV protection.
2. To study the UV protection of different knitted fabric constructions and examine
the relationships between the fabric characteristics and UV protection.
3. To investigate the influences of color, color depths and chemical structures of
reactive dye on UV protection of knitted fabrics.
4. To study the influences of end-use conditions including stretch, wetness, and
laundering on UV protection of knitted fabrics.
1.3 Methodology
Literature was reviewed to acquire the basic knowledge and recent development of
UV protection of knitted fabrics. The research objectives were achieved by studying
the major factors that influencing the UV protection of knitted fabrics from the raw
materials to the end-use conditions of fabrics.
Firstly, UV protection of plain knitted fabrics produced with some common fiber types
were examined in order to have a general comparison of UV protection between cotton
and other fiber types. Besides, influence of yarn characteristics on UV protection of
knitted fabrics was studied. Cotton yarns with different amounts of twists and fiber
lengths were used to produce knitted fabrics for comparison of UV protection
performance.
4
Secondly, cotton knitted fabrics varied in knit structures were produced for evaluation
of UV protection. Fabrics characteristics including fabric thickness, weight, stitch
density, tightness factor, air permeability and fabric porosity, were examined in order
to study the relationships between these parameters and UV protection of knitted
fabrics. Statistical models were developed for estimating the UV protection of fabrics
from these fabric characteristics.
Thirdly, the influence of coloration on UV protection of knitted fabrics was studied by
using reactive dyes in different colors and dye concentrations. Color properties of
fabrics including color strength, CIE color coordinates (L*a*b*), chroma (C*) and
color strength (K/Ssum) were evaluated. The relationships between these properties and
UV protection of fabrics were analyzed. Moreover, the influences of chemical
structure of reactive dyes on UV protection and color strength of fabrics were also
studied by adopting reactive dyes varied in reactive functional groups of dye molecule.
Finally, the influences of end-use conditions on UV protection of knitted fabrics were
studied. The fabrics with different knit structures were stretched to several stretch
levels and wetted to simulate the wearing condition of knitwear for the evaluation of
UV protection. A metallic biaxial stretching equipment was developed for stretching
the fabrics uniformly in the perpendicular directions for the evaluation of UV
protection of fabrics in a stretched condition. The knitted fabrics were also laundered
for studying the influence of dimensional changes of fabrics by laundering on UV
protection of fabrics.
5
1.4 Significance
Clothing is recommended by physicians and medical experts as one of the primary
methods of protecting the skin from the harmful UVR [28, 29]. Enhancement of the
UV protection of clothing has the potential to provide one of the most important and
harmless UV protective measures in reducing the incidence of skin cancers. It is highly
beneficial to people having a photo-allergy or living in the sunlight-intensive regions,
and especially essential to people who have occupational needs to work outdoors such
as agricultural and construction workers. Moreover, the availability of children’s UV
protective clothing would be of benefit in reducing the cumulative effect of UVR
exposure associated with developing skin cancers in later life [30].
From the literature review, most of the studies have concentrated on the UV protection
of woven fabrics only. This study is highly originated because there was limited study
concerning knitted fabrics especially the influence of knitted fabric construction on
UV protection, for instance, the effect of knit, tuck and miss stitches upon UV
protection of knitted fabrics. In addition, UV protection of fabrics enhanced by
coloration or UV absorbers may be insufficient when the fabrics are stretched and
wetted in daily wearing conditions. Consumers could be misled by the over-estimated
UPF rating on garment labels because the UPF evaluations are usually carried out with
the fabric in a tensionless state.
The results of this study would enable textile manufacturers and designers to select
the most suitable combination of fibers, yarns and fabric constructions for enhancing
the UV protective property of knitwear. This study also provides useful information
to dermatologists and consumers for selecting appropriate knitwear with sufficient UV
6
protection.
1.5 Thesis outline
The thesis consists of nine chapters:
Chapter 1 introduces the background of the research topic, objectives, methodology,
and significance of the study.
Chapter 2 reviews the current literature on the major factors influencing UV protection
of fabrics and the research gap in the field is identified. Some basic information of
ultraviolet radiation and the evaluation methods, as well as fundamental knowledge of
weft-knitting are briefly described.
Chapter 3 covers the experimental details of the study from fabric preparation to
evaluations of yarn and fabric characteristics, ultraviolet protection factor, color
characteristics, and fabric dimensional changes after laundering; and the statistical
analysis methods adopted in the study.
Chapter 4 examines the influence of fiber contents on UV protection.
Chapter 5 investigates the influence of yarn characteristics on UV protection.
Chapter 6 studies the influence of knitted fabric construction on UV protection and
analyzes the contributions of fabric characteristics to UV protection.
Chapter 7 investigates the influences of color, color depth, chemical structure of
reactive dye on UV protection of knitted fabrics; and studies the correlations between
the color properties and UV protection of knitted fabrics.
Chapter 8 examines the UV protection of knitted fabrics under the end-use conditions
including stretching, wetting, and laundering conditions.
Chapter 9 summarizes the important findings of the study and recommends research
work in the future.
7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a review of literature on the major factors affecting UV
protection of fabrics, including fiber types, yarn characteristics, fabric construction,
coloration, chemical additives, wetness and stretch, and laundering. Since these factors
are important in determining the UV protection of fabrics, a comprehensive depiction
is provided. The basic information of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and the evaluation
methods of UV protection of fabrics are also presented. Fundamental knowledge of
weft-knitting is briefly described at the end of chapter.
2.2 Ultraviolet radiation
Small dose of UVR is beneficial to humans because it is necessary for our well-being,
for instance, exposure of UVR induces the cutaneous synthesis of the vitamin D that
is essential for growth and maintenance of healthy skeletons. UVR is a kind of
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun and reaching the Earth’s surface consists
of visible light (50%), infrared (IR) radiation (45%) and UVR (5%). Although UVR
only accounts for a small proportion of the incident radiation from the sun, its energy
and pernicious impacts on humans are the greatest of the three types. Since UVR is
undetectable by the human eyes and seldom gives instant reaction on human skin,
many people neglected to apply UV protective measures such as wearing hats,
sunglasses or applying sunscreens.
UVR can be divided into three wavelength ranges: UVA (315 – 400 nm), UVB (280
– 315 nm) and UVC (100 – 280 nm). This classification is based on the ranges
8
provided in ‘Proposed change to the IRPA 1985 guidelines on limits of exposure to
ultraviolet radiation’ by the International Non-ionizing Radiation Committee of the
International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA) [31]. These are also the ranges
adopted by various national standards for evaluating the UV protection of textile
products, such as the Australian/New Zealand Standard [32], the British and European
standard [33, 34] and the standard of the American Association of Textile Chemists
and Colorists [35].
Shorter wavelength radiations possess higher energy. UVC (100 – 280 nm) has the
shortest wavelength and is extremely dangerous. At the Earth’s surface, UVC is
normally absent because it is absorbed by the atmospheric ozone layer. However,
UVC is generated by many industrial processes. The ozone layer also absorbs about
50% of UVB (280 – 315 nm) and UVB is known as the major cause of skin cancers,
sunburn and cataracts. UVA (315 – 400 nm) has the lowest mean of energy but higher
intensity. Premature aging and wrinkling of human skin can be induced by exposure
to UVA. The depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer in the atmosphere is one of the
most serious environmental problems caused by global warming. Each decrease of 1%
in the ozone concentration in the stratospheric ozone layer would lead to increase in
solar radiation at the Earth’s surface and the incidence of skin cancers is predicted to
be increased by 2 – 5% [30, 36].
In order to raise public awareness of the hazards of UVR, a UV Index has been
developed by the World Health Organization (WHO). The UV index provides a
standardized method for reporting solar UVR levels; the higher the number in the UV
Index, the more severe the solar UVR hazard. There are five exposure categories for
9
the UV Index with corresponding protection precautions as shown in Table 2-1 [37].
According to the advice of the WHO, sun protection is required for a UV Index > 3
(moderate to extreme).
Table 2-1. UV Index exposure category [37]

UV Index Exposure category Sun protection precautions
1–2 Low It is safe to stay outdoors.
3–5 Moderate Stay in a shady area during the midday

hours (10 am – 2 pm); wear a shirt, a hat
6–7 High and apply sunscreen.
8 – 10 Very high Avoid being outside during the midday

hours (10 am – 2 pm); stay in a shady area;
11+ Extreme wear a shirt, a hat and apply sunscreen.
Although the public has began to adopt various UV protective products such as
sunscreens, hats and sunglasses, only recently has UV protective clothing emerged as
a way of providing protection and most of this is produced via a chemical approach
utilizing UV absorbers such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO).
2.3 Assessment of ultraviolet protection of textiles
There are both in vivo and in vitro methods of assessing the UV protective
performance of textile products. The quantitative measure derived from an in vivo
evaluation is the sun protection factor (SPF), whereas the in vitro test method measures
the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF).
2.3.1 In vivo method
The in vivo method evaluates the ability of a fabric to protect against sunburn by
10
measuring the minimum erythema dose (MED) on the protected skin and unprotected
skin. It is modified from the evaluation method given by the Federal Register of the
US Food and Drug Administration for sunscreens [38]. The sun protection factor
(SPF) is the ratio of the exposure time to solar radiation required for the skin to show
redness with and without the protection by fabric, as calculated by Equation 2-1 [30,
39].
SPF = MED (unprotectedskin)

Equation 2-1
The MED is defined as the minimum quantity of radiant energy required to produce
the first detectable reddening of the skin, about 22 ± 2 hours after exposure to the UVR
[40]. Although the in vivo method gives information on the direct response of the
human body to UVR, it is time-consuming, gives rise to ethical issues, and relies on
the optical measurement techniques for estimating the MED. SPF is commonly used
to rate the UV protection of sunscreens [41].
2.3.2 In vitro method
The in vitro method has been widely adopted for evaluating the UV protection of
textile products, whose UV protective ability is commonly expressed in terms of
ultraviolet protection factor (UPF). The UPF is the ratio between the average effective
UVR irradiation for unprotected skin (Eeff) to that for protected skin (E'). A
spectrophotometer equipped with an integrating sphere is used to measure UVR
transmission. The UPF is calculated from the ratio of the UVR transmitted through air
to the UVR transmitted through the fabric summed over the wavelength range 290 to
400 nm at 5 nm intervals and calculated according to Equation 2-2. The calculated
11
UPF values are usually rounded into a multiple of five and the values higher than 50
are generally indicated as 50+.
nm
290
UPF = Eeff = ∑nm
400 400nm Eλ × Sλ × ∆λ
∑290nm Eλ × Sλ × Tλ × ∆λ
Equation 2-2
Where:
Eλ = relative erythemal spectral effectiveness
Sλ = solar spectral irradiance in W.m-2.nm-1
Tλ = spectral transmittance of the fabric
∆λ = bandwidth in nm
λ = wavelength in nm
The UPF value indicates how much UVR is blocked by a textile material, for instance,
a material with a UPF rating of 20 would allow approximately 1/20th of UVR falling
on its surface to pass through it [42]. Although the definition of UVR given in the
international standards starts at a wavelength of 280 nm [32-35], wavelengths below
290 nm are not used in calculating the UPF because these shorter wavelengths are
unlikely to reach the Earth’s surface; including these wavelengths would preclude the
use of some otherwise acceptable spectrophotometers and spectroradiometers,
according to the Australian/New Zealand Standard [32].
2.3.3 Comparison of the in vivo and in vitro methods
The agreement between in vivo and in vitro methods for evaluating UV protection of
textiles was investigated by some researchers. Ravishankar and Diffey found that the
values for UPF determined in vivo were higher than those from the in vitro method
[43]. In the in vitro method, a collimated light source was held normal to the fabric
12
being evaluated whereas in the in vivo method, light from the sun is a diffuse source.
Also, the path-length of the light source in the in vivo method is longer than that of
collimated light source used in the in vivo method. There was more scattering of the
radiation from the diffuse source, therefore, the in vivo UPF was higher than the in
vitro UPF. Moehrle and Garbe’s results were in agreement, with higher in vivo UPF
values obtained by dosimeters [44]. By contrast, Menzies et al. [45], and Greenoak
and Pailthorpe [46], found that the measured in vivo UPF was lower than the in vitro
UPF.
Gambichler et al. [47], compared the in vitro UPF, in vivo ‘off-skin’ UPF (4 mm off
the skin) and in vivo ‘on-skin’ UPF of summer textiles. There was no significant
difference between the in vivo ‘off-skin’ UPF and the in vitro UPF. However, the in
vivo ‘on-skin’ UPF was significantly lower than both the in vivo ‘off-skin’ UPF and
the in vitro UPF. In the in vivo ‘off-skin’ UPF measurement, the UVR had become
more diffuse by the time it entered the space between the fabric and the skin, due to
scattering on passing through the fabrics, and thus the UPF obtained was higher than
the in vivo ‘on-skin’ UPF.
Gies et al. [48], found that there was no statistical difference between the measured
UPF and SPF when the fabric samples were compared using the UV protection
categories of the Australian/New Zealand Standard. Hoffmann et al. [49], compared
the UPF and SPF values using fabrics with different fibers including cotton, viscose
with delustering agents, and viscose without delustering agents; no agreement was
found between the measured UPF and SPF.
13
Inconsistent results in the comparison between in vivo and in vitro methods might
probably be ascribed to the variations in fabric construction, fiber content of fabric
specimens, methodology, and light source adopted in these studies. Whilst further
work may need to be undertaken to improve agreement between the results gained by
in vitro and in vivo test methods, preference should be expressed for in vitro approach
because the in vivo method is time-consuming and it involves human test subjects
giving rise to ethical concerns. Moreover, the results of in vivo method can be affected
by the variation of skin color of subjects and the user-reliant optical measurement
techniques for counting the minimal erythemal dose. By contrast, the in vitro method
is simpler, less time-consuming, dose not raise ethical issues, and the results are
repeatable and reproducible.
2.3.4 International testing standards
There are some widely-adopted in vitro methods that have been developed by
international organizations for evaluating the UPF of textile products, which are
included in the Australian/New Zealand Standard [32], the British and European
Standard [33, 34], and the American Standard [35]. These methods are similar in
principle but different in terms of the end-use requirement and the status of fabric for
measurement.
2.3.4.1 Australian/New Zealand Standard
The Australian/New Zealand Standard ‘Sun protective clothing: evaluation and
classification’ (AS/NZS 4399:1996) intends to measure the UPF of a fabric in a dry
and tensionless state and calculates the UPF using a solar spectrum measured in
Melbourne [32]. At least four specimens are taken from each fabric sample submitted
14
for test; at least two measurements are made from the lengthwise direction and another
two measurements from the widthwise direction. For labeling purposes, UV protective
clothing can be categorized according to the UPF obtained as given in Table 2-2. A
textile product must have a minimum UPF of 15 to be rated as UV protective.
Table 2-2. UPF classification system [32]

UVR Protection Effective UVR
UPF Rating Category transmission (%) UPF Rating
15 – 24 Good Protection 6.7 – 4.2 15, 20
25 – 39 Very Good Protection 4.1 – 2.6 25, 30, 35
40 – 50, 50+ Excellent Protection ≤ 2.5 40, 45, 50, 50+
2.3.4.2 British and European Standard
The British and European Standard for UPF measurement and classification for
apparel fabrics is divided into two parts, namely BS-EN 13758-1:2002 [33], and BS-
EN 13758-2:2003 [34]. In the UPF evaluation of these standards, the fabric specimen
should be measured in a flat, tensionless or pre-defined stretched state with at least
four specimens for uniform materials. In contrast to the Australian/New Zealand
Standard, the British and European Standard use solar spectrum measured in
Albuquerque for calculating UPF. The clothing evaluated by this testing standard
should obtain a minimum UPF of 40 to be stated as safe and the UVAaverage
transmission should be smaller than 5%; this is more demanding than the
Australian/New Zealand Standard which specifies a minimum UPF of 15 for a claim
of UV protective products.
15
2.3.4.3 The American Association of Textile Chemist and Colorists Standard
The American Standard: ‘Transmittance or Blocking of Erythemally Weighted
Ultraviolet Radiation Through Fabrics’ (AATCC 183-2010) determines the UVR
blocked or transmitted by fabrics [35]. It adopts the solar spectrum measured in
Albuquerque for calculating the UPF; it resembles the British and European Standard
but is different from the Australian/New Zealand Standard. A minimum of two
specimens from each sample are evaluated in wet and dry tests. The specimen is
evaluated in both lengthwise direction and widthwise direction. Details are provided
for evaluating the UV protection of the specimen in a wet state. The wet specimen is
prepared by submerging in distilled water for 30 minutes and obtaining a wet pick-up
of 140 ± 5% by squeezing the wet specimen between sheets of blotting paper. The
wetting method depends on the materials tested, for example, tightly woven synthetic
fabrics may not be capable of achieving the specified wet pick-up because of the
hydrophobic nature of the synthetic fibers hence other wet pick-up value may have to
be used. The standard does not provide details for the evaluation of the UV protection
of a stretched specimen.
There is an interest in defining the ‘use’ state of the fabric when it is submitted for
UVR-transmission testing. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
developed a standard practice (ASTM D6544-2012) for preparing textiles prior to UPF
evaluation [50], which covered a series of standardized exposures to laundering [51],
simulated sunlight [52], and chlorinated pool water [53]. These preparation practices
were intended to simulate the condition of clothing after two years of normal seasonal
use or other life cycle events. However, the standard does not specify the minimum
UPF that a tested fabric should demonstrate in order to be claimed as UV protective.
16
Another standard guide (ASTM D6603-2012) described the labeling requirements for
UV protective textiles [54], in which the UPF is determined by the AATCC test
method 183 -2010 [35]. The guideline is similar to the UPF classification system of
the Australian/New Zealand Standard for labeling UV protective textile products.
In most of the international standards, the UV protection is evaluated in a dry and
tensionless fabric state. However, UV protection of clothing may decrease in actual
wearing during which the fabrics may be stretched and wetted, hence the UPF stated
on the label on clothing might present an over-estimate of the UV protection afforded
by the clothing to the end-users. Therefore, there is a need for a standardized
evaluation method for UV protection to be developed for fabrics in a stretched
condition.
2.4 Major factors affecting ultraviolet protection of textiles
When UVR strikes a fabric, it can be absorbed, reflected, scattered by and transmitted
through the fabric. These pathways of UVR are affected by factors such as fiber type,
yarn properties, fabric construction, color, chemical additives incorporated in a fabric,
end-use conditions of a fabric (stretched and/or wet), and any dimensional change after
laundering. These major factors are reviewed accordingly.
2.4.1 Fiber types
The fiber type has a substantial influence on UPF of fabrics especially for un-dyed
fabrics. The UVR absorption and reflection properties of a fiber depend mainly on its
chemical and physical characteristics, for example, its chemical composition, fiber
color, cross-sectional shape, moisture content, and the chemical additives incorporated
17
into the fiber such as delustrants [55, 56].
Cotton, viscose, linen, and combinations of these fibers are commonly found in
summer-wear because of their superior breathability and moisture absorbency.
However, the UV protection provided by these fiber types is usually insufficient;
among the natural fibers, wool, jute and bamboo provide relatively better UV
protection than the bleached cotton, silk, linen, hemp, acetate, and viscose [16, 47,
57-69]. Cotton prevails in summer-wear because of its excellent comfort and
absorbency attributes [60, 70-72]. Raw cotton provides moderate UV protection
because of the presence of natural pigments, lignin, pectin and waxes acting as the
naturally-occurring UV absorbers. Nevertheless, bleached cotton is rather transparent
to UVR and possesses low UV protection because the natural pigments have been
removed by scouring and bleaching processes.
Some studies found that the synthetic fibers such as polyester offered good protection
against UVR [14, 16, 59-61, 63, 65, 68, 73-75]. The presence of the large conjugated
aromatic polymer system in the polymer chains of polyester is effective in blocking
UVB radiation [73]. Besides, delustrants such as TiO2 are often incorporated in
polyester and this boosts the UPF rating [69]. Hence, polyester and blends of polyester
with other fibers may be suitable for producing fabrics with good UV protection
particularly in the case of white garments and garments with light, pastel hues [64].
Although there have been many studies of the UV protection of various natural fibers
and synthetic fibers, it is difficult to draw conclusions about the influence of fiber type
on UV protection. UV protection of fabrics is affected not only by fiber content but
18
also by other factors such as fabric construction, color, and finishing. Hoffmann et al.
[60], emphasized the difficulties involved in comparing the UV protection abilities of
different fiber types since the yarn production processes varied between materials,
which led to a comparison of UV protection between different ‘material-color-finish’
combinations rather than of fiber types alone.
Gambichler et al. [47], conducted a study of thirty commercial summer textile fabrics
and found that white cotton, linen, and viscose rayon fibers provided little UV
protection. However, the fabrics tested in the study were of different colors, which
made the results less convincing because color is an important factor influencing the
UVR absorbing ability of fabrics. Moreover, the fabrics examined had a large range
of different weights (25 g/m2 to 220 g/m2), and the thickness of fabrics were not
reported, although these fabric properties also contribute to the UV protection of
fabrics. Nevertheless, the results agreed with the study of Pailthorpe in showing that
bleached cotton fabrics were transparent to UVR because of the removal of the natural
pigments and lignin during bleaching [76].
Davis et al. [16], conducted a comparison on UV protection of fabrics made with
different fiber types including polyester, nylon, cotton, wool, rayon, linen, acrylic,
acetate, polyester/cotton blend, and polyester/wool blend. It was found that polyester
provided high UV protection while the cotton fabrics had a UPF 3 to 4 times lower
than that of the polyester fabrics. The cotton/polyester blended fabrics showed better
UV protection than pure cotton fabrics. However, the fabric samples examined
included different fabric structures such as plain woven, rib knit, tricot knit, and
different colors, fabric counts and weights, which made the conclusions less reliable.
19
Although polyester generally provides better UV protection than natural fibers,
Gambichler et al. [47, 77], revealed that polyester had a higher permeability for
wavelengths in the UVA range (315 – 400 nm) than other fiber types. Insufficient
protection of clothing against UVA radiation could be detrimental to people suffering
from polymorphic light eruption, solar urticaria, chronic actinic dermatitis or actinic
prurigo [60, 78]. A further drawback is that polyester fabrics may not be suitable for
photosensitive patients. Synthetic fibers may be subject to photo-degradation when
exposed to UVR. Polyester can be degraded by exposure to UVR for prolonged
periods leading to a reduction in its mechanical properties such as tensile strength [74].
Moreover, the UV protection offered by fibers varies with fabric structures. Riva and
Algaba [79], found that the UPF value of the UV absorber-treated modal fabric was
more sensitive to variation in fabric structures than pure cotton and untreated modal
fabrics. Alvarez and Lipp-Symonowicz [80], examined the UV protection of a wide
range of fibers and found that fabric structure, the fiber-forming polymer and
delustrants in fibers also affected the UV protection.
From the literature review on fiber, there is a need to unify the factors other than fiber
types that influence the UV protection of fabrics in order to obtain more convincing
and conclusive results. One of the factors of interest is fabric structure, because the
effectiveness of UV protection offered by the fibers is affected by the arrangement of
yarn that is determined by fabric construction.
2.4.2 Yarn properties
Yarn construction is an important attribute in the knitting process. It also makes a
20
significant contribution to the end-use performance of knitwear affecting, for example,
dimensional stability, strength, uniformity, abrasion resistance, handle, physiological
comfort, and surface appearance [55, 81-85]. The structural properties of yarns such
as twist, yarn linear density, hairiness and unevenness also contribute to the UV
protection afforded by fabrics, because these properties control the inter-fiber space
and inter-yarn space available for UVR transmission. Holistically, yarn construction
has an effect on the fabric thickness, density and weight per unit area, and thereby
influences the UV protection performance of fabrics. Although the impact of yarn
construction on UV protection of fabrics is apparent, there has been limited research
in this area to date.
Parisi and his colleagues [86-88], studied the effect of linear density of yarn on the
UV protection of women stockings. The UV protection of beige stockings was
measured on a manikin leg by a spectroradiometer; and the yarn used for producing
the beige stockings ranged from 10 to 50 denier (approximately 1.1 to 5.6 tex). The
results showed that the SPF increased with the thickness of the stockings because of
the higher denier of the yarn. However, the stockings provided poor UV protection
because the light color and the stretched condition of the stockings on the manikin’s
leg had allowed more UVR transmission.
By contrast, the study of Dubrovski and Brezocnik [27], reported that the UV
protection of woven fabrics did not increase in line with increases in the thickness of
the yarn used. The UPF of the woven fabrics increased with yarn linear density from
14 to 25 tex but then decreased when a yarn of 36 tex was used, indicating that the
effect of yarn linear density on UPF for woven fabrics was not the same as for knitted
21
fabrics. This arises because woven fabrics differ from knitted fabrics both in terms of
the physical properties and in the method of fabric formation. The inter-yarn space
and volume porosity in woven fabrics increases in line with increases in the yarn
diameter, because of the increasingly greater difficulty of achieving tight packing in
interlacements of thicker yarns within woven fabric structures. The results of these
studies indicated that the effect of yarn linear density is different in woven and knitted
fabrics.
The fabrics with a greater ratio of surface area covered by yarns and surface fibers,
compared with the total area covered by the fabric, usually show better UV protection
than loosely-knitted fabrics with a clear finish [55]. In other words, fabrics having
more fibers protruding from the yarn surface will exhibit a higher level of UV
protection. This generalization appeared to be confirmed by the study of Stankovic et
al. [89], who found that greige cotton plain knitted fabrics made from yarns with lower
hairiness were more permeable to UVR than those made from more hairy yarns.
However, it was also found that the relationship between yarn twist and hairiness was
non-linear, hence the relative contributions brought about by yarn twist and hairiness
on UPF was ambiguous. In addition, the materials examined were in the raw state and
therefore contained natural cotton pigments. Such issues make it difficult for the
results to be extrapolated to fabrics made of other fibres, yarns or fabric structures.
Therefore, there is a need for investigations to be undertaken to isolate the effect of
twist level on the UV protection of knitted fabrics, and this would require the prior
removal of any natural pigments.
Although fabrics made of yarns with higher linear density and hairiness were found to
22
provide better UV protection, a higher tendency to pilling may result in this kind of
fabrics because of higher numbers of fibers protruding from the fabric surface [55].
Moreover, yarns with higher hairiness and lower twist level may give rise to problems
not only in the knitting process but also in end-use performance of the knitwear, for
instance, in terms of strength reduction and reduced dimensional stability due to the
residual torque in the yarn. Residual torque is the twist-liveliness leading to spirality
in the knitted fabrics and a tendency for yarns to snarl by twisting upon itself in
subsequent wet treatments such as laundering.
Tao and her colleagues [90-92], had developed a modified spinning system for
producing ring-spun low-twisted yarns (commercial name: Estex) which demonstrate
relatively high strength and balanced torque. In the modified spinning system, a pin
false-twister driven by a couple rotor was inserted between the front rollers and yarn
guide on a conventional ring-spinning system. The false-twister increased the fiber
migration and entanglement in the spinning triangle, which improved yarn strength
[93]. The modified low-twisted cotton yarns are bulkier than the conventional normal-
twisted cotton yarn as shown in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1. Comparison of bulkiness between the conventional cotton yarn (top) and
Estex cotton yarn (bottom) [94]
Fabrics made from this modified low-twisted yarn were reported to have lower
hairiness, better handle, a significant reduction in spirality and, thereby, improved
23
dimensional stability together with similar pilling resistance and bursting strength
when compared to the fabrics made from conventional low-twisted ring-spun yarns
[90-93, 95-101]. A recent study by Hua et al. [102], revealed that trousers made of the
fabric woven from modified low-twisted yarns possessed better lustre, a smoother
appearance, and higher overall quality than trousers made of conventional ring-spun
or rotor-spun yarns. Given that the Estex low-twisted yarn offers superior end-use
performance to fabrics, it should be worthwhile to conduct some research into the UV
protective performance of fabrics made with this yarn type, which is one of the
objectives in this thesis.
Apart from yarn linear density, twist level and yarn hairiness, the staple length of the
fiber is another factor affecting the yarn construction [103]. Among various species of
cotton, American Pima cotton (commercial name: Supima) is claimed to impart
superior end-use properties to fabrics. Supima is made from extra-long staple (ELS)
cotton, with the staple length of the fiber ranging typically from 32 to 50.8 mm and
this gives rise to fewer fiber ends protruding from the yarn surface [104-106]. The
fabrics made from Pima cotton are claimed to be softer, more lustrous, to show better
abrasion resistance, be more dimensionally stable, and to possess higher bursting
strength when compared to the fabrics made from conventional short-staple cotton
(staple length: 25.4 – 28.6 mm) [104-106]. Since yarn hairiness is an important quality
attribute affected by fiber length [84], it is worth comparing the UV protection
performance of knitted fabrics made of yarns with different fiber staple lengths, which
was also studied in this thesis.
To add to the study of Stankovic et al. [89], further work is required to study the UV
24
protection of plain-knitted cotton fabrics made from ring-spun, and open-end yarns
(OE yarns, also called rotor-spun yarns) and both scoured and bleached fabrics. Ring-
spun cotton yarns are the most widely-used yarns in producing knitwear or delicate,
high-end fashion products, while open-end yarns are more commonly used in
producing denim and industrial clothing [84]. Currently, ring-spun yarns account for
70% of the global long and short staple yarn production whilst OE yarns share for the
remaining 23% [106]. Comparatively, OE yarns confer harsher handle coupled with
lower tear strength, tensile strength, compressibility, and wickability on fabrics than
the ring-spun yarns because of their yarn structures [102, 106-109]. Both yarn types
are worthy of further examination in terms of UV protection capabilities. However,
ring-spun yarns are stronger and show more hairiness than OE yarns, and can be used
to produce coarse to extremely fine yarns with a wide range of twist levels, which
could mean that they have greater potential to impart the desired handle, durability
and surface characteristics to fabrics for UV protection.
The quality of knitwear fabrics strongly depends on fiber properties such as staple
length and fibre thickness, yarn properties such as thickness, twist level and hairiness,
and the spinning method adopted, as this affects the yarn structure and many of the
associated yarn properties. The resulting fabric characteristics may affect not only the
end-use performance of knitwear in terms of its comfort and dimensional changes
upon laundering, but also the UV protection abilities of the knitwear. Although some
work has been done, there is a distinct need therefore for further study on the
influences of both fiber and yarn properties on the UV protection performance of weft-
knitted fabrics.
25
2.4.3 Fabric construction
Fabric construction is the major determinant governing the paths able to be taken by
UVR incident on the fabric because it controls the geometrical arrangement of the
yarns and fibers. The sizes and numbers of pores between yarns for UVR transmission,
the distribution of fibrous materials for UVR absorption, and the pathways available
to UVR to enter the fabric layer are determined by the fabric construction. The fabric
thickness, mass per unit area (weight), stitch density, fabric tightness and fabric
porosity, are the major fabric characteristics for quantifying the fabric construction.
The efficiency of UV protective performance provided by any UV absorbing material
and dye molecule present is also influenced by fabric construction because it
determines the distribution of these UV absorbing materials by the arrangement of
yarns and fibers that it imposes. A fabric treated with UV absorbers, but constructed
with a porous fabric structure, may provide inadequate UV protection because most
of the UVR could be transmitted through the large inter-yarn space. The effectiveness
of the UV protective finishing is therefore largely dependent on the fabric
compactness. Moreover, fabric construction affects not only the fabric’s ability to open
up when tension is applied but also the shrinkage of the fabric after laundering.
Fabric construction was considered to be an important factor affecting UVR
transmission of fabric and it has been studied extensively [14, 16, 26, 58, 60, 75, 110,
111]. However, most of the studies concentrated on woven fabrics [26, 27, 68, 69, 79,
110-120]. There has been only limited research on the UV protective performance of
weft-knitted fabrics by considering the structural parameters and the knit structures
[71, 76, 89, 121-124]. Generally, woven fabrics possess better UV protection than
weft-knitted fabrics because the yarns in woven fabrics are usually interlaced tightly
26
together and that minimizes the sizes of the pores between the yarns thereby restricting
UVR transmission. Besides, the interlacement of yarns in a plain weave creates a
double layer of the fibers available for absorbing UVR. On the other hand, weft-knitted
fabrics are relatively more porous and extensible than woven fabrics. This arises
because the weft-knitted fabrics are produced by intermeshing loops of yarn with the
loops pulled through previously formed loops, creating an open structure with fewer
double layers of yarn (situated only where the loops cross over each other).
According to the study of Pailthorpe [76, 121], woven fabrics provided the highest UV
protection followed by weft-knitted fabrics, while the warp-knitted fabrics under test
exhibited the lowest UV protection. Fabrics with a plain-weave structure offered the
highest UV protection among woven fabric structures of the same fabric weight. The
weft-knitted fabric with the Lacoste structure (with tuck stitches) showed the poorest
UV protection. However, details of yarn count, fabric weight, and thickness of the
fabrics examined, despite their importance, were not provided in these studies.
Eckhardt and Rohwer [125], revealed that the UV protection built up by laundering
with detergents containing UV absorbers or fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) also
depended on the fabric construction. The enhancement of the UV protection of cotton
fabrics by FWAs in laundering was found to be better in knitted fabrics than in woven
fabrics. This is because the woven fabrics were light-weight summer fabrics and had
a lower initial UPF than the knitted fabrics. However, the critical fabric specifications
such as fabric weight and thickness were not reported in this study. Riva and Algaba
[79], also found that the UV protection of fabrics improved by treatment with UV
absorbers was affected by the fabric structure to a greater extent than fabrics without
27
UV absorbers. Another study by Riva and Algaba [117], stated that the UV protection
of a pale colored fabric could be enhanced by increasing the initial UPF such as by
constructing the fabric to give a more-compact structure whilst pointing out that the
excellent UV protection imparted by the chemical approach is also largely affected by
the fabric construction.
Majumar et al. [116], investigated the effects of weave, structural parameters, and UV
absorbers on the UV protection of bleached cotton woven fabrics. It was found that
the UPF of a fabric was exponentially related to fabric cover and fabric weight,
wherein fabric weight seemed to be the better predictor of the UPF for the same set of
fabrics tested. Such an analysis of woven fabrics is more straightforward than that for
weft-knitted fabrics because for woven fabric samples the warp yarn sett could be kept
constant while the weft yarn sett and weave structures could be varied.
Most of the previous studies investigated the impact of woven fabric construction on
UV protection, and only a few studies were concerned with weft-knitted fabrics. In
one of these, Wilson et al. [120], compared the UV protection provided by two knitted
fabrics (Eyelet, Piqué) and plain woven fabrics. The eyelet fabric showed the poorest
UV protection, followed by plain woven fabrics while the piqué fabric offered better
UV protection. The eyelet fabric had a relatively more porous structure which allowed
more UVR transmission than the piqué fabric, added to which it had the lowest fabric
weight and thickness among the fabrics examined. However, it should also be noted
that the fabrics were of different fiber compositions including polyester,
polyester/Tactel and cotton/spandex, making it difficult to assign differences in UPF,
with confidence, to particular fabric structures alone. A study by Parisi and Wilson
28
[123], also showed that the polyester eyelet fabric exhibited a higher UVR
transmission than the cotton/elastane blended jersey fabric. The elastane imparted
enhanced elastic recovery to the jersey fabrics, which, in the absence of tension, made
the fabric more compact and improved its ability to block the transmission of UVR.
Vidhya and Rekha [126], studied the UV protection of bamboo knitted fabrics with
single jersey, rib, and interlock structures. Their study concluded that the UPF of
undyed bamboo fabrics was positively related to the fabric weight and thickness.
Akaydin [124], obtained similar results showing that the UPF increased with the
weight of weft-knitted fabrics. Although the tests compared the UV protection
provided by different weft-knitted fabric constructions, all of the knitted fabric
structures chosen for these studies consisted of only a single stitch type, the knit stitch.
Because a variety of stitch types are used in knitted garments, there is a definite need
to broaden understanding of the UV protection of weft-knitted fabrics by including
other stitch types such as the tuck stitch and the miss stitch.
2.4.3.1 Fabric weight, thickness and stitch density
In general, a fabric with higher weight per square meter, thickness, and stitch density
would possess relatively-better UV protection. A heavier and thicker fabric implies
that there are likely to be more fibers available for blocking UVR whilst a higher stitch
density denotes that yarns are arranged more-closely together thereby is minimizing
the inter-yarn space available for UVR transmission. This has been confirmed by many
studies which mainly focused on the UV protection of woven fabrics [16, 27, 61, 79,
110, 114-116, 118, 127-132], but some have investigated the UV protection of knitted
fabrics [120, 122-124, 126].
29
A double layer of undyed polyester fabric resulted in a UPF approximately 3.5 times
higher than that of a single layer of the fabric [133]. Increasing the number of fabric
layers can effectively reduce UVR transmission and the extent of reduction was found
to be dependent on fabric structure [120]. Algaba et al. [115], found that fabric weight
per unit area of woven fabrics was highly correlated with UPF but the correlation was
different for different fiber types. However, Davis et al. [16], revealed that fabric
weight per unit area did not linearly correlate with UPF because the fabric thickness
also contributed to the UV protection of fabrics and thickness could be affected by
factors other than fabric weight such as bulkiness of yarn and fabric construction.
For woven fabrics, the fabric weight per unit area, thickness, and cover factor
generally increase with stitch density (warp/weft setts) because as the sett increases
the yarns are more-closely packed together. Liang et al. [127], ascertained that the
warp/weft sett was the main element affecting the UV protection of woven fabrics and
thus the UPF could be greatly improved by increasing the fabric sett. Zhang et al.
[134], also found that UVR transmission through white cotton/polyester blended
woven fabrics with low warp/weft setts was up to 11.2 times of the UVR transmission
of fabrics constructed with high warp/weft setts. However, the study by Sarkar [135],
revealed a negative correlation between the sett and the UPF of woven fabrics. It was
because the linear density of yarns was not kept constant; the woven fabrics with the
highest setts were made of finer yarns and this resulted in lighter and thinner fabrics
which allowed more UVR transmission. Similarly, for the UV protection of double-
jersey weft-knitted fabrics, Capjack [122], found that stitch density of double knitted
fabrics did not linearly relate to UV protection and again, as was the case with the
30
woven fabrics with higher setts examined by Sarkar [135], this is because finer yarns
were used for constructing the fabrics with higher stitch densities. These findings
implied that the impact of sett in woven fabrics or stitch density in the case of knitted
fabrics on UV protection was very much affected by the yarn linear density used for
producing the fabrics.
Gies et al. [129], found that the weave construction of woven fabrics was the most
important factor affecting UVR transmission when compared to fabric weight and
thickness. Hoffmann [60], agreed and stated that fabric construction was the primary
attribute of fabric porosity, followed by fabric weight. Because fabric construction
determines the fabric weight, thickness, stitch density and fabric tightness, variations
in the knitted structure of weft-knitted fabrics brought about by incorporating different
stitch types are expected to impact significant effects on UV protection.
2.4.3.2 Cover factor and tightness factor
Fabric construction is the primary determinant of cover factor. Weft-knitted fabrics
generally have a lower cover factor than woven fabrics [40, 69, 74]. This is because
woven fabrics leave little space between the interlaced weft and warp yarns whereas
weft-knitted fabrics have relatively open structures with loops being pulled through
the previously-formed loops. Dubrovski and Golob [26], stated that fabric construction
was a major factor contributing to the UV protection for light, pastel-colored clothing.
It was found that cover factor had a direct effect on the UPF of woven fabrics while
fabric tightness (warp/weft density) and volume porosity had indirect connections with
the UPF. However, the woven fabrics examined were composed of different weave
types, warp/weft densities and yarn fineness. The fabrics with higher porosity, lower
31
weight per unit area and thickness usually showed poor UV protective properties.
The relative openness of wove fabrics allowing transmission of UVR is referred to by
a variety of terms such as fabric porosity, cover factor, and tightness of weave.
Openness was identified as a good predictor of UVR transmission in un-dyed woven
fabrics [69, 119]. Other researchers also found that cover factor, or in other terms,
openness, was of higher priority in contributing to UV protection over other structural
parameters [68, 69, 118, 136]. The influence of other factors on UPF would become
negligible when the fabric structure was more porous. Pailthorpe et al. [58, 62, 76,
121, 137], defined a theoretical relationship between UVR transmission and the cover
factor of an ideal fabric as shown in Equation 2-3:
% UVR transmission = 100 − Cover factor

Equation 2-3
For the same textile item, UPF is defined by Equation 2-4.
UPF = % UVR transmission

100
Equation 2-4
The relationship between UPF and cover factor can then be expressed by Equation 2-5
after combining Equation 2-3 and Equation 2-4.
UPF = 100 − Cover

100 factor
Equation 2-5
However, it should be noted that the UPF derived using the above equations is
32
different from that defined by the Australian/New Zealand Standard (AS/NZS
4399:1996) [32], and the American Standard (AATCC 183-2010) [35]. In these
standards, the UPF is calculated using the weighted values for the percentage
transmission of UVA and UVB radiation. However, Pailthorpe was calculating an
‘expected’ UPF from the cover factor by assuming that the fibers and yarns are
completely opaque to UVR, and that the holes in the fabric structures are sufficiently
small (< 0.2 mm) to avoid the ‘hole effect’ defined by Menzies et al. [45]. The ‘hole
effect’ refers to the non-uniform UVR transmission resulting from fabrics with non-
uniform fabric structures.
According to the Australian/New Zealand Standard for categorizing the UV protection
of fabrics [32], the cover factor should be larger than 93% (permitting less than
approximately 7% effective UVR transmission) in order to achieve a minimum
requirement of UV protection (set at UPF 15). Very small increases in cover factor
can lead to dramatic changes in the UPF when the cover factor exceeds 95% because
of the reciprocal nature of the equation for calculating the UPF [32, 55, 138]. The
values of UPF could vary widely even for fabrics with the same cover factor because
of differences in fiber types. Therefore, although cover factor is an influential
parameter in UVR transmission, it might not, as asserted by Pailthorpe [69], be the
clearest determinant of UV protection by fabrics.
In addition, the cover factor in Equation 2-5 refers to the extent of fabric area covered
by one set of threads in woven fabric [139-142]. The tighter the woven fabric structure
(with more threads per unit area), the higher the cover factor and the higher the UPF.
Moreover, the cover factor is commonly evaluated by measuring the number of threads
33
per unit length in woven fabrics or by assessing the percent cover of fabrics by image
analysis methods. Both evaluation methods consider the fabric in 2-dimensions only
and assume that the yarns are opaque to UVR [69]. Reinert et al. [68], measured the
cover factor by assessing the UVR transmittance of fabrics and found that the
corresponding UPF was much lower than the UPF predicted by percent cover factor
using Equation 2-5. Capjack et al. [143], also found a weak relationship between UV
protection and percent cover of weft double knitted fabrics when the percentage cover
of fabrics was assessed by the image analysis method.
In weft-knitting, tightness factor is commonly used for quantifying the tightness or
compactness of knitted fabrics, and it is used in a similar manner to cover factor in
weaving. It is an indication of relative fabric tightness or looseness determined by
measuring the proportionality between yarn linear density and loop length [144].
However, there is limited research concerning the influence of tightness factor on UV
protection of knitted fabrics with different knit structures. Therefore, tightness factor
was studied as one of the fabric characteristics affecting the UV protection in this
thesis.
Although the effects of various fabric structural parameters have been widely studied,
it is hard to obtain a general model to quantify the distribution of all the textile
parameters in the UV protection of fabrics. This is because commercially-available
fabrics are usually composed of different fibers, fabric structures, colors, and treated
with various finishing processes [114]. These parameters are rarely independent and
the complexity of interaction between these properties has made it difficult to predict
UPF or to generalize the comparisons with other fabric types [145]. Nevertheless,
34
fabric structure has been deemed to be the most important factor in determining UPF
because it controls the compactness of textile materials for absorbing UVR. Good UV
protection of fabrics achieved by finishing treatments could only be adequate when
the fabric structure was compact enough [111].
2.4.4 Coloration
2.4.4.1 Influence of color on UV protection
The UV protection of fabrics can be improved considerably by coloration. The color
of dyes is dependent on their absorption capacity within the visible range of
wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum (400 – 700 nm). Most dyes have
absorption bands which also extend into the invisible UV part of the spectrum (280 –
400 nm), therefore many dyes have the potential to act as UV absorbers. It was found
that the position and intensity of absorption by a dye in the UV part of the spectrum is
primarily governed by its chemistry rather than the dye classes [117, 132, 133, 146-
149]. The chemical structure of the dye molecule, the bonding within the dye molecule
and the bonding between the dye molecule and fiber each have important effects on
the UVR absorption property of dyes [133]. According to Pailthorpe, the extinction
coefficients of dyes in the UV region of the spectrum affect the UV protection of
colored fabrics [58]. Therefore, fabrics of the same color might differ in their UVR
absorption if the dyes used for coloring the fabrics have different chemical structures.
Generally, dark colored fabrics possess better UV protection than those of lighter
shades provided that they are of the same fabric type [75, 76, 129, 133-135, 146, 150].
Gies et al. [129, 150], studied the spectral transmission of fabrics with identical weave
and fabric weight but dyed in several different colors. It was found that fabrics dyed
35
in darker colors like dark green, navy blue and black, allowed lower UVR transmission
than fabrics in lighter colors such as white, pale blue and oatmeal. Driscoll [151],
conducted a study of the UV protection of 130 fabric samples in a wide range of colors
and found that the fabrics with white and cream colors provided lower UV protection
than the fabrics in red, green, and black.
However, Zhang et al. [134], found that white fabrics allowed less UVR transmission
than cream-colored fabrics and fabrics with a maroon color showed lower UVR
transmission than black fabrics. Gorensek and Sluga [133], also found that polyester
fabrics dyed an orange color offered better UV protection than red polyester fabrics
and pale-orange fabrics had a higher UPF than pale-blue fabrics. Similar results were
revealed in the study by Wilson et al. [152], in which medium-depth orange fabrics
provided better UVR blocking property than red fabrics, and taupe/beige fabrics
transmitted less UVR than white fabrics. Srinivasan and Gatewood [153], found that
black direct dyes did not necessarily impart the best UV protection to fabrics when
compared with fabrics dyed with red, blue, green, and brown direct dyes. These results
confirm that generalizing about the UV protection in terms of the color of fabrics may
not be appropriate, because the perceived color is determined by the selective
absorption by the dye in the visible spectrum which is not necessarily a good predictor
of its ability to absorb in the invisible UV region. Srinivasan and Gatewood [153],
confirmed that color is not a trustworthy indicator of UV protective performance of
dyed fabrics.
Apart from the chemical structure of the dye, depth of color is another important
influence on the UV protection of colored fabrics. Color depth was identified as a
36
more-important aspect of coloration than hue in affecting the UPF; the UV protection
of fabrics usually increased with the dye concentration applied [152-154]. Yadav et
al. [155], asserted that the degree of UV protection of fabrics imparted by dyes was a
function of the concentration of colourants in fabrics. The impact of color depth on
UV protection was found to be more obvious for fabrics in dark colors than in light
colors.
Although fabrics with darker shades are preferred for protection against harmful UVR,
the dark-colored fabrics may increase the body heat by infrared radiation and make
the wearers feel unpleasant in hot condition [26, 27, 124]. Therefore, white, light and
pastel-colored garments dominate the summer-wear market because the heat
accumulation within clothing made of fabrics in these colors is relatively lower than
the garments in dark colors. The need to improve the UV protection of fabrics with
lighter colors becomes another challenge.
One of the possible solutions is to improve the UV protection of a fabric by improving
its UV absorption property by producing a more compact fabric structure, which is the
principal aim of this thesis. Riva et al. [117], acknowledged this idea during their study
of the UV protection of woven cotton fabrics dyed with azo dyes. It was found that
the effect of coloration on UPF was more apparent for the fabrics with more compact
structure and that a small increase in color depth had led to a remarkable improvement
in the UPF of such fabrics when compared with those of a more porous structure. Most
studies have focused on improving UV protection by coloration of woven fabrics [26,
27, 117, 133-135, 147, 148, 150, 152-158], with more limited research conducted on
the effects of coloration on the UV protection of weft-knitted fabrics [120, 124, 126,
37
152, 153].
The UV protection provided by coloration could diminish over time because dyes may
leach out of fabrics during subsequent washing processes [159]. Besides, the UV
protective performance offered by dyes could also be weakened by photo-degradation
[25, 159, 160]. Khazova et al. [25], suggested that the photo-degradation of dyes was
the reason for increases in UVA transmission in colored fabrics over time.
The UV protective properties of various dye classes have been studied extensively
including direct dyes [148, 153], reactive dyes [27, 124, 147-149, 156, 158, 161-164],
natural dyes [126, 135, 154, 155, 157, 165-169], azo dyes [117], disperse dyes and
acid dyes [133, 148]. However, these have given rise to no explicit conclusion on
which dye class could confer the best UV protection to fabrics. Dyes of different
classes differ not only in terms of the chemical structure of the dye molecules but also
in the application conditions including the dyeing temperature, the dyeing machinery,
the pH conditions in the dyeing liquor and the dyeing techniques. As a consequence,
when a single fabric type is subjected to dyeing, the dyeing processes employed with
different dye classes might modify the fabric characteristics and eventually affect the
UV protection in different ways.
2.4.4.2 Reactive dye
Fabrics with same color can differ in UVR absorbing property if the dyes used for
coloring the fabrics have different chemical structures. In this thesis, the UV protection
of fabrics provided by reactive dyes with different chemical composition was studied.
A brief introduction to reactive dyes is included.
38
Reactive dyes are widely used for coloring cotton fabrics because they offer
outstanding color-fastness to washing when compared with other dye classes such as
direct dyes. Reactive dyes are unique compared with other dye classes because the dye
molecules react with cotton fibers to form stable covalent bonds. The energy required
to break the dye-fiber covalent bonds is as high as that required to degrade the substrate
itself and this explains their excellent wash-fastness properties [170-172]. The low
molecular weight of reactive dyes also assists the penetration and levelling this type
of dyes within the fibers prior to the chemical reaction taking place with the fibers
[173]. The application methods for reactive dyes are simple and flexible, with a wide
range of bright to muted shades achievable through either continuous or batchwise
applications; their cost is reasonable and lower than that of other wash-fast dyes such
as vat dyes and solubilized vat dyes [171]. These reasons suggested the study on UV
protection of colored cotton knitted fabrics dyed with reactive dye in this thesis.
Reactive dyes are water-soluble anionic dyes with the dye molecule containing
specific functional groups (reactive groups) that can undergo addition and/or
substitution reactions with hydroxyl groups of the cellulosic fibers. A general structure
of reactive dye consisted of four components:
(1) Chromophore: a color bearing group
(2) Reactive group: reacts with the hydroxyl groups of cellulose
(3) Bridging group: links the reactive group to the chromophore and determines the
stability and reactivity of dye.
(4) Water solubilizing group: imparts the solubility to the dye
39
Each component contributes to the physical properties including color, molecular size,
ability to diffuse into fibers, solubility, substantivity and fastness properties.
The reactive group of the dye molecule reacts with the hydroxyl groups of cellulose
mainly by two mechanisms: nucleophilic substitution and nucleophilic addition [172,
174]. The dyes reacting with fiber by nucleophilic substitution have the reactive
groups attached to a carbon-nitrogen heterocyclic ring. The liable reactive groups such
as chlorine, fluorine, or methyl sulphone are substituted by the cellulosate ions from
the fiber. Some examples of this type of reactive dyes are mono-halogenotriazines, di-
halogenotriazines, dichloroquinoxaines, and trihalogenopyrimidines. A basic reaction
between reactive dye and cellulose (Cell—O¯) by nucleophilic substitution is shown
in Equation 2-6.
Equation 2-6
On the other hand, the dyes reacting with fibers by nucleophilic addition possess
reactive vinyl sulphone groups (—SO2CH=CH2) embedded in the dye molecules. The
reactive vinyl sulphone group reacts with cellulosate ions of fibers by addition to the
double bond instead of substitution as shown in Equation 2-7.
D–SO2–CH2=CH2 + Cell–OH → D–SO2–CH2–CH2–O–Cell
Equation 2-7
Reactive dyes can be categorized according to the number of functional groups
40
(reactive groups) in the dye molecule which included monofunctional and bifunctional
groups (homo-bifunctional and hetero-bifunctional groups). The number of reactive
groups affects the dyeing properties such as substantivity, exhaustion, fixation, and
washing-off after dyeing. Bifunctional reactive dyes have two reactive groups and the
chance for reacting with cellulose is therefore higher than the monofunctional reactive
dyes containing one reactive group only. It was found that bifunctional reactive dyes
exhibited a high fixation rate and overall exhaustion efficiency, and eventually could
reduce unreacted dyes in effluent [170, 175, 176].
Bifunctional reactive dyes can be further divided into two subsets: homo-bifunctional
and hetero-bifunctional reactive dyes. Homo-bifunctional reactive dyes contain two
identical reactive groups while hetero-bifunctional reactive dyes contain two different
reactive groups. The reaction between cellulose and dye is dependent on the reactivity
of the reactive groups in dye molecule. The hetero-bifunctional dyes have advantages
of uniform fixation over a wide range of temperature and pH condition when compared
to the homo-bifunctional dyes [171, 172, 177, 178]. In general, the reactive groups can
be ranked in the order of decreasing reactivity: dichlorotriazine (DCT) >
difluorochloropyrimidine (FCP) > monofluorotriazine (MFT) > dichloroquinoxaline
(DCC) > vinyl sulphone (VS) > monochlorotriazine (MCT) > trichloropyrimidine
(TCP) [171, 172, 179, 180]. Dyeing processes can be carried out at a lower
temperature using reactive dyes containing reactive groups with a higher reactivity
and vice versa. Some examples of the reactive groups of reactive dyes are listed in
Table 2-3.
41
Table 2-3. Some common reactive groups of reactive dyes [181]

Monochlorotriazine (MCT) Monofluorotriazine (MFT)
2,4-difluoro-5-chloro-pyrimidine (FCP) Dichloroquinoxaline (DCC)
The UV protection of fabrics offered by colorants is mainly affected by the chemical
structure of the dye molecule rather than by the dye classes [117, 132, 133, 146-149].
Nevertheless, there has been limited research undertaken on the UV protection offered
by fabrics colored by reactive dyes with different chemical structures or reactive
groups. Czajkowski and Paluszkiewicz [182], studied the UV protection of woven
fabrics colored by bifunctional MCT reactive dyes in yellow and red. However, the
study focused on comparing the UV protection of fabrics dyed either with or without
UV absorbers rather than on the influence of different reactive dyes on UV protection.
Rosinskaya et al. [147], studied the effects of concentration and chemical structure of
the reactive dyes on UV protection by cotton woven fabrics dyed with single reactive
dye types of either MCT or VS type, and fabrics dyed with binary mixtures of MCT
and VS types in different proportions. The results revealed that the fabrics dyed with
MCT reactive dyes gave a more significant absorption of UVB than that dyed with the
VS reactive dyes, besides which the binary mixture of MCT and VS reactive dyes
showed synergism in the UV protection of the dyed fabrics.
42
2.4.5 Chemical additives
Apart from coloration, the UV protection of fabrics can be improved significantly by
chemical treatment with UV absorbers. UV absorbers can be incorporated into fibers
through the spinning dope, applied to fabrics through exhaustion, pad-batch or
continuous processes, plasma treatment, or by addition during the dyeing process. In
general, UV absorbers are colorless compounds with a chromophore system that can
absorb UVR effectively. When the UVR is absorbed, the UV absorbers convert the
electronic excitation energy into vibrational energy and then into thermal energy [183,
184], and also reflect and/or scatter UVR because of their high refractive indices [185].
There are two main types of UV absorbers, organic absorbers and inorganic absorbers.
The organic UV absorbers are low-cost products possessing properties such as high
transparency and ease of application to many colored fabrics and textiles. However,
the UV absorption efficiency of organic absorbers decreases over time and the toxic
free radicals released as they degrade might bring about health problems [186]. On the
other hand, inorganic UV absorbers are mostly semiconducting oxides such as
titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO). Inorganic UV absorbers are more
preferable to organic UV absorbers because they are non-toxic and chemically stable
under direct exposure to UVR and high temperature [185, 187-189].
In order to achieve a highly-transparent coating of UV absorbers, better durability and
affinity for the fabric, UV absorbers may be formed into nanoparticles with high
surface area and surface energy. The principle is to increase the number of atoms at
the surface by virtue of the small particle size combined with the topography of the
nanoparticles. Light absorption occurs with a blue shift when the sizes of the UV
43
absorber particles are less than 100 nm, moving the absorption band in the desired
direction, which is towards shorter wavelengths. For instance, nano-calcium carbonate
achieved its UV protective property by absorbing UVR and then emitting IR radiation
[186].
Many studies have been undertaken on improving the UV protection of fabrics by UV
absorbers through various methods. For example, the sol-gel technique of titania film
formation [190-193], use of a linking agent technique with TiO2 [185, 193-195], the
treatment of fabrics with nanoparticles of ZnO [188, 194, 196-204], TiO2 [194, 205-
208], and silver [195, 209-211], and dyeing with optical brightening agents (OBAs)
which is also known as fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) [212, 213].
Tsuzuki and Wang [189], reviewed the development of UV blocking textiles and of
fibers functionalized with nano-structured surface coatings in 2011. Although TiO2
and ZnO nanoparticles were providing excellent UV protection to fabrics, wash-
fastness and adhesion to fabrics remained as great challenges at that time. The
nanoparticles are necessarily mixed with chemical binders when applied to fabrics in
order to preserve the coating against the effects of laundering [214]. Many commercial
TiO2 nanoparticles are available in the form of dry powder and consist mainly of
agglomerated nanoparticles; their effectiveness in UV protection is diminished
significantly if the nanoparticles are not fully dispersed over the fabric surface. Xin et
al. [193], developed a UV blocking surface treatment for bleached cotton knitted
fabrics by adopting a sol-gel reaction scheme in which a thin layer of titania (TiO2)
with a thickness of 100 nm was created on the surface of cotton fabric. Sun et al. [215],
discovered that the inherent photo-catalytic activities (the mechanism by which
44
inorganic absorbers block UVR), could be detrimental to fabrics and dyes. The
problems of fiber and dye degradation induced by the photo-catalytic mechanisms of
TiO2 and ZnO lack investigation. Additional chemical treatments to cope with these
problems are currently costly and create other concerns relating to energy consumption
and pollution.
Although UV protection finishing is developing at a tremendous pace, there are other
concerns related to the safety of these UV absorbers and the other chemicals used in
creating UV protective clothing. Since most of UV protective finishing provides a
long-lasting performance against laundering, the chemicals involved may be
considered unsafe if persistent substances are released as effluent into water courses
posing difficulties in achieving ecological protection [216]. Another concern is that
whilst a UV absorber may have the potential to work well, its effectiveness will be
reduced by applying it to a porous fabric structure. In the case of knitwear therefore,
improving UV protection by using an alternative approach such as more-compact
knitted structures may present both a more effective and environmentally solution than
the chemical finishing.
2.4.6 End-use conditions
Nowadays, many people strive for a healthier lifestyle by participating in more outdoor
activities. The inherent UV protection of clothing can be weakened during wear as
garments are stretched by body movements and wetted by perspiration. At the
extreme, sportswear such as swimwear is exposed to UVR, stretched and subjected to
wet conditions simultaneously. Unfortunately, stretching and wetting of the fabrics
have a detrimental effect on the UV protective performance of garments.
45
Although coloration imparts superior UV protection to clothing, retention of the UV
protection under stretched and wet conditions is not guaranteed. A field-based study
revealed that black garments exhibited a lower UPF than white garments when both
garments were wetted by perspiration. This was because the black garments had
prompted the human subjects to perspire more profusely than the subjects wearing the
white garments during jogging [217]. Most consumers may not realize that the UV
protection claimed on the UPF rating label of garment could represent an over-
estimate compared with its performance in use, because the UPF is usually evaluated
with the fabric in a dry and tensionless state according to the requirements set by
international standards [32-35, 54]. This implies that so-called UV protective garments
are unlikely to provide the expected UV protection to wearers during normal daily
wear; they may therefore inadvertenty expose themselves to harmful UVR for longer
periods believing that the UV protective garment had provided sufficient UV
protection. An unfortunate consequence would be an increase in the incidence rate of
skin cancers.
2.4.6.1 Wetness
Fabric wetness is one of the attributes influencing the UV protection of garments
during wear [137, 218-221]. A wet fabric has a higher UVR transmission than a dry
fabric because of the optical effect caused by the refractive index of water (n = 1.333)
being closer to that of the fiber-forming polymer (e.g. cotton, n = 1.5 – 1.6) than to air
(n = 1) [222, 223]. The presence of water in the interstices between fibers reduces the
amount of deviation experienced by the radiation thereby increasing UVR
transmission. The amount of liquid retained by fabrics after wetting is affected by their
46
fiber composition and fabric construction because these parameters determine the way
of water being held as well as the degree of wetting that exists within the fabric layer.
Different fabric structures have distinct patterns of yarn curvature, which affect water
absorption and retention by the fabric because they create variations in inter-yarn
space.
Previous studies have given an indication of the effect of absorbed water together with
fabric structure on the UV protection of fabrics [224, 225]. The study of Wilson and
Parisi [225], revealed that wet cotton/elastane jersey fabrics exhibited higher UVB
transmission than they showed in their dry state whilst there was no significant
difference in UVB transmission between the dry and wet states for polyester eyelet
knitted fabrics. It was not surprising that the impact of wetness on the UV protection
of knitted fabrics was found to be smaller for such a porous structure as the eyelet
fabric than for the compact structure of the cotton/elastane jersey fabric; most UVR
would be transmitted through the eyelet fabric pores rather than entering the yarns,
whether the fabric was wet or dry.
Apart from fabric construction, fiber type also plays an important role in the impact of
wetness on the UV protection of fabrics. Cotton fabrics usually show a greater
reduction in UV protection when the fabrics are wetted than fabrics produced from
synthetic fibers [134, 221, 224, 226, 227]. Generally, the impact of wetness on UV
protection is smaller for the hydrophobic synthetic fibers when compared to the effect
for hydrophilic cotton. However, given the findings of researchers to date, the impact
of wetness on the UV protection of fabrics comprised of different fiber types remains
unclear. Gambichler et al. [224], revealed that the polyester fabrics tested underwent
47
a significant UPF reduction when the fabrics were wetted; fabrics made from
polyester, linen, and viscose also showed a significant increase in UVA transmission
when the fabrics were wetted. Insufficient protection against UVA might be
particularly detrimental to people who suffer from polymorphic light eruption, actinic
prurigo, and solar urticaria [60, 78].
2.4.6.2 Stretch
Weft-knitted fabrics are more susceptible to stretch than woven fabrics, hence the UV
protection that knitted fabrics might yield can drop considerably when the fabric is put
under tension. Many sportswear and swimwear items consist of knitted fabrics
containing elastane yarns such as Lycra that provide ease of body movements during
physical activities. However, it was found that swimwear containing more than 15%
of Lycra exhibited a reduction in UPF of up to 90% when it was stretched by 20% of
its original dimensions [219]. The results agreed with those of Gies et al. [75], who
also found that the UV protection of fabrics containing Lycra dropped to 10% of the
original UPF under stretched conditions.
The influence of fabric extension on the UV protection of fabrics was often found to
be more prominent than that of wetness [123, 225]. Osterwalder et al. [228], revealed
that the relationship between UVR transmission and extension was close to linear for
cotton single jersey T-shirts and polo shirts. It could also be inferred that the UV
protection offered by colored garments or those treated with UV absorbers would be
reduced on extension. When such garments are stretched to accommodate body
movements, the fabric layer becomes thinner and the yarns containing the dye
molecules or UV absorbers are spread further apart. With more inter-yarn space
48
created within the fabric by virtue of it being subject to extension, there are fewer
colored or UV absorbing materials per unit area or unit volume to absorb the UVR.
Moon and Pailthorpe [137], found that approximately 15.5% fabric extension was
achieved when garments were worn. Another study showed that close-fitting garments
could acquire an areal stretch of more than 40% after a prolonged period of wear
especially around the shoulders that caused a considerable reduction in UPF [229].
Some studies found that the UPF was lower at the shoulders as the garment was being
stretched to accommodate body movements [217]. Most T-shirts and casual wear are
made from weft-knitted fabrics because their extensibility readily allows for body
movements. Generally, weft-knitted fabrics possess a minimum of 15% elongation
and the movement of shoulders usually caused about 13% to 16% of fabric extension
when the garments are worn next to the skin [230]. These results implied that whilst it
may be an advantage that garments can readily be stretched to accommodate body
movements, the UV protection of clothing will be reduced during wear by factors such
as fabric construction and extensibility. Although it is clear that areal fabric extension
affects the UV protection of clothing, evaluation of the UPF under extended conditions
has not been included in most of the international testing standards for UV protection.
Research has been undertaken to evaluate the impact of fabric extension on UPF by
using manikins or by in vivo methods [87, 88, 123, 217, 225]. The test garments
including T-shirts and stockings were put on manikins or worn by human subjects in
order to achieve a stretched state. Some researchers developed types of stretching
apparatus such as an embroidery hoop for in vitro evaluation of the UPF, however,
details of the apparatus were limited [120, 219, 228].
49
Given the findings of researchers to date, most of them focused on the impact of stretch
on UV protection of woven fabrics and stockings. Although some studies examined
the knitted fabrics, the fabrics were constituted with one stitch type only that is knit
stitch whilst the effect of different knit structures was neglected. Therefore, it is worthy
to fill in this research gap by studying the influence of stretch on UV protection of
knitted fabrics with different knit structures.
2.4.6.3 Laundering
Many studies found that laundering could increase the UPF of fabrics [45, 71, 125,
136, 137, 220, 228, 231-235]. Laundering has the potential to improve the UV
protection of fabrics by causing them to become more consolidated through shrinkage
and by the uptake of fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) from detergent. The
wetting, mechanical agitation, abrasion, and tumble-drying processes associated with
laundering have the capacity to induce different magnitudes of dimensional changes
according to the fabric construction, fiber types, and any pre-treatment of fabrics.
Shrinkage of fabrics caused by repeated washing and drying processes could reduce
UVR transmission due to the compaction of yarns and the consequent reduction in
inter-yarn space or porosity.
Fabric construction is one of the important parameters affecting dimensional stability
of fabrics upon laundering [72, 236-246]. Because of their extensibility, knitted fabrics
are generally more prone to distortion by laundering and tend to exhibit larger
dimensional changes than woven fabrics of similar fiber composition and yarn
construction [220, 238, 241, 244, 247]. Many studies have focused on the effect of
laundering on the dimensional stability of knitted fabrics but few of them were also
50
concerned about the UV protection of laundered fabrics with different knit structures.
Knitted fabrics examined in previous studies were plain knitted cotton T-shirts that
were comprised of knit stitches only [89, 228, 231-235], and some polo shirts that
contained tuck stitches [71, 125].
The study of Stanford et al. [234], revealed that the UPF of cotton T-shirts was
approximately doubled after the first wash while the changes in UPF after a further 35
washes were insignificant. Other studies also found that the majority of dimensional
changes happened within the first five laundering cycles, which is generally accepted
as being sufficient for stabilizing the fabrics to a fully-relaxed state [231, 244, 248,
249].
Stanković et al. [233], found that both the UVR transmission and air permeability of
fabrics decreased after laundering because the interstitial space was minimized by
shrinkage. Some studies also revealed that the changes in fabric pores or porosity
contributed to UVR transmission of laundered fabrics [89, 235]. The amount and size
of fabric pores within a fabric are determined mainly by fabric construction. Knitted
fabrics with different knit structures each exhibit their own distinct dimensional
stability and, therefore, different magnitudes of UPF variation upon laundering.
Kim et al. [71], found that the improvement in UV protection brought about by
laundering for cotton/polyester blended polo knitted fabrics was smaller than that for
cotton plain-knitted fabrics. The fabrics comprised of hydrophilic fibers such as cotton
would exhibit more dimensional changes on laundering than fabrics comprised of
hydrophobic fibers because the swelling caused by the absorbed water alters the loop
51
structure in the cotton fabrics chemically through the fiber molecules [242]. The study
of Onal and Candan [236], showed that cotton/polyester blended fabrics were not
prone to shrinkage because of the bulky characteristic of blended yarns combined with
the hydrophobic nature of polyester. Zhou and Crews [232], also found that the UV
protection of cotton fabrics and cotton/polyester blended fabrics was improved by
laundering but not in the case of 100% polyester or nylon fabrics. Obviously, more
efforts are required to study the dimensional stability of cotton knitted fabrics because
of the increasing expectation on clothing quality from consumers. Anand et al. [244],
pointed out that an in-depth investigation for the effect of fabric construction on
dimensional stability of knitted fabrics is essential because knitted fabrics are
inherently difficult to stabilize and/or it takes long time to achieve a fully-relaxed state.
Apart from fabric construction and fiber content, yarn properties such as twist level
and hairiness also influence the shrinkage of knitted fabrics during laundering [71, 89,
236, 240, 242, 244, 245, 250-253]. Yarn diameter, twist level and hairiness, as well as
the compactness and distribution of yarns within the fabric construction can affect the
amount and size of inter-yarn space within the fabric upon laundering.
Stankovic et al. [89], found that plain-knitted fabrics made using open-end cotton yarn,
with the highest twist level and lowest hairiness, exhibited the greatest shrinkage but
the lowest UPF. In contrast, fabrics made from yarns with a middle level of twist and
the highest hairiness provided the best UV protection both before and after wetting.
The results showed that fabrics experiencing the greatest shrinkage might not
necessarily provide the best UV protection due to the differences in yarn properties
composing the fabrics such as twist level and hairiness. However, some limitations in
52
that study restricted the extrapolation of the impacts of yarn on dimensional stability
as well as UV protection of knitted fabrics. The wetting method in this study was
different from the conventional procedures for determining dimensional change of
fabrics by laundering. Besides, the greige fabrics used for the tests contain natural
pigments and impurities which might affect the accuracy of the UPF evaluation.
Research into the effects of twist and other yarn properties on the UV protection of
fabrics after laundering does need to be undertaken, but these should be carried out on
scoured and bleached knitted fabrics.
Although an improvement in UPF by laundering was observed by many studies, an
exception was found in the study of Eckhardt and Rohwer [125]. The UPF of plain
knitted T-shirt fabrics and polo-shirt fabrics (with tuck stitches) remained unchanged
after 20 washes and the detergent used for laundering was AATCC standard detergent
WOB (without optical brightener). However, the UPF of knitted fabrics increased
moderately when laundered with detergent containing FWAs, indicating their effect
on the improvement in UV protection.
Optical brightening agents (OBAs) are common additives in domestic laundering
detergents. OBAs enhance the whiteness of textiles by excitation in the UV band and
re-emission in the visible blue region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Garments
laundered with detergents containing OBAs offer not only higher whiteness but also
the likelihood of enhanced UV protection [40, 65, 71, 80, 125, 228, 254, 255].
Nevertheless, Zhou and Crews [232], revealed that 100% polyester and 100% nylon
fabrics did not exhibit significant changes in UPF upon laundering because of
insufficient affinity for OBAs but only showed minor shrinkage when compared with
53
the hydrophilic cotton fabrics. The results indicated that the improvement of UV
protection brought about by laundering was affected by many factors including fiber
type, yarn structure, fabric construction, as well as the detergent formulation.
In addition, any abrasive action occurring during laundering is likely to degrade the
fibers containing the dyes and OBAs and thus reduce the UV protection of the fabrics.
It was found that the UV protection of fabrics treated with UV protective additives
had decreased after 10 washes [256]. Khazova et al. [25], revealed that there were
reductions in the efficiency of OBAs and photochemical degradation of dyes in fabrics
after prolonged exposure to UVR, which also raises problems of sustainability
associated with UV protective finishes on textile products. Moreover, some studies
found that most OBAs absorb UVB more weakly than UVA, which is an issue because
exposure to UVB is implicated as the major cause of skin cancers and sunburn [3, 39,
235, 257-264].
Fabrics with different knit structures exhibit distinct dimensional changes upon
laundering and consequently, knit structure affects the UV protection performance.
The lengthwise and widthwise dimensional changes are dependent largely on the stitch
types used. Knitted fabrics with looser structures exhibit greater dimensional changes
than tighter fabrics [144, 236, 238, 251]. Although the dimensional stability of fabrics
with different knit structures has been studied, much less has been done on the effect
of dimensional changes upon laundering on the UPF of knitted fabrics.
2.5 Fundamentals of weft-knitted fabrics
Fabric construction has been identified as one of the most important factors affecting
54
the UV protection of clothing. Knitted fabrics are made by intermeshing of yarns either
by forming the loops horizontally as in weft-knitting or vertically as in warp-knitting.
For the purposes of this thesis, the term ‘knitted fabrics’ refers solely to weft-knitted
fabrics.
In weft-knitting, the rows of loops formed across the fabric width are known as courses
while the vertical columns of loops formed parallel to the fabric edge are known as
wales. The typical omega-shaped loop structure provides outstanding extensibility and
recovery to knitted fabrics, and consequently, offers comfort and easy-fitting
properties to wearers. Generally, after stretching to a considerable length, knitted
fabrics gradually return to the original shape following release of tension. Many
commercially-available knitted fabrics are lightweight, soft, comfortable, easy-care
and have good drapability and high wrinkle resistance. Therefore, weft-knitted fabrics
are produced commercially for both apparel and household use in a wide range of
products such as stockings, tights, imitation furs, and rugs.
Most weft-knitted fabrics are produced in a continuous length on large-diameter latch
needle circular knitting machines equipped with a multi-feed arrangement to supply
yarns. Circular knitting machines are known for their high productivity and low
maintenance requirements and are commonly used to produce fabrics in a limited
range of styles such as striped or plain-knitted, single-color fabrics because cam-track
selection is limited. The needles in circular knitting machines are arranged in slots
around the circumference of a cylinder. Multiple yarn feed heads, each with its own
knitting cam, are packed round the circumference of the cylinder to increase the fabric
production rate, by forming as many horizontal rows of loops as possible,
55
simultaneously, in a single complete rotation of the cams round the cylinder. To create
rib fabrics, a dial-and-cylinder is used in which two sets of needles are arranged at
right angles to one another, one set arranged around the cylinder as before, and the
second set at right angles around the circumference of the dial, a disc which fits snugly
inside and lies at the top edge of the cylinder. The fabric created on a circular knitting
machine is produced in the form of a tube. The knitted fabric tube is slit into open
width to act as the starting material for subsequent cut-and-sew garment
manufacturing processes.
Flat-bed knitting machines (such as the V-bed knitting machine and Purl machine) are
less productive than circular knitting machines, not least because the needles are
arranged in line on a needle-bed with knitting proceeding one row at a time. The
fabrics are produced in open width. The advantage of flat-bed knitting machines is that
they are capable of producing more sophisticated designs and fully fashioned panels
than circular machines because of their versatile cam-track selection. Nowadays, most
procedures are computer-controlled which improved efficiency of knitting.
2.5.1 Major stitch types
Weft-knitted fabrics are produced by selective combination of three major stitch types,
namely, knit, tuck, and miss stitches as shown in Figure 2-2, Figure 2-3 and Figure
2-4 respectively. A knit stitch (knit loop) is the most basic unit of intermeshing often
combined with other stitch types to form different fabric structures. It is formed when
a needle has risen to the clearing height and received a new yarn, and the old loop
formed in the previous knitting cycle is knocked-over the needle containing the new
yarn as the needle descends. The old loop then becomes fully incorporated into its knit
56
stitch. The positions of the needle for producing the three stitch types are illustrated in
Figure 2-5 [265].
Figure 2-2. Knit stitch Figure 2-3. Tuck stitch Figure 2-4. Miss stitch
Figure 2-5. Needle positions for production of the three stitch types [265]
A tuck stitch (tuck loop) is formed when the needle has risen to such a height that the
old loop is not cleared, whilst the needle hook received another new yarn when the
needle descends. The tuck loop is not intermeshed with the old loop but is tucked
behind the old loop (the held loop) on the reverse side of the stitch. Tuck stitches are
57
usually inserted for patterning or fancy effects with colored yarns, or for marking the
garment panels for size or for establishing the cutting lines for the armhole and neck
in a garment.
A miss stitch (miss loop) is formed when the needle has risen to a height such that
neither was the old loop cleared nor could a new yarn be received by the needle hook
during the needle’s descent. The old loop was not cast-off but was retained in needle
hook and hence no new loop was formed. The old loop passed to the back of the needle
and became a short yarn ‘floated’ at the back of the fabric between adjacent loops as
shown in Figure 2-4; thus miss stitches are also known as float stitches. Miss stitches
are usually used for hiding unwanted colored yarns to the back of the fabric in a design
and for the welts of stocking.
2.5.2 Fabric structures
There are four primary weft-knitted fabric structures, namely plain, rib, interlock, and
purl. Since the main objective of this thesis focused on the three major stitch types,
purl structure was omitted from this section. Plain knit is the simplest type of single-
jersey knitted fabric structure (single knit structures) produced with one needle-bed. It
consists of the loops all intermeshed in the same direction with the result that fabric
face is generally smoother than the fabric back. Plain knitted fabrics have good
extensibility offering comfort and easy fitting to wearers. The extensibility is relatively
higher in the widthwise than in the lengthwise direction.
Rib fabrics are fabrics produced using two needle-beds with the needles in the front
needle-bed aligned in such a way that they intersect the needles of the rear needle-bed,
58
in an arrangement known as the rib gating as shown in Figure 2-6. Since the loops are
intermeshed in opposite directions, fabrics with rib columns of equal width have a
balanced structure, an identical appearance on both fabric sides, and higher thickness,
extensibility, and recovery than a plain knit fabric. Because of these attributes, rib
fabrics are commonly used to assist closure at the collar, cuff, waistband, and in close-
fitting underwear.
Figure 2-6. Typical rib gating [106]
Interlock fabrics are double jersey fabrics (double knitted fabrics) produced using two
needle-beds. However, the needles on front and rear needle-beds are aligned to be
directly opposite to each other; this arrangement is known as the interlock gating and
is illustrated in Figure 2-7. The wales of the face loops at fabric face and back are
exactly in line with each other whilst the reverse loops are hidden. Interlock fabrics
are relatively more compact and dimensionally stable than rib structures, and have a
wide range of end-uses in outerwear and underwear.
59
Figure 2-7. Typical interlock gating [106]
These basic weft-knitted fabric structures used in different sequences of the three
major stitch types can yield a wide variety of knit structures with distinct surface
appearance and a range of fabric characteristics such as fabric weight, thickness,
tightness and stitch density. Each of these properties may make a significant
contribution to the UV protection of the fabric depending on its construction. This
thesis aimed at studying the effect of knit structure produced by various stitch types
on UV protective performance of knitted fabrics.
2.6 Conclusion
This chapter reviewed the major factors affecting UV protection of fabrics and
identified the research gap. The UV protection is different among fiber types because
of the unique chemical composition of fiber for UVR absorption. The yarn properties
such as yarn twist and hairiness influenced the inter-yarn space and inter-fiber space
for UVR transmission as well as the UVR scattering by the hairs on yarn surface. The
fabric construction was found to be the most important factor since it controlled the
arrangement and distribution of yarn and fibers for blocking UVR. Although
coloration and chemical additives could improve UV protection of fabrics, the
60
effectiveness of these treatments was largely affected by fabric construction. Besides,
the UV protection improved by coloration could be weakened considerably in the end-
use conditions. Stretching created more and larger fabric pores for UVR transmission
whilst the wetness of fabric reduced UVR scattering effect. Some studies also found
that laundering would induce fabric shrinkage, thereby could improve UV protection.
However, the effectiveness of laundering in improving UV protection of fabrics is
dependent on fiber types, fabric construction, and formulation of detergents.
Most research had focused on woven fabrics and chemical approach in enhancing the
UV protection. Little empirical research on the UV protection of knitted fabrics had
been conducted, particularly by studying the influence of knit structures. The present
study aimed at filling the research gap in the understanding of UV protection enhanced
by knitted fabric structures. The results would provide value-added information to
textile designers, manufacturers, and consumers for the production and selection of
UV protective knitwear.
61
CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Chapter 3 Experimental Details
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the experimental details from the fabric preparation to the
evaluations of yarn and fabric characteristics, ultraviolet protection factor, color
characteristics, and dimensional changes of fabrics after laundering.
3.2 Materials
3.2.1 Fiber
The influence of fiber types on UV protection of plain knitted fabrics was studied. The
specifications of fiber types and yarns are listed in Table 3-1. The yarn linear density
of yarns is converted to ‘tex’ according to ASTM D2260-03 (Reapproved 2013) [266].
Table 3-1. Specification of yarn samples

Fabric Code Fiber Type Fiber Composition (%) Yarn linear density
1 Lenzing Viscose — 40 Ne (14.5 tex)
2 Raw Cotton/Modal 50/50 40 Ne (14.5 tex)
B2 Bleached Cotton/Modal 50/50 40S (14.5 tex)
3 Tencel A1001 — 40S (14.5 tex)
4 Raw Bamboo — 40S (14.5 tex)
B4 Bleached Bamboo — 40S (14.5 tex)
5 Raw Cotton/Soybean 60/40 40S (14.5 tex)
6 Raw Bamboo/Cotton 70/30 40S (14.5 tex)
B6 Bleached Bamboo/Cotton 70/30 40S (14.5 tex)
7 Raw Cotton — 32S (18.5 tex)
B7 Bleached Cotton — 32S (18.5 tex)
8 Coolmax — 75 denier (8.3 tex)
9 Nylon — 70 denier (7.8 tex)
10 Nylon/Lycra2 80/20 90 denier (10 tex)
11 Polyester — 100 denier (11.1 tex)
1 Tencel with another name of lyocell;
2 Lycra with other names: elastane (European); spandex (American).
62
The plain knitted fabrics were produced by a Tricolab single jersey machine (France)
with a fine gauge length of E34 (34 needles per inch). Most of the fiber types studied
are well known for comfort properties and commonly found in lightweight knitwear
such as underwear, sweater, and sportswear.
3.2.2 Yarn
Three types of 100% combed ring-spun cotton yarns were used for studying the
influence of yarn characteristics on UV protection of plain knitted fabrics. The details
of raw cotton yarns are listed in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2. Manufacturing information of cotton yarns

Manufacturing Conventional Yarn Supima Estex Yarn Supima Conventional
information (C) (SE) Yarn (SC)
S S
Yarn count 40 (14.5 tex) 40 (14.5 tex) 40S (14.5 tex)
Thread in yarn Single Single Single
Ring-spinning method Conventional Low-torque Conventional
Twist level Normal Low Normal
Twist direction Z Z Z
Type of staple Conventional short staple1 Extra-long staple2 Extra-long staple2
1Approximate length for conventional short staple ranged from 25.4 – 28.6 mm [104-106];
2Approximate length for extra-long staple ranged from 32 – 50.8 mm [104-106].
3.2.3 Fabric
The influence of fabric construction on UV protection is the main objective of this
study. Since a wide range of knit structures can be designed from combination of the
major stitch types, a preliminary study was conducted to examine the effect of
different stitch types on UV protection of knitted fabrics. Single knit structures were
included in the preliminary study and the fabric structures are illustrated by yarn path
diagrams as shown in Figure 3-1. These fabric specimens were produced by Stoll CMS
63
822 computer flat knitting machine (E14) using 100% conventional cotton yarn. Three
single yarns (40S) were combined in yarn feeding to obtain a plied yarn (3/40S). It
simulated the usual practice for knitwear production having plied yarns for knitting
instead of one single yarn with the same yarn count in order to achieve higher strength,
uniformity, better abrasion, and appearance of fabrics [55]. The approximate yarn
count for the plied yarn is 42 tex [266], and the calculated yarn diameter is 0.0095 inch
according to the study of cloth geometry by Peirce [140], and Booth [267].
Figure 3-1. Single knit structures in preliminary study
After the preliminary study, some fabric constructions were selected for further
investigation of other attributes in UV protection. The single knitted and double
knitted fabrics were produced by flat knitting machine and the knit structures are
64
shown in Figure 3-2. These fabrics were used for studying the influences of fabric
characteristics, coloration, and laundering on UV protection. The fabric specification
and UPF of different knit structures are included in APPENDIX I.
Figure 3-2. Yarn path diagram of different knitted fabric constructions
In order to study the fabrics from a practical point of view, another set of single knitted
and double knitted fabrics were produced by circular knitting machines in finer gauge.
These fabrics were used for studying the effects of dye chemical structures on UV
protection and the influences of stretch and wetness on UV protection. The single
knitted fabrics were produced by DXC Fukuhara single jersey machine (E20) with a
diameter of 18 inch, 54 feeders, and 2 cam-track selections; using 100% cotton yarn
with a yarn linear density of 1/20S (29.5 Tex) and calculated yarn diameter of 0.0080
inch [140, 267]. The double knitted fabrics were produced by RA-II ALBI (Germany)
multi-purpose cylinder and dial machine (E16) with a diameter of 16 inch, 12 feeders,
and 2 cam-track selections; using 100% cotton yarn with yarn linear density of 1/32S
(18.5 Tex) and the calculated yarn diameter of 0.0063 inch [140, 267]. The
65
specification and UPF obtained are listed in APPENDIX I. From the fabrics produced
by circular knitting machines, two knit structures were excluded from the ten knit
structures (Figure 3-2) in the study. Knit & miss (25%) was omitted because of limited
cam-track selections in the circular knitting machine for producing this structure. Full
cardigan was also omitted because of dissatisfied quality owing to knitting tension.
3.3 Scouring and bleaching
The natural pigments of greige knitted fabrics were removed by a combined scouring
and bleaching process in a small batch dyeing and finishing machine using 12ml/L
hydrogen peroxide, 3g/L sodium hydroxide, 0.5g/L stabilizer AWN (SIFA) and
minutes, with liquor

0.5ml/L wetting ratio
agent of 40:1. DTC)
(Sandopan The fabrics
underwere soakedcondition
laboratory in 2.5g/Latacetic
90℃ acid at
for 60
thorough rinsing.
40℃ for 10 Excessive
minutes water ofthe
for neutralizing fabrics weresodium
residual extracted by a Nyborg
hydroxide C290R by
and followed
hydro-extractor for about 2 minutes and dried in a Nyborg T4350 tumble dryer at a
conditioned in a standard
moderate temperature environment
around for minutes.
60℃ for 30 over 24 hours prior towere
The fabrics dyeing andflat
placed other
and
evaluations [268].
3.4 Dyeing
Fabric specimens with a size of 8 x 8 cm2 were dyed with reactive dyes under liquor
ratio of 50:1 by a temperature rise process of 25 – 60℃ (fixation temperature) in an

oscillating sample amount auxiliaries
time followed the recommendations from dyestuff supplier China
Ltd.) according to the dye concentration applied. Analytical reagent grade of
fixation had machine. The dyeing 66

paths such as of (DyStar and
auxiliaries was adopted for dyeing. Glauber’s salt (anhydrous 99-100%) (Sigma-
Aldrich, Germany) was added at the beginning of dyeing for dye substantivity; and
soda ash (anhydrous RG) (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) was added for dye fixation. After
minutes andfabric
dyeing, the rinsed thoroughly
specimens weretosoaped
remove the1%
with unfixed dyes.
non-ionic The colored
detergent at 80℃fabric
for 10
were prepared
specimens werefor eachinknit
dried structure,
a drying eachatcolor
cabinet 50℃ and
for 2color depth.
hours. Three fabric specimens
Four colors were selected for studying the effect of colors on UV protection of fabrics
produced by flat knitting machine and detail of dyes are listed in Table 3-3. Hetero-
bifunctional reactive dyes were used for achieving desirable fixation yield of dyes.
The fabrics were dyed into three concentrations: 0.1%, 1% and 3% o.w.f. for each
color. Besides, the fabrics produced by circular knitting machines were dyed black at
1% concentration for studying the impacts of stretch and wetness on UV protection.
Table 3-3. Dyes for studying the effect of colors on UV protection of fabrics
Colors Name of dyes Chemical function groups of reactive dyes
Blue Levafix Navy Blue E-BNA Fluorochloropyrimidine–vinyl sulphone (FCP–VS)
Red Levafix Red CA Monofluorotriazine–trifluoropyrimidine (MFT–TFP)
Yellow Remazol Yellow 3RS Monochlorotriazine–vinyl sulphone (MCT–VS)
Black Remazol Black A Vinyl sulphone–dichlorotriazine (VS–DCT)
The reactive dyes varied in reactive functional groups (reactive groups) were used for
studying the influence of dye chemical structures on UV protection of fabrics
produced by circular knitting machines. The fabrics were dyed into three colors and
two concentrations: 0.1% and 1% o.w.f. for each color as listed in Table 3-4.
67
Table 3-4. Reactive dyes with different chemical structures (reactive groups)
Colors Name of dyes Chemical function groups of reactive dyes
Blue Levafix Brilliant Blue E-FFN 150% Monofluorotriazine (MFT)1
Levafix Royal Blue E-FR Vinyl sulphone–vinyl sulphone (VS –VS)2
Levafix Navy Blue E-BNA Fluorochloropyrimidine–vinyl sulphone (FCP–VS)3
Red Levafix Brilliant Red E-BA Fluorochloropyrimidine (FCP)1
Levafix Brilliant Red E-RN Monofluorotriazine (MFT)1
Levafix Red CA Monofluorotriazine–fluorochloropyrimidine (MFT–TFP)3
Yellow Levafix Yellow E-3rl Dichlorochinoxaline (DCC)1
Remazol Brilliant Yellow GL150% Vinyl sulphone (VS)1
Remazol Yellow 3RS Monochlorotriazine–vinyl sulphone (MCT–VS)3
1
Monofunctional reactive dye; 2homo-bifunctional reactive dye; 3hetero-bifunctional reactive dye.
3.5 Laundering
For studying the influence of laundering on UV protection, the bleached fabrics
produced by flat knitting machine were subjected to 1, 3 and 5 laundering cycles under
the condition listed in Table 3-5 [51, 269]. The fabrics were marked according to
option 2 of AATCC 135-2012 as shown in Figure 3-3 [51]. Three pairs of benchmarks
were marked parallel to length (L1, L2, L3) and parallel to width (W1, W2, W3)
respectively. The benchmarks were slightly lengthened for curled fabric edges. The
laundered fabrics were conditioned in a standard environment for over 24 hours [268].
Table 3-5. Washing and drying conditions [51, 269]

Fabric load: 1.8 ± 0.1 kg
Wash load: 18 ± 0.5 gal
Detergent: 66.0 ± 1g of 1993 AATCC Standard Detergent without optical
brightener
Machine cycle: Normal/Cotton sturdy
Washing temperature: Warm (41 ± 3
Rinsing temperature: Cold (27 ± 3
Drying technique: Tumble – Cotton sturdy
Drying temperature: Normal (68 ± 6 )
℃
68
Figure 3-3. Benchmarks on fabric specimens for laundering
3.6 Evaluation of yarn characteristics
3.6.1 Twist
Amount of twist in a single ring-spun yarn was determined by untwist-retwist method
according to ASTM D1422-2013 [270]. The two ends of yarn with a length of 25 cm
were mounted on the clamps of a power-driven twist tester. A pre-tension of 3 g was
applied to yarn during intervening untwisting and twisting operations corresponding
to the yarn linear density. Thirty yarn specimens were withdrawn from yarn package
at random intervals greater than 1 m. The average twist is calculated by Equation 3-1.
T = R/2L
Equation 3-1
Where:
T = twist (turns per inch)
R = twist counter reading
L = specimen length (inch)
69
3.6.2 Twist multiplier
Twist multiplier is a measure of twist hardness of yarn. A yarn with lower twist
multiplier is soft and stable while a yarn with higher twist multiplier is relatively hard
and lively [247, 267]. It is approximately proportional to the tangent of twist angle
between fiber on outer yarn surface and the axis of yarn [271]. Twist multiplier of yarn
is calculated by Equation 3-2 [271].
Twist multiplier (TM) = tpi⁄√N

Equation 3-2
Where:
tpi = twist (turns per inch)
N = yarn count (cotton system)
3.6.3 Hairiness and Unevenness
Yarn hairiness and unevenness were measured by USTER Tester 3 evenness tester
with hairiness meter attachment at a test speed of 400 m/min [272, 273]. The yarn was
illuminated by a parallel beam of infrared light as it ran through the measuring head
[247]. The amount of light scattered by fibers protruding from yarn is a measure of
yarn hairiness that corresponds to the total length of protruding fibers within 1 cm of
yarn. Yarn unevenness, CVm (%), is expressed in terms of coefficient of mass
variation derived from standard deviation of the mass variation of a cut length of
approximately 1 cm over the mass variation. It was determined by measuring the
capacitance change when the yarn ran through two parallel capacitor plates of the
system. The capacitance change is proportional to mass variation of a yarn. According
to ASTM D1425-2009 [273], CVm (%) is more accurate than U% (irregularity of mass
with a cut length of approximately 1 cm) since CVm (%) determined mass unevenness
with coefficient of variation of mass variation.
70
3.7 Evaluation of fabric characteristics
3.7.1 Thickness
Fabric thickness (mm) was measured corresponding to ASTM D1777-96 (Reapproved
2011) [274]. A calibrated digital thickness tester with a counter balance was used to
measure the thickness without distortion in a plane parallel to the presser foot and
anvil. The designated diameter of presser foot is 28.7 ± 0.02 mm (1.129 ± 0.0001 inch)
and the pressure applied is 4.14 ± 0.21 kPa (0.60 ± 0.03 psi).
3.7.2 Weight
Fabric weight (g/m2) was measured in accordance with ASTM D3776-09 (Reapproved
2013) (Option C) [275]. The fabric specimens were prepared by a die cutter with an
area of 100 cm2, and weighed to ± 0.1% of mass on a digital balance.
3.7.3 Stitch density
Stitch density (cm-2) of fabric specimens was evaluated according to BS EN 14971-
2006 (Method A) [276]. Number of courses and wales to the nearest half stitch was
evaluated with a counting glass and the stitch density is calculated by Equation 3-3.
−2
Stitch density (cm ) = (number of wales/cm) × (number of courses/cm)3-3
Equation
3.7.4 Loop length
Loop length was measured corresponding to BS 5441:1988 [277]. The yarn with a
length within 50 wales was taken along a course of the fabric. The two yarn ends were
secured by the clamps of a digital crimp tester (James H. Heal & Co. Ltd, Model: 520
71
Tautex). Crimps were removed from yarn by straightening the yarn with a specific
tension as shown in Table 3-6, and the length of straightened yarn was measured.
Table 3-6. Tension for straightening yarn [277]

Type of yarn Linear density Tension
Spun yarns > 100 tex 150 mN (≈ 15 gf)
30 – 100 tex 100 mN (≈ 10 gf)
0 – 30 tex 50 mN (≈ 5 gf)
Note: 1 mN is approximately equal to 0.102 gf (≈ 0.1 gf).
For knit structures involved different stitch types, for instance, a course of knit stitches
and followed by a course of knit and tuck stitches, the arithmetic mean of lengths of
these courses was used for evaluating the approximate loop length. Loop length
expressed as length per one stitch is calculated by Equation 3-4. For double knitted
fabrics, number of wales in Equation 3-4 is 100 instead of 50 for single knitted fabrics.
Loop length (mm) = Straightened yarn length (mm)Equation 3-4

number of wales
3.7.5 Tightness factor
Tightness factor is an indication of fabric tightness or looseness by measuring the
proportionality between yarn linear density and loop length [144]. Tightness factor in
the metric system of weft-knitted fabric was calculated by Equation 3-5.
Tightness Factor = √Tex

ℓ
Equation 3-5
Where:
Tex = yarn linear density (g/km)
l = loop length (mm)

72
3.7.6 Fabric Porosity
Fabric porosity determines fabric tightness in a three-dimensional approach. It is
defined as the proportion of void space within the boundaries of a solid material,
compared to its total volume; thus, it is a fraction of void space in a porous medium
and is calculated by Equation 3-6 [278-280]. The fiber density of cotton (1.54 g/cm3)
[281], is substituted in the equation for calculating the fabric porosity of cotton fabrics.
Fabric Porosity (%) = 100 × �1 − 𝜌𝜌𝑡𝑡

𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚�
Equation 3-6
Where:
ρt = bulk density (g/cm3)
ρm = fiber density (g/cm3)
Bulk density (g/cm3), ρt, of a knitted fabric is calculated by Equation 3-7 [282, 283].
𝜌𝜌𝑡𝑡 = M
V Equation 3-7
Where:
M = mass per unit area of fabric (g/cm2)
V = volume of the unit area of fabric (equivalent to fabric thickness) (cm)
According to the study of Postle [282], volume of unit area (V) of a fabric is equivalent
to geometrical fabric thickness (t) and thus bulk density is calculated by Equation 3-8.
Bulk Density (g/cm3) = M (g/cm2)

t (cm) Equation 3-8
Where:
M = fabric weight (g/cm2)
t = fabric thickness (cm)
73
3.7.7 Air permeability
Air permeability was measured by Kawabata Automatic Air-permeability Tester
(KES-F8-API). The pressure drop caused by resistance of fabrics was measured by a
differential pressure gauge. Air permeability is expressed by air resistance in
kilopascals times seconds per meter (kPa·s/m) [284]. Medium sensitivity was chosen
for measurement that is accurate to three decimal places.
3.7.8 Visual assessment of fabric constructions
Different knitted fabric constructions have distinct surface appearances and fabric
pores. The fabric appearances were captured by stereo microscope Leica M156C
(Germany) under different magnifications: 12.5X (scale: 2.0 mm), 25X (scale: 1.0
mm) and 50X (scale: 500 μm; i.e. 0.5 mm), according to the topic discussed.
3.8 Evaluation of ultraviolet protection factor (UPF)
The UPF of fabrics was evaluated according to AS/NZS 4399:1996 [32], and was
measured by Cary 300 Conc ultraviolet (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer (Supplier:
Varian Inc.) equipped with an integrating sphere and a Schott UG filter for minimizing
measurement error caused by fluorescence. The transmittance of fabric specimens was
measured over the UV range (290 – 400 nm) in 5 nm intervals by spectrophotometer
at a scanning speed of 300 nm/min and UPF is calculated by Equation 2-2 [75, 285].
Total six fabric specimens for each fabric structure were prepared for UPF evaluation.
Three fabric specimens were prepared for UPF evaluation in dry and wet states
respectively and details are described in sections 3.8.1 and 3.8.2 respectively. UPF of
74
fabric specimens were initially evaluated in tensionless (relaxed) state for both
lengthwise (0˚) and widthwise (90˚) directions. The mean UPF was calculated by Cary
WinUV analysis package (Version: 02.01) [286]. Categories of UV protection of
clothing are shown in Table 2-2 [32]. Percentages of transmittance over UVA and
UVB region were calculated by Equation 3-9 and Equation 3-10 respectively [32].
315 + 𝑇𝑇320 + 𝑇𝑇325 +

⋯ + 𝑇𝑇395 + 𝑇𝑇400
UVA (T%) = 𝑇𝑇 18 Equation 3-9
290 + 𝑇𝑇295 + 𝑇𝑇300 + 𝑇𝑇305 + 𝑇𝑇310 + 𝑇𝑇315

UVB (T%) = 𝑇𝑇 Equation 3-10
6
Where:
UVA (T%) = arithmetic mean of UVA transmittance for 315 – 400 nm
UVB (T%) = arithmetic mean of UVB transmittance for 290 – 315 nm
T = spectral transmittance at specific wavelength
3.8.1 Evaluation of UPF under wet condition
Three fabric specimens of each fabric construction were evaluated in a wet state.
Previous studies found that there was no significant difference in UV protection of the
fabrics wetted by different water types such as tap water, distilled water, sea water, or
chlorinated water [224, 226]. Therefore, the fabric specimens were wetted by distilled
water to eliminate the impact of water impurities. A pre-determined amount of distilled
water was added to the dry specimen by a volume-adjustable micropipette (accuracy:
± 0.01 ml) for achieving a wet pick-up of 140 ± 5% on weight of a dry specimen. The
wet specimen was laid inside an airtight plastic container for at least 2 hours to obtain
an equilibrated wetness throughout the fabric before evaluation. This wetting method
75
was modified from the practice in AATCC 183-2010 [35], in which the fabrics are
submerged in distilled water for 30 minutes and squeezed between blotting paper
through a hand wringer or glass rods to achieve a wet pick-up of 140 ± 5%. The
modified method prevented deformation of fabric structure and ensured a precise wet
pick-up.
3.8.2 Evaluation of UPF under stretched condition
Three fabric specimens of each fabric construction were evaluated in a stretched state.
A metallic biaxial stretching apparatus was developed as shown in Figure 3-4. It is
composed of two separable parts: a fixing frame (with upper and bottom plates) and a
biaxial stretching unit. The fabric specimens were stretched uniformly by the biaxial
stretching unit to a pre-determined length in both lengthwise and widthwise directions
simultaneously. The fixing frame consists of two metallic plates with a 5 x 5 cm2
aperture. It is used to anchor the fabric in a stretched state, which could be gripped by
the fabric holder of the spectrophotometer without impeding rotation of fabric during
UPF measurements in lengthwise and widthwise directions. A paired-sample t-test
was conducted to ensure there was no significant difference between the UPF of
fabrics measured with and without the fixing frame in an un-stretched state (t(22)= ‒
0.235, p > 0.05, (2-tailed)). Besides, the results of another preliminary study showed
that there was no significant difference between the UPF of fabrics stretched in
lengthwise and widthwise directions (t(8) = 1.389, p > 0.05, (2-tailed)). Each fabric
specimen was evaluated under four linear stretch levels: 0% (un-stretched), 10%, 20%,
and 30% in both directions and the fabric dimensions at each stretch level are shown
in Figure 3-5. A digital caliper (Mitutoyo Corp., Japan) was used for checking the
dimensions of stretched fabric up to an accuracy of two decimal places (± 0.01 mm).
76
Figure 3-4. Metallic biaxial stretching equipment
77
Figure 3-5. Fabric dimensions at different stretch levels
3.8.3 Visual assessment of fabric pores under stretched condition
Variation in pore size of bleached fabrics under four linear stretch levels (0%, 10%,
20%, and 30%) was assessed by stereo microscope Leica M156C under magnification
of 12.5X. The amount of pores was determined by Photoshop CS2 with grayscale
thresholding image segmentation. Percentage of pores within a specific area (6 x 8
mm2) of fabric face is represented by black pixels and is calculated by Equation 3-11.
Fabric pores (P%) = Pixels occupiednumber of (blackpixels) × 100%

Total by porespixels
Equation 3-11
3.9 Evaluation of color properties
Color properties of fabrics were measured by a Macbeth Color-Eye 7000A
spectrophotometer equipped with SCOPE® system (Gain Associates Inc., Taiwan)
78
and evaluated with CIE 1976 LAB color system [287]. The measurements were
conducted at CIE standard observer 10˚ viewing angle with large aperture (normal)
and under CIE standard illuminant D65 (daylight illumination). Color characteristics
were measured within the visible spectrum (400 – 700 nm) with intervals of 10 nm.
Measurements were taken in both lengthwise and widthwise directions for each
specimen. The color characteristics evaluated in this thesis are briefly described in
following sections.
3.9.1 Color strength
Color strength of dyed fabrics was evaluated as the amount of dye yielded by fabrics.
It is expressed as Kubelka-Munk ratio (K/S) which is calculated by Equation 3-12
[288, 289]. Reflectance (R) of dyed fabrics was measured by the spectrophotometer
and summation of K/S values (K/Ssum) over visible spectrum 400 – 700 nm at 10 nm
intervals was calculated to represent the color strength of dyed fabrics.
2
K/S = (1 −𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)
2
Equation 3-12
Where:
K/S = Kubelka-Munk ratio
K = absorption coefficient depending on the colorant concentration
S = light scattering coefficient caused by the dyed fabric
R = absolute reflectance factor at a specific wavelength
3.9.2 CIE color coordinates
The CIE color coordinates of dyed fabrics are expressed in terms of L* (lightness), a*
(redness-greenness) and b* (blueness-yellowness). A three-dimensional CIE LAB
color space is illustrated in Figure 3-6 [288].
79
Figure 3-6. A three-dimensional illustration of CIE LAB color space [288]
CIE coordinate a* is positive for red colors and negative for green colors while b* is
positive for yellow colors and negative for blue colors. Lightness (L*) varies from 0
to 100 which represented a reference black and white respectively. A higher L* means
lighter or brighter the color while lower L* means darker or duller the color. The a*,
b* axes intersect at origin representing the achromatic color. The distance between the
achromatic point and color is represented by chroma (C*), that is saturation. The
longer distance of a color from achromatic point (higher C*), the more saturated or
brighter color while lower C* represented a duller or less saturated color.
3.10 Evaluation of dimensional changes after laundering
Dimensional changes of fabrics after laundering were evaluated according to AATCC
135-2012 [51]. The lengthwise and widthwise dimensional changes after the first,
third and fifth laundering cycles were calculated by Equation 3-13. The dimensions of
80
fabric before laundering were marked as shown in Figure 3-3 (P.69).
Dimensional change % = [(B − A)/A] × 100%

Equation 3-13
Where:
A = Average original dimension
B = Average dimension after laundering
3.11 Data analysis
Several statistical analysis methods were adopted to aid in studying the topic in
different sections and a summary is provided in Table 3-7. These analyses were
conducted by IBM analytic software ‘statistical product and service solutions’ (SPSS)
version 19. A brief description of each statistical analysis is provided in following
sections.
Table 3-7. Summary of statistical analysis methods

Analysis methods Sections
One-way independent analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) 4.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.4
Factorial independent analysis of variance (factorial ANOVA) 7.2, 7.3, 8.2
Two-way mixed design of ANOVA (mixed ANOVA) 8.3
Kendall’s tau non-parametric correlation analysis 6.4, 7.5
Factor analysis 6.5
Multiple linear regression analysis 6.5
Hierarchical regression analysis 8.2.3
3.11.1 One-way independent analysis of variance
One-way ANOVA was conducted to investigate the effect of one independent variable
on the dependent variable. Significant difference in dependent variable between the
groups of independent variable was identified by F-test in ANOVA with a confidence
level of p ≤ 0.05 (probability for a significant difference at 95% confidence level and
81
rejecting null hypothesis: no significant difference) [290]. Pairwise comparison was
conducted by two types of post hoc test depending on the nature of data. Tukey (HSD)
test compares data that met the assumption of homogeneity of variance. Tamhane’s
T2 test compares data that violated the same assumption.
3.11.2 Factorial independent analysis of variance
Factorial ANOVA was performed to study the effects of two independent variables
and their interaction effect on the dependent variable. The main effects and interaction
effect were identified as statistically significant with a confidence level of p ≤ 0.05 in
the F-test of ANOVA. Any significant interaction effect observed was further
examined by simple effects test in which pairwise comparison was performed by t-
tests with a Bonferroni adjustment (avoid alpha-level inflation) [291]. The magnitude
of significance for the main and interaction effects was expressed by effect size
(omega squared, ω2) which is calculated by Equation 3-14 [290].
effect (dfeffect)(MSerror)
ω = SS SS−
2
total
+ MSerror
Equation 3-14
Where:
ω2 = effect size (omega squared)
SSeffect = model sum of square (variance explained by the model)
SStotal = total sum of square
MSerror = residual sum of square (error variance)
dfeffect = degree of freedom of the effect
The testing of statistical significance evaluates the reliability of connection between
dependent variable and independent variables while the effect size measures the
strength of the connection. Omega squared (ω2) effect size is less bias than another
82
form of effect size (eta squared, η2) that is generated by SPSS because adjustment was
made for estimation of effect in the population [290, 292]. The effect size (ω2) ranged
from 0 to 1 and is classified as small (ω2 = 0.01), medium (ω2 = 0.06), and large (ω2 =
0.14) [293]. The assumption of equal variances in the dependent variable was assessed
by Levene’s test with p > 0.05 indicating the assumption was not violated.
3.11.3 Two-way mixed design of analysis of variance
The variations of UPF, fabric dimensional changes and the fabric characteristics upon
laundering were studied correspondingly by mixed ANOVA. It involved one-way
independent ANOVA (test of between-subject effect) and one-way repeated ANOVA
(test of within-subject effect). The knit structures were between-subject independent
variables while the washing cycles (0, 1, 3, 5) were the within-subject independent
variables. The values of UPF, fabric dimensional changes (width, length), and other
fabric characteristics are the dependent variables. Mauchly’s test was performed to
assess the assumption of sphericity on within-subject variables (equality of variances
of the differences between treatment levels) [290]. Results violating Mauchly’s test of
sphericity (p ≤ 0.05) were evaluated with Greenhouse-Fiesser corrected F-ratio.
Magnitude of significance for main and interaction effects was expressed by ω2.
3.11.4 Kendall’s tau non-parametric correlation analysis
The relationship between dependent variable and independent variable was examined
by bivariate correlation analysis. Kendall’s tau (τ) non-parametric correlation analysis
was performed for data violated parametric assumptions. It is appropriate for a small
data set with many data having same rank of scores and is suggested as a better
estimate of correlation in the population than another commonly used Spearman’s
83
correlation coefficient (rs) (non-parametric) [290, 294]. Kendall’s tau (τ) coefficient
indicates the dependence between variables from a negative correlation to a positive
correlation (−1 ≤ τ ≤ +1). The size of absolute τ value indicates the strength of
relationship that is recognized as statistically significant at a confidence level of p ≤
0.05 (2-tailed).
3.11.5 Factor analysis
Factor analysis (FA) and multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis were conducted to
interpret the multivariate relationships between UPF and the fabric characteristics. FA
was performed to combine the highly correlated fabric characteristics prior to MLR in
order to avoid violating assumption of multicollinearity in MLR [292]. Principal
component extraction method was adopted and only factors with eigenvalue ≥ 1 were
retained according to Kaiser’s criterion [295]. The factor loadings of extracted factors
were initially rotated by oblique (direct oblimin) method in order to determine an
appropriate factor rotation method [290]. Assumption of orthogonal factor solution
was met when the correlation between the extracted factors is below 3 and the factor
loadings of extracted factor were then rotated by orthogonal (varimax) method.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO ≥ 0.5) verifies sampling adequacy of data for conducting
FA. Significant Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p ≤ 0.05) indicates that correlations
between items were sufficiently large for conducting FA. High communality values of
variables (> 0.7) denote that fabric characteristics were largely explained by extracted
factors. The extracted factors served as independent variables in MLR. The factor
score coefficients were used to calculate the factor score of each sample from the
standardized score on observed variables with adjustment of Anderson-Rubin method
[292], and factor scores were then used as the data of independent variables in MLR.
84
3.11.6 Multiple linear regression analysis
Stepwise method was adopted in multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis. The
predictability of the model developed was identified as statistically significant by
ANOVA (F-ratio). Variance of UPF explained by the model was evaluated by squared
multiple correlation (R2) with a magnitude of small (R2 = 0.10), medium (R2 = 0.25)
and large (R2 = 0.40) [296]. Accuracy of model was assessed by adjusted squared
multiple correlation (adjusted R2) calculated by Stein’s formula as shown in Equation
3-15 [297]. Adjusted R2 calculated by Stein’s formula instead of Wherry’s equation
(derived from SPSS) was adopted in order to give a less bias cross-validity predictive
power of the model in estimating population value of R2 (cross-validation of the
model) [290, 297].
2
adjusted R = 1 − ��n − − − n+1�� (1 − R2)
n k 1− 1��n −
nk− 2 2��
Equation 3-15
Where:
R2 = unadjusted squared multiple correlation
n = number of samples
k = number of predictors in the model
Small difference between R2 and adjusted R2 denotes that predictive power of model
remains large if the model is generalized. Collinearity statistics check for absence of
multicollinearity (Tolerance > 0.5 and VIF = 1.00). Durbin-Watson with value close
to 2 indicates assumption of independent error is tenable. Significant contribution of
variables to model is verified by significant coefficients evaluating by t-test (p ≤ 0.05).
85
3.11.7 Hierarchical regression analysis
A hierarchical linear regression analysis was conducted to study the relationship
between UPF and the proportion of fabric pores of bleached knitted fabrics under
stretched condition. It is similar to multiple linear regression while the independent
variables entered the model hierarchically based on decisions. Predictability of model
was assessed by ANOVA (F-ratio). Variance of UPF explained by model was
evaluated by adjusted R2 calculated by Stein’s formula (Equation 3-15).
3.12 Conclusion
The preparation of fabric specimens, evaluation methods of UPF and other textile
parameters are presented in this chapter. The experimental designs followed the
international standards and some procedures were amended for specific evaluation
method adopted in this thesis. Detailed experimental works would help to increase the
accuracy of evaluation. The results were interpreted with various statistical analyses
for elaborating the influences of different textile parameters on the UV protection of
knitted fabrics.
86
CHAPTER 4 INFLUENCE OF FIBER TYPES ON UV PROTECTION
Chapter 4 Influence of Fiber Types on UV Protection
4.1 Introduction
Fiber has an intrinsic impact on UV protection of fabrics. The magnitude of UVR
being absorbed, reflected, and scattered by fibers depends on the chemical
composition and physical properties of fibers. UV protection provided by plain knitted
fabrics with various fiber types was studied with the aid of one-way ANOVA. The
fiber types examined can be generally categorized into three groups: natural fibers,
regenerated fibers (man-made fibers with natural polymers), and synthetic fibers
(man-made fibers with synthetic polymers).
4.2 UV protection of different fiber types
Since the raw yarns have different yarn linear density (yarn counts), UPF values of
fabric specimens were normalized by average bulk density (Equation 3-8) as
calculated by Equation 4-1. The average bulk density (0.188 g/cm3) was obtained from
the set of fabric specimens examined. Normalization of UPF by bulk density allowed
comparison of corresponding normalized UPF of fabric specimens by minimizing the
effect of variations in fabric weight, thickness, and yarn linear density on UPF. This
normalization method is one of the scaling methods which based on the mean value
as the scaling factor [298]. Bulk density of knitted fabrics related to the effective
diameter of yarn and the curvature of loops out of the plane of fabric [283].
3
Normalized UPF = Bulk density
UPF (g/cm3) × average Bulk density (g/cm )
Equation 4-1
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The UPF and specification of the plain knitted fabrics with different fiber types are
shown in Table 4-1 and Figure 4-1. Significant differences in UPF were found among
the fabrics produced with different fiber types (F14,30 = 347.63, p ≤ 0.05, ω2= 0.991).
Table 4-1. UPF and specification of plain knitted fabrics with different fiber types
Bulk
Fabric Thickness Weight density3 Normalized
Code Fiber Type (mm) (g/m2) (g/cm3) UPF UPF
1 Lenzing Viscose 0.60 128.82 0.21 4.43 3.87
2 Raw Cotton/Modal 0.71 125.32 0.18 8.91 9.42
B2 Bleached Cotton/Modal 0.59 125.34 0.21 5.72 5.05
3 Tencel A1001 0.65 111.86 0.17 3.09 3.39
4 Raw Bamboo 0.68 126.79 0.19 5.33 5.34
B4 Bleached Bamboo 0.56 123.46 0.22 4.68 3.98
5 Raw Cotton/Soybean 0.74 133.49 0.18 33.85 35.22
6 Raw Bamboo/Cotton 0.74 126.59 0.17 11.46 12.57
B6 Bleached Bamboo/Cotton 0.56 127.11 0.23 7.24 6.02
7 Raw Cotton 0.78 155.71 0.20 20.37 19.23
B7 Bleached Cotton 0.68 150.98 0.22 7.45 6.29
8 Coolmax 0.47 70.04 0.15 11.44 14.41
9 Nylon 0.74 103.85 0.14 8.05 10.72
10 Nylon/Lycra2 0.88 168.55 0.19 39.24 38.45
11 Polyester 0.46 69.46 0.15 14.51 17.90
1 Tencel with another name of lyocell.
2 Lycra with other names: elastane (European); spandex (American).
3
Average bulk density (0.188 g/cm3) was used for normalization of UPF of fabrics made of yarns with
different yarn linear density.
Four fiber types obtained significantly better UV protection than other fiber types,
which could be rated as UV protective (UPF ≥ 15). These fiber types included
nylon/Lycra (UPF = 38.5), raw cotton/soybean (UPF = 35.2), raw cotton (UPF = 19.2)
and polyester (UPF = 17.9). Other fiber types obtained UPF < 15 that could not be
rated as UV protective.
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Lenzing Viscose 3.9

Raw Cotton/Modal 9.4
Bleached Cotton/Modal 5.1
Tencel A100 3.4
Raw Bamboo 5.3
Bleached Bamboo 4.0
Raw Cotton/Soybean 35.2
Raw Bamboo/Cotton 12.6
Bleached Bamboo/Cotton 6.0
Raw Cotton 19.2
Bleached Cotton 6.3
Coolmax 14.4
Nylon 10.7
Nylon/Lycra 38.5
Polyester 17.9
0 10 20 30 40 50
UPF
Figure 4-1. Normalized UPF of plain knitted fabrics with different fiber contents
Raw cotton offered good UV protection. It contains nearly 90% cellulose and the
remaining components are impurities including pigments, lignin, wax, pectin, protein,
ash, organic acids, inorganics, and other substances [299]. Although these impurities
are in very small proportion of cotton fibers, they acted as natural UV absorbers and
effectively absorbed UVR. Lignin of cotton fiber is the major source of color in pulp
owing to the chromophore naturally present in wood [300]. Therefore, lignin served
as natural pigments for absorbing UVR. The chemical structure of lignin also
accounted for UVR absorption since it comprised of three-dimensional aromatic
polymers with phenolic and alcoholic hydroxyl groups as shown in Figure 4-2.
Besides, the wax and fat on the surface of cotton fiber could reflect UVR. When these
non-cellulosic impurities were removed by scouring and bleaching, UV protection of
raw cotton (UPF = 19.2) had dropped by about 70% and resulted in non-rateable UV
protection for bleached cotton (UPF 6.3).
89
Figure 4-2. Chemical structure of a lignin polymer [301]
Raw cotton/soybean obtained the second highest UPF among fibers examined. Its UPF
was nearly the double of raw cotton, although the proportions of cotton and soybean
are 60% and 40% respectively. Raw cotton contained impurities for absorbing UVR
while raw soybean provided UV protection because of its natural yellowish color.
Soybean fiber is a regenerated protein fiber containing 40% protein, 20% oil, 35 %
carbohydrates, and 5 % ash [302]. Some studies revealed that isoflavone genistein in
soybeans as shown in Figure 4-3 could absorb some UVB radiation and potentially
inhibit UVB-induced skin cancers [303-308]. UV protection offered by soybean fibers
is ascribed to the presence of aromatic polymer system in the genistein compound.
Figure 4-3. Genistein compound in soybean [309]
Besides, natural color of raw cotton and soybean also accounted for UV protection.
The flavonoids in soy isoflavones can be used for producing yellow pigments and dyes
[310]. However, another study found that raw soybean knitted fabrics had similar UPF
(UPF < 15) to raw cotton knitted fabrics [218]. The raw soybean knitted fabrics
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examined was lighter in weight than the raw cotton/soybean fabrics in this study. It
might explain lower UV protection offered by that raw soybean knitted fabrics.
The effect of bleaching on UV protection weakening of raw fibers was also found in
the raw bamboo and raw bamboo/cotton (70/30). Bamboo fiber is a kind of cellulosic
fibers made from bamboo pulp. Some studies found that bamboo fibers possess
antimicrobial and anti-UV properties [64, 67, 311-313]. However, the result showed
that both bamboo and bamboo/cotton in the raw and bleached states exhibited poor
UV protection. In fact, there are two general types of bamboo fiber: natural bamboo
fiber and regenerated bamboo fiber (bamboo viscose). Natural bamboo fiber consisted
of 73% cellulose, 10% lignin, and 12% hemicellulose [314, 315]. The amount of lignin
in bamboo fiber was found to be correlated with the strength of UVR absorption [67,
316]. However, the presence of lignin made the raw bamboo fibers coarse and
yellowish, and thus lignin would be eventually removed during fiber production. On
the other hand, bamboo viscose fiber is manufactured from bamboo pulp by a chemical
process resembling that of viscose fibers by wet processing. Most bamboo textile
products on the market are made of bamboo viscose that has weaker UVR absorption
ability than the natural bamboo due to the reduction in lignin content [67, 312, 317].
Therefore, the bamboo fibers examined were grouped as regenerated fibers [312, 317,
318]. UV protective property claimed on the bamboo textile products is usually
enhanced by coloration or treatment with UV absorbers instead of the intrinsic UV
protection offered by natural bamboo fibers.
Other regenerated fibers also exhibited poor UV protection including Lenzing viscose,
Tencel A100, raw and bleached cotton/modal. There was no significant difference in
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UPF between these fiber types (p > 0.05, by Tamhane’s T2 test). These fibers are
regenerated fibers produced from cellulose polymers and shared many properties with
cotton such as soft handle, moisture absorption, and breathability. Lenzing viscose is
a brand name of viscose rayon manufactured by the Lenzing group [319]. Viscose
rayon is produced from dissolving pulp obtained from cotton linters or wood pulp.
Tencel A100 is a trade name of lyocell that is also manufactured by the Lenzing group
[320]. Tencel consisted of cellulose made from wood pulp by solvent-spinning
process. These regenerated fibers are structurally similar to cotton fibers and thus
possessed UPF < 10 resembling bleached cotton. Raw cotton/modal (50/50) (UPF =
9.4) possessed relatively higher UV protection among these regenerated fibers owing
to the natural pigments in the raw cotton. However, its UV protection had dropped by
half after bleaching (UPF = 5.1). Modal is the high wet modulus form of viscose rayon
and therefore its UV protection was similar to bleached cotton, Lenzing viscose and
Tencel A100. The results corresponded with previous study, which found that
bleached modal and bleached cotton fibers had similar UV protection [79].
Among the synthetic fibers examined, nylon/Lycra (80/20) offered the best UV
protection (UPF = 38.5) and followed by polyester (UPF = 17.9). The superior UV
protection of nylon/Lycra is mainly because of the elastic nature of Lycra fiber. It is
confirmed by the UV protection provided by nylon solely (UPF = 10.7). Lycra is a
brand name of spandex manufactured by INVISTA [321]. Spandex is an elastomeric
fiber which is composed of chain-like arrangement of rigid aromatic segments of
polyurethane and soft, stretchable segment of either polyester or polyether as shown
in Figure 4-4 [299, 322].
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Figure 4-4. Chemical structure of spandex [323]
The nylon/Lycra fabric specimen was in a stretched state during the knitting process.
It returned to its tensionless state once removed from knitting machine. The fabric
specimen became tighter and more compact, and consequently obtained the highest
fabric thickness and weight among the fabric specimens examined as shown in Table
4-1. Although the elastic nature of Lycra devoted superior UV protection to fabric, the
UV protection could be reduced considerably under tension. Gies et al. found that
fabrics with Lycra had UPF 200 dropped to UPF 20 under significant tension [75].
Khazova et al. also revealed that swimwear with high Lycra content lost 75% ‒ 90%
of its initial UV protection when it was stretched by 20% of its original dimensions
[219]. Therefore, UV protection of Lycra blended fabrics would be reduced in the
wearing condition and the magnitude of changes is expected to be larger than other
fiber types with a less elastic nature. In addition, the fibers are particularly susceptible
to thermo-mechanical damage, and could be degraded by hydrolysis (acids and alkalis)
and photolysis by UVR [281]. Therefore, the end-use condition of Lycra blended
fabrics should be taken into account for its UV protection.
Although the synthetic fibers exhibited better UV protection than the natural fibers
and regenerated fibers, not all of them obtained rateable UV protection (UPF ≥ 15).
Nylon (UPF = 10.7) had the lowest UPF among the synthetic fibers, followed by
Coolmax (UPF = 14.4). The result of low UV protection provided by nylon agreed
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with previous studies [16, 59, 61, 65, 74]. Nylon is a common name for aliphatic
polyamide (PA) and its chemical structure shown in Figure 4-5 accounted for the lower
UVR absorption. The absence of aromatic structures in its chemical composition
allowed UVR to be transmitted through the fiber. The UV protection of nylon was
similar to raw cotton/modal, and raw bamboo/cotton (p > 0.05, by Tamhane’s T2 test).
Figure 4-5. Chemical structure of nylon 6.6 [223]
Polyester obtained the second highest UV protection among the synthetic fibers
examined. Polyester is a common name of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) which
comprised of ester links of aliphatic (ethylene diol) and aromatic (terephthalate acid)
groups [223]. The general formula of the long polymer chain of polyester is
represented by Figure 4-6. The large conjugated aromatic polymer system in polyester
(benzene ring) has higher UVR absorption than aliphatic polyamide fibers. Therefore,
polyester had better UV protection than nylon due to the benzene ring, although both
of them are synthetic fibers. The result agreed with previous studies, which also found
that aliphatic polyamide fibers (nylon) were more transparent to UVR than polyester
[59, 61, 65, 74]. Nevertheless, nylon and polyester would confront the problem of
photo-degradation. Polyester could be degraded by direct exposure to UVR due to the
cleavage of ester carbonyl groups in the chemical structure [74]. In addition, both
94
nylon and polyester are hydrophobic fibers that may make wearers feel clammy and
uncomfortable in warm and humid weather.
Figure 4-6. Formula of polyester
Coolmax obtained better UV protection than nylon because it is originated from
polyester. However, it obtained slightly lower UV protection than polyester, which
might be ascribed to its tetra-channel cross-section as shown in Figure 4-7. Coolmax
is a specially engineered polyester fiber manufactured by INVISTA [324]. The
engineered fiber cross-section could promote moisture wicking and thereby improve
physiological comfort of clothing when compared to traditional polyester clothing.
Figure 4-7. Cross-section of Coolmax fiber [325]
Polyester is usually melt-spun into a circular or elliptical shape. This caused the light
to be reflected predominantly at a constant angle (specular reflection) as well as at
various angles (diffuse reflection, i.e. scattering). Since Coolmax has a tetra-channel
cross-section, light was reflected in various angles and thus the fiber would appear to
be less lustrous. A diagram of light reflection by fibers with different cross-sectional
shapes is illustrated in Figure 4-8. The fiber on the left has a circular cross-sectional
shape and the incident light is reflected in a specular way. In contrast, the fiber on the
95
right has a relatively irregular cross-sectional shape and the incident light is scattered
in a diffuse way. Therefore, the fiber with irregular cross-sectional shape is less
lustrous than the fiber with a more regular cross-sectional shape. Consequently, the
extent of UVR reflection by Coolmax was less than that by polyester.
Figure 4-8. Light reflection by fibers with different cross-sectional shapes
Moreover, UVR could be transmitted through the tetra-channel of Coolmax and
resulted in lower UV protection. The results revealed that even the fibers have same
chemical composition for absorbing UVR, the physical property of fibers also
contributed to the way of UVR being reflected, scattered and transmitted. The diffuse
reflection of UVR by fibers with an irregular cross-sectional shape would mask the
specular reflection and thus resulted in reduction in luster as well as UVR reflection.
Similar to other synthetic fibers, Coolmax could confront the problem of photo-
degradation as it is chemically polyester.
4.3 Conclusion
The UV protection of three groups of fiber types was studied in this chapter including
natural fibers, regenerated fibers and synthetic fibers. The results agreed with previous
studies that natural fibers exhibited relatively lower UV protection than synthetics
fibers. Most fibers examined had obtained non-rateable UV protection (UPF < 15)
except nylon/Lycra, raw cotton/soybean, raw cotton, and polyester, which ranged from
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UPF 17.9 to 38.5. The natural impurities in raw fibers offered high UVR absorption;
however, UV protection was reduced considerably when these impurities were
removed by scouring and bleaching. Among the natural fibers, raw cotton/soybean
exhibited very good UV protection due to the presence of genistein compound
containing aromatic polymer system. Although many bamboo textile products were
claimed for the anti-UV property, the results showed that bamboo and bamboo/cotton
fibers possessed low UV protection resembling other regenerated cellulosic fibers. It
is because the bamboo fiber studied was actually made of bamboo viscose rather than
natural bamboo that consisted of lignin for UVR absorption. During production of
bamboo viscose, lignin was removed from natural bamboo and resulted in low UV
protection unless treating with UV absorbers.
The group of regenerated fibers including Lenzing viscose, Tencel A100, and
cotton/modal showed similar UV protection as bleached cotton because these
regenerated fibers were produced from cellulose polymers and are structurally similar
to cotton. Among the synthetic fibers, nylon/Lycra obtained the highest UV protection
mainly due to the elastic nature of Lycra. The result is confirmed with much lower UV
protection of fabric specimen made from nylon fiber only. The fabric of nylon/Lycra
returned to its relaxed state when taken out from knitting machine and the fabric
became more compact, thicker, and heavier which aided blocking UVR. Polyester
obtained better UV protection than nylon because of the aromatic polymer systems
that are effective in absorbing UVR, while nylon fiber consisted of mainly aliphatic
polyamide components that is more transparent to UVR. Although Coolmax and
polyester are chemically identical and contained aromatic compound for UVR
absorption, lower UV protection obtained by Coolmax indicated that cross-sectional
97
shape of fiber could affect UV protection of fabrics.
In general, the synthetic fibers such as nylon/Lycra and polyester exhibited better UV
protection than the natural fibers and regenerated fibers. However, the innate
characteristics of cotton and regenerated cellulosic fibers such as soft handle, moisture
absorption, and breathability are better than synthetic fibers. Therefore, these fibers
are still prevalent on the market and are hardly be superseded by synthetic fibers with
superior UV protection. Besides, photo-degradation of synthetic fibers is another
concern because it directly affects the physical properties and appearance of the fabrics
such as reduction in tensile strength and yellowing. Although Lycra blend fabrics
could provide very good UV protection, wearing condition such as stretching could
reduce the UV protection. In conclusion, it is hard for the wearers to abdicate the
comfort properties for UV protection offered by most synthetic fibers. Therefore,
much effort is required to improve the UV protection of cotton fabrics.
98
CHAPTER 5 INFLUENCE OF YARN CHARACTERISTICS ON UV PROTECTION
Chapter 5 Influence of Yarn Characteristics on UV

Protection
5.1 Introduction
Yarn is an important attribute of clothing performances including dimensional
stability, handle, abrasion resistance, strength, uniformity, and surface appearance. In
this chapter, UV protection of plain knitted fabrics made of three types of cotton yarns
differing mainly in twist level and staple length were studied. Since previous studies
found that yarn properties influenced the dimensional stability of fabric, another set of
bleached fabric specimens was laundered once prior to UPF evaluation.
5.2 Influence of yarn twist level on UPF
The influence of yarn twist level on UPF of bleached plain knitted fabrics was studied
by comparing the results of Supima Estex yarn (SE) with conventional yarn (C) and
Supima conventional yarn (SC). The SE yarn has approximately 30% lower twist level
than the other two normal-twisted conventional cotton yarns examined (C, SC).
Although fabrics constructed with conventional low-twisted cotton yarns would give
a better handle, there are detrimental fabric performances such as higher pilling
tendency, less dimensionally stable and lower strength. It was reported that fabrics
made of Estex yarns had relatively better performances in both spinning and knitting
processes, and higher pilling resistance, bursting strength and dimensional stability
when compared to the fabrics made of conventional low-twisted cotton yarns [90-93,
95-102]. Therefore, Supima Estex (SE) yarn instead of the conventional low-twisted
cotton yarn was chosen for this study with the consideration of end-use performance
of knitted fabrics. The yarn properties, UPF and fabric specification are shown in
Table 5-1 and Table 5-2 respectively.
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Table 5-1. Characteristics of cotton yarns

Conventional Yarn Supima Estex Yarn Supima Conventional
(C) (SE) Yarn (SC)
Twist (tpi) 22.75 14.88 20.42
Twist Multiplier (TM) 3.60 2.35 3.23
Hairiness (cm-1) 5.09 4.52 4.58
Unevenness (CVm%) 11.84 10.83 11.55
Table 5-2. UPF and specification of plain knitted fabrics before and after laundering
Before laundering After laundering
C SE SC C-L SE-L SC-L
UPF 7.50 6.08 8.85 9.04 6.21 6.98
Thickness (mm) 1.27 1.12 1.15 1.23 1.15 1.24

Weight (g/m2) 213.0 180.0 200.9 219.7 185.0 210.7
-2
Stitch density (cm ) 105.2 88.0 100.4 112.4 89.5 105.6
Wales per cm 8.53 7.94 8.60 8.92 8.07 8.79
Courses per cm 12.34 11.09 11.68 12.60 11.09 12.01
Tightness factor 1.28 1.24 1.31 1.30 1.24 1.30

Fabric Porosity (%) 89.08 89.56 88.69 88.37 89.58 88.97
Air permeability (kPa · s/m) 0.123 0.080 0.089 0.151 0.102 0.104
Areal change (%)* / / / ‒1.24 ‒0.20 1.41
*Areal change(%)=[(Laundered length × width – Original length × width) / (Original length × width)]×100%
The bleached fabric specimens made of the three cotton yarns (C, SE, SC) possessed
non-rateable UV protection before and after laundering because of the absence of
natural impurities that previously existed in raw cotton for absorbing UVR. The
bleached fabrics made of SE yarn (SE fabric) obtained the lowest UPF before and after
laundering. The SE yarn possessed a unique structure that was imparted by the
modified ring-spinning technology. It has a hard and compact yarn core with fiber
density decreases towards the yarn surface. Therefore, the outer layer of SE yarn with
fewer fibers allowed more UVR transmission.
100
From Table 5-2, the SE fabric had the lowest thickness, weight, stitch density,
tightness factor and air permeability (air resistance), as well as the highest fabric
porosity before and after laundering. The results of these fabric characteristics
indicated that SE fabric had a porous structure. It is because the compact yarn core
endowed the yarn with bulky feature and endurance against bending during loop
formation. Since these three cotton yarns have same yarn linear density (40S), the
tightness factor reflected the loop length directly. The lower tightness factor means
the longer for the yarn to form a loop. The SE fabric obtained a lower tightness factor
than the other two fabrics which means its loops were relatively larger (longer loop)
than the loops of fabrics made of normal-twisted conventional yarn (C fabric) and
normal-twisted Supima conventional yarn (SC fabric). The micrographs in Figure 5-1
also show that the loops of SE fabric have a round or oval shape whereas the loops of
the C fabric and SC fabric have an ordinary V-shape. The bulky feature of SE yarn
had created large inter-yarn space in SE fabric for UVR transmission. The micrographs
in Figure 5-1 exhibit the fabric face of specimens under different magnifications (top:
12.5X; middle: 25X; bottom: 50X) for better observation of loop shapes and surface
characteristics of fabric specimens.
Fabric porosity indicates the openness of fabric in a three-dimensional approach.
Higher fabric porosity of SE fabric evinced that there was higher proportion of void
space for UVR transmission within the boundaries of fabric when compared to its total
volume. Besides, SE fabric was more air permeable (lower air resistance) than the C
fabric and SC fabric. Lower value of air permeability means lower resistance for
airflow to pass through the fabric, thus the fabric is more air permeable. The result
implied that there were fewer fibers deflecting the airflow as well as absorbing UVR
101
in SE fabric.
Bleached plain knitted cotton fabrics before laundering

Conventional (C) Supima Estex (SE) Supima Conventional (SC)
yarns before laundering
On the other hand, fabrics made of normal-twisted conventional yarn (C fabric) and
normal-twisted Supima conventional yarn (SC fabric) obtained higher thickness,
weight, stitch density, tightness factor and air permeability (air resistance), as well as
lower fabric porosity than SE fabric. These results indicated that both C fabric and SC
fabric possessed relatively more compact fabric structures than SE fabric. It should be
noted that these two conventional yarns (C yarn, SC yarn) possessed normal twist level
instead of high twist level, and had a relatively higher twist level than the SE yarn.
The fibers in C yarn and SC yarn were bound closely together by the higher amount
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of twists inserted during spinning, which resulted in fewer voids within the yarns for
UVR transmission. Besides, uniform distribution of fibers throughout the yarn allowed
the yarns to be bended normally during loop formation. Therefore, the yarns could be
packed more closely together resulting in higher course density and wale density.
The higher tightness factor of C fabric and SC fabric indicated that the loops were
shorter and tightly aligned. These two fabrics possessed tighter fabric structures and
smaller inter-yarn space than SE fabric as shown in Figure 5-1. The results of lower
fabric porosity of these two fabrics denoted that there were fewer voids within the
fabrics. The higher value of air permeability (air resistance) indicated that these fabrics
were less air permeable due to the tighter fabric structures. The results implied that the
fabrics made of normal-twisted conventional yarns (C yarn, SC yarn) offered better
UV protection than the modified low-twisted yarn (SE yarn) because of the difference
in fiber distribution imparted by twists.
In general, low-twisted yarns possess higher hairiness because fibers are not wrapped
tightly in yarn and there are more fibers protruding on yarn surface. In contrast, high-
twisted yarns usually have lower hairiness because the fibers are bound tightly.
However, SE yarn possessed lower hairiness than the C yarn and SC yarn. It is because
SE yarn was produced by the modified ring-spinning method causing most fibers to
be located close to yarn center. Therefore, there were fewer fibers at the outer layer of
SE yarn and resulted in lower yarn hairiness and unevenness than the normal-twisted
C yarn and SC yarn. It implied that there were fewer fibers protruding on SE yarn
surface for scattering UVR.
103
Since the properties of yarn can affect end-use performance of fabrics such as
dimensional stability upon laundering, the influence of yarn twist on UV protection of
laundered fabric was studied. The results of average dimensional change (%) after one
cycle of laundering of the three types of fabric are shown in Table 5-2. The surface
appearances of laundered bleached fabric specimens are shown in Figure 5-2.
Bleached plain knitted cotton fabrics after laundering (L)

Conventional (C-L) Supima Estex (SE-L) Supima Conventional
(SC-L)
yarns after laundering
The laundered fabrics made of Supima Estex yarn (SE-L fabric) had lower UPF than
the laundered fabrics made of conventional yarn (C-L fabric) and Supima conventional
yarn (SC-L fabric). In fact, there was a negligible change in UPF for SE fabric after
104
laundering while the two fabrics made of normal-twisted yarns had experienced larger
variations in UPF after laundering. Except SC-L fabric, both SE-L fabric and C-L
fabric achieved slightly better UV protection after laundering. The UPF reduction and
areal change of SC-L fabric after laundering related to staple length of fiber that was
studied in next section.
The C-L fabric exhibited increments in fabric weight, stitch density, tightness factor,
and air permeability (air resistance) as well as reductions in thickness and fabric
porosity. The variations of these fabric characteristics indicated the increment of UPF
in C-L fabric was mostly induced by fabric shrinkage. The average areal change of C-
L fabric after laundering was ‒1.24% and negative sign of areal change denoted
occurrence of fabric shrinkage. The fabric shrank and compressed across the thickness,
which caused reductions in thickness and fabric porosity. The reduction in fabric
porosity denoted that there were fewer voids within C-L fabric for UVR transmission.
The small increase in tightness factor also ascertained that the loops in C-L fabric were
shortened after laundering which resulted in a more compact fabric structure for
blocking UVR.
On the other hand, the SE-L fabric experienced less fabric shrinkage and UPF
variation than C-L fabric because the hard yarn core and bulky nature of SE yarn was
retained after laundering. The variations in fabric characteristics of SE-L fabric were
comparatively smaller than that of C-L fabric and SC-L fabric as shown in Table 5-2.
The SE-L fabric had the smallest areal change (‒0.20%) while C-L fabric (‒1.24%)
and SC-L fabric (1.41%) experienced larger areal changes. The results indicated that
SE-L fabric was relatively more dimensionally stable upon laundering than C-L fabric
105
and SC-L fabric, thus variation of UPF induced by fabric shrinkage was smaller.
Dimensional stability or liveliness of yarn could be manifested by twist multiplier.
Twist multiplier is a measure of twist hardness of yarn, which is calculated by
Equation 3-2. Since twist multiplier is approximately proportional to the tangent of
angle between fibers on outer yarn surface and the axis of yarn as illustrated in Figure
5-3. This angle is a function of twist content and thus smaller the angle denoted softer
and less twisted the yarn is [271]. The magnitude of fabric shrinkage caused by
variation in yarn liveliness is confirmed by lower twist multiplier of SE yarn (TM =
2.35) and higher twist multipliers of C yarn (TM = 3.60) and SC yarn (TM = 3.23) as
shown in Table 5-1.
Figure 5-3. Twist angle of yarn
Generally, yarns with a lower twist multiplier are soft and stable while yarns with
higher twist multiplier are relatively hard and lively [247, 267]. The twist liveliness
(residual torque) of yarn could exhibit the snarling potential of yarn and an obvious
example is spirality of knitted fabrics. Presence of residual torque could cause adverse
106
fabric aesthetics such as uneven fabric appearance or distortion of side seams of
garments. The results of twist multiplier indicated that SE yarn was relatively softer
and more stable upon laundering than C yarn and SC yarn that possessed relatively
hard and lively yarn structure. Therefore, SE fabric experienced fewer dimensional
changes after laundering than the C fabric and SC fabric.
From Figure 5-2, fabric pores did not reduce much in SE-L fabric when compared to
that of C-L fabric. The oval shape of loops in SE-L fabric remained after laundering.
The study of Xu et al. [99], also found negligible dimensional changes after laundering
in the sweaters and T-shirts made of the modified low-twisted cotton yarn when
compared to the clothing made of normal-twisted conventional cotton yarns. It is
because most fibers in SE yarn located near to yarn center. The fibers entangled and
locked each other forming a stronger yarn with low residual torque, which improved
the dimensional stability of fabrics against laundering. Therefore, UV protection of
fabric made of SE yarn did not change dramatically after laundering when compared
to C-L fabric SC-L fabric.
In summary, fabrics comprised of normal-twisted yarns provided better UV protection
than fabrics made of modified low-twisted yarns. The bulky feature of modified low-
twisted yarn had created larger fabric pores for UVR transmission and the lower yarn
hairiness reduced scattering of UVR. Consequently, these properties reduced the UV
protection of fabrics made of SE yarn. The normal-twisted yarns had higher UPF than
the modified low-twisted yarn before and after laundering. The normal-twisted yarns
possessed relatively higher hairiness for scattering UVR. Besides, the fibers
distributed more evenly within yarn structure of the normal-twisted yarns than that in
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the modified low-twisted yarn. It aided the normal-twisted yarns to be packed closely
together and produced a compact fabric structure with smaller fabric pores for UVR
transmission. The results of twist multiplier also indicated that variation in UPF was
higher in the fabrics made of normal-twisted conventional yarns. However, UPF
reduction of SC-L fabrics implied that the UPF variation induced by laundering related
to staple length (fiber length).
5.3 Influence of staple length of yarn on UPF
The influence of staple length constructing the yarn on UPF was studied by comparing
the yarn and fabric properties of conventional yarn (C) and Supima conventional yarn
(SC). These yarns had similar twist levels but different staple lengths of cotton fibers.
Staple length refers to the average fiber length of a group of fiber species. The
conventional yarn (C) was spun from cotton fibers with an ordinary length of short-
staple around 25.4 – 28.6 mm while Supima conventional yarn (SC) was spun from
cotton fibers with an extra-long staple length of around 32 – 50.8 mm [104-106].
From Table 5-2, UPF of SC fabric was higher than C fabric before laundering.
Although C fabric had higher thickness, weight, stitch density, and lower air
permeability (higher air resistance) which would usually contribute to UV protection,
its UPF was lower than SC fabric. It is because SC yarn was made from fine and extra-
long staple. The fibers within SC yarn were aligned more regularly and thus there were
fewer voids between fibers for UVR transmission. The regularity of yarn structure also
helped the yarns to be packed more closely together within the fabric structure.
Although SC fabric had lower fabric weight and thickness, the slightly higher tightness
factor attested that SC fabric possessed a more compact fabric structure than C fabric.
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From Figure 5-1, the loops of SC fabric possessed uniform loop shape and were evenly
aligned. This also implemented the result of lower air resistance of SC fabric. Since
the fibers and yarns were aligned regularly in the SC fabric structure, airflow passed
through the regular fabric pores more directly with less air resistance.
Moreover, the better surface integrity of SC fabrics also contributed to UV protection.
Since SC yarn was spun from extra-long staple and there were fewer fiber ends on
yarn surface, the yarn surface is relatively smoother that increased UVR reflection.
The SC fabric had a shinier surface appearance than C fabric as shown in Figure 5-1.
The micrographs of each fabric were taken under same setting of light source of the
stereo microscope. Therefore, the shiny appearance of fabric is mainly ascribed to the
fineness and uniformity of SC yarn. Although C yarn had a slightly higher hairiness
(5.09 cm-1) than SC yarn (4.58 cm-1) which could contribute to UVR scattering, the
effect was overshadowed by the specular reflection of UVR from SC yarn. As a result,
SC yarn offered a uniform fabric surface for reflecting UVR and a compact fabric
structure for blocking UVR, which resulted in higher UPF of SC fabric when
compared to the C fabric made from shorter fibers.
From previous section, a higher value of air resistance denoted that the fabric structure
was more compact and less air permeable. However, the results of air permeability
indicated that the air resistance for passing through C fabric was larger than that of SC
fabric. The result is ascribed to higher fabric porosity of C fabrics. The short fibers in
C yarn are relatively coarse and irregularly aligned within the yarn structure when
compared to the extra-long fibers in SC yarn. The discrete nature of fiber arrangement
in C yarn had created more space inside the yarn structure and the fibers were sparsely
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distributed within the yarn. Therefore, the path of airflow passing through C fabric
became relatively longer as deflected by the discrete fibers. Consequently, higher air
resistance but lower UPF was obtained by C fabric since UVR could pass through
space between the sparsely distributed fibers. The study of Stankovic et al. [89], also
revealed that UPF of fabrics could not be fully construed by air permeability because
the momentum of airflow could bend away the fibers from the flow path.
Nevertheless, the situation of UV protection for these two fabrics reversed after
laundering. C-L fabric obtained higher UPF than SC-L fabric after laundering. From
Table 5-2, fabric shrinkage occurred in C-L fabric (areal change = ‒1.24%) whereas
fabric growth happened in SC-L fabric (areal change = 1.41%). Shrinkage in C-L
fabric caused by laundering had increased its fabric weight, stitch density, tightness
factor, and air resistance, which contributed to UV protection. The difference in
dimensional changes upon laundering between these fabrics is ascribed to the
difference in staple length.
Before laundering, the short fibers in C yarn were distributed sparsely within yarn
structure that created higher porosity for UVR transmission. It also denoted that there
was more room for yarn compactness by the mechanical action in laundering. It is
proved by the reductions in both thickness and fabric porosity after laundering. Both
yarn and fabric had shrunk to give a compact yarn structure and fabric structure for
blocking UVR. In Figure 5-4 (magnification: 50X), the loops of C-L fabric were
packed more closely together and a sharper V-shape of loops was formed after
laundering when compared to the loops of C fabric before laundering.
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Before laundering (C fabric) After laundering (C-L fabric)

conventional cotton yarn before and after laundering
Besides, the friction and cohesion between the short fibers in C yarn were
comparatively less than that between the extra-long fibers in SC yarn. It is because the
short fibers have fewer contact surfaces with each other and the short fibers could be
easily migrated from yarn core towards the yarn surface during laundering. The
mechanical action of laundering had abraded these surface fibers, so there are more
and shorter fiber ends protruding from yarn surface. Consequently, C-L fabric
possessed a more regular and lustrous surface aiding UVR reflection as shown in
Figure 5-4.
In contrast, SC-L fabric experienced fabric growth instead of shrinkage after
laundering which might explain the UPF reduction of SC-L fabric after laundering.
The extra-long fibers in SC yarn conferred larger friction and cohesion between fibers
as there are more contact areas between fibers. The bundle of extra-long fibers
strengthened the yarn against mechanical action of laundering. Consequently, the
movement of fibers within the yarn that induced by mechanical action in laundering
was smaller. Since the extra-long fibers in SC yarn were regularly aligned, there was
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less room for yarn compaction induced by laundering.
From Table 5-2, the variation of fabric characteristics for SC-L fabric was generally
smaller than C-L fabric. It can also be explained by lower twist multiplier of SC yarn
(TM = 3.23) than that of C yarn (TM = 3.60). The SC yarn was relatively more stable
upon laundering than C yarn. The extra-long fibers in SC yarn had restricted fibers
migrating from the yarn core to yarn surface during laundering. Instead, the yarn
twisted upon itself after laundering. The extent of twisting was larger in area with less
resistance for fiber slippage that is outside the yarn crossover points. The increase in
thickness also suggested that the yarns extended across the plane of thickness. The
loops of SC-L fabric became slightly circular after laundering when compared to the
V-shape of loops before laundering as shown in Figure 5-5. This resulted in fibers
distributing farther apart across the plane of thickness, which is confirmed by the
increased fabric porosity and thus there were more voids for UVR transmission.
Nevertheless, more research work is required to attest the extrapolation.
Before laundering (SC fabric) After laundering (SC-L fabric)

Supima conventional cotton yarn before and after laundering
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In summary, the fabric made of Supima conventional yarn (SC) provided better UV
protection because of the fineness and alignment of extra-long fibers, which produced
a compact fabric structure for blocking UVR and a smoother fabric surface for UVR
reflection. The short fibers in conventional yarn (C) were coarser and did not align as
regularly as the fibers of SC yarn. The discrete nature of fiber distribution had created
more voids within the yarn for UVR transmission. However, the situation of UV
protection for these fabrics reversed after laundering. The C yarn with short fibers
distributed sparsely provided more room for yarn compactness by laundering and
resulted in fabric shrinkage, consequently increased UPF. The SC yarn with extra-long
fiber exhibited fabric growth due to the unique change of loop shape. The circular
shape of loop induced by laundering had created more voids within yarn structure for
UVR transmission and thus reduced UV protection.
5.4 Conclusion
The results of this chapter showed that yarn properties affected UV protection as well
as dimensional stability of fabric. Yarn twist affected the yarn compactness and fiber
distribution within the yarn structure. The modified low-twisted yarn has fewer fibers
on the outer layer of yarn which allowed more UVR transmission. Besides, the hard
yarn core endowed the yarn with a bulky feature and resulted in a porous fabric
structure for UVR transmission. In contrast, the fibers were distributed more evenly
within the yarn structures of the two normal-twisted yarns. It reduced the fabric
porosity and thus there were fewer voids for UVR transmission.
The staple length also influenced the UV protection and dimensional stability of
fabrics upon laundering. There was no significant change in UPF for the fabric made
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of modified low-twisted yarn after laundering because of the compact yarn core. For
the fabrics made of normal-twisted yarns, the effect of laundering on UV protection
varied in the yarns with different staple lengths. The extra-long staple generally
provided better UV protection to fabrics because of the higher UVR reflection resulted
from the uniform yarn and fabric structures. However, the regularity of yarn restricted
the fabric shrinkage induced by laundering for improving UV protection. On the other
hand, there was more space for yarn compactness in the yarn constituted with discrete
short fibers and thus UPF of fabric was improved by shrinkage.
Yarn twist and staple length affected the fiber distribution, fiber alignment and yarn
compactness. These properties in turn controlled the inter-fiber space and inter-yarn
space for UVR transmission, and the surface properties of yarn and fabric for UVR
reflection. The results corresspond with previous studies which found that yarn
construction contributed to dimensional stability of fabrics. The dimensional stability
of yarn against laundering varied with the fiber distribution within the yarn structure
as well as the staple length. The construction of yarn influenced not only the physical
properties of fabrics but also UV protection of fabrics. In conclusion, normal-twisted
yarn spun from short staple fiber could provide better UV protection to knitted fabrics.
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CHAPTER 6 INFLUENCE OF FABRIC CONSTRUCTION ON UV PROTECTION
Chapter 6 Influence of Fabric Construction on UV Protection
6.1 Introduction
The UV protection of fabric depends on the amount of UVR absorbed, reflected,
scattered by and transmitted through the fabrics. Fabric construction is one of the
important factors affecting these paths of UVR by controlling the arrangement of yarns
and fibers. Other fabric characteristics including fabric thickness, weight, stitch
density, tightness factor, air permeability, and fabric porosity of knitted fabrics are
presumably in connection with the fabric construction. In this chapter, the effects of
knit structures and fabric characteristics on UV protection of knitted fabrics were
comprehensively studied. A preliminary study was conducted for selecting appropriate
and representative fabric structures for further investigation. The UV protection of
bleached single knitted and double knitted fabrics with different fabric structures were
studied respectively for accurate interpretation.
6.2 Preliminary study on UV protection of different single knit structures
The preliminary study aimed at selecting the representative knit structures based on
the UV protection of fabrics constructed with the three major stitch types; therefore,
only single knit structures were involved. The single knitted fabrics were classified
into three groups according to the stitch type incorporated into the fabric: Group 1
(knit stitches), Group 2 (knit and miss stitches), and Group 3 (knit and tuck stitches).
The results of UPF and some fabric characteristics of fabrics are shown in Table 6-1.
The yarn path diagrams of knit structures and surface appearances (fabric face) of the
fabric specimens are illustrated in Table 6-2.
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Table 6-1. UPF and fabric characteristics of single knitted fabrics in preliminary
study
Bleached fabrics
UPF UPF Thickness Weight Air Permeability
Group Knit structures (greige) (bleached) (mm) 2
(g/m ) (kPa · s/m)
1 All knit 6.36 7.50* 1.27 213.0 0.123
2 Knit & miss (25%) 6.84 9.91* 1.43 241.7 0.169
Knit & miss (50%) 7.28 10.94* 1.57 258.2 0.166
Birds eye 20.63 11.16 1.77 280.7 0.180
Weft locknit 11.87 9.59 1.58 262.1 0.172
Average UPF 11.66 10.40 / / /
3 Knit & tuck 3.77 8.44* 1.57 231.0 0.123
Lacoste 8.05 8.11* 1.73 237.8 0.086
Cross tuck 7.91 6.87 1.48 213.0 0.085
Double Lacoste 6.43 7.58* 1.73 236.3 0.076
Average UPF 6.54 7.75 / / /
* UPF increased after bleaching.
The all knit (plain knit) structure in Group 1 comprised of knit stitches only served as
a reference for comparison with other two fabric groups. From Table 6-1, the average
UPF of Group 2 (knit and miss stitches) was higher than Group 1 and Group 3; Group
1 (knit stitches) and Group 3 (knit and tuck stitches) had similar average UPF. It
indicated that the fabrics with miss stitches provided better UV protection in both
greige and bleached states. Besides, the fabrics of three groups had distinct surface
appearances as shown in Table 6-2. The greige fabrics had larger fabric pores when
compared to the bleached fabrics of the same knit structure. Group 3 fabrics in greige
state had larger fabric pores than the other groups. After bleaching, the fabric pores
minimized because of fabric shrinkage and this phenomenon was more obvious in
Group 2 fabrics. In contrast, the fabric pores of Group 3 fabrics remained conspicuous
after bleaching and did not have minimization as large as that in Group 2 fabrics. It
denoted that the tuck stitches endowed the fabrics with porous structure before and
after laundering, thus Group 3 fabrics had lower average UPF than Group 2 fabrics.
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Table 6-2. Knit structures and micrographs (magnification: 25X) of greige and
bleached single knitted fabrics in preliminary study
Group 1 (knit stitches only)
All knit
Group 2 (knit, miss stitches)

Knit & miss (25%) Knit & miss (50%) Birds eye Weft locknit
Group 3 (knit, tuck stitches)

Knit & tuck Lacoste Cross tuck Double Lacoste
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Apart from UPF, the fabric characteristics were different among the groups of fabrics.
Although Group 2 fabrics and Group 3 fabrics had similar fabric thickness, the fabric
weights and values of air permeability (air resistance) were different between these
groups. It implied that different stitch types imparted distinct fabric characteristics as
well as UV protection to fabrics. Group 2 fabrics with miss stitches obtained relatively
higher values of air permeability and fabric weight than the other two groups. It
indicated that Group 2 fabrics had a more compact fabric structure than Group 3
fabrics with tuck stitches.
In order to select appropriate and representative fabric structures for further
investigation, the fabrics with improved UV protection after bleaching were chosen.
Generally, bleaching would increase UVR transmission of cotton fabrics because of
the removal of natural pigments acting as natural UV absorbers. However, fabric
shrinkage induced by bleaching could close the small pores between yarns and thereby
slightly improve UV protection. Therefore, only the fabric structures that exhibited
improvement in UV protection after bleaching were selected in Group 2 fabrics. Knit
& miss (25%) and knit & miss (50%) were chosen for studying the effect of miss
stitches on UV protection. These two structures consisted of different ratio of miss
stitches to knit stitches in the fabric construction, which allowed the study of impact
of proportion of miss stitches on UV protection of fabrics. Since Group 3 fabrics with
tuck stitches exhibited generally lower UV protection, only the structure obtained the
highest UPF in bleached state was selected, that is knit & tuck.
There were four single knit structures selected for more comprehensive study which
were all knit, knit & miss (25%), knit & miss (50%), and knit & tuck. Double knit
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structures were designed with the consideration of production feasibility, proportion
of different stitch types in the fabric construction, and referring to the results of
preliminary study. Four single knit structures and six double knit structures were
chosen and designed for comprehensive study. The yarn path diagrams of these knit
structures are shown in Figure 3-2 (P.65), and in later sections.
6.3 Influence of fabric construction on UV protection
The results of one-way ANOVA for single knitted fabrics and double knitted fabrics
produced by flat knitting machine are summarized in Table 6-3. The results showed
that there were significant differences in UPF and fabric characteristics between the
knit structures. The extents of differences represented by the effect size (ω2) were large
in all variables examined, thus it is worth investigating how UPF and fabric
characteristics different among knit structures and the relationships between them.
Table 6-3. One-way ANOVA results of UPF and fabric characteristics of bleached
single knitted and double knitted fabrics
Dependent Single knitted fabrics Double knitted fabrics
variables F-test p-value ω2 F-test p-value ω2
UPF F3,8 = 30.321 0.000 0.880 F5,12 = 180.179 0.000 0.980
Thickness F3,8 = 28.688 0.000 0.874 F5,12 = 21.937 0.000 0.853
Weight F3,8 = 41.428 0.000 0.910 F5,12 = 847.212 0.000 0.996
Stitch density F3,8 = 336.885 0.000 0.988 F5,12 = 986.889 0.000 0.996
Tightness factor F3,8 = 1159.603 0.000 0.997 F5,12 = 5415.455 0.000 0.999
Air permeability F3,8 = 12.736 0.002 0.746 F5,12 = 522.326 0.000 0.993
Fabric Porosity F3,8 = 10.317 0.004 0.700 F5,12 = 381.165 0.000 0.991
6.3.1 UPF of bleached single knitted fabrics
The stitch types produced very distinct fabric appearances in the single knitted fabrics
as shown in Figure 6-1. The micrographs of the greige single knitted fabrics illustrated
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the unique appearances imparted by different stitch types, which were changed after
bleaching.
Single knit structures Greige fabrics Bleached fabrics

All knit
Knit & tuck
Knit & miss (25%)
Knit & miss (50%)
Figure 6-1. Micrographs of greige and bleached single knitted fabrics (fabric face)
The bleached single knitted fabrics obtained non-rateable UV protection (UPF < 15)
as shown in Figure 6-2. Since the natural impurities were removed by bleaching, the
cotton single knitted fabrics became more transparent to UVR. Nevertheless,
significant differences in UPF were found between the four single knit structures.
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50
40
30
UPF
20
7.50 8.44 9.91 10.94
10
0
All knit Knit & tuck Knit & miss Knit & miss
(25%) (50%)
Single knit structures
Figure 6-2. UPF of bleached single knitted fabrics
Knit & miss (25%) and knit & miss (50%) had significantly higher UPF than the all
knit and knit & tuck. All knit and knit & tuck had similar UPF that were non-
significantly different from each other (p > 0.05, by Tukey test). Knit & tuck obtained
lower UPF because of the presence of tuck stitches. A tuck loop was formed when the
needle ascended to a height that the old loop was not cleared whilst the needle hook
was able to receive new yarn when the needle descended. The old loop was not cast-
off but retained in the needle hook and a new loop was formed simultaneously. The
part of yarn forming side limbs of a tuck loop became an inverted ‘V’ shape on fabric
back as shown in Figure 6-3. In order to have a better illustration of loop shape, the
greige fabric shown in Figure 6-3 was produced from single cotton yarn.
Figure 6-3. Tuck loops on the fabric back
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Since the tuck loop was not intermeshed by the old loop formed in previous course,
the side limbs of tuck loop were not restricted at the feet by the head of the old loop.
The tuck loops straightened and pushed the adjacent loops sideward, which imparted
a porous fabric structure to knit & tuck and allowed more UVR transmission.
The fabrics composed of knit and miss stitches obtained higher UPF than other single
knit structures. A miss loop was formed when the needle ascended to a height that
neither the old loop was cleared nor the needle hook could catch new yarn when the
needle descended, then the old loop was not cast-off and retained in needle hook. The
yarn passed under the needle and remained straight connecting adjacent loops on
fabric back as illustrated in Figure 6-4. This straight ‘float’ of yarn reduced elasticity
of fabric by pulling adjacent wales closer together. The yarns were packed closely and
there was less open space within fabric structure for UVR transmission. The miss
stitches endowed the fabric with more compact structure and better UV protection.
Figure 6-4. Miss loops on the fabric back
Since knit & miss (50%) possessed more miss stitches than knit & miss (25%), its
fabric structure was relatively more compact than knit & miss (25%) as shown in
Figure 6-1. The higher proportion of miss stitches in fabric construction had pulled the
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columns of wales more tightly together for blocking UVR, thus knit & miss (50%)
obtained a slightly higher UPF than knit & miss (25%) although the UPF difference is
identified as non-significant (p > 0.05, by Tukey test).
6.3.2 UPF of bleached double knitted fabrics
The double knitted fabrics were produced by two needle-beds, with the second needle-
bed located at a right angle to the first needle-bed. The bleached double knitted fabrics
obtained generally better UV protection than the bleached single knitted fabrics. It is
mainly because of the double fabric layers for UVR absorption as well as greater the
probability that the incident UVR encountered more fibers along its path. The six
double knit structures had distinct UPF and fabric appearances as shown in Figure 6-5
and Figure 6-6 respectively. However, three double knit structures obtained non-
rateable UV protection (UPF < 15) including 1x1 rib, half cardigan, and full cardigan.
The other double knit structures, half Milano, full Milano, and interlock, obtained
good UV protection (UPF = 15 – 24). Interlock had the highest UPF among the double
knit structures and achieved very good UV protection (UPF = 25 – 39). The effect of
stitch types on UPF was more prominent in the double knitted fabrics than in single
knitted fabrics.
50
40
28.48
30
20.50
UPF
20 17.19
11.33 10.60
10 7.76
0
1x1 rib Half Full Half Full Interlock
cardigan cardigan Milano Milano
Double knit structures
Figure 6-5. UPF of bleached double knitted fabrics
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Double knit structures Greige fabrics Bleached fabrics

1x1 rib
Half cardigan
Full cardigan
Half Milano
Full Milano
Interlock
Figure 6-6. Micrographs of greige and bleached double knitted fabrics (fabric face)
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Similar to the single knitted fabrics, the double knitted fabrics with tuck stitches
obtained lower UPF. Half cardigan is a two-course repeat rib-based structure, the first
course knitted on front needles and tucked on back needles while the second course is
a regular 1x1 rib course. Full cardigan is also a two-course repeat rib-based structure
that is similar to half cardigan, but the rib course is replaced by a course that tucked
on front needles and knitted on back needles. The presence of tuck loops in cardigan
structures (half cardigan, full cardigan) extended the fabric in widthwise direction and
thereby large fabric pores were created. Since there were more tuck stitches in full
cardigan, it had a more porous fabric structure allowing more UVR transmission than
that in half cardigan. From Figure 6-6, the yarns in full cardigan were packed less
closely together than that in half cardigan, therefore, UPF of full cardigan was
significantly lower than half cardigan (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test).
Full Milano and half Milano obtained the second highest UPF because of the presence
of miss stitches. Half Milano is a two-course repeat rib-based structure with the first
course identical to 1x1 rib while the second course knitted on front needles and missed
on back needles. Full Milano is also a rib-based structure but with a three-course
repeat, in which there is one more course missed on front needles and knitted on back
needles. Since the miss loops pulled the neighboring wales closer together, the fabric
structure with more miss stitches was more compact. Therefore, full Milano obtained
a more compact fabric structure as shown in Figure 6-6, as well as significantly higher
UPF than half Milano (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test).
1x1 rib obtained UPF non-significantly different from half cardigan (p > 0.05, by
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Tukey test). Although both 1x1 rib and interlock comprised of knit stitches only, the
large difference in UPF between them is ascribed to the gating (needle setting) for
knitting the fabrics. 1x1 rib is a one-course repeat rib-based structure composed of
alternating vertical wales of face and back knit stitches on both sides of fabric. Fabrics
with 1x1 rib structure are noted for widthwise extensibility and recovery. From Figure
6-6, the loops of 1x1 rib were packed less tightly than that of interlock although these
structures had similar loop shapes. It denoted that 1x1 rib possessed a relatively slack
fabric structure that allowed more UVR transmission. However, the fabric structure of
1x1 rib was comparatively more compact than the cardigan structures. Therefore, 1x1
rib obtained the third lowest UPF among the double knit structures, which was higher
than the cardigan structures (half cardigan, full cardigan) with tuck stitches but lower
than the Milano structures (half Milano, full Milano) with miss stitches.
The UPF of interlock was significantly higher than other double knit structures (p ≤
0.05, by Tukey test). It is because interlock fabrics were produced in interlock gating
(Figure 2-7) whereas other double knit structures were produced in rib gating (Figure
2-6). In interlock gating, the particular position of needle-beds produced fabrics with
the yarns alternately forming knit stitches on fabric face and back. Since the wales laid
directly behind each other on both fabric face and back, it resulted in a more compact
fabric structure than rib-based double knit structures (rib fabrics). The rib fabrics were
produced in rib gating with the needles of one bed located in-between the needles of
the other bed instead of facing each other. The distance between the loops on fabric
face and fabric back is longer than that in interlock fabrics. Therefore, the rib fabrics
are more extensible and slacker which resulted in lower UPF than interlock fabrics.
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In summary, the bleached double knitted fabrics had generally better UV protection
than the bleached single knitted fabrics. However, the tuck stitches imparted a more
porous structure to fabrics and thus UPF of the two cardigan structures of double
knitted fabrics were similar to the single knit structures. The result implied that the
expected UV protection provided by double fabric layers of double knitted fabrics
could be reduced by incorporation of tuck stitches into fabric structure. The situation
became worse with more tuck stitches in the fabric like the case in full cardigan.
The effect of stitch types on UV protection was more conspicuous in double knitted
fabrics than in single knitted fabrics. The fabrics with miss stitches had better UV
protection than the fabrics with knit stitches only, whereas fabrics with tuck stitches
exhibited the worst UV protection. The UV protection could be improved by
constructed the fabrics with more miss stitches under appropriate knitting tension. The
gating for producing fabrics also affected fabric compactness and UV protection
significantly. Apart from the effect of stitch types on UV protection of knitted fabrics,
the influences of fabric characteristics on UV protection were also studied.
6.4 Influence of fabric characteristics on UV protection
6.4.1 Thickness of bleached single knitted fabrics
Among the single knit structures, knit & miss (50%) and knit & tuck were thicker than
knit & miss (25%) and all knit as shown in Figure 6-7. Although the miss stitches in
knit & miss structures made the fabric more compact while the tuck stitches imparted
a porous structure to the fabric, the thickness of these fabric structures differed non-
significantly (p > 0.05, by Tukey test). It is because of the special loop formation of
tuck stitch with the yarn tucked behind the held stitch on fabric back in knit & tuck as
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illustrated in Figure 6-3. The overlap of tuck loops and held loops increased the
thickness. In miss & knit structures, the floating yarn of miss loops on fabric back had
drawn adjacent loops closer together which increased the thickness. The tuck stitches
and miss stitches affected fabric thickness in different approaches. Since knit & miss
(25%) possessed fewer miss stitches than knit & miss (50%), its thickness was lower
than knit & miss (50%) but higher than all knit that consisted of knit stitches only.
3
2.5
2
Thickness(mm)
1.57 1.43 1.57

1.5 1.27
1
0.5
0
(25%) (50%)
Figure 6-7. Thickness of bleached single knitted fabrics
The relationship between fabric thickness and UPF of the bleached single knitted
fabrics was studied by Kendall’s tau (τ) non-parametric correlation analysis with the
results shown in Figure 6-8.
15
Bleached fabrics
10
UPF
Kendall’s tau (τ) = 0.382

5 p > 0.05 (NS)
0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Fabric thickness (mm)
Figure 6-8. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric thickness of bleached single knitted fabrics
128
The positive correlation denoted that UPF increased with thickness of the bleached
single knitted fabrics. However, the correlation is weak and non-significant which
indicated that UPF increment by thickness was not apparent. In general, higher
thickness means there are more fibers within the fabric layer for UVR absorption and
thus the correlation is positive. The result showed that fabric thickness could not fully
explain the UV protection of bleached single knitted fabrics.
Knit & tuck had a porous structure allowing more UVR transmission while knit &
miss (50%) possessed a compact structure for blocking UVR. Therefore, UV
protection of knit & tuck (UPF = 8.4) was significantly lower than knit & miss (50%)
(UPF = 10.9). The special loop formation endowed the fabric with different fabric
structures varying in porosity and had increased thickness in different approaches. The
result contradicted the general concept that a thicker fabric would achieve better UV
protection. It revealed that fabrics could differ on UPF even though the fabrics have
similar thickness. The difference in stitch types produced fabrics with distinct
arrangement of yarns and amount of space between yarns, thus UV protection could
not be explained by fabric thickness regardless of the fabric structure and other factors.
6.4.2 Thickness of bleached double knitted fabrics
From Figure 6-9, the double knitted fabrics were generally thicker than the single
knitted fabrics because of double fabric layers produced by two needle-beds. There
were four double knit structures obtaining similar fabric thickness that differed non-
significantly from each other, which included half cardigan, full cardigan, full Milano,
and interlock (p > 0.05, by Tamhane’s T2 test). The remaining two knit structures, 1x1
129
rib and half Milano, also had similar thickness (p > 0.05, by Tamhane’s T2 test).
3
2.5
1.99 1.93 1.96 1.95
2 1.75
1.64
Thickness(mm)
1.5
1
0.5
0
Figure 6-9. Thickness of bleached double knitted fabrics
Similar to the results of bleached single knitted fabrics, the bleached double knitted
fabrics containing tuck stitches had similar thickness to the fabrics containing miss
stitches. It is because of the two different approaches for increasing fabric thickness
by tuck stitches and miss stitches respectively as discussed in previous section. The
difference in gating also influenced fabric thickness. Although both 1x1 rib and
interlock were comprised of knit stitches only, interlock gating offered interlock the
tightest fabric structure and thus it was significantly thicker than 1x1 rib produced in
rib gating.
The proportion of tuck stitches in fabric structure also influenced fabric thickness,
however, the effect was relatively inconspicuous because of the small difference in
thickness between the cardigan structures. Half cardigan was slightly thicker than full
cardigan. Half cardigan consisted of a course of 1x1 rib and a course of knit and tuck
stitches in its structure repeat. The difference in stitch types among the courses had
made the fabric structure slightly disproportionate across the fabric thickness. Since
the tuck loops were tucked behind the held loops, the tuck loops were invisible from
130
fabric face of half cardigan. It denoted that the stitches of one course predominated on
fabric face whilst the following course was almost invisible from fabric face but
hidden on fabric back. The predominating stitches on fabric face in half cardigan
produced loops with a bulky and rounded shape as shown in Figure 6-6. The
unbalanced structure together with tuck stitches imparted the highest thickness to half
cardigan among double knit structures. On the other hand, the effect of proportion of
miss stitches on thickness of double knitted fabrics was more apparent than that of
tuck stitches. Full Milano was thicker than half Milano because it contained more miss
stitches in the fabric structure and thus widthwise contraction by the miss stitches
happened in a larger extent than that in half Milano.
Different proportions of stitch type in fabric resulted in unlike fabric thickness. From
Figure 6-10, the positive correlation between UPF and fabric thickness of bleached
double knitted fabrics denoted that UPF increased with fabric thickness. However, the
correlation is very weak and non-significant which resembled the result in thickness
of bleached single knitted fabrics (τ = 0.382, p > 0.05 (NS)). The result showed that
fabric thickness could not fully explain UV protection of the double knitted fabrics.
50
Bleached fabrics
40
30 Kendall’s tau (τ) = 0.027

p > 0.05 (NS)
UPF
20
10
0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Fabric thickness (mm)
Figure 6-10. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric thickness of bleached double knitted
fabrics
131
The effect of stitch types on fabric thickness induced a non-significant correlation
between UPF and thickness of bleached double knitted fabrics. Although the cardigan
structures had similar or higher thickness than the Milano structures and interlock, the
size of inter-yarn space between these structures was quite distinct. Similar to the
effect of stitch types on fabric thickness of single knitted fabrics, the tuck stitches and
miss stitches increased fabric thickness in different approaches; thus, the cardigan
structures and Milano structures possessed similar thickness but very different UPF.
Generally, thicker fabric would achieve better UVR blocking ability. However, the
results of correlation between fabric thickness and UPF in both single knitted and
double knitted fabrics showed some reservations about this concept. The estimation
of UPF from fabric thickness is only tenable for fabrics with similar fabric structures.
6.4.3 Weight of bleached single knitted fabrics
The stitch types also influenced the fabric weight in single knitted fabrics as shown in
Figure 6-11. Knit & miss (50%) and knit & miss (25%) were heavier than other single
knit structures. The miss stitches produced a compact fabric structure by pulling the
adjoining wales closer together, thus more fibers were centralized and resulted in
heavier fabrics. Since there were more miss stitches in knit & miss (50%), the extent
of pulling the wales together by miss stitches was more remarkable than that in knit &
miss (25%). Therefore, knit & miss (50%) was significantly heavier than knit & miss
(25%) (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test). Although knit & tuck had similar thickness to knit &
miss (50%) according to the results in previous section, knit & tuck was significantly
lighter than knit & miss (50%) (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test). It is because the straightening
132
of tuck loops produced a porous structure by pushing the loops sideward, thus there
were fewer fibers per unit area of knit & tuck. However, knit & tuck was significantly
heavier than all knit (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test), because of the overlap of tuck loops
and held loops adding the weight in knit & tuck.
500
400
258.2
Weight(g/m2)
300
213.0 231.0 241.7
200
100
0
(25%) (50%)
Figure 6-11. Weight of bleached single knitted fabrics
Fabric weights of the bleached single knitted fabrics correlated with UPF positively
as shown in Figure 6-12. The heavier fabric means there are more fibers per unit area
of fabric for UVR absorption and thus obtaining a positive correlation. The correlation
is significant and the strength of correlation is strong. It indicated that UV protection
of single knitted fabrics could be improved significantly by increasing fabric weight.
15
Bleached fabrics

p ≤ 0.05
UPF
0
150 200 250 300
Fabric weight (g/m2)
Figure 6-12. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric weight of bleached single knitted fabrics
133
The correlation obtained here is dissimilar to the correlation between UPF and
thickness of single knitted fabrics that is non-significant and weak. It implied that
fabric weight would be a better indicator of UV protection of single knitted fabrics
than fabric thickness. Although knit & miss (50%) and knit & tuck had similar fabric
thickness, their fabric weights and UPF differed significantly. Fabric weight provided
a more direct indication of the amount of UVR being absorbed; the heavier fabrics
possessed more fibers per unit area for absorbing UVR.
6.4.4 Weight of bleached double knitted fabrics
The effect of stitch types on fabric weight of double knitted fabrics was more apparent
than that of the single knitted fabrics as shown in Figure 6-13. Double knitted fabrics
were generally heavier than the single knitted fabrics because there was one more
fabric layer. However, full cardigan had similar fabric weight (214.5 g/cm2) and UV
protection (UPF = 7.8) to all knit (single knit structure) although full cardigan (1.93
mm) was thicker than all knit (1.27 mm). All knit was the lightest fabric in the single
knit structures (213.0 g/cm2) and obtained the lowest UV protection (UPF = 7.5).
500
407.0
400 342.3 371.5
271.4 284.7
300
Weight(g/m2)
214.5
200
100
0
Figure 6-13. Weight of bleached double knitted fabrics
The lightweight of full cardigan was ascribed to its unique fabric construction
134
conferred by the tuck stitches. In the double knit structures, full cardigan was the only
structure without rib courses but consisted of 50% tuck loops and 50% knit loops in
fabric construction. Since there were more tuck stitches on both fabric face and back
of full cardigan, the wales were pushed sideward in a larger extent than that in half
cardigan as shown in Figure 6-6 (page 124). On the other hand, the rib courses in half
cardigan had restricted the widthwise extension by tuck stitches and thus it was
significantly heavier than full cardigan (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test).
Besides, the effect of straightening of tuck stitches was amplified by the pressure
exerted from the shortening of held loops in lengthwise direction. Simultaneous fabric
widening and shortening in cardigan structures caused by successive tuck loops is
illustrated in Figure 6-14 which showing an extreme case with four successive tuck
loops in the same wale. This denoted that more tuck stitches incorporated into fabric,
more porous and lighter would be the fabric. Therefore, full cardigan was the lightest
structure among the six double knitted fabrics and even as lightweight as all knit.
Figure 6-14. Effect of tuck loops on fabric dimension [326]
The Milano structures containing miss stitches were heavier than the cardigan
structures and 1x1 rib. The miss loops pulled the neighboring wales closer together
and the fabric structure became more compact, which resulted in higher fabric weight.
135
However, interlock possessed a more compact structure than the Milano structures as
it obtained the highest weight. The effect of gating was also found in fabric weight of
double knitted fabrics as indicated by the large difference in weight between 1x1 rib
and interlock, although both structures were comprised of knit stitches only. The
situation was similar to that in fabric thickness in which large difference in thickness
was also found between these two structures. The loops on both sides of interlock were
connected more closely under interlock gating and thus interlock was heavier and
thicker than 1x1 rib that was produced in rib gating.
Similar to the result of single knitted fabrics, weight of double knitted fabrics also
correlated with UPF positively and strongly as shown in Figure 6-15. The UV
protection of double knitted fabrics improved significantly with fabric weight.
50
Bleached fabrics
40
30
p ≤ 0.05
UPF
20
10
0
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Fabric weight (g/m )
2
Figure 6-15. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric weight of bleached double knitted fabrics
Both single knitted and double knitted fabrics obtained significant positive
correlations between UPF and weight. It ascertained that fabric weight could be a
better indicator of UV protection than thickness. Fabric weight indicated the mass of
fibers per unit area for UVR absorption and implicated the fabric compactness, and
these characteristics contributed considerably to UV protection of knitted fabrics.
136
6.4.5 Stitch density of bleached single knitted fabrics
Knit & tuck had the lowest stitch density among the single knit structures (p ≤ 0.05,
by Tukey test), while other structures had similar stitch density that differed non-
significantly from each other (p > 0.05, by Tukey test) as shown in Figure 6-16. The
tuck stitches produced a more porous fabric structure because the straightened tuck
loops had pushed adjacent loops sideward and the yarns were distributed farther apart
as shown in Figure 6-1, thus resulted in the lowest stitch density of knit & tuck.
150
110.1
105.2 100.8
Stitchdensity(cm-2)
100
59.4
50
0
(25%) (50%)
Figure 6-16. Stitch density of bleached single knitted fabrics
The effect of stitch types on stitch density was less obvious when compared to its
influences on fabric thickness and weight of single knitted fabrics. Stitch density of
single knitted fabrics correlated positively with UPF but the correlation was weak and
non-significant as shown in Figure 6-17. Although stitch density of knit & miss (25%)
and knit & miss (50%) were similar to that of all knit, the knit & miss structures were
significantly heavier and thicker than all knit. The result of previous section also
indicated that fabric weight correlated positively and strongly with UPF of the
bleached single knitted fabrics (τ = 0.909, p ≤ 0.05).
137
15
Bleached fabrics
10
UPF
Kendall’s tau (τ) = ‒ 0.061

5
p > 0.05 (NS)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Stitch density (cm-2)
Figure 6-17. Scatterplot of UPF and stitch density of bleached single knitted fabrics
In the evaluation of stitch density, only the wales and courses per unit area on fabric
face were counted. Although the miss loops had increased fabric weight that assisted
in absorbing UVR, this special feature offered by miss stitches was not reflected in the
result of stitch density. Similarly, although all knit and knit & tuck differed largely in
stitch density, UPF values of them were non-significantly different. This implied that
stitch density could not well elucidate the UV protection of bleached single knitted
fabrics without considering other factors such as fabric thickness and weight.
6.4.6 Stitch density of bleached double knitted fabrics
The stitch types also affected stitch density of double knitted fabrics as shown in
Figure 6-18. Tuck stitches offered porous fabric structures to the cardigan structures,
thus the stitch density of cardigan structures was significantly lower than other double
knit structures (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test). Since full cardigan possessed more tuck
stitches than half cardigan, the wales in full cardigan were pushed sideward in a larger
extent than that in half cardigan. Therefore, full cardigan had a significantly lower
stitch density than half cardigan (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test). Moreover, the stitch density
of cardigan structures was even lower than that of knit & tuck (single knit structure)
138
because the proportion of tuck stitches in the structure repeat of the cardigan fabrics
was higher than that in knit & tuck. The results indicated that tuck stitches could
significantly reduce fabric density especially in the widthwise direction and produce a
porous structure for UVR transmission.
150
98.0 102.5
Stitchdensity(cm-2)
100
75.3
59.1
50 38.6
27.9
0
Figure 6-18. Stitch density of bleached double knitted fabrics
The Milano structures had higher stitch density than the cardigan structures. The
difference in stitch density between full Milano and interlock was identified as non-
significant (p > 0.05, by Tukey test). The miss loops in the Milano structures pulled
the adjacent wales closer together in horizontal direction as well as in vertical direction
by the held loops, thus resulted in higher density of wales and courses per unit area.
Interlock obtained the highest stitch density because of the interlock gating. The loops
on both side of interlock meshed with each other and thus increased the stitch density.
Since full Milano possessed more miss stitches than half Milano, it obtained a more
compact fabric structure and significantly higher stitch density than half Milano (p ≤
0.05, by Tukey test). However, half Milano had lower stitch density than 1x1 rib. Since
half Milano was an unbalanced structure, the loops on its fabric face were relatively
larger than the loops on fabric back. Although the fabric face of half Milano consisted
139
of more knit stitches while the fabric back encompassing more miss stitches was
tighter and firmer in nature, the loops on fabric face were distorted by the contraction
of fabric structure induced by the miss stitches on fabric back. The distorted loop
shapes were bulkier and thus half Milano obtained a lower stitch density than 1x1 rib.
Stitch density of bleached double knitted fabrics correlated positively with UPF as
shown in Figure 6-19. The positive correlation indicated that UV protection of double
knitted fabrics increased with stitch density. The result is contrary to that for the single
knitted fabrics in which a non-significant positive correlation between stitch density
and UPF was obtained. The effect of stitch types on stitch density of double knitted
fabrics was stronger than that of single knitted fabrics. The fabric with higher stitch
density entailed that the yarns in widthwise and lengthwise directions were packed
more closely together with small inter-yarn space for UVR transmission.
50
Bleached fabrics
40
30
p ≤ 0.05
UPF
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Stitch density (cm )
-2
Figure 6-19. Scatterplot of UPF and stitch density of bleached double knitted fabrics
The evaluation of stitch density was conducted on one side of fabric as a general
practice although some fabric structures have different surface appearances and stitch
density on fabric face and back. UPF of double knitted fabric correlated stronger with
fabric weight than stitch density, for instance, 1x1 rib had a higher stitch density but
140
lower fabric weight and UPF than half Milano. It is because stitch density was
evaluated on the fabric face of half Milano that consisted of more distorted loops while
the fabric back incorporating miss stitches was ignored. Miss stitches produced a more
compact structure on fabric back, which is proved by higher fabric thickness and
weight of half Milano than 1x1 rib. The decision of fabric face of double knit structures
examined in this study had referred to literature and testing standards [276, 299, 327].
However, the definition of fabric face or back is open to discussion and the evaluation
of stitch density could vary considerably for more complex fabric structures. These
issues affect the indicative ability of stitch density on UV protection of knitted fabrics.
6.4.7 Tightness factor of bleached single knitted fabrics
Tightness factor is an indication of fabric looseness or tightness of knitted fabric,
which is similar to cover factor in woven fabrics. For most single knit and double knit
structures, tightness factor ranged from 1 to 2 [141]. The stitch types affected tightness
factors of the single knitted fabrics as shown in Figure 6-20.
Tightness factor of bleached single knitted fabrics

3
2.5
1.91
Tightnessfactor
2
1.56
1.5 1.28 1.27
1
0.5
0
(25%) (50%)
Figure 6-20. Tightness factor of bleached single knitted fabrics
Tightness factors of all knit and knit & tuck were significantly lower than knit & miss
(25%) and knit & miss (50%) (p ≤ 0.05, by Tamhane’s T2 test). It implied that all knit
141
and knit & tuck had a slacker fabric structure than knit & miss (25%) and knit & miss
(50%). Tightness factor indicated the ratio of area covered by yarn in one loop to area
occupied by that loop. Since the fabrics were made of yarns with same yarn count,
smaller tightness factor denoted a longer loop. The smaller tightness factor obtained
by all knit and knit & tuck indicated that these two structures had longer loop length
than that of knit & miss (25%) and knit & miss (50%). The difference in tightness
factor between all knit and knit & tuck was identified as non-significant (p > 0.05, by
Tamhane’s T2 test). In other words, the length of yarn for forming the omega shape
of knit loop and the inverted ‘V’ shape of tuck loop was similar in the single knitted
fabrics, thus these structures had similar loop lengths and fabric looseness.
Knit & miss (25%) and knit & miss (50%) had higher tightness factor than all knit and
knit & tuck, because miss stitches produced a tighter and more compact fabric
structure. Since knit & miss (50%) possessed more miss stitches than knit & miss
(25%), it obtained a significantly higher tightness factor than knit & miss (25%) (p ≤
0.05, by Tamhane’s T2 test). The micrographs in Figure 6-1 also showed that the yarns
in knit & miss (50%) were packed more tightly together than that in knit & miss (25%).
Fabrics with tighter fabric construction implied that there were fewer and smaller
fabric pores for UVR transmission. This is ascertained by the result of correlation
analysis in Figure 6-21. Tightness factor of bleached single knitted fabrics correlated
with UPF significantly and positively. The results entailed that UPF increased with
tightness factor of single knitted fabric.
142
15
Bleached fabrics
10
UPF
p ≤ 0.05
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Tightness factor
Figure 6-21. Scatterplot of UPF and tightness factor of bleached single knitted
fabrics
The fabric with higher tightness factor denoted that the length for forming a loop is
shorter given that the fabrics being compared were produced with yarns of same yarn
count; thus, the yarns were packed more closely and the inter-yarn space for UVR
transmission was smaller. The stitch types had significant impact on tightness factor
of single knitted fabrics especially for the fabrics with miss stitches.
6.4.8 Tightness factor of bleached double knitted fabrics
Similar to the results in single knitted fabrics, the stitch types also offered distinct
tightness factors to the bleached double knitted fabrics as shown in Figure 6-22.
3
2.57
2.5
2 1.82 1.81
Tightnessfactor
1.5 1.37 1.36 1.25

1
0.5
0
Figure 6-22. Tightness factor of bleached double knitted fabrics
143
Interlock obtained the highest tightness factor (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test), because the
loops of interlock fabrics were produced in interlock gating which meshed from face
to back more tightly than the loops of the other five rib-based double knit structures.
The Milano structures had the second highest tightness factor following interlock. The
miss stitches drew the loops more closely together and produced a more compact
fabric structure than the other rib structures.
However, half Milano and full Milano had similar tightness factor that differed non-
significantly from each other (p > 0.05, by Tukey test). The results here are contrary
to the results in stitch density wherein stitch density of full Milano (98.0 cm-2) was
significantly higher than half Milano (59.1 cm-2). It is because the loop length, for
calculating tightness factor, was evaluated by measuring the course length within a
predetermined number of stitches (wales), and the yarn was straightened by a specific
tension using a crimp tester [276]. Loop length is equal to the yarn length per one
stitch and both Milano structures had same proportion of miss stitches in a course
(horizontal direction) within a structure repeat unit, therefore, half Milano and full
Milano were non-significantly differed in loop length and thereby tightness factor. The
unbalanced structure of half Milano showing distorted loops on fabric face had smaller
impact on the evaluation of tightness factor, because the crimps of yarn were removed
in the straightening by crimp tester.
On the other hand, the stitch density was calculated by multiplying the mean numbers
of wales and courses per centimeter measured with counting glass [277]. The
proportion of miss stitches in vertical direction of full Milano was higher than that of
144
half Milano. There was one more course missed on front needles and knitted on the
back needles in full Milano as illustrated by the yarn path diagram in Figure 6-6.
According to the raw data collected, these Milano structures had similar number of
wales per cm (half Milano: 7.1, full Milano: 7.5) but full Milano had more courses per
cm (course/cm = 13.0) than half Milano (course/cm = 8.3). The higher proportion of
miss stitches in full Milano had shortened fabric length in a larger extent than that in
half Milano, thus half Milano and full Milano had similar tightness factor but distinct
stitch density.
The remaining three rib structures, 1x1 rib, half cardigan, and full cardigan, had lower
tightness factors than the Milano structures and interlock. This denoted that these three
structures had slack fabric structures formed by longer loops. The tightness factors of
1x1 rib and half cardigan differed non-significantly (p > 0.05, by Tukey test). Similar
to the results in the single knitted fabrics, the length of yarn forming the omega shape
of a knit loop resembled the length forming inverted ‘V’ shape of a tuck loop.
Therefore, 1x1 rib and half cardigan had similar loop length and tightness factor.
However, the length of yarn forming the inverted ‘V’ shape of a tuck loop in full
cardigan was longer than that in half cardigan as indicated by the significantly lower
tightness factor obtained by full cardigan (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test). Full cardigan was
comprised of 50% tuck stitches and 50% knit stitches. The absence of rib course in
full cardigan promoted the fabric widening by tuck stitches, thus the loop length was
longer in full cardigan and resulted in the lowest tightness factor.
Tightness factor of the bleached double knitted fabrics also correlated with UPF
positively and significantly as shown in Figure 6-23. The positive correlation between
145
UPF and tightness factor connoted that UPF increased with tightness factor of the
bleached double knitted fabrics. When fabric structure was tighter, there was fewer
and smaller inter-yarn space for UVR transmission and resulted in higher UPF in
interlock and the Milano structures. Moreover, some double knit structures obtained
tightness factor similar to that of single knit structures, including 1x1 rib, half
cardigan, and full cardigan. This implied that stitch types affected tightness factor of
fabrics significantly and could produce some double knitted fabrics as porous as the
single knitted fabrics.
50
Bleached fabrics
40

p ≤ 0.05
UPF
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Tightness factor
Figure 6-23. Scatterplot of UPF and tightness factor of bleached double knitted
fabrics
Tightness factor indicated fabric looseness or tightness by the length of yarn for
forming a loop (stitch) given that the yarns of same yarn count was used for knitting.
However, the result of tightness factor was affected by wale density in a larger extent
than course density because of the evaluation method of tightness factor. It is
vindicated by different results in tightness factor and stitch density between the two
Milano structures. It implied that tightness factor could not be used solely for
explaining UV protection of knitted fabrics with distinct fabric structures.
146
6.4.9 Air permeability of bleached single knitted fabrics
Air permeability of the bleached single knitted fabrics were evaluated and the output
is air resistance (kPa · s/m). The higher value of air permeability denoted higher
resistance for the airflow passing through the fabrics instead of more air permeable is
the fabric. Knit & miss (25%) and knit & miss (50%) (knit & miss structures) had
significantly higher air permeability (air resistance) than all knit and knit & tuck as
shown in Figure 6-24. It implied that these knit & miss structures provided higher
resistance for the airflow to pass through them. The miss stitches pulled adjacent loops
more closely together which reduced the size of the inter-yarn space and blocked more
pathways for airflow. The air permeability of knit & miss (25%) and knit & miss
(50%) differed non-significantly (p > 0.05, by Tukey test).
0.5
0.4
Airpermeability(kPa·s/m)
0.3
0.2 0.169 0.166

0.123 0.123
0.1
0
(25%) (50%)
Figure 6-24. Air permeability of bleached single knitted fabrics
All knit and knit & tuck had a relatively slacker fabric structure than the knit & miss
structures. The tuck stitches straightened to push the loops sideward and created a
relatively porous fabric structure, thus there were fewer fibers as resistance for the
airflow passing through knit & tuck fabric. The result of air permeability reflected
fabric compactness that is attested by the result of correlation with UPF as shown in
147
Figure 6-25.
15
Bleached fabrics
10
UPF
p ≤ 0.05
5
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Air permeability (kPa · s/m)
Figure 6-25. Scatterplot of UPF and air permeability of bleached single knitted
fabrics
The air permeability correlated positively with UPF of bleached single knitted fabrics.
The higher air resistance provided by the compact fabric structure, the higher UPF
resulted. Similar to the result of tightness factor of the single knitted fabrics, stitch
types had a significant impact on air permeability of single knitted fabrics especially
for fabrics with miss stitches.
6.4.10 Air permeability of bleached double knitted fabrics
The effect of stitch types was also found on air permeability of the double knitted
fabrics as shown in Figure 6-26. Interlock obtained the highest value of air
permeability because of the compact fabric structure with more fibers as resistance for
the airflow passing through fabric. The Milano structures had lower air permeability
than interlock, which implied that Milano structures were less compact than interlock.
Although full Milano had a lower value of air permeability than half Milano, the
difference was identified as non-significant (p > 0.05, by Tukey test). The cardigan
structures had significantly lower air permeability than the Milano structures and
148
interlock (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test). Tuck stitches straightened to push neighboring
loops sideward and created larger inter-yarn space for the airflow to pass through the
cardigan fabrics with less resistance. The difference in air permeability between half
cardigan and full cardigan was identified as non-significant (p > 0.05, by Tukey test).
The cardigan structures even obtained similar air permeability to that of all knit and
knit & tuck (single knit structures). This denoted that cardigan structures possessed
fabric structures as porous as those single knit structures.
0.5
0.416
Airpermeability(kPa·s/m)
0.4
0.310
0.291
0.3
0.2 0.148
0.123 0.112
0.1
0
Figure 6-26. Air permeability of bleached double knitted fabrics
Air permeability of the bleached double knitted fabrics correlated positively with UPF
as shown in Figure 6-27. It indicated that fabric with more fibers as resistance for the
airflow could achieve better UV protection. The results of air permeability had some
similarities to that of tightness factor for both bleached single knitted and double
knitted fabrics. It is because these two fabric characteristics have a direct denotation
of fabric compactness. The evaluation of tightness factor measured the length of yarn
for forming a loop. The higher tightness factor denoted shorter the loop and thus the
inter-yarn space are smaller for UVR transmission. The air permeability indicated the
space within fabric layer by the pressure variation of a constant airflow caused by the
resistance of fabric. The higher resistance for the airflow implied that both paths for
149
airflow and UVR might encounter more fibers through the fabric.
50
Bleached fabrics
40

p ≤ 0.05
UPF
20
10
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Air permeability (kPa · s/m)
Figure 6-27. Scatterplot of UPF and air permeability of bleached double knitted
fabrics
However, the results in Chapter 5 indicated that path of airflow could be deflected by
the discrete fibers within the yarn. It resulted in higher air resistance but lower UPF of
fabrics since UVR transmitted through the space between sparsely distributed fibers
as well as the fibers per se. The study of Stankovic et al. also revealed that UPF could
not be fully construed by air permeability because momentum of airflow could bend
away fibers from flow path [89]. Therefore, air permeability could not explain UV
protection of knitted fabrics thoroughly which is indicated by weaker strength of
correlation between air permeability and UPF.
6.4.11 Fabric porosity of bleached single knitted fabrics
Fabric porosity determined fabric compactness in a three-dimensional way. The
calculation of fabric porosity involved fabric thickness, weight, and fiber density. It is
defined as the proportion of void space within boundaries of a fabric compared to its
total volume, in other words, the fraction of void space within fabric volume. The
fabric with high fabric porosity implied that there is higher proportion of void space
150
compared to the total volume of fabric. The results in Figure 6-28 showed that knit &
tuck had the highest fabric porosity (p ≤ 0.05, by Tukey test), while the fabric porosity
of other single knit structures differed non-significantly (p > 0.05, by Tukey test).
100
95
Fabricporosity(%)
89.1 90.4 89.0 89.3

90
85
80
(25%) (50%)
Figure 6-28. Fabric porosity of bleached single knitted fabrics
The straightening of tuck loops together with the overlap of tuck loops and held loops
had created more space across fabric width and fabric thickness of knit & tuck.
Therefore, there were more voids or fabric pores within the volume of knit & tuck and
resulted in higher fabric porosity. The other three single knit structures had fewer voids
within the volume of fabric as indicated by smaller fabric porosity obtained. From the
results of fabric thickness and weight, knit & tuck had similar fabric thickness (1.57
mm) to knit & miss (50%) but it was lighter (231.0 g/m2) than knit & miss (50%)
(258.2 g/m2). Within the same fabric volume, the higher mass of fabric per unit area
denoted that there were more fibers occupying the volume of fabric. Since the fibers
were distributed densely within the volume of knit & miss (50%), its fabric porosity
was lower than knit & tuck.
The fabric porosity of the bleached single knitted fabrics negatively correlated with
UPF and the correlation was identified as non-significant as shown in Figure 6-29.
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The negative and non-significant correlation between fabric porosity and UPF implied
that UV protection of bleached single knitted fabrics could not be improved
significantly by reduction in fabric porosity. The non-significant correlation might be
ascribed to small difference in fabric thickness between the four single knit structures.
15
Bleached fabrics
10
UPF
5 Kendall’s tau (τ) = ‒ 0.061

p > 0.05 (NS)
0
80 85 90 95 100
Fabric porosity (%)
Figure 6-29. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric porosity of bleached single knitted fabrics
Previous studies found that fabric porosity was determined to be a major indicator for
UV protection of fabric [26, 30, 58, 60, 68, 69, 328]. However, the fabrics evaluated
in these studies were mostly woven fabrics, which had the yarn arrangement different
from knitted fabrics. Nevertheless, the result indicated that fabric porosity was affected
by stitch types especially by tuck stitches which produced a porous fabric structure.
6.4.12 Fabric porosity of bleached double knitted fabrics
The effect of stitch types was more apparent on fabric porosity of the double knitted
fabrics than that of single knitted fabrics, as illustrated in Figure 6-30. The cardigan
structures comprised of tuck stitches obtained higher fabric porosity than other double
knit structures (p ≤ 0.05. by Tukey test). It agreed with the results of single knitted
fabrics wherein the tuck stitches created more voids within the fabric volume and thus
resulted in higher fabric porosity. Since full cardigan possessed more tuck stitches,
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larger extent in straightening of tuck stitches had made full cardigan more porous than
half cardigan. Therefore, fabric porosity of full cardigan was significantly higher than
half cardigan (p ≤ 0.05. by Tukey test).
100
95 92.8
Fabricporosity(%)
89.3 90.7
90 87.3 87.7 86.5
85
80
Figure 6-30. Fabric porosity of bleached double knitted fabrics
Interlock had the lowest fabric porosity since there were fewer voids within the fabric
volume when compared to other double knit structures produced by rib gating.
Although both 1x1 rib and interlock comprised of knit stitches only, the difference in
gating had endowed these structures distinct fabric porosity. 1x1 rib had lower fabric
porosity than the cardigan structures, which denoted that it had a more compact fabric
structure with fewer voids than the cardigan structures. The Milano structures had
lower fabric porosity than the cardigan structures and 1x1 rib but slightly higher than
interlock. The miss stitches pulled adjacent loops closer together in widthwise
direction and the held loops contracted in lengthwise direction, which largely reduced
the voids within fabric volume. However, the fabric porosity of these Milano
structures did not differ significantly (p > 0.05. by Tukey test).
The result of correlation in Figure 6-31 showed that UPF correlated negatively with
fabric porosity of bleached double knitted fabrics. It implied that UV protection
153
increased significantly with reduction in fabric porosity of double knitted fabrics. The
fabrics with lower fabric porosity possessed fewer voids for UVR transmission. 1x1
rib, half cardigan, and full cardigan had similar fabric porosity as well as UPF to the
single knit structures, which indicated that these double knit structures had similarly
porous structures as the single knit structures; thus, these single knit and double knit
structures obtained non-rateable UV protection (UPF < 15).
50
Bleached fabrics
40
30
UPF
Kendall’s tau (τ) = ‒ 0.791

20 p ≤ 0.05
10
0
80 85 90 95 100
Fabric porosity (%)
Figure 6-31. Scatterplot of UPF and fabric porosity of bleached double knitted
fabrics
The result of correlation between UPF and fabric porosity for double knitted fabrics
was contrary to the result for single knitted fabrics that obtained a non-significant
negative correlation. Resembling the results of other fabric characteristics for double
knitted fabrics, the effect of stitch types was more conspicuous on fabric porosity of
double knitted fabrics. The difference in proportion of stitch types within the fabric
structure of double knitted fabrics was higher than that of single knitted fabrics, thus
double knitted fabrics gave prominence to the effect of stitch types on fabric porosity
as well as other fabric characteristics.
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6.5 Estimation of UPF by fabric characteristics of knitted fabrics
UV protection of knitted fabrics was influenced by various fabric characteristics in
different magnitudes. Some of these fabric characteristics were highly correlated
which made the estimation of UPF perplexing, and violated the assumption of
multicollinearity in multiple linear regression (MLR) [292]. Therefore, factor analysis
(FA) was conducted before interpreting the multivariate relationships between UPF
and the fabric characteristics by multiple linear regression (MLR).
6.5.1 Bivariate correlations between fabric characteristics of bleached single
knitted fabrics
The descriptive statistics for UPF and fabric characteristics of the bleached single
knitted fabrics are shown in Table 6-4. Although the data of stitch density and air
permeability violated the assumption of normality for regression analysis, these data
were standardized in factor analysis (FA) prior to multiple linear regression (MLR).
Table 6-4. Descriptive statistics of bleached single knitted fabrics

Bleached single knitted fabrics Mean SD Normality (K-S Sig.)
UPF 9.20 1.44 0.200
Thickness (mm) 1.46 0.14 0.200
Weight (g/m2) 235.98 17.69 0.200
-2
Stitch density (cm ) 93.88 21.15 0.000*
Tightness factor 1.51 0.27 0.005*
Air permeability (kPa·s/m) 0.15 0.03 0.200
Fabric porosity (%) 89.45 0.67 0.200
*Variables have a significant value for Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (K-S) (p ≤ 0.05),
indicating the data violated the assumption of normality.
The interactions between these fabric characteristics of bleached single knitted fabrics
were studied by bivariate correlation analysis. Strength of correlation between two
155
variables was indicated by Pearson correlation coefficient (‒1 ≤ r ≤ 1). The results of
correlation analysis are shown in Table 6-5 and only significant correlations were
interpreted in detail.

single knitted fabrics
Stitch Tightness Air
Thickness Weight density factor Permeability
Weight 0.70* - - - -
Stitch density ‒ 0.56* 0.11 - - -
Tightness factor 0.46 0.88* 0.42 - -
Air permeability 0.27 0.82* 0.53* 0.76* -
Fabric porosity 0.62* ‒ 0.12 ‒ 0.91* ‒ 0.32 ‒ 0.53*
*Correlation between variables is significant at the 0.05 confidence level (2-tailed).
Many fabric characteristics correlated with each other significantly in different
magnitudes. Fabric thickness correlated with fabric weight and fabric porosity
positively while correlated with stitch density negatively. The significant positive
correlation between thickness and weight denoted that fabric weight increased with
thickness. According to the results of previous sections, fabrics with miss stitches or
tuck stitches possessed higher thickness and weight than all knit with knit stitches
only. The overlap of tuck loops and held loops in knit & tuck increased fabric thickness
as well as fabric porosity by creating more voids in fabrics, thus resulted in a positive
correction between thickness and porosity. However, knit & tuck possessed high
thickness but also the lowest stitch density because of the straightening of tuck loops
that pushed the adjacent wales sidewards; thus, resulted in a negative correlation
between thickness and stitch density.
Fabric weight correlated with tightness factor and air permeability positively. The
156
fabrics with miss stitches possessed higher tightness factor and air permeability (air
resistance) than the other two single knit structures. Miss stitches pulling the
neighbouring wales closer together as well as the contraction of held loops in
lengthwise direction, created a compact fabric structure. Fabrics with higher tightness
factor had the yarns intermeshed more tightly which increased mass of fibers per unit
area, and provided higher resistance for airflow passing through the fabric.
Stitch density correlated with air permeability positively and correlated with fabric
porosity negatively. When the yarns were packed closely, there were fewer and
smaller fabric pores; thus, increased resistance for the airflow passing through the
fabric and decreased the fabric porosity as the fibers were distributed densely within
the fabric volume. Tightness factor also correlated with air permeability positively.
Since shorter the loop length, tighter the fabric structure which provided more
resistance for the airflow to pass through the fabric. Lastly, air permeability correlated
with fabric porosity negatively. When there were more voids within the fabric volume,
the airflow could pass through the fabric with less resistance and thus obtained a
negative correlation between air permeability (air resistance) and fabric porosity.
The results indicated the complexity of interactions between different fabric
characteristics. It is difficult to determine UV protection of fabrics with one of the
parameters exclusively by holding other parameters constant especially for knitted
fabrics. For instance, tuck stitches offered the single knitted fabrics higher thickness
but also higher fabric porosity that allowed more UVR transmission. The alteration in
fabric construction of knitted fabrics by incorporating with various stitch types would
change other fabric parameters in different magnitudes simultaneously. From the
157
results of previous sections, various stitch types exhibited distinct impacts on the fabric
characteristics of single knitted and double knitted fabrics respectively. The studies of
Gambichler et al. [145, 329], also commented on the complexity of interaction
between different fabric properties, which made it impossible to estimate UPF of
fabrics or to generalize the comparison between various fabric parameters to other
fabric samples. Therefore, this thesis attempted to study the influences of some
important fabric characteristics of knitted fabrics on UV protection with the
consideration of their multivariate relationships by FA and MLR analysis. This
analysis method of using factor scores in multiple regression analysis for estimation
of a specific variable is also adopted in the agricultural and biological research which
usually having highly correlated independent variables in the studies [330-333].
6.5.2 Factor analysis and multiple linear regression analysis of bleached single
knitted fabrics
The highly correlated fabric characteristics suggested the necessity for conducting FA
to combine the correlated variables into a subset of factors for MLR. Principal
component extraction method was adopted in FA and only factors with eigenvalue ≥
1 were retained according to Kaiser’s criterion [295]. The factor loadings of extracted
factors were initially rotated by oblique (direct oblimin) method in order to determine
an appropriate rotation method. The result showed that correlation between the
extracted factors was below 3 (r = ‒ 0.077) which met the assumption of orthogonal
factor solution. Therefore, the factor loadings of extracted factor were rotated by
orthogonal (varimax) method and the results are shown in Table 6-6. The Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin verified the sampling adequacy for analysis (KMO = 0.5) and Bartlett’s
test of sphericity indicated that correlations between the fabric characteristics were
158
sufficiently large for conducting FA (χ2 (15) = 114.66, p ≤ 0.05).
Table 6-6. Factor analysis results of bleached single knitted fabrics

Factor Score Coefficients Rotated Factor Loadings
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 1 Factor 2 Communality
Thickness 0.243 0.323 0.647 0.760 0.995
Weight 0.329 0.075 0.987 0.092 0.982
Stitch density 0.038 -0.361 0.228 -0.945 0.944
Tightness factor 0.298 -0.035 0.924 -0.182 0.888
Air permeability 0.268 -0.117 0.859 -0.384 0.886
Fabric porosity -0.022 0.370 -0.182 0.963 0.960
Variance (%) - - 51.2% 43.1% -
The principal components extraction method revealed the presence of two components
(factors) with eigenvalue ≥ 1. The communality values for all variables are high (>
0.7) denoting each fabric characteristic could be largely explained by the two extracted
factors. These factors account for 94.3% of the total variance of fabric characteristics
after orthogonal rotation. Factor 1 is characterized by high positive loadings on fabric
weight, tightness factor, and air permeability, which explained 51.2% of standardized
variance of fabric characteristics. Factor 2 is characterized by high positive loadings
on fabric thickness, fabric porosity, and high negative loading on stitch density, which
accounted for 43.1% of the variance of fabric characteristics. The factor score
coefficients were used to calculate the factor score for each sample from the
standardized score on observed variables with adjustment of Anderson-Rubin method
[292]; and the factor scores were used as data of independent variables for MLR.
The factors extracted from FA (factor 1, factor 2) were the independent variables of
MLR for estimating the dependent variable that is UPF of bleached single knitted
159
fabrics. The results of MLR are shown in Table 6-7. By stepwise method of MLR,
only factor 1 was kept in model 1 while factor 2 was removed for estimating UPF. The
model is statistically significant in estimating UPF of the bleached single knitted
fabrics (F1,10 = 194.68, p ≤ 0.05). The results of collinearity statistics indicated the
absence of multicollinearity (Tolerance = 1.00 and VIF = 1.00) and the value of
Durbin-Watson is close to 2 denoting assumption of independent error is tenable.
Table 6-7. Multiple regression analysis results of bleached single knitted fabrics
Collinearity
Unstandardized Standard Durbin- Statistics
Model coefficients error t-value Sig. Watson Tolerance VIF
1 (Factor 1) 1.403 0.101 13.953 0.000 1.53 1.00 1.00
Constant 9.198 0.096 95.515 0.000 - - -
R2 = 0.951; Adjusted R2 = 0.935 (Stein’s Formula); F1,10 = 194.68, p ≤ 0.05.
The model involved factor 1, which is mainly characterized by the fabric weight,
tightness factor and air permeability, accounted for 95.1% of the variance of UPF of
bleached single knitted fabrics (Variance explained = R2 x 100%). The small
difference between R2 and adjusted R2 calculated by Stein’s formula entailed that
predictive power of the model remained large when the model is generalized (cross-
validation of the model) [290, 297]. Moreover, significant contribution of factor 1 to
the model was verified by the significant coefficients evaluating by t-test. From the
results of FA and MLR, a model for estimating UPF of bleached single knitted fabrics
from the fabric characteristics was established as shown in Equation 6-1.
160
UPF = 9.198 + 1.403[(0.329 ∙ 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡) + (0.298 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)
+ (0.268 ∙ 𝐴𝐴𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) + (0.243 ∙ 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡
+ (0.038 ∙ 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) − (0.022 ∙ 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝)] 6-1

Equation
𝑡)
There is a positive relationship between UPF and factor 1 that is contributed largely
by positive loadings of fabric weight, tightness factor, and air permeability. It implied
that increments of these fabric characteristics would mostly improve UV protection of
bleached single knitted fabrics while other fabric characteristics with lower factor
loadings have smaller impact on variation of UPF. The coefficient of variables in
Equation 6-1 showed the importance of fabric characteristics in contributing to UPF
of bleached single knitted fabrics. Fabric weight has the highest contribution, followed
by tightness factor, air permeability, and thickness while stitch density and fabric
porosity have smaller impacts on UPF of bleached single knitted fabrics.
However, it should be noted that the model is established based on the fabric
characteristics and UPF of bleached single knitted fabrics made of 100% combed
cotton yarn (3/40S) produced by the flat knitting machine (E14). Besides, the variables
of the fabric characteristics in Equation 6-1 have a standardized unit. Therefore,
estimation of UPF from fabric characteristics or yarn materials largely differed from
those used in this study might be less precise, for instance, the fiber density used for
calculating the fabric porosity is unique to fiber type. The model served as a precursory
investigation of multivariate relationships between UV protection and the fabric
characteristics of bleached cotton single knitted fabrics. The model provided valuable
information wherein bleached cotton single knitted fabrics with high values of weight,
161
tightness factor and air permeability (air resistance) would achieve better UV
protection. From previous results, the single knitted fabric made of miss stitches had
higher weight, tightness factor, and air permeability than that of all knit and knit &
tuck. It ascertained that UV protection of single knitted fabrics could be enhanced by
selection of appropriate stitch type for producing the fabrics.
6.5.3 Bivariate correlations between fabric characteristics of bleached double
knitted fabrics
The descriptive statistics for UPF and fabric characteristics of the bleached double
knitted fabrics are listed in Table 6-8. The results of normality test indicated that UPF,
tightness factor, and fabric porosity, violated assumption of normality for MLR. The
data of the fabric characteristics were standardized in FA prior to MLR while the data
of UPF was normalized by natural logarithm transformation. The transformed data, ln
UPF, met the assumption of normality as indicated by non-significant K-S.
Table 6-8. Descriptive statistics of bleached double knitted fabrics

Bleached single knitted fabrics Mean SD Normality (K-S Sig.)
UPF 15.98 7.28 0.019*
ln UPF 2.67 0.45 0.117
Thickness (mm) 1.87 0.14 0.090
Weight (g/m2) 315.24 66.94 0.200
Stitch density (cm-2) 66.90 28.81 0.097
Tightness factor 1.70 0.46 0.004*
Air permeability (kPa·s/m) 0.23 0.12 0.002*
Fabric porosity (%) 89.04 2.24 0.026*
*Variables have a significant value for Kolmogorov-Smirnov test indicating a violation of
normality of data (p ≤ 0.05).
The results of Pearson correlation coefficients among the fabric characteristics of
162
double knitted fabrics are shown in Table 6-9. The results are dissimilar to that of the
single knitted fabrics since most fabric characteristics correlated with each other
significantly except with fabric thickness. From the results in section 6.4.2, the six
double knit structures possessed similar fabric thickness while other fabric
characteristics differed significantly. For instance, full Milano and interlock had
similar fabric thickness to the cardigan structures; however, these two groups of
fabrics had large differences in fabric weight, stitch density, tightness factor, and air
permeability. These results assented the non-significant correlation between thickness
and other fabric characteristics for double knitted fabrics.

double knitted fabrics
Stitch Tightness Air
Thickness Weight density factor Permeability
Weight 0.18 - - - -
Stitch density ‒ 0.05 0.84* - - -
Tightness factor 0.20 0.91* 0.77* - -
Air permeability 0.10 0.93* 0.78* 0.96* -
Fabric porosity 0.17 ‒ 0.94* ‒ 0.85* ‒ 0.84* ‒ 0.90*
*Correlation between variables is significant at the 0.05 confidence level (2-tailed).
Fabric weight correlated positively with stitch density, tightness factor, and air
permeability while negatively correlated with fabric porosity. The Milano structures
and interlock possessed higher stitch density and tightness factor than the cardigan
structures and 1x1 rib. Miss stitches pulled the adjacent wales closer together and the
held loops contracted in the lengthwise direction, which significantly increased
tightness factor and stitch density of the fabrics. When the yarn were arranged closely
according to fabric construction, there was higher resistance for the airflow to pass
163
through the fabric and thus resulted in higher air permeability (air resistance). On the
other hand, fabric weight increased with the reduction in fabric porosity. Since the
fibers were distributed densely within the fabric volume, there were fewer voids in the
fabric structure and resulted in a negative correlation between weight and fabric
porosity.
Stitch density also correlated with tightness factor and air permeability positively
while correlated with fabric porosity negatively. The compact fabric structure such as
the Milano structures possessed shorter loop length and the wales and courses were
packed closely per unit area of the fabric. Since there were fewer inter-yarn spaces for
the airflow to pass through the fabric, higher result of air permeability (air resistance)
was obtained by the fabric. The high value of air permeability of fabric also denoted
that many voids were occupied by fibers and thus fabric porosity was lower. The other
fabric characteristics also correlated with each other in similar ways. These
circumstances explained the significant correlations between these fabric
characteristics in Table 6-9.
The results of correlation analysis indicated that the interactions between fabric
characteristics of double knitted fabrics were different from that of single knitted
fabrics. It agreed to the comments of Gambichler et al. [145, 329], about the difficulty
in the generalization of comparison between various fabric parameters of a group of
fabric samples to another group of fabric samples. For instance, generalization of the
multivariate relationships between fabric characteristics from single knitted fabrics to
double knitted fabrics. It is because various stitch types exhibited distinct impacts on
the fabric characteristics for these two types of knitted fabrics.
164
6.5.4 Factor analysis and multiple linear regression analysis of bleached double
knitted fabrics
The highly correlated fabric characteristics were combined in FA to form subsets of
factors. The results of FA showed that the correlation between extracted factors was
below 3 (r = 0.041) which met the assumption of orthogonal factor solution. The factor
loadings of extracted factor were then rotated by orthogonal (varimax) method and the
results are shown in Table 6-10. The result of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin verified sampling
adequacy for analysis (KMO = 0.6) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated
correlations between items were adequately large for FA (χ2 (15) = 183.85, p ≤ 0.05).
Table 6-10. Factor analysis results of bleached double knitted fabrics
Factor Score Coefficients Rotated Factor Loadings

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 1 Factor 2 Communality
Thickness -0.027 0.899 0.027 0.995 0.990
Weight 0.213 0.105 0.972 0.151 0.968
Stitch density 0.204 -0.128 0.897 -0.109 0.817
Tightness factor 0.204 0.149 0.940 0.199 0.923
Air permeability 0.213 0.053 0.965 0.094 0.940
Fabric porosity -0.222 0.210 -0.963 0.197 0.966
Variance (%) - - 74.9% 18.5% -
The principal components extraction method identified the presence of two
components (factors) with eigenvalue ≥ 1. The communality values for all variables
are high (> 0.7) indicating variance of fabric characteristic could be largely explained
by the factors. The two extracted factors accounted for 93.4% of total variance of the
fabric characteristics. Factor 1 is characterized by high positive loadings on fabric
weight, stitch density, tightness factor, air permeability, and high negative loading on
165
fabric porosity. Factor 1 explained 74.9% of the standardized variance of fabric
characteristics examined. Factor 2 is characterized by high positive loadings on fabric
thickness only since other fabric characteristics mostly contributed to factor 1, thus
factor 2 only contributed 18.5% to the variance of fabric characteristics. The factor
score coefficients were used for calculating factor score, which were then used as the
data of independent variables. The two factors extracted by FA are the independent
variables for estimating the dependent variable, UPF of the bleached double knitted
fabrics. The results of MLR are summarized in Table 6-11. Unlike the results of single
knitted fabrics, both factor 1 and factor 2 were retained in model 2 for estimating UPF.
Table 6-11. Multiple regression analysis results of bleached double knitted fabrics
Unstandardized Standard Durbin- Collinearity Statistics
Model coefficients error t-value Sig. Watson Tolerance VIF
1 (Factor 1) 7.065 0.436 16.203 0.000 - 1.000 1.000
Constant 15.976 0.424 37.703 0.000 - -
2 (Factor 1) 7.065 0.286 24.724 0.000 1.273 1.000 1.000
(Factor 2) 1.348 0.286 4.717 0.000 1.000 1.000
Constant 15.976 0.278 57.528 0.000 - -
Model 1 (Factor 1): R2 = 0.943; Adjusted R2 = 0.931 (Stein’s Formula); F1,16 = 262.553, p ≤ 0.05.
Model 2 (Factor 1 & 2): R2 = 0.977; Adjusted R2 = 0.968 (Stein’s Formula); F1,15 = 316.754, p ≤ 0.05.
The collinearity statistics indicated absence of multicollinearity (Tolerance = 1.00 and
VIF = 1.00) and the value of Durbin-Watson is close to 2 denoting assumption of
independent error was tenable. There are two models generated wherein model 2 (F1,15
= 316.754, p ≤ 0.05) is better than model 1 (F1,16 = 262.553, p ≤ 0.05) in improving
the ability for estimating UPF as indicated by larger F-ratio of model 2. Model 2
obtained a higher R2 than model 1 denoting more variance in UPF was explained by
166
model 2. Model 2 contained both factor 1 and factor 2 which combined for explaining
97.7% of the variance of UPF of bleached double knitted fabrics. Factor 2 is mainly
characterized by fabric thickness while factor 1 is contributed by the other five fabric
characteristics. The small difference between R2 and adjusted R2 (by Stein’s formula)
implied that the predictive power of model 2 remained large if it is generalized (cross-
validation of the model) [290, 297].
Factor 1 made a significant contribution to the model as verified by the significant
coefficients which were evaluated by t-test. The values of unstandardized coefficients
of these two factors also entailed factor 1 made a larger contribution to the model than
factor 2 since model 1 involved most of the fabric characteristics with high factor
loadings. From the results of FA and MLR, a model for estimating UPF of bleached
double knitted fabrics from the fabric characteristics was developed. Since UPF was
normalized by natural logarithm transformation, the simplified equation of model 2 is
expressed by Equation 6-2 whilst Equation 6-3 shows the distribution of fabric
characteristics in factor 1 and factor 2 for estimating ln UPF. Equation 6-2 and
Equation 6-3 are identical in nature but differ in the form of dependent variable.
Equation 6-4 shows the distribution of fabric characteristics after combing the
common factors in Equation 6-3.
[15.976+7.065(𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 1)+1.348(𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 2)]

UPF = 𝑊𝑊
Equation 6-2
167
ln 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐹𝐹 = 15.976 + 7.065 [(−0.222 ∙ 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) + (0.213 ∙ 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡) + (0.213
∙ 𝐴𝐴𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) + (0.204 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓) +
∙ 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) − (0.027 ∙ 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)] + 1.348[(0.899 ∙ 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)
+ (0.21 ∙ 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) + (0.149 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓) − (0.128

(0.204
∙ 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) + (0.105 ∙ 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡) + (0.053 ∙ 𝐴𝐴𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝)] 6-3
Equation
ln 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐹𝐹 = 15.976 + (1.646 ∙ 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡) + (1.642 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)
+ (1.576 ∙ 𝐴𝐴𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) − (1.285 ∙ 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 𝑝𝑝𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝)
+ (1.268 ∙ 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝) + (1.021 ∙ 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)

Equation 6-4
From Equation 6-4, fabric weight, tightness factor and air permeability have high
contribution to estimation of ln UPF of bleached double knitted fabrics. It implied that
increments of these fabric characteristics would mostly improve UPF of bleached
double knitted fabrics. The reduction in fabric porosity and increments of stitch density
and fabric thickness also contribute to UV protection of double knitted fabrics.
However, the impacts of these fabric characteristics on UPF are smaller than the first
three fabric characteristics in Equation 6-4. The results of correlation analysis in Table
6-9 also show that fabric weight, tightness factor and air permeability correlated
positively with each other with significant and strong strength of the correlations.
Similar to the results of single knitted fabrics (Equation 6-1), the UV protection of
bleached double knitted fabrics could be significantly improved by increasing the
fabric weight, tightness factor and air permeability (air resistance). The double knitted
fabrics incorporated with miss stitches and produced in interlock gating obtained
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higher weight, tightness factor and air permeability (air resistance) than other double
knit structures incorporated with tuck stitches, and with knit stitches. This connoted
that compact fabric structures for blocking UVR effectively could be produced with
miss stitches or in interlock gating, for example, the Milano structures and interlock.
The higher fabric weight denoted that there are more fibers per unit area of fabric for
absorbing UVR. Both tightness factor and air permeability implicated the fabric
compactness and the density of fibers within the fabric structure. Shorter loop length
indicated that the yarns were packed closely together according to the fabric
construction. Tightness factor has a slightly larger impact on UPF of double knitted
fabrics than air permeability. From the results in Chapter 5, air permeability might not
fully explain UPF of fabrics because the momentum of airflow could bend away the
fibers from the flow path [89]. Nevertheless, air permeability and tightness factor both
have large contributions in estimation of UV protection of bleached double knitted
fabrics since these fabric characteristics have direct indication of the fabric
compactness and the extent of inter-yarn space for UVR transmission.
6.6 Conclusion
The influences of knitted fabric construction on UV protection of bleached cotton
single knitted and double knitted fabrics were studied comprehensively. The stitch
types for producing different knit structures exhibited large impacts on UPF as well as
the fabric characteristics including fabric weight, thickness, stitch density, tightness
factor, air permeability, and fabric porosity.
Miss stitches endowed the fabric with compact structure for blocking UVR while tuck
stitches provided porous structure allowing more UVR transmission. The effects of
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miss stitches and tuck stitches on UPF increased with their proportions within the
fabric construction. The impact of stitch types was more prominent on UPF of double
knitted fabrics than on UPF of single knitted fabrics. In the double knitted fabrics, the
gating (position of needle-beds) exhibited a significant influence on UPF. The results
of factor analysis and multiple linear regression analysis revealed that different fabric
characteristics contributed distinctively in the UV protection of single knitted and
double knitted fabrics respectively. Among the fabric characteristics, fabric weight
was found to be the most important fabric parameter contributing UV protection of
both bleached single knitted and double knitted fabrics since it reflects the amount of
fibers for absorbing UVR directly. Tightness factor and air permeability were also
found to have large contributions to UV protection of knitted fabrics. The single
knitted and double knitted fabrics with miss stitches and for double knitted fabrics
produced in interlock gating produced compact structures and heavy fabric, which
could improve UV protection significantly.
The fabric construction controls the arrangement of yarns and distribution of fibers
within the fabric layer. Different stitch types and their proportions within the fabric
structure significantly influenced fabric compactness and fabric weight, which in turn
affected the amount of UVR being absorbed, reflected, scattered and transmitted. The
results of this chapter emphasized the importance of fabric construction on UV
protection of knitted fabrics.
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CHAPTER 7 INFLUENCE OF COLOR ON UV PROTECTION
Chapter 7 Influence of Color on UV Protection
7.1 Introduction
Bleached cotton knitted fabrics provided very weak UV protection and only bleached
knitted fabrics with a more compact structure would obtain rateable UV protection.
Coloration can enhance UV protection of fabrics considerably. Most of the dyes have
the absorption bands extended from visible band of electromagnetic spectrum into
invisible UV spectrum. This chapter composed of four main parts. The first part
compared the effects of color depths and knit structures on the UV protection (UPF)
and color strength (K/Ssum) of single knitted and double knitted fabrics. The second
part studied the influences of different colors and color depths on UPF and K/Ssum of
knitted fabrics. The third part investigated the impact of chemical structure of reactive
dyes on UPF and K/Ssum. The fourth part analyzed the relationships between UPF and
color properties (K/Ssum, CIE L*a*b* coordinates, C*).
7.2 Effects of color depth and knit structures on UPF and K/Ssum
Single knitted and double knitted fabrics were dyed into four colors (blue, red, yellow,
black) with three concentrations (0.1%, 1%, 3%) and details of dyes are shown in
Table 3-3. The results of UPF and K/Ssum for each color were analyzed by factorial
ANOVA.
7.2.1 UPF and K/Ssum of single knitted fabrics
UPF and K/Ssum of fabrics significantly increased with concentration of dyes (color
depth) for all the colors examined as shown from Figure 7-1 to Figure 7-4. The higher
concentration of dyestuff used for coloring fabrics implied that there were more dye
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molecules within the fabric for absorbing UVR and visible light, thus UPF and color
strength (K/Ssum) increased with color depth.
Figure 7-1. UPF and K/Ssum of blue single knitted fabrics
Figure 7-2. UPF and K/Ssum of red single knitted fabrics
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Figure 7-3. UPF and K/Ssum of yellow single knitted fabrics
Figure 7-4. UPF and K/Ssum of black single knitted fabric
The results of factorial ANOVA in Table 7-1 showed that the effects of single knit
structures and concentration (color depth) were significant on UPF and K/Ssum for
most colors examined. It indicated that there were significant differences in UV
protection and color strength between knit structures and fabrics dyed at different color
depths. Dye concentration had larger effect sizes (ω2) than single knit structures for
173
UPF and K/Ssum in all colors. It denoted that color depth had a greater impact on the
variation of UPF and K/Ssum than single knit structures. The result agreed with the
study of Wilson et al., which found that UVR transmittance of fabric was affected by
dyeing in a larger extent than the variations in fabric properties [120].
concentration on UPF and K/Ssum of single knitted fabrics
Dependent Strength
2
Colors variables Independent variables F-test p-value ω of effect
Blue UPF Single knit structures F3,24 = 146.78 0.000 0.225 Large
Dye concentration F2,24 = 696.07 0.000 0.716 Large
Interaction F6,24 = 20.209 0.000 0.059 Medium
K/Ssum Single knit structures F3,24 = 7.31 0.001 0.000 Small

Interaction F6,24 = 1.47 0.232NS - -
Red UPF Single knit structures F3,24 = 36.82 0.000 0.155 Large
Interaction F6,24 = 2.40 0.059NS - -

Interaction F6,24 = 0.18 0.981NS - -
Yellow UPF Single knit structures F3,24 = 61.71 0.000 0.261 Large
Interaction F6,24 = 1.59 0.195NS - -
K/Ssum Single knit structures F3,24 = 1.41 0.265NS - -

Interaction F6,24 = 2.23 0.075NS - -
Black UPF Single knit structures F3,24 = 120.47 0.000 0.216 Large

Interaction F6,24 = 1.07 0.408NS - -
NS Effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is non-significant at 0.05 confidence level.
From previous results, UPF of various single knit structures in bleached state were
similar and only the fabric structures with miss stitches had higher UPF than other
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single knit structures. After coloration, UV protection of these single knitted fabrics
were largely improved which had already changed from non-rateable to very good and
excellent UV protection for the fabrics dyed at 0.1% concentration. The single knit
structures obtained excellent UV protection when dyed at 1% and 3% concentrations
for all colors. The effect of stitch types on UPF was more apparent in colored fabrics
than in bleached fabrics. Similar to the results of bleached single knitted fabrics, the
colored knit & miss (50%) and knit & miss (25%) generally obtained higher UPF than
all knit and knit & tuck as shown from Figure 7-1 to Figure 7-4.
However, the effect of single knit structures on color strength (K/Ssum) was found to
be small or non-significant among the four colors. The results of K/Ssum showed that
the effect size of dye concentration is larger than single knit structures for the four
colors. The four figures also showed that the single knit structures had similar K/Ssum
at each concentration level. The calculation of K/Ssum is based on the amount of light
reflected from opaque objects (fabrics) which related to the amount of colorants on
fabrics. Fabrics with higher color depth reflected less light from surface and resulted
in higher K/Ssum. Although the single knit structures had distinct property in UVR
transmittance, there was small difference in the reflection of visible light.
Fabric constructions determined the arrangement of yarns and fibers, and thereby
affected the amount of fabric pores within the fabric. In the colored fabrics, the fabric
structure controlled the distribution of dye molecules by the arrangement of yarns.
When the yarns were packed more closely such as in knit & miss (25%) and knit &
miss (50%), more dye molecules were centralized for absorbing UVR. In contrast, the
yarns of knit & tuck encompassing similar amount of dyes as the knit & miss
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structures, were distributed distantly and thus UVR transmitted through the fabric
pores. The results entailed that even two fabrics had same hue and color depth, UV
protection of the fabrics could be differed considerably because of distinct fabric
structures.
Moreover, the significant interaction between single knit structure and dye
concentration on UPF denoted that the effect of color depth on UPF differed among
knit structures. The magnitude of improvement of UV protection by dye concentration
was different among the single knit structures. All the four colors exhibited this
phenomenon whilst blue fabrics and black fabrics showed prominent differences in
UPF across the levels of concentration as illustrated in Figure 7-1 and Figure 7-4. For
example, UPF of blue all knit and blue knit & tuck increased by 86% and 41%
respectively from 1% to 3% concentrations, in contrast, UPF of blue knit & miss
(25%) and blue knit & miss (50%) increased by 286% and 282% respectively. This
implied that even small increase in dye concentration led to remarkable improvement
in UV protection for more compact fabric structures. The results corresponded to the
study of Riva et al. in which UV protection of woven fabrics with a more compact
structure was improved with small increment of color depth [117]. Knit & miss (25%)
and knit & miss (50%) fabrics dyed at 1% concentration obtained similar UPF to knit
& tuck and all knit fabrics dyed at 3% concentration in all the four colors. It revealed
that fabrics with more compact structure could reinforce the UV protection at a lower
dye concentration. However, fabrics with more porous structure relied on higher
concentration of dyestuff to achieve similar UV protection as those compact fabric
structures.
176
Among the results of four colors, the boosting effect of dye concentration on UPF by
the incorporation of miss stitches into fabrics was more apparent in blue and black
fabrics. The blue fabrics and black fabrics obtained relatively higher K/Ssum at each
concentration level than that of red fabrics and yellow fabrics. The fabrics with darker
colors possessed better UV protection than the fabrics with lighter colors. The effects
of hues and concentration on UV protection are discussed in the second part of this
chapter. The results evinced that coloration improved UV protection of bleached
fabrics considerably which even dyed at 0.1% concentration could achieve very good
to excellent UV protection. The single knitted fabrics with miss stitches obtained
higher UPF at a lower color depth than the fabrics with knit stitches or tuck stitches
dyed at a higher color depth because of the porous fabric structure allowing more UVR
transmission.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that any fabric allowed less than 2.5% of effective
UVR transmission passing through it, would achieve excellent UV protection (UPF
range: 40 – 50, 50+) according to the Australian/New Zealand Standard for
categorizing UV protection of fabric [32]. When the UVR transmission dropped below
2%, UPF would increase dramatically with small reductions in transmission because
of the reciprocal nature of UPF calculation [32, 55, 138]. Since knit & miss (25%) and
knit & miss (50%) had approximately obtained UPF ≥ 50 after dyeing at 0.1%
concentration, the small reduction in UVR transmission by dyeing at a higher
concentration had led to dramatic increases in UPF. Although the difference in UPF
of these two structures between the 1% and 3% concentration levels was very large,
the actual difference in UVR transmission was small. The compact fabric structure
produced by miss stitches had already blocked large amount of UVR and therefore, it
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resulted in a small variation in UVR transmission even the amount of dye on the
fabrics had increased. This implied that a fabric with compact structure would provide
sufficient UV protection at a lighter color depth (using fewer dyes) while a fabric with
porous structure could achieve similar UV protection when it was dyed at a higher
color depth.
7.2.2 UPF and K/Ssum of double knitted fabrics
UPF and K/Ssum of double knitted fabrics also increased significantly with color depth
as shown from Figure 7-5 to Figure 7-8. UV protection of colored double knitted
fabrics was generally better than the colored single knitted fabrics. The average UPF
at 0.1% concentration level for the colored single knitted fabrics and colored double
knitted fabrics were UPF 50.5 and UPF 240.7 respectively. The bleached double
knitted fabrics were generally thicker and heavier than the bleached single knitted
fabrics. Therefore, the double fabric layers of colored double knitted fabrics
encompassed more dye molecules for absorbing UVR than the single layer of colored
single knitted fabrics.
However, some double knit structures obtained UPF similar to that of colored single
knitted fabrics at 0.1% dye concentration level, including 1x1 rib, half cardigan, and
full cardigan. At 0.1% dye concentration level, UPF values of these double knit
structures (ranged from UPF 25.3 to 92.9) are similar to that of colored single knitted
fabrics (ranged from UPF 25.7 to 80.6). The result resembled the results of bleached
fabrics in which these three double knit structures also possessed UPF as low as that
of single knitted fabrics.
178
Figure 7-5. UPF and K/Ssum of blue double knitted fabrics
Figure 7-6. UPF and K/Ssum of red double knitted fabrics
179
Figure 7-7. UPF and K/Ssum of yellow double knitted fabrics
Figure 7-8. UPF and K/Ssum of black double knitted fabrics
The results revealed that the fabrics with porous structure could obtain lower UV
protection even dyed at a higher color depth than the fabrics with relatively compact
structure dyed at lower color depth. It is because UVR could transmit through the large
inter-yarn space even the yarns contained high amount of dye molecules. UVR
absorbing ability imparted by dye molecules was greatly reduced because the colored
180
yarns were distributed distantly. The fabrics with colored yarns packed closely had
more dye molecules centralized for absorbing UVR and there were fewer inter-yarn
spaces for UVR transmission, thus higher UPF was acquired even though the fabrics
were dyed in a lighter color depth. For instance, UPF of red full cardigan dyed at 1%
concentration (UPF 83.5) was lower than red 1x1 rib dyed at 0.1% concentration (UPF
92.9) as shown in Figure 7-6. This denoted that improvement of UV protection by
coloration was more effective on compact fabric structure and only a small amount of
dye would endow the fabric with sufficient UV protection.
Besides, the colored 1x1 rib had generally better UV protection than the colored half
cardigan whereas these two fabric structures obtained similar UV protection in the
bleached state. The result might be ascribed to the fabric shrinkage in dyeing process.
Tuck stitches in the cardigan structures restricted the movement of yarn in dyeing
process because of the overlap of tuck loops and held loops. 1x1 rib was more
extensible and thereby experienced more dimensional changes in dyeing process than
half cardigan. Since there were more fabric pores closed by fabric shrinkage, 1x1 rib
obtained generally higher UPF than half cardigan in all the four colors.
The effect of stitch types was more prominent on UPF of colored double knitted
fabrics than the colored single knitted fabrics as attested by results of factorial
ANOVA as shown in Table 7-2. The impact of double knit structures on UPF was
larger than dye concentration as indicated by larger effect size (ω2) in the four colors.
The results were contrary to that in colored single knitted fabrics with dye
concentration having larger ω2 than single knit structures for UPF. The results denoted
that differences in UPF among various double knit structures were larger than the
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differences in UPF between the three concentrations in some structures.
concentration on UPF and K/Ssum of double knitted fabrics
Dependent Strength
2
Colors variables Independent variables F-test p-value ω of effect
Blue UPF Double knit structures F5,36 = 915.60 0.000 0.499 Large
K/Ssum Double knit structures F5,36 = 12.90 0.000 0.000 Small

Interaction F10,24 = 1.46 0.196NS - -
Red UPF Double knit structures F5,36 = 1405.78 0.000 0.767 Large

Interaction F10,24 = 3.27 0.004 0.001 Small
Yellow UPF Double knit structures F5,36 = 491.95 0.000 0.542 Large

Black UPF Double knit structures F5,36 = 812.43 0.000 0.668 Large

From Figure 7-5 to Figure 7-8, there were more double knit structures obtained similar
UPF at 1% and 3% dye concentration levels when compared to that of single knitted
fabrics having distinct UPF across the three concentration levels. Since half Milano,
full Milano, and interlock had already acquired excellent UV protection at 0.1% dye
182
concentration in the four colors, reduction in UVR transmission caused by increasing
dye concentration had induced dramatic increases in UPF from 0.1% to 1% dye
concentration levels. Although the fabrics dyed at 3% dye concentration obtained
higher color strength (K/Ssum) than fabrics dyed at 1% dye concentration, similar UPF
of them indicated that there was small difference in UVR transmission between these
compact fabric structures. The compact fabric structures dyed with a lower color depth
could achieve similar UV protection to the same fabric with a higher color depth. The
result inferred the potential for reducing usage of dyestuff and auxiliaries if similar or
better UV protection could be provided by fabrics with compact structure dyed in
lighter shades.
Another important result in Table 7-2 was the significant interaction effect on UPF
between the double knit structure and dye concentration in all four colors, with a
medium strength of the effect. In the colored single knitted fabrics, only the blue and
black fabrics obtained significant interaction effect on UPF (Table 7-1). The
significant interaction effect implied that different double knit structures had distinct
trends of UPF increment across the levels of dye concentration. For instance, yellow
full cardigan (Figure 7-7) had UPF increased by 164% and 102% across the two pairs
of concentrations levels (0.1% to 1%, and 1% to 3%) respectively. On the other hand,
yellow half Milano had a dramatic increase in UPF by 498% from 0.1% to 1%
concentration levels but a small increase in UPF by 10% from 1% to 3% concentration
levels. Since any reduction in UVR transmission below 2.5% would bring dramatic
increase in UPF, the yellow half Milano had already obtained excellent UV protection
(UPF 141.1) at 0.1% concentration level and further reduction in UVR transmission
caused by increasing dye concentration had led to dramatic increase in UPF. However,
183
the yellow full cardigan only obtained excellent UV protection at 1% concentration
level (UPF 67.0). Therefore, the UPF increment of half Milano was more dramatic
than that of full cardigan across the three levels of dye concentration.
At 0.1% dye concentration level, half Milano, full Milano and interlock obtained
excellent UV protection (UPF 40 – 50, 50+) in all colors; 1x1 rib and half cardigan
acquired excellent UV protection in blue, red and black fabrics; while full cardigan
obtained UPF that could be marginally categorized as excellent UV protection in black
fabric only (UPF 40.3). The result denoted that even a lighter colored fabric such as in
yellow could provide better UV protection than a black fabric if the fabric structure
was compact enough for blocking UVR. This phenomenon was more prominent in the
colored double knitted fabrics than that in single knitted fabrics. For instance, the
yellow fabrics with Milano or interlock structures obtained higher UPF (average UPF
= 214.5) than black fabrics with 1x1 rib or cardigan structures (average UPF = 59.7)
at 0.1% dye concentration level. In the single knitted fabrics, yellow knit & miss (25%)
and yellow knit & miss (50%) had similar UPF (average UPF = 49.5) to black all knit
and knit & tuck (average UPF = 40.8) at 0.1% concentration level.
Similar to the results of single knitted fabrics, the variation of K/Ssum of double knitted
fabrics was largely affected by dye concentration (larger ω2) rather than by double knit
structures as indicated in Table 7-2. The differences in K/Ssum between the double knit
structures were relatively smaller when compared to the differences in UPF between
various single knit structures. At each dye concentration level, various double knit
structures exhibited distinct UV protection but similar color strength. This denoted
that amount of visible light reflected from various double knitted fabrics dyed with
184
same hue and concentration is similar; even these fabrics had very unlike fabric
structures. Therefore, the inference of UV protection by color strength would only be
tenable for fabrics with similar fabric constructions.
Although there were double fabric layers in double knitted fabrics for blocking UVR,
arrangement of yarns and distribution of fibers had affected UV protection. The yarns
of the cardigan structures were distributed distantly because of the straightening of
tuck stitches, which created larger inter-yarn space for UVR transmission. Therefore,
UVR transmitted through the fabric pores directly even though the yarns of cardigan
fabrics were dyed in black or dark colors. On the other hand, the Milano structures and
interlock had compact structure because of the miss stitches and interlock gating
respectively. The colored yarns were packed closely together on both sides of fabrics
and thereby more dye molecules were centralized for absorbing UVR together with
smaller inter-yarn space for UVR transmission. The results revealed that fabrics with
lighter color would achieve better UV protection than fabrics with darker color
because of the compactness of fabric.
7.3 Effects of color and color depth on UPF
The influences of variation of colors and color depths on UPF of knitted fabrics were
studied with factorial ANOVA. The UPF values were averaged from the single knitted
and double knitted fabrics dyed in four colors and three concentration (0.1%, 1%, and
3%) in order to minimize the impacts of fabric construction on UPF. The results of
factorial ANOVA are listed in Table 7-3 and the mean UPF of fabrics in each color
and color depth are shown in Figure 7-9.
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Table 7-3. Factorial ANOVA results of impacts of color and color depth on UPF of
knitted fabrics
Dependent variable Independent variables F-test p-value ω2
UPF Color F3,348 = 1.73 0.160NS -
Color depth F2,348 = 44.69 0.000 1.002
Interaction F6,348 = 0.22 0.970NS -
NS Effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is non-significant at 0.05
confidence level.
800
619.7
600 555.2 573.4
485.1
406.1 408.3 410.0
MeanUPF
400 336.7
207.7 209.1
200 151.8
89.9
0
0.1% 1% 3% 0.1% 1% 3% 0.1% 1% 3% 0.1% 1% 3%
Blue Red Yellow Black
Colors and color depths (%)
Figure 7-9. Mean UPF of colored knitted fabrics at different color depths
From Figure 7-9, fabrics with dark colors had generally higher mean UPF than the
fabrics with light colors in which yellow fabrics obtained relatively lower mean UPF
than other colors at each color depth. The results agreed with other studies which
proved that yellow as a lighter color offered lower UV protection to fabrics than other
colors [75, 76, 129, 133-135, 146, 150], however, it was assumed that the fabrics had
similar fabric constructions. In the results of previous section, the yellow fabrics with
compact fabric structures had better UV protection than the black fabrics with porous
structures at the same color depth or even a higher color depth. Therefore,
generalization on UV protection of fabrics based on color only might be inappropriate
regardless of the fabric characteristics such as fabric porosity and fabric weight.
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Besides, the differences in UPF between the four colors at each color depth were
identified as non-significant (F3,348 = 1.73, p > 0.05) as shown in Table 7-3. This
connoted that UV protection of fabrics could not be fully construed by the color of
fabrics only. Perception of color is based on the selective absorption capacity in visible
band of electromagnetic spectrum (380 – 770 nm). On the other hand, UV protection
offered by dye is based on the position and intensity of absorption in invisible UV
spectrum, which is determined by the chemical structure of dye molecules. The study
of Srinivasan and Gatewood also found that fabric dyed with black direct dyes did not
necessarily provide the best UV protection when compared to fabrics dyed with red,
blue, green, and brown direct dyes [153].
In contrary to the non-significant effect of variation in color on UPF, color depth
obtained a significant effect on UPF of knitted fabrics (F2,348 = 44.69, p ≤ 0.05) as
shown in Table 7-3. It entailed that variation of UPF of fabrics was strongly affected
by the increment of color depth. The result corresponded to other studies, which also
found that color depth had a greater impact on UV protection of fabrics than the color
of fabrics [120, 152-155]. UV protection of fabrics was improved significantly by
applying more dyes on the fabrics as there were more dyes responding for UVR
absorption. From Figure 7-9, the differences in mean UPF across the three
concentration levels were much larger than the differences between the four colors at
each concentration level. However, the effect of improvement in UPF by the increment
of color depth was more remarkable on fabrics with relatively porous structures,
according to the results in previous section. It is because the fabrics with compact
fabric structure had fewer inter-yarn spaces for UVR transmission and adding more
dyes on it would not significantly reduce UVR transmission. In contrast, the fabrics
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with porous structures relied on higher amount of dye for achieving similar UV
protection as the fabrics with compact structures.
Moreover, the non-significant interaction between color and color depth (F6,348 = 0.22,
p > 0.05) as shown in Table 7-3, indicated that impact of color depth on UPF did not
vary with the colors of fabrics. This denoted that the trend of improvement in UPF by
increment of dye concentration did not differ significantly among the colors of fabric.
The color perceived is depicted by the absorption property in visible spectrum while
UV protection virtually depends on the intensity and position of absorption in UV
spectrum. Increasing the dye concentration would not alter the unique absorption
characteristics in UV spectrum that is determined by the chemical structure of dyes,
but would provide more UVR absorbing dye molecules within the fabric. This implied
that UV protection enhanced by color depth (dye concentration) is a quantitative
approach.
Although fabrics with darker shades generally provided better UV protection, it might
increase body heat by infrared radiation and make the wearers feel unpleasant under
hot condition. When dye molecules absorbed UVR, the electronic excitation energy
converted into vibrational energy in the dye molecule, and thereby thermal energy is
generated and transferred to surrounding. Therefore, light or pastel colors still
dominates summer-wear market since these colors would accumulate less heat energy
within the fabric. The color and UV protection of dyes on fabrics depend on different
absorption positions and intensities in visible and invisible spectrums respectively,
which are governed by chemical structure of dyes. Generalization on UV protection
based on color of fabrics only might be inappropriate regardless of the fabric
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characteristics or UVR absorption property depicted by the chemical structure of dyes.
7.4 Effect of chemical structures of reactive dye on UPF and K/Ssum
The effect of chemical structures of reactive dye on UV protection (UPF) and color
strength (K/Ssum) of fabrics was studied. The fabrics produced by circular knitting
machines with single knit and double knit structures were dyed with nine reactive dyes
varying in colors and reactive functional groups of dye molecules (Table 3-4). Three
colors and two concentrations (0.1% and 1%) for each color were used for dyeing.
UPF and K/Ssum values of the colored fabrics in different knit structures and color
depths were averaged for minimizing the influences of fabric construction. One-way
ANOVA was performed on each color of fabrics and results are shown in Table 7-4.
Table 7-4. One-way ANOVA results of the effect of chemical structures of reactive
dye on UPF and K/Ssum of knitted fabrics
Independent variables Dependent
Color (Reactive functional groups) variables F-test p-value ω2
Blue Monofluorotriazine (MFT)1 UPF F2,141 = 21.45 0.000 0.221
Vinyl sulphone–vinyl sulphone (VS –VS)2 K/Ssum F2,141 = 28.03 0.000 0.273
Fluorochloropyrimidine–vinyl sulphone (FCP–VS)3
Red Fluorochloropyrimidine (FCP)1 UPF F2,141 = 3.363 0.037 0.032

Monofluorotriazine (MFT)1 K/Ssum F2,141 = 1.358 0.261NS -
Monofluorotriazine–fluorochloropyrimidine (MFT–TFP)3
Yellow Dichlorochinoxaline (DCC)1 UPF F2,141 = 5.58 0.005 0.060

Vinyl sulphone (VS)1 K/Ssum F2,141 = 9.69 0.000 0.108
Monochlorotriazine–vinyl sulphone (MCT–VS)3
1
Monofunctional reactive dye; 2Homo-bifunctional reactive dye; 3Hetero-bifunctional reactive dye.
The results showed that there were significant differences in UPF and K/Ssum between
the fabrics dyed with different reactive functional groups (reactive groups) in most
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colors, however, there was non-significant difference in K/Ssum between the reactive
groups of red fabrics. The chemical structure of dyes (reactive groups) had a larger
impact on K/Ssum than on UPF of blue and yellow fabrics. Reactive groups of dye
molecule are responsible for reacting with hydroxyl groups of cellulose. Variations in
the amount or reactivity of reactive groups of dye molecule would affect reaction
between dyes and cotton, and thereby influence the color strength of fabrics.
From Figure 7-10 to Figure 7-12, the fabrics dyed with bifunctional reactive dyes
generally achieved higher K/Ssum than the fabrics dyed with monofunctional reactive
dyes. Bifunctional reactive dyes possess two reactive groups and have higher chances
for dye-fiber bond formation during fixation (higher fixation efficiency), when
compared to monofunctional reactive dyes containing one reactive group. Since the
reactive groups of dye molecule react with hydroxyl groups of cellulose by forming
strong covalent bond, it offers high endurance to washing (good color-fastness).
Therefore, the fabrics dyed with bifunctional reactive dyes generally obtained higher
color strength than the fabrics dyed with monofunctional reactive dyes.
Figure 7-10. UPF and K/Ssum of blue knitted fabrics
190
Figure 7-11. UPF and K/Ssum of red knitted fabrics
Figure 7-12. UPF and K/Ssum of yellow knitted fabrics
From Figure 7-10, blue fabrics dyed with hetero-bifunctional reactive dye (FCP-VS)
obtained higher K/Ssum and UPF than the fabrics dyed with homo-bifunctional reactive
dye (VS-VS). Homo-bifunctional reactive dyes possess two identical reactive groups
while hetero-bifunctional reactive dyes contain two reactive groups differing in
reactivity with cellulose under optimal application conditions. Consequently, hetero-
bifunctional reactive dyes are relatively less sensitive to fluctuations in dyeing
temperature, electrolyte concentration, liquor ratio, and pH condition. The hetero-
bifunctional reactive dye (FCP-VS) offered diverse approaches for forming bonds
with cellulose when compared to the homo-bifunctional reactive dye (VS-VS). The
fluorochloropyrimidine (FCP) reactive group of hetero-bifunctional reactive dye
reacts with cellulose by nucleophilic substitution of a liable fluorine while the vinyl
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sulphone (VS) reactive group reacts with cellulose by nucleophilic addition through
carbon-carbon double bonds. Moreover, FCP has a higher reactivity than VS and thus
FCP could form covalent bonds with cellulose at lower temperatures while the fiber-
dye bond formation with VS occurred at higher temperatures. These reactive groups
thereby reacted with cellulose over a wider range of temperature when compared to
the identical reactive groups in VS-VS reactive dye. The difference in reactivity of
reactive groups favored dye fixation on cotton, thus FCP-VS reactive dye offered blue
fabrics higher color strength and better UV protection than the fabrics dyed with VS-
VS reactive dye since more dye molecules were fixed on fabric for absorbing UVR.
Although the bifunctional reactive dyes could endow fabrics with higher color strength
than monofunctional reactive dyes, blue fabrics dyed with the monofunctional reactive
dyes (MFT) obtained similar UPF to the fabric dyed with homo-bifunctional reactive
dye (VS-VS) as shown in Figure 7-10 (p > 0.05, NS). Since there were two reactive
groups in VS-VS dye, the chance for dye-fiber formation increased and resulted in
higher K/Ssum (60.1) than MFT dyed fabrics (17.5). However, the high color strength
did not offer the fabric higher UV protection for VS-VS dyed fabrics. Similar UPF
obtained by MFT dye and VS-VS dye was ascribed to the chemical structure of
reactive groups of these dyes. Monofluorotriazine (MFT) consists of a heterocyclic
carbon-nitrogen ring with leaving groups attaching to the ring carbon atom as shown
in Table 2-3, whereas vinyl sulphone (VS) is an aliphatic compound (—SO2CH=CH2).
From the results in Chapter 4, the fibers with chemical structure containing aromatic
compounds generally possessed stronger UVR absorption ability than the fibers with
aliphatic compounds, for instance, polyester with aromatic rings obtained higher UPF
than nylon with aliphatic polyamide structure. The result is attested by the difference
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in UVR transmission of fabrics dyed with these reactive dyes as shown in Figure 7-13.
16
MFT FCP-VS VS-VS
14
12
UVRtransmission(%)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 7-13. UVR transmission of blue knitted fabrics
The MFT dyed fabrics exhibited relatively higher transmission in UVA region (315 –
400 nm) but lower transmission in UVB region (290 – 315 nm) than the VS-VS dyed
fabrics. Since UPF depends primarily on UVB transmission because of the higher
relative erythemal spectral effectiveness in UVB region than that in UVA region, MFT
dyed fabrics obtained slightly higher UPF than the VS-VS dyed fabrics. The result
showed that different reactive groups of dyes have unique position and intensity of
absorption in UV spectrum, therefore, UV protection offered by dyes is determined
not only by color strength but also the chemical structure of dye.
From Table 7-4, the red fabrics obtained a significant effect on UPF but a non-
significant effect of reactive functional group on K/Ssum. It means that the fabrics dyed
with different reactive groups of dyes exhibited similar color strength but distinct UV
protection. From Figure 7-11, the fabrics dyed with hetero-bifunctional reactive dye
(MFT-TFP) obtained higher K/Ssum and UPF than the fabrics dyed with the other two
monofunctional reactive dyes (FCP, MFT). Since MFT-TFP dye contains one more
193
reactive group for forming covalent bonds with cellulose, it has a higher fixation
efficiency which endowed the fabrics with higher color strength and better UV
protection than the fabrics dyed with monofunctional reactive dyes.
The fabrics dyed with the two monofunctional reactive dyes (FCP, MFT) obtained
similar K/Ssum. However, MFT dyed fabrics exhibited slightly stronger color strength
(K/Ssum = 43.6) than the FCP dyed fabrics (K/Ssum = 36.6) although the difference was
identified as non-significant by the simple effects test (p > 0.05, NS). In general,
pyrimidine reactive dye type (e.g. FCP) is less reactive than triazine reactive dye type
(e.g. MFT) upon nucleophilic substitution [174]. However, FCP possessed more
leaving groups (halogen substituents) than MFT for reacting with cellulose (Table
2-3), thus it was slightly more reactive than MFT [171, 172, 179, 180]. The contrary
result for the lower K/Ssum obtained by FCP dyed fabrics might be ascribed to the
inhibition of remaining halogen on the reactive group of dye by cellulosyl or hydroxyl
substituents formed when one of the halogen atoms was displaced in the reactions with
cellulose or hydrolysis [334].
Nevertheless, the results of red fabrics evinced the importance of chemical structure
of dye on UV protection. The MFT dyed fabrics exhibited higher K/Ssum but lower
UPF than the FCP dyed fabrics. From Figure 7-14, the MFT dyed fabrics had a
relatively higher transmission throughout the UV spectrum than the FCP dyed fabrics
especially from 300 to 360 nm (near the UVB region). Both reactive groups (MFT,
FCP) consisted of heterocyclic compounds that favored UVR absorption, however,
the difference in chemical constituents (pyrimidine, triazine) had resulted in the small
difference in UVR absorption property. The pyrimidine dye (FCP) had stronger
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absorption in UVB region than the triazine dye (MFT). The MFT-TFP dyed fabrics
(UPF 57.6) has higher transmission in UVA region but lower transmission in UVB
region than the FCP dyed fabrics (UPF 44.3). The results assented that chemical
structure of dye affected the intensity and position of absorption in UV spectrum, thus
UV protection of fabrics could not be determined by color strength only.
16
14 FCP MFT MFT-TFP
12
UVRtransmission(%)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 7-14. UVR transmission of red knitted fabrics
In the yellow fabrics, the effect of reactive groups of reactive dyes was stronger on
K/Ssum than UPF as indicated by the ANOVA results. From Figure 7-12, the fabrics
dyed with hetero-bifunctional reactive dye (MCT-VS) obtained similar K/Ssum to the
fabrics dyed with monofunctional reactive dye (DCC) (p > 0.05, NS). Although
hetero-bifunctional reactive dye (MCT-VS) contained two reactive groups for reacting
with cellulose, the two reactive groups (MCT, VS) are less reactive than DCC of
monofunctional reactive dye [171, 172, 179, 180].
Apart from color strength, fabrics dyed with these two reactive dyes (MCT-VS, DCC)
had similar UPF (p > 0.05, NS). The MCT-VS dyed fabrics obtained slightly higher
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UPF than the DCC dyed fabrics, which was contrary to the results of K/Ssum. In MCT-
VS dye, only MCT consisted of heterocyclic carbon-nitrogen ring while VS is an
aliphatic compound. On the other hand, DCC (monofunctional dye) consisted of
double aromatic rings (Table 2-3) that favored UVR absorption. From Figure 7-15,
MCT-VS dyed fabrics had higher transmission in UVA region around 315 – 350 nm
but a slightly lower transmission in UVB region than the DCC dyed fabrics. Therefore,
MCT-VS dyed fabrics obtained slightly higher UPF than the DCC dyed fabrics.
16
DCC VS MCT-VS
14
12
UVRtransmission(%)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 7-15. UVR transmission of yellow knitted fabrics
The VS dyed fabrics obtained significantly lower K/Ssum and UPF than MCT-VS dyed
fabrics and DCC dyed fabrics. Both DCC dye and VS dye are monofunctional reactive
dyes, however, VS is less reactive than DCC in forming bond with cellulose and
thereby obtained lower K/Ssum. Besides, VS is an aliphatic compound while DCC
comprised of aromatic compound favoring UVR absorption. These two properties of
VS dye offered the fabrics lower K/Ssum and UPF than the DCC dyed fabrics.
In summary, the results of this section indicated that chemical structure of dye
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molecule affected UV protection of fabrics through its distinct intensity and position
of absorption in UV spectrum. Bifunctional reactive dyes generally offered fabrics
higher K/Ssum and UPF than monofunctional reactive dyes. From the result of blue
knitted fabrics, the hetero-bifunctional reactive dyes endowed the fabrics with higher
K/Ssum and UPF than the homo-bifunctional reactive dyes. However, the result of red
and yellow fabrics indicated that monofunctional reactive dyes could offer similar UV
protection to the hetero-bifunctional reactive dyes due to the aromatic nature of
reactive groups present in the monofunctional reactive dyes. Besides, the reactive dyes
comprised of aliphatic compound (VS) exhibited weaker UV protection than other
reactive dyes consisted of heterocyclic carbon-nitrogen rings. This implied that
property of reactive groups affects not only the substantivity, exhaustion and fixation
in dyeing process that consequently influences the amount of dyes in the fabric, but
also affects UVR absorption property.
The criteria for choosing a reactive dye that offering good UV protection is not limited
to the number or reactivity of reactive groups in dye molecule, the chemical structure
of reactive group is another important criterion. The amount and reactivity of the
reactive groups of dyes improve UV protection of fabrics by a quantitative approach
by increasing dye molecules being fixed on fabrics. On the other hand, the chemical
structure of the reactive groups contributed to UV protection by a qualitative approach
which is sometimes more influential than the amount and reactivity of reactive groups.
Apart from the reactive group of dyes responsible for the reaction with cellulose, other
constituents of dye molecule might affect the physical properties and functionality of
the total dye molecule such as molecular size and weight, solubility, substantivity and
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light-fastness. For instance, chromophore (color bearing group) of dye affects the
light-fastness, which relates to UVR absorption ability. The distinct properties of the
chemical constituents of dye molecule have made the generalization on UV protection
provided by dyestuff ambiguous.
7.5 Correlation analysis of UPF and CIE color coordinates
The color properties of fabrics can be represented by color strength (K/Ssum), CIE color
coordinates (L*, a*, b*), and chroma (C*). The relationships between these color
properties and UV protection of plain knitted fabrics was studied by Kendall’s tau
non-parametric correlation analysis. According to the results from previous sections,
a small reduction in UVR transmission below 2% (UPF ≥ 50) would lead to a dramatic
increase in UPF although the actual difference in UVR transmission is very small,
because of the reciprocal nature of UPF calculation [32, 55, 138]. Therefore, the
colored knitted fabrics with UPF ≤ 50 were chosen for analysis and these fabrics were
dyed at 0.1% dye concentration. The plain knitted fabrics (all knit) were chosen in
order to eliminate the effect of fabric characteristics on UPF varied by different stitch
types. Hetero-bifunctional reactive dyes generally offered better UV protection and
color strength to fabrics, thus the plain knitted fabrics were dyed with four hetero-
bifunctional reactive dyes in four colors (Table 3-3). The average value of color
properties and UPF of plain knitted fabrics in these four colors are shown in Figure
7-16.
198
b* Blue
50
Red
UPF = 25.7 Yellow
K/Ssum = 6.6
L* = 86.8 Black
UPF = 42.5 a*,b* = 2.5, 33.6
25
K/Ssum = 18.7 C* = 33.6
L* = 63.6
a*,b* = -3.1, -6.3
C* = 7.0
0 a*
-50 -25 0 25 50
UPF = 39.1
UPF = 36.6
K/Ssum = 20.3 K/Ssum = 11.4
L* = 62.9 L* = 70.0
a*,b* = -8.2, -15.9 -25
a*,b* = 36.4, -6.0
C* = 17.9 C* = 36.9
-50
Figure 7-16. UPF and color properties of plain knitted fabrics
Table 7-5. Kendall's tau coefficients (τ) between UPF and the color properties
Color properties Kendall’s tau coefficient (τ) p-value
K/Ssum (Color strength) 0.485 0.028
L* (Lightness) ‒ 0.545 0.014
a* (+ Redness; ‒ Greenness) ‒ 0.121 0.583 NS
b* (+ Yellowness; ‒ Blueness) ‒ 0.424 0.055 NS
C* (Chroma) ‒ 0.333 0.131 NS
NS
Correlation between variables is non-significant at the 0.05 confidence level (2-tailed).
The results of Kendall’s tau correlation shown in Table 7-5 indicated that only K/Ssum
and L* significantly correlated with UPF while CIE coordinates (a*, b*) and chroma
(C*) did not significantly correlate with UPF. Color strength (K/Ssum) is linearly
related to the concentration of colorant in the substrate medium. The fabric with higher
K/Ssum denoted that there were more dye molecules on fabric for absorbing UVR and
thereby resulted in higher UPF. The blue and black fabrics possessed higher K/Ssum
and UPF than the yellow and red fabrics. However, the positive correlation between
the color strength and UV protection of fabrics was not very strong (τ = 0.485). From
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Figure 7-16, although K/Ssum of red fabric was lower than that of blue fabric, UPF of
fabrics in these two colors were similar. The result corresponded to the results of
previous sections, which revealed that UPF generally increased with dye concentration
in fabrics but the chemical structure of dye molecules also played an important role in
UVR absorption characteristics. Therefore, a relatively weak correlation between UV
protection and color strength was obtained.
The lightness (L*) of fabrics negatively correlated with UPF which was opposite to
the correlation between K/Ssum and UPF. The fabric with lighter color (L* near 100)
means most wavelengths of visible spectrum are scattered with roughly equal
intensity. The fabric with lower L* (L* near 0) means most visible wavelengths are
absorbed by the fabric and the color of fabric is duller. From Figure 7-16, the yellow
and red fabrics both obtained higher L* and lower UPF than the blue and black fabrics.
However, the position and intensity of absorption in UV spectrum of dye are mainly
determined by the chemical structure of dye molecules, therefore, the negative
correlation between UPF and lightness was not strong (τ = ‒ 0.545). Although the red
and yellow fabrics had similar L*, UPF of red fabric was similar to blue fabric and
slightly higher than yellow fabric while yellow fabric obtained the lowest UPF among
these colors. In fact, lightness (L*) negatively correlated with color strength (K/Ssum)
and the strength of correlation was strong (τ = ‒ 0.939). The fabric with higher K/Ssum
connoted that there were more dyes on fabric for light absorption and thus it obtained
lower L*. The results showed that both K/Ssum and L* influenced the variation of UPF
by coloration but the impact were not very strong.
200
Besides, a* and b* also negatively correlated with UPF but the correlations were
identified as non-significant. The negative correlation means UPF of fabrics increased
with the reductions in these two CIE coordinates. The negative a* means a greener
shade of the fabric and negative b* value denotes a bluer shade of the fabric. Both
green (495 – 570 nm) and blue (450 – 495 nm) colors reflected visible light in the
wavelength near to the UVA region (315 – 400 nm). The higher reflection of light near
UV spectrum may reduce UVR transmittance since dyes have the absorption property
extended into UV spectrum.
The blue and black fabrics possessed both negative a* and b*, and their UPF were
higher than the red and yellow fabrics. Although the blue fabric possessed more
negative a* (‒8.2) and b* (‒15.9) than red fabric (a*=36.4, b*= ‒6), UPF of these
fabrics were similar. Besides, the blue fabric possessed more negative a* (‒8.2) and
b* (‒15.9) than black fabric (a*, b* = ‒3.1, ‒6.3) but blue fabric obtained lower UPF
than black fabric. The results implied that CIE coordinates, a* and b*could not be used
solely for explaining UV protection of a colored fabric. Resembling, chroma (C*) also
obtained a non-significant negative correlation with UPF which indicated that UPF of
fabrics increased slightly with reduction in chroma. Lower C* indicated that the fabric
has a more saturated and duller color. Although black fabric obtained lower chroma
(C* = 7.0) than blue fabric (C* = 17.9), UPF of these fabrics did not differ as largely
as the chroma of these fabrics.
The results of correlations between color properties and UPF evinced that fabric with
higher K/Ssum and lower L*, a*, b* and C* could achieve better UV protection.
However, only K/Ssum and L* were found to have significant impacts on UPF whilst
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the strength of these impacts were not very strong. Other color properties did not
influence UV protection of fabrics significantly. The results corresponded with the
study of Gabrijelčič et al. which identified that only L* negatively correlated with UPF
of woven fabrics while C* did not correlate with UPF significantly [118]. The study
of Wilson et al. also found that there were weak correlations between CIE coordinates
and UVR transmittance of colored fabrics wherein L* was found to be positively
correlated with UVR transmittance [152].
Unlike the fabric characteristics that significantly contributed to UV protection, most
of the color properties did not have significant correlations with UPF. When light
strikes on a fabric surface, it can be reflected, scattered, absorbed, and transmitted.
UPF evaluation is based on the transmission intensity over UV spectrum while the
color measurement depends on the intensity and position of visible wavelength
reflected from the colored fabrics. In the color measurement of textile, it is essential
to ensure the sample is opaque enough to avoid the light reflected from the surface of
sample holder of spectrophotometer [335]. In industrial practice, the fabric with
porous structures or lower thickness are folded or layered for accurate measurement
of color.
Fabrics are not opaque especially for knitted fabrics and UVR can transmit through
inter-yarn spaces as well as fibers. The fabric characteristics such as fabric structure,
porosity, thickness, or weight, which are known to be the major factors influencing
UPF, are not involved in color measurements. Therefore, color properties might not
be sufficient for expounding on UV protection of fabrics unless the fabrics being
compared have similar fabric structures.
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7.6 Conclusion
Coloration enhanced UV protection of bleached fabrics considerably. Increasing the
concentration of dyes generally improved UPF because of more dye molecules on
fabric for absorbing UVR. Besides, it was found that color depth had a larger impact
on UV protection than the hue. However, fabrics with similar color strength might
differ significantly in UV protection because of the difference in fabric structures. The
magnitude of UPF improvement by coloration was affected by fabric structures. The
double knitted fabrics in darker color could obtain similar or even lower UPF than the
single knitted fabrics in lighter color because of the more porous structure of the
double knitted fabrics. This inferred the potential for reducing usage of dyestuff and
auxiliaries if similar or even better UV protection could be provided by fabrics with
compact structure dyed in lighter shades.
The chemical structures of reactive dyes were found to have a large impact on UV
protection of fabrics. For fabrics with same color, the color strength and UV protection
could be different according to the chemical constituent and amount of the reactive
groups of dye molecules. The intensity and position of absorption in UV spectrum of
dyes is unique to the chemical structure of dye molecule. The amount and reactivity
of the reactive groups of dyes could enhance UV protection in a quantitative approach
by increasing dye molecules in fabric while the chemical structure of the reactive
group exhibited the UV protection in a qualitative and fundamental approach.
Color properties had weak relationships with UPF of fabrics. The color measurement
depends mainly on reflection of visible light from the fabric surface. The fabric
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characteristics, which were found to have large contribution in UV protection of
fabrics, are ignored from the measurement of color properties. When the fabric
structure possessed porous structure for UVR transmission, the influences of other
factors such as hue, color depth, UVR absorption property of dye molecule would
become less important on the UV protection of fabrics. Therefore, it is assertive to
extrapolate UV protection of fabrics from color only without considering the fabric
structures as well as the chemical structure of dye molecules.
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CHAPTER 8 INFLUENCE OF END-USE CONDITION ON UV PROTECTION
Chapter 8 Influence of End-Use Conditions on UV Protection
8.1 Introduction
Knitted fabrics are prone to deformation during end-use conditions because of the
elastic nature when compared to woven fabrics. Evaluation of UV protection of knitted
fabrics under simulated end-use conditions could reflect the actual UV protection of
fabrics offered to wearers. In this chapter, the impacts of end-use conditions on UV
protection of knitted fabrics in various knit structures were studied which included
stretching, wetting, and laundering. UPF of knitted fabrics in stretched and wet states
were evaluated with the aid of a metallic biaxial stretching equipment. It was specially
designed to stretch the fabric uniformly and mount the stretched fabric within a frame
that could be fitted into spectrophotometer without significant influences on UPF
measurements.
8.2 Influence of wearing condition on UV protection
Fabrics in darker colors generally possess better UV protection than fabrics in lighter
colors. In order to demonstrate the utmost UV protection of fabrics under wearing
conditions, the fabric specimens were dyed with black reactive dye (1% concentration)
(Table 3-3). The fabrics were produced by circular knitting machines which had
similar fineness to the knitwear commonly found on the market. The effects of stretch
and wetness on UPF of fabrics were studied with factorial ANOVA for single knit and
double knit structures respectively.
8.2.1 UPF of single knitted fabrics under stretched and wet conditions
The UPF of bleached and black single knitted fabrics under stretched and wet
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conditions for the three single knit structures are shown from Figure 8-1 to Figure 8-3.
UV protection of bleached fabrics was non-rateable (UPF < 15) as shown by the curves
of bleached fabrics plotted under the horizontal dashed line that is parallel to x- axis
in the figures. Coloration significantly improved UV protection of bleached knitted
fabrics. All single knit structures obtained very good to excellent UV protection after
coloration. However, stretching and wetting of fabrics had caused considerable UPF
reduction for all single knit structures of black fabrics. The results of factorial ANOVA
in Table 8-1 showed that both impacts of wetness and stretch on UPF of black single
knitted fabrics were significant, except the effect of wetness on UPF of knit & tuck.
UPF of black knit & tuck was significantly affected by stretching only but not by
wetting of fabric.
No color-Dry
90 No color-Wet
Color-Dry
Color-Wet
75
60
MeanUPF
45
30
15
0
Stretch levels: 0% 10% 20% 30%
No color-Dry 8.38 6.38 5.14 4.42
No color-Wet 4.77 4.30 3.59 3.22
Color-Dry 84.06 26.14 14.50 8.72
Color-Wet 76.58 23.15 11.17 8.58
Figure 8-1. UPF of all knit under stretched and wet conditions
206
No color-Dry
90 No color-Wet
Color-Dry
Color-Wet
75
60
MeanUPF
45
30
15
0
No color-Dry 7.79 5.81 4.80 4.06
No color-Wet 5.19 4.60 3.91 3.49
Color-Dry 28.00 14.09 10.09 7.67
Color-Wet 26.21 13.31 9.48 6.93
Figure 8-2. UPF of knit & tuck under stretched and wet conditions
No color-Dry
90 No color-Wet
Color-Dry
Color-Wet
75
60
MeanUPF
45
30
15
0
No color-Dry 9.03 7.62 6.46 5.70
No color-Wet 5.15 4.82 4.45 4.07
Color-Dry 45.22 23.76 13.31 9.30
Color-Wet 36.31 19.16 12.21 8.96
Figure 8-3. UPF of knit & miss (50%) under stretched and wet conditions
207
black single knitted fabrics
Fabric structures Independent variables F-test p-value ω2
All Knit Wetness F1,16 = 8.80 0.009 0.003
Stretch F3,16 = 799.95 0.000 0.996
Knit & tuck Wetness F1,16 = 4.31 0.540NS -

Stretch F3,16 = 346.26 0.000 0.999
Knit & miss (50%) Wetness F1,16 = 9.45 0.007 0.020

Stretch F3,16 = 135.24 0.000 0.968
NSEffect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is non-significant at the 0.05
confidence level (p > 0.05).
The wet fabrics had lower UPF than the dry fabrics, which agreed with other studies
[137, 218-221]. UVR transmission of wet fabrics was generally higher than that of dry
fabrics because of the reduction in optical scattering effect of wet fabrics. The
refractive index (n) of water (n = 1.333) is closer to cotton (n = 1.5 – 1.6) than to air
(n = 1) [222, 223]. The refractive index determined the refraction of light when
entering a material and the amount of light reflected from the interface of material.
When the light entered the material with a higher refractive index, for instance, from
air to cotton, the angle of refraction would be smaller than the angle of incidence and
thus the light would be refracted towards the normal. When the cotton knitted fabric
was wetted, the inter-fiber space that originally filled with air was replaced by water.
The higher refractive index of fabric possessed, the closer to the normal direction in
the UVR would travel. The presence of water in the interstices of textile fabrics
reduced optical scattering effect and thus increased UVR transmission.
208
Stretch of fabrics caused a greater reduction in UPF than wetness, which is attested by
larger effect size obtained by stretch. When the fabrics were stretched to different
stretch levels, the progressive enlargement of inter-yarn space allowed more UVR
transmission. The result agreed with the studies of Wilson and Parisi, which revealed
that main effects on UVR transmission were the size and fitting of garment rather than
its degree of wetness [123, 225]. When the fabric specimens were wetted in a
tensionless state (0% stretch level), UVR transmission increased due to reduction in
optical scattering and thereby reduced UPF of fabrics. However, most UVR
transmitted through the enlarged fabric pores between the wet yarns when the fabrics
were stretched; thus, the effect of stretch was larger than wetness on UPF of fabrics.
The degrees of UPF reduction were different across the stretch levels for various knit
structures. All single knit structures obtained very good to excellent UV protection in
tensionless state for both dry and wet specimens. However, superior UV protection
offered by coloration was weakened by fabric stretching. UPF of the three single knit
structures in black fabrics had dropped below UPF 15 when the fabrics were linearly
stretched to 20% and 30% of their original widthwise and lengthwise dimensions. The
colored fabrics in stretched states obtained non-rateable UV protection as the bleached
fabrics.
The results of simple effects test indicated that there were significant UPF reductions
when the dry or wet fabrics were stretched from stretch levels of 0% (un-stretched) to
10% (average: 55.4%) and also from 10% to 20% (average: 16.8%) as shown in Figure
8-4 (p ≤ 0.05). This denoted that impact of stretch on UPF reduction was more
remarkable at 10% stretch level, and followed by 20% stretch level. The influence of
209
stretch diminished when the fabrics were further stretched to 30% stretch level
(average UPF reduction: 7.8%) and UPF of fabrics at 30% stretch level was identified
as non-significantly different from the UPF obtained at previous stretch levels.
10%
Wet 47.2 19.1 8.9 75.3
20%
Knit&miss
(50%)
30%
Dry 47.4 23.1 8.9 79.4 Total
Singleknitstructures
Wet 49.2 14.6 9.7 73.6

Knit&tuck
Dry 49.7 14.3 8.7 72.6
Wet 69.8 15.7 3.4 88.8

Allknit
Dry 68.9 13.9 6.9 89.6
0 20 40 60 80 100
UPF reduction (%)
Figure 8-4. UPF reduction of black single knitted fabrics under stretched and wet
conditions
All single knit structures exhibited dramatic reductions in UPF when the fabrics were
stretched linearly from their tensionless state to 10% of original dimensions in
widthwise and lengthwise directions. The enlargement of fabric pores was enormous
when the fabrics were stretched to 10% of original dimensions. However, the changes
in the size of fabric pores caused by progressive stretch levels (20%, 30%) were
smaller than that at the first stretch level (10%). Initially, the fabrics in tensionless
state had relatively less and small inter-yarn space and the yarns containing dye
molecules blocked UVR effectively. However, the colored yarns were distributed
distantly when the fabrics were stretched. UV protection offered by dye molecules was
reduced tremendously since there were fewer dye molecules per unit area responding
for UVR absorption. At the same time, most UVR transmitted through the enlarged
210
fabric pores of stretched fabrics. When the fabrics were stretched to higher stretch
levels, the distribution of colored yarns did not differ largely from that at the 10%
stretch level. Therefore, the magnitude of UVR transmission did not increase
extensively at subsequent stretch levels.
Among the single knit structures, knit & tuck presented the worst UV protection
performance under stretched and wet conditions. It had obtained non-rateable UV
protection (UPF < 15) since 10% stretch level in both dry and wet states as shown in
Figure 8-2. Knit & tuck possessed a more porous structure than all knit and knit &
miss (50%) because of the presence of tuck stitches. The side limbs of tuck loops
pushed adjacent loops sideward. The straightening of tuck loops had made the fabric
become wider and more porous than the other two structures. Therefore, it obtained
the lowest initial UPF in its tensionless state (average UPF = 27.1) whereas the other
two structures had initial UPF above 30. When knit & tuck was stretched to 10% of
its original dimensions, its UPF immediately dropped below UPF 15 (non-rateable UV
protection). This denoted that UV protection of knit & tuck could not be retained under
stretched condition even its UV protection was initially enhanced considerably by
coloration.
Besides, knit & tuck was the only fabric structure which obtained a non-significant
impact of wetness on UV protection. Since the fabric structure was relatively porous
and the colored yarns were distributed distantly, there were large fabric pores between
either dry or wet yarns for UVR transmission. Therefore, UPF reduction caused by
wetness at each stretch level in knit & tuck became non-significant. The other two
single knit structures possessed more compact fabric structures and thus UPF was
211
significantly affected by wetness since the wet yarns were packed closely together.
All knit obtained higher initial UPF than knit & miss (50%) in both dry and wet states
at 0% stretch level. Since the fabrics had a very dark color, when UVR transmission
of fabrics had dropped below 2% (UPF ≥ 50), UPF would increase dramatically with
small reductions in UVR transmission owing to the reciprocal nature of UPF
calculation [32, 55, 138]. Therefore, UVR transmission of these two structures did not
differ in a very large extent, as both structures possessed UPF > 40 that could be
classified as excellent UV protection. In the bleached fabrics, knit & miss (50%)
possessed higher UPF than all knit in both dry and wet states across the stretch levels.
Nevertheless, all knit acquired similar UPF to knit & miss (50%) after experiencing
the largest UPF reduction at 10% stretch level. From Figure 8-4, all knit underwent
larger average UPF reduction (~ 69%) than knit & miss (50%) (~ 47%) at 10% stretch
level in both dry and wet states. All knit consisted of knit stitches only and was more
elastic than knit & miss (50%). The omega shape of knit loops was deformed easily
when the fabric was stretched, thus UPF dropped vastly at 10% stretch level. In
contrast, knit & miss (50%) was less extensible because the straight miss loops on
fabric back had held adjacent loops and limited movement of yarns during stretching.
Under stretched condition, the float of miss loops on the fabric back emerged between
the enlarged fabric pores that aided blocking UVR transmission. Consequently, knit
& miss (50%) experienced less UPF reduction than all knit under stretched condition.
Moreover, significant impact of wetness on UPF was only found in all knit and knit &
miss (50%), although the magnitude of significance was less than that of stretch as
indicated by smaller effect size of wetness. Results of simple effects test identified
212
significant difference in UPF between dry and wet specimens was only found in
tensionless state of these two knit structures. In tensionless state of fabrics, the
presence of water in the interstices of fabric specimens reduced optical scattering
effect and thus increased UVR transmission. However, progressive fabric stretches up
to 10%, 20%, and 30% levels had offset the impact of wetness on UPF and UPF
reductions caused by wetness became negligible at each stretch level. Therefore, all
single knit structures obtained a non-significant interaction effect between wetness and
stretch on UPF. This denoted that magnitude of UPF reduction at each stretch level
was not affected by whether the single knitted fabrics were dry or wet.
UV protection of the single knitted fabrics enhanced by coloration was reduced
enormously by wearing conditions to nearly half of its original UV protection. The
impact of stretch on UPF reduction of fabrics was more prominent than wetness. The
three single knit structures exhibited distinct UV protection endurances under
stretched and wet conditions. Knit & tuck showed the worst UV protection with UPF
dropped to non-rateable level after 10% stretch level because of its porous structure
conferred by tuck stitches. In contrast, knit & miss (50%) performed better than all
knit and knit & tuck under stretched condition, which experienced the least UPF
reduction at 10% stretch level. The results showed that stitch types of fabrics
influenced not only UPF of fabrics in tensionless state but also UV protection retaining
strength of fabrics under stretched and wet conditions.
8.2.2 UPF of double knitted fabrics under stretched and wet conditions
The black double knitted fabrics exhibited dissimilar results to the black single knitted
fabrics. From the results of factorial ANOVA shown in Table 8-2, the impacts of
213
wetness, stretch, and interaction were all significant on UPF of double knit structures.
black double knitted fabrics
Fabric structures Independent variables F-test p-value ω2
1x1 rib Wetness F1,16 = 20.23 0.000 0.034
Stretch F3,16 = 173.35 0.000 0.919
Interaction F3,16 = 9.72 0.001 0.047
Half cardigan Wetness F1,16 = 30.64 0.000 0.007

Stretch F3,16 = 1309.00 0.000 0.986
Interaction F3,16 = 9.74 0.001 0.007
Half Milano Wetness F1,16 = 51.03 0.000 0.055

Stretch F3,16 = 273.89 0.000 0.906
Interaction F3,16 = 12.52 0.000 0.038
Full Milano Wetness F1,16 = 125.70 0.000 0.045

Stretch F3,16 = 834.86 0.000 0.910
Interaction F3,16 = 42.36 0.000 0.045
Interlock Wetness F1,16 = 52.88 0.000 0.025

Stretch F3,16 = 665.16 0.000 0.971
Interaction F3,16 = 3.23 0.050 0.003
NS Effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is non-significant at the 0.05
The impact of stretch on UPF of double knitted fabrics was larger than wetness, which
resembled the results of single knitted fabrics. However, significant interaction effect
between wetness and stretch on UPF was only found in double knitted fabrics but not
in single knitted fabrics. It is because the double knitted fabrics possessed one more
fabric layer for absorbing water and blocking UVR. The extent of water saturation
within the fabric layers are more diverse according to the yarn arrangement that was
determined by the fabric constructions. When the fabrics were stretched to different
214
stretch levels, the effect of wetness on UPF was diverse for various double knit
structures. The results corresponded to previous studies, which also found significant
interaction effect between water and fabric structures on UV protection [224, 225].
Since single knitted fabrics were generally more porous and thinner than double
knitted fabrics, fabric wetness was less influential on UV protection of single knitted
fabrics because most UVR had transmitted through fabric pores rather than the wet
yarns. From Figure 8-5 to Figure 8-9, all double knit structures in black fabrics
exhibited excellent UV protection except black half cardigan (Figure 8-6), which only
obtained good UV protection in its tensionless state. Corresponded to the results in
previous chapters, the porosity of half cardigan was similar to that of the single knit
structures because of the presence of tuck stitches. The colored yarns were distributed
distantly within the fabric, which allowed UVR transmission through inter-yarn space
directly. Therefore, black half cardigan obtained lower UPF than other double knit
structures in its tensionless and stretched states.
No color-Dry
90 No color-Wet
Color-Dry
Color-Wet
75
60
MeanUPF
45
30
15
0
No color-Dry 10.62 7.61 5.82 4.73
No color-Wet 5.93 5.04 4.18 3.67
Color-Dry 52.35 20.78 10.76 6.90
Color-Wet 36.44 12.97 9.21 6.88
Figure 8-5. UPF of 1x1 rib under stretched and wet conditions
215
No color-Dry
90 No color-Wet
Color-Dry
Color-Wet
75
60
MeanUPF
45
30
15
0
No color-Dry 8.55 6.66 5.40 4.32
No color-Wet 5.53 4.52 3.84 3.48
Color-Dry 19.74 11.28 7.76 6.23
Color-Wet 17.45 10.94 7.55 5.65
Figure 8-6. UPF of half cardigan under stretched and wet conditions
No color-Dry
90 No color-Wet
Color-Dry
Color-Wet
75
60
45
MeanUPF
30
15
0
No color-Dry 10.49 8.19 7.03 5.83
No color-Wet 6.19 5.60 5.08 4.58
Color-Dry 70.68 34.90 20.17 10.78
Color-Wet 48.32 25.53 15.92 6.00
Figure 8-7. UPF of half Milano under stretched and wet conditions
216
No color-Dry
90 No color-Wet
Color-Dry
Color-Wet
75
60
MeanUPF
45
30
15
0
No color-Dry 12.89 9.36 7.47 5.60
No color-Wet 6.23 5.75 4.83 4.10
Color-Dry 90.73 33.72 17.95 13.13
Color-Wet 59.84 26.64 14.83 8.90
Figure 8-8. UPF of full Milano under stretched and wet conditions
180
No color-Dry
165 No color-Wet
150 Color-Dry
Color-Wet
135
120
105
90
MeanUPF
75
60
45
30
15
0
No color-Dry 31.23 25.67 18.51 13.55
No color-Wet 11.34 9.71 8.31 6.92
Color-Dry 172.57 64.24 35.22 25.84
Color-Wet 146.12 39.29 24.01 16.30
Figure 8-9. UPF of interlock under stretched and wet conditions
However, excellent UV protection of fabrics offered by coloration was vastly
weakened by fabric stretch. The UPF reduction caused by fabric wetness at each
217
stretch level was smaller than that caused by fabric stretch and the results of ANOVA
indicated that impact of wetness was small to medium. When the fabric was stretched,
the enlarged inter-yarn space allowed more UVR transmission. Therefore, UV
protection offered by the black yarns was diminished and the presence of water did
not bring a significant impact on further reduction of UPF under stretched condition.
The significant interaction effect between stretch and wetness on UPF indicated that
impact of wetness on UPF was different across various stretch levels. From Figure 8-5
to Figure 8-9, the differences in UPF between dry and wet fabrics became smaller
when the fabrics were stretched subsequently. The simple effects test identified
significant differences in UPF between dry and wet fabric specimens exist at 0% and
10% stretch levels for all fabric structures except half cardigan. When the fabrics were
stretched linearly to 20% and 30% of the original dimensions, UV protection offered
by black yarns became negligible since most UVR had transmitted through the
enlarged fabric pores.
The results were dissimilar to that of single knitted fabrics in which the impact of
wetness on UPF reduction was only significant in tensionless state of fabrics. It is
because the double knitted fabrics generally possess less porous structure and more
fibers for holding water within the fabric layer. Therefore, even the fabrics were
stretched linearly to 10% stretch level, the magnitude of enlargement of fabric pores
was comparatively smaller than that in single knitted fabrics for UVR transmission.
Moreover, it was found that the impact of fabric wetness on UPF reduction was only
significant in tensionless state of half cardigan. Since half cardigan possessed a
relatively porous structure, the difference in UPF between the dry and wet fabrics in
218
tensionless state was already very small when compared to other double knit
structures. Consequently, UPF reduction caused by wetness in the stretched states of
half cardigan was negligible.
From Figure 8-10, the greatest UPF reduction occurred at 10% stretch level for all
double knit structures (average: 55.7%); followed by the UPF reduction at 20% stretch
level (average: 17.2%) (p ≤ 0.05); the UPF reduction at 30% stretch level (average:
8.5%) was identified as non-significant (p > 0.05, NS). The size and amount of fabric
pores did not change dramatically after 20% stretch level, thus UPF reduction at 30%
stretch level for double knitted fabrics was much smaller than previous stretch levels.
Wet 73.1 10.5 5.3 88.8 10%

Interlock
20%
Dry 62.8 16.8 5.4 85.0
30%
Wet 55.5 19.8 9.9 85.1
Total
Milano
Full
Dry 62.8 17.4 5.3 85.5

Doubleknitstructures
Wet 47.2 19.9 13.6 80.6

Milano
Half
Dry 50.6 20.8 13.3 84.7
Wet 37.3 19.4 10.9 67.6

cardigan
Half
Dry 42.8 17.8 7.7 68.4
Wet 64.4 10.3 6.4 81.1

1x1rib
Dry 60.3 19.2 7.4 86.8
0 20 40 60 80 100
UPF reduction (%)
Figure 8-10. UPF reduction of black double knitted fabrics under stretched and wet
conditions
Most double knit structures exhibited excellent UV protection offered by coloration.
However, different fabric structures underwent distinct magnitudes of UPF reduction
across the stretch levels. The impact of wetness on UPF was also affected by the
219
magnitude of fabric stretch as indicated by the significant interaction effect of stretch
and wetness. From Figure 8-10, although half cardigan obtained the least UPF
reduction at 10% stretch level, its initial UPF in tensionless state was originally very
low because of the porous fabric structure. When half cardigan was stretched to 10%
of original dimensions, enlargement of fabric pores was comparatively less than that
in other double knit structures; thus, UPF reduction was smaller than other structures.
Apart from half cardigan, other structures possessed good to excellent UV protection
at 10% stretch level except 1x1 rib, which obtained non-rateable UV protection at 10%
stretch level in its wet state. 1x1 rib structure comprised of knit loops alternately
meshed across the fabric face and back, therefore, it had higher extensibility than other
double knit structures. When 1x1 rib fabric was stretched, the fabric layer became
thinner and the UVR absorbing ability was reduced immediately. Therefore, UPF was
further reduced when the wet 1x1 rib was stretched.
Half Milano and full Milano performed better UV protection than 1x1 rib and half
cardigan under stretched and wet conditions because of the presence of miss stitches.
Both Milano structures retained very good UV protection (UPF 25 – 39) at 10% stretch
level in their dry state. In contrast, UPF of 1x1 rib and half cardigan had already
dropped below UPF 30 in both dry and wet states at 10% stretch level. The miss loops
in Milano structures pulled adjacent wales closer together in horizontal direction as
well as in vertical direction by the held loops, which shortened the fabric width and
length simultaneously to give a compact fabric structure. There were fewer fabric
pores created when the Milano fabrics were stretched, when compared to the elastic
1x1 rib and porous half cardigan. The Milano structures retained rateable UV
220
protection when the fabrics were stretched to 20% of original dimensions.
In tensionless state, full Milano exhibited better UV protection than half Milano since
there were more miss stitches in full Milano. However, the difference in UV protection
between these two structures became inconspicuous when the fabrics were stretched
subsequently. Half Milano is a two-course repeat rib-based structure with the first
course identical to 1x1 rib while the second course knitted on front needles and missed
on back needles. Full Milano contained one more course than half Milano, which
missed on front needles and knitted on back needles. Both fabric face and back of full
Milano consisted of miss stitches while only the fabric back of half Milano containing
miss stitches. When half Milano was stretched, the fabric pores were enlarged in a
larger extent on fabric face (consisted of more knit loops) than the fabric back which
has a tighter structure (consisted of more miss stitches). The float yarn of miss loops
on fabric back emerged between the enlarged fabric pores during stretching, which
helped in blocking UVR. On the other hand, the fabric structure of full Milano is more
balanced than half Milano. When full Milano was stretched, the miss stitches on both
fabric sides had restricted movement of yarns and thus enlargement of fabric pores
was less than that in half Milano. Therefore, half Milano obtained similar UPF to full
Milano under stretched condition.
Among double knit structures, interlock exhibited the best UV protection under wet
and stretched conditions. The bleached interlock had already obtained very good UV
protection (UPF > 30) and coloration had boosted UV protection on this compact
fabric structure. The black interlock retained rateable UV protection even when the
wet fabrics were stretched to 30% of its original dimensions. Since interlock was
221
produced by two needle-beds in interlock gating, the wales were laid directly behind
each other on fabric face and back. When interlock was stretched, fewer fabric pores
were created as the loops were interlocking throughout fabric face and back. This
attested that impact of gating was significant on UV protection of fabrics in stretched
and wet conditions.
Resembled the results of single knitted fabrics, UV protection of double knitted fabrics
enhanced by coloration was weakened considerably in wearing conditions. However,
double knitted fabrics generally performed better in retaining UV protection under
stretched condition except half cardigan. Impact of stretch on UPF reduction was also
greater than wetness. The results denoted that effect of stitch types on UPF reduction
under stretched and wet conditions was more prominent in double knit structures. Miss
stitches offered better retention of UV protection to fabrics under wearing conditions
while tuck stitches did not provide preservation of UV protection to fabrics.
8.2.3 Influence of fabric openness under stretched condition
Different knit structures exhibited distinct UV protection under stretched and wet
conditions. The enlargement of fabric pores under different stretch levels was also
dissimilar among knit structures as shown in Figure 8-11. Therefore, a hierarchical
regression analysis was conducted to study the relationship between fabric pores and
UPF of the bleached knitted fabrics under different stretch levels. The percentage of
fabric pores of fabrics in tensionless and stretched states was calculated by Equation
3-11 (page 78) and the results are listed in Table 8-3.
222
Knit Stretch levels

structures 0% 10% 20% 30%
All knit
Knit & tuck
Knit & miss

(50%)
1x1 rib
Half
cardigan
Half Milano
Full Milano
Interlock
Figure 8-11. Micrographs of bleached fabrics under different stretch levels
223
Table 8-3. Fabric pores (%) and UPF of bleached knitted fabrics under different
stretch levels
Fabric pores (P%) UPF
Knit structures 0% 10% 20% 30% 0% 10% 20% 30%
Single knit
All knit 0.42 4.06 12.98 15.73 8.38 6.38 5.14 4.42
Knit & tuck 3.14 10.19 20.32 25.88 7.79 5.81 4.80 4.06
Knit & miss (50%) 0.70 6.23 10.55 15.88 9.03 7.62 6.46 5.70
Double knit
1x1 rib 0.29 2.35 8.19 16.21 10.62 7.61 5.82 4.73
Half cardigan 3.08 10.31 18.99 26.24 8.55 6.66 5.40 4.32
Half Milano 0.63 3.28 8.24 15.46 10.49 8.19 7.03 5.83
Full Milano 0.62 2.88 6.07 11.19 12.89 9.36 7.47 5.60
Interlock 0.01 0.11 0.73 1.74 38.26 25.67 18.51 13.55
The fabrics incorporated with tuck stitches (knit & tuck, half cardigan) had relatively
more porous structures and the fabric pores were enlarged gradually under stretched
condition. Therefore, these two structures obtained the highest proportion of fabric
pores and lowest UPF as shown in Table 8-3. Among single knit structures, knit &
miss (50%) had slightly higher UPF as well as P% than all knit across the stretch
levels. This is because knit & miss (50%) is thicker and heavier than all knit. The miss
loops were hidden on fabric back while the micrographs only captured the fabric pores
on fabric face under stretched condition. However, the difference in P% between these
two single knit structures became smaller when the fabrics were stretched to 20% and
30% stretch levels. It is because the miss loops hidden on fabric back emerged between
the enlarged fabric pores when knit & miss (50%) was stretched as shown in Figure
8-11. This attested that miss stitches could provide the fabric better retaining ability
of UV protection under stretch condition.
The double knit structures had generally lower P% than the single knit structures
224
except half cardigan. Half cardigan had similar P% to knit & tuck (single knit
structure), which denoted that these fabric structures with tuck stitches had similar
fabric porosity. In tensionless state, the tuck loops straightened to push adjacent wales
sideward whilst the held loops contracted in lengthwise direction. The loops on fabric
face appeared as flattened-U shape in knit & tuck and half cardigan. When the fabrics
with tuck stitches were stretched, the contracted held loops were pulled in the opposite
directions that created more fabric pores with a circular shape as shown in Figure 8-11.
Although the fabric pores in knit & tuck were relatively larger than half cardigan, high
amount of fabric pores in half cardigan also resulted in a similar P% to knit & tuck.
Therefore, these two structures with tuck stitches incorporated into fabric provided
poor UV protection under stretched condition no matter the fabrics were comprised of
one or two layers of fabrics due to the porous fabric structures.
In contrast, interlock had the lowest P% across various stretch levels which attested
the compact fabric structure had smaller inter-yarn space for UVR transmission.
Therefore, it acquired the highest UPF among the knit structures examined under
stretched condition. 1x1 rib and interlock are both comprised of knit stitches, however,
the difference in gating (needle-beds setting) had apparently influenced the inter-yarn
space and UPF under stretched condition. From Figure 8-11, both structures possessed
similar appearances of fabric face but 1x1 rib was relatively more porous than
interlock. The knit loops of 1x1 rib meshe alternately across fabric face and back under
rib gating. When 1x1 rib was stretched, the wales on fabric face and back were
displaced relative to one another, which resulted in a similar fabric appearance to all
knit (single knit structure) as shown in Figure 8-11. Therefore, 1x1 rib obtained a
similar P% to all knit at 30% stretch level (Table 8-3). The results attested that even
225
the fabrics were comprised of same stitch type, UV protection of fabrics under
stretched condition could differ significantly according to the yarn arrangement
determined by gating.
Half Milano and full Milano had larger P% than 1x1 rib at 0% and 10% stretch levels.
However, the situation was opposite when these fabrics were stretched to 20% and
30% of original dimensions. At 20% and 30% stretch levels, the two Milano structures
had smaller P% than 1x1 rib. This denoted that the Milano structures had better UV
protection retaining ability than 1x1 rib under stretched condition. There were more
miss stitches in full Milano than in half Milano, thus full Milano had a more compact
fabric structure for blocking UVR and obtained slightly higher UPF than half Milano.
Nevertheless, the differences in UPF between these two Milano structures became
negligible when both fabrics were stretched gradually. The unbalanced structure of
half Milano in tensionless state was stabilized by stretching and the float yarn of miss
stitches emerged between the enlarged fabric pores under stretched condition as shown
in Figure 8-11, which helped in blocking UVR. The result showed that the two Milano
structures exhibited distinct UV protection in tensionless and stretched states.
A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to study the variance of UV
protection explained by fabric pores (P%) of bleached knitted fabrics under stretched
condition. The scatterplot of UPF and P% in Figure 8-12 indicated that the data did
not fit a linear model but a curvilinear model. Therefore, the data of P% were
exponentially transformed in order to acquire a model that could represent the results
more accurately.
226
50
40
30
UPF = 11.509 (P% ‒ 0.263)
UPF
20 adjusted R² = 0.867
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Fabric pores (%)
Figure 8-12. Relationship between UPF and fabric pores (P%) of bleached knitted
fabrics
The improvement in predictability of the exponential model was evaluated with
hierarchical regression analysis by comparing to the linear models (without data
transformation), and the results are shown in Table 8-4. Both model 1 (linear
component) and model 2 (linear and exponential components) were statistically
significant as evaluated by F-test of ANOVA. However, only 22.9% (adjusted R2 x
100%) of variance in UPF could be explained by un-transformed P% in model 1. When
the data of P% was exponentially transformed and added into model 2, the predictive
power for UPF substantially increased from 22.9% to 86.7%.
Table 8-4. Hierarchical regression analysis of UPF and fabric pores (P%)
Unstandardized Adjusted
Model coefficient t-value Sig. R2 R2 F-test
1 P% ‒ 0.489* -3.60 0.001
(Constant) 13.142 8.63 0.000 0.301 0.229 F1,31 = 12.95b
2 P% 0.000a 0.01 0.996

P% transformed 11.509* 12.23 0.000 0.887 0.867 F2,31 = 111.32b
(Constant) ‒ 0.336 -0.27 0.793
*Regression coefficients are significant at the 0.05 confidence level assessed by t-test.
a The unstandardized coefficient of P% in model 2 has a value of 3.51E-04.
b Prediction of model is significant at the 0.05 confidence level.
227
However, the un-transformed P% in model 2 obtained a non-significant coefficient as
assessed by t-test which indicated it was not a significant covariate of model in
predicting UPF. Therefore, the un-transformed P% was excluded from model 2 and
the resulted formula of regression model for predicting UPF by the exponentially
transformed P% is shown in Figure 8-12. As the transformed P% is a negative
exponent (P%-0.263), increment in P% would reduce UPF of bleached knitted fabrics.
This implied that higher proportion of fabric pores within the fabric structure under
stretched condition; more UVR could transmit through the fabric pores and resulted
in poor UV protection. The result corresponded to the studies of Algaba et al. [130],
and Majumdar et al. [116], which also found that UPF was exponentially related with
the fabric cover (%) although both studies had focused on woven fabrics.
The fabric pores (P% transformed) accounted for 86.7% of the variance of UPF of
bleached knitted fabrics. The remaining variance in UPF (13.3%) might be influenced
by factors such as fabric weight, thickness, or fabric porosity, which could not be
determined by the assessment of P%. It should be noted that the fabric porosity (%)
discussed in Chapter 6 is different from the fabric pores (%) evaluated by image
analysis method. The proportion of fabric pores was evaluated by comparing the black
pixels (fabric pores) to the total number of pixels of micrograph, which is a two-
dimensional assessment. In contrast, fabric porosity (%) determined the proportion of
voids within the fabric volume by including fabric weight, thickness, and fiber density,
which is a three-dimensional approach. The results presented mostly the relationship
between the fabric pores and UVR transmission but did not include other fabric
characteristics that were found to have significant impacts on UPF of knitted fabrics.
228
Moreover, cotton fiber is not opaque and UVR could transmit through the fabric pores
and fibers.
Nevertheless, the proportion of fabric pores within fabric could explain large amount
of variance of UV protection under stretched condition since most of the UVR
transmitted directly through the enlarged fabric pores. The small difference between
R2 (0.887) and adjusted R2 (0.867) calculated by Stein’s formula indicated that the
predictive power of the model 2 remain large if the model is generalized to predict the
UPF of a different sample of data from the same population. In spite of excellent UV
protection of fabrics enhanced by coloration or treatment with UV absorbers, the
effectiveness of these treatments could be minimized during wearing condition
wherein fabric stretch increased inter-yarn space for UVR transmission and resulted
in considerable UPF reduction. Besides, the image analysis method of fabric pores
adopted for UPF estimation would only be appropriate if the fabrics with same fiber
type are compared.
8.3 Influence of laundering on UV protection
Another common end-use condition of fabrics is laundering. Knitted fabrics are
generally prone to stretching and mechanical deformation induced by laundering
because the yarns were put under high stress during fabric formation. From literature
review, it was found that UV protection of fabric could be improved by fabric
shrinkage induced by washing and drying processes. In this section, bleached fabrics
produced by flat knitting machine in various knit structures were subjected to 1, 3, and
5 laundering cycles with AATCC standard reference detergent (without OBA). The
variations of UPF, fabric dimensional changes, and the fabric characteristics upon
229
laundering were studied correspondingly by two-way mixed design of ANOVA
(mixed ANOVA) and the results are summarized in APPENDIX II.
8.3.1 UPF of bleached knitted fabrics after laundering
There were no dramatic changes in UPF for both single knitted and double knitted
fabrics after each laundering cycle as shown in Figure 8-13 and Figure 8-14
respectively. The simple effects test identified that there was a significant increase in
UPF of all knit after the first laundering while other single knit structures had small
reductions in UPF which were identified as non-significant. UPF of most double knit
structures increased slightly after the first laundering. The tests of within-subject
contrast identified significant variation in UPF between the first and third laundering
cycles. UPF did not vary significantly after the third laundering. When comparing the
influences of wearing condition on UV protection of fabrics, the impact of laundering
was less conspicuous. It is because most fabric shrinkage had occurred during the
scouring and bleaching process. Moreover, the fabrics had experienced different
extents of dimensional changes in widthwise and lengthwise directions.
Some single knit and double knit structures exhibited non-significant decrease in UPF
after five laundering cycles. A possible explanation for this might be ascribed to the
yarn used for knitting the fabrics. The nature of yarn would influence the fabric
dimensional changes according to the results in Chapter 5. The yarn used for
producing the fabric specimens was conventional short-staple cotton yarns with
generally high hairiness. During the laundering process, the short hairs on the yarn
surface were bended to give a slightly smoother surface as shown in Figure 5-4, which
reduced the UVR scattering effect. Nevertheless, the variation in UPF might also be
230
ascribed to the dimensional changes of fabrics upon laundering as discussed in next
section.
15
10
MeanUPF
5
No. of laundering cycles

0
0 1 3 5
All Knit 7.5 9.0 8.2 7.8
Knit & tuck 8.4 8.7 8.3 8.3
Knit & miss (25%) 9.9 9.7 9.5 8.7
Knit & miss (50%) 10.9 11.5 10.7 10.4
Figure 8-13. UPF change of bleached single knitted fabrics by laundering
35
30
25
20
MeanUPF
15
10
5
0 No. of laundering cycles
0 1 3 5
1x1 rib 11.3 12.0 11.8 10.4
Half cardigan 10.6 11.0 10.6 10.1
Full cardigan 7.8 8.0 7.9 7.5
Half Milano 17.2 16.7 14.3 15.5
Full Milano 20.5 19.9 18.3 17.9
Interlock 28.5 29.9 26.1 27.0
Figure 8-14. UPF change of bleached double knitted fabrics by laundering
The influence of stitch types on UV protection of knitted fabrics retained after
laundering. Interlock, half Milano and full Milano obtained better UV protection than
231
1x1 rib, half cardigan, and full cardigan after five laundering cycles. According to the
results of simple effects test, UPF of most single knit and double knit structures did
not vary significantly after the third laundering cycle. The results agreed with other
studies, which revealed majority of dimensional changes was found within the first
five launderings that was sufficient for stabilizing the fabrics [231, 244, 248, 249].
Nevertheless, the results corresponded to the finding of Eckhardt and Rohwer [125],
which also found that UPF of plain knitted T-shirt fabrics and polo-shirts fabrics (with
tuck stitches) remained unchanged after 20 wash cycles with the use of AATCC
standard detergent (without OBA). In contrast, UPF of knitted fabrics increased
moderately when laundered with detergent containing FWAs in that study. The results
implied that improvement of UV protection of fabrics by laundering would be largely
affected by the type of detergents adopted.
8.3.2 Dimensional changes of bleached knitted fabrics after laundering
Although UPF of knitted fabrics were not significantly affected by laundering, there
were dimensional changes of knitted fabric after laundering as shown in Figure 8-15
and Figure 8-16. A negative dimensional change in width or length denoted fabric
shrinkage while a positive dimensional change implied fabric growth after laundering.
For single knitted fabrics, the dimensional changes of length were significantly
affected by laundering whereas the dimensional changes of width were found to be
non-significant. From Figure 8-15 and Figure 8-16, the dimensional changes in width
and length for the single knit structures are around ± 3% after five laundering cycles,
which met the standard performance specification for common knitwear in which
maximum dimensional change in each direction is 3% [336-338].
232
8
6
4
Meanwidthchange(%)
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
1 3 5
All knit 1.5 0.0 -0.5
Knit & tuck 1.2 1.7 3.1
Knit & miss (25%) 0.5 -0.9 -0.3
Knit & miss (50%) 0.7 1.7 0.5
Figure 8-15. Mean width change of bleached single knitted fabrics
8
6
4
Meanlengthchange(%)
-2
-4
-6
-8
1 3 5
All knit -1.2 -0.7 -0.8
Knit & tuck -3.2 -2.7 -3.1
Knit & miss (25%) 0.2 -1.1 -1.6
Knit & miss (50%) -1.1 -1.3 0.5
Figure 8-16. Mean length change of bleached single knitted fabrics
From Figure 8-15, most single knit structures had increment in width after the first
laundering. On the other hand, the single knit structures also experienced shrinkage in
the lengthwise direction as shown in Figure 8-16. The subsequent dimensional
changes in width and length after the first laundering were identified as non-
233
significant. This implied that dimensions of single knitted fabrics were mostly
stabilized after the first laundering, which corresponded to other studies [151, 232].
The results showed that there were simultaneous widthwise fabric growth and
lengthwise fabric shrinkage after laundering for the single knitted fabrics. It might
explain the non-significant variation in UPF by laundering process.
Various single knit structures exhibited distinct widthwise and lengthwise dimensional
changes. Among single knit structures, the dimensional changes in width and length
of knit & tuck were comparatively larger than other single knit structures after the fifth
laundering. The tuck stitches endowed the fabrics with slack structure, thus larger
dimensional changes were found in knit & tuck. The lengthwise fabric shrinkage was
generally larger than widthwise fabric growth in knit & tuck. It is because the tuck
loops straightened sideward and the held loops contracted which reduced the fabric
length. The overlap of tuck loops and held loops on fabric back had reduced widthwise
extensibility of knit & tuck, thus it was less extensible in the widthwise direction and
resulted in relatively higher fabric shrinkage in length. The results agreed with other
studies, which also found that single knitted fabrics incorporated with tuck stitches
exhibited more lengthwise shrinkage than widthwise shrinkage [236, 243, 245].
Apart from knit & tuck, all knit also exhibited larger widthwise and lengthwise
dimensional changes than other single knit structures after the first laundering.
However, it had dissimilar extent in widthwise and lengthwise dimensional changes
to that of knit & tuck. All knit had slightly higher widthwise fabric growth than
lengthwise fabric shrinkage after the first laundering. The widthwise growth was due
to the degree of constraint imposed on each loop by intermeshing.
234
Knit & miss (25%) and knit & miss (50%) were more compact fabric structures and
therefore obtained fewer widthwise and lengthwise dimensional changes. The
incorporation of miss stitches reduced the extensibility in width because of the straight
segments of miss loops formed on fabric back, which pulled adjacent wales closer
together. Therefore, fabrics with miss stitches exhibited better dimensional stability
than all knit and knit & tuck. The lengthwise shrinkage was due to the contraction of
held loops in which the held loops were under tension attempted to take up the normal
loop shape upon relaxation. Nevertheless, the differences in widthwise and lengthwise
dimensional changes between knit & miss (25%) and knit & miss (50%) were
identified as non-significant. It corresponded to the results in Chapter 6 in which the
effect of miss stitches on fabric characteristics of single knitted fabrics is smaller than
that in the double knitted fabrics.
For the double knitted fabrics, the widthwise dimensional changes were generally
larger than that of single knitted fabrics. More double knit structures exhibited
widthwise dimensional changes over 3% after five launderings as shown in Figure
8-17, which included 1x1 rib, half cardigan, and full cardigan. The lengthwise
dimensional changes for double knit structures were similar to single knitted fabrics
with dimensional changes less than 3% after five launderings as shown in Figure 8-18.
235
8
6
4
Meanwidthchange(%)
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
1 3 5
1x1 rib 2.7 5.5 4.5
Half cardigan -0.2 1.4 3.4
Full cardigan 2.9 5.2 7.2
Half Milano 2.8 2.5 2.9
Full Milano 1.5 2.9 2.1
Interlock 1.4 2.7 1.7
Figure 8-17. Mean width change of bleached double knitted fabrics
8
6
4
Meanlengthchange(%)
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8 No. of laundering cycles
1 3 5
1x1 rib -1.6 -2.3 -1.9
Half cardigan -1.5 0.7 -0.7
Full cardigan -2.2 -0.3 -1.4
Half Milano -1.5 -0.7 -0.7
Full Milano -1.0 -1.9 -0.2
Interlock -2.0 -0.4 -1.3
Figure 8-18. Mean length change of bleached double knitted fabrics
Most double knitted fabrics were stabilized after the third laundering and the
subsequent widthwise and lengthwise dimensional changes after the fifth laundering
236
were identified as non-significant. It took more laundering cycles for the double
knitted fabrics to achieve the stabilized state. The dimensional changes of double
knitted fabrics upon laundering were dissimilar to that of single knitted fabrics
especially for the widthwise variation. The proportion of stitch types was distinct on
face and back of double knitted fabrics, thus dimensional changes were relatively
higher in the double knitted fabrics. Moreover, the effect of stitch types was found to
be more prominent in dimensional changes upon laundering of double knitted fabrics.
Among the double knit structures, 1x1 rib, half cardigan and full cardigan had larger
widthwise growth than other double knit structures especially the two cardigan
structures. These three fabrics possessed slacker fabric structures and therefore were
prone to dimensional changes upon laundering when compared to the Milano
structures and interlock. Similar to the results in single knitted fabrics, tuck stitches
endowed the fabrics with larger widthwise growth than other double knit structures.
Full cardigan possessed more tuck stitches on both fabric face and back than half
cardigan; therefore, the effect of widthwise straightening in full cardigan was the
highest among double knit structures after five laundering cycles. The lengthwise
shrinkage in full cardigan was also higher than half cardigan because the contraction
of held loops in lengthwise direction had aided the widthwise growth in full cardigan.
Unlike knit & tuck (lengthwise shrinkage > widthwise growth), both cardigan
structures had larger dimensional changes in width than that in length. It is because
most double knit structures were produced in rib gating except interlock. The two sets
of loop forming the fabric face and back are slightly displaced relative to one another
in widthwise direction, therefore the width of double knitted fabrics were slightly
237
inclined to dimensional changes upon laundering than the single knitted fabrics. The
results implied that various stitch types performed differently in dimensional changes
of the single knitted fabrics and double knitted fabrics upon laundering.
1x1 rib also exhibited higher widthwise fabric growth than the lengthwise shrinkage
after five laundering cycles. Some studies reported that the shrinkage in length was
larger than width in 1x1 rib [239, 242]. Postle [339], revealed that 1x1 rib structures
might have more length jamming than the width. The fabric is jammed in lengthwise
direction when there is room for adjacent courses to fit together and make contact with
each other at the yarn crossover points [144]. The alternation of knit and purl loops
intermeshed between fabric face and back provided larger extensibility to 1x1 rib
when compared to other double knit structures, therefore, 1x1 rib experienced more
widthwise changes than lengthwise direction.
On the other hand, the two Milano structures and interlock exhibited relatively fewer
widthwise and lengthwise dimensional changes than other double knit structures.
Although miss stitches pulled the adjacent wales closer together, the rib-based
structure endowed the fabric with widthwise growth but in a smaller extent than other
rib-based structures upon laundering. Nevertheless, the effect of miss stitches on fabric
compactness was also found in the laundered Milano structures. Full Milano contained
higher proportion of miss stitches in fabric structure and thus exhibited fewer
widthwise and lengthwise dimensional changes than half Milano after five laundering
cycles.
Interlock exhibited the least widthwise fabric growth after five laundering cycles
238
among double knit structures, although it had moderate lengthwise shrinkage. The
interlock gating produced more compact fabric structure than other rib-based double
knit structures. Therefore, interlock did not show dramatic changes in dimensions
upon laundering.
8.3.3 Changes in fabric characteristics of bleached knitted fabrics after
laundering
The changes in fabric characteristics after laundering are summarized in APPENDIX
III. Although the results of mixed ANOVA (APPENDIX II) indicated that there were
significant changes in the fabric characteristics caused by laundering, the significant
interaction effect between laundering and knit structures implied that the changes in
fabric characteristics by laundering varied with fabric structures. Moreover, the results
of UPF for both single knitted and double knitted fabrics connoted that these fabric
variations after laundering were not large enough to induce significant changes in
UPF. The variations of fabric characteristics of single knitted and double knitted
fabrics across each laundering cycle are listed in Table 8-5 and Table 8-6 respectively.
The simple effects test compared the variable at each laundering cycle to previous
laundering cycle by repeated contrast method (0→1, 1→3, 3→5), as well as the
variation after five laundering cycles (0→5). The significant increases and decreases
in the value of variables are illustrated with positive (+) and negative (‒) signs
respectively; and the non-significant variations are shown as shaded boxes.
From Table 8-5 and Table 8-6, double knitted fabrics generally exhibited more
variations in fabric characteristics than that of single knitted fabrics. Although UPF of
fabrics were not significantly improved by laundering, the variations of fabric
239
characteristics showed positive contributions to UV protection. Generally, there were
slight increases in fabric thickness, weight, stitch density, tightness factor, air
permeability (air resistance), and small decrease in fabric porosity of knitted fabrics.
However, the variations of these fabric properties caused by laundering were not large
enough to improve UV protection of bleached knitted fabrics significantly.
Table 8-5. Variations in fabric characteristics of bleached single knitted fabrics

across laundering cycles
Laundering Knit & miss Knit & miss
All knit Knit & tuck
cycles (25%) (50%)
0→1
Thickness + 0.08
1→3
(mm) 3→5 - 0.09
0→5
0→1 + 14.1
Weight
1→3
2
(g/m ) 3→5 - 10.5
0→5 + 15.1 + 17.7
0→1 + 7.2 + 4.7 + 5.3

Stitch density
1→3
-2
(cm ) 3→5
0→5 + 9.5
0→1
Tightness + 0.04
1→3
factor 3→5
0→5
0→1
Air
1→3
permeability
(kPa․s/m) 3→5
0→5 + 0.036
0→1
Fabric
1→3
porosity (%) 3→5
0→5 - 1.15
240
Table 8-6. Variations in fabric characteristics of bleached double knitted fabrics

across laundering cycles
Laundering Half Full Half Full
1x1 rib Interlock
cycles cardigan cardigan Milano Milano
0→1
Thickness 1→3
(mm) 3→5 - 0.19
0→5
0→1 + 27.4 + 12.7 + 12.0 + 20.7 + 26.6

Weight 1→3 - 15.9 - 17.1
2
(g/m ) 3→5 + 12.3 + 11.3
0→5 + 14.3 + 14.9 + 23.9
0→1 + 7.2 + 9.1

Stitch
1→3 - 4.8 - 7.7 - 8.6
density
-2 3→5 + 4.7
(cm )
0→5
0→1 + 0.04 + 0.03 + 0.06

Tightness 1→3 - 0.08
factor 3→5 + 0.04
0→5
0→1 + 0.055 + 0.025 + 0.053 + 0.058 + 0.115

Air
1→3 - 0.081 - 0.056 - 0.103
permeability
(kPa․s/m) 3→5 + 0.056 + 0.036
0→5 + 0.029 + 0.028 + 0.048
0→1
Fabric 1→3
porosity (%) 3→5 - 0.58 - 0.54 - 0.69
0→5
8.4 Conclusion
The results of this chapter revealed that excellent UV protection impacted by
coloration could be reduced significantly under the wearing condition. Fabric stretch
had a larger impact on UPF reduction than wetness. Most knit structures had UPF
dropped by half at the 10% stretch level. The movement of shoulders usually caused
241
about 13% to 16% fabric extension when the garments were worn close to the skin
[230]. This connoted that UV protection of fabrics evaluated in tensionless state is
generally over-estimated. UPF rating labelled on the UV protective garments might
mislead the wearers, which may result in longer exposure under the sun and increase
the incidence of skin cancers. Besides, the results denoted that UV protection
improved by either coloration or chemical treatment is only adequate when the fabric
structure is compact enough. When the fabric porosity increased, the impacts on UPF
by other factors became negligible. Nevertheless, the preservation of UV protection
under stretched condition could be achieved by constructing the fabrics with miss
stitches or in interlock gating.
The influence of laundering on UPF of bleached knitted fabrics was found be less
prominent when compared to other factors studied in previous chapters. Nevertheless,
the results indicated that appropriate selection of yarn materials could contribute to
dimensional stability of fabrics upon laundering. Although UV protection
enhancement by laundering could be built up by using detergent with OBA, the
effectiveness depended on the fabric construction. It is confirmed by the results in the
coloration section (Chapter 7) and other studies [79, 117, 125]. Most importantly,
consumers would not be pleased to acquire UV protection of garment by large
shrinkage of garment after laundering; therefore, laundering is a minor factor
contributing to UV protection.
242
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter 9 Conclusion and Recommendations
9.1 Conclusion
This thesis comprehensively studied the major factors affecting UV protection of
knitted fabrics from raw materials to the end-use conditions. The fabric construction
was found to be the most important attribute influencing UPF among the factors
studied. UV protection provided by fibers is mainly dependent on the chemical
composition of fibers. The natural fibers generally offered lower UV protection than
synthetic fibers. However, the comfort property provided by cotton has made it
difficult to be replaced by traditional synthetic fibers. The chemical composition of
fiber with aromatic compound would provide higher UVR absorption ability. The
soybean fiber is the regenerated protein fiber that consisted of such chemical
compound. Nevertheless, the study of UV protection of soybean fiber after bleaching
is necessary.
Three types of cotton yarn varied in twist level and staple length (cotton fiber length)
were used for studying the influences of yarn properties on UV protection. The results
showed that normal-twisted yarns generally offered better UV protection than the
modified low-twisted yarn (Supima Estex) because of denser fiber distribution in the
yarn structure for UVR absorption. The staple length affected UV protection more
remarkably in the laundered fabrics. The short staple within the yarn structure
provided more room for yarn compactness in fabric shrinkage induced by laundering
when compared to the yarn with extra-long staple. Therefore, the conventional normal-
twisted yarn spun from short staple fibers would endow knitted fabrics with good UV
protection.
243
The effects of major stitch types (knit, tuck, miss) on UV protection of single knitted
and double knitted were studied. It was found that fabric structures incorporated with
miss stitches would provide better UV protection while fabric structures with tuck
stitches exhibited lower UV protection. The effect of proportion of these stitch types
on UPF variation was more prominent in the double knitted fabrics. The effect of
gating was also found to influence UPF significantly in the double knitted fabrics. The
statistical model identified fabric weight being the most important fabric characteristic
affecting UV protection of both bleached single knitted and double knitted fabrics.
Tightness factor and air permeability were found to be the second and third important
factors influencing UPF of the bleached single knitted and double knitted fabrics.
Since the arrangement of yarns, sizes and amounts of inter-yarn spaces, and
distribution of fibers are controlled by fabric structure, the fabrics with miss stitches
contributed positively in these features and thus offered better UV protection to
fabrics.
Coloration improved UV protection of bleached cotton fabrics significantly. However,
the improvement of UPF depended on fabric structure. The fabrics with compact fabric
structure dyed at a lower color depth had similar or even higher UPF than the fabrics
with a porous structure dyed at a higher color depth. Besides, the fabrics with darker
color did not necessarily offer better UV protection than the fabrics with lighter color
because of the porous fabric structure. Color depth was found to have a larger effect
on UPF than the hue. The effect of chemical structure of reactive dye on UV protection
was also studied. Generally, the bifunctional reactive dyes provided better UV
protection to fabrics than the monofunctional reactive dyes because of higher
244
exhaustion efficiency. However, the amount and reactivity of reactive groups of dye
molecules enhanced UV protection in a quantitative approach by increasing the dye
molecules on fabric while the chemical structure of the reactive group exhibited UV
protection in a qualitative and fundamental approach. Therefore, the improvement of
UPF could not be explained by the amount or reactivity of reactive groups of dye
molecules only. Among the color properties, only color strength (K/Ssum) and lightness
(L*) had significant correlations with UPF of colored fabrics, however, the strength
of relationships with UPF was not strong.
Excellent UV protection impacted by coloration could be reduced significantly in
wearing condition. Fabric stretch had a larger impact on UPF reduction than wetness.
It implied that UV protection of fabrics evaluated in tensionless state is generally over-
estimated and might mislead the consumers. Besides, UV protection improved by
either coloration or chemical treatment is only adequate when the fabric structure is
compact enough. When the fabric pores increased, the influences on UPF by other
factors became small. The fabrics with miss stitches or produced in interlock gating
could preserve UV protection under stretched condition. The influence of laundering
on UPF of bleached knitted fabrics was not obvious because of the dimensional
stability offered by the yarn. Nevertheless, shrinkage of garment after laundering
would give rise to consumer complaints whilst shrinkage problems are reducing
nowadays because of the development of textile manufacturing.
9.2 Recommendations for future work
In this study, only cotton fiber was chosen for comprehensive study. There is a definite
need for more research work on UV protection property provided by other fibers.
245
Apart from UV protection of fabric, comfort property is also an important attribute in
the garment performance. Although fabrics with compact structure could provide very
good UV protection, the study of physiological comfort properties such as
breathability, moisture vapor transportation, thermal conductivity, handle and garment
fit are recommended in the future work. Moreover, the comfort properties of compact
fabric structure may also be enhanced by appropriate selection of fibers and yarns, for
instance, fabrics with compact structure constructed with Lycra yarns may improve
the extensibility of fabric and garment fit.
Besides, there are no standardized international testing methods for evaluating UV
protection of fabrics under stretched condition. The metallic biaxial stretching
equipment developed in this study provided a fundamental work for further
development of the evaluation tools and methods such as a multi-axial instrument.
In this thesis, only UPF of fabrics is mainly reported for interpreting the research
objectives. The study on impact of textile parameters on UVA and UVB transmission
is recommended especially when the fabrics being evaluated contains different fiber
contents or with distinct textile characteristics such as cross-sectional shape of fibers.
The aim of studying improvement of UV protection by fabric structural approach was
achieved. This thesis presented important information of UV protection offered by
knitwear fabrics with different fabric constructions. The information would help
reducing the incidence of skin cancers by raising the attention in the public. It provided
guidelines to consumers and dermatologists for selecting suitable knitwear with
sufficient UV protection. The results of this study also provided information to textile
246
designers and manufacturers for developing UV protective knitwear in the future.
The two most important characteristics of sun protection fabric are a tight weave and dark colors.
247
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX I
UPF and fabric specification of bleached single and double knitted fabrics produced
by flat knitting machine (gauge length: E14)
Stitch Air
Thickness Weight Density Tightness Permeability Porosity
UPF (mm) (g/m2) (cm-2) Factor (kPa․s/m) (%)
All knit 7.5 1.27 213.0 105.2 1.28 0.123 89.1
Knit & tuck 8.4 1.57 231.0 59.4 1.27 0.123 90.4
Knit & miss (25%) 9.9 1.43 241.7 110.1 1.56 0.169 89.0
Knit & miss (50%) 10.9 1.57 258.2 100.8 1.91 0.166 89.3

1x1 rib 11.3 1.64 271.4 75.3 1.37 0.148 89.3
Half cardigan 10.6 1.99 284.7 38.6 1.36 0.123 90.7
Full cardigan 7.8 1.93 214.5 27.9 1.25 0.112 92.8
Half Milano 17.2 1.75 342.3 59.1 1.82 0.310 87.3
Full Milano 20.5 1.96 371.5 98.0 1.81 0.291 87.7
Interlock 28.5 1.95 407.0 102.5 2.57 0.416 86.5
UPF and fabric specification of bleached single knitted fabrics (gauge length: E20)
and double knitted fabrics (gauge length: E16) produced by circular knitting machines
Stitch Air
Thickness Weight Density Tightness Permeability Porosity
UPF (mm) (g/m2) (cm-2) Factor (kPa․s/m) (%)
All knit 8.4 0.97 172.3 179.9 1.46 0.159 88.4
Knit & tuck 7.8 1.27 195.6 101.6 1.40 0.103 90.0
Knit & miss (50%) 9.0 1.41 196.2 130.9 1.79 0.100 91.0

1x1 rib 10.6 1.16 173.4 146.8 1.29 0.110 90.2
Half cardigan 8.5 1.39 168.1 73.2 1.29 0.073 92.2
Half Milano 10.5 1.29 181.7 102.7 1.59 0.084 90.9
Full Milano 12.9 1.31 192.4 150.3 1.58 0.099 90.5
Interlock 31.2 1.55 223.4 166.3 2.06 0.154 90.6
248
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX II
Results of two-way mixed design of ANOVA for laundering effect on UPF,

dimensional changes and fabric characteristics of single knitted fabrics (Section 8.3.3)
Laundering Knit structure Interaction
F-test sig. F-test sig. F-test sig.
UPF F3,60 = 21.17 0.000 F3,20 = 194.04 0.000 F9,60 = 4.84 0.000
NS NS
Width F3,24 = 2.74 0.065 F3,8 = 3.03 0.093 F9,24 = 3.39 0.008
Length F3,24 = 7.47 0.001 F3,8 = 5.17 0.028 F9,24 = 2.95 0.017
NS
Thickness F3,24 = 11.03 0.000 F3,8 = 775.00 0.000 F9,24 = 1.92 0.097
Weight F3,24 = 22.12 0.000 F3,8 = 227.85 0.000 F9,24 = 4.52 0.001
Stitch density F3,24 = 14.47 0.000 F3,8 = 2869.79 0.000 F9,24 = 2.44 0.039
NS
Tightness factor F3,24 = 11.39 0.000 F3,8 = 1630.84 0.000 F9,24 = 1.50 0.204
NS
Air permeability F3,24 = 17.01 0.000 F3,8 = 87.51 0.000 F9,24 = 0.85 0.580
Fabric porosity F3,24 = 4.57 0.011 F3,8 = 72.14 0.000 F9,24 = 2.39 0.043
NS Effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is non-significant at the 0.05
Results of two-way mixed design of ANOVA for laundering effect on UPF,

dimensional changes and fabric characteristics of double knitted fabrics (Section
8.3.3)
Laundering Knit structure Interaction
F-test sig. F-test sig. F-test sig.
UPF F3,90 = 22.56* 0.000 F5,30 = 2134.81 0.000 F15,90 = 3.70* 0.000
Width F3,36 = 36.76 0.000 F5,12 = 5.06 0.010 F15,36 = 2.66 0.008
NS
Length F3,36 = 13.42 0.000 F5,12 = 1.26 0.343 F15,36 = 2.02 0.042
NS NS
Thickness F3,36 = 17.69 0.000 F5,12 = 1.88 0.171 F15,36 = 1.68 0.101
Weight F3,36 = 22.00 0.000 F5,12 = 189.49 0.000 F15,36 = 2.28 0.021
Stitch density F3,36 = 59.04 0.000 F5,12= 3743.00 0.000 F15,36 = 4.24 0.000
Tightness factor F3,36 = 33.78 0.000 F5,12 = 8832.92 0.000 F15,36 = 3.25 0.002
Air permeability F3,36 = 15.11 0.000 F5,12 = 14437.22 0.000 F15,36 = 3.34 0.002
Fabric porosity F3,36 = 69.40 0.000 F5,12 = 909.33 0.000 F15,36 = 8.38 0.000
NS Effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is non-significant at the 0.05 confidence
level (p > 0.05).
* The effect of within-subject variable on UPF was evaluated by the Greenhouse-Fiesser corrected F-
ratio due to the violation of sphericity assumption.
249
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX III
Variations in fabric characteristics of bleached single knitted and double knitted

fabrics upon launderings (Section 8.3.3):
1. Fabric thickness
Thickness change of bleached single knitted

fabrics
2.5
2
Thickness(mm)
1.5
0.5

0 1 3 5
All knit 1.27 1.23 1.28 1.23
Knit & tuck 1.57 1.61 1.66 1.57
Knit & miss (25%) 1.43 1.41 1.46 1.41
Knit & miss (50%) 1.57 1.63 1.71 1.63
Thickness change of bleached double knitted

fabrics
2.5
2
Thickness(mm)
1.5
0.5

0
0 1 3 5
1x1 rib 1.64 1.75 1.77 1.71
Half cardigan 1.99 2.04 2.09 2.03
Full cardigan 1.93 2.06 2.07 1.87
Half Milano 1.75 1.85 1.80 1.79
Full Milano 1.96 2.04 2.05 2.00
Interlock 1.95 2.06 2.01 2.04
250
APPENDIX III
2. Fabric weight
Weight change of bleached single knitted fabrics

500
400
Weight(g/m2) 300
200
100

0 1 3 5
All knit 213.0 219.7 227.9 228.1
Knit & tuck 231.0 241.6 242.2 248.7
Knit & miss (25%) 241.7 238.4 250.3 239.8
Knit & miss (50%) 258.2 272.2 273.3 265.9
Weight change of bleached double knitted fabrics

500
400
Weight(g/m2)
300
200
100

0
0 1 3 5
1x1 rib 271.4 298.8 289.8 285.8
Half cardigan 284.7 297.4 297.4 293.0
Full cardigan 214.5 225.3 222.5 218.6
Half Milano 342.3 354.3 338.4 350.7
Full Milano 371.5 392.2 375.1 386.4
Interlock 407.0 433.6 423.5 430.9
251
APPENDIX III
3. Stitch density
Stitch density change of bleached single knitted

150 fabrics
Stitchdensity(cm-2)
100
50

0 1 3 5
All knit 105.2 112.4 116.8 114.7
Knit & tuck 59.4 61.7 62.8 61.5
Knit & miss (25%) 110.1 114.8 115.3 110.2
Knit & miss (50%) 100.8 106.1 105.4 100.8
Stitch density change of bleached double knitted

fabrics
150
Stitchdensity(cm-2)
100
50

0
0 1 3 5
1x1 rib 75.3 80.5 75.7 74.9
Half cardigan 38.6 40.9 40.6 39.4
Full cardigan 27.9 29.3 27.7 26.9
Half Milano 59.1 63.9 60.5 62.3
Full Milano 98.0 105.2 97.5 102.3
Interlock 102.5 111.7 103.1 105.8
252
APPENDIX III
4. Tightness factor
Tightness factor change of bleached single knitted

2.5 fabrics
Tightnessfactor 1.5
0.5 No. of laundering cycles

0 1 3 5
All knit 1.28 1.30 1.34 1.30
Knit & tuck 1.27 1.30 1.30 1.28
Knit & miss (25%) 1.56 1.60 1.59 1.59
Knit & miss (50%) 1.91 1.91 1.93 1.91
Tightness factor change of bleached double knitted

fabrics
3
2.5
Tightnessfactor
1.5

0.5
0 1 3 5
1x1 rib 1.37 1.40 1.39 1.37
Half cardigan 1.36 1.40 1.39 1.38
Full cardigan 1.25 1.28 1.27 1.27
Half Milano 1.82 1.82 1.81 1.81
Full Milano 1.81 1.82 1.80 1.82
Interlock 2.57 2.63 2.55 2.59
253
APPENDIX III
5. Air permeability
Air permeability (resistance) change of bleached

0.3 single knitted fabrics
Airpermeabiltiy(kPa·s/m)
0.2
0.1

0 1 3 5
All knit 0.123 0.151 0.164 0.159
Knit & tuck 0.123 0.134 0.139 0.144
Knit & miss (25%) 0.169 0.181 0.201 0.187
Knit & miss (50%) 0.166 0.190 0.197 0.187
Air permeability (resistance) change of bleached

double knitted fabrics
0.6
0.5
Airpermeabiltiy(kPa·s/m)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 3 5
1x1 rib 0.148 0.203 0.178 0.177
Half cardigan 0.123 0.147 0.146 0.138
Full cardigan 0.112 0.130 0.118 0.101
Half Milano 0.310 0.362 0.281 0.338
Full Milano 0.291 0.350 0.293 0.295
Interlock 0.416 0.532 0.429 0.465
254
APPENDIX III
6. Fabric porosity
Fabric porosity change of bleached single knitted

100 fabrics
95
Fabricporosity(%) 90
85

0 1 3 5
All knit 89.1 88.4 88.4 87.9
Knit & tuck 90.4 90.3 90.5 89.7
Knit & miss (25%) 89.0 89.0 88.9 88.9
Knit & miss (50%) 89.3 89.2 89.6 89.4
Fabric porosity change of bleached double knitted

fabrics
100
95
Fabricporosity(%)
90
85

80
0 1 3 5
1x1 rib 89.3 88.9 89.3 89.1
Half cardigan 90.7 90.5 90.7 90.6
Full cardigan 92.8 92.9 93.0 92.4
Half Milano 87.3 87.5 87.8 87.3
Full Milano 87.7 87.5 88.1 87.5
Interlock 86.5 86.3 86.3 86.3
255
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Thesis UV and Knitted Fabric

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WONG WAI YIN

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Institute of Textiles & Clothing

WONG WAI YIN

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Wong Wai Yin (Name of student)

research of ultraviolet (UV) protective clothing. Although various fabric parameters

concerning knitted fabrics, in particular the influence of fabric constructions on

studying the UV protective property of knitted fabrics at a fundamental level by

end-use conditions including stretching, wetting and laundering, on UV protection

were comprehensively studied. A metallic biaxial stretching equipment was specially

developed for the evaluation of UV protection of fabrics in stretched condition.

performances in UV protection. A fabric with miss stitches offered remarkable UV

manufacturing UV protective clothing. Besides, knitted fabrics with miss stitches

value-added information to textile designers, manufacturers, and consumers for the

enhancement of UV protection and selection of UV protective knitwear.

dyes on ultraviolet protection of cotton knitted fabrics with different fabric

constructions’, Textile Research Journal, June 2015 (online published, doi:

ultraviolet protection of colored cotton knitted fabrics with different structures

334, April 2015.

Knitted Fabrics’, Textile Progress, 2015 (under revision).

the Textile Institute, 2015 (under review).

on UV protection of plain knitted fabrics’, The Journal of the Textile Institute,

fabric construction on the ultraviolet protection factor of greige and bleached

cotton fabrics’, Textile Research Journal, 83(7), 683-699, May 2013.

6, 2014, pp. 39.

China, October 23-26, 2013, pp. 151.

3. W.Y. Wong and Jimmy K.C. Lam, ‘Effect of Stretching on UV Protection of

Conference, Dubrovnik, Croatia, October 7-10, 2012, pp. 607-611.

UV Protection of Knitted Fabrics’, Abstract Book of the Fiber Society’s Spring

Outstanding Research Presentation Award, 3rd Institute of Textiles & Clothing

Research Seminar, Hong Kong, April 2011.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chief-supervisor, Dr. Jimmy K.C.

encouragement throughout my research study.

I would also like to express my profound gratefulness to my co-supervisor, Dr. C.W.

successful completion of the research work.

Postle, Emeritus Professor of Textile Physics of School of Chemistry at the University

helps and useful opinions in the experimental works.

2.4.4.2 Reactive dye.................................................................................. 38

3.8.2 Evaluation of UPF under stretched condition ...................................... 76

6.4.4 Weight of bleached double knitted fabrics........................................ 134

8.3.1 UPF of bleached knitted fabrics after laundering .............................. 230

Table 2-1. UV Index exposure category [37] ............................................................ 10

ANOVA analysis of variance

to achieve a healthier lifestyle by participating in more outdoor activities. Small

may occur as a result of over-exposure to UVR. Excessive exposure to UVR is the

outdoor occupational needs [1-5].

The deleterious impacts caused by over-exposure to UVR have increased public

sunglasses, and adopting sunscreens. However, the UV protection provided by

sunscreens is not long-lasting and requires regular re-application due to continuous

perspiration. Inappropriate usage of sunscreens such as applying insufficient thickness

products. The UV protective ability of a sunscreen is evaluated at a thickness of 2

sunscreens may be decomposed by UVR forming potentially toxic photo-products

higher chance for developing melanomas and nevi (birthmarks) [22-24].

The performance shortcomings demonstrated for sunscreens indicates possible