Hydraulics

Open Channel Hydraulics

Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Assistant Professor

1
Steady Flow in Open Channels

Specific Energy and Critical Depth

Surface Profiles and Backwater Curves in Channels of

Uniform sections

Hydraulics jump and its practical applications.

Flow over Humps and through Constrictions

Broad Crested Weirs and Venturi Flumes

2
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
Basic Definitions

Head

Energy per unit weight

Energy Line

Line joining the total head at different positions

Hydraulics Grade Line

Line joining the pressure head at different positions

3
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
Basic Definitions

Open Channel Flow

V12 EL
2g
HGL V22
2g
y1 Water Level
y2
Z1 So

Z2
Datum

V 12 V 22
Z1 + y1 + = Z 2 + y2 + + hl
2g 2g
4
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
Basic Definitions

Slopes in Open Channel Flow

V12 EL
2g S
HGL V22
Sw 2g
y1 Water
y2 Level

Z1 So
∆L Z2 Datum
∆x

So= Slope of Channel Bed = (Z1-Z2)/(Δx)= -ΔZ/Δx

Sw= Slope of Water Surface= [(Z1+y1)-(Z2+y2)]/Δx

S= Slope of Energy Line= [(Z1+y1+V12/2g)-(Z2+y2+V22/2g)]/Δx
5 = hl/ΔL
 Specific Energy and Critical Depth
Basic Definitions

Slopes in Open Channel Flow

V12 EL
2g S
V22
HGL
y1 Sw 2g
Water
y2 Level

Z1 So
∆L Z2 Datum
∆x
For Uniform Flow
y1=y2 and V12/2g=V22/2g
Hence the line indicating the bed of the channel, water surface profile and
energy line are parallel to each other.
For θ being very small (say less than 5 degree) i.e ∆x=∆L
6
So=Sw=S
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
Basic Definitions

Froude’s Number (FN)

It is the ratio of inertial forces to
gravitational forces.
William Froude (1810-79)

For a rectangular channel it may be
Born in England and engaged
written as in shipbuilding. In his sixties
started the study of ship
V
FN = gy
resistance, building a boat
testing pool (approximately 75
m long) near his home. After his

FN= 1 Critical Flow death, this study was continued
> 1 Super-Critical Flow by his son, Robert Edmund
Froude (1846-1924). For
< 1 Sub-Critical Flow similarity under conditions of
inertial and gravitational forces,
the non-dimensional number
used carries his name.

7
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
(Rectangular Channels)

Specific Energy

Specific Energy at a section in an open channel is the energy
with reference to the bed of the channel.

Mathematically;
Specific Energy = E = y+V2/2g
For a rectangular Channel
2
E = y + V2 g y
Datum
2
E = y + 2 gq y 2 B
Q AV (By )V
where q= = = = Vy
B B B
q = Discharge per unit width m3/s per m

8
Specific Energy and Critical Depth

E~y Diagram or E-Diagram
2
E = y + 2 gq y 2 where q =Q/B

As it is clear from E~y diagram
Static Head drawn for constant discharge for
Line
any given value of E, there would
be two possible depths, say y1 and
y2. These two depths are called
Alternate depths.

However for point C
corresponding to minimum
specific energy Emin, there would
be only one possible depth yc. The
depth yc is know as critical depth.

The critical depth may be defined
as depth corresponding to minimum
specific energy discharge remaining
Constant.
9
Specific Energy and Critical Depth

For y>yc ,V<Vc Deep Channel

Sub-Critical Flow, Tranquil Flow, Slow Flow.

For y<yc ,V>Vc Shallow Channel

Super-Critical Flow, Shooting Flow, Rapid Flow, Fast Flow.

10
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
Relationship Between Critical Depth and Specific Energy
for rectangular channels

E = y + V2 g = y + 2qgy22
2
(1)
2q 2 Vc 2 yc
dE
dy
= 1− 2 gy 3 2g = 2 (3)
Vc
dE
dy = 1 − gyq23 = 0 gy c
=1 ( 4) Froude #
=1 !!
3
yc = ( qg2 ) Q y = yc
Substituting in eq. (1)
yc = ()
q2
g
1/ 3
(2)
Vc 2
2g = yc
2

( )
yc = Vc 2 y 2 c
g
1/ 3
Q q = Vc yc

y =( ) Vc 2 y 2 c yc
3
c g
Emin = Ec = yc + 2
3 Ec = 32 yc (5)
=( )
y c 2 2
Vc y c
2g
2
11
Example

12
 Problem

yc = ()
q2
g
1/ 3

1/ 2
Vc = (gyc )

1.486 1/ 2
Q= AR 2 / 3 S o
n

13
Problem 11.38

Water is released from a sluice gate in a rectangular channel 1.5m wide such
that depth is 0.6 m and velocity is 4.5 m/s. Find
(a). Critical Depth for this specific energy
(b). Critical Depth for this rate of Discharge
(c). The type of flow and alternate depth by either direct solution or the
discharge Curve.

Solution sluice gate

B=1.5 m
y=0.6 m Critical flow
V= 4.5 m/sec
(a) V2
Specific Energy = y + = 1.632m
2g
2
yc = E = 1.088m
3
14
Problem 11.38
3
(b) Q = AV = ByV = 4.05m / sec V
FN = = 1.855 > 1
q = vy = 2.7m / sec per m gy
1/ 3
 q2  Flow is Super − Critical
yc =   = 0.906m > y
 g 
Therefore Flow is Super − Critical

3
(c) Q = AV = ByV = 4. 05m / sec
q2 y 3 − 1.632 y 2 + 0.37156 = 0
E = y+
2 gy 2
2
y = 0.6m
2.7
1.632 = y + y = 1.46m
2(9.81) y 2
15
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
(Non Rectangular Channels)

Hydraulic Depth
T
T

dy
dy
A y
A yh

The hydraulic depth, yh for non rectangular channel is the depth of a

rectangular channel having flow area and base width the same as the flow
area and top width respectively as for non rectangular channel.

16
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
Relationship Between Critical Depth and Specific Energy

Froude’s number may be numerically Q2

calculate as Eq.(1) ⇒ E = y +
2 gA2
V dE Q 2 dA
FN = = 1− 3
gyh dy gA dy
Since dA = Tdy
2
Q A Q2
FN2 = 2 A yh = dE
= 1− 3 T
A gT T dy gA
Q 2T dE
FN = for Critical flow =0
gA3 dy
Therefore
 A3 Q 2 
 = 
T g  y = yc

17
Problems11.45

A Trapezoidal canal with side slopes 1:2 has a bottom width of
3m and carries a flow of 20 m3/s.
a). Find the Critical Depth and Critical velocity.
b). If the canal is lined with Brick (n=0.015), find the critical slope for the
same rate of discharge.

Solution

Q=20 m3/s T

x= 2
1
A= (B+xy)y B=3m x

P= B+2y(1+x2)1/2
T= B+2xy
18
Problem 11.45

Q2/g = A3/T
Q2/g y A T A3/T
40.775 1 5 7 17.85
2 14 11 249.45
1.2 6.48 7.8 34.88
1.25 6.883 8.004 40.74
1.2512 6.885 8.0048 40.77

(b)
3/ 2
A A
Q =   S 1/ 2
n P
S c = 0.224433
19
Problem

The 50o triangular channel in Fig. E10.6 has a flow rate Q
16 m3/s. Compute (a) yc , (b) Vc , and (c) Sc if n 0.018.

Answer: (a). 2.37m, (b). 3.41m, (c ) 0.00542

20
20
 Surface Profiles and
Backwater Curves in Channels of
Uniform sections

21
Steady Flow in Open Channels

Specific Energy and Critical Depth

Surface Profiles and Backwater Curves in Channels of

Uniform Sections

Hydraulics jump and its practical applications.

Flow over Humps and through Constrictions

Broad Crested Weirs and Venturi Flumes

22
Types of Bed Slopes

 Mild Slope (M)

yo > yc
So < Sc yo1
yc

 Critical Slope (C) So1<Sc

yo = yc yo2
So = Sc Break

So2>Sc
 Steep Slope (S)
yo < yc
yo= normal depth of flow
So > Sc yc= critical depth
So= channel bed slope
Sc=critical channel bed slope
23
 Occurrence of Critical Depth

 Change in Bed Slope Dropdown Curve

Control Section
yo1

Sub-critical to Super-Critical yc
 Control Section
So1<Sc
yo2
Break where
Slope changes
So2>Sc

Super-Critical to Sub-Critical
 Hydraulics Jump
Hydraulic Jump

yo1
yc
yo2
So1>Sc
So2<Sc
24
Occurrence of Critical Depth

 Change in Bed Slope

yb~ 0.72 yc
yo
yc

Free outfall
 Mild Slope So<Sc

Brink 3~10 yc

Free Outfall
 Steep Slope yc

So>Sc

25
 Non Uniform Flow or Varied Flow.
 For uniform flow through open
channel, dy/dl is equal to zero. yo1
However for non-uniform flow the
yc
gravity force and frictional
resistance are not in balance. Thus
dy/dl is not equal to zero which So1<Sc
results in non-uniform flow. yo2
 There are two types of non Break
uniform flows.
So2>Sc
 In one the changing condition
extends over a long distance and
this is called gradually varied flow.
 In the other the change may occur
over very abruptly and the transition
is thus confined to a short distance.
This may be designated as a local
non-uniform flow phenomenon or
rapidly varied flow.
26
Energy Equation for Gradually Varied Flow.

Theoretical EL

V12 hL
2g S EL
HGL V22
2g
y1 Sw
Water Level
y2
∆L
Z1 So

Z2
∆X Datum

V 12 V 22
Z1 + y1 + = Z 2 + y2 + + hl
2g 2g

Remember: Both sections are subject to atmospheric pressure

27
Energy Equation for Gradually Varied Flow.
2
V1 V22
y1 + = y2 + − (Z1 − Z 2 ) + hL
2g 2g

S=
hL
, So =
(Z1 − Z 2 ) (Z1 − Z 2 )
≈ for θ < 6o
∆L ∆X ∆L
Now
E1 = E2 − S o ∆L + S∆L
E1 − E2
∆L = (1)
S − So
Where ∆L = length of water surface profile

An approximate analysis of gradually varied, non uniform flow can

be achieved by considering a length of stream consisting of a
number of successive reaches, in each of which uniform occurs.
Greater accuracy results from smaller depth variation in each reach.
28
Energy Equation for Gradually Varied Flow.
The Manning's formula (or Chezy’s formula) is applied to average
conditions in each reach to provide an estimate of the value of S for that
reach as follows;

1 2 / 3 1/ 2 V1 + V2
Vm = Rm S Vm =
n 2
Vm2 n 2 R1 + R2
S = 4/3 Rm =
Rm 2

In practical, depth range of the interest is divided into small increments,

usually equal, which define the reaches whose lengths can be found by
equation (1)

29
Problem 11.59

A rectangular flume of planer
timber (n=0.012) is 1.5 m wide
and carries 1.7m3/s of water. The Rectangular Channel
bed slope is 0.0006, and at a
n = 0.012
certain section the depth is 0.9m.
Find the distance (in one reach) to B = 1.5m
the section where depth is 0.75m.
Is the distance upstream or
Q = 1.7m3 / sec
downstream ? So = 0.0006
y1 = 0.9m
y2 = 0.75
y

B
30
Problem 11.59
Solution
Since
E1 − E2 Rm = 0.3925m
∆L =
S − So Vm = 1.385m
Vm2 n 2 Vm2 n 2
& S = 4/3 & S = 4 / 3 = 0.000961
Rm Rm

A1 = 1.5 x 0.9 = 1.35m 2 E1 − E2

Now ∆L =
S − So
A2 = 1.5 x 0.75 = 1.125 m 2
 V12   V22 
P1 = 1.5 + 2 x 0.9 = 3.3m  y1 +  −  y2 + 
∆L =    
2 g 2 g
P2 = 1.5 + 2 x 0.75 = 3m S − So
R1 = A1 / P1 = 0.41 = 317.73m Downstream
upstream
R2 = A2 / P2 = 0.375
V1 = Q / A1 = 1.26 m / sec
V2 = Q / A2 = 1.51m / sec
31
Problem

1ft 5ft

yo
L

32
Problem

33
Problem

34
Problem 11.66

The slope of a stream of a rectangular
Given That
cross section is So=0.0002, the width
is 50m, and the value of Chezy C is So = 0.0002
43.2 m1/2/sec. Find the depth for B = 50m
uniform flow of 8.25 m3/sec/m of the
stream. If a dam raises the water level C = 43.2m1/ 2 / sec
so that at a certain distance upstream q = 8.25m3 / sec/ m
the increase is 1.5m, how far from this
latter section will the increase be only Ao
q = yoC So
30cm? Use reaches with 30cm depth. Po
50 yo
8.25 = yo 43.2 0.0002
50 + 2 yo
0.3m 1.5m yo = 6.1m

yo
L

35
 Problem 11.66 V=C(RS)1/2

y A P R V E E1-E2 Vm Rm S S-So ∆L Σ∆L

By B+2y A/P q/y y+v2/g (v1+v2)/2 Vm2/(Rm (E1-E2)

C2) /(S-So)

m m2 m m m/s m m m/s m m/m m/m m m

7.6 380 65.2 5.82 1.09 7.66

0.295 1.11 5.74 0.000115 -0.000085 -3454.33 -3454.33

7.3 365 64.6 5.65 1.13 7.365

7.0

6.7

6.4

36
Water Surface Profiles in Gradually Varied
Flow.

Theoretical EL

V12 hL
2g EL
HGL V22
2g
y1 Sw
Water Level
y2
∆L
Z1 So

∆X
Z2
Datum

2
V
Total Head = Z + y +
2g
37
 Water Surface Profiles in Gradually Varied
Flow.
v12 q2
H =Z + y+ =Z + y+ 2
2g 2y g
Differentiating the total head H w.r.t distance in horizontal direction x.
dH dZ dy d  q 2  Important assumption !!
= + +  
2 
dx dx dx dx  2 gy 
Considering cross − section as rectangular
dH dZ dy  q2 
= + 1 − 
dx dx dx  gy 3 
dy q2
− S = −So +
dx
(
1 − FN
2
) Q FN =
gy 3
− ve sign shows that total head along direction of
flow is decreasing. Equation (2) is dynamic Equation for
dy So − S gradually varied flow for constant value
or = ( 2 ) of q and n
dx 1 − FN 2
dy
For uniform flow =0 If dy/dx is +ve the depth of flow
dx increases in the direction of flow and
So − S vice versa
∴ 2
=0
1 − FN 38
Water Surface Profiles in Gradually Varied
Flow.
For a wide rectangular channel dy S o − S
=
R≈ y dx 1 − F 2
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V= y S or
Consequently, for constant q and n,
n when y>yo, S<So, and the numerator
1 is +ve.
q = y 5 / 3 S 1/ 2 or
n
Conversely, when y<yo, S>So, and
n2q 2 the numerator is –ve.
S = 10 / 3
y
For uniform flow in rectangular

To investigate the denominator we
channel observe that,
n2q 2
if F=1, dy/dx=infinity;
S o = 10 / 3
yo
if F>1, the denominator is -ve; and
10 / 3
if F<1, the denominator is +ve.
S  yo 
∴ =  
So  y  39
Classification of Surface Profiles

Mild Slope (M)
Type 1: If the stream
yo > yc surface lies above both the
So < Sc normal and critical depth of

Critical Slope (C) flow (M1, S1)
yo = yc
So = Sc
Type 2: If the stream

Steep Slope (S) surface lies between normal
yo < yc and critical depth of flow
So > Sc (M2, S2)

Horizontal (H)
So = 0
Type 3: If the stream
surface lies below both the

Adverse (A) normal and critical depth of
So = -ve flow. (M3, S3)
40
 Water Surface Profiles
Mild Slope (M)
dy So − S +Ve
1: y > yo > yc = = = +Ve ⇒ M 1
dx 1 − FN +Ve
dy So − S −Ve
2 : yo > y > yc = = = −Ve ⇒ M 2
dx 1 − FN +Ve
dy So − S −Ve
3 : yo > yc > y = = = +Ve ⇒ M 3
dx 1 − FN −Ve

Note:
For Sign of Numerator compare
yo & y
For sign of denominator compare
yc & y yc
If y>yo then S<So and Vice Versa
41
 Water Surface Profiles
Steep Slope (S)

dy So − S +Ve
1: y > yc > yo = = = +Ve ⇒ S1
dx 1 − FN +Ve
dy So − S +Ve
2 : yc > y > yo = = = −Ve ⇒ S2
dx 1 − FN −Ve
dy So − S −Ve
3 : yc > yo > y = = = +Ve ⇒ S3
dx 1 − FN −Ve

Note:
For Sign of Numerator compare
yo & y
yc
For sign of denominator compare
yc & y
If y>yo then S<So and Vice Versa
42
 Water Surface Profiles
Critical (C)

dy So − S +Ve
1: y > yo = yc = = = +Ve ⇒ C1
dx 1 − FN +Ve
dy So − S −Ve
2 : yo = yc > y = = = +Ve ⇒ C3
dx 1 − FN −Ve

C2 is not possible

Note:
For Sign of Numerator compare
yo & y yo=yc
For sign of denominator compare
yc & y
If y>yo then S<So and Vice Versa
43
 Water Surface Profiles
Horizontal (H)

dy S − So −Ve
1: yo ( ∞ ) > y > yc = = = −Ve ⇒ H 2
dx 1 − FN +Ve
dy S − So −Ve
2 : yo ( ∞ ) > yc > y = = = +Ve ⇒ H 3
dx 1 − FN −Ve

H1 is not possible bcz water has to lower down

Note:
For Sign of Numerator compare
yo & y
For sign of denominator compare
yc & y yc
If y>yo then S<So and Vice Versa
44
 Water Surface Profiles
Adverse (A)

dy S − So −Ve
1: yo ( ∞ ) > y > yc = = = −Ve ⇒ A2
dx 1 − FN +Ve
dy S − So −Ve
2 : yo ( ∞ ) > yc > y = = = +Ve ⇒ A3
dx 1 − FN −Ve

A1 is not possible bcz water has to lower down

Note:
For Sign of Numerator compare
yo & y
For sign of denominator compare
yc
yc & y
If y>yo then S<So and Vice Versa
45
Problem 1

Classify the water surface profile for given data,

Channel type: rectangular

n=0.013

B=1.6 dy S o − S
= 2

So=0.0005, Q=1.7m dx 1 − F

y= varies from 0.85-1.0m

Solution:

Calculate normal depth of flow yo using Manning’s equation
2/3
1 1  Byo 
Q= AR 2 / 3 S 01/ 2 = (Byo )  S 01/ 2
n n  B + 2 yo 

y< yo
46
Problem 1

Determine Critical depth
1/ 3 1/ 3
q2
  (1.7 / 1.6)
2

yc =   =  
 = 0.486m
 g   9.81 

Thus yo > yc  slope is Mild and profile type will be one of M type

Since y lies between both yo and yc i.e. yo >y> yc, the profile type is M2

47
Problem 2

Classify the water surface profile for given data,

Channel type: rectangular

n=0.013

B=1.6 dy S o − S
=

So=-0.0004 < 0 adverse slope dx 1 − F 2

Q=1.7m

y= varies from 0.85-1.0m

Solution:

Calculate normal depth of flow yo:

yo = ∞ > y

48
Problem 2

Determine Critical depth
1/ 3 1/ 3
q2
  (1.7 / 1.6)
2

yc =   =  
 = 0.486m
 g   9.81 

Thus yo > yc  Since slope is Adverse and profile type will be one of A
type

Since y lies between both yo and yc i.e. yo >y> yc, the profile type is A2

49
Problem 3

B=15m, rectangular channel, Q=1400cfs, yo=6ft.

y=2.8m

Determine y to yo depth increase of decrease towards
downstream.

Solution: Determine yc

yo< yc mean So>Sc, Steep slope (S)

Now comparing all depths dy S o − S +
= 2
= =+

yc > yo >y dx 1 − F +

Hence the slope type is S3 Water depth will increase

50
Practice problems

51
 Thank you

Questions….

Feel free to contact:

52