CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Concrete shells are aesthetically pleasing, structurally efficient, construction-wise

challenging and are optimized structures. Shells derive their structural action through their form
and unique in their behavior and many other ways. Shells are used in multi- various situations as
coverings of conventional centers, exhibition places and industrial buildings .They look light and
beautiful. Shell may be defined as the bi-dimensional curved element that has tendency to carry
loads mainly in direct compression or tension, rather than in bending and in shear. This
definition implies that the thickness is small compared with its other dimensions but it does not
require that the smallness be extreme.Their efficient resistant mechanism allows that the
maximum structural advantage, in terms of both internal forces and displacements is obtained
with a minimum of materials; their architectonic value is characterized by being able to cover
large columns-free areas with an aesthetical and functional structure. Thin-shell concrete
structures are structurally efficient systems for covering large areas .Their construction has seen
a sharp decline since their golden era, between the 1920s and early 1960s, with the possible
exception of air-inflated domes. Reasons for their disappearance are the cost of formwork, and
the rising cost of associated labour and the declining interest from architects and possibly related
to the limitations of geometries suitable to shell structures.This seminar presents the structural
details of a new innovative concrete shell roof that addresses these issues.

NEST (Next Evolution in Sustainable Building Technologies) is a district scale project by

Empa and Eawag in partnership with the ETH Domain to demonstrate innovation in the built
environment. HiLo exhibits four core innovations: Integrated thin shell roof, Funicular floor
system, Adaptive solar facade and Occupant centered control. HiLo roof is an ambitious
individual piece. To address the building physical requirements it is built in four layers. The
inside layer is exposed architectural concrete with an embedded heating and cooling pipe system
.Then an insulation layer follows onto which the second layer of concrete is applied. Finally
there is another layer of insulation with thin film solar cells on top.

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 CHAPTER 2
CONCRETE THIN SHELL STRUCTURES

Fig 2.1: Example of a concrete thin shell roof structure

2.1 GENERAL

Concrete thin shell structure is a three-dimensional spatial structure that constructed from
one or more curved slabs or folded plates. The thicknesses of curved slab and folded plates are
small compared to their other dimensions. The outstanding features of concrete thin shells are
their three-dimensional load-carrying behavior which is governed by number of factors. For
example, nature of the applied load, the manner in which thin shells are supported, and the
geometry of thin shell forms.

2.2 DIFFERENT TYPES AND FORM OF CONCRETE THIN SHELL STRUCTURE

 Folded Plates
 Barrel Vaults
 Short Shells
 Domes (surfaces of revolution)
 Folded Plate Domes

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  Translational Shells
 Warped Surfaces
 Combinations

2.2.1. Folded Plates

It is a type of concrete shell structure that made up of thin flat slabs. These slabs are
jointed along their edges to construct three-dimensional structure. Folded plate spans up to 30m
with only 60mm thickness but folded plate structure with greater spans can also be constructed.
It is aesthetically pleasing, reduces material and construction cost .Difficult shuttering,
requirement for extensive labor work and supervision, high cost, and difficulty in rising roofs are
drawbacks of this type of plates.

Fig.2.2: Distribution of loads in folded plate structure

There are three types of folded plates:
1. Prismatic folded plates: It composites of planar thin slabs joining along their
longitudinal edges to form a beam-like structure spanning between supports.

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 Fig 2.3: Prismatic folded plate Fig.2.4: Non-prismatic folded plate

2. Non-prismatic folded plates: They are planar thin slabs joining along their longitudinal
edges to form a beam-like structure spanning between supports.
3. Faceted folded plates:It consists of triangular or polygonal planar thin slabs joining
along their edges to form thin plate structure.

Fig.2.5:Faceted folded plate structure

2.2.2 Cylindrical barrel Vaults

Barrel vaults are deep concrete beams with thin web member that can be designed using
conventional reinforced concrete design. This type of concrete thin shell composes of cylinder,
frame or ties at the ends including columns, and side elements which include a cylindrical
element ,a folded plate element , columns or combination .

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 Fig.2.6: Cylindrical barrel vault

Barrel vaults are very efficient due to the arch form to reduce stresses and thicknesses in
the transverse direction. It spans up to 45.72m and hence barrel vaults are the most useful shell
structure. A barrel shell carries load longitudinally as a beam and transversely as an arch. The
arch is supported by internal shears.

2.3.3 Short shell

It is a cylindrical shell that has a large radius in comparison with its length. Short shell
consists of shell element spans between arches, arch structure and edge beams provided at the
lowest point of the shell. In small structure, it is permissible to omit edge beams . The short shell
carries load in two ways; as an arch carrying load to the lower elements and as a curved beam to
the arches. The thickness of the shell can be quite thin due to these properties.

Fig.2.7 Basic elements of short shell

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2.2.4 Domes (surfaces of revolution)
They are structures that cover a more or less square or circular area. Domes are
hemisphere in shape and used as a roof structure. Support element of domes include columns,
circular or regular polygon shaped wall. They are membrane structures (the internal stresses are
tension and compression) and are statically determinate if the proper edge conditions are
fulfilled. In a dome of uniform thickness, under its own weight, the ring stresses are compression
until the angle to the vertical is about 57 degrees. If the dome is less than a full hemisphere, a
ring is required at the base of the dome to contain the forces.

Fig. 2.8: Dome structure

 Folded plate domes :It is a type of thin concrete shell structure that consists of plane
slabs and plates. Various configurations of folded plate domes are available and being
constructed.

Fig.2.9: Folded plate domes

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 Folded plate dome surface is easier to construct since they are flat .But for slab spans
over 16 feet, the shell wall is thicker than a curved surface because bending must be considered.
The sound waves in areas covered with folded plate domes are not converge. Therefore, it is
more desirable to the curved dome for use in an auditorium.

2.2.5. Translation Shells

A translation shell is a dome set on four arches. The shape is different from a spherical
dome and is generated by a vertical circle moving on another circle. The stresses in a translation
shell are much like a dome at the top. But at the level of the arches, tension forces are offset by
compression in the arch. And also there are high tension forces in the corner.

Fig.2.10: Translation thin shell structure

2.2.6 Wrapped surfaces
Warped surfaces have a great advantage for shell structures because they may be formed
from straight form boards even though they are surfaces of double curvature. There are two types
which are most useful namely Conoid and hyperbolic paraboloid shell.

Fig.2.11: Conoid shell structure

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 Fig.2.12: Hyperbolicparaboloid shell

2.2.7 Combinations
It is possible to construct different and safer shell structure by combining portion of the
basic shell structure .
 Intersection shells, barrel shell and folded plate.
 Barrel shell and short shell.
 Barrel shells and domes of revolution.
 Barrel shells and conoids .

Fig.2.13: Combination of basic types of shell structures; Dome and Barrel vault

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2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE SHELL STRUCTURES

2.3.1 Advantages
 The curved shapes often used for concrete shells are naturally strong structures, allowing
wide areas to be spanned without the use of internal supports, giving an open,
unobstructed interior.
 The use of concrete as a building material reduces both materials cost and construction
costs, as concrete is relatively inexpensive and easily cast into compound curves.
 The resulting structure may be immensely strong and safe; modern monolithic dome
houses, for example, have resisted hurricanes and fires.

2.3.2 Disadvantages
 Since concrete is a porous material, concrete domes often have issues with sealing. If not
treated, rainwater can seep through the roof and leak into the interior of the building.
 The seamless construction of concrete domes prevents air from escaping, and can lead to
buildup of condensation on the inside of the shell.
 Shingling or sealants are common solutions to the problem of exterior moisture, and
dehumidifiers or ventilation can address condensation.

2.3.3 APPLICATIONS
 There are two principal uses of shells in civil engineering:
 Industrial structures:– silos, tanks, cooling towers, reactor vessels etc.
 Aesthetic and architectural special structures.

2.5. GEOMETRY OF SHELLS

 The shape and dimensions of a shell must bedefined mathematically in order to establish
thesystem of equations governing its behavior. A shell structure is composed of solid
material formed to a specific shape. This shape can be defined by middlesurface,
whichbisects the thickness of the shell at every point.

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  The shell thickness is defined as the distanceperpendicular to the middle surface between
theouter surfaces of the shell. The direction that is perpendicular to the middle surface
isreferred to as the shell normal.
 Shell structures can be of many shapes and forms. The middle surfaces can be
definedanalytically as a shell of revolution or a shell of translation. Some shells areof
forms that cannot be described analytically. Considering only one class of shellstructures,
can best provide an introduction to the behavior and analysis of shellstructures. The shells
of rotation are well suited for this purpose, as they minimize thecomplexity in geometry
and notation and therefore provide a clearinsight to the behavior of shells.
 A surface of revolution is created by the rotation of a curve about an axis lying in the
same plane. The curve is referred to as the meridian. The axis is referred to as the
shellaxis. Parallels are the lines created by bisecting the middle surface of the shell with
aplane that is perpendicular to the shell axis. The most common example of a shell of
rotation is the dome.
 The location of any point on the dome can be given by the intersection of a meridian and
a parallel as shown in fig. The meridian is identified by the angle Ѳ of its plane from
some designed datum plane.The parallel is identified by the angle Ф that the shell normal
makes with the shell axis.

2.6. STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE SHELLS

Shell structures are surface structures such as membranes and plates. The load bearing
capacity of shells is not primarily defined by the material strength,but rather achieved by a
spatially directed allocation of material within the design space. Due to the single or double
curvaturethe shell has the ability to bear the loads in a membrane stress state, a lower strain
energy compared to the bending systems.
A demonstrative example is aslice of an orange peel or a piece of an egg shell,where an
inextensional deformation without changing the in-plane length of the surface is impossible.A
shell is even more capable than just a special version of two-dimensional arch .Arches are able to
bear loads without bending, provided a geometry balanced with the outer loads.Other loads will
cause bending moments, as aproduct of the thrust and its eccentricity from the axis.In shell
structures the three-dimensional thrust surface provide multiple possibilities of stress fields in

10
statical equilibrium without bending, due to the load takedown via both , hoop and meridian
forces .
The thickness is considered to be proximate constant by avoiding abrupt changes .The
curvatures are supposed to be steady and material homogenous, isotropic and linear elastic .The
shell form, the edges as well as the supporting is one structural entity .Hook’s law of elasticity is
applied which implies that the flat surface remain flat, disregarding the transverse shear
strain.Shell forces are membrane forces, transversal forces and bending and twisting moments.

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 CHAPTER 3
TECHNIQUES OF CONCRETE SHELL CONSTRUCTION

3.1 CAST-IN- PLACE CONSTRUCTION

Cast-in-place shells are suitable for unique and complicated shapes and in situations
where the geometry of the shell is not conducive for splitting the shell surface into
precastelements, whether factory made or cast in situ. The following factors are to be
consideredfor cast-in-place shells:
 The design of formwork must be such that it will be possible to remove the formwork
afterthe setting of the concrete in segments so that the de-centering can be done quickly
andwithout causing any damage to the formwork.
 The geometrical form being the predominant controlling factor, the formwork should
bedone carefully to be stiff and to retain the geometry under the action of forces
developedduring the concreting process.
 When concreting is done, the shuttering should cause neither pockets norunwanted
additional thickness.
 Top shuttering is necessary whenever the angle between the surface and thehorizontal
exceeds about 45º.
 Any honeycombing formed should be investigated after de-shuttering and properly
o grouted before applying waterproofing and/or thermal insulation.
 Marine plywood for shuttering and steel props and bracings for scaffolding arewell
suited.
 Concreting should be planned such that the weather conditions like rain, lowtemperature
and snow do not interfere with concrete pouring.

3.2 PRE-CAST CONSTRUCTION

In pre-cast construction due to controlled conditions ,better quality of concrete can be
achieved as the inspection of concrete can be done at the ground level itself. Hence theother
qualities of the concrete like homogeneity, compactness, and strength can be ensured properly.
Precast techniques can be made effective by dividing the shell into a number of identical units
ensuring the geometrical compatibility and proper structural connection. Due to this a number of
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repetitions in the usage of the mould can be achieved with a consequent reduction in the cost.
The scaffolding that is required for a cast-in-situ shell is almost nil in this case. The size of the
mould and the weight of the precast elements depend on the handling capacity of the erection
system either through a movable crane or through a moving tripod system etc. The completion
time of the shell is reduced by organizing parallel activities in the site like concreting of
columns, fabrication of the mould and casting of the precast units in the workshop etc.
The other advantages are as follows:
 The moulds are placed at the ground level.
 The moulds can be inclined or horizontal depending on the shell design.
 Pouring and compaction of concrete can be made easy while the whole procedurecan be
protected against the atmospheric disturbances.
 The casting of precast shell can be done fast.
The material that is used for mould can be either concrete or wood or steel or a
combination of any of the two or three materials, so that maximum number of re-uses can be
achieved.

3.3 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

3.3.1. Formwork/shuttering
Important points to be kept in mind during formwork erection are:
 After floor concrete is done to get a firm ground, an approved system ofscaffolding
should be erected along valley/gutter portion. Parallelribs at the bottom of the valley
should be placed to suit the shape of the shell.
 In between these two valley/gutters, parallel supports membershould be shaped to suit
the profile of the curve and are placed as per the designrequirement of the formwork.
 In between these two parallel supports members, smaller pieces of timberare provided
spaced at a minimum distance on which the plywood can easily span.
 The total grid system and top curve profile are checked before placing theplywood.
 The marine plywood is nailed on the top of the timber support on the alreadyprofiled
timber to suit the curvature. The plywood joints have to be plugged witha suitable filler
and the curve should be smoothened.

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  In case of shell roof in a multi-storied structure, the lower floors supporting theformwork
have to be suitably propped

3.3.2 Concrete thickness

 The thin shell’s thickness and reinforcement must be proportioned to satisfy the strength
provisions, so as to resist internal force. The thickness of the shell is often dictated not by
the requirements of strength, but by the limitation of deflection of edge members, by the
requirements of stability or by the required reinforcement cover .
 Concrete thickness depends on the shape of the shell size or span of theshell, and the
strength of concrete, environmental issues and fire protectionrequirements.
 Thickness can start right from 3 cm.
 Building codes vary from country to country and each country prescribes adifferent
minimum thickness.
 Thickness is arrived at after an analysis of the shells and with the limits ofallowable
compressive stresses. Creep and buckling have to be studied.
 Currently available are high strength concrete mixtures and such new strengthsgreatly
reduce the thickness of concrete shells. It is therefore possible to designshells which are
efficient, costs less, consumes less steel and cement and withlarger spans.
 Long-span shells can be strengthened by ribs depending on the shape, size andconcrete
strength. This will reduce large deflections and will also add to thebuckling strength of
the shell.
 Whenever the areas are larger than 1,200 square meters, to provide
economicallydesigned shells there are two effective solutions for supplementing the
shellthickness by ribs, namely:
 bidirectional rib networks placed on the inside face of the surface.
 box cross sections provided with bidirectional ribs inside the surface.

3.3.3. Reinforcement
Theoretically free-form concrete shells designed to be in pure compression need no
reinforcement, shells must resist various forces/stresses that require reinforcement to be
provided.

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 The principal tasks of reinforcement are to enhance the homogeneity of concrete
throughout the entire shell surface and to take care of tensile stresses produced by bendingand
twisting moments due to boundary conditions, unexpected concentrated loads, and shape
irregularities.
The additional tasks of reinforcement are to take care of shrinkage and temperature
stresses, limiting crack width, and its spacing. Additional reinforcement is required in edge
beams and ribs and also around openings and at locations of load attachments.

Provisions for reinforcement

Principal tensile stresses should be entirely resisted by reinforcement. Steel provided to
resist the tensile stresses is assumed to act at the middle shell surface. It should be placed either
in the direction of principal tension lines or in two or three directions on the surface. Shells with
thickness on the order of 8cm should be reinforced with two overlapped layers of steel bars,
ensuring the needed concrete covering. Two layers at top/bottom faces are preferred to resist
possible local bending moment .
In shells whose thickness is around 4 cm thick, the reinforcement can be provided in the
middle surface in two perpendicular directions. In both previous situations, the steel percentage
should not be less than 0.4 and not greater than 4.0. Minimum reinforcement should be provided
wherever not required by the analysis. Minimum laps to be provided are 30 times the diameter of
the bar or 450mm, whichever is greater. Bar splices should be staggered with not more than one
third of all bars spliced at one cross section. Bar nets have to be held in the designed position by
the concrete either by little cubes or by metal loops. Attention should be paid to the steel bars
curvature in the vertical plane of the shell in order to resist the generated deviation forces.
Steel or carbon fiber reinforcement in a recommended dosage, almost of 0.5-0.6 KN/m³
of concrete, may be effective to reduce the concrete shrinkage, as well to improve its
homogeneity and compactness. Fiber reinforcement can be effectively used to reduce the
shrinkage cracks.
Deformed bars of smaller diameter are preferred in the body of the shell. For a singly
curved shell, a welded fabric is preferred. However welding is not preferred in seismic zones.
Additional steel reinforcement should be provided in the junction between beam and shell, where
crack appearance due to shrinkage differences due to distinct thickness can occur.

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3.3.4 .Pre-stressing reinforcement
Pre-stressing tendons have to be laid in the middle surface of the shell so that they act
tangentially to the central face. When prestressing tendons do not lie tangentially to central
surface, the exerted forces have to be resolved in two components, which should be accounted
for in the design. Where pre-stressing tendons are anchored in the boundary elements, special
reinforcement should be added to accommodate locally produced tensile forces.

3.3.5 Concreting
The following points should be kept in mind during the concreting of a shell structure:
 The concrete placing should produce a smooth dense solid texture on theundersurface of
the shell with no pockets or honey-combing.
 Concreting should be done starting from the supporting beams and stiffeningbeams
working upwards from lower end to higher end.
 Maximum size of aggregate should be 20mm. Depending on the thickness of theshell,
less than 12mm can also be used.
 Construction joints should preferably be located in zones of compressive stressesand the
concreting should be done in a symmetrical manner.
 High-performance concrete will have a higher modulus of elasticity to
controldeflections but will cause shrinkage cracks in the thinner members of the
shell.Appropriate grade and mix design may reduce the cracks.
 Concrete can be placed by pumping or by bucket and mobile crane.
 Form vibrators can be used for shell proper and needle vibrators for beams.
 Construction joints should be treated with bonding agents.

3.3.6 De-shuttering
De-shuttering as a general principle should be done from the point of maximum
deflection to the point of minimum deflection, symmetrically. Any wrong method of de-
shuttering may endanger the structure. De-shuttering should be done when the compressive
strength of the concrete is at desired level. However with conventional curing of concrete, de-
shuttering may take place after a minimum period of 14 days.

16
 De-shuttering of the form work should be guided by the general code of practice for
concrete. One of the codes suggests that the de-shuttering should be done when the concrete
achieves a strength of at least twice the strength to which the concrete may be subjected to at the
time of de-shuttering. The verification of the concrete strength should be done by testing the
concrete cubes/cylinders at various times, i.e., 7, 14, and 28 days. If early removal of forms is
required the magnitude of the modulus of elasticity at the time of proposed form removal must
be investigated in order to ensure the safety of the shell with regard to buckling.

3.3.7 Thermal insulation

Shells being thin elements, the heat that is put in through the shell can be significant. This
is particularly valid in tropical countries. In a similar manner in cold countries loss of heat
through the shell is possible. Insulating material can be either on the top of the shell or on the
underside of the shell. As far as methods of thermal insulation are concerned, currently, the
following procedures are used: In the first alternative, the thermal insulation is applied on the
concrete upper face, fixed with cement mortar, which is then protected by a layer of waterproof
covering. Thermal insulation on the external surface can be provided in two ways:
 Polyurethane base primer is applied on the dust-free concrete and 20mm thick
polyurethane foam is applied on the same.
 Expanded Polystyrene of 50mm or 25mm can be fixed to the dust-free concrete
with the help of bitumen of desired grade

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 CHAPTER 4
4. NEW CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE TO BUILD CONCRETE SHELLS

4.1 NEW DOME CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

A new system has been devised by the scientists at the Vienna University of Technology
– one which allows concrete shell structures to be ‘inflated’ and girded together using a steel
cable. The new system or technique is called the ‘pneumatic wedge method or balloon method
which is likened to peeling an orange and lying its skin flat on a table. Only it’s in reverse –
starting with a flat surface and then bending it to a shell. This technique does not require any
expensive support structures which is often the reason why builders stay away from dome-
shaped structures or large concrete shells.

4.1.1 Working
Laid out alongside each other on the ground are a number of flat rebar placed on top of a
plastic air cushion – deflated, where concrete will be poured and allowed to harden. What results
is a series of flat concrete slabs which will be attached with steel cable and metal beams, to link
them together.

4.1.2 Inflated Air Cushion Creates Dome-Shaped Structure

Fig 4.1: The plastic air cushion is inflated when concrete hardens. The slabs are lifted from the
ground causing it to bend and take the shape of the dome.

18
 When the concrete becomes hard, the deflated air cushion will be inflated. As air fills it,
the slabs are lifted up from the ground at the center and pushed together from outside, causing
them to bend in order to take the shape of the dome and form a sustainable concrete shell. The
steel cable is tightened around the concrete segments in order to snug the slabs in against one
another. The connecting metal beams ensure that they are following one movement. The slabs
will then have edges in wedge-shape that cause them to interlock securely with the slab next to
them.

4.1.3 Getting the right geometrical shape

When the dome shell is lifted up, the inflated air cushion will be allowed to deflate and
gradually be removed, including the beams and steel cables. The hardened concrete will have
some cracks resulting from the bending while the air cushion is being inflated. But said cracks
don’t affect the structure’s stability because each concrete segment holds the others in place if
the right geometric shape is achieved. The final step is applying a layer of plaster to cover the
entire dome to add more strength and to hide those tiny cracks.

4.1.4 Time, Materials and Construction Costs

A test was done on the new dome construction system and results showed that a 2.9
meter high concrete dome took approximately two hours to build. This new technique once
perfected should significantly reduce the costs of constructing domed buildings by half, not to
mention the savings in time and materials. The new construction technique also renders timber
structures obsolete so it’s a good environmental attribute. The construction technique also
eliminated the need for stud bolts to fasten the studs forming the support for the concrete dome.

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 CHAPTER 5
INNOVATIVE CONCRETE SHELL ROOF DEVELOPED BY NEST HiLo

Fig 5.1: Visualisation from final design stage of HiLo

5.1 INNOVATIONS OF NEST HiLo

The four innovations introduced through HiLo are :
A lightweight funicular floor system that features
 a thin funicular concrete shell with stiffening fins
 a hydronic radiant heating and cooling system;
An integrated thin shell roof that features
 a mesh-reinforced concrete and PU foam sandwich structure
 flexible thin-film photovoltaic
 a hydronic radiant heating and cooling system
 a lightweight flexible formwork for its construction
An adaptive solar facade, that features
 photovoltaic panels, driven by
 soft robotic actuators
An occupant-centred control system, that features

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  constant indoor/outdoor climate monitoring
 adaptive set-points for the building systems
 learning of user preferences through interaction.

5.2 CABLE NET AND FABRIC FORMED , FERROCEMENT SANDWICH THIN

SHELL ROOF OF NEST HiLo
The HiLo roof is built with a cable-net and fabric formwork system. This system is
designed to dramatically reduce the material waste that is typically involved in the construction
of concrete shells. It improves on traditional formwork structures for doubly curved surfaces,
which would be comprised of custom timber carpentry or milled foam by using mostly reusable
components. The cable net is spanned within a reusable timber boundary supported by
conventional scaffolding. The cable net is designed to deform under the weight of the wet
concrete into the desired shape of the HiLo roof. This is achieved by the non-uniform
distribution of forces in each one of the cables.
A full-scale prototype of the HiLo roof was built in the Robotic Fabrication Lab of the
Institute of Technology in Architecture ETH Zurich. The development and realization of this
prototype focused on the first layer of NEST HiLo's thin concrete shell and represents a key
milestone for the project, as it demonstrates the viability of the proposed lightweight, flexible
formwork system to form a complex concrete structure. The prototype was built with the
following objectives:
 To develop and test the cable net components in real scale.
 To test the feasibility of the system and the on-site logistics.
 To test the concrete spraying of a large and doubly curved surface through the carbon-
fiber reinforcement

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 Fig5.2: Cable net thin shell roof

5.2.1 Structural Details

 Anticlastic shell structures

Typical anticlastic shells are hyperbolic paraboloids or hyparswhich include some of the
thinnest known shell structures. Slight improvements to their geometry can drastically improve
their structural behavior. Such deviations can be achieved by using a pre-stressed cable-net and
fabric formwork system allowing the roof of HiLo to depart from the traditional hypar.

 Creep and shrinkage sensitivity

Gabled roofs with shallow hyperbolic parabolas are particularly sensitive to time-
dependent deformation and there have been specific instances of such structural failures .
Including creep and shrinkage can lead to 25-50% reduction in load carrying capacity and a four-
to eightfold increase in displacements.
Shallowness is defines by two criteria:
 rise / span < 0.2
 rise x thickness / (first span•second span) >0.003 (for saddle roofs)
Although HiLo's roof does not meet these criteria, a substantial reduction in load carrying
capacity due to creep and shrinkage has been observed in this case as well. This long-term
behaviour is dependent on the concrete strength (as a function of the water/cement ratio). The
22
influence of strength class on the load factor was evaluated by varying between C35 and C90.
Results inform further detailed analysis and concrete mix development.

 Thin free edges

Unlike hypars with straight edges HiLo’s roof shell has no edge beams but features thin
edges thickening towards the five supports. The shell is not supported by the facade mullions
which only transmit horizontal wind loads to the shell. The shell has no internal ribs, unlike
traditional shells composed of multiple hypars. For single or gabled hypar roofs, reducing or
entirely removing any edgebeam (possibly thickening the shell at the supports) decreases overall
shell bending. Although maximum displacements may increase, they are not significant
compared to serviceability limits.

 Sandwich section

Figure 5.3: Roof section of HiLo with full sandwich, and alternative with sandwich locally
along glass facade (adapted from drawing by Supermanoeuvre)
The shell is subject to strict requirements for energy performance. The overall apartment is
supposed to generate a 40-50% annual weighted energy surplus. The roof is used as a solar
collector for electrical and possibly thermal energy on the outside and as a low energy radiant
heating and cooling system on the inside requiring the inside concrete surface to remain exposed.

23
To minimise thermal bridging, the connection between the glass facade and shell led to the
present sandwich design (Fig). Although the sandwich would seem to present only structural
benefits by increasing structural depth and reducing sensitivity to external loads and
imperfections, the differences in temperature and humidity on either side of the PU core lead to
higher thermal loads and differential strains due to creep and shrinkage.
For this reason, but also to reduce complexity during construction, an alternative has been
calculated in which the sandwich only occurs along the glass and the interior part of the shell is a
single layer.

 Mesh reinforcement
Due to the thinness of the shell and various unfavourable load cases and combinations the
shell will locally act in bending and thus needs to bereinforced accordingly. The shell can be
reinforced using woven (or welded) meshes .
 steel where the composite is called ferrocement
 alkaline resistant (AR) glass-fibre
 carbon-fibre where the composite is called textile reinforced concrete(TRC).
Compared to conventional reinforced concrete ferrocement has a fine mortar matrix with
densely distributed reinforcement leading to high ductility with homogenous, isotropic properties
(including high tensile strength) as well as high durability due to very small crack widths and
spacing . Textile reinforced concrete (TRC) with glass or carbon fibre offer similar benefitsbut is
even more flexible. The decision for the final material of the reinforcement mesh (steel, carbon
or AR glass) will be made in the next phase. Due to its high in-plane thermal conductivity
ferrocement is currently favoured as reinforcement for the thermally active roof. The materials
can be combined to improve thermal conductivity only for the interior part of the shell while
supressing it at the connection to the glass facade and at the exterior. A combination with fewer
mesh layers with fiber reinforcement is also being considered.

 Pre-stressed flexible formwork

The shell is anticlastic and will be constructed on a pre-stressed grid with fabric
shuttering which is lightweight and easily transported. Without the need for scaffolding directly
underneath there is no need for temporary foundations and unobstructed access is made possible.

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To fully realize the structural efficiency of a flexibly formed shell it is crucial to both design an
optimal shell and to control the cable forces such that its form, despite the formwork's flexibility
and the weight of the wet concrete is in the end exactly as required.

5.3 MULTI-CRITERIA OPTIMIZATION TO FIND THE GEOMETRY OF THE ROOF

It consists of the following steps:
 Generate the shell's boundary conditions and internal topology of the cable-net
 Generate an anticlastic surface based on a given force distribution, as the basis for the
shell's geometry
 Generate governing load combinations in the serviceability limit state (to check for
allowable deflections)
 Optimize the thickness of the shell subject to allowable deflections and yield strength of
the material.
 Evaluate for each generated shape the structural performance and several spatial criteria.

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 CHAPTER 6
CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

A highly efficient, reusable and lightweight flexible formwork system allowsthe

reintroduction of efficient, doubly curved, thin shell roof structureswithout the typically
associated high labour and resource investments. Ithas allowed us to reduce the amount of
material, especially in relation to thefalsework (scaffolding). In this case, the shuttering is
replaced by a fabricand the falsework is replaced by cables which are supported by an external
frame at its boundaries.
The formwork system offers a degree of control over the anticlastic shape through non-
uniform pre-stressing of the cable-net, such that it can be easily optimized for improved
structural behaviour and other criteria compared totraditional geometries. In particular, an
inverse optimization was appliedto determine the non-uniform pre-stresses in the final state, after
deflectionand under load of the wet concrete. From this, the initial pre-stressed statecan be
calculated, which represents the non-uniform pre-camber necessarybeforehand, to obtain the
optimized geometry after loading.
The first cable-net and fabric formwork prototype had dimensions of1.8×1.8×1.2 m and
was built to produce two prototype concrete shell structure. The first shell had two main
objectives. First to establish a complete workflow for the structural design of an anticlastic thin
concrete shell taking into account the fabrication constraints of a hybrid cable-net and fabric
formwork. Secondly to construct a prototype shell based on this workflow in order to identify
challenges in both computational and constructional aspects.
The second prototype was used to prove that the formwork system is able to control the
final geometry within a tolerance of ± 5 mm. The main objective was to improve the control of
the geometry through measurements of force and more accurate measurement of the geometry.
By doing so, it was possible to demonstrate average tolerances as low as 1.3 mm for a 2.6 m 24
span, so 1/2000th of the span (Figure 6.1 and 6.2).

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 Fig 6.1: The second prototype showing the timber frame and the prestressed cable net

Fig 6.2: This is the second prototype constructed at ETH Zurich for the HiLo project. It was used
to demonstrate low construction tolerances

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 CHAPTER 7
ENERGY DESIGN OF THE SHELL ROOF

One of the main design strategies of the HiLo module is the extraction of the
maximumpotential from the building elements while considering the embodied energy
contribution tothe building lifecycle. The embodied energy analysis advises the design process
but this factor does not govern the final decisions. A balanced approach is employed by not just
examining the material performance by volume but also assessing the contribution of thematerial
to a range of tasks.

7.1 INTEGRATED DESIGN PROCESS OF THE ROOF SHELL.

As the roof shell is important in terms of the project research(NEST HiLo) and forms a
key component of the innovation strategy and it is preferred that the lower surface of the shell is
not directly insulated. Therefore at the roof/facade interface the lower edge surface of the shell is
exposed internally and externally. The concrete shell is an active heating element and the total
external heat transfer coefficient can be up to 25 W/m2 K. It was likely that relatively high
thermal losses would occur at this location as the roof was a single shell and was insulated with a
roll applied aerogel insulation at an early design stage.
In order to resolve the thermal loss issue at the roof/facade interface a composite roof
shell is provided which thermally separate internal and external shells. As the design evolved
based on numerical analysis of the shell the temperature differences of the external and internal
concrete shell volumes would cause stress at the composite interface layers. In order to
counteract these forces it would be typical to add steel shear connections between the shells. This
approach would further complicate theconstruction of the formwork system and the process of
placing the concrete. From the energy perspective the improvements in the thermal performance
of the roof/facade interface would be significantly reduced by the shear connection thermal
losses. The solution involved replacing the roll based aerogel insulation material with a spray on
polyurethane rigid foam (PUR), which can transfer stresses between the upper and the lower
shells. As PUR is comparable to aerogel insulation in terms of embodied energy, the main
concern related to the additional embodied energy related to an on-site spray on application and

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at disposal phase. Also safety precautions must be employed duringapplication due to respiratory
hazards.
The embodied energy contribution, the structural performance, simplification of the
construction and the reduction the thermal losses (of the shell edge and the exclusion of the shear
connection) during the operation phase were used to reach the final decision. These main three
benefits outweighed the increase in embodied energy associated the composite shell with PUR
insulation. Also the preliminary embodied energy calculations show that the current composite
shell roof design is superior to a typical concrete roof section in terms of carbon emissions.

Fig 7.1: Integrated thin shell roof

Fig 7.2: Carbon Emissions of the structural components of the HiLo Composite Roof and a
Typical Concrete Roof

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 CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION

As the shell structures have more strength with respect to its self-weight it is gaining the
popularity in the areas where there is a risk of earthquake and hurricane. There are many places
on earth where there is a risk of these natural disasters. It is therefore necessary to analyze the
shell structures to ensure the best and safe design method for future, to avoid the potential
accidents. To understand why the concrete shells are no longer built commonly is to understand
its construction process. Concrete shells are not the only way to build but their construction,
structural efficiency, tectonics and thermal qualities should be taken into account in the process
of design decisions and specifications.
The improvement in structural performance targets a significant reduction in the concrete
volume compared to a typical concrete roof section. This provides a low embodied energy
building element while retaining the beneficial characteristics of concrete in relation to
operational energy. This reduces the structural requirements for building foundations and
increases the potential for further embodied energy reductions. It is difficult to conclude anything
about the shell structure. Therefore there is a need for more research in this area to come to one
conclusion.

FUTUTE WORK
The thin concrete shell and the funicular floor are integrated withTABS. At the concept
stage, simulation was used to estimate thermalperformance based on design data. Experimental
verification andcharacterization will be completed during the operational phase ofHiLo. This will
serve as a basis for operational optimization as well asaiding future developments for highly
efficient and integrated components.

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 REFERENCES

1. Design process for prototype concrete shells using a hybrid cable net and fabric
formwork. Journal homepage :www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct.
2. Balancing operational and embodied emissions for the energy concept of an experimental
research and living unit.
3. Structural design of the cable net and fabric formed fererocement sandwich shell roof of
NEST HiLo.
4. Construction methods and quality control for concrete shell roofs.
5. Processing of slender concrete shells fabrication and installation.
6. NEST HiLo :Investigating light weight construction and adaptive energy system

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