DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS,

SIMILITUDE AND MODEL

ANALYSIS

DR. MOHSIN SIDDIQUE

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
BACKGROUND
Although many practical engineering problems involving fluid
mechanics can be solved by
• Equations and Analytical procedures
yet a large number of problems rely on experimental data for their
solution
In fact, very few problems involving real fluids can be solved by
analytical analysis alone

In general, solution is obtained through the use of a combination

of analysis and experimental data
An obvious goal of any experiment is to make the results as
widely applicable as possible
To achieve this goal, the concept of similitude is often used so
that measurements made on one system (Laboratory) can be used
to describe the behavior of other systems (Outside of laboratory)

2
BACKGROUND
The laboratory systems are usually thought of as models
and are used to study the phenomenon of interest under
carefully controlled conditions

From these model studies, empirical formulations can be

developed, or specific predictions of one or more
characteristics of some other similar system can be made

However, to do this, it is necessary to establish the

relationship between the laboratory model and the “other”
system

In present topic, we will learn how to achieve this in a

systematic manner

3
BACKGROUND

Sudden contraction
Wind turbine Dam/spillway
in pipes

Dimensional Analysis to predict the physical parameters that

will significantly influence phenomenon under study

Similitude and Model analysis to investigate the complexity

of phenomenon in details

Application of knowledge on actual/prototype model

4
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Introduction:

Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical technique making

use of study of dimensions
It deals with the dimensions of physical quantities involved
in the phenomenon
In dimensional analysis, one first predicts the physical
parameters that will influence the flow, and then by,
grouping these parameters in dimensionless combinations
a better understanding of the flow phenomenon is made
possible
It is particularly helpful in experimental work because it
provides a guide to those things that significantly influence
the phenomena; thus it indicates the direction in which the
experimental work should go
This mathematical technique is used in research work for
design and for conducting model tests

5
TYPES OF DIMENSIONS
There are two types of dimensions

• Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental Quantities

• Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities

Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental Quantities:

These are basic quantities. For Example;
• Time, T Time, T
• Distance, L Distance, L,
• Mass, M Force, F

Force=Mass x Acceleration = MLT-2

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TYPES OF DIMENSIONS

Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities

The are those quantities which posses more than one
fundamental dimensions.

For example;
• Velocity is denoted by distance per unit time L/T
• Acceleration is denoted by distance per unit time square L/T2
• Density is denoted by mass per unit volume M/L3

Since velocity, density and acceleration involve more

than one fundamental quantities so these are called
derived quantities.

7
 Table: Flow Characteristics, units and Dimensions

Characteristics Unit (SI) Dimension Dimension

(MLT) (FLT)
Geometry Length m L
Area m2 L2
Volume m3 L3
Kinematic Time S T
Velocity m/S L/T
Acceleration m/S2 L/T2

Discharge m3/S L3/T

Dynamic Mass Kg M FL-1T2
Force N (Kg-m/S2) MLT-2 F
Pressure Pa (N/m2) ML-1T-2 FL-2
Energy J (N-m) ML2T-2 FL
Power Watt (N-m/S) ML2T-3 FLT-1
8
METHODOLOGY OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

The basic principle is Dimensional Homogeneity, which

means the dimensions of each terms in an equation on both
sides are equal.

So such an equation, in which dimensions of each term on

both sides of equation are same, is known as
Dimensionally Homogeneous Equation. Such equations are
independent of system of units. For example;
Lets consider the equation V=(2gH)1/2
• Dimensions of LHS=V=L/T=LT-1
• Dimensions of RHS=(2gH)1/2=(L/T2xL)1/2=LT-1
• Dimensions of LHS = Dimensions of RHS

So the equation V=(2gH)1/2 is dimensionally homogeneous

equation.
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METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are
known, then the relation among the variables can be determined by the
following two methods;
• Rayleigh’s Method
• Buckingham’s π-Theorem
Rayleigh’s Method:
It is used for determining expression for a variable (dependent) which
depends upon maximum three to four variables (Independent) only.
If the number of independent variables are more than 4 then it is very
difficult to obtain expression for dependent variable.
Let X is a dependent variable which depends upon X1, X2, and X3 as
independent variables. Then according to Rayleigh’s Method

X=f(X1, X2, X3) which can be written as

X=K X1a, X2b, X3c

Where K is a non-dimensional constant and a, b, c are arbitrary

powers which are obtained by comparing the powers of
fundamental dimensions (Dimensional Homogeneity).
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RAYLEIGH’S METHOD
Q. The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be
considered as dependent upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity
V, air viscosity µ, air density ρ, and bulk modulus of air k. Express
the functional relationship between the variables and the resisting
force.

Solution:

R = f (l , V , µ , ρ , K ) ⇒ R = Al a , V b , µ c , ρ d , K e (1)
Where: A = Non dimensional constant
Substituting the powers on both sides of the equation
MLT -2 = ALa ( LT −1 )b ( ML−1T −1 )c ( ML−3 ) d ( ML−1T −2 )e
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides
Power of M ⇒ 1 = c + d + e
Power of L ⇒ 1 = a + b - c - 3d - e
Power of T ⇒ − 2 = -b - c - 2e
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 RAYLEIGH’S METHOD
Since the unkown(5) are more than number of equations(3). So expressing
a, b & c in terms of d & e
d = 1- c - e
b = 2 - c - 2e
a = 1- b + c + 3d + e = 1- (2 - c - 2e) + c + 3(1- c - e) + e
= 1- 2 + c + 2e + c + 3 - 3c - 3e + e = 2 - c
Substituting the values in (1), we get
R = Al 2−cV 2−c − 2 e µ c ρ 1−c −e K e = Al 2V 2 ρ (l − cV − c µ c ρ − c )(V −2 e ρ − e K e )
  µ 
c
 K 
e

R = Aρ l V 
2 2
  2  
 ρVl   ρV  
OR
2 2  µ   K  
R = Aρ l V φ   2 
 ρ Vl  ρV 

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RAYLEIGH’S METHOD

u = f (K , ρ ) (
u = C K a, ρb )

13
RAYLEIGH’S METHOD

14
RAYLEIGH’S METHOD

15
BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Buckingham’s π-Theorem: Since Rayleigh’s Method becomes
laborious if variables are more than fundamental dimensions (MLT), so
the difficulty is overcome by Buckingham’s π-Theorem which states
that
“If there are n variables (Independent and Dependent) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions
then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms which
are called π-terms.”
Let X1, X2, X3,…,X4, Xn are the variables involved in a physical
problem. Let X1 be the dependent variable and X2, X3, X4,…,Xn are
the independent variables on which X1 depends. Mathematically it can
be written as
X1=f(X2 ,X3 ,X4 ,Xn) which can be rewritten as
f(X1X2 ,X3 ,X4 ,Xn)=0
Above equation is dimensionally homogenous.
It contain n variables and if there are m fundamental dimensions then it
can be written in terms of dimensions groups called π-terms which are
equal to (n-m)
Hence; f(π1, π2 π3,… πn-m)=0

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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Properties of π-terms:
• Each π-term is dimensionless and is independent of system of
units.
• Division or multiplication by a constant does not change the
character of the π-terms.
• Each π-term contains m+1 variables, where m is the number of
fundamental dimensions and also called repeating variable.
Let in the above case X2, X3, X4 are repeating variables and if
fundamental dimensions m = 3 then each π-term is written as
Π1=X2a1. X3b1. X4c1 .X1
Π2=X2a2. X3b2. X4c2 .X5
.
.
Πn-m=X2a(n-m). X3b(n-m). X4a(n-m) .Xn
Each equation is solved by principle of dimensionless
homogeneity and values of a1, b1 & c1 etc are obtained. Final result
is in the form of
Π1=ϕ’(Π2, Π3, Π4 ,…, Π(n-m))
Π2=ϕ”(Π1, Π3, Π4 ,…, Π(n-m))
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METHODS OF SELECTING REPEATING VARIABLES
The number of repeating variables are equal to number of
fundamental dimensions of the problem. The choice of repeating
variables is governed by following considerations;
• As far as possible, dependent variable should not be selected as
repeating variable
• The repeating variables should be chosen in such a way that one
variable contains geometric property, other contains flow property
and third contains fluid property
• The repeating variables selected should form a dimensionless
group
• The repeating variables together must contain all three
fundamental dimension i.e., MLT
• No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.

Note: In most of fluid mechanics problems, the choice of

repeating variables may be (i) d, v, ρ, (ii) l, v, ρ or (iii) d, v, µ.

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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Q 1. The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can
be considered as dependent upon the length of the aircraft l,
velocity V, air viscosity µ, air density ρ, and bulk modulus of air k.
Express the functional relationship between the variables and the
resisting force.
R = f (l , V , µ , ρ , K ) ⇒ f ( R, l , V , µ , ρ , K ) = 0
Total number of variables, n= 6
No. of fundamental dimension, m=3
No. of dimensionless π -terms, n-m=3
Thus: f (π 1 , π 2 , π 3 ) = 0
No. Repeating variables =m=3
Repeating variables =l , V , ρ
Thus π-terms are written as
π 1 = l a1V b1 ρ c1 R
π 2 = l a 2V b 2 ρ c 2 µ
π 3 = l a 3V b 3 ρ c 3 K
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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Now each Pi-term is solved by the principle of dimensional
homogeneity
π 1 − term ⇒ M o LoT o = La1 ( LT −1 )b1 ( ML−3 )c1 MLT −2
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0=c 1 +1 ⇒ c 1 =-1
Power of L: 0=a1 +b1 -3c1 +1 ⇒ a1 = −2
Power of T: 0=-b1 -2 ⇒ b1 =-2
R
∴ π 1 = l -2V -2 ρ -2 R ⇒ π 1 = 2 2
ρL V
π 2 − term ⇒ M o LoT o = La 2 ( LT −1 )b 2 ( ML−3 )c 2 ML−1T −1
Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0 = c 2 +1 ⇒ c 2 = -1
Power of L: 0 = a2 + b2 - 3c2 -1 ⇒ a2 = −1
Power of T: 0 = -b2 -1 ⇒ b2 = -1
µ
∴ π 2 = l -1V -1ρ -1µ ⇒ π 2 =
ρ lV
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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:

π 3 − term ⇒ M o LoT o = La 3 ( LT −1 )b 3 ( ML−3 )c 3 ML−1T −2

Equating the powers of MLT on both sides, we get
Power of M: 0 = c 3 +1 ⇒ c 3 = -1
Power of L: 0 = a3 + b3 - 3c3 -1 ⇒ a3 = −0
Power of T: 0 = -b3 - 2 ⇒ b3 = -2
K
∴ π3 = l V ρ K ⇒ π2 =
0 -2 -1

ρV 2
Hence
 R µ K 
f (π 1π 2π 3 ) = f  2 2 , , 2  = 0 or
 ρ l V lV ρ V ρ 
R  µ K  2 2  µ K 
2 2
=φ  , 2  ⇒ R = ρl V φ  , 2 
ρl V  lV ρ V ρ   lV ρ V ρ 
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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Q 2. A thin rectangular plate having a width, w, and height, h, is located
so that it is normal to a moving stream of fluid. Assume the drag D, that
the fluid exerts on the plate is a function of w and h, the fluid viscosity
and density µ, and ρ, respectively, and velocity V of the fluid
approaching the plate. Determine a suitable set of pi terms to study this
problem experimentally
From the statement of problem, we can write :
D = f (w, h, µ , ρ ,V )
Total number of variables, n = 6
Repeating variables
No. of fundamental dimension, m = 3
w, ρ , V
No. of pi terms, n - m = 6 - 3 = 3

The dimension of variables using MLT system are

D = MLT - 2 , w = L, h=L
µ = ML−1T −1
V = LT −1
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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Now the pi terms can be written as
π 1 = Dwa1V b1 ρ c1 , π 2 = hwa 2V b 2 ρ c 2 , π 3 = µwa 3V b 3 ρ c 3
For π 1 :
π 1 = Dwa1V b1 ρ c1
0 0 0
M L T = MLT ( −2
)(L ) (LT ) (ML )
a1 −1 b1 − 3 c1

For M : 0 = 1 + c1
For L : 0 = 1 + a 1 + b1 - 3c1
For T : 0 = -2 - b1
Therefore, a 1 = -2, b1 = -2 and c1 = -1
π 1 = Dw− 2V − 2 ρ −1
D
π1 = 2 2
wV ρ
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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Now the pi terms can be written as
π 1 = Dwa1V b1 ρ c1 , π 2 = hwa 2V b 2 ρ c 2 , π 3 = µwa 3V b 3 ρ c 3
For π 2 :
π 2 = hwa 2V b 2 ρ c 2
M L T = (L )(L )
0 0 0 a2
(LT ) (ML )
−1 b 2 −3 c 2

For M : 0 = c2
For L : 0 = 1 + a 2 + b 2 - 3c 2
For T : 0 = -b 2
Therefore, a 2 = -1, b 2 = 0 and c 2 = 0
π 2 = hw−1V 0 ρ 0
h
π2 =
w
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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Now the pi terms can be written as
π 1 = Dwa1V b1 ρ c1 , π 2 = hwa 2V b 2 ρ c 2 , π 3 = µwa 3V b 3 ρ c 3
For π 3 :
π 3 = µw a 3V b 3 ρ c 3
0 0 0
M L T = ML T ( −1 −1
)(L ) (LT ) (ML )
a3 −1 b 3 −3 c 3

For M : 0 = 1 + c3
For L : 0 = −1 + a 3 + b 3 - 3c 3
For T : 0 = -1 - b 3
Therefore, a 3 = −1, b 3 = −1 and c3 = -1
π 3 = µw −1V −1 ρ −1
µ
π3 =
wV ρ
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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:
Finally the results of dimensional analysis can be
represented in the form
φ (π 1 , π 2 , π 3 , π 4 ,..., π n − m ) = 0
π 1 = φ (π 2 , π 3 , π 4 ,..., π n − m )
D w µ 
2 2
= φ  , 
wV ρ  h wVρ 

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BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:

Let’s solve it now

27
BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:

Let’s solve it now 28

BUCKINGHAM’S Π-THEOREM:

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For more worked problems refer to

Civil Engineering Hydraulics by Nalluri and Featherstone

(Worked problems 9.1 to 9.11)
SIMILITUDE AND MODEL ANALYSIS
Similitude is a concept used in testing of Engineering
Models.

Usually, it is impossible to obtain a pure theoretical solution

of hydraulic phenomenon.

Therefore, experimental investigations are often performed

on small scale models, called model analysis.

A few examples, where models may be used are ships in

towing basins, air planes in wind tunnel, hydraulic turbines,
centrifugal pumps, spillways of dams, river channels etc
and to study such phenomenon as the action of waves and
tides on beaches, soil erosion, and transportation of
sediment etc.
33
MODEL ANALYSIS
Model: is a small scale replica of the actual structure
Prototype: the actual structure or machine

Lp1
Lm1

Lp2 Lm2
Fp1 Fp2 Fm1 Fm2

Fm3 Lm3
Fp3 Lp3

Prototype Model

Note: It is not necessary that the models should be smaller that the
prototype, they may be larger than prototype
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MODEL ANALYSIS
Model Analysis is actually an experimental method of
finding solutions of complex flow problems
The followings are the advantages of the model analysis
• Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the
variables influencing a flow problem is obtained which help in
conducting tests
• The performance of the hydraulic structure can be predicted
in advance from its model
• The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the
help of model analysis to adopt most economical, and safe
design

Note: Test performed on models can be utilized for

obtaining, in advance, useful information about the
performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity
exits between the model and the prototype
35
SIMILITUDE-TYPE OF SIMILARITIES

Similitude: is defined as similarity between the model

and prototype in every respect, which mean model and
prototype have similar properties or model and
prototype are completely similar.

Three types of similarities must exist between model

and prototype.

• Geometric Similarity
• Kinematic Similarity
• Dynamic Similarity

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SIMILITUDE-TYPE OF SIMILARITIES
Geometric Similarity: is the similarity of shape. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of all the corresponding
linear dimensions in the model and prototype are equal. e.g.

Lp Bp Dp
= = = Lr
Lm Bm Dm

Where: Lp, Bp and Dp are Length, Breadth, and diameter of prototype

and Lm, Bm, Dm are Length, Breadth, and diameter of model.

Lr= Scale ratio

Note: Models are generally prepared with same scale ratios in every
direction. Such models are called true models. However, sometimes
it is not possible to do so and different convenient scales are used in
different directions. Thus, such models are called distorted model

37
SIMILITUDE-TYPE OF SIMILARITIES
Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of velocities and acceleration
at the corresponding points in the model and prototype are equal.
e.g.
V p1 Vp 2 a p1 ap2
= = Vr ; = = ar
Vm1 Vm 2 am1 am 2

Where: Vp1& Vp2 and ap1 & ap2 are velocity and accelerations at point
1 & 2 in prototype and Vm1& Vm2 and am1 & am2 are velocity and
accelerations at point 1 & 2 in model.

Vr and ar are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio

Note: Since velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence

not only the ratio of magnitude of velocity and acceleration at the
corresponding points in model and prototype should be same; but
the direction of velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points
in model and prototype should also be parallel.
38
SIMILITUDE-TYPE OF SIMILARITIES
Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of forces at the
corresponding points in the model and prototype are equal. e.g.

( Fi ) p ( Fv ) p ( Fg ) p
= = = Fr
( Fi )m ( Fv )m ( Fg )m

Where: (Fi)p, (Fv)p and (Fg)p are inertia, viscous and gravitational
forces in prototype and (Fi)m, (Fv)m and (Fg)m are inertia, viscous and
gravitational forces in model.

Fr is the Force ratio

Note: The direction of forces at the corresponding points in model

and prototype should also be parallel.

39
TYPES OF FORCES ENCOUNTERED IN FLUID
PHENOMENON

Inertia Force, Fi: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration in the

flowing fluid.

Viscous Force, Fv: It is equal to the product of shear stress due to

viscosity and surface area of flow.

Gravity Force, Fg: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration due

to gravity.

Pressure Force, Fp: it is equal to product of pressure intensity and

cross-sectional area of flowing fluid.

Surface Tension Force, Fs: It is equal to product of surface tension

and length of surface of flowing fluid.

Elastic Force, Fe: It is equal to product of elastic stress and area of

flowing fluid.
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DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Dimensionless numbers are the numbers which are
obtained by dividing the inertia force by viscous force or
gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or
elastic force.

As this is ratio of once force to other, it will be a

dimensionless number. These are also called non-
dimensional parameters.

The following are most important dimensionless numbers.

• Reynold’s Number
• Froude’s Number
• Euler’s Number
• Weber’s Number
• Mach’s Number
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DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Reynold’s Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force
of flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. ρ . Velocity
Re = = Time = Time
Fv Shear Stress. Area Shear Stress. Area
ρ Q.V ρ AV .V ρ AV .V ρVL VL
= = = = =
τ .A du V µ υ
µ .A µ .A
dy L

Froude’s Number, Fe: It is the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force
of flowing fluid.

Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. ρ . Velocity
Fe = = Time = Time
Fg Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion Mass. Gavitational Acceleraion
ρ Q.V
ρ AV .V V2 V
= = = =
ρVolume.g ρ AL.g gL gL

42
DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Eulers’s Number, Eu: It is the ratio of inertia force to the pressure force of
flowing fluid.
Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. ρ . Velocity
Eu = = Time = Time
Fp Pr essure. Area Pr essure. Area
ρ Q.V ρ AV .V V2 V
= = = =
P. A P. A P/ρ P/ρ

Weber’s Number, We: It is the ratio of inertia force to the

surface tension force of flowing fluid.

Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. ρ . Velocity
We = = Time = Time
Fg Surface Tensionper. Length Surface Tensionper. Length
ρ Q.V ρ AV .V ρ L2V 2 V
= = = =
σ .L σ .L σ .L σ
ρL
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DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
Mach’s Number, M: It is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic force of
flowing fluid.

Velocity Volume
Fi
Mass. ρ . Velocity
M= = Time = Time
Fe Elastic Stress. Area Elastic Stress. Area
ρ Q.V ρ AV .V ρ L2V 2 V V
= = = = =
K .A K.A KL2 K/ρ C
Where : C = K / ρ

44
MODEL LAWS OR SIMILARITY LAWS
We have already learned that for dynamic similarity, ratio of
corresponding forces acting on prototype and model should be
equal i.e.
( Fv ) p ( Fg ) p ( Fp ) p ( Fs ) p ( Fe ) p ( FI ) p
= = = = =
( Fv )m ( Fg )m ( Fp )m ( Fs )m ( Fe )m ( FI )m

Force of inertial comes in play when sum of all other forces is not
equal to zero which mean:

(F + F
v g + Fp + Fs + Fe ) = ( FI )
Thus dynamic similarity require that
(F + F
v g + Fp + Fs + Fe ) ( FI ) p
p
=
(F + F
v g + Fp + Fs + Fe ) m ( FI )m

In case all the forces are equally important, the above two equations
cannot be satisfied for model analysis

45
MODEL LAWS OR SIMILARITY LAWS
However, for practical problems it is seen that one force is most
significant compared to others and is called predominant force or
most significant force.
Thus, for practical problem only the most significant force is
considered for dynamic similarity. Hence, models are designed on
the basis of ratio of force, which is dominating in the
phenomenon.

Finally, the laws on which models are designed for dynamic

similarity are called models laws or laws of similarity. The
followings are these laws
• Reynold’s Model Law
• Froude’s Model Law
• Euler’s Model Law
• Weber’s Model Law
• Mach’s Model Law

46
REYNOLD’S MODEL LAW
It is based on Reynold’s number and states that Reynold’s number
for model must be equal to the Reynolds number for prototype.
Reynolds Model Law is used in problems where viscous forces are
dominant. These problems include:
• Pipe Flow
• Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes, fully immersed
bodies etc

VP LP Vm Lm
( Re )P = ( Re )m or =
υP υm
VP LP VL
= r r =1
 υ P  υr
Vm Lm  
 υm 
VP LP υP
where : Vr = , Lr = ,υ r =
Vm Lm υm
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REYNOLD’S MODEL LAW
The Various Ratios for Reynolds’s Law are obtained as
 VL   VL 
sin ce   =   and υ = µ / ρ
 υ  P  υ m
VP Lm υ P υr
Velocity Ratio: Vr = = =
Vm LP υm L r
TP L P /VP L r
Time Ratio: Tr= = =
Tm L m /Vm Vr
aP VP / TP Vr
Acceleration Ratio: a r = = =
am Vm / Tm Tr
APVP
Discharge Ratio: Q r = = L2rVr
AmVm
Force Ratio: Fr =mr ar = ρ r QrVr = ρ r L2rVrVr = ρ r L2rVr2
Power Ratio: Pr =Fr .Vr =ρ r L2rVr2Vr = ρ r L2rVr3
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 REYNOLD’S MODEL LAW
Q. A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of specific
gravity 0.90 and viscosity 3x10-2 poise at the rate of 3000litre/s.
Tests were conducted on a 15 cm diameter pipe using water at
20oC. Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model.

Solution: For pipe flow,

Prototype Data: According to Reynolds' Model Law

Diameter, Dp= 1.5m ρ m Vm D m ρ p Vp D p V ρp Dp µm
= ⇒ m =

Viscosity of fluid, µp= 3x10-2 poise µm µp Vp ρm Dm µ p

Discharge, Qp =3000litre/sec
Vm 900 ×1.5 1×10−2

Sp. Gr., Sp=0.9 = −2
= 3.0

Density of oil=ρp=0.9x1000 V p 1000 × 0.15 3 ×10
=900kg/m3 Qp 3.0
Since Vp = =

Model Data: Ap π / 4(1.5)2

Diameter, Dm=15cm =0.15 m
= 1.697m / s

Viscosity of water, µm =1x10-2 poise

Density of water, ρm=1000kg/m3 ∴Vm = 3.0V p = 5.091m / s

Velocity of flow Vm=? and Qm = Vm Am = 5.091× π / 4(0.15)2

Discharge Qm=? = 0.0899m3 / s
49
 REYNOLD’S MODEL LAW
Q. A ship 300m long moves in sea water, whose density is 1030
kg/m3. A 1:100 model of this ship is to be tested in a wind tunnel.
The velocity of air in the wind tunnel around the model is 30m/s and
the resistance of the model is 60N.
Determine the velocity of ship in sea water and also the resistance
of ship in sea water. The density of air is given as 1.24kg/m3. Take
the kinematic viscosity of air and sea water as 0.012 stokes and
0.018 stokes respectively.

Solution:

For Prototype
For Model

Length, Lp= 300m
Scale ratio = Lp/Lm=100

Fluid = sea water
Length, Lm= Lp/100 = 3m

Density of sea water, ρp= 1030 kg/m3
Fluid = air

Kinematic Viscosity, νp=0.018 stokes
Density of air, ρm= 1.24 kg/m3
=0.018x10-4 m2/s
Kinematic Viscosity, νm=0.012 stokes

Let Velocity of ship, Vp =0.012x10-4 m2/s

Resistance, Fp
Velocity of ship, Vm=30 m/s

Resistance, Fm = 60 N
50
REYNOLD’S MODEL LAW

For dynamic similarity between model and prototype, the Reynolds

number for both of them should be equal.

 VL   VL  υ p Lm
  =   ⇒ Vp = Vm
 υ  p  υ m υm Lp
0.018 × 10 −4 3
0.012
Vp = −4
30 = 0.2m / s
0.018 ×10 300
0.012
Since Resistance= Mass × Acceleration=ρ L2 V 2
Fp ( V )p
ρ L2 2 2 2
1030  300   0.2 
Thus = =     = 369.17
Fm ( V )m
ρ L2 2
1.24  3   30 
Fp = 369.17 × 60 = 22150.2 N

51
FROUDE’S MODEL LAW
It is based on Froude’s number and states that Froude’s number for
model must be equal to the Froude’s number for prototype.
Froude’s Model Law is used in problems where gravity forces is
only dominant to control flow in addition to inertia force. These
problems include:
• Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices,
channels etc.
• Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle
• Waves on surface of fluid
• Motion of fluids with different viscosities over one another

VP Vm V V
( F e ) P = ( F e )m or = or P = m
g P LP g m Lm LP Lm
VP VP LP
= Vr / Lr = 1; where : Vr = , Lr =
 LP  Vm Lm
Vm  
L
 m
52
FROUDE’S MODEL LAW
The Various Ratios for Reynolds’s Law are obtained as;
VP V
sin ce = m
LP Lm
V Lp
Velocity Ratio: Vr = P = = Lr
Vm Lm
TP L P /VP L
Time Ratio: Tr= = = r = Lr
Tm L m /Vm Lr
aP VP / TP Vr Lr
Acceleration Ratio: a r = = = = =1
am Vm / Tm Tr Lr
APVP
Discharge Ratio: Q r = = L2rVr = L2r Lr = L5/r 2
AmVm
Force Ratio: Fr=mr ar = ρ r QrVr = ρ r L2rVrVr = ρ r L2rVr2 = ρ r L2r Lr = ρ r L3r
3
2 2 2 3
Power Ratio: Pr=Fr.Vr=ρ r L V V = ρ r L V = ρ r L
r r r r r
2
r ( Lr ) = ρ r L7r / 2
53
 FROUDE’S MODEL LAW
Q 1. In the model test of a spillway the discharge and velocity of flow
over the model were 2 m3/s and 1.5 m/s respectively. Calculate the
velocity and discharge over the prototype which is 36 times the
model size.
For Discharge

Solution: Given that Qp 2.5 2.5
= ( Lr ) = ( 36 )
Qm
2.5

For Model Q p = ( 36 ) × 2 = 15552 m3 / sec

Discharge over model, Qm=2 m3/sec
For Dynamic Similarity,

Velocity over model, Vm = 1.5 m/sec

Linear Scale ratio, Lr =36 Froude Model Law is used
Vp
= Lr = 36 = 6

For Prototype Vm

Discharge over prototype, Qp =? V p = 6 × 1.5 = 9 m / sec

Velocity over prototype Vp=?

54
FROUDE’S MODEL LAW
Q 2. The characteristics of the spillway are to be studied by means of a geometrically
similar model constructed to a scale of 1:10.
(i) If 28.3 cumecs, is the maximum rate of flow in prototype, what will be the
corresponding flow in model?
(i) If 2.4m/s, 50mm and 3.5 Nm are values of velocity at a point on the spillway, height
of hydraulic jump and energy dissipated per second in model, what will be the
corresponding velocity, height of hydraulic jump and energy dissipation per second in
prototype?

Solution: Given that

For Model

Discharge over model, Qm=?

Velocity over model, Vm = 2.4 m/sec

Height of hydraulic jump, Hm =50 mm

Energy dissipation per second, Em =3.5 Nm

Linear Scale ratio, Lr =10

For Prototype

Discharge over model, Qp=28.3 m3/sec

Velocity over model, Vp =?

Height of hydraulic jump, Hp =?

Energy dissipation per second, Ep =? 55
FROUDE’S MODEL LAW

For Discharge: For Hydraulic Jump:

Qp Hp
= L2.5
r = 10
2.5 = Lr = 10
Qm Hm
Qm = 28.3 /102.5 = 0.0895 m3 / sec H p = 50 ×10 = 500 mm
For Velocity: For Energy Dissipation:
Vp Ep
= Lr = 10 = L3.5
r = 10 3.5

Vm Em

V p = 2.4 × 10 = 7.589 m / sec E p = 3.5 ×103.5 = 11067.9 Nm / sec

56
CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS
Undistorted or True Models: are those which are geometrically similar
to prototype or in other words if the scale ratio for linear dimensions of
the model and its prototype is same, the models is called undistorted
model. The behavior of prototype can be easily predicted from the results
of undistorted or true model.
Distorted Models: A model is said to be distorted if it is not
geometrically similar to its prototype. For distorted models different scale
ratios for linear dimension are used.
For example, if for the river, both horizontal and vertical scale ratio are
taken to be same, then depth of water in the model of river will be very
very small which may not be measured accurately.

The followings are the advantages of distorted models

The vertical dimension of the model can be accurately measured

The cost of the model can be reduced

Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained

Though there are some advantage of distorted models, however the
results of such models cannot be directly transferred to prototype.
57
CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS
Scale Ratios for Distorted Models

LP BP
Let: ( L r ) H = = Scale ratio for horizontal direction
Lm Bm
hP
( Lr )V = =Scale ratio for vertical direction
hm
2 ghP
Scale Ratio for Velocity: Vr=VP / Vm = = ( Lr )V
2 ghm
BP hP
Scale Ratio for area of flow: Ar=A P / Am = = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )V
Bm hm
APVP 3/ 2
Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q P / Qm = = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )V ( Lr )V = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )
AmVm V

58
DISTORTED MODEL
Q 1. The discharge through a weir is 1.5 m3/s. Find the discharge
through the model of weir if the horizontal dimensions of the
model=1/50 the horizontal dimension of prototype and vertical
dimension of model =1/10 the vertical dimension of prototype.

Solution:
Discharge of River= Q p =1.5m3 /s
LP
Scale ratio for horizontal direction= ( L r ) H = =50
Lm
hP
Scale ratio for vertical direction= ( L r )V = =10
hm
3/ 2
Since Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q P / Qm = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )
V

∴ Q p / Qm = 50 ×103/ 2 = 1581.14
⇒ Qm = 1.5 /1581.14 = 0.000948 m3 / s
59
DISTORTED MODEL
Q 2. A river model is to be constructed to a vertical scale of 1:50 and a
horizontal of 1:200. At the design flood discharge of 450m3/s, the average
width and depth of flow are 60m and 4.2m respectively. Determine the
corresponding discharge in model and check the Reynolds’ Number of the
model flow.

Disch arg e of River = Q p = 450m3 / s

Width = B p = 60m and Depth = y p = 4.2 m
BP
Horizontal scale ratio= ( L r ) H = =200
Bm
yP
Vertical scale ratio= ( L r )V = =50
ym
3/ 2
Since Scale Ratio for discharge: Q r =Q P / Qm = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )
V

∴ Q p / Qm = 200 × 503/ 2 = 70710.7

⇒ Qm = 450 /1581.14
70710.7 = 6.365 × 10 −3 m3 / s
60
DISTORTED MODEL
 VL 
Reynolds Number, Rem =  
 υ m
Lm = 4 Rm
Width = Bm = B p / ( Lr ) H = 60 / 200 = 0.3m
Depth = ym = y p / ( Lr )V = 4.2 / 50 = 0.084 m
Am = Bm ym = 0.3 × 0.084 = 0.0252m
Pm = Bm + 2 ym = 0.3 + 2 × 0.084 = 0.468m
A m 0.0252
R= = = 0.05385
Pm 0.468
Kinematic Viscosity of water =υ =1×10−6 m 2 / sec
 4VR   4 × 0.253 × 0.05385 
Re =   =  −6  = 54492.31
 υ m  1×10 
>2000
∴ Flow is in turbulent range 61
PROBLEM
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Repeating variables
MODEL ANALYSIS
PROBLEM
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
MODEL ANALYSIS
THANK YOU

68
WORKED PROBLEMS

69
P1. SAE 30 oil at is pumped through a 3-ft-diameter pipeline at a rate of 6400
gallon/min. A model of this pipeline is to be designed using a 3-in.-diameter pipe
and water at as the working fluid. To maintain Reynolds number similarity
between these two systems, what fluid velocity will be required in the model?
For Reynolds number similarity
For Model
• Pipe diameter=3 in  VD   VD 
  = 
• Fluid=water  ν m  ν  P
• Viscosity=1.21x10-5 ft2/s
 ν m  D p 
For Prototype Vm =   V
ν  D  p
 p  m 
• Pipe diameter= 3ft
• Liquid=SAE30
• viscosity=4.5x10-3 ft2/s
Vm = 6.4 ×10 −2 ft / s

Qp = 6400 × gallon / min = 14.26 ft 3 / s

( )
Vp = Q p / Ap = 14.26 / π / 4 × 32 = 2.02 ft / s 70
P2. Glycerin at 20oC flows with a velocity of 4 m/s through a 30-mm-diameter
tube. A model of this system is to be developed using standard air as the model
fluid. The air velocity is to be 2 m/s. What tube diameter is required for the
model if dynamic similarity is to be maintained between model and prototype?

For Model
 VD   VD 
  = 
 ν m  ν  P

 ν m  V p 
Dm =    D p
ν  V
For Prototype  p  m 

Dm = 0.736 ×10 −3 m

71
P3. The drag characteristics of a torpedo are to be studied in a water tunnel
using a 1 : 5 scale model. The tunnel operates with freshwater at 20oc , whereas
the prototype torpedo is to be used in seawater at 15.6oc. To correctly simulate
the behaviour of the prototype moving with a velocity of 30 m/s, what velocity is
required in the water tunnel?

For Model
 VD   VD 
• Fluid: water   = 
• Viscosity@20oC =1.004x10-6  ν m  ν  P
m2/s  ν m  D p 
• Vm=? Vm =   V
ν  D  p
 p  m 
For Prototype
• Fluid: Sea water
• Viscosity@16.5oC=1.17x10-6
m2/s
Vm = 129m / s
• Vp=30 m/s

72
P4. The design of a river model is to be based on Froude number similarity, and a
river depth of 3 m is to correspond to a model depth of 100 mm. Under these
conditions what is the prototype velocity corresponding to a model velocity of
1.2 ms?

For Model For Froude No. Similarity

• dm=0.1m  V   
  = V 
• Vm=1.2m/s  gd   
  m  gd  P
 V 
For Prototype Vp = ( )
gd p  
 gd 
 m
dp=3m
Vp=?

V p = 11m / s

73
P5. Water flows at a rate of 40 m3/s through the spillway of a dam which is 65 m
wide. A model spillway, having a width of 0.9 m, is to be constructed and tested
in the laboratory. What is the required flowrate in the model?

For Model For Froude number similarity

 V   
• lm=0.9m   = V 
 gd   gd 
• Qm?  m  P

For Prototype  V p   gd p 
  =
• lp= 65m  Vm   gd m 
• Qp=40m3/s
Qp ApVP 2 1/ 2
= = l r lr
lr = (d p / d m ) Qm AmVm
2 .5
Qm = Q p / lr
Qm = 9.02 × 10 − 4 m 3 / s
74
P12. The drag characteristics for a newly designed automobile having a maximum
characteristic length of 20 ft are to be determined through a model study. The
characteristics at both low speed (approximately 20 mph) and high speed (90
mph) are of interest. For a series of projected model tests, an unpressurized
wind tunnel that will accommodate a model with a maximum characteristic length
of 4 ft is to be used. Determine the range of air velocities that would be required
for the wind tunnel if Reynolds number similarity is desired. Are the velocities
suitable? Explain.?
 VD   VD   ν m  D p 
  =  Vm =   V
 ν m  ν  P ν  D  p
 p  m 
Since the wind tunnel is unpressurized, the air properties will be
approximately the same for model and prototype

 lp   20 
Vm =  V p =  V p = 5V p
 lm   4 
At low speed At high speed

Vm = 5(20) = 100mph Vm = 5(90) = 450mph

At high velocity in wind tunnel, compressibility of the air would start to

become an important factor, whereas compressibility is not important for
the prototype. Thus velocity required for the model would not be suitable
76
For more worked problems refer to

Civil Engineering Hydraulics by Nalluri and Featherstone

(Worked problems 9.1 to 9.11)
THANK YOU

78