Notes Civil-Iii-Fluid Mechanics - 10CV35 PDF

Fluid Mechanics 10CV35
10CV35 FLUID MECHANICS

Sub. Code: 10CV 35 IA Marks: 25
Hrs/Week : 04 Exam Hours: 03
Total Hrs: 52 Exam Marks: 100
PART-A
UNIT-1: BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Introduction, Definition of Fluid, Systems of units, properties of fluid: Mass density, Specific
weight, Specific gravity, Specific volume, Viscosity, Cohesion, Adhesion, Surface tension, &
Capillarity. Newton’s law of viscosity (theory & problems).Capillary rise in a vertical tube and
between two plane surfaces (theory & problems) 06 Hrs.
UNIT-2:PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Definition of pressure, Pressure at a point, Pascal’s law, Variation of pressure with depth. Types
of pressure. Vapor pressure. Measurement of pressure using a simple, differential & inclined
manometers (theory & problems). Introduction to Mechanical and electronic pressure measuring
devices. 07 Hrs.
UNIT-3: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES

Basic definitions, equations for hydrostatic force and depth of center of pressure for Vertical and
inclined submerged laminar (plane and curved) - Problems. 06 Hrs
UNIT-4: KINEMATICS OF FLOW

Introduction, methods of describing fluid motion, definitions of types of fluid flow, streamline,
path line, streamtube. Three dimensional continuity equation in Cartesian Coordinates
(derivation and problems). General Continuity equation (problems). Velocity potential, Stream
function, Equipotential line, Stream line- problems, Physical concepts of Stream function.
Introduction to flow net. 07Hrs
PART-B
UNIT-5: DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW

Introduction, Energy possessed by a fluid body. Euler’s equation of motion along a streamline
and Bernoulli’s equation. Assumptions and limitations of Bernoulli’s equation. Problems on
applications of Bernoulli’s equation (with and without losses). Introduction to kinetic energy
correction factor. Momentum equation problems on pipe bends. 07 Hrs
UNIT-6: PIPE FLOW

Introduction, losses in pipe flow, Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss due to friction in a pipe.
Pipes in series, pipes in parallel, equivalent pipe-problems. Minor losses in pipe flow, equation
for head loss due to sudden expansion- problems. Water hammer in pipes, equation for pressure
rise due to gradual valve closure & sudden closure for rigid and elastic pipes- problems.
07 Hrs
Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 1

UNIT-7: DEPTH AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS

Introduction, Measurement of depth, point & hook gauges, self-recording gauges. Staff gauge,
Weight gauge, float gauge. Measurement of velocity- single and double gauges, pitot tube,
Current meter- Problems. 06 Hrs
UNIT-8: DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS

Introduction, Venturimeter, Orificemeter, Rotometer, Venturiflume, Triangular notch,
Rectangular notch, Cipolletti notch, Ogee weir and Broad crested weir, Small orifices- Problems.
06 Hrs
TEXT BOOKS:
1. ‘A TextBook of Fluid mechanics & Hydraulic Machines’- R.K.Rajput, S.Chand& Co,
New Delhi, 2006 Edition.
2. ‘Principles of Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines’- N.Narayana Pillai, Universities
Press (India), Hyderabad, 2009 Edition.
3. ‘Fluid Mechanics and Turbo machines’- Madan Mohan Das, PHI Learning Pvt. Limited,
New Delhi. 2009 Edition.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. ‘Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics’ – Bruce R. Munson, Donald F.Young, Theodore H.
Okiishi, Wiley India, New Delhi, 2009 Edition.
2. ‘Introduction To Fluid Mechanics’ – Edward j. Shaughnessy,jr; Iram. Katz,James p
Schaffer, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2005 Edition.
3. ‘Text Book Of Fluid Mechanics&Hydraulic Machines’- R.K.Bansal, Laxmi Publications,
New Delhi, 2008 Edition.

UNIT NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.
PART – A
1 BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 4 - 33
2 PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT 34 - 67
3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES 68- 92
4 KINEMATICS OF FLOW 92 - 130
PART – B
5 DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW 131 – 148
6 PIPE FLOW 149 – 185
7 DEPTH AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 186 – 208
8 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS 209- 255

PART - A
UNIT-1 BASIC PROPOERTIES OF FLUIDS
1.1INTRODUCTION:In general matter can be distinguished by the physical forms known as

solid, liquid, and gas. The liquid and gaseous phases are usually combined and given a common
name of fluid. Solids differ from fluids on account of their molecular structure (spacing of
molecules and ease with which they can move). The intermolecular forces are large in a solid,
smaller in a liquid and extremely small in gas.
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids at rest or in motion. It has traditionally been
applied in such area as the design of pumps, compressor, design of dam and canal, design of
piping and ducting in chemical plants, the aerodynamics of airplanes and automobiles.
In recent years fluid mechanics is truly a ‘high-tech’ discipline and many exciting areas have
been developed like the aerodynamics of multistory buildings, fluid mechanics of atmosphere,
sports, and micro fluids.
1.1.1 DEFINITION OF FLUID: A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the
action of shearing forces, however small they may be. Conversely, it follows that: If a fluid is at
rest, there can be no shearing forces acting and, therefore, all forces in the fluid must be
perpendicular to the planes upon which they act.
1.1.2Shear stress in a moving fluid: Although there can be no shear stress in a fluid at rest,
shear stresses are developed when the fluid is in motion (Fig.1), if the particles of the fluid move
relative to each other so that they have different velocities, causing the original shape of the fluid
to become distorted. If, on the other hand, the velocity of the fluid is same at every point, no
shear stresses will be produced, since the fluid particles are at rest relative to each other.

Shear force, F δl
δu
y δy
Fluid deforms continuously under the action of a shear force

dF
τ yx = x = f (Deformation Rate)
dA y
Fig. 1 Shear Deformation of Fluid
Differences between Solids and Fluids:The differences between the behaviour of solids and
fluids under an applied force are as follows:
i. For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that the elastic limit is not
exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress.
ii. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and, if the
elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the force is removed. A fluid
continues to flow as long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form when
the force is removed.
Differences between Liquids and Gases:

Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of fluids, they have many
distinctive characteristics of their own. A liquid is difficult to compress and, for many purposes,
may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume, irrespective
of the size or shape of its container, and a free surface is formed if the volume of the container is
greater than that of the liquid.
A gas is comparatively easy to compress (Fig.2). Changes of volume with pressure are large,
cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of temperature. A given mass of gas has
no fixed volume and will expand continuously unless restrained by a containing vessel. It will
completely fill any vessel in which it is placed and, therefore, does not form a free surface.

Free surface
k k
(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas
Fig.2 Comparison of Solid, Liquid and Gas
1.2Systems of Units:
The official international system of units (System International Units). Strong efforts are
underway for its universal adoption as the exclusive system for all engineering and science, but
older systems, particularly the CGS and fps engineering gravitational systems are still in use and
probably will be around for some time. The chemical engineer finds many physiochemical data
given in CGS units; that many calculations are most conveniently made in fps units; and that SI
units are increasingly encountered in science and engineering. Thus it becomes necessary to be
expert in the use of all three systems.
SI system:
Primary Quantities: Derived Quantities
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit Quantity
Mass in Force in Newton Force in Newton

kg N
Kilogram (1 N = 1 kg.m/s2) (1 N = 1 kg.m/s2)
Pressure in Pascal (1 Pressure in Pascal

Length in Meter m N/m2
Pa = 1 N/m2) (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
s or
Work, energy in Work, energy in
Time in Second as J
Joule ( 1 J = 1 N.m) Joule ( 1 J = 1 N.m)
sec
Temperature in K Power in Watt (1 W = W Power in Watt (1

Kelvin 1 J/s) W = 1 J/s)
Mole mol
1.2.1 CGS Units:

The older centimeter-gram-second (CGS) system has the following units for derived quantities:
Quantity Unit
Force in dyne (1 dyn = 1 g.cm/s2) dyn
Work, energy in erg ( 1 erg = 1 dyn.cm = 1 x 10-7 J ) erg
Heat Energy in calorie ( 1 cal = 4.184 J) cal

1.2.2 Dimensions: Dimensions of the primary quantities:
Fundamental dimension Symbol
Length L
Mass M
Time t
Temperature T
Dimensions of derived quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions.
Quantity Representative symbol Dimensions
Angular velocity  t-1
Area A L2
Density  M/L3
Force F ML/t2
Kinematic viscosity  L2/t

Linear velocity v L/t
1.3 Properties of fluids:

1.3.1 Mass density or Specific mass ():
Mass density or specific mass is the mass per unit volume of the fluid.
Mass
 =
Volume
M dM
= or
V dV
Unit: kg/m3
With the increase in temperature volume of fluid increases and hence mass density decreasesin
case of fluids as the pressure increases volume decreases and hence mass density increases.
1.3.2 Weight density or Specific weight ():
Weight density or Specific weight of a fluid is the weight per unit volume.
Weight W dW
 = = or
Volume V dV
Unit: N/m3 or Nm-3.
With increase in temperature volume increases and hence specific weight decreases.
With increases in pressure volume decreases and hence specific weight increases.
Note: Relationship between mass density and weight density:
Weight
We have  =
Volume
mass x g
=
Volume
=xg
1.3.3 Specific gravity or Relative density (S):
It is the ratio of density of the fluid to the density of a standard fluid.
ρfluid
S=
ρs tan dard fluid
Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity and has no unit.

In case of liquids water at 4oC is considered as standard liquid. water= 1000 kg/m3
1.3.4 Specific volume (  ): It is the volume per unit mass of the fluid.
Volume V dV
 = = or
mass M dM
Unit: m3/kg
As the temperature increases volume increases and hence specific volume increases. As the
pressure increases volume decreases and hence specific volume decreases.
Solved Problems:
Ex.1Calculate specific weight, mass density, specific volume and specific gravity of a liquid
having a volume of 4m3 and weighing 29.43 kN. Assume missing data suitably.
?
W ?
 
V
?
29.43 X 10 3
 S?
4
V  4 m3
 = 7357.58 N/m 3
W  29.43 kN
 29.43 x 10 3 N
To find  - Method 1:
W  mg
29.43 x 103  mx9.81 Method 2 :
  g
m  3000kg
7357.5   9.81
m 3000
  
v 4   750 kg / m3
  750 kg/ m3

M

V
V
i)  
M
V

M
4

3000
1 1
 
 750
  1.33 x 10 3 m 3 / kg
  1.33X10 3 m 3 / kg
 
S S
S tan dard S tan daard
7357.5 750
 or S
9810 1000
S  0.75 S  0.75
Ex.2Calculate specific weight, density, specific volume and specific gravity and if one liter of
Petrol weighs 6.867N.
W

V V  1 Litre
6.867
 V  10 3 m 3
103
W  6.867 N
  6867N / m 3

S
 s g
S tan dard
6867 6867   x 9.81


9810
S  0 .7
  700kg / m 3

V

M M  6.867 9.81
103

0.7
M  0.7 kg
  1.4x103 m3 / kg
Ex.3 Specific gravity of a liquid is 0.7 Find i) Mass density ii) specific weight. Also find the
mass and weight of 10 Liters of liquid.
S 
   g S  0 .7
 S tan dard V  ?
6867   x 9 .81   ?
 M  ?
0 .7 
9810 W  ?
  700 kg / m 3 V  10 litre
  6867 N / m 3 3
 10 x 10 m 3

S
ρ S tan dard

0 .7 
1000
  700 kg / m 3
M
 
V
M
700  3
10 x 10
M  7 kg
1.3.5 Viscosity:Viscosity is the property by virtue of which fluid offers resistance against the
flow or shear deformation. In other words, it is the reluctance of the fluid to flow. Viscous force
is that force of resistance offered by a layer of fluid for the motion of another layer over it.
In case of liquids, viscosity is due to cohesive force between the molecules of adjacent
layers of liquid. In case of gases, molecular activity between adjacent layers is the cause of
viscosity.

 Newton’s law of viscosity:

Let us consider a liquid between the fixed plate and the movable plate at a distance ‘Y’
apart, ‘A’ is the contact area (Wetted area) of the movable plate, ‘F’ is the force required to move
the plate with a velocity ‘U’ According to Newton’s law shear stress is proportional to shear
strain. (Fig.3)
Area of contact = A
F
U U
Movable Plate
Y
Liquid
Fixed Plate Linear Non-linear

Velocity distribution or
velocity profile
Fig.3 Definition diagram of Liquid viscosity

 F A
1
 F
Y
 F U
AU
 F
Y
AU
F=.
Y
‘’ is the constant of proportionality calledDynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity or
Coefficient of Viscosity or Viscosity of the fluid.
F U U
 .   
A Y Y
‘’ is the force required; Per Unit area called ‘Shear Stress’. The above equation is called
Newton’s law of viscosity.

Velocity gradient or rate of shear strain:

It is the difference in velocity per unit distance between any two layers.If the velocity
U
profile is linear then velocity gradient is given by . If the velocity profile is non – linear then it
Y
du
is given by .
dy
 Unit of force (F):N.
 Unit of distance between the two plates (y): m
 Unit of velocity (U): m/s
U m/s
 Unit of velocity gradient :   / s  s 1
Y m
U
 Unit of dynamic viscosity ():  =  .
y
y

U
N / m2 . m

m/s
N - sec
μ⇒ or μ ⇒ Pa - S
m2
dyne . S
NOTE:In CGS system unit of dynamic viscosity is and is called poise (P).
Cm 2
NS
If the value of  is given in poise, multiply it by 0.1 to get it in 2 .
m
1- Centipoises (Cp) = 10-2 Poise.
 Effect of Pressure on Viscosity of fluids:
Pressure has very little or no effect on the viscosity of fluids.
 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of fluids:
1. Effect of temperature on viscosity of liquids: Viscosity of liquids is due to cohesive force between
the molecules of adjacent layers. As the temperature increases cohesive force decreases and hence
viscosity decreases.
2. Effect of temperature on viscosity of gases:Viscosity of gases is due to molecular activity between
adjacent layers. As the temperature increases molecular activity increases and hence viscosity
increases.

 Kinematics Viscosity:It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its mass density.

 KinematicV is cos ity 

Unit of KV:

KV 

NS / m 2

kg / m 3
NS m 3
 x
m 2 kg
F  ma
 kg m  s m
3
  2 x 2 x  m2 / s
 s  m kg
N  Kg.m / s 2
 KinematicVis cos ity  m 2 / s
NOTE:Unit of kinematics Viscosity in CGS system is cm2/s and is called stoke(S)
If the value of KV is given in stoke, multiply it by 10-4 to convert it into m2/s.

TheFig. 4 illustrates how μ changes for different fluids.
Fig. 4Variation of Viscosity based on Behaviour of Liquids

 Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum beforeflow commences.
 Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shearstress must be achieved. With
this classification n = 1. Anexample is sewage sludge.

 Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and theviscosity decreases with rate of
shear, e.g. colloidalsubstances like clay, milk and cement.
 Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of sheare.g. quicksand.
 Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length oftime shear force is applied e.g.
thixotropic jelly paints.
 Rheotropic substances: Viscosity increases with length oftime shear force is applied
 Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is asudden large change in shear
they behave like plastic
The Fig. 5 shows the relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient for two fluids, A
and B. Comment on the Liquid ‘A’ and Liquid ‘B’?
Fig. 5 Stress- Strain Curve for two-Fluids
Comment: (i) The dynamic viscosity of liquid A >the dynamic viscosity of liquid B
(ii) Both liquids follow Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Solved Problems:
1. Viscosity of water is 0.01 poise. Find its kinematics viscosity if specific gravity is 0.998.
Kinematics viscosity = ?  = 0.01P
S = 0.998 = 0.01x0.1
  NS
S=   0.998  = 0.001
 s tan drad 1000 m2
  998 kg / m 3
 0 .001
∴ Kinmetic Vis cos ity ( KV )  
 998
KV  1 x 10 - 6 m 2 / s
2. A Plate at a distance 0.0254mm from a fixed plate moves at 0.61m/s and requires a force of
1.962N/m2 area of plate. Determine dynamic viscosity of liquid between the plates.
  1.962 N / m 2
U = 0.61 m/s
=?
Y = 0.0254 mm
= 0.0254 x 10-3m
Assuming linear velocity distribution

U

Y
0.61
1.962   x
0.0254 x 10 3
NS
  8.17 x 10 5
m2
3. A plate having an area of 1m2 is dragged down an inclined plane at 450 to horizontal with a
velocity of 0.5m/s due to its own weight. Three is a cushion of liquid 1mm thick between the
inclined plane and the plate. If viscosity of oil is 0.1 PaS find the weight of the plate.

y = 1 mm = 1 x 10-3m Plate
U = 0.5 m/s
450
W 450
A =1m2
U = 0.5m/s
Y = 1x10-3m
 = 0.1NS/m2
W=?
F = W x cos 450
= W x 0.707
F = 0.707W
F

A
0.707 W

1
  0.707 WN / m 2
Assuming linear velocity distribution,

U
  .
Y
0 .5
0.707 W  0.1 x
1 x 10 3
W  70.72 N
4. A flat plate is sliding at a constant velocity of 5 m/s on a large horizontal table. A thin layer
of oil (of absolute viscosity = 0.40 N-s/m2) separates the plate from the table. Calculate the
thickness of the oil film (mm) to limit the shear stress in the oil layer to 1 kPa,
Given :  = 1 kPa = 1000 N/m2; U = 5m/s;  = 0.4 N-s/m2

Applying Newton’s Viscosity law for the oil film -

du U
τ=μ =μ
dy y
5
1000 = 0.4
y
y = 2 x 10 -3 = 2 mm
5. A shaft of  20mm and mass 15kg slides vertically in a sleeve with a velocity of 5 m/s. The
gap between the shaft and the sleeve is 0.1mm and is filled with oil. Calculate the viscosity
of oil if the length of the shaft is 500mm.
0.1 mm 0.1 mm
20
500
mm 500
mm
5 m/s
5 m/s
D = 20mm = 20x10-3m
M = 15 kg
W = 15x 9.81
W = 147.15N
y = 0.1mm
y = 0.1 x 10-3mm
U = 5m/s
F=W
F = 147.15N
= ?
A=DL
A =  x 20 x 10-3 x 0.5

A = 0.031m2
U
  .
Y
5
4746.7   x
0.1x10 3
NS
  0.095
m2
F

A
147.15

0.031
  4746.7 N / m 2
6. If the equation of velocity profile over 2 plate is V= 2y2/3. in which ‘V’ is the velocity in m/s
and ‘y’ is the distance in ‘m’ . Determine shear stress at (i) y = 0 (ii) y = 75mm. Take  =
8.35P.
a. at y = 0
b. at y = 75mm
= 75 x 10-3m
 = 8.35 P
NS
= 8.35 x 0.1
m2
NS
 0.835
m2

V  2y 2/3
dv 2
 2 x y 2 / 31
dy 3
4 1 / 3
 y
3
dv 4
at , y  0, 33  
dy 0
dv 4
at , y  75x10 3 m, 3
dy 3
75x10 3
dv
 3.16 / s
dy
dv
  .
dy
at , y  0,   0.835 x
 
at , y  75 x 10 3 m,  0.835 x 3.16
  2.64 N / m 2

7. A circular disc of 0.3m dia and weight 50 N is kept on an inclined surface with a slope of 45 0.
The space between the disc and the surface is 2 mm and is filled with oil of dynamics
1N  S
viscosity . What force will be required to pull the disk up the inclined plane with a
m2
velocity of 0.5m/s.
P
Motion
450
2 mm = 2 x 10-3 m = y
450
W = 150 N
D = 0.3m
 x 0.3m 2
A=
4
A = 0.07m2
W = 50N
NS F  P  50 cos 45
 1
m2
F  ( P  35,35)
3
y  2 x10 m
U  0 .5 m / s ( P  35.35)
 N / m2
0.07
U
  .
Y
 P  35,35  0.5
   1x
 0.07  2 x10 3
P  52.85 N

8. Dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubrication between a shaft and a sleeve is 6 P. The shaft is
of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve
length of 0.09 m .Thickness of oil is 1.5 mm.
NS
 = 6=0.6
m2
N = 190 rpm
Power lost = ?
A=DL
=  x 0.4 x0.09 A = 0.11m2
Y = 1.5x10-3 m
9. Two large surfaces are 2.5 cm apart. This space is filled with glycerin of absolute viscosity
0.82 NS/m2. Find what force is required to drag a plate of area 0.5m2 between the two
surfaces at a speed of 0.6m/s. (i) When the plate is equidistant from the surfaces, (ii) when
the plate is at 1cm from one of the surfaces.
Case (i) When the plate is equidistant from the surfaces,

 DN
U 
60
 x 0 . 4 x 190

60
U  3 . 979 m /s
U
  .
Y
3 . 979
 0 .6 x 3
1 . 5 x 10
  1 . 592 x 10 3
N /m 2
F
 1 . 59 x 10 3
F  1 . 591 x 10 3
x 0 . 11
F  175 . 01 N
T  Fx R
 175.01x 0.2
T  35 Nm
2 NT
P
60,000
P  0.6964 KW
P  696.4 W

Let F1 be the force required to overcome viscosity resistance of liquid above the plate and
F2 be the force required to overcome viscous resistance of liquid below the plate. In this case F1
= F2. Since the liquid is same on either side or the plate is equidistant from the surfaces.
U
 1  1
Y
0 .6
 1  0.82 x
0.0125
 1  39 .36 N / m 2
F1
 39 .36
A
F1  19 .68 N
Total force required to drag the plate =F1 +F2 = 19.68+19.68
F= 39.36N
Case (ii)when the plate is at 1cm from one of the surfaces.Here F1≠F2
1 cm F1
0.6 m/s
2.5 cm
F2
1.5 cm
F 1
= 49 . 2
A
F 1 = 49 . 2 x 0 . 5
F 1 = 24 . 6 N
F 2
= 32 . 8
A
F 2 = 32 . 8 x 0 . 5
F 2 = 16 . 4 N
Total Force F = F1 + F2 = 24.6 + 16.4

F = 41N

10. Through a very narrow gap of ht a thin plate of large extent is pulled at a velocity `V’. On
one side of the plate is oil of viscosity 1 and on the other side there is oil of viscosity 2.
Determine the position of the plate for the following conditions.
i. Shear stress on the two sides of the plate is equal.
ii. The pull required, to drag the plate is minimum.
Condition 1: Shear stress on the two sides of the plate is equal F1 = F2
1
F1 Velocity = V
h
F2
2
y  ? for F1  F 2
U
  .
Y
F U
 .
A Y
U
F  A .
Y
A V
F1 
1
(h  y)
A V
F2 
2
y

F1  F2
A1V A2V

hy y
1y2 (h  y)
1y2y2h
h
 2h
y 
ory  1
12 1
2
dF
Condition 2: The pull required, to drag the plate is minimum (i.e. [ ] )
dy min imum
1
F1 V
h
F2
y 2
y = ? if , F1 + F 2 is to be min imum
Aμ V
F1 = 1
h y
Aμ 2 V
F =
2 y
 Total drag forced required

F = F1 + F 2
A μ 1V A μ 2V
F = +
h y y
dF
For F to be min . = 0
dy
dF
= 0 = + A μ 1V ≡ (h y ) 2
A μ 2 Vy 2
dy
V μ 1A V μ 2A
=
(h y ) 2
y2
(h y )2 μ 1
2 =
y μ 2
h y μ 1
=
y μ 2
μ 1
(h y) = y
μ 2
μ 1
h = y + y
μ 2
μ 1
h = y 1 +
μ 2
h
∴ y =
μ 1
1 +
μ 2

1.3.6 Capillarity: Meniscus

Meniscus

Cohesion < Adhesion Cohesion > Adhesion

Example: Water Example: Mercury
< 90 > 90
Fig. 6. Capillary Rise/Drop in a Tube
Any liquid between contact surfaces attains curved shaped surface as shown in figure.
The curved surface of the liquid is called Meniscus. If adhesion is more than cohesion then the
meniscus will be concave. If cohesion is greater than adhesion meniscus will be convex (Fig.6).
Capacity rise Capillary fall
Cohesion < Adhesion Cohesion > Adhesion

Ex: Water Ex: Mercury
Surface Surface
tension tension
Surface Surface
tension tension
Capillarity is the phenomena by which liquids will rise or fall in a tube of small diameter
dipped in them. Capillarity is due to cohesion adhesion and surface tension of liquids. If
adhesion is more than cohesion then there will be capillary rise. If cohesion is greater than

adhesion then will be capillary fall or depression. The surface tensile force supports capillary rise
or depression.
Note:Angle of contact:
Surface Surface
tension tension  
Surface Surface
tension tension
 Angle of contact  Angle of contact

 Acute  Obtuse
The angle between surface tensile force and the vertical is called angle of contact. If
adhesion is more than cohesion then angle of contact is obtuse.
 To derive an expression for the capillary rise of a liquid in small tube
dipped in it:
Let us consider a small tube of diameter ‘D’ dipped in a liquid of specific weight . ‘h’ is the
capillary rise. For the equilibrium,
Vertical force due to surface tension = Weight of column of liquid ABCD

 
A B
C D
Dia ‘D’

(D) cos    x volume
D 2
 (D) cos   x xh
4
4  cos 
h
D
It can be observed that the capillary rise is inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube.
Note:The same equation can be used to calculate capillary depression. In such cases ‘  ’ will be
obtuse (>90) ‘h’ works out to be –ve.

Problems:
1. Capillary tube having an inside diameter 5mm is dipped in water at 20 0. Determine the heat of
water which will rise in tube. Take  =0.0736N/m at 200 C.
4  cos 
h
D
  0 0 (assumed)
4 x 0.0736 x cos 

9810 x 5 x 103
  9810 N / m 3
h  6 x 103 m
2. Calculate capillary rise in a glass tube when immersed in Hg at 20 0c. Assume 

for Hg at 200c as 0.51N/m. The diameter of the tube is 5mm.  = 1300c.

S
 S tan dard
4  cos 
h
D

13.6 
9810
h  1.965 x 10 3 m
  133.416 x 10 3 N / m 3
-ve sign indicates capillary depression.
3. Determine the minimum size of the glass tubing that can be used to measure water level if
capillary rise is not to exceed 2.5mm. Take  = 0.0736 N/m.
4 cos 
h
D
D?
4 x 0.0736 x cos 0
D
9810 x 2.5 x 10 3
h  2.5x10 3 m
D  0.012 m
  0.0736 N / m
D  12 mm

4. A glass tube 0.25mm in diameter contains Hg column with air above it. If  = 0.51N/m,
what will be the capillary depression? Take  = - 400 or 1400.
4 cos  D  0.25x10 3 m
h
D
  0.51N / m
4x 0.51x cos140

133.146x10 3 x 0.25x10 3
  140
h  46.851x10 3 m
  133.416 x 10 3 N / m 2
5. If a tube is made so that one limb is 20mm in  and the other 2mm in  and water is poured
in the tube, what is the difference in the level of surface of liquid in the two limbs.  = 0.073
N/m for water.
2 mm 
h
h1
h2
4  cos 
h1  h 
D
4 x 0 .073 x cos o

9810 x ( 20 x 10  3 )
h  h1  h2  0.01339m
 0 .01488 m h  13.39mm
4 x 0 .073 x cos o
h2 
9810 x ( 20 x 10  3 )
 1 .488 x 10  3 m

6. A clean glass tube is to be selected in the design of a manometer to measure the pressure of
kerosene. Specific gravity of kerosene = 0.82 and surface tension of kerosene = 0.025 N/m. If
the capillary rise is to be limited to 1 mm, the smallest diameter (cm) of the glass tube should
be most nearly
Soln. Given For kerosene  = 0.025 N/m ; Sp.Gr. = 0.82; hmax = 1mm
Assuming contact angle  = 0, kerosene=0 .82 x 9810 = 8044.2 N/m3
Let ‘d’ be the smallest diameter of the glass tube in Cm
Then using formula for capillary rise in (h)
4 σ Cosθ 4 x 0.025 Cos0 ° 1

h= = =
d cm d cm 1000
γ ker osene ( ) 8044.2 x ( )
100 100
d cm = 1.24 Cm

UNIT-2 PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION: Fluid is a state of matter which exhibits the property of flow. When a
certain mass of fluids is held in static equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries (Fig.1),
it exerts force along direction perpendicular to the boundary in contact. This force is called fluid
pressure (compression).
Fig.1 Definition of Pressure

In fluids, gases and liquids, we speak of pressure; in solids this is normal stress. For a
fluid at rest, the pressure at a given point is the same in all directions. Differences or gradients in
pressure drive a fluid flow, especially in ducts and pipes.
2.1 Definition of Pressure :Pressure is one of the basic properties of all fluids. Pressure (p) is
the force (F)exerted on or by the fluid on a unit of surface area (A).Mathematically expressed:
F  N 
p  
A  m2 
The basic unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa). When a fluid exerts a force of 1 N overan area of 1m 2,
the pressure equals one Pascal, i.e., 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.Pascal is a very small unit, so that for typical
power plant application, we uselarger units:
Units: 1 kilopascal (kPa) = 103 Pa, and
1 megapascal (MPa) = 106 Pa = 103kPa.
2.2 Pressure at a Point and Pascal’s Law:

Pascal’s Principle: Pressure extends uniformly in all directions in a fluid.
By considering the equilibrium of a small triangular wedge of fluid extracted from a static fluid
body, one can show (Fig.2) that for any wedge angle θ, the pressures on the three faces of the
wedge are equal in magnitude:

Fig.2 Pascal’s Law
Independent of px = py = pzindependent of ‘’
Pressure at a point has the same magnitude in all directions, and is called isotropic.
This result is known as Pascal's law.
2.3 Pascal’s Law: In any closed, static fluid system, a pressure change at any one point is
transmitted undiminished throughout the system.
2.3.1 Application of Pascal’s Law:

Fig.3Application of Pascal’s Law

• Pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same
amount.
• In picture, pistons are at same height:
F1 F2 F A
P1  P2    2 2
A1 A2 F1 A1
• Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal mechanical advantage
2.4 Pressure Variation with Depth:
Consider a small vertical cylinder of fluid in equilibrium, where positive z is pointing vertically
upward. Suppose the origin z = 0 is set at the free surface of the fluid. Then the pressure
variation at a depth z = -h below the free surface is governed by

( p  p ) A  W  pA
⇒ pA  gA z  0
⇒ p  - gz
dp dp
⇒  - g or  - Eq .(1) (as z → 0)
dz dz
Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth at the rate of the specific weight
γ = ρg of the fluid.
Homogeneous fluid: ρ is constant
By simply integrating the above equation-1:
∫ dp  - ∫  g dz ⇒ p  - gz  C
Where C is constant of integration
When z = 0 (on the free surface), p= C = p0= (the atmospheric pressure).
Hence, p  - g z  p 0
Pressure given by this equation is called ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, i.e., measured above perfect
vacuum.
However, for engineering purposes, it is more convenient to measure the pressure above a datum
pressure at atmospheric pressure. By setting p0= 0,
p  -  gz  0  -  gz =  gh
The equation derived above shows that p = h when the density is constant, the
pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with depth from the free
surface.
For a given pressure intensity ‘h’ will be different for different liquids since, ‘’ will be different
for different liquids.
P
∴h 

Hint-1: To convert head of 1 liquid to head of another liquid.

γ
S=
γ Staandard
γ1
S1 =
γ Staandard
p   1h 1
∴ γ1 = S1 γ Staandard
p   2h 2
γ 21 = S 2 γ Staandard
 1h 1   2 h 2
∴ S1 γ S tan dard h1 = S 2 γ S tan dard h 2
S1h1 = S 2h 2
Hint: 2 Swater x hwater = Sliquid x hliquid

1x hwater = Sliquid x hliquid
hwater = Sliquid x hliquid
Pressure head in meters of water is given by the product of pressure head in meters of
liquid and specific gravity of the liquid.
Example 10meters of oil of specific gravity 0.8 is equal to 10x0.8 = 8 meters of water.
Example Atm pressure is 760mm of Mercury.
NOTE:p =  h
kN
kPa m
m3
Solved Examples:
Ex. 1. Calculate intensity of pressure due to a column of 0.3m of (a) water (b) Mercury
(c) Oil of specific gravity-0.8.
Soln: (a) Given: h = 0.3m of water

kN
 water  9.81
m3
p?
p water   water hwater
p water  2.943 kPa
(b) Given: h = 0.3m of Hg

mercury = Sp.Gr. of Mercury X water = 13.6 x 9.81
mercury = 133.416 kN/m3
pmercury = mercuryhmercury
= 133.416 x 0.3
p = 40.025 kPa or 40.025 kN/m2
(c) Given: h = 0.3 of Oil Sp.Gr. = 0.8
oil = Sp.Gr. of Oil X water = 0.8 x 9.8
oil = 7.848 kN/m3
poil = oilhoil
= 7.848 x 0.3
poil = 2.3544 kPa or 2.3544 kN/m2
Ex.2. Intensity of pressure required at a point is 40kPa. Find corresponding head in (a)
water (b) Mercury (c) oil of specific gravity-0.9.
Solution: Given Intensity of pressure at a point 40 kPa i.e. p = 40 kN/m2
(a) Head of water hwater=?
p 40
h water  
 water 9.81
h water  4.077 m of water
Head of mercury ‘hmercury= ? p 40
h mercury  
 mercury 133.416
mercury = Sp.Gr. of Mercury X water = 13.6 x 9.81
h water  0.3 m of mercury
mercury = 133.416 kN/m 3
(c) Head of oil ‘hoil= ? p 40

hoil = =
γ oil 8.829
oil = Sp.Gr. of Oil X water = 0.9 x 9.81
hoil = 4.53 m of oil
oil = 8.829 kN/m 3

Ex.3 Standard atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa Find the pressure head in (i) Meters of water (ii)
mm of mercury (iii) m of oil of specific gravity 0.6.
(i) Meters of water hwater
p = waterhwater
101.3 = 9.81 x hwater
hwater = 10.3 m of water
(ii) Meters of water hwater
p = mercury x hmercury
101.3 = (13.6x9.81) x hmercury
h = 0.76 m of mercury
(iii) p = oilhoil
101.3 = (0.6 x 9.81) x h
h = 17.21m of oil of S = 0.6
Ex.4 An open container has water to a depth of 2.5m and above this an oil of S = 0.85 for a depth
of 1.2m. Find the intensity of pressure at the interface of two liquids and at the bottom of the
tank.
( i ) At the Oil - water int erface
p A = γ 0 il h oil = ( 0 .85 x 9 .81) x 1 .2
1.2 m Oil = 0.85
p A = 10 kPa x
A
( ii ) At the bottom of container
p B = γ oil xh oil + γ water + h water 2.5 m WATER
p B = p A + γ water h water Bx
p B = 10 kPa + 9 .81 x 2 .5
p B = 34 .525 kPa
2.5 Types of Pressure:Air above the surface of liquids exerts pressure on the exposed
surface of the liquid and normal to the surface.
 Atmospheric pressure

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric

pressure at a place depends on the elevation of the place and the
temperature. Atmospheric pressure is measured using an
instrument called ‘Barometer’ and hence atmospheric pressure is
also called Barometric pressure. However, for engineering
purposes, it is more convenient to measure the pressure above a
datum pressure at atmospheric pressure. By setting patmophere= 0,
p = -gz = ρgh
Unit:kPa . ‘bar’ is also a unit of atmospheric pressure 1-bar = 100 kPa.= 1 kg/cm2
 Absolute pressure: Absolute pressure at a point is the intensity of pressure at that point
measured with reference to absolute vacuum or absolute zero pressure. Absolute pressure at a
point is the intensity of pressure at that point measured with reference to absolute vacuum or
absolute zero pressure (Fig.4).
Absolute pressure at a point can never be negative since there can be no pressure less
than absolute zero pressure.
Fig.4 Definition of Absolute Pressure, Gauge Pressure and Vacuum Pressure

Gauge Pressure: If the intensity of pressure at a point is measurement with reference to
atmosphere pressure, then it is called gauge pressure at that point.
Gauge pressure at a point may be more than the atmospheric pressure (+ve gauge
pressure) or less than the atmospheric pressurepressure (-ve gauge pressure). Accordingly gauge
pressure at the point may be positive or negative (Fig.4)

Negative gauge pressure: It is also called vacuum pressure. From the figure, it is the
pressure measured below the gauge pressure (Fig.4).
Absolute pressure at a point = Atmospheric pressure ± Gauge pressure
NOTE: If we measure absolute pressure at a Point below the free surface of the liquid, then,
p2 (absolute) = . h + patm p1 = patm
If gauge pressure at a point is required, then atmospheric

pressure is taken as zero, then,
p2 (gauge) = . h = gh
Also, the pressure is the same at all points with the same depth from the free surface regardless of
geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same fluid. However, the thrust due to
pressure is perpendicular to the surface on which the pressure acts, and hence its direction depends
on the geometry.
Solved Example: Convert the following absolute pressure to gauge pressure:

(a) 120kPa (b) 3kPa (c) 15m of H2O (d) 800mm of Hg.
Solution: (a) pabs = patm + pgauge
pgauge = pabs – patm = 120 – 101.3 = 18.7 kPa
(b) pgauge = 3-101.3 = -98.3 kPa

pgauge = 98.3 kPa (vacuum)

(c) habs = hatm + hgauge
15 =10.3 +hgauge
hgauge = 4.7m of water
(d) habs = hatm + hgauge
800 =760 + hgauge
hgauge = 40 mm of mercury
2.6 Vpour Pressure:

Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure at which a liquid will boil
(vaporize) and is in equilibriumwith its own vapor (fig.5). Vapor
pressure rises as temperature rises. For example, suppose you are
camping on a high mountain (say 3,000m in altitude); the
atmospheric pressure at this elevation is about 70 kPa and the
boiling temperature is around 90C. This has consequences for
cooking. For example, eggs have to be cooked longer at elevation to
become hard-boiled since they cook at a lower temperature.
A pressure cooker has the opposite effect. Namely, the tight Liquid
lid on a pressure cooker causes the pressure to increase above the
normal atmospheric value. This causes water to boil at a
temperature even greater than 100C; eggs can be cooked a lot
faster in a pressure cooker!
Fig.5
Vapor pressure is important to fluid flows because, in general, pressure in a flow decreases as
velocity increases. This can lead to cavitation, which is generally destructive and undesirable. In
particular, at high speeds the local pressure of a liquid sometimes drops below the vapor pressure of
the liquid. In such a case, cavitation occurs. In other words, a "cavity" or bubble of vapor appears
because the liquid vaporizes or boils at the location where the pressure dips below the local vapor
pressure.

Cavitation is not desirable for several reasons. First, it causes noise (as the cavitation bubbles
collapse when they migrate into regions of higher pressure). Second, it can lead to inefficiencies and
reduction of heat transfer in pumps and turbines (turbo machines). Finally, the collapse of these
cavitation bubbles causes pitting and corrosion of blades and other surfaces nearby. The left figure
below shows a cavitating propeller in a water tunnel, and the right figure shows cavitation damage on
a blade.
2.7 Measurement of Pressure:Measurement of pressure
● Barometer
● Simple manometer
● Piezometer column
● Bourdon gage
● Pressure transducer
2.7.1 Barometer:A barometer is a device for measuring
atmospheric pressure. A simple barometer consists of a tube more
than 760 mm long inserted in an open container of mercury with a closed
and evacuated end at the top and open tube end at the bottom and
with mercury extending from the container up into the tube.
Strictly, the space above the liquid cannot be a true
vacuum. It contains mercury vapor at its saturated vapor pressure, but this is extremely small at
room temperatures (e.g. 0.173 Pa at 20oC).
The atmospheric pressure is calculated from the relation Patm = ρgh where ρ is the density of
fluid in the barometer.
pat’o’ = mercuryx y + pvapor = patm
Withnegligiblepvapor= 0
2.7.2Simple Manometer: Simple patm = mercuryy monometers are used to measure

intensity of pressure at a point. They are connected to the point at
which the intensity of pressure is required. Such a point is called gauge point

 Types of Simple Manometers

Common types of simple manometers are
a) Piezometers
b) U-tube manometers
c) Single tube manometers
d) Inclined tube manometers
a) Piezometers
Arrangement for the measurement
negative or vacuum or section
pressure
X
h h
h
Pipe
X
X
A
Pipe
Piezometer consists of a glass tube inserted in the wall of the vessel or pipe at the
level of point at which the intensity of pressure is to be measured. The other end of the
piezometer is exposed to air. The height of the liquid in the piezometer gives the pressure head
from which the intensity of pressure can be calculated.
To minimize capillary rise effects the diameters of the tube is kept more than 12mm.
Merits:
 Simple in construction
 Economical
Demerits:
 Not suitable for high pressure intensity.
 Pressure of gases cannot be measured.
(b) U-tube Manometers:

Manometer
reading Manometric
liquid
X
Pipe
X
A
Tank
X
A
Pipe
A U-tube manometers consists of a glass tube bent in U-Shape, one end of which is
connected to gauge point and the other end is exposed to atmosphere. U-tube consists of a liquid
of specific of gravity other than that of fluid whose pressure intensity is to be measured and is
called monometric liquid.
 Characteristics of Manometric liquids
 Manometric liquids should neither mix nor have any chemical reaction with the fluid
whose pressure intensity is to be measured.
 It should not undergo any thermal variation.
 Manometric liquid should have very low vapour pressure.
 Manometric liquid should have pressure sensitivity depending upon the magnitude. Of
pressure to be measured and accuracy requirement.
Gauge equations are written for the system to solve for unknown quantities.
 To write the gauge equation for manometers

Steps:

1. Convert all given pressure to meters of water and assume unknown pressure in meters of
waters.
2. Starting from one end move towards the other keeping the following points in mind.
 Any horizontal movement inside the same liquid will not cause change in pressure.
 Vertically downward movement causes increase in pressure and upward motion cause
decrease in pressure.
 Convert all vertical columns of liquids to meters of water by multiplying them by
corresponding specify gravity.
 Take atmospheric pressure as zero (gauge pressure computation).
3. Solve for the unknown quantity and convert it into the required unit.

Solved Problem:
1. Determine the pressure at A for the U- tube manometer shown in fig. Also calculate the
absolute pressure at A in kPa.
X
A 750mm
500mm
Hg (S = 13.6)
Water
X
A 750mm
500mm
Hg (S = 13.6)
Water
Let ‘hA’ be the pressure head at ‘A’ in ‘meters of water’.

h A  0.75  0.5 x 13.6  0
h A  6.05 m of water
p  h
 9.81 x 6.05
p  59.35 kPa ( gauge pressure )
p abs  p atm  p gauge
 101.3  59.35
p abc  160.65 kPa
2. For the arrangement shown in figure, determine gauge and absolute pressure at the point M.

250mm
X
M 750 mm
Mercury (13.6)
Oil (S = 0.8)
Let ‘hM’ be the pressure head at the point ‘M’ in m of water,
hM- 0.75 x 0.8 – 0.25 x 13.6 = 0
hM = 4 m of water
p  h
p  39.24 kPa
p abs  101.3  39.24
p abs 140.54 kPa
3. If the pressure at ‘At’ is 10 kPa (Vacuum) what is the value of ‘x’?
200mm x
A
x Oil (S = 1.2)
Mercury
pA = 10 kPa (Vacuum)
pA = - 10 kPa

p A  10
   1.019 m of water
 9.81
h A   1.019 m of water
 1.019  0.2 x 1.2  x (13.6)  0
x  0.0572 m
4. The tank in the accompanying figure consists of oil of S = 0.75. Determine the pressure
kN
gauge reading in .
m2
25 cm
Air
3.75 m
S = 0.75
Mercury
Let the pressure gauge reading be ‘h’ m of water

h – 3.75 x 0.75 + 0.25 x 13.6 = 0
h = - 0.5875 m of water
p=h
p = -5.763 kPa
p = 5.763 kPa (Vacuum)

5. A closed tank is 8m high. It is filled with Glycerine up to a depth of 3.5m and linseed oil to
another 2.5m. The remaining space is filled with air under a pressure of 150 kPa. If
a pressure gauge is fixed at the bottom of the tank what will be its reading. Also calculate
absolute pressure. Take relative density of Glycerine and Linseed oil as 1.25 and 0.93
respectively.
Air 150 kPa 2m

M
X
2.5 m
Linseed oil
3.5 m
Glycerin
N
S = 1.25
PH  150 kPa
150
hM 
9.81
hM  15.29 m of water
Let ‘hN’ be the pressure gauge reading in m of water.
hN-3.5 x 1.25 -2.5 x 0.93 =15.29
hN = 21.99 m of water
p = 9.81 x 21.99
p = 215.72 kPa (gauge)
pabs = 317.02 kPa
6. A vertical pipe line attached with a gauge and a manometer contains oil and Mercury as
shown in figure. The manometer is opened to atmosphere. What is the gauge reading at ‘A’?
Assume no flow in the pipe.
hA-3 x 0.9 + 0.375 x 0.9- 0.375 x13.6 = 0
hA = 2.0625 m of water
p=xh
= 9.81 x 21.99

S = 0.9
3m
37.5 cm
S = 13.6
p = 20.23 kPa(gauge)
pabs = 101.3 +20.23
pabs = 121.53 kPa
 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
Differential manometers are used to measure pressure difference between any two points.
Common varieties of differential manometers are:
(a) Two piezometers.
(b) Inverted U-tube manometer.
(c) U-tube differential manometers.
(d) Micromanometers.
(a) Two Pizometers
Ih
hA
hB
xA xB
The arrangement consists of two pizometers at the two points between which the pressure
difference is required. The liquid will rise in both the piezometers. The difference in elevation of
liquid levels can be recorded and the pressure difference can be calculated. It has all the merits
and demerits of piezometer.

(b) Inverted U-tube manometers:
SM
y1 X
y2
S1
x
Inverted U-tube manometer is used to measure small difference in pressure between any
two points. It consists of an inverted U-tube connecting the two points between which the
pressure difference is required. In between there will be a lighter sensitive manometric liquid.
Pressure difference between the two points can be calculated by writing the gauge equations for
the system.
Let ‘hA’ and ‘hB’ be the pr head at ‘A’ and ‘B’ in meters of water
hA – (Y1 S1) + (x SM) + (y2 S2) = hB.
hA – hB = S1 y1 – SM x – S2 y2,
pA – pB =  (hA– hB)
(c) U-tube Differential manometers
S1
S2
x x
A y1 B
y2
x
SM
A differential U-tube manometer is used to measure pressure difference between any two
points. It consists of a U-tube containing heavier manometric liquid, the two limbs of which are
connected to the gauge points between which the pressure difference is required. U-tube

differential manometers can also be used for gases. By writing the gauge equation for the system
pressure difference can be determined.
Let ‘hA’ and ‘hB’ be the pressure head of ‘A’ and ‘B’ in meters of water
hA + S1 Y1 + x SM – Y2 S2 = hB
hA – hB = Y2 S2 – Y1 S1– x SM
Solved Problems:
Q(1) An inverted U-tube manometer is shown in figure. Determine the pressure difference
between A and B in N/M2.
Let hA and hB be the pressure heads at A and B in meters of water.
S = 0.9
30 cm
40 cm
Water
x
B
120cm
Water
x
A
hA – (190 x 10-2) + (0.3 x 0.9) + (0.4) 0.9 = hB

hA – hB = 1.23 meters of water
pA – pB =  (hA– hB) = 9.81 x 1.23
pA – pB = 12.06 kPa
pA – pB = 12.06 x 103 N/m2

Q2. In the arrangements shown in figure. Determine the ‘h’.
25 cm of Mercury (Vacuum)
= - 0.25 x 13.6
2N /cm2 = - 3.4 m of water
AIR AIR
4m
2N/cm2 = 20 kPa
KERO h = 20 9.81
S = 0.8
h = 2.038 meters of water
Water
1.5 m
h
S = 1.5
2.038 + 1.5 – (4 + 1.5 – h) 0.8 = – 3.4

h = 3.6 m
Q.3 In the figure given, the air pressure in the left tank is 230 mm of Mercury (Vacuum).
Determine the elevation of gauge liquid in the right limb at A. If the liquid in the right tank is
water.
Pc 21
hc  
 9.81
hc  2.14m of water

hB = 230mm of Hg =0.2313.6 hB= - 3.128 m of water

Applying manometric equation
– 3.128 + 5 x 0.8 + y x 1.6 – (y + 2) = 2.14
– 3.128 + 5 x 0.8 + y x 1.6 – y – 2 = 2.14
y = 5.446 m
Elevation of A = 100 – 5.446
Elevation of A = 94.553m
Q4. Compute the pressure different between ‘M’ and ‘N’ for the system shown in figure.
S = 0.92
M
0.2 m
S = 1.15
0.3 m
Let ‘hM’ and ‘ hN’ be the pressure heads at M and N in m of water.

hm + y x 1.15 – 0.2 x 0.92 + (0.3 – y + 0.2) 1.15 = hn
hm + 1.15 y – 0.184 + 0.3 x 1.15 – 1.15 y + 0.2 x 1.15 = hn
hm + 0.391 = hn
hn – hm = 0.391meters of water
pn– pm =  (hN – hm)

= 9.81 x 0.391
pn– pm = 3.835 kPa

Q.5 Petrol of specify gravity 0.8 flows up through a vertical pipe. A and B are the two points in
the pipe, B being 0.3 m higher than A. Connection are led from A and B to a U–tube containing
Mercury. If the pressure difference between A and B is 18 kPa, find the reading of manometer.
R
x
0.3 m
S = 0.8
x
(y)
A
x
Hg
pA – pB= 18kPa
PA  PB

18
hA– hB =
9.81
hA  hB  1.835m of water
hA + y x 0.8 – x 13.6 – (0.3 + y – x) 0.8 = hB
hA– hB = – 0.8y + 13.66 x + 0.24 + 0.8 y – 0.8 x
hA  hB  12.8 x  0.24
1.835 = 12.8x + 0.24
x = 0.1246 m

Q.6. A cylindrical tank contains water to a height of 50mm. Inside is a small open cylindrical
tank containing kerosene at a height specify gravity 0.8. The following pressures are known from
indicated gauges.
pB = 13.8 kPa (gauge)
pC = 13.82 kPa (gauge)
Determine the gauge pressure pA and height h. Assume that kerosene is prevented from
moving to the top of the tank.
pA
Air
Water
50 mm
h
Kerosene
S = 0.8
pB pC
pC = 13.82 kPa
hC = 1.409 m of water
pB= 13.8 kPa
hB = 1.407 meters of water
1.409 – 0.05 = hAhA= 1.359 meters of water
pA = 1.359 x 9.81
pA = 13.33 kPa
hB – h x 0.8 – (0.05 – h) = hA
1.407 – 0.8 h – 0.05 + h = 1.359
0.2 h = 1.359 – 1.407 + 0.05
0.2 h = 0.002
h = 0.02 m

Q.7 Find the pressure different between A and B if d1 = 300mm, d2 = 150mm,d3 = 460mm, d4 =
200mm and 13.6.
C
d4 Water
0.2 m
d3
0.46 m
B
d1
Water
0.3 m
d2
0.15 m
Let hA and hB be the pressure head at A and B in m of water.

hA+ 0.3 – (0.46 + 0.2 Sin 45) 13.6 = hB
hA - hB= 7.88m of water
pA – pB= (7.88 ) (9.81)
pA – pB= 77.29 kPa
Q.8 What is the pressure pA in the fig given below? Take specific gravity of oil as 0.8.
pA Air
3m
Oil
S = 0.8 4.6 m
Water 0.3 m
Hg
hA+ (3 x 0.8) + (4.6 - 0.3) (13.6) = 0

hA= 2.24 m of oil
pA= 9.81 x 2.24
pA= 21.97 kPa

Q.9 Find ‘d’ in the system shown in fig. If pA= 2.7 kPa
pA = 2.7 kPa
S = 1.4
Air
0.05 m d
Oil
S = 0.6
300 mm
2.0 mm 10 mm
Hg
pA 2.7
hA  
 9.81
h A  0.2752 m of water
h A  (0.05 x 0.6)  (0.05  0.02  0.01)0.6
 (0.01 x 13.6)  (0.03 x 13.6)  d x 1.4)  0
0.0692  1.4d  0
d  0.0494 m
or
d  49.4 mm

Q.10 Determine the absolute pressure at ‘A’ for the system shown in fig.
S = 0.7
Air
150 Oil
100 xA
600 S = 0.8
Water 300
hA- (0.25 x 0.8) + (0.15 x 0.7) + (0.3 x 0.8)-(0.6) = 0

hA= 0.455 m of water
pA = hA x 9.81
pA = 4.464kPa
pabs = 101.3 + 4.464
pabs = 105.764 kPa
SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER OR MICRO-MANOMETER:
Single column manometer or micro-manometer is used to measure small pressure
intensities.
S
C1 C1
A U – tube
(Area=a)
h2
y
h1
B B C
 B1 B1
Sm
A single column manometer consists of a shallow reservoir having large cross sectional
area when compared to cross sectional area of U – tube connected to it. For any change in

pressure, change in the level of manometeric liquid in the reservoir is small () and change in
level of manometric liquid in the U- tube is large.
To derive expression for pressure head at A:
BB and CC are the levels of manometric liquid in the reservoir and U-tube before
connecting the point A to the manometer, writing gauge equation for the system we have,
+ y x S – h1 x Sm = 0
Sy = Smh1
Let the point A be connected to the manometer. B1B1 and C1C1 are the levels of manometeric
liquid.
Volume of liquid between BBB1B1 = Volume of liquid betweenCCC1C1
A∆ = a h2
ah 2
∆=
A
Let ‘hA’ be the pressure head at A in m of water.
hA + (y +∆ ) S – (∆ + h1+h2 ) Sm = 0
hA = (∆ + h1+h2) Sm – (y + ∆) S
= ∆ Sm + h1Sm+ h2 Sm – yS – ∆S
hA= ∆ (Sm – S) + h2 Sm
ah 2
hA= (Sm – S) + h2 Sm
A
a
It is enough if we take one reading to get ‘h2’ If ‘ ’ is made very small (by increasing ‘A’)
A
then the I term on the RHS will be negligible.
Then hA= h2Sm

INCLINED TUBE SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER:
A
x C
A h2 C

y C
C
h1
B B

B B
8 m
Inclined tube SCM is used to measure small intensity pressure. It consists of a large
reservoir to which an inclined U – tube is connected as shown in fig. For small changes in
pressure the reading ‘h2’ in the inclined tube is more than that of SCM. Knowing the inclination
of the tube the pressure intensity at the gauge point can be determined.
a
hA = h2 sin  ( Sm  S )  h2 sin  .Sm
A
a
If ‘ ’ is very small then hA = (h2 = Sin) Sm.
A
2.7.3 MECHANICAL GAUGES:

Pressure gauges are the devices used to measure pressure at a point. They are used to
measure high intensity pressures where accuracy requirement is less. Pressure gauges are
separate for positive pressure measurement and negative pressure measurement. Negative
pressure gauges are called Vacuum gauges.
Mechanical gauge consists of an elastic element which deflects under the action of
applied pressure and this deflection will move a pointer on a graduated dial leading to the
measurement of pressure. Most popular pressure gauge used is Bordon pressure gauge.

BASIC PRINCIPLE:
The arrangement consists of a pressure responsive element made up of phosphor bronze or

special steel having elliptical cross section. The element is curved into a circular arc, one end of
the tube is closed and free to move and the other end is connected to gauge point. The changes in
pressure cause change in section leading to the movement. The movement is transferred to a
needle using sector pinion mechanism. The needle moves over a graduated dial.
Bourdon gage:
Is a device used for measuring gauge pressures the pressure element is a hollow curved metallic
tube closed at one end the other end is connected to the pressure to be measured. When the
internal pressure is increased the tube tends to straighten pulling on a linkage to which is
attached a pointer and causing the pointer to move. When the tube is connected the pointer
shows zero. The bourdon tube, sketched in figure.
It can be used for the measurement of liquid and gas pressures up to 100s of MPa.

2.7.4 Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices:

Electronic Pressure transducers convert pressure into an electrical output. These devices consist
of a sensing element, transduction element and signal conditioning device to convert pressure
readings to digital values on display panel.
Sensing Elements:
The main types of sensing elements are
• Bourdon tubes,
• Diaphragms,
• Capsules, and
• Bellows.
Pressure Transducers:
A transducer is a device that turns a

mechanical signal into an electrical signal or an electrical signal into a mechanical response(e.g.,
Bourdon gage transfers pressure to displacement).
There are a number of ways to accomplish this kind of conversion

 Strain gage
 Capacitance
 Variable reluctance
 Optical
Normally Electronic Pressure transducers are costly compared to conventional mechanical
gauges and need to be calibrated at National laboratories before put in to use.

UNIT-3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES
3.0 Introduction:
Hydrostatics : The forces acting on fluid or acted up on the fluid at rest are considered. The
forces considered are pressure forces and gravity forces.
Fluid Static's and Fluid Dynamics form the two constituents of Fluid Mechanics. Fluid Statics
deals with fluids at rest while Fluid Dynamics studies fluids in motion. In this chapter we discuss
Fluid Static's. A fluid at rest has no shear stress. Consequently, any force developed is only due
to normal stresses i.e, pressure. Such a condition is termed the hydrostatic condition. In fact, the
analysis of hydrostatic systems is greatly simplified when compared to that for fluids in motion.
Though fluid in motion gives rise to many interesting phenomena, fluid at rest is by no means
less important. Its importance becomes apparent when we note that the atmosphere around us
can be considered to be at rest and so are the oceans. The simple theory developed here finds its
application in determining pressures at different levels of atmosphere and in many pressure-
measuring devices. Further, the theory is employed to calculate force on submerged objects such
as ships, parts of ships and submarines. The other application of the theory is in the calculation
of forces on dams and other hydraulic systems. For a continuous, hydrostatic, shear free fluid:
1. Pressure is constant along a horizontal plane,

2. Pressure at a point is independent of orientation,
3. Pressure change in any direction is proportional to the fluid density,local ‘g’, and
vertical change in depth
Fluid Forces:
In Fluid Mechanics we consider forces upon fluid elements. It is necessary to discuss the
type of forces that could act on fluid elements. These Forces could be divided into two categories
- Surface Forces, and Body Forces.

Figure 3.1 :Classification of Fluid Forces
Surface forces are brought about by contact of fluid with another fluid or a solid body.
The best example of this is pressure. The surface forces depend upon surface area of contact and
do not depend upon the volume of fluid. On the other hand, body forces depend upon the volume
of the substance and are distributed through the fluid element. Examples are weight of any
substance, electromagnetic forces etc.
Fluid statics is the study of fluids in which there is no relative motion between fluid particles, i.e.
no velocity gradient in the fluid. Therefore, no shearing forces exist. Only normal forces exist.
These normal forces in fluids are called pressure forces.
3.1 Pressure at a Point:
Definition
 Pressure results from normal compressive force acting on an area. Mathematically, it is
defined as
lim F dF
P  
A  0 A dA
Where, F is the normal force acting over the area A.
 Pressure is a scalar quantity; it has magnitude only and acts equally in all directions.

Figure 3.2 :Pressure at a point
T
he
surf
ace
for
ces
acti
ng
on
the three faces of the wedge are due to the pressures, px,pz and pnas shown. These forces are
normal to the surface upon which they act. The usual convention is to consider compression
pressureaspositive in sign. We again remind ourselves that since the fluid is at rest there is no
shear force acting. In addition we have a body force, the weight, ‘W’ of the fluid within the
wedge acting vertically downwards.
px = p y = pz
In a closed system, a pressure change produced at one point in the system will be transmitted
throughout the entire system. This principle is known as Pascal’s law. The Pascal’s principle is
applied in the development devices like hydraulic brakes, hydraulic jacks and hydraulic lifts.
Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure and Vacuum:
 A space that is completely evacuated of all gases is called a vacuum.
 The pressure in a vacuum is called absolute zero and all pressures referenced with respect to
this zero pressure are termed absolute pressures.
 When pressure is measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure, the pressure reading is
called gage pressure.

P
a
Figure 3.3 :Definition of gauge and absolute pressures
Pabs =Patm + Pgauge

 When the absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, the gage pressure is negative.
Negative gage pressures are also termed vacuum pressures, e.g. a gauge pressure of -31.0 kPa
can be stated as a vacuum pressure of 31.0 kPa.
 The unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa) in SI system and pounds per square inch (psi) in the
traditional system. Gage and absolute pressures are usually identified after the unit, e.g. 50
kPa gauge; 150 kPa absolute;
3.2 Pressure Variation with Elevation:
Basic Differential Equation

 For a static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation within the fluid.
 Proof: Considering the cylindrical element of fluid shown in fig. 3.4, the following relation
can be obtained (proof will be shown in class):
dp dz
= γ
dz dz
Which, can be written as
dp
 
dz
This is the basic equation for hydrostatic pressure variation with elevation.

 The following can be observed for a static fluid from the equations above:
 A change of pressure occurs only when there is a change of elevation. Therefore, pressure is
constant everywhere in a horizontal plane.
 Pressure changes inversely with elevation.
Pressure Variation for a Uniform-Density Fluid

 For a uniform-density fluid  is constant. Equation (2) can then be integrated to obtain
p  z  cons tan t

piezometri c pressure
 Dividing equation (3) by  gives
p 
  z   cons tan t

piezometric head
 Using equations (3) and (4), one can relate the pressure and elevation at two points in a fluid
in the following manner:
p1 p
 z1  2  z 2
 
Note: The equation applies to two points in the same fluid; it does not apply across an
interface of two fluids having different specific weights.
Example Problem

Water occupies the bottom 1.0 m of a cylindrical tank. On top of the water is 0.5 m of kerosene
(sp.gr. 0.75) , which is open to the atmosphere. If the temperature is 20oC, what is the gage
pressure at the bottom of the tank?
Solution:
Given Hw= 1m Hkerosene= 0.5m

0.5m
Kerosesne
water = 9810 N/m3 kerosene = 0.75X 9810 = 7357.5N/m3
The gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank will be given
water By Hydrostatic law of pressure distribution

1m
pbottom = 0 + water XHw+kerosene X Hkerosene
pbottom= 9810X 1m+ 7357.5X0.5m
pbottom = 13488.75 N/m2=13.49 kN/m2
Definitions
Pressure or Pressure intensity (p): It is the Fluid pressure force per unit area of
p
application. Mathematicall y, P  . Units are Pascal or N/m 2 .
A
Total Pressure (P): This is that force exerted by the fluid on the contact surface
(of the submerged surfaces), when the fluid comes in contact with the surface
always acting normal to the contact surface. Units are N.
Centre of Pressure: It is defined as the point of application of the total pressure
on the contact surface.
The submerged surface may be either plane or curved. In case of plane surface,
it may be vertical, horizontal or inclined. Hence, the above four cases may be
studied for obtaining the total pressure and centre of pressure.
Vertical Plane surface sub m erged in liquid

Consider a vertical plane surface of some arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid

of mass densit y  as shown in Fig.
h y
y
b
G
C
P dy
Let
A = Total area of the surface
y = Depth of Centroid of the surface from the free surface
G = Centroid of the immersed surface
C = Centre of pressure
h = Depth of centre of pressure

Consider a rectangular strip of b readth b and depth dy at a depth y from the free
surface.
Total Pressure:
The pressure intensity at a depth y acting on the stripis p = gy
Total pressure force on the strip = dP = (gy)dA
The Total pressure force on the entire area is given by integratin g the above
expression over the entire area
P =  dP =  (gy)dA= g ydA ..(01)
But  ydA is the Moment of the entire area about the free surface of the liquid
given by
 ydA = A y
Substituting in Eq. 01, we get
P = g A y =  A y ..(02)
Where  is the specific weight of water.

For water, =1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2 . The force will be expressed in
Newtons (N).
Centre of Pressure: It is the location of total hydrostatic force P acting on the
immersed plane. This is computed on the principle of Theorem of moments.The
moment of the pressure force about the free surface is given by M = P x h = g
Ayh ...(03)
Ig
On solving h y
Ay
Where y is the centroidal depth and h is the centre of pressure.

Total Pressure:
The pressure intensity at a depth y acting normal to the plane on the stripis p =
gy
Total pressure force on the strip = dP = (gy)dA
The Total pressure force on the entire area is given by integrating the above
expression over the entire area along the plane
P =  dP =  (gy)dA= g ydA
But y and dA are on different planes and hence sub stituting for y from Eq. 1, we
get
P= g y* sin dA = g sin  y* dA …(2)
But  y*dA is the Moment of the entire area about the free surface of the liquid
given by
 y*dA = A y  sin =A y
P = g A y =  A y … (3)
Where  is the specific weight of water.

3.3 Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Horizontal Surfaces:
 If a plane surface immersed in a fluid is horizontal, then
 Hydrostatic pressure is uniform over the entire surface.

 The resultant force acts at the centroid of the plane.
F
y P h
Consider a horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid as shown in Fi g. As all

the points on the plane are at equal depth from the free surface of the liquid, the
pressure intensit y will be equal on the entire surface and given by p = g y ,
where y is the depth of the fluid surface

Let A = Area of the immersed surface
The total pressure force acting on the immersed surface is P
P = p x Area of the surface = g y A
P = gA y
Where y is the centroidal distance immersed surface from the free surface of
the liquid and h is the centre of pressure.

 If a plane surface immersed in a fluid is not horizontal, then
 Hydrostatic pressure is linearly distributed over the surface.
 The magnitude and location of the resultant force are obtained by a more general type
of analysis.

 Consider the plane surface AB immersed in a liquid and inclined at angle  to the liquid
surface as shown in figure above.
3.4 Hydrostatic Forces on Vertical Plane Surface:

Vertical Plane surface submerged in liquid
Consider a vertical plane surface of some arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid of mass density 
as shown in Figure below:
h
h
h C.P.
y
b
G
P C
dh
End View Elevation

Let, A = Total area of the surface
h = Depth of Centroid of the surface from the free surface

G = Centroid of the immersed surface
C = Centre of pressure
h C.P . = Depth of centre of pressure
Consider a rectangular strip of breadth b and depth dy at a depth y from the free surface.
Total Pressure:
The pressure intensity at a depth y acting on the strip is p = gh
Total pressure force on the strip = dP = (gh)dA
 The Total pressure force on the entire area is given by integrating the above expression over
the entire areaP = dP =  (gh)dA= ghdA Eq.(1)
But  y dA is the Moment of the entire area about the free surface of the liquid given by
∫ hdA = Ah
Substituting in Eq.(1), we get P = ρgAh = γA h Eq.(2)

Where  is the specific weight of Water?

For water, =1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2. The force will be expressed in Newtons (N)
Solved Examples:
Q.1Alargetankofseawaterhasadoorintheside 1m2.Thetopofthedooris5mbelow
thefreesurface.Thedoorishingedonthebottomedge.Calculatetheforcerequiredatthetop to keep it
closed. The density of the sea water is 1033 kg/m3.
Solution: The total hydrostatic force F = γ sea water A hc
γ sea water = 1033 x 9 .81 = 10133 .73 N / m 3

Given A = 1m X 1m = 1m2
1
hc = 5 + = 5.5m
2
F = 10133 .73 X1X 5 .5 = 55735 .5 N
Acting at centre of pressure (yc.p):
From the abovehc = 5.5m, A = 1m2

BD 3 1X13
(I )
c xx = = = 0.08333 m 4
12 12
(I ) c xx 0.08333
h C. P . = h c + = 5.5 + = 5.515m
Ah c 1X5.5
Distance of Hydrostatic force (F) from the bottom of the hinge = 6-5.515 = 0.48485m
The force ‘P’ required at the top of gate (1m from the hinge)
PX1 = FX 0.48485 = 55735 .5X 0.48485
P = 27023 .4 N = 27.023 kN
Q.2 Calculate the total hydrostatic force and location of centre of pressure for a circular plate of
2.5 m diameter immersed vertically in water with its top edge 1.5 m below the oil surface (Sp.
Gr.=0.9)
Solution: 1.5 m
y = 2.75m
h
π × D 2 π × 22 m
A = = = 4.91 m 2
4 4 G
2.5 m C C
Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT B Page 77

Assume
 = 0.9X1000=900 kg/m 3 ,g=9.8 m/s 2
γ oil = 900 X 9.81 = 8829 N / m 3
h c =2.75m
We know that the total pressure force is given by ‘F’
F =  o i l Ah c = 8829 x 4.91 x 2.75 = 238184 N = 238.184 kN
Centre of Pressure:
The Centre of pressure is given by
(I )
c x x
h C. P . = h c +
Ah c
π R 4 π × 1.25 4
Ig = = = 1.9175 m 4
4 4
1.9175
h C.P . = 2.75 + = 2.892 m
4.91× 2.75
Q.3 Aculvertinthesideofareservoirisclosedbyaverticalrectangulargate2mwideand1m
deepasshowninfigure.Thegateishingedaboutahorizontalaxiswhichpassesthroughthe
centreofthegate.Thefreesurface ofwaterinthereservoiris2.5mabovetheaxisofthe hinge. The density
of water is 1000 kg/m3. Assuming that the hinges are frictionless and that the culvert is open to
atmosphere, determine
(i)The force acting on the gate when closed
due to the pressure of water. (ii)
The moment to be applied about the hinge
axis to open the gate.
Solution: (i) The total hydrostatic force
F = γA h c
γ water = 1000 x 9.81 = 9810 N / m 3
Given A = 1m X 2m = 2m2

1
hc = 2 + = 2.5m
2
F = 9810 X 2 X 2 .5 = 49050 N
(ii) The moment applied about hinge axis to open the gate is say ‘M’
The centre of pressure (hc.p):
From the abovehc = 2.5m, A = 2m2

BD 3 2 X13
(I )
c xx = = = 0.167 m 4
12 12
(I )
c xx 0.167
h C.P. = h c + = 2.5 + = 2.53334 m
Ahc 2X2.5
Distance of Hydrostatic force (F) from the water surface = 2.5334m.
Distance of hinge from free surface = 2.5m
Distance between hinge and centre of pressure of force ‘F’ = 2.5334 m - 2.5m = 0.0334m
Taking moment about Hinge to open the gate ‘M’ = F X 0.0334 = 49050 N X 0.0334 m
The moment applied about hinge axis to open the gate ‘M’ = 1638.27 N-m
3.5Hydrostatic Force on a Inclined submerged surface:
The other important utility of the hydrostatic equation is in the determination of force
acting upon submerged bodies. Among the innumerable applications of this is the force
calculation in storage tanks, ships, dams etc.
First
consi
der a
plana
r
arbitr
ary
Figure 3.4 :Force upon a submerged object

shape submerged in a liquid as shown in the figure. The plane makes an angle with the liquid
surface, which is a free surface. The depth of water over the plane varies linearly. This
configuration is efficiently handled by prescribing a coordinate frame such that the y-axis is
aligned with the submerged plane. Consider an infinitesimally small area at a (x,y). Let this small
area be located at a depth from the free surface.dA = dx.dy
Differential Force acting on the differential area dA of plane,
dF  (Pressure)  (Area)  (h)  (dA) (Perpendicular to plane)
Then, Magnitude of total resultant force FR
FR  A hdA  A   y sin  dA

Where h  y sin
  sin  A ydA 1st moment of the area

- Related with the center of area
ydA  yc A
 A whereyc: y coordinate of the center of area (Centroid)
c.f.Centeror 1st moment
 xdm  MX C  ydm  MYC

M & M (XC & YC: Center of Mass)
A xdA = xc & A ydA = yc (xc&yc: Center of Area)

Moment of inertia or 2nd moment
r
2
dm  I
M (2nd moment of Mass)
A y dA  I x  dA  I y
2 2
A
x
& (2nd moment of Area)
Then,
FR = γAy c sin θ = ( γ h c )A

Where
 hc : Pressure at the centroid = (Pressure at the centroid)  Area
- Magnitude of a force on an INCLINED plane

- Dependent on
 ,Area, and Depth of centroid
- Perpendicular to the surface (Direction)
i) Position of FR on y-axis ‘yR’ : y coordinate of the point of action of FR
Moment about x axis:
FR y R  (Ayc sin  ) y R  A ydF  A  sin  y dA   sin  A y dA

2 2
 A y 2 dA
2
∫h dA Ix I
 hR = A
= where x :2nd moment of area
hcA hcA
or, by using the parallel-axis theorem,

I x  I xc  Ayc 2
I G Sin 2 θ 
 h C.P . = h +
Ah
(The centre of pressure below the centroid)

Worked Examples
Q.4. A rectangular plate 1.5m x 3.0m is submerged in water and makes an angle of 60° with the
horizontal, the 1.5m sides being horizontal. Calculate the magnitude of the force on the plate and
the location of the point of application of the force, with reference to the top edge of the plate,
when the top edge
of the plate is 1.2m below the water surface. 60°

1.2m
h
Solution:
1.2 x
h= + 1.5 = 1.386 + 1.5 = 2.886m
sin 60° xp 1.5m
A = 3m X 1.5m = 4.5m2
a
CG
h = y sin 60° = 2.886 sin 60° = 2.499 m
CP
F  g hA  1000  9.81 2.499  3  1.5 3.0m
 F  109.92  10 3 N  109.92 kN
I G Sin 2 60 
h C.P . = h +
Ah
32
∴ hC . P .  2.886   2.886  0.260  3.146 m
12  2.886
From the top edge of the plate, a  3.146  1.386  1.760 m
Q.5A vertical bulkhead 4m wide divides a storage tank. On one side of the bulkhead petrol (S.G.
= 0.78) is stored to a depth of 2.1m and on the other side water is stored to a depth of 1.2m.
Determine the resultant force on the bulkhead and the position where it acts.
Width = 4m
Petrol
Solution:
h
F  g hA  g  bh  12 gh 2  b 2.1m
2
F1  12  780  9.81 2.12  4 N  67.5 kN
F 1.2m
F1 Wate
F2  12 1000  9.811.2 2  4 N  28.25 kN
R
F2 xR
r
x1 O x2
Hence the resultant force

FR  F1  F2  67.5  28.25  39.25 kN
IG h bh 3 1 h h
h C. P . =h+ = + = + = 32 h
Ah 2 12 bh (h 2) 2 6
From the diagram, y = h – 2/3h = 1/3h
Hence, y1 = 2.1 / 3 = 0.7m and y2 = 1.2 / 3 = 0.4m
Taking moments about ‘O’, FR•yR = F1• y1 – F2• y2
i.e. 39.25 × yR = 67.5 × 0.7 – 28.25 × 0.4 and hence yR = 0.916m
Q.6 A hinged, circular gate 750mm in diameter is used to close the opening in a sloping side of a
tank, as shown in the diagram in Error! Reference source not found.. The gate is kept closed
against water pressure partly by its own weight and partly by a weight on the lever arm. Find the
mass M required to allow the gate to begin to open when the water level is 500mm above the top
of the gate. The mass of the gate is 60 kg. (Neglect the weight of the lever arm.)
Solution: Hing
800m e
500 m
a  707mm 500m
sin 45 m
x  a  375  1082mm
Mg
h  x sin 45  765mm m
g

F  g hA  1000  9.81 0.765    0.75 2 4  F
750mm
45
 F  3.315  10 3 N  3.315 kN °
IG d 4 4 d2
xP  x  x  2 x
Ax 64 d x 16  x
0.75 2
x P  1.082   1.082  0.032  1.114 m
16  1.082
Taking moments about the hinge

Fx P  a   Mg  0.8  mg  0.375cos 45 0.8m
33151.114  0.707  9.81M  0.8  60  0.375cos 45

0.375 cos 45°
Hinge
33151.114  0.707 45°

M  0.8   60  0.375 cos 45 mg
9.81 0.375m
M × 0.8  137 .5  16  121 .5 mg
121.5
M   152 kg F
yp-a
0.8
Q.7. A rectangular plate 1 m x 3 m is immersed in water such that its upper and
lower edge is at depths 1.5 m and 3 m respectivel y. Determine the total pressure
acting on the plate and locate it. C1 G1
Solution: 
2 1.5 m
A = 1 x 3 = 3 m
3m A1 A
 w = 9810 N/m 3
3 m + 1. 5 m G
hc = = 2.25m CP
3m
2 B
We know that the total pressure force is given by
F =  w a t e r A h c = 9810 x 3.0 x 2.25 = 66217.5 N
1m
Sin  = 1.5 / 3 = 0.5
 = 30 o
Centre of Pressure; The Centre of pressure is given by
b d 3 1× 3 3
(I )
C x x = = = 2.25 m 4
12 12
h c = 2.25m
(I )
c x x Sin 2 θ
CC1 = h C.P. = h c +
Ah c
2.25 Sin 2 30

CC1  hC . P.  2.25 
3 X 2.25
CC1  hC . P.  2.33333 m

PROPERTIES OF PLANE SECTIONS

Moment of Product of
Geometry Centroid Inertia Inertia Area
Ix x Ix y
3
y
b L bL
x
L
2 , 2
12
0 b L
b
y R4  R2
x
2R 0, 0 0
4
3
bL b 2L 2 bL
L y b L 
x 3 , 3 36 72 2
b
y
4R 4   8  R2
x 0 ,a  R   0
3 8 9 
a
2
R
s
b  b  2s L
3 2
L bL 1
y L a  b L
x 3 36 72 2
b
y R
4R   4 4 1  4 4  R2
a  R  R
3 8 9
x
16 9   4
b
1
h b  2b 1  b  h
3 2 2
y h  4bb 1  b 1
h a  0  b  b 1
36  b  b1 
x
3 b  b 1  2
b
Fluid Specific Weight

3
1bf/ft 3 N /m 3 1bf /ft 3 N /m
Air .0752 11.8 Seawater 64.0 10,050
Oil 57.3 8,996 Glycerin 78.7 12,360
62.4 9,790 Mercury 846. 133,100

Water
49.2 7,733 99.1 15,570
Ethyl Carbon

3.6 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
Since this class of surface is curved, the

direction of the force is different at each
location on the surface.
Therefore, we will evaluate the x and y

components of net hydrostatic force separately.
Consider curved surface, a-b. Force balances

in x & y directions yield
Fh = FH
Fv = Wair +W1 + W2
From this force balance, the basic rules for determining the horizontal and vertical component of
forces on a curved surface in a static fluid can be summarized as follows:
3.6.1 Horizontal Component, Fh
The horizontal component of force on a curved surface equals the force on the plane area
formed by the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane normal to the
component.
The horizontal force will act through the c.p.

a
(not the centroid) of the projected area. hcg a’
Projected vertical
Note from the Diagram: plane
All elements of the analysis are performed with the ycp Curved
cp surface
vertical plane. The original curved surface is Fh
important only as it is used to define the projected b’
b
vertical plane.

Therefore, to determine the horizontal component of force on a curved surface in a hydrostatic

fluid:
1. Project the curved surface into the appropriate vertical plane.

2. Perform all further calculations on the vertical plane.
3. Determine the location of the centroid - c.g. of the vertical plane.
4. Determine the depth of the centroid - hcg of the vertical plane.
5. Determine the pressure - Pcg =g hcg at the centroid of the vertical plane.
6. Calculate Fh = Pcg A, where A is the area of the projection of the curved
surface into the vertical plane, ie. the area of the vertical plane.
7. The location of Fhis through the center of pressure of the vertical plane,
not the centroid.
3.6.2 Vertical Component - Fv
The vertical component of force on a curved surface equals the weight of the effective column
of fluid necessary to cause the pressure on the surface.
The use of the words effective column of fluid is important in that there may not always actually
be fluid directly above the surface. (See graphic that follows.)
This effective column of fluid is specified by identifying the column of fluid that would be
required to cause the pressure at each location on the surface.
Thus, to identify the effective volume - Veff:
1. Identify the curved surface in contact with the fluid.

2. Identify the pressure at each point on the curved surface.
3. Identify the height of fluid required to develop the pressure.
4. These collective heights combine to form Veff.

a Veff
Veff
P
b
fluid
P
P P P
b a P
Fluid above the surface

No fluid actually above surface
These two examples show two typical cases where this concept is used to determine Veff.The
vertical force acts vertically through the centroid (center of mass) of the effective column of fluid.
The vertical direction will be the direction of the vertical components of the pressure forces.
Therefore, to determine the vertical component of force on a curved surface in a hydrostatic fluid:
1. Identify the effective column of fluid necessary to cause the fluid pressure
on the surface.
2. Determine the volume of the effective column of fluid.
3. Calculate the weight of the effective column of fluid - Fv = gVeff.
4. The location of Fv is through the centroid of Veff.
A second problem associated with the topic of curved surfaces is that of finding the location of
the centroid of Veff.
Centroid : The location where a point area, volume, or mass can be place to yield the same first
moment of the distributed area, volume, or mass, e.g.
xcgV1   x dV
V1
This principle can also be used to determine the location of the centroid of complex
geometries.For example:

If Veff = V1 + V2
V1
a
then
V2
xcgVeff = x1V1 + x2V2
b
or for the second geometry
VT = V1 + Veff Veff
b
V1 fluid
xTVT = x1V1 + xcgVeff
a
Note: In the figures shown above, each of the x- values would be specified relative to a vertical
axis through ‘b’ since the CG of the quarter circle is most easily specified relative to this axis.
Solved Problems:
Ex.1 Find the horizontal and vertical component of force and its point of
application due to water per meter length of the gate AB having a quadrant
shape of radius 2.5 m shown in Fig. Find also the resultant force in magnitude
and direction.
Solution: A C
Assume
R=2.5m
 = 1000 kg/m 3 and g = 9.81 m/s 2
R = 2.5 m, Width of gate = 1 m B
Horizontal force F x
F h = Force on the projected area of the
curved surface on the vertical plane
= Force on BC
A = 2.5 x 1 = 2.5m 2
2.5
y= = 1.25 m
2

F =  w a t e r A h c = 9810 x 2.5 x 1.25 = 30656 N = 30.656kN

2 5
This will act at a distance h = × 2.5 = m from the free surface of liquid AC
3 3
Vertical Force F y
Fy= Wei ght of water (imaginary) supported by AB
=  w a t e r x Area of ACBx Length of gate
π × 2 .5 2
= 9810 x x1= 48154N=48.154kN
4
4 × 2.5
This will act at a distance x = = 1.061 m from CB
3π
The Resultant force Fx
F= Fx2 + Fy2 = 30 .656 2 + 48 .154 2 = 57 .084 kNand its 
Fy F
inclination is given by
1
Fy 1 48.154
α = tan = tan = 57.51o
Fx 30.656
Problems
1. A square tank with 2 m sides and 1.5 m hi gh contains water to a depth of 1 m
and a liquid of specific gravit y 0.8 on the
water to a depth of 0.5 m. Find the
magnitude and location of hydrostatic
pressure on one face of tank.
S= 1.00
Solution:
yw = 1.5 m
The problem can be solved by Pw
considering hydrostatic pressure yw/3
distribution diagram for water as shown in
Fi g.From hydrostatic law, the pressure  g Syw
intensit y p at any depth y w is given by p = So g yw
where is the mass densit y of the liquid
Pressure force P = p x Area
P w = 1000 x 10 x 2.0 x 1.5 x 1.5 = 45 kN ()
Acting at 1.5/3=0.5 m from the base

2. A rectangular tank 10 m x 5 m and 3.25 m deep is divided by a partition wall

parallel to the shorter wall of the tank. One of the compartments contains water
to a depth of 3.25 m and the other oil of specific gravit y 0.85 to a depth of 2 m.
Find the resultant pressure on the partition.
Solution:
S= 1.00
yw = 3.25 m
Pw So=0.85
yw/3 Po yo = 2 m
yo/3
 g So yo
 g Syw
The problem can be solved by considering hydrostatic pressure distribution
diagram for both water and oil as shown in Fig.
From hydrostatic law, the pressure intensity p at any depth y w is given by
p = So g yw
where is the mass densit y of the liquid
Pressure force P = p x Area
P w = 1000 x 10 x 3.25 x 5 x 3.25 = 528.125 kN ()
Acting at 3.25/3 m from the base
P o = 0.85 x 1000 x 10 x 2.0 x 5 x 2.0 = 200 kN ()
Acting at 2/3 m from the base.
Net Force P = P w – P o = 528.125 – 200.0 = 328.125 kN ()
Location:
Let P act at a distance y from the base. Taking moments of P w ,P o and P about
the base, we get
P x y = P w x y w /3 – P o x y o /3
328.125 y = 528.125 x (3.25/3) – 200 x (2/3) or y = 1.337 m .

3. Determine the total force and location of centre of pressure for a circular
plate of 2 m dia immersed verticall y in water with its top edge 1.0 m below the
water surface
Solution:
  D 2   22 1.0 m
A =   3.142 m y=2m
4 4 h
Assume G
 = 1000 kg/m and g = 10 m/s
3 2
2.0 m C
We know that the total pressure force B is given by
P = S o gA y = 1000 x 10 x 3.142 x 2 = 62.83 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h y
Ay
 R 4   14
Ig    0.785 m 4
4 4
0.785
h  2  2.125 m
3.142  2
4. A rectangular plate 2 m x 3 m is immersed in oil of specific gravit y 0.85 such

that its ends are at depths 1.5 m and 3 m respectivel y. Determine the total
pressure acting on the plate and locate it.
Solution:
C1 G1
A = 2 x 3 = 6 m2

S o = 0.85 1.5 m
3m A
A1
G
C
B
Assume
 = 1000 kg/m 3
g = 10 m/s 2
y = GG 1
h = CC 1
Sin  = 1.5 / 3 = 0.5
 = 30 o
GG 1 = G 1 A 1 + A 1 G = G 1 A 1 + AG Sin 
GG 1 = 1.5 + (3/2) Sin 30 = 2.25 m
P = S o gA y = 0.85 x 1000 x 10 x 6 x 2.25 = 114.75 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h y sin 2 
Ay
b d 3 2  33
Ig    4 .5 m 4
12 12
4 .5
h  2.25  sin 2 30  2.33 m
6  2.25
5. A Circular plate with a concentric hole is immersed in water in such a wa y

that its greatest and least depth below water surface are 4 m and 1.5 m
respectivel y. Determine the total pressure on the plate and locate it if the
diameter of the plate and hole are 3 m and 1.5 m respectivel y.
C1 G1
1.5 m 
Solution:
A
4m A1
Assume
 = 1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2 G
C
 2 
A
4
   
D  d 2  32  1.52  5.3014 m 2
4
y = GG 1
h = CC 1
Sin  = 2.5 / 3 = 0.833 and  = 30 o
GG 1 = G 1 A 1 + A 1 G = G 1 A 1 + AG Sin 
GG 1 = 1.5 + (3/2) 0.833 = 2.75 m
P = S o gA y = 1000 x 10 x5.3014 x 2.75 = 144.7885 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h y sin 2 
Ay
 4 
Ig 
4
   
R  r 4  1.54  0.754  3.728 m 4
4
3.728
h  2.75  sin 2 30  2.814 m
5.3014  2.75
6. A circular plate of dia 0.75 m is immersed in a liquid of relative densit y of

0.8 with its plane making an angle of 30 o with the horizontal. The centre of the
plate is at a depth of 1.5 m below the free surface. Calculate the total force on
one side of the plate and location of centre of pressure.
Solution: C1 G1
Assume 30o
 = 1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2 1.5 m A1 A
S o = 0.80
G
C 1.5 m
 D 2   1 .5 2
A   1.767 m 2
4 4
y = GG 1
h = CC 1
 = 30 o
GG 1 = G 1 A 1 + A 1 G = G 1 A 1 + AG Sin 
GG 1 = 1.5 + (3/2) 0.833 = 2.75 m
P = S o gA y = 0.8 x 1000 x 10 x 1.767 x 2.75 = 38.874 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h y sin 2 
Ay
 R 4   0.75 4
Ig    0.2485 m 4
4 4
0.2485
h  2.75  sin 2 30  2.763 m
1.767  2.75
7. A vertical gate closes a circular tunnel of 5 m diameter running full of water,

the pressure at the bottom of the gate is 0.5 MPa. Determine the hydrostatic
force and the position of centre of pressure.
Solution:Assume  = 1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2
50 m
5m G

Pressure intensit y at the bottom of the gate is = p =S o gy

Where y is the depth of point from the free surface.
0.5 x 10 6 = 1000 x 10 x y
y = 50 m
Hence the free surface of water is at 50 m from the bottom of the gate
 D 2   52
A   19.635 m 2
4 4
y = OG= 50 - 2.5 = 47.5 m
P = S o gA y = 1000 x 10 x 19.635 x 47.5 =9326.625 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h y
Ay
 R 4   2 .5 4
Ig    30.68 m 4
4 4
30.68
h  47.5   47.533 m
19.635  47.5
i.e. 50.0 – 47.533 = 2.677 m from the bottom of the gate or tunnel.
8. Find the horizontal and vertical component of force and its point of
application due to water per meter length of the gate AB having a quadrant
shape of radius 2 m shown in Fi g. Find also the resultant force in magnitude and
direction.
Solution:
A O
Assume
R=2m
 = 1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2
R = 2 m, Width of gate = 1 m
B
Horizontal force F x
F x = Force on the projected area of the curved
surface on the vertical plane

= Force on BO = P = S o gA y
A = 2 x 1 = 2 m2
2
y 1m
2
F x = 1000 x 10 x 2 x 1 = 20 kN
2 4
This will act at a distance h   2  m from the free surface of liquid
3 3
Vertical Force F y
Fy= Wei ght of water (imaginary) supported by AB
= S o g x Area of AOBx Length of gate
  22
= 1000 x 10 x x1= 31.416 kN
4
4 2
This will act at a distance x   0.848 m from OB
3
Resultant force F  Fx2  Fy2  202  31.4262  37.25 Fx


kNand its inclination is given by
Fy F
F   31.426 
  tan 1  y   tan 1    57.527 o
 x
F  20 
9. A cylinder holds water in a channel as shown in Fi g. Determine the wei ght of
1 m length of the cylinder.
Solution: C Radius of
cylinder=2 m
Radius of C ylinder = R = 2m
D O A
Length of cylinder = 1 m Fx W
Wei ght of C ylinder = W Water in a
channel Fy
Horizontal force exerted by water= F x B
F x = Force on vertical area BOC

= S o gA y = 1000 x 10 x (4x 1)x (2/2) = 40 kN ()
The vertical force exerted by water = F y = Wei ght of water enclosed in
BDCOB
 2 
2
F y = S o g   xL=1000x10x3.142=31.416kN ()
 4 

For equilibrium of the cylinder the weight of the cylinder must be equal to the
force exerted by the water on the cylinder. Hence, the wei ght of the cylinder is
31.416 kNper meter length.
10. Fig. shows the cross section of a tank full of water under pressure. The
length of the tank is 2 m. An empt y cylinder lies along the length of the tank on
one of its corner as shown. Find the resultant force acting on the curved surface
of the cylinder.
20kPa
Solution: A
R=1m
R=1 m 1.5m B
C
L = 2 m
p = gh = 1000 x 10x h = 20x 10 3
h = 2 m
For this pressure, the free surface should be 2 m
above A
Horizontal com ponent of force F x
F x = S o gA y
A = 1.5x 2.0 = 3 m 2
1.5
y  2  2.75 m
2
F x = 1000 x 10 x 3.0x 2.75 = 82.5 kN ()
The vertical force exerted by water = F y
F y = Wei ght of water enclosed in ABC
= Wei ght of water enclosed in CODEABC
= Wei ght of water enclosed in ( CODFBC – AEFB)
But Wei ght of water enclosed in CODFBC

= Wei ght of water enclosed in ( COB+ODFBO)
 R 2     12 
= g  BO  OD  2  1000  10   1  2.5  2  65.708 kN
 4   4 
Wei ght of water inAEFB = S o g[Area of AEFB]x 2.0
= S o g[Area of (AEFG+AGBH-AHB]x 2.0
sin  = AH/AO = 0.5/1.0 = 0.5.  = 30 o

BH = BO – HO = 1.0 – AO cos  = 1.0 – 1 x cos 30 o = 0.134

Area ABH = Area ABO – Area AHO
30 AH  HO 1 0.5  0.866
= R 2      12    0.0453
360 2.0 12 2.0
Wei ght of water in AEFB = 1000x10[AExAG+AGxAH–0.0453]x0.2
= 1000x10[2.0x0.134+0.134x0.5–.0453]x0.2
= 5794 N
F y =65708 – 5794 = 59914 N (Ans)
11. Calculate the resultant water pressure on the tainter gate of radius 8 m and
width unit y as shown in Fi g.
Solution:
Horizontal com ponent of force F x R=8m
C D O
F x = S o gA y 30o
DB = OBsin 30 = 8 x 0.5 = 4.0 m B

2
A = 4x 1.0 = 4 m
4
y  2m
2
F x = 1000 x 10 x 4.0x 2.0 = 80.0 kN ()
The vertical force exerted by water = F y
F y = Wei ght of water enclosed in CDBC
= Wei ght of water enclosed in ( CDOBC – DOB)
 30 BD  DO   1 4.0  8.8 cos 30 
= S o g R 2    1000  10   8  12 
2
  15.13 kN
 360 2.0   2 .0 
Resultant force F  Fx2  Fy2  80 2  15.132  81.418 kN Fx

kNand its inclination is given by
Fy F
 Fy  15.13 
  tan 1    tan 1    10.71o
 Fx   80 
12. A 3.6 m x 1.5 m wide rectangular gate MN
y
is vertical and is hinged at point 150 mm h
6m
below the centre of gravit y of the gate. The
3.6m
Fx
0.15m
F
total depth of water is 6 m. What horizontal force must be applied at the bottom
of the gate to keep the gate closed?
Solution:
Total pressure acting on the gate is F x
F x = S o gA y
= 1000 x 10 x (3.6 x 1.5) x (6-3.6/2)
= 226.8 kN
Acting at
Ig
h y
Ay
b d 3 1 .5  3 .6 3
Ig    5.832 m 4
12 12
5.832
h  4 .2   4.457 m
5 .4  4 .2
Let Fbe the force applied at the bottom of the gate required to retain the gate in
equilibrium.
From the conditions of equilibrium, taking moments about the hinge, we get
F (1.8 – 0.15) = Fx [4.457-(4.2+0.15)]
F = 14.707 kN (Ans).

UNIT-4 KINEMATICS OF FLOW
4.0 Introduction:Fluid kinematics refers to the features of a fluid in motion. It

onl y deals with the motion of fluid particles without taking into account the
forces causing the motion. Considerations of velocit y, acceleration, flow rate,
nature of flow and flow visualization are taken up under fluid kinematics.
A fluid motion can be anal yzed by one of the two alternative approaches,
called Lagrangian and Eulerian.
In Lagrangian approach, a particle or a fluid element is identified and
followed during the course of its motion wi th time as demonstrated in
Final time
Initial time
Fig. 1 Lagrangian Approach (Study of each particle with time)

Fig. 2 Eulerian Approach (Study at fixed station in space)
Example: To know the attributes of a vehicle to be purchased, you can follo w

the specific vehicle in the traffic flow all along its path over a period of time.
Difficult y in tracing a fluid particle (s) makes it nearl y impossible to appl y the
Lagrangian approach. The alternative approach, called Eulerian approach
consists of obse rving the fluid by setting up fixed stations (sections) in the flow
field (Fig. 2).
Motion of the fluid is specified by velocit y components as functions of

space and time. This is considerabl y easier than the previous approach and is
followed in Fluid Me chanics.
Example: Observing the variation of flow properties in a channel like velocit y,

depth etc, at a section.

4.1 Classification of Flows:
4.1.1 Steady and unsteady flows:
A flow is said to be steady if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow do not
change with time (t) at any section or point in a fluid flow.

P   0
t
A flow is said to be unsteady if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow change
with time (t) at any section or point in a fluid flow.

P   0
t
Example: Flow observed at a dam section during rainy season, wherein, there
will be lot of inflow with which the flow properties like depth, velocity etc.. will
change at the dam section over a period of time representing it as unsteady flow.
4.1.2. Uniform and non-uniform flows:
A flow is said to be uniform if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow do not
change (with direction) over a length of flow considered along the flow at any

instant. P   0
x
A flow is said to be non-uniform if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow
change (with direction) over a length of flow considered along the flow at any
instant.

P   0
x
Example Flow observed at any instant, at the dam section during rainy season,
wherein, the flow varies from the top of the overflow section to the foot of the

dam and the flow properties like depth, velocit y etc. , will change at the dam
section at any instant bet ween two sections, representing it as non -uniform flow.
1 2 3
y3 5
y1 y2
v1 v2 v3 4
y5 v5
v y4
v44
Fig. 3 Different types of fluid flow

Consider a fluid flow as shown above in a channel. The flow is said to be steady
at sections 1 and 2 as the flow does not change with respect to time at the
respective sections ( y 1 =y 2 and v 1 =v 2 ).
The flow between sections 1 and 2 is said to be uniform as the properties does
not change between the sections at any instant ( y 1 =y 2 andv 1 = v 2 ).
The flow between sections 2 and 3 is said to be non -uniform flow as the
properties vary over the length between the sections.
Non-uniform flow can be further classified as Gradually varied flow and

Rapidly varied flow . As the name itself indicates, Gradually varied flow is a
non-uniform flow wherein the flow/fluid properties vary graduall y over a long
length (Example between sections 2 and 3).
Rapidly varied flow is a non-uniform flow wherein the flow/fluid properties
vary rapidl y within a very short distance. ( Example between sections 4 and 5).
Combination of steady and unsteady flows and uniform and non -uniform flows
can be classified as steady-uniform flow (Sections 1 an d 2), unsteady-uniform
flow, steady-non-uniform flow (Sections 2 and 3) and unsteady-non-uniform
flow (Sections 4 and 5).

4.1.3. One, Two and Three Dim ensional flows:

Flow is said to be one-dim ensional if the properties vary only along one axis /
direction and will be constant with respect to other two directions of a three -
dimensional axis s ystem.
Flow is said to be two-dim ensional if the properties vary onl y along two axes /
directions and will be constant with respect to other direction of a thr ee-
dimensional axis s ystem.
Flow is said to be three-dim ensional if the properties vary along all the axes /
directions of a three -dimensional axis s ystem.
s
Fi g. 4 a) One dimensional flow
y
Fi g. 4 b) Two dimensional flow
x
z
Fi g. 4 c) Three dimensional flow
4.1.4. Lam inar and Turbulent flows:

When the flow occurs like sheets or laminates and the fluid elements flowing in
a layer does not mix with other layers, then the flow is said to be laminar. The
Reynoldsnumber (R e ) for the flow will be less than 2000.
vD
Re 

Velocity
x
Fi g. 5 Laminar flow
When the flow velocity increases, the sheet like flow gets m ixes with other
layer and the flow of fluid elem entsbecom e random causing turbulence. There
will be eddy currents generated and flow reversal takes place. This flow is said
to be Turbulent. The Reynolds number for the flow will be greater than 4000.For
flows with Reynolds number between 2000 to 4000 is said to be transition flow.
4.1.5. Com pressible and Incom pressibl e flows:

Flow is said to be Incom pressible if the fluid densit y does not change (constant)
along the flow direction and is Com pressible if the fluid densit y varies along
the flow direction
 Constant (incompressible) and  Constant (compressible )
4.1.6. Rotational and Irrotational flows:

Flow is said to be Rotational if the fluid elements does not rotate about their
own axis as they move along the flow and is Rotational if the fluid elements
rotate along their axis as they move along the flow direction
y y
Fluid
Motion
x x
Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBITFig. 6 a) Irrotational flow Page 106
z z
y y
Fluid
Rate of flow or Discharge (Q):

Rate of flow or discharge is said to be the quantit y of fluid flowing per second
across a section of a flow. Rate of flow can be expressed as mass rate of flow or
volume rate of flow. Accordingl y
Mass rate of flow = Mass of fluid flowing across a section / time
Rate of flow = Volume of fluid flowing across a section / time
4.3 Path line, Streamline, Streak line and Stream tube

Path Line: It is the path traced by a fluid particle over a period of time during
its motion along the fluid flow.
t=0 P
t=t
P
Fig. 7 Path line

Example Path traced by an ant coming out from its dwelling
Stream Lines
It is an imaginary line such that when a tangent is drawn at any point it gives
the velocit y of the fluid particle at that point and at that instant.
Fig. 8 Stream lines

Example Path traced by the flow when an obstruction like a sphere or a stick is
kept during its motion. The flow breaks up before the obstruction and joins after
it crosses it.

Streak lines
It is that imaginary line that connects all the fluid particles that has gone
through a point/section over a period of time in a fluid motion.
1 4
2 5 8
3
9
7
6
10
t = 10
Fig. 9 Streak lines
Stream tube:
It is an imaginary tube formed by stream line on its surface such that the flow
onl y enters the tube from one side and leaves it on the other side onl y. No flow
takes place across the stream tube. This concept will help in the anal ysis of
fluid motion.
Stream lines
Fi g. 11Stream tube

4.2 Continuity Equation

The derivation is b ased on the concept of Law of conservation of mass.
Statement: The flow of fluid in a continuous flow across a section is always a

constant.
Consider an enlarging section in a fluid flow of fluid densit y . Consider two
sections 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. Let the sectional properties be as under
Fluid flow
2
1 x
dx
Fi g. 13 Fluid flow through a control volume
A 1 and A 2 = Cross-sectional area, V 1 and V 2 = Average flow velocit y and
 1 and  2 = Fluid densit y at Sec 1 and 2 respectivel y
dt is the time taken for the fluid to cover a distance dx
The mass of fluid flowing across section 1 -1 is given by

m 1 = Density at section 1 x volum e of fluid that has crossed section 1
 1 x A 1 x dx
Mass rate of fluid flowing across section 1 -1 is given by
m 1 /dt = (Density at sec 1 x volum e of fluid that has crossed sec 1)/dt
 1 x A 1 x dx/dt =  1 A 1 V 1 …(01)
Similarl y Mass rate of fluid flowing across section 2 -2 is given by
m 2 /dt =  2 x A 2 x dx/dt =  2 A 2 V 2 …(02)
From law of conservation of mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
Henc, from Eqs. 1 and 2, we get

1A1V1 = 2A2V2
If the densit y of the fluid is constant, then the equation reduces to
A1V1 = A2V2
The above equations discharge continuity equation in one dimensional form for
an steady, incompressible fluid flow.
Continuity Equation in three dim ensional or differential form
Consider a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH in a fluid flow of densit y  as shown in

Fi g. Let the dimensions of the parallelepiped be dx, dy and dz along x, y and z
directions respectively. Let the velocit y components along x, y and z be u, v
andw respectivel y.
D H
A
E
v
dy
G
C u x
w dz
F
B
dx
z
Fig. 14 parallelepiped in a fluid flow
Mass rate of fluid flow entering the section ABCD along x direction is given by
 x Area x flow velocity
M x1   u dy dz …(01)
Similarl y mass rate of fluid flow leaving the section EFGH along x direction is
given by

  
M x 2    u   u  dx  dy dz …(02)
 x 
Net gain in mass rate of the fluid along the x axis is given by the difference
between the mass rate of flow entering and leaving the cont rol volume. i.e. Eq.
1 – Eq. 2
  
dM x   u dy dz    u   u  dx dy dz
 x 

dM x    u  dx dy dz …(03)
x
Similarl y net gain in mass rate of the fluid along the y and z axes are given by

dM y    vdx dy dz …(04)
y

dM z    w  dx dy dz …(05)
z
Net gain in mass rate of the fluid from all the threeaxes are given by

dM    u dx dy dz    vdx dy dz    w dx dy dz
x y z
From law of conservation of Mass, the net gain in mass rate of flow should be zero and hence
    
 x  u   y  v   z  w  dx dy dz  0
 
    
or  x  u   y  v   z  w   0
 
This expression is known as the general Equation of Continuity in three dimensional form or
differential form.
If the fluid is incompressible then the density is constant and hence
 u  v  w 
 x  y  z   0
 
The continuity equation in two-dimensional form for compressible and incompressible flows is
respectively as below

   
 x  u   y  v    0
 
 u  v 
 x  y   0
 
4.3 Velocity:
Velocit y of a fluid along any direction can be defined as the rate of change of
displacement of the fluid along that direction.
u = dx / dt
Where dxis the distance traveled by the fluid in time dt.
Velocit y of a fluid element is a vector , which is a function of space and time.
Let V be the resultant velocit y of a fluid along any direction and u, v and w be
the velocit y components in x, y and zdirections respectivel y.
Mathematicall y the velocit y components can be written as
u = f ( x, y, z, t )
v = f ( x, y, z, t )
w = f ( x, y, z, t )
u 2  v2  w 2
and V = ui + vj + wk =
Whereu = (dx/dt), v = (dy/dt) and w = (dz/dt).
4.4 Acceleration
Acceleration of a fluid element along any direction can be defined as the rate of
change of velocit y of the fluid along that direction.
If a x , a y anda z are the components of acceleration along x, yandzdirections
respectivel y, they can be mathematicall y written as
a x = du/ dt.
But u = f (x, y, z, t) and hence by chain rule, we can write,
u dx u dy u dz u
ax    
x dt y dt z dt t
Similarly
v dx v dy v dz v
ay    
w dx w dy w dz w
a z Engineering,
Dept of Civil  
SJBIT  Page 112
and
But u = (dx/dt), v= (dy/dt)and w = (dz/dt).

Hence
Local accln
Convective accln
u u u u
ax  u v w 
x y z t
v v v v
ay  u  v  w  Total accln
x y z t
w w w w
az  u v w 
x y z t
If A is the resultant acceleration vector, it is given by A  axi  a y j  az k
For steady flow, the local acceleration will be zero  a x2  a y2  a z2
Problems
1. The velocity field in a fluid is given by
 
Vs  3 x  2 y i  2 z  3 x 2 j  2t  3 z k
i. What are the velocity components u, v, and w ?
ii. Determine the speed at the point (1,1,1).
iii. Determine the speed at time t=2 s at point (0,0,2).
 
u  3 x  2 y , v  2 z  3 x 2 , w  2t  3 z k
Solution:The velocity components at any point (x, y, z) are
Substitute x=1, y=1, z=1 in the above expression
u = (3*1+2*1) = 5, v = (2*1+3*1) = 5, w = (2t-3)
V2 = u2 + v2 + w2
= 52 + 52 + (2t-3)2

V1,1,1  4t 2  12t  59 
= 4 t 2 – 12 t + 59
Substitute t = 2 s, x=0, y=0, z=2 in the above expression for u, v and w
u = 0, v = (4 + 0) = 4, w = (4 – 6) = -2

V 2(0,0,2,2) = (0 + 15 + 4) = 20
V = 4.472 units
2. The velocity distribution in a three-dimensional flow is given by:

u = - x, v = 2y and w = (3-z). Find the equation of the stream line that passes through point
(1,1,1).
dx dy dz dx dy dz
  or  
u v w  x 2 y 3  z 
dx dy

 x 2y
Solution: The stream line equation is given by
Integrating we get
Where A is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & y=1, A = 0
Considering the x and z components,
1 1
 log e x 1 log e y 2 or x 
 log e x  log e y  A, y
2
 log e x   log e 3  z   B,
Integrating we get
dx dy

 x 3  z 
Where B is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & z=1, B = log e 2
 3 z 
  log e x   log e 3 - z   log e 2   log e  
 2 
 3 z 
or x   
 2 

From Eqs. 1 and 2, the final equation of the stream line that passes through the point (1,1,1) is
1  3 z 
x  
y  2 
t2 ty 2 z
u ,v  ,w 
2x 18 2t
3. A fluid particle moves in the following flow field starting from the points (2,1,0) at t=0.
Determine the location of the fluid particle at t = 3 s
Solution
Integrating we get
dx t 2
u  or 2 xdx  t 2 dt
dt3 2 x
t
x  3 A
2
3t
x2   4
3
Where A is an integral constant. Substituting x=2, t=0, A = 4
Integrating we get
33
x2   4  13
3
dy ty 2 dy tdt
v  or 2 
dt 18 y 18
1 t2
  B
y 36
Where B is an integral constant.
1 t2
 1
y 36
Substituting y=1, t=0, B = -1
dz z 2dz dt
w  or 
dt 2 2t z t
At t = 3 s, 1 3 3 4
 1  or y 
y 36 4 3
Integrating we get

2 log e z  log e t  C
Where C is an integral constant.
2 log e z  log e t or z 2  t
Substituting z=0, t=0, C = 0
At t = 3 s,
z 2  3 or z  3
From Eqs. 1, 2 and 3, at the end of 3 seconds the particle is at a point
 4 
 13 , , 3 
 3 
4. The following cases represent the two velocity components, determine the third component of
velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation:
(i) u = x2 + y2 + z2 ; v = xy2 - yz2 + xy; (ii) v = 2y2 ; w = 2xyz.
Solution:
The continuity equation for incompressible flow is given by
[( u/ x)+(v/ y) +(w/ z)] = 0 …(01)
u = x2 + y2 + z2; ( u/ x) = 2x
v = xy2 - yz2 + xy; (v/ y) = 2xy - z2 + x
2x + 2xy – z2 + z + (w/ z) = 0
Rearranging and integrating the above expression, we get
w = (-3xz – 2xyz + z3/3) + f(x,y)
Similarly, solution of the second problem
u = -4xy – x2y2 + f(y,z).
5. Find the convective acceleration at the middle of a pipe which converges uniformly from 0.4
m to 0.2 m diameter over a length of
2 m. The rate of flow is 20 lps. If the rate of flow changes uniformly from 20 lps to 40 lps in 30
seconds, find the total acceleration at the middle of the pipe at 15th second.
Solution:
D1 = 0.4 m, D2 = 0.2 m, L = 2 m, Q = 20 lps = 0.02 m3/s.
Q1 = 0.02 m3/s and Q2 = 0.04 m3/s

Case (i)
Flow is one dimensional and hence the velocity components v = w = 0

Convective acceleration = u( u /x) 1
A1 = (/4)(D12) = 0.1257 m2 2
2 2
A2 = (/4)(D2 ) = 0.0314 m 0.4 m 0.2 m
u1 = Q/A1 = 0.02/0.1257 = 0.159 m/s
A x
and u2 = Q/A2 = 0.02/0.0314 = 0.637 m/s
2m
As the diameter changes uniformly, the velocity will also
change uniformly. The velocity u at any distance x from
inlet is given by
u = u1 + (u2 – u1)/(x/L) = 0.159 + 0.2388 x
( u /x) = 0.2388
Convective acceleration = u( u /x) = (0.159 + 0.2388 x) 0.2388
At A, x = 1 m and hence
(Convective accln) x = 1 = 94.99 mm/s2
Case (ii)
Total acceleration = (convective + local ) acceleration at t =15 seconds
Rate of flow Qt= 15 = Q1 + (Q2 – Q1)(15/30) = 0.03 m3/s.
u1 = Q/A1 = 0.03/0.1257 = 0.2386 m/s
and u2 = Q/A2 = 0.03/0.0314 = 0.9554 m/s
The velocity u at any distance xfrom inlet is given by
u = u1 + (u2 – u1)/(x/L) = 0.2386 + 0.3584 x
( u /x) = 0.3584
Convective acceleration= u( u /x) = (0.2386 + 0.3584 x) 0.3584
At A, x = 1 m and hence
(Convective accln)x = 1 = 0.2139 m/s 2
Local acceleration
Diameter at A is given by D = D1 + (D1 – D2)/(x/L) = 0.3 m
and A = (/4)(D2) = 0.0707 m2
When Q1 = 0.02 m3/s, u1 = 0.02/0.0707 = 0.2829 m/s

When Q2 = 0.04 m3/s, u2 = 0.02/0.0707 = 0.5659 m/s
Rate of change of velocity = Change in velocity/time
= (0.5629-0.2829)/30 = 9.43 x 10 -3m/s 2
Total acceleration = 0.2139 + 9.43 x 10 -3 = 0.2233 m/s2
Velocity Potential ()
Velocity Potential is a scalar function of space and timesuch that its negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the velocity component in that direction
Thus  =  (x,y,z,t) and flow is steady then,
u = -( / x); v = -( / y) ; w = -( / z)
Continuity equation for a three dimensional fluid flow is given by

[( u/ x)+(v/ y) +(w/ z)] = 0
Substituting for u, v and w, we get
[( / x)(- / x)+( / y)(- / y) +( / z) (- / z)] = 0
i.e. [(2 / x2)+(2/ y2)+(2 / z2)] = 0
The above equation is known as Laplace equation in
For a 2 D flow the above equation reduces to
[(2 / x2)+(2/ y2)] = 0
We know that for an irrotational two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational fluid elements about z
axis must be zero.
i.e. z = ½ [(v/ x) - ( u/ y)]
Substituting for u andv, we get
Wz= ½ [( / x)(- / y) - ( / y)(- / x)]
For the flow to be irrotational, the above component must be zero
z= ½ [ (- 2 / x  y) - (- 2 /  y  x)] = 0
i.e. (-2 / x  y) = (-2 /  y  x)

This is true only when is a continuous function and exists.

Thus the properties of a velocity potential are:
1. If the velocity potential  exists, then the flow should be irrotational.
2. If the velocity potential satisfies the Laplace Equation, then it representsa possible case
of a fluid flow.
Stream Function ()
Stream Function is a scalar function of space and timesuch that its partial derivative with
respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction.
Thus =  (x,y,z,t) and flow is steady then,
u = -( / y); v = ( / x)
Continuity equation for a two dimensional fluid flow is given by
[( u/ x)+(v/ y)] = 0
Substituting for u and v, we get
[( / x)(- / y)+( / y)( / x)] = 0
i.e. [ (-2 / x  y) + (2 /  y  x)] = 0
or (2 / x  y) = (2 /  y  x)
This is true only when is a continuous function.
We know that for an irrotational two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational fluid elements about z
axis must be zero.
i.e. z = ½ [( v/ x) - ( u/ y)]
Substituting for u and v, we get
z = ½ [( / x)( / x) - ( / y)(- / y)]
For the flow to be irrotational, the above component must be zero
i.e. [(2 / x2)+(2/ y2)] = 0
The above equation is known asLaplace equation in
Thus the properties of a Stream function are:
1. If the Stream function  exists, then it represents a possible case of a fluid flow.

2. If the Stream function satisfies the Laplace Equation, then the flow should be
irrotational.
Equi-potential lines:
It is an imaginary line along which the velocity potential is a constant
i.e.  = Constant
 d = 0
But  = f (x,y) for a two dimensional steady flow
 d = ( / x)dx + ( / y)dy
Substituting the values of u and v, we get
d = – u dx – v dy  0
or u dx = – v dy
or (dy/dx) = – u/v … (01)
Where dy/dx is the slope of the equi-potential line.
Line of constant stream function or stream line

It is an imaginary line along which the stream function is a constant
i.e.  = Constant
 d=0
But  = f (x,y) for a two dimensional steady flow
 d  = ( / x)dx + ( / y)dy
Substituting the values of u and v, we get
d  = v dx – u dy  0
or v dx = u dy
or (dy/dx) = v/u … (02)
Where dy/dx is the slope of the Stream line.
From Eqs. 1 and 2, we get that the product of the slopes of equi-potential line and stream line is
given by -1. Thus, the equi-potential lines and stream lines are orthogonal to each other at all the
points of intersection.

4.7 Flow net& its Applications:

A grid obtained by drawing a series of equi-potential lines and stream lines is called a Flow net.
The flow net is an important tool in analysing two dimensional flow irrotational flow problems.
A grid obtained by drawing a series of streamlines () and equipotential () lines is known as
flow net. The construction of flow net (- lines) is restricted by certain conditions
 The flow should be two dimensional
 The flow should be steady
 The flow should be Irrotational
 The flow is not governed by gravity force
Uses of Flow net

To determine
• The streamlines and equipotential lines
• Quantity of seepage, upward lift pressure below the hydraulic structures (dam, gate, locks
etc.)
• Velocity and pressure distribution, for given boundaries of flow
• To design streamlined structure
• Flow pattern near well

Methods of Drawing flow net

• Analytical Method
• Graphical Method
• Electrical Analogy Method
• Hydraulic Models
• Relaxation Method
• Hele Shaw or Viscous Analogy Method
Relationship between Stream function () and Velocity potential ()
We know that the velocity components are given by
u = - ( / x) v = -( / y)
and u = - ( / y) v = ( / x)
Thus u = - ( / x) = - ( / y) and v = -( / y) = ( / x)
Hence ( / x) = ( / y)
and ( / y) = - ( / x)

Problems
6. In a two dimensional incompressible flow the fluid velocity components are given by
u = x – 4y and v = -y – 4x
Where u and v are x and y components of velocity of flow. Show that the flow satisfies the
continuity equation and obtain the expression for stream function. If the flow is potential, obtain
also the expression for the velocity potential. (07)
Solution:
u = x – 4y and v = -y – 4x
( u / x) = 1 and (v / y) = -1
( u / x)+ (v / y) = 1-1 = 0.
Hence it satisfies continuity equation and the flow is continuous and velocity potential exists.
Let be the velocity potential.
Then ( / x) = -u = - (x – 4y) = -x + 4y (1)
and ( / y) = -v = - (-y – 4x) = y + 4x (2)
Integrating Eq. 1, we get
 = (-x2/2) + 4xy + C (3)
Where C is an integral constant, which is independent of x and can be a function of y.
Differentiating Eq. 3 w.r.t. y, we get
( / y) = 0 + 4x + ( C / y)  y + 4x
Hence, we get ( C / y) = y
Integrating the above expression, we get C = y2/2
Substituting the value of C in Eq. 3, we get the general expression as
 = (-x2/2) + 4xy + y2/2
Stream Function
Let be the velocity potential.
Then ( / x) = v = (-y – 4x) = -y - 4x (4)
and ( / y) = u = -(x – 4y) = -x + 4y (5)
Integrating Eq. 4, we get
 = - y x - 4 (x2/2) + K (6)

Where K is an integral constant, which is independent of x and can be a function of y.

( / y) = - x – 0 + ( K / y)  -x + 4 y
Hence, we get ( K / y) = 4 y
Integrating the above expression, we get C = 4 y2/2 = 2 y2
Substituting the value of K in Eq. 6, we get the general expression as
 = - y x - 2 x2 + 2 y2
7. The components of velocity for a two dimensional flow are given by

u = x y; v = x2 – y2/2
Check whether (i) they represent the possible case of flow
and (ii) the flow is irrotational. (6)
Solution:
u = x y; and v = x2 – y2/2
( u / x) = y (v / y) = -y
( u / y) = x (v / x) = 2x
For a possible case of flow the velocity components
should satisfy the equation of continuity.
i.e. [( u/ x)+(v/ y)] = 0
Substituting, we get y – y = 0.
Hence it is a possible case of a fluid flow.
For flow to be irrotational in a two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational component in z
direction (z)must be zero, where
z = ½ [(v/ x) - ( u/ y)]=½ (2x - x)  0
Hence, the flow is not irrotational.
8. Find the components of velocity along x and y for the velocity potential  = a Cosxy.
Also calculate the corresponding stream function. (8)
Solution:

 = a Cosxy.
( / x) = -u = - ay Sin xy (1)
and ( / y) = -v = - ax Sin xy (2)
Hence u = ay Sin xy and v = ax Sin xy.
9. The stream function and velocity potential for a flow are given by
 = 2xy and  = x2 – y2
Show that the conditions for continuity and irrotational flow are satisfied
(8)
Solution:
From the properties of Stream function, the existence of stream function shows the possible case
of flow and if it satisfies Laplace equation, then the flow is irrotational.
(i)  = 2xy
( / x) = 2 y and ( / y) = 2 x
(2 / x2) = 0 and (2 / y2) = 0
(2 / x  y) = 2 and (2 / y  x) = 2
(2 / x  y) = (2 / y  x)
Hence the flow is Continuous.
(2 / x2) + (2 / y2) = 0
As it satisfies the Laplace equation, the flow is irrotational.
From the properties of Velocity potential,
the existence of Velocity potential shows the flow is irrotational and if it satisfies Laplace
equation, then it is a possible case of flow
(ii)  = x2 – y2
( / x) = 2 x and ( / y) = -2 y
(2 / x2) = 2 and (2 / y2) = -2
(2 / x  y) = 0 and (2/ y  x) = 0
(2 / x  y) = (2 / y  x)
Hence the flow is irrotational

(2 / x2) + (2 / y2) = 0

As it satisfies the Laplace equation, the flow is Continuous.
10. In a 2-D flow, the velocity components are u = 4y and v = -4x

i. is the flow possible ?
ii. if so, determine the stream function
iii. What is the pattern of stream lines ?
Solution:
For a possible case of fluid flow, it has to satisfy continuity equation.
i.e. [( u/ x)+(v/ y)] = 0 (1)
u = 4y and v = -4x
( u / x) = 0 (v / y) = 0
Substituting in Eq. 1, we get 0.
Hence the flow is possible.
Stream function
We know that ( / x) = v = - 4x (2)
and ( / y) = - u = - 4y (3)
 = - 2x2 + C(y) (4)
Where C is an integral constant and a function of y.
Differentiating Eq. 4, w.r.t. y, we get
( / y) = 0 +  C(y) / y = - u = - 4y
Integrating the above expression w.r.t. y we get
C(y) = -2y2.
Substituting the above value in Eq. 4, we get the general expression as
 = - 2x2 – 2y2 = - 2 (x2+ y2)
The above equation is an expression of concentric circles and hence the stream function is
concentric circles.
11. A 250 mm diameter pipe carries oil of specific gravity 0.9 at a velocity of 3 m/s. At another
section the diameter is 200 mm. Find the velocity at this section and the mass rate of flow of oil.
(6)
Solution:
D1 = 0.25 m; D2 = 0.2 m; So = 0.9; V1 = 3 m/s;  = 1000 kg/m3(assumed);
V2 = ?; Mass rate of flow = ?
From discharge continuity equation for steady incompressible flow, we have

Q = A1V1 = A2V2 (01)
A1 = (/4)D12 = (/4)0.25 2 = 0.0499 m2
A2 = (/4)D22 = (/4)0.20 2 = 0.0314 m2
Q = 0.0499 x 3 = 0.1473 m3/s
Mass rate of flow =  Q = 0.1479 x 1000 = 147.9 kg/m3 (Ans)
V2 = (A1 / A2) x V1 = (D1 / D2)2 x V1= (0.25/0.2)2x 3 = 4.6875 m/s (Ans)
12. A stream function in a two dimensional flow is  = 2 x y. Show that the flow is irrotational
and determine the corresponding velocity potential.
Solution:
For first part see Prob. 9.
Given  = 2 x y.
u = - (/ x) = -(/ y) = - 2 x (01)
v = - (/ y) = (/ x) = 2 y (02)
Integrating Eq. 1, w.r.t. x, we get
 = 2 x2/2 + C = x2 + C(y) (03)
Where C(y) is an integral constant independent of x
(/ y) = 0 + ( C(y) / y) = - 2 y
Integrating the above expression w.r.t. y, we get

C(y) = -y2
Substituting for C(y) in Eq. 3, we get the general expression for as
 = x2 + C = x2 - y2 (Ans)
13. The velocity potential for a flow is given by the function  = x2 - y2. Verify that the flow is
incompressible and determine the stream function.
Solution:
From the properties of velocity potential, we have that if satisfies Laplace equation, then the
flow is steady incompressible continuous fluid flow. (10)
Given  = x2 - y2
( / x) = 2 x ( / y) = -2 y
(2 / x2) = 2 (2 /2y) = -2
From Laplace Equation, we have (2 / x2) + (2 /2y) = 2 – 2 = 0.
Finding out the stream function for the above velocity potential is reverse procedure of Prob. 12
and the answer is  = 2 x y.

PART – B
UNIT- 5 DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW
5.0 Introduction: In the last unit, we studied the velocity and acceleration at a point in a fluid
flow, without taking into consideration the forces causing the flow. This chapter includes the
study of forces causing fluid flow. Thus dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with
the forces causing flow. The dynamics behavior of the fluid flow is analysed by the Newton’s
second law of motion, which relates the acceleration with the forces. The fluid is assumed to be
incompressible and non – viscous.
Fluid dynamics is that branch of fluid mechanics wherein we study the analysis of the fluid
motion along with the forces generating them.
The fluid motion is analysed by the Newton’s second law of motion, which states that the force
applied on a body along any direction is given by the rate of change of momentum along the
same direction.
The forces acting on the fluid can be classified as under:

1. Fg⇒ Gravity forces
2. FP⇒ Pressure forces
3. Fv⇒ Viscous forces
4. Ft⇒ Turbulent forces
5. Fe⇒ Elastic forces
6. Fc⇒ Compressibility forces
The net force acting along x direction is given by

Fx = (Fg )x + (FP )x + (Fv )x+ (Ft )x + (Fe )x + (Fc )x …………… (02)
Equations of motion
Reynolds equation of motion: In the equation of motion (Eq. 01), the force due to
compressibility is neglected and only forces due to gravity, pressure, viscosity and turbulence are
considered, and the resulting equation is termed as Reynolds equation of motion.
Navier-Stokes equation of motion: In the equation of motion (Eq. 01), the forces due to
compressibility and turbulence are neglected and only forces due to gravity, pressure and
viscosity are considered, the resulting equation is termed as Navier-Stokes equation of motion.
5.1 Euler’s equation of motion: In the equation of motion (Eq. 01), if the fluid is ideal, then the
forces due to compressibility, turbulence and viscosity are neglected and only forces due to
gravity and pressure are considered, the resulting equation is termed as Euler’s equation of
motion.
i.e. Fx = max = Fg + FP
Euler’s equation of motion: In the equation of motion (Eq. 01), if the fluid is ideal, then the
forces due to compressibility, turbulence and viscosity are neglected and only forces due to
gravity and pressure are considered, the resulting equation is termed as Euler’s equation of
motion.

i.e. Fx = max = Fg + FP
In the last unit, we studied the velocity and acceleration at a point in a fluid flow, without taking
into consideration the forces causing the flow. This chapter includes the study of forces causing
fluid flow. Thus dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with the forces causing flow.
The dynamics behavior of the fluid flow is analysed by the Newton’s second law of motion,
which relates the acceleration with the forces. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non
– viscous.
Euler’s Equation of motion: This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and
pressure are taken into consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid
element along a stream-line as :
Assumptions:
1. Only Gravitational and Pressure forces are considered
2. Fluid motion along a stream line is considered
3. Flow is steady & Incompressible
4. Flow is irrotational
5. Flow is in viscid (Zero Viscosity)
Consider a stream line along direction x as shown in Fig. Consider a cylindrical fluid element of
cross-sectional area dA and length ds along the stream line direction.
The forces acting on the fluid element are:
 The pressure force pdA along the flow direction s
 The pressure force [p+∂p]dA against the flow direction s
 Weight of the fluid element = ρg dA ds acting vertically downwards at an angle θ
with the vertical.Let ‘’ is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of
the weight of element.
 The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to the mass of
fluid element x acceleration in the direction s.

p dA   p  dp dA   g ds dACos   ds dA  a s
Where ‘as’is the acceleration in the direction of s. as= dV/dt, ‘V ’ i s a function of ‘s’and t.
dz dV
If the flow is steady, = 0, cos  and a s  V
ds ds
dV
 dp dA   g ds dACos    ds dA  V
ds
.On substituting and dividing the equation by ρgdA, we can obtain Euler's equation:
dp
 gdz  vdv  0  Eq.( A)

The above equation is known as Euler’s equation of motion.
5.2 Bernoulli) Equation - Derivation, Assumptions and Limitations
Integrating the EQ(A) the ‘total energy head’ H of the fluid is found by adding the three types of
mechanical energy possessed by the fluid at that point.
p v2
H  z
g 2g
As water flows between two points, or sections of a pipeline or channel, no energy can be
created or destroyed (fundamental law of physics concerning conservation of energy). If any
mechanical energy is converted into say heat energy through friction then it is lost to the
mechanical system and the ‘total energy head’ H is reduced.
The energy heads involved are measured in meters and can be represented as vertical distances
(heights) on an energy diagram.
Considering flow between 2-points labelled 1 and 2:
Bernoulli’s Equation for Ideal fluid flow: p1 v12 p 2 v 22
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
Bernoulli’s Equation for Real fluid flow:
H1  H 2  h f  h L
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
  z1    z2   hf   hL
g 2g g 2g
 p 
Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) =   Z 
L 

 p  v2
Energy Gradient Line (EGL) =   Z  
L  2g
Bernoulli Energy Diagram
N.B. Piezometric head = p/g + z = height to which water would rise in a piezometer tubeorked
Examples – Energy
Assumptions:
 Fluid motion along a stream line is considered
 Flow is steady & Incompressible
 Flow is irrotational
 Flow is inviscid (Zero Viscosity)
Limitations of Bernoulli’s Equation:

 Only Gravitational and Pressure forces are considered
 Flow is continuous and velocity is uniform over the section
Problems onBernoulli’s Equation:
1. Oil (S.G. = 0.85) at a pressure of 150 KN/m2 flows at a rate of 3m3/min through pipe A
(100mm diameter). A tapered section, 5m long, connects pipe A to pipe B (150mm diameter)
situated at a distance h below pipe A. If the pressure in pipe B is 180 KN/m2 and the energy loss
due to friction through the tapered section is 0.12m/m length, determine the distance h.
Solution:
Q1 0.1 4  0.1
v1     0.63 m s
  d1 4   0.45 4   0.45
2 2 2
Q2 4  0.1
v2    1.42 m s
 d2 4
2
  0.32

p1 v12 p v2
  z1  2  2  z 2  h f
g 2g g 2g
Let Z1 = 0, then Z2 = 10. Also h f  0.3 1  0.2  7  1.7m
p1 0.632 120  10 3 1.42 2

  0    10  1.7
10 3  9.81 2  9.81 10 3  9.81 2  9.81
p1  120  1.01  0.2  11.7  9.81  103 N / m 2  235.7 kN m 2 Velocity
3. A 500m long pipeline slopes upwards at 1 in 50 and changes from 450mm in diameter to
300mm in diameter 300m from its lower end. If the frictional head losses in the pipes are 1.0
and 7.0m/km length respectively and the pressure at the upper end is 120kN/m2, find the
pressure at the lower end when the flow rate in the pipeline is 100 l/s.
Solution:
2
Q1 0.1 4  0.1
v1     0.63 m s
  d1 2 4   0.45 4   0.45 2
2
Q2 4  0.1
v2    1.42 m s
 d2 4 2
  0.32
p1 v12 p v2 1
  z1  2  2  z 2  h f
g 2g g 2g
Let Z1 = 0, then Z2 = 10. Also h f  0.3 1  0.2  7  1.7m
p1 0.632 120  10 3 1.42 2

  0    10  1.7
10 3  9.81 2  9.81 10 3  9.81 2  9.81
p1  120  1.01  0.2  11.7  9.81  103 N / m 2  235.7 kN m 2

3. A horizontal pipeline is attached to the wall of reservoir (see figure). The pipeline has different
profiles. The water level in the upper reservoir is in the height H = 1.5 m above the pipeline axis.
From the lower end of the pipeline water flows out to the open space. Diameters and lengths of
pipeline reaches are: D1 = 0.24 m, L1 = 3 m, D2 = 0.1 m, L2 = 1 m, D3 = 0.12 m, L3 = 2 m.
Calculate discharge in the pipeline and draw the course of energy line (EL) and pressure line
(PL). Neglect losses (considerer the liquid to be ideal).
Solution
Bernoulli equation (BE) and continuity equation will be used to solve the problem. Using BE
to calculate discharge, it will be the most convenient to state the datum (reference) level at the
axis of the horizontal pipe, and to write then Bernoulli equation for the upper water level
(profile 0  pressure on the level is known - pa), and for the centre of outlet profile 3 (its
position, referred to the datum level, is h = 0). The upper reservoir can be considered to be large

(its dimensions are not mentioned because they have no importance) and the effect of approach
velocity Un can be therefore neglected.
Applying Bernoulli’s energy equation between ‘0’ and ‘3’ (Note: gauge pressure at 0 & 3 are zero)
U n2 U 32
H 0  00
2g 2g
U 3  2 gH  2  9.811.5  5.425 m / s
Discharge is calculated from the continuity equation


Q  0.12  5.425  0.06136 m 3 / s
2
4
The continuity equation will be used to estimate velocities in other pipe sections and
corresponding velocity heads  V 2  .
 2 g 
 
Q 0.06136
U1  
U
 1.356m / s ; Velocity head  1 
2
1.356  0.094m
2
 2  g 2  9.81
A1 0.242
4
U2 
Q 0.06136

2
U
 7.81m / s ; Velocity head  2 
7.81  3.111m
2
 2  g 2  9.81
A2 0.12
4
As diameters in the single reaches of the pipeline are constant, also velocities are constant in
these reaches. The energy line and pressure line therefore will be parallel and, because of
considering the liquid to be ideal, they will be horizontal. Then the BE can be written for 2
profiles - the first one situated in the water level of the upper reservoir, the second one e.g. in
some profile on the first reach of the pipe (static pressure there is still unknown):
Applying Bernoulli’s Energy equation between the points 0 and 1, we obtain gauge pressure at
section ‘1’

p1 U 12
H 00  0 
 g 2g
p1
1 .5   0.094
 g
 1.406 m of water  gauge 

p1
 g
Applying Bernoulli’s Energy equation between the points 0 and 2, we obtain gauge pressure at
section ‘2’
p U2
H 00  0 2  2
 g 2g
p
1.5  2  3.111
g
 1.611 m of water Vacuum pressure 

p1
g
In the outlet profile there is the atmospheric pressure. Both velocities and pressures are constant
in single reaches of pipeline, energy and pressure lines are therefore parallel, as mentioned. In
profiles, where the pipe diameters change, the pressure line changes its position suddenly.
Energy line and pressure line are seen on figure
1. A siphon pipe takes water from elevation of 110 m and discharges at elevation of 95 m . The
length of pipe is 1000 m , diameter is 15 cm . If the elevation of summit is 115 , find the discharge
and the pressure at summit if the friction factor = 0.008 & length of suction side = 300 m . (
neglected minor losses )
Solution : S yphon Pipe

5.3 Momentum equation:

It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on momentum principle, which states that
the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the rate of change of momentum of flow in that
direction. If the force acting on a mass of fluid m is Fxalong x direction, the net force along the
direction is given by Newton’s second law of motion as
Fx = m ax
Where axis the acceleration produced due to the force,Fxalong the same direction.
du
But ax 
dt
du d mu 
Hence Fx  max  m  (as m is constant for incompressible flow)
dt dt
The above equation is called momentum principle. The same equation can also be written as
Fx dt  d mu  which is known as impulse momentum principle and can be stated as “The
impulse of a force acting on a fluid of mass m in a short interval of time dtalong any direction is
given by the rate of change of momentum d(mu) along the same direction.
5.3.1 Force exerted by a Flowing fluid on a pipe Bend

V2Sin
Fy
2 V2
p2A2
V2Cos

1
p1A1 Fx
p2A2Sin
p2A2
 p A Cos
2 2
Consider a flow occurring in a pipe bend which is changing its cross sectional area along the
bend as shown in the Fig. Let be the angle of bend and Fxand Fybe the force exerted by the
fluid on the bend along the x and y directions respectively. The force exerted by the bend on the
mass of fluid is --Fxand --Fy. The other forces acting on the mass of fluid are hydrostatic
pressure forces at the two sections 1 and 2 p1A1 along the flow direction and p2A2against the flow
direction respectively. From the momentum equation, the net force acting on the fluid mass
along x direction is given by the rate of change of momentum in x direction.
i.e. (p1A1 – p2A2 cos ) - Fx = (Mass of fluid per second) (change in velocity)
=  Q (Final velocity – initial velocity) along x
=  Q (V2cos – V1)
Fx =  Q (V1 – V2cos ) + p1A1 – p2A2 cos  …(01)
Similarly the momentum equation in y direction gives
0 – p2A2 sin  - Fy =  Q (V2Sin – 0)
Fy =  Q (– V2Sin )–p2A2 sin  …(02)
The resultant force F acting on the bend is given by F  Fx2  Fy2 and the angle made by it
Fy
with x axis is given by tan 
Fx
Worked Examples – Momentum
Problems

1.A 45 o degree bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet and
outlet of the bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively. Find the force
exerted by water on the bend if intensity of pressure at inlet to bend is 88.29
kPa and rate of flow of water i s 600 lps.
Solution:
 = 450, D1 = 0.6 m, D2 = 0.3 m
p1 = 88.29 kPa, Q = 0.6 m3/s
2 V2
p2A2
45o
1
p1A1
Assume g = 10 m/s2 and  = 1000 kg/m3
 D12   0.6 2
A1    0.2827 m2
4 4
 D 22   0.3 2
A2    0.07068 m2
4 4
From discharge continuity equation, we have Q = A V
Q Q
V1   2.122 m/s and V 2   8.488 m/s
A1 A2
p1 v12 p v2
  Z1  2  2  Z 2
 g 2g  g 2g
But Z1 = Z2
Substituting and solving for p2=54.5kPa
Forces acting on the bend in x and y direction respectively are

Fx =  Q [V1 – V2cos ] + p1A1 – p2A2cos = 19911.4 N Fx


Fy =  Q [ – V2 sin  ] – p2A2 sin  = -- 6322.2 N
Fy F
F  Fx2  Fy2  19911.42  6322.22  20891N
F   6322.2 
Acting at   tan 1  y   tan 1    17.616o with horizontal.
 x
F 19911 .4 
2. Water flows up a reducing bend of weight 80kN place in a vertical plane. For the bend, the
o
inlet diameter is 2 m, outlet diameter is 1.3 m, angle of deflection is 120 and vertical height
3
(distance between the inlet and the outlet) is 3 m. If the discharge is 8.5 m /s, pressure at the inlet
is 280 kPa and the head loss is half the kinetic head at the exit, determine the force on the bend
Solution:
W = Weight of the reducing bend acting downwards = 80 kN (↓), d1 = 2 m,
V22
d2 = 1.3 m,  = 120o, Z = 3 m, Q = 2.5 m3/s, p1 = 280 kPa. hL = 0.5
2g
Assume g = 10 m/s2,  = 1000 kg/m3, Fx = ? andFy = ?

 d12   2 2  d 22  1.3 2
A1    3.142 m2 and A2    1.327 m2
4 4 4 4
Applying discharge continuity equation we have Q = A1V1 = A2V2
Fx

Fy F

V2sin60
V2
V2
p2A2sin60 V2cos60 60o

p2A2 p2A2
2
p2A2cos60 60o
3m
120o
p1A1
4 Q 4  2 .5 4Q 4  2 .5
V1    0.7958 m/s and V2    1.8835 m/s
 d1   2
2 2
 d 2  1.32
2
Applying Modified Bernoulli’s equation between the two sections of the bend shown in Fig.
we get
p1 v12 p v2
  Z1  2  2  Z 2  hL
 g 2g  g 2g
Substituting the values, we get
280  103 0.79582 p2 1.88352 1.88352
 0   3  0.5 
1000 10 2  10 1000 10 2  10 2  10
p2 = 247.656 kPa
Fx =  Q [V1 – V2cos ] + p1A1 – p2A2cos = 1,048,423.63 N
Fy = – W+ Q [ – V2 sin  ] – p2A2 sin  = – 288,688.06+80,000 = – 368,688.06 N
F  Fx2  Fy2  1048423.632  368688.062  1,111,360.87 N
 Fy   288688.06 
Acting at   tan 1    tan 1    19.375o with horizontal.
 Fx  1048423.63 

3. A tapered section in a horizontal pipeline reduces the diameter from 600mm to 50mm in the
direction of flow. If the flow rate is 750 l/s and the upstream pressure is 300 KN/m2, calculate:
(a) The downstream pressure
(b) The magnitude and direction of the force on the taper
Solution:
Applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion, the resultant force on the water in the taper,
R x  p1A1  F  p 2 A 2  Qv 2  v1  . F is the force exerted by the taper on the water.
Hence, F  p1A1  p 2 A 2  Qv 2  v1  F RX
Q1 4  0.75 2
v1    2.653 m s
  d1 4
2
  0.6 2 1 Q
Figure 1 : Worked Examples M. 1
Q2 4  0.75
v2    4.716 m s
 d2 42
  0.452
p1 v12 p 2 v 22 p 2 300  10 3 2.6532 4.716 2

      
g 2g g 2g 10 3 10 3 2 2
 p 2  300  3.5  11  10 3 N m 2  292 .5 kN m 2
  0 .6 2   0.45 2
F  300  10 3   292 .5  10 3   10 3  0.75  4.716  2.653 
4 4
 F  10 3 84 .82  46 .52  1.5 N  36 .8 kN 
4. A 450mm diameter pipeline conveying 1.0 m3/s of water contains a 22.5° bend in the
horizontal plane. If the pressure in the bend is 250 KN/m2, calculate the magnitude and direction
of the force on the bend.
Solution:
R
Q 4  1 .0 Fy
v   6.29 m s
  d 4   0.45 2
2
°
Fx  pA  Qv1  cos 22.5 Fx
v
   0.452 
  250 103   103 1.0  6.29 1  cos 22.5 N
 4 
22.5°
 39.76  6.291  cos 22.5  46.051  cos 22.5  3.5 kN
v

Fy  pA  Qv  sin 22 .5  46 .05 sin 22 .5  17 .62 kN
R  Fx2  Fy2  3.52  17.622  17.96 kN
 Fy 
  tan 1 
17.62 
  tan 1    78.75
 Fx   3.5 
5. A 45 o degree bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet and
outlet of the bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively. Find the force
exerted by water on the bend if intensity of pressure at inlet to bend is 88.29
kPa and rate of flow of water i s 600 lps.
Solution:
 = 450, D1 = 0.6 m, D2 = 0.3 m
p1 = 88.29 kPa, Q = 0.6 m3/s
Assume g = 10 m/s2 and  = 1000 kg/m3
2 V2
p2A2
45o
1
p1A1
 D12   0.6 2
A1    0.2827 m
2
4 4
 D 22   0.3 2
A2    0.07068 m
2
4 4
From discharge continuity equation, we have Q = A V
Q Q
V1   2.122 m/s and V2   8.488 m/s
A1 A2

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between Sections 1 and 2, we get
p1 v12 p v2
  Z1  2  2  Z 2
 g 2g  g 2g
But Z1 = Z2
Substituting and solving forp2 = 54.5 kPa Pa
Fx =  Q [V1 – V2cos  ] + p1A1 – p2A2 cos  = 19911.4 N Fx


Fy =  Q [ – V2 sin  ] – p2A2 sin  = -- 6322.2 N
Fy F
F  Fx2  Fy2  19911.42  6322.22  20891N
F   6322.2 
Acting at   tan 1  y   tan 1    17.616o with horizontal.
 Fx  19911.4 
7. Water flows up a reducing bend of weight 80kN place in a vertical plane. For the bend, the
inlet diameter is 2 m, outlet diameter is 1.3 m, angle of deflection is 120o and vertical height
(distance between the inlet and the outlet) is 3 m. If the discharge is 8.5 m3/s, pressure at the
inlet is 280 kPa and the head loss is half the kinetic head at the exit, determine the force on the
bend
Solution:
W = Weight of the reducing bend acting downwards = 80 kN (↓), d1 = 2 m,
V22
d2 = 1.3 m,  = 120 , Z = 3 m, Q = 2.5 m /s, p1 = 280 kPa. hL = 0.5
o 3
2g
Assume g = 10 m/s2,  = 1000 kg/m3, Fx = ? and Fy = ?

 d12   2 2  d 22  1.3 2
A1    3.142 m and A2    1.327 m
2 2
4 4 4 4
Applying discharge continuity equation we have Q = A1V1 = A2V2

V2sin60
V2
V2
p2A2sin60 V2cos60 60o

p2A2 p2A2
2
p2A2cos60 60o
3m
120o
p1A1
4 Q 4  2 .5 4Q 4  2 .5
V1    0.7958 m/s and V2    1.8835 m/s
 d1   2
2 2
 d 2  1.32
2
Applying Modified Bernoulli’s equation between the two sections of the bend shown in Fig. we
get Fx
p1 v 2
p v 2

  Z1  2 
1
 Z 2  hL
2
 g 2g  g 2g Fy F
Substituting the values, we get

280  103 0.79582 p2 1.88352 1.88352
 0   3  0.5 
1000 10 2  10 1000 10 2  10 2  10
p2 = 247.656 kPa
Fx =  Q [V1 – V2cos  ] + p1A1 – p2A2 cos  = 1,048,423.63 N
Fy =– W+  Q [ – V2 sin  ] – p2A2 sin  = – 288,688.06+80,000 = – 368,688.06 N
F  Fx2  Fy2  1048423.632  368688.062  1,111,360.87 N
 Fy   288688.06 
Acting at   tan 1    tan 1    19.375o with horizontal.
 Fx  1048423.63 

5.4 Velocity Distribution Coefficients (α):

Owing to the high degree of non – uniformity in the velocity of distribution, the kinetic energy
correction coefficient ‘α’ and the momentum coefficient ‘β’ assume higher values for the pipes.
The value of ‘α’ is as high as ‘2’ for flooded channels with berms. All the effects of non-uniform
velocity distribution get ignored when we mostly perform one dimensional analysis for our
problems. Perhaps the study of the velocity distributions is useful in knowing the shear stress
variations over the bed and in stream gauging.
As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocities over a channel section the velocity head of
an open channel flow is generally greater than the value computed according to the expression
v2
2g where ‘V’ is the mean velocity of flow. Therefore the true velocity head may be expressed
as ‘ 
v2
2g ’ where, ‘’ is known as the kinetic energy correction coefficient or coroilis coefficient.
The value of is computed by using the following equation,
v 3 dA
 
A V  A
3
Where, v Velocity through an elemental area’ dA’

V Mean velocity of flow
A Area of flow
Experimental data indicates that the value of ‘’ is generally higher for small channels and
lower for large streams of considerable depth.
The non-uniformity of velocity distribution also affects the computation of momentum in open-
channel flow. A correction ‘’ known as momentum correction coefficient or Boussniesque
coefficient () and is computed by,
v 2 dA
 
V  A
2 With usual notations
A
Therefore the true momentum may be expressed as ‘ β ρ QV  ’ where, ‘’ is known as the
momentum correction coefficient. The Table-1 gives the typical range of variation of ‘’ and ‘’
for various types of open channel sections and flow.
Table–1 Typical Value for Velocity Distribution and () Momentum Coefficients()
Sl.No. Type of Open channel and flow Range of variation of energy coefficients.
 
1 Straight prismatic channels 1.03 to 1.36 1.01 to 1.12
2 Complex cross sections Up to 1.6 Up to 1.2
3 River valleys, over flooded 1.5 to 2.0 1.17 to 1.33
4 Turbulent flows Up to 1.10 Up to 1.05

Note: it is customary to assume ‘’ and ‘’ equal to unity in majority of the open channel
problems.
The velocity distribution in open-channel section depends on other factors such as the unusual
shape of the section, the roughness of the channel and the presence of bends etc.
Example-1: The velocity distribution in a very wide river 3.0 m deep is found to be
approximately in accordance with that equation.
 y
u  1 2  
h
h = 3.0 m. calculate the velocity distribution coefficients ‘’ and ‘’
Solution: The mean velocity in the river ( V ), here h = 3m

h 3
1 1 2 y 7
V   udy   (1  ) dy   2.333m / s
h0 30 3 3
The kinetic energy correction coefficient ‘’ is computed by using equation 1.8.1,
2 y 3
3 (1  ) dy
v dA 3
  3   1.11778
A 
V A 2 . 333 3
3 x1

UNIT-6 PIPE FLOW
6.1 Introduction:
A pipe is a closed conduit carrying a fluid under pressure. Fluid motion in a pipe is subjected to a
certain resistance. Such a resistance is assumed to be due to Friction. In reality this is mainly due
to the viscous property of the fluid.
Reynold’s Number (Re):It is defined as the ratio of Inertia force of a flowing fluid and the
viscous force.
 Inertia Force    V D 
Re      
 Viscous Force    
Classification of pipe flow:
Based on the values of Reynold’s number (Re), flow is classified as Follows:
Laminar flow or Viscous Flow

In such a flow the viscous forces are more predominant compared to inertia Forces. Stream lines
are practically parallel to each other or flow takes place In the form of telescopic tubes. This type
of flow occurs when Reynolds’s number Re< 2000. In Laminar flow velocity increases gradually
from zero at the boundary to maximum at the center.
Laminar flow is regular and smooth and velocity at any point practically remains constant in
magnitude & direction. Therefore, the flow is also known as stream Line flow. There will be
no exchange of fluid particles from one layer to another. Thus there will be no momentum
transmission from one layer to another. Ex: Flow of thick oil in narrow tubes, flow of
Ground Water, Flow of Blood in blood vessels.
Transition flow:
In such a type of flow the stream lines get disturbed a little. This type of flow occurs
when 2000< Re < 4000.

Dye
Water Glass tube
Laminar flow Transition flow Turbulent flow
Hydraulic Grade Line & Energy Grade Line

A Line joining the peizometric heads at various points in a flow is known as Hydraulic Grade
Line (HGL)
Energy Grade Line (EGL)

It is a line joining the elevation of total energy of a flow measured above a datum, i.e.
2
EGL Line lies above HGL by an amount V /2g.
p V2
Z  .
 2g

Losses in Pipe Flow:Losses in pipe flow can be two types

a) Major Loss
b) Minor Loss
a) Major Loss: As the name itself indicates, this is the largest of the losses in a pipe. This loss
occurs due to friction only. Hence, it is known as head loss due to friction (hf)
b) Minor Loss: Minor losses in a pipe occur due to change in magnitude or direction of flow.
Minor losses are classified as (i) Entry Loss, (ii) Exit loss (iii) Sudden expansion loss (iv)
Sudden contraction loss (v) Losses due to bends & pipe fittings.
6.2 Losses in pipe flow (Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss due to friction):
Head Loss due to Friction
Consider the flow through a straight horizontal pipe of diameter D, Length L, between two sections (1) & (2) as shown.
Let P1& P2 be the pressures at these sections. To is the shear stress acting along the pipe boundary.
(1) (2)
p1 D p2
Flow (V)
L
(1) (2)
From INewton’s Second Law of Motion:

Force = Mass x accn. But acceleration = 0, as there is no change in velocity, however the reason that
pipe diameter is uniform or same throughout.
  forces  0
D 2 D 2
i.e.  P1  P2   0 xDL
4 4
P1  P2  D   0DL
2
4
4 L
or  P1  P2   0    (1)
D
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with the centre line of the pipe as datum &
considering head loss due to friction hf,.
p1 V12 p V2
Z1   Z2  2  2  hf
 2g  2g
Z1  Z 2  Pipe is horizontal
V1  V2 
Pipe diameter is
same throughout
P1  P2
  h f    (2)

Substituting eq (2) in eq.(1)
4 0 L h D
h f x  or 0  f    (3)
D 4l
From Experiments, Darcy Found that

f
0  V 2    (4)
8
F = Darcy’s friction factor (property of the pipe materials Mass density of the liquid.
V = velocity Equations (3) & (4)
f h D or 4 LfV 2
V 2  f hf 
8 4L 8D

g

4Q
 fLV 2  V
 h f       (5) D 2
 2 gD 
But, From Continuity equation
 8 fLQ 2 
 h f   2 5     (6)
 gh D 
& (5) & (6) are known as DARCY – WEISBACH Equation

6.3 Pipes in Series, Pipes in Parallel, Equivalent pipe:

Pipes in Series or Compound Pipe
D1, D2, D3, D4 are diameters.
L1, L2,L3, L4 are lengths of a number of Pipes connected in series
(hf)1, (hf)2, (hf)3 &(hf)4 are the head loss due to friction for each pipe.
Q
D1 D2 D4
L1 D3
L2 L4
The total head loss due to friction hf for the entire pipe system is given by
h f  hf1  hf 2  hf3  hf 4
8 fL1Q 2 8 fL2Q 2 8 fL3Q 2 8 fL4Q 2

hf    
g 2 D15 g 2 D25 g 2 D35 g 2 D45
Pipes in Parallel
L = L1 = L2 = L3
D1 Q1
D2 Q2
Q Q
D3 Q3
D1, D2 and D3 are the pipe diameters. Length of each pipe is same, that is, L1=L2=L3
For pipes in parallel hf1=hf2=hf3 i.e.
8 fL1Q1 2 8 fL2 Q 2 2 8 fL3 Q 3 2

 
g 2 D15 g 2 D25 g 2 D35
or
Q1 2 Q 2 2 Q 3 2
 5  5    (1)
Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT D15 D2 D3 Page 151
Equivalent pipe
Q
D1 D2 D3 == Q D
L1 L3
L= L1+L2+L3
In practice adopting pipes in series of same diameter may not be feasible due to the fact that their
hydraulic requirement willequation
From continuity vary based
Q= Qon
1+Qpressure, alignment and cost factors. Also they
2+Q3--------(2)
experience different minor losses.
Hence, the entire system will be replaced by a single pipe of uniform diameter D, but of
the same length L=L1+ L2+ L3 such that the head loss due to friction for both the pipes, viz
equivalent pipe & the compound pipe are the same. For a compound pipe or pipes in series.
h f  hf1  hf 2  hf3
8 fL1Q 2 8 fL2Q 2 8 fL3Q 2

hf       (1)
g 2 D15 g 2 D25 g 2 D35
For an equivalent pipe
8 fLQ 2
hf     (2)
g 2 D15
Equating (1) & (2) and simplifying
L L L L
5
 15  25  35
D D1 D2 D3
Or
1
  5
 L 
D
L L L 
 15  25  35 
 D1 D2 D3 

Problems
1) Find the diameter of a Galvanized iron pipe required to carry a flow of 40lps of water, if the
loss of head is not to exceed 5m per 1km. Length of pipe, Assume f=0.02.
Solution:-
D=?, Q=40lps = 40x10-3 m3/s
hf=5m, L=1km = 1000m. f=0.02
Darcy’s equation is
 8 fLQ 2 
D   2 
 g h f 
1
 8 x0.02 x1000 x(40 x103 ) 2  5
D   
 9.81x 2 x5 
D  0.22m  220mm
2) Two tanks are connected by a 500mm diameter 2500mm long pipe. Find the rate of flow if the
difference in water levels between the tanks is 20m. Take f=0.016. Neglect minor losses.
Solution:-
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with (2) as datum & considering head loss due
to friction hf only,
p1 V12 p V2
Z1    Z 2  2  2  h f    (1)
 2g  2g
Z1 = 20m, Z2 = 0 (Datum); V1=V2 = 0 (tanks are very large)

p1=p2=0 (atmospheric pressure)
Therefore From (1)
20+0+0=0+0+0+hfOr, hf = 20m. But
8 fLQ 2
hf 
gD 5
1
 20 x9.81x 2 x0.55  2
Q 
 8 x0.016 x 2500 
Q  0.4348m3 / sec  434.8lps

3) Water is supplied to a town of 0.5million inhabitants from a reservoir 25km away and the loss
of head due to friction in the pipe line is measured as 25m. Calculate the size of the supply main,
if each inhabitant uses 200 litres of water per day and 65% of the daily supply is pumped in 8 ½
hours. Take f=0.0195.
Solution:-
Number of inhabitants = 5million = 5,00,000
Length of pipe = 25km = 25,000m.
Hf = 25m, D=?
Per capita daily demand = 200litres.
Total daily demand = 5,00,000x200= 100x106 litres.
Daily supply = 65/100 x 100x106 = 65,000m3.
Supply rate
 65,000 
Q   2.1248m / sec
3
 8.5 x60 x60 
 8 fLQ 2 
hf   2 5 
 g D 
1
 8 x0.195 x 25,000 x(2.1248) 2  5
D 
 9.81x 2 x 25 
D  1.487 m
4) An existing pipe line 800m long consists of four sizes namely, 30cm for 175m, 25cm dia for
the next 200m, 20cm dia for the next 250m and 15cm for the remaining length. Neglecting minor
losses, find the diameter of the uniform pipe of 800m. Length to replace the compound pipe.
Solution:-
L=800m
L1=175m D1=0.3m
L2=200m D2=0.25m
L3=250m D3=0.20m
L4=175m D4=0.15m
For an equivalent pipe
L  L1 L2 L3 L4 
    
D 5  D15 D25 D35 D45 

1
 5
 800 
D   
  175  200  250  175  
  0.35 0.255 0.25 0.155  
D = Diameter of equivalent pipe = 0.189m less than or equal to 19cm.
5) Two reservoirs are connected by four pipes laid in parallel, their respective diameters being d,
1.5d, 2.5d and 3.4d respectively. They are all of same length L & have the same friction factors f.
Find the discharge through the larger pipes, if the smallest one carries 45lps.
Solution:-
D1=d, D2 =1.5d, D3=2.5d, D4=3.4d
L1=L2=L3=L4= L.
f1=f2=f3=f4=f.
Q1=45x10-3m3/sec, Q2=? Q3=? Q4=?
For pipes in parallel hf1=hf2=hf3=hf4 ,i.e.
Q12 Q22 Q32 Q42

  
D15 D25 D35 D45
1
 1.5d 5 2
Q2   
 x 45 x10
3
2
  0.124m / sec
3
 d  
1
 2.5d 5 2
Q2   
 x 45 x10
3
 2
  0.4446m / sec
3
 d  
1
 3.4d 5 2
Q2   
 x 45 x10
3
 2
  0.9592m / sec
3
 d  

6) Two pipe lines of same length but with different diameters 50cm and 75cm are made to carry
the same quantity of flow at the same Reynold’s number. What is the ratio of head loss due to
friction in the two pipes?
Solution:-
D1=0.5m, D2 =0.75m
L1=L2Q1=Q2
(Re)1 = (Re)2,
 2 D2V2
Reynold’s number Re=

1 D1V1  2 D2V2
 
1 2
V1 D1  V2 D2  1   2  1   2 
0.5V1  0.75V2 V1  1.5V2
fLV 2
From Darcy’s equation hf 
2 gD
hf1 D2 V12
  x
hf 2 D1 V22
2
0.75  1.5V2 
 x   3.375
0.5  V2 
7) A 30cm diameter main is required for a town water supply. As pipes over 27.5cm diameter are
not readily available, it was decided to lay two parallel pipes of same diameter. Find the diameter
of the parallel pipes which will have the combined discharge equal to the single pipe. Adopt
same friction factor for all the pipes.
Solution:-
 Q 
2
 8 fL   
 8 fLQ 2    2      ( 2)
h f   2 5     (1) hf   
 g D 
2 5
 g D 
 

 Q 
2
 8 fL  
 8 fLQ 2   2 
 2 5 2 5 
 g D   g D 
 
Equating
1 1
 
D1 4 D 5
5
1
or
 0.2755  5
D 
 4 
D  0.205m  0.275m
8) Two reservoirs are connected by two parallel pipes. Their diameter are 300mm & 350mm and
lengths are 3.15km and 3.5km respectively of the respective values of coefficient of friction are
0.0216 and 0.0325. What will be the discharge from the larger pipe, if the smaller one carries
285lps?
Solution:-
D1=300mm=0.3m, D2=-.350m
L1=3150m L2=3500m
F1=0.0216 f2=0.0325
Q1=0.285m3/sec Q2=?
 8 f1 L1Q12   8 f 2 L2Q2 2 
For parallel pipes hf   2 5 
 2 5 
 g D1   g D2 
1
 f L Q 2 D5  2
 Q2   1 1 1 5 2 
 f 2 L2 D1 
1
 0.0216 x3150 x0.2852 x0.355  2
 Q2   
 0.0325 x3500 x0.35 
Q2  0.324m 3 / sec

9) Consider two pipes of same lengths and having same roughness coefficient, but with the
diameter of one pipe being twice the other. Determine (I) the ratio of discharges through these
pipes, if the head loss due to friction for both the pipes is the same. (ii) the ratio of the head loss
due to friction, when both the pipes carry the same discharge.
Solution:-
f1=f2 D1=2D2 L1=L2
(i)Given hf1=hf2 Q1/Q2=?
From Darcy’s equation
 8 fLQ 2 
hf   2 5 
 g D 
8 f1 L1Q12 8 f 2 L2Q22
 
g 2 D15 g 2 D25
5 5
Q1  D1  2  2 D2  2
       5.656
Q2  D2   D2 
(ii) Given Q1/Q2, hf1/hf2=?

5 5
hf1 8 f1 L1Q22  D2   D2 
      0.03125
hf 2 g 2 D15  D1   2 D2 
10) Two sharp ended pipes are 50mm & 105mm diameters and 200m length are connected in
parallel between two reservoirs which have a water level difference of 15m. If the coefficient of
friction for each pipes of 0.0215. Calculate the rate of flow in each pipe and also diameter of a
single pipe 200m long which would give the same discharge, if it were substituted for the
Original two pipes.
Solution
D1=0.015m, D2=0.105m, L1=L2=200m
H=15m, f1=f2=0.0215,
a) Q1=?, Q2=?
(b) D=?, when Q=Q1+Q2
a) For parallel pipes  8 f1 L1Q12   8 f 2 L2Q2 2 

hf    2 5 
Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT g 2 D 5  Page 158
 1   g D2 
1
15 x9.81xh 2 x0.055  2 3 3
Q1     3.63 x10 m / sec
 8 x0.0215 x 200 
1
15 x9.81xh 2 x0.1055  2
Q1     0.023 m / sec
2 3
 8 x 0.0215 x 200 
 3

b) Q  Q1  Q2  3.63 x10  0.0232  0.02684m / sec
2
8 fLQ 2
hf 
g 2 D 5
1
 8 x0.0215 x 200 x0.02684 2  5
D   
 9.81x 2 x15 
 D  0.1112m  11.12cm
11) Two pipes with diameters 2D and D are first connected in parallel and when a discharge Q
passes the head loss is H1, when the same pipes are Connected in series for the same discharge
the loss of head is H2. Find the relationship between H1 and H2. Neglect minor losses. Both the
pipes are of same length and have the same friction factors.
Solution
H1 = head loss due to friction = hf = hf2i.e.
 8 fLQ12   8 fLQ2 2 
hf   2 hf 2  2 5
   (1)
5
 g (2 D)   g ( D ) 
Q1  Q2  Q    (2)
1
5.66Q2  Q2  Q  Q2  Q
6.66
2
 1 
8 fL Q 2
 H1   6.66   8 fLx 0.02256Q    (3)
g 2 D 5 g 2 D 5

Case(iii)
 8 fLQ 2  8 fLQ 2 1.0312 x8 xflQ 2

hf   2 5   H2     (4)
 g D  g (2 D)
2 5 g 2 D 5
8 fLQ 2  1 1 
 H2    
g 2 D 5  1 25 
H1 0.02256 x8 xflQ 2 g 2 D 5
  x
H2 g 2 D 5 1.0312 x8 flQ 2
H1 0.02256
  0.021876
H 2 1.0312
Or
H2
 45.71
H1
12) Two reservoirs are connected by a 3km long 250mm diameter. The difference in water levels
being 10m. Calculate the discharge in lpm, if f=0.03. Also find the percentage increase in
discharge if for the last 600m a second Pipe of the same diameter is laid parallel to the first.
Solution
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with (2) as datum and
considering head loss due to friction hf
p1 V12 p V2
Z1    Z2  2  1  hf
 2g  2g
10  0  0  0  0  0  h f  h f  10m
8 fLQ 2
hf 
g 2 D 5

1
 9.81x 2 x0.255 x10  2
Q   
 8 x0.03 x3000 
 Q  0.03624m 3 / sec
Case (ii)
h f  hf1  hf 2 orhf 3
8 x0.03  2400Q12 600Q1 / 2  

2
10    
9.81x 2  0.255 0.255 
10  6472.66Q12
Q1  0.0393m 3 / sec
Change in discharge = Q  Q1  Q

 0.0393  0.03624
Q  3.066 x10 3 m 3 / sec
Q
% increase in discharge = x100
Q1
3.066 x10 3
 x100  8.46%
0.03624

6.4Minor Losses in Pipes

Minor losses in a pipe flow can be either due to change in magnitude or direction of flow. They
can be due to one or more of the following reasons.
I. Entry loss
II. Exit loss
III. Sudden expansion loss
IV. Sudden contraction loss
V. Losses due to pipe bends and fittings
VI. Losses due to obstruction in pipe.
6.4.1 Loss due to Entrance
0.5V 2
hL entry 
2g

6.4.2 Loss due to Exit:
V2
hL exit 
2g
6.4.3Equation for head loss due to Sudden Enlargement or Expansion in Pipe:

Consider the sudden expansion of flow between the two section (1) (1)& (2) (2) as shown.
P1& P2 are the pressure acting at (1) (1) and (2) (2), while V1 and V2 are the velocities.From
experiments, it is proved that pressure P1 acts on the area (a2 – a1) i.e. at the point of sudden
expansion.From II Law of Newton Force = Mass x Acceleration.Consider LHS of eq(1)
or ,  forces  a2  p1  p2     (ii )
Consider RHS of eq(1)
Mass x acceleration = × vol × change in velocity /time
 =volume/time × change in velocity
  Q  V1  V2     (iii )
a2  p1  p2   pQV1  V2 

Substitution (ii) & (iii) in eq(i)
 p1  p2   V2 V1  V2 
Both sides by (Specific weight ‘’)
 p  p2  V2 V1  V2 
 1      (iv)
   g
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2) with the centre line of the pipe as datum and
considering head loss due to sudden expansion hLonly.
p1 V12 p V2
Z1    Z2  2  2
 2g  2g
Z1  Z 2  pipe is horizontal
 p1  p2  V12  V22
     hL
   2g
hL 

2V2 V1  V2   V12  V22 
2g
2V1V2  2V22  V12  V22

hL 
2g
2V22  2V1V2  V12  V22

hL 
2g
V22  V12  2V1V2

hL 
2g
V1  V2 2
hL 
2g

In Eq(V) hL is expressed in meters similarly, power (P) lost due to sudden expansion is
P  Qh f    (vi)
Equations for other minor losses
Loss due to bends & fittings
KV 2
hL  K=coefficient of bend
2g
6.4.3 Equation for head loss due to Sudden Contraction in pipe:
2
V2  1 
hL    1
2g  Cc 
Where Cc – Coefficient of contraction = 0.63 – 0.67

1)A 25cm diameter, 2km long horizontal pipe is connected to a water tank. The pipe discharges
freely into atmosphere on the downstream side. The head over the centre line of the pipe is
32.5m, f=0.0185. Find the discharge through the pipe
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (A) and (B) with (B) as datum & considering all losses.
p A V A2 p B V B2
ZA    ZB    h L  Entry  h L  Friction  h L  Exit
 2g  2g
The tank surface and the outlet are exposed to atmospheric condition and hence, pA = pB
= 0.When tank area is compared with the pipe area, it is very much greater than the pipe and
hence the variation of velocity in the tank can be neglected. Therefore, V A = 0. The above
equation now can be written as,
V B2 V B2 fL V B2 V B2
32.5  0  0  0  0   0 .5   
2g 2g D 2g 2g
V B2  0.0185  2000 
32.5   1  0 .5   1 .0 
2g  0.25 
V B  2.06 m / s
The discharge is calculated using continuity equation.
 2 
Q D V B  0.25 2  2.06  0.101 m 3 / s  101 LPS
4 4

2) A 25cm diameter, 2km long horizontal pipe is connected to a water tank. The pipe discharges
freely into atmosphere on the downstream side. The head over the centre line of the pipe is
32.5m, f=0.0185. Considering the discharge through the pipe
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (A) and (B) with (B) as datum & considering all losses.
PA VA2 pB vB2
ZA    ZB    entryloss  frictionloss  exitloss
 2g  2g
V 2 0.5V 2 fLV 2 V 2
32.5  0  0  0  0    
2g 2g 2 gD 2 g
32.5  7.67V 2
3) The discharge through a pipe is 225 LPS. Find the loss of head when the pipe is suddenly
enlarged from 150mm to 250mm diameter. Calculate the expansion loss
Solution :
V  2.06m / s D 2   (2.06) 2
Q V   2.06  0.101m 3 / s
4 4
225
D1=0.15m, D2 = 0.25m Q=225LPS =  225m3/sec
1000
Head loss due to sudden expansion is
V1  V2 2
hL 
2g
2 2
 4Q 4Q  1 16Q 2  1 1  16 x0.2252  1 1 
2
    X   2  2   
 2 
2 g  D1 D2  2  
 D1 D2 2 x9.81x  0.15 0.252 
2 2
 2g 2
hL  3.385m
4) The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 350lps. The diameter of the pipe is
suddenly enlarged from 200mm to 500mm. The pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is
15N/cm2. Determine (i) loss of head due to sudden enlargement. (ii) Pressure intensity in the
larger pipe (iii) Power lost due to enlargement.

Solution
350 3
Q=350LPS=  0.35m /s
1000
2
D1=0.2m, D2=0.5m, P1=15N/cm , hL=?, p2=?, P=?
From continuity equation
4Q 4  0.35
V1    11.14m / s
D1   0.2 2
2
(i)The head loss due to sudden enlargement

4Q 4  0.35
V2    1.78m / s
D 2   0 .5 2
2
V1  V2 2 11.14  1.78

2
hL    4.463m of water
2g 2  9.81
hL 
V1  V2 
2
   (1)
2g
(ii) Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) - (1) and (2)-(2) with the central line of
the pipe as datum and considering head loss due to sudden expansion hL only.
p V2 p V2
Z1  1  1  Z 2  2  2  hL
 2g  2g
Z 1  Z 2  0 pipe horizontal 
150 11.14 2 p2 1.782

0   0   4.463
9.81 19.62 9.81 19.62
p 2  166.68kN / m 2  16.67 N / cm 2
(iii) Power lost due to Enlargement:

P  QhL
P  9.81x 0.35 x 4.463
P  15.32kW

5) At a sudden enlargement of an horizontal pipe from 100 to 150mm, diameter, the hydraulic
grade line raises by 8mm. Calculate the discharge through the pipe system.
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) with the central line of the pipe as datum and
neglecting minor losses (hL) due to sudden expansion.
p1 V12 p V2
Z1    Z 2  2  2  hL
 2g  2g
 p   p 
Given,  Z 2  2    Z1  1   8 x10 3 m    (2)
     
 p2   p1  V22  V12 
 Z 2     Z1     hL   0
      2g 

x0.12 x0.152
V1  xV2
4 4
V1  2.25V2
 V 2  2.25V2  2.25V2  V2  
2 2
 8 x10 3  2  0
 2 x9.81 2 x9.81 
8 x10 3  0.1274V22  0
1
 8 x10 3  2
V2     0.25m / s
 0.1274 
Discharge
 D22   0.15 2
Q V2   0.25  4.428  10 3 m 3 / s Q  4.428 LPS
4 4
6) Two reservoirs are connected by a pipe line which is 125mm diameter for the first 10m and
200mm in diameter for the remaining 25m. The entrance and exit are sharp and the change of
section is sudden. The water surface in the upper reservoir is 7.5m above that in the lower
reservoir. Determine the rate of flow, assuming f=0.001 for each of the types.

Solution
  0.125 2   0.2 2
V1  V2
4 4
V1  2.56V2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) & (2) in both the reservoirs with the water in the
lower reservoir as datum and considering all losses
p A V A2 p B V B2
ZA    ZB    entryloss  frictionlo ss  sudden exp ansionloss
 2g  2g
 0.5V12 fL1V12 V1  V2  
2
7.5  0  0}  0  0  0    
 2g 2g 2g 
7.5  0  0}  
 

 0.5 2.5V12 0.01x10 x2.56V2 2 2.56V2  V 2 V22 
  
 2g 2g 2g 2g 
V22
7 .5  3.2768  5.243  2.434  1
19.62
V2  21.162  4.6m / s

1
x0.2 2 
Q x 4.6  0.1445m 2 / sec
 4 

6.5 Water hammer – changes occur very quickly, the analysis involves consideration of wave
propagation velocity, compressibility of the fluid and elasticity of the system. Solution requires
graphical or computer based numerical techniques eg) rapid valve operation, pump shutdown
and turbine load rejection. Water Hammer is also called fluid or pressure transients.
Theory of unsteady flow in pipes
Case 1 – Incompressible fluid and rigid pipe
The closure of a valve at the downstream end of a pipe through which the fluid is passing, results
in an immediate rise in pressure. Opening of a downstream valve results in an immediate drop in
pressure.
The change in pressure is due to the change in inertia ( mass x acceleration). Case 1 is only to be
used when the valve is closed very slowly or the pipe is very short.

Consider a rigid pipe joining two reservoirs:-
Neglecting velocity heads and minor losses, the hydraulic gradient shown gives the pressure for
all points along the pipeline, with steady flow Q and the valve fully open.
 L Q2
Now, h f =
12.1 d 5
hf  Q2
ie)  = hydraulic gradient
L 12.1 d 5
If the valve is closed gradually, there is a change in pressure throughout the pipeline as soon as
the valve starts to close.
Upstream of the valve, the pressure rises by an amount h 1 and falls by an amount h 2
downstream of the valve. The change in pressure is caused by a change in inertia at the valve.
The fluid approaching the valve finds its path impeded and is unable to move with its previous
Q
velocity v (= ) and since the water is incompressible the whole of column AB is retarded ie)
A

suffers from a negative acceleration. From Newtons Second Law of Motion, the mass of the
water in the pipe multiplied by the acceleration is equal to the force applied. This force is equal
to the inertia head, h 1 multiplied by the cross sectional area at B.
Mass of fluid column AB =  AL 1

dv
Acceleration =
dt
dv
  AL 1 = -  gh 1 A
dt
L dv  dv 
ie) at B : h 1 = -  where dt is negative 
g dt
L dv
h=-
and in general, for any
g dtpoint on the pipeline:-
For the valve just reaching the closed position:-
dv
The inertia head is a function of and therefore could be complex. However if the valve
dt
v
closes in time T, such that the retardation is at a constant rate, then the acceleration in AB is .
T
Therefore in this case the general expression becomes
# L v
h=
g T
Case 2 - Compressible fluid and rigid pipe

In case 1, the pressures obtained are only accurate if the change of velocity is slow and smooth.
dv
If the change of velocity is sudden ie) T = 0, then would be infinite and the pressure change
dt
would be infinite. This is not the case. Because of the elastic nature of the system, the water
column acts like a goods train with loose couplings which stops suddenly. Before considering
case 2 in detail, it is useful to consider the general case of an elastic pipe and fluid (neglecting
friction at this stage).
If fluid is flowing at velocity c, in a pipelength L, cross sectional area A and a valve is suddenly
closed downstream, then a pressure wave moves upstream with a velocity, c. Behind the wave
the water is compressed and the pipe walls are stretched and at the same time the fluid is still
entering the pipe upstream, with its original velocity v. The wave from continues until it reaches
L
the upstream end, taking time to reach there.
c
2L
The time is known as the pipe period (see later notes).
c
Returning to case 2, if the pipe walls are rigid, the whole of the extra volume  vol is added to
the original amount of fluid in the pipe. The extra and original volume occupy the same space,
AL.

[The amount of fluid, extra, in the pipe after the valve closure, before the fluid from the right
hand side reaches the reservoir, is equal to the volume
L
 vol = velocity x area x .]
c

vol
Now, the increase in pressure, p = k.
Vol
vol
= k.
A.L
where k = bulk of modulus of the fluid
= degree of compressibility of the fluid
p
=-
Vol / Vol
L
and since  vol = v.A.
c
L
v.A
then p = k. c
A.L.
 v
P = k.
c _______1
k = bulk modulus
v = initial velocity
c = velocity of propagation of wave
In order to analyse the position where the wave front meets the original flow, it is necessary to
bring the wave from to rest ie) by applying a velocity c in the opposite direction.
Now mass flow rate =  Ac [neglecting v since it is

insignificant compared to
c]
Change in velocity =v

Rate of momentum = Applied force due to pressure, p
 Acv=pA
P
ie) c=
v
Substituting in 1 gives:-
v
P = k.
P / v
ie) P2 = v2 k

P=v k __________2
P
As head of fluid, h =
g
k
h= v
g
 v k ___________ 3
h=
g 
This means that the pressure developed, p, is independent of pipe dimensions for a given velocity.
Combining 1 and 2
v k
k =v k ie) c= _______4
c 
Velocity of propagation wave
Remember, still considering Case 2 – compressible fluid and rigid pipe. The following example
illustrates the magnitude of the velocities.
A representative value of k for water is 2.05GN/m 2 and so the wave velocity in a rigid pipe is:-

k 2.05.10 9
c= = = 1432 m/s
 10 3
Other liquids give figures of the same order.

k
From 4 c= and substituting in 3 gives:-

v
h= .c
g
In general form:-
c
h=- v
g
Where h is the increase in pressure associated with the change in velocity  v.
Substituting in the above equation for the values appropriate to water, show that a reduction of
3m/s corresponds to an increase in head of about 440 m( about 4.3 MN/m 2 )
Note This equation is independent of the length of the pipe- unlike the equation derived
for equation 1.
Case 3 Compressible fluid, Elastic Pipe
May be analysed using strain energy theory,
Kinetic Energy of Strain Energy of water + strain energy of

water before closure = pipe after closure
K.E. of water = ½ mv 2 = ½  ALv 2
Strain energy of water
Strain energy = ½ [stress x strain]

and Stress = waterhammer pressure, p
Strain = change in volume,  vol.
pAL
From case 2,  vol =
k
(This was for a rigid pipe, but in a stiff elastic pipe, the increase in diameter of the fluid resulting
from an increase in pressure may be neglected.)

p2
 S.E of water = ½ A L = (S.E.) w
k
Strain energy of pipe walls
Stress depends on the method of anchoring the pipe and the material from which the pipe is
made.
fL = longitudinal stress
fc = circumferential or hoop stress
E = Young’s modulus of pipe material
 = Poisson’s ratio of pipe material
(Lateral strain =  x direct strain).
Then:-
fL f
Longitudinal strain =  c
E E
fC
Circumferential Strain = 
E
Strain Energy per unit volume of pipe is equal to ½  (Stress ×.strain)
 Strain energy of pipe, (S.E.) p
  f f   f c f L 
=1/2 f L  L - c   f c  -   d L e
 E E  E E 
In general,

ALp 2 d
(S.E.) p = . C1
2E 
Where C 1 = constant, depending on the method of anchorage.
E.g. For a thin walled pipe, with no expansion joints, fixed at one end and free to move
longitudinally,
5
C1 = -
4
For a thin walled pipe, without expansion joints and anchored throughout its length,
C1 = 1 -  2
For a thin walled pipe with expansion joint throughout its length,

C1 = 1 -
2
Energy Balance
K.E. = (S.E.) w + (S.E.) p
AL p 2  1 dC1 
½  AL v 2 =   
2  k E 
Hence

p=v
1 dC1

k eE
or
v 1
h=
g  1 dC1 
  
 k eE 
p
Now the speed of propagation of a wave in an infinite fluid, c = , so in this case, where the
v
elasticity of the fluid and pipe are being considered:-

1
c=
 1 dC1 
  
 k eE 
If the longitudinal stress is ignored (usually the case in most waterhammer problems, since it
only becomes significant when the Young’s modulus of the pipe is much smaller that fluid bulk
modulus, which may occur with plastic or rubber tubing), then C 1 = 1 in the above equations.
Elasticity of Materials used for Pipe Walls:
Materials Young’s Modulus Poisson’s Ratio

E (10 9 N/m 2 ) 
Aluminium 70 0.33
Asbestos – cement 24 -
Brass 100 0.36
Concrete 20 0.1 – 0.3
Copper 120 0.34 - 0.37
Glass 70 -
Cast Iron 100 0.21 - 0.30
Lead 10 0.43
Perspex 6 0.33
Polythene 0.8 0.46
Polystyrene 5 0.40
Mild Steel 210 0.28
Bulk Modulus K (N/m2)

Water at 20 o C - 2.1 x 10 9
Oil at 15 o C - 1.5 x 10 9
Problems on Water Hammer
1) A hydraulic pipeline 3.5 km long and 50cm diameter is used to convey water with a velocity
of 1.5 m/s. Determine the rise in pressure head in the pipeline if the valve provided at the outflow

end is closed in (i) 20 seconds (ii) 3.5 seconds with rigid pipe (iii) 3.0 sec with elastic pipe of
thickness 2.0mm. Given Bulk modulus of water K = 2 GPa, Epipe material = 2.06 ×1011Gpa
K 2.0  109
Solution: The celerity of wave ‘C’ =   1414.21 m / s
 1000
 2 L   2  3500 
Time of oscillation =     4.95 sec
 C   1414.21 
(i) Time of closure Tc = 20 sec> 4.95 sec - Gradual Valve closure
LV  3500  1.5 
Rise in The pressure Head H     26.75 m of Water Head
gTc  9.81 20 
(ii) Time of closure Tc = 3.5 sec< 4.95 sec - Instantaneous Valve closure for a Rigid pipe. The
pressure head rise ‘H’is given by,
p   V  C V  C 1.5  1414.21
H     216.2 m of water head
w g 9.81 9.81
(iii)Time of closure Tc= 3.0 sec< 4.95 sec - Instantaneous Valve closure for a Elastic pipe. The
pressure rise ‘p’is given by,
 1000
p V  1 .5  1145.87 kN / m 2
1 D   1 0 .5 
     
11 
 2.0  10 0.002  2.06  10 
9
K t E
 p   1145.87 
Rise in Pressure Head ‘H’ =       116.8 m of water Head
W   9.81 
2) Water is flowing through a cast-iron pipe of diameter 150 mm and thickness 10 mm which is
provided with a valve at its end. Water is suddenly stopped by closing the valve. Find the
maximum velocity of water, when the rise of pressure due to sudden valve closure is 1.962
MN/m2. Given the value of ‘K’ for water = 1.962 GN/m2 and ‘E’ for Cast-iron pipe ‘EC.I’ =
117.7 GN/m2
Solution: Given:

(i) pressure rise due to sudden valve closure ‘p’= 1.962 MN/m2 = 1.962 ×106 N/m2
(ii) K = 1.962 GN/m2 = 1.962 ×109 N/m2
(iii) EC.I = 117.7 GN/m2 = 117.7 ×109 N/m2
(iv) Thickness of pipe ‘t’ = 10 mm = 0.01 m
(v) Diameter of pipe = 150mm = 0.15m
The rise in pressure ‘p’ in cast iron pipe by considering pipe as elastic and valve closure
isinstantaneous is given by,
 1000
p V V  1.962  10 6 N / m 2
1 D   1 0.15 
     
11 
 K t E   1 . 962  10 9
0 . 01  1 . 177  10 
1.2528155  10 6  V  1.962  10 6
V = 1.566 m/s

UNIT- 7 DEPTH AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
STREAM GAUGING: DEPTH AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS
Introduction
The water which constitutes the flow in the surface stream is called stream flow or channel flow.
Stream flow forms the most important data for engineers and hydrologists since they are
concerned mainly with estimating rates, volumes and quality of the stream flow to be used in the
design of water resources and environmental projects, or the changes in these values resulting
from the man-made causes.
In evaluating the capacity of a surface water resource to multipurpose activities, it is important

to estimate the volume, quality, and reliability of the water supply. Methods for determining flow
in open channels range from very detailed and precise to "quick and dirty."
The flow of water in an open channel is expressed in units of volume per time. Common units
are gallons per minute (gpm), cubic feet per second (cfs), liters per second (l/s), or cubic meters
3
per second (m /s). In flow measurement, flow is often estimated by determining the velocity at
which water flows through a given cross-sectional area. Using the conservation of mass
(continuity equation), the discharge can be determined as,
Flow or Discharge = velocity X cross-sectional area or simply Q = VxA …………..(1)
Alternately, the flow can be routed through a measurement device and measured directly, or it
may be determined indirectly through use of appropriate measurements and mathematical
models.
To apply continuity equation, one has to determine the velocity and cross sectional area of the
stream. The following sections would deal with the same to arrive at the quantity of water
flowing in the stream.
Some of the important Definitions:
Depth: It is the depth of water in the channel measured from the bottom of the channel
Stage: It is the height of water surface above a fixed datum. The datum could be bottom of the
channel or Mean Sea Level or any other standard identity.
Rating: This is the relationship existing between stream stage and discharge in the stream.
Measurement of water depth
The river stage has been defined as the height of the water surface in the river at a given section
above any arbitrary datum. It is usually expressed in meters. In many cases, the datum is taken as
the mean sea level. Sometimes the datum may be selected at or slightly below the lowest point
on the river bed. Stage can be very easily measured by installing Non-recording (manual) or
Recording (automatic) stream gauge stations. The various methods adopted can be listed as;

Non recording and recording type stream gauge are listed below:
1. Point and Hook Gauge
2. Staff
3. Weight gauge
4. Float gauge
5. Recording gauge
1. Point & Hook Gauges

These are the simple and common methods adopted to determine the depth of flow in small
channels. For instance, the measurement of depth of water in the in the laboratory channels
would commonly adopt this technique.
These consists of a graduated bar attached to a hook or pointer. The bar can slide up or down
over a fixed mounting. The Fig. 1 shows the typical view of the two systems.
Graduated Bar
Graduated Bar
Pointer
Hook
Fig. 1. Point and Hook gauges
The depth of water is measured by operating the system by bringing the pointer or hook to close
to the water surface. Then with the help of finer adjustment screw the sharp point of the pointer
or hook is made to just touch the surface of water. At this moment it is ready for measurement of
the depth by reading on the graduated bar. Provision of Vernier is also made for accurate
reading.
2. Staff Gauge
The vertical staff gauge which is nothing but a graduated scale (about 15cm wide) such that a
portion of it is always in water at all times. It can be conveniently attached to a bridge pier or any
or existing structure. It is read manually by noting level of water surface in contact with it. The
ertical height should cover the highest and lowest water levels in that section. Figure .2 shows
the arrangement of vertical staff to measure the depth of water.

Fig. 2 Vertical Staff Gauge arrangement
When flow in stream is subjected to large variations resulting in correspondingly large

fluctuations in stage, it may be beyond the range of a single vertical staff gauge to record entire
rise or fall in the water surface. In such situations it may be convenient to use a series of vertical
staff gauges as shown in Fig.3 covering entire range, graduations of all gauges being reduced to
same datum. There should be a minimum overlap of.0.5 m between any two successive staff
gauges. This arrangement is known as Section Staff Gauges.
Fig. 3. Section Staff Gauge arrangement
Sometimes gauge may be placed in an inclined position up the

stream bank shown in Fig 4. This arrangement would be more
accurate for the streams which have low stages. It must be
properly anchored to slope of natural bank of river
channel. It is calibrated in site by precise leveling
and graduated accordingly. Inclined gauges may be
constructed on one
continuous slope or
on more slopes. A flight of steps
constructed alongside inclined gauge proves to be convenient and facilitates taking of
observations easily.
Fig. 4. Inclined Staff Gauge arrangement
Proper care must be taken while installing staff gauges to protect m from damage by boats, ice,

or flood transported debris and to ensure that flow disturbances across scale are at a minimum.
3.Weight Gauge
The river stage can also be measured manually by using another type of device called suspended
weight gauge. In this method a weight (electrically connected) attached to a rope is lowered form
fixed reference point on a bridge or other overhead structure till it touches the water surface. By
subtracting the length of the rope lowered from the reduced level of the fixed reference point the
stage is obtained (Fig.5).
weight
Fig.5. Suspended Weight Gauge arrangement
4.Float Gauge
The stage can also be measured by the arrangement of float and pulley attached to a pointer
which moves over the graduated scale in accordance with the water surface in the stream.
Figure.6 shows one such arrangement.
Fig. 6. Float Gauge arrangement

Rules Guiding Location of Gauges
Gauges should not be located in rivers with scouring characteristics.
The locations should not be on river bends because the water surface is inclined and there is
turbulence making the stage measurement inconsistent. The upstream of a natural control eg. a
rapid should be used, not downstream (Fig. 7)
Calm area
Rapid area
Fig. 7. Areas associated with natural control
A uniform channel helps good stage measurement. Irregular cross sections should be avoided
(Fig. 8)
Uniform Irregular
Section Section
Fig. 8. Channel cross sections
5.Recording Gauges
Though the manual gauges described above are simple and inexpensive, they must be read
frequently to get a continuous curve of the stream flow, especially when, the stage is, changing
rapidly. Also, it is likely that the peak stage may be missed when it occurs in between the
observations. Recording type gauges may be installed to overcome these difficulties.
Recording type gauge used to measure the stage continuously with time is also known as an
automatic stage recorder. It usually consists of a float tied to one end of a cable running over
pulley. To the other end of the cable a counterweight is attached. The float would be resting on
the water surface and the counterweight always keeps the cable in tension. Any change in water
surface makes the float either to raise or lower and this in turn makes the pulley rotate. The
movement of the pulley would actuate a pen arm which rests on a clock-driven drum wrapped
with a chart. The circumference of the drum represents the time axis while the height of the drum
represents the stage. So, either sufficient height of the drum or some scaling mechanism is
provided to cover the expected range of the stage. The clock and the drum may be so designed
that the chart runs for a specified period of time (like a day or a week or a month) unattended.
A float type automatic stage recorder requires a shelter in the form of a stilling well as shown is
Fig.9a,b. This stilling well gives protection to the float and counterweight from floating debris
and with proper design of intake pipes it suppresses the fluctuations resulting from surface waves

in the river, Generally two or more intake pipes are placed to allow the water from the river into
the well so that at least one will admit water at all the times. As the stilling well is likely to get
filled with sediment, it is necessary to make provision for the removal of silt from time to time. It
is customary to install staff gauges inside and outside the well. These staff gauges serve to check
the performance of the recorder and these are read each time the station is visited.
Fig. 9a. Concept of Float Gauge
Shelter
Counter Weight
Float
Fig. 9b. Schematic Representation of Float Gauge arrangement
Crest Gauge
When the finances do not permit the installation of recording gauge, a crest gauge may be installed
along with the manual gauge so that the peak stage is not missed. A crest gauge may consist of a
cylindrical tube sealed below with only a few holes to allow the water to enter the tube. A smal1
float(ground cork) fixed in the tube floats up and is held by surface tension when stage increases. It
stays at maximum stage until the reading is taken and let loose (Fig. 7).
A water soluble paint applied to a bridge pier and protected from rain may also be used as a crest
gauge. The portion of the paint coming in contact with water is washed out indicating the peak
stage attained during a flood. The data from the crest gauges are valuable in the establishment of
flood profiles and in determining the slope for the investigation of the flood formulae.

Ground Cork
Graduated Bar
Cylindrical Tube
Fig. 7. Crest Gauge
Measurement of Velocity
The rate of flow or discharge flowing in the river can be determined using principle of
conservation of mass, known as continuity equation. As indicated earlier, the flow using
the concept of conservation of mass is given by Eq.(1), i.e.,
Q= AxV
Where A is the cross sectional area of the stream and V is the mean(average) velocity of flow in
it. By using the sectional staff or any other method of determining the depth, the cross sectional
area of the stream can be established. To measure the flow rate in the stream, it necessary to
determine the mean velocity of the flow. The velocity of the stream or a river can be determined
by the following method.
 Current-meter 
 Floats 
  Tracer-dilution technique 
 Ultrasonic method 
 Electromagnetic method 
Among the above methods, most popular methods are using current meters and floats. These two
methods are discussed in the present case.
Current Meters
It has a propeller/cup which is rotated when water hits it and is connected to magnets which
actuates recorders when the propeller/cup rotates. The velocity of water increases the
propeller/cup rotation.
There are mainly two types of current meters which are in common use, namely, cup type
current meter (also known as the price and pigmy current meter) and the propeller type current
meter.
The principle involved in both the meters is that the water flowing past the rotating clement of

the meter makes it revolve due to the unbalanced drag force acting on it and the speed of the
rotating clement is directly proportional to the velocity of water.
The cup type current meter consists of a wheel of six conical cups rotating about a vertical axis
as shown in Fig.8. The tail vanes (also known as the fins) will always align the meter along the
direction of flow.
The USGS Type AA current meter is commonly known as the Price- type current meter. This is
suspended in the water using a cable with sounding weight (counter weight) or wading rod. It
accurately measures stream flow velocities from 0.1 to 25 feet per second (0.03 to 7.6 meters per
second).
Fig. 8. Cup Type Current Meter
Pygmy type current meter is scaled two-fifths the size of the standard Type AA current meter.
The propeller type current meter is shown in Fig. 9

Fig.9. Propeller type current meter.
Rating of Current Meter
The rating of current meter refers to the calibration of the unit with respect to the varation of the
velocity with depth. It is found from the experimentation that this variation follows a straight line
as shown in the Fig. 10. The equation representing this variation is known as Rating Equation,
mathematically it can be written as,
v = a + bN ................................................................................ (2)
here v is the velocity (m/s), N is the rotation of the cup or propeller in revs/sec, a and b are the
constants of the equation which are determined through the calibration as shown in the figure.
Rotation
Fig. 10. Typical Rating of Current Meter
Average Velocity along a Vertical:
The velocity in an open channel at any vertical varies from zero at the bottom to a maximum
value at or slightly below the free surface as shown in Fig 11. Considering the velocity profile
with depth, average value along the vertical can be showed to occur at a distance of 0.368 d-
0.393 d from the bottom. Therefore the general practice is to take the velocity measured at a
distance of 0.4 d from the bottom (or at a depth of 0.6 d from the free surface) as equal to the
average velocity of the vertical. It can also be shown that the arithmetic average of the velocities
at 0.2 d and 0.8 d is almost equal to the average velocity of the vertical.

Fig. 11 Velocity distribution at a vertical
The method, considering the values at 0.2 d and 0.8 d, is more accurate but in a shallow cross-
section, the velocity at 0.2 d may be difficult to measure so use a single value at 0.6 d.
In general, following thumb rule can be applied:

Vav = V0.6 for shallow stream ; depth < 0.6 m …………………………………(3)
Vav = (V0.8 +V0.2)/2 for moderate stream, 0.6 < d < 2m …………………………………(4)
Vav = (V0.8 +2V0.6 + V0.2)/4 for depth, d>2m …………………………………(5)
Vav = C V0.5 for deep stream –flood flow . …………………………………(6)
Mean Flow Velocity Estimation by Floats
Any floatable substance eg. a tennis ball is placed at a point and the time(t) it takes it to move a
known distance(d) is noted. d/t gives the average surface velocity of the water. The surface
velocity(Vs) is equal to 1.2(average Velocity, V) ie.,
Vs = 1.2V and V = 0.8 Vs. …………………………………(7)
The following figure(Fig. 12) gives some information about the application of this method.

Fig. 12. Measurement of Flow Velocity by Floats

Measurement of Discharges: Area –Velocity (A-V) Method
Divide the cross-section of the stream into vertical sections such that no section carries more
than 10 % of the total flow as shown in Fig. 13. Take soundings to determine various depths.
Fig. 13. Division of Cross section to vertical sections
The discharge through the cross section is determined by the concept of continuity equation as
explained earlier (Eq. 1), Q= AxV. In Area-Velocity method, the same principle is applied. The
discharge through each segment is estimated by determining the each strip area and mean
velocity through the strip. Area of each segment can be calculated using the trapezoidal formula.
The mean velocities are calculated by noting the velocities along the 0.2 D and 0.8 D OR 0.6 D
alone.The total discharge thorough the cross section is equal to the sum of segmental discharge,
i.e,
Flow in one segment,

q = average velocity (vi) × area of segment(ai). ………. (8)
Total discharge, Q is equal to: (average velocity x area of segments)

Q = Σ qi = Σ vi ai ………………(9)
Measurement of discharge by two methods:

1. Mean Section Method
2. Mid Section Method
1. Mean Section Method:
Divide the cross section into number of segments as per above said condition (Fig. 14). The
distance of each strip is indicated from the shore as, b1, b2, etc. The two point velocities on the
vertical (which are at 0.2 d and 0.8 d) are averaged to get the mean velocity for the strip. The
area of the strip is obtained as the averaging measured depth of flow at the each vertical (for eg.
th
between 3 and 4th verticals) multiplied by the width (between 3 and 4 vertical, b3 - b2).
Incremental discharges are estimated by multiplying segmental area and averaging the averaged
velocities on each vertical, viz., 3 and 4.

Fig. 14 Mean Section Method
3. Mid Section Method
Divide the cross section into number of segments as per above said condition (Fig. 15). The distance of each strip
is indicated from the shore as, b1, b2, etc. The two point velocities on the vertical (which are at 0.2 d and 0.8 d)
are averaged to get the mean velocity for the strip. The area of the strip is obtained as the measured depth of flow
at the each vertical (for eg., vertical no. 3) multiplied by the average width, which is halfway to the adjacent
verticals on either side of vertical 3. Incremental discharges are estimated by multiplying segmental area and the
average velocity along vertical, viz., 3.
Fig. 15. Mid Section Method

Example:
The current meter observations taken during the gauging of a stream are given in Col. (1) to Col.
(5) in the Table. The current meter rating may be taken as v = 0.04 + 0.35 N, where v is in m/s
and N is in rev/s. Compute the discharge in the stream.

Solution:
Distance Depth Meter No of Time, N, Velocity, Mean Area Incremental

from Of depth, revolutions sec revs/sec v, m/s velocityV, of discharge,
3
bank, m flow, m m/s strip, m /sec
M m2
0.8 0.5 0.3 12 48 0.250 0.128 0.128 0.40 0.0512
1.6 1.0 0.8 23 52 0.442 0.195 0.241 0.80 0.1928
0.2 36 51 0.706 0.287
2.4 1.6 1.28 27 54 0.500 0.215 0.247 1.12 0.27664
0.32 41 60 0.683 0.279
3.0 2.0 1.60 33 58 0.569 0.239 0.2665 1.20 0.3198
0.40 45 62 0.726 0.294
3.6 2.0 1.60 32 58 0.552 0.233 0.265 1.20 0.318
0.40 44 60 0.733 0.297
4.2 1.8 1.44 28 53 0.528 0.225 0.259 1.26 0.32634
0.36 42 58 0.724 0.293
5.0 1.2 0.96 24 50 0.480 0.208 0.2465 0.96 0.23664
0.24 35 50 0.700 0.285
5.8 0.6 0.36 14 45 0.311 0.149 0.149 0.48 0.07152
6.6 0.0 - - - - - - - -

N= Col 4/col 5
Velocity by Rating Eqn., v = 0.04 + 0.35 N, v0.8= .04+0.35*0.25 = 0.128 m/s
Avg. Velocity
= (v0.2d + v0.8d)/2 ; V1.6 =( 0.195+ 0.287)/2 = 0.241 m/s
Segmental Area calculation by Mid Section Method

For ex. At Sec-2,
D= 1.0m,
a= 1.0 ((0.8+0.8)/2)
= 0.8 sq.m
Sec-3, D= 1.6m
a= 1.6 ((0.8+0.6)/2)
= 1.12 sq.m
Incremental discharge = col 8 x col 9
Total discharge= sum col 10.

3
Total Discharge = summation of incremental discharges in the each strip = 1.793 m /sec
It is rather difficult to measure the discharge of flow in the natural streams directly. But it is
very easy to make a direct and continuous measurement of stage in the river which is nothing but
the height of the water surface in the river above some arbitrary datum. Obviously the higher the
stage in the river, the higher is the discharge. The general practice in the streamflow
measurement is, therefore, to record the river stage and to convert the data on stage into the
discharge data. This is accomplished through the stage- discharge relationship which is first
established by actual measurement of discharge in the river at different stages. Once a stable
stage-discharge relationship is established at a gauging site, the discharge measurement is
discontinued and only the stage is recorded continuously

Stage- Discharge Relationship- Rating Curve
It is rather difficult to measure the discharge of flow in the natural streams directly as it is done
in the case of flow in pipes or laboratory flume' using the flow meters such as venturimeter,
venturiflume, notches etc. But it is very easy to make a direct and continuous measurement of
stage in the river which is nothing but the height of the water surface in the river above some
arbitrary datum. Obviously the higher the stage in the river, the higher is the discharge. The
general practice in the stream flow measurement is, therefore, to record the river stage and to
convert the data on stage into the discharge data. This is accomplished through the stage-
discharge relationship which is first established by actual measurement of discharge in the river
at different stages. Once a stable stage-discharge relationship is established at a gauging site, the
discharge measurement is discontinued and only the stage is recorded continuously.
After a sufficient number of discharge measurements have been made at a gauging station along
with simultaneous stage observations, the results are plotted on an ordinary graph. It is
customary to take the discharge as abscissa and the stage as the ordinate. Such a plot between the
discharge and stage is known as the stage-discharge relation or the rating curve of the gauging
station. Once a stable stage-discharge relation is established, it is only a matter-of recording the
stage continuously which can be readily converted into the discharge through the above relation.
For most of the gauging stations a simple plot of stage vs. discharge is satisfactory. Such a curve
is approximately parabolic as shown in Fig16. It may show some irregularities if the cross-
section is irregular. In most of the cases the discharge measurements are made within a, rather,
limited range around the average stage in the river. Both at very low stages and at very high
stages during floods there may be no measurements. It is, therefore, necessary to extend the curve
downward for the low stages and upward for the high stages. The stage-discharge curve has its
greatest curvature in too low stages.
Fig. 16. Typical Rating Curve

PITOT TUBE
It is one of the means of measuring of the local velocity in a flowing fluid
Pitot tube named after Henri Pitot who used a bent glass tube in 1730 to measure velocity in the
river Seine.
Used for measurement of velocity using either an inclined manometer or other type of
manometer.
In a simple form, it is made up of a glass tube in which

the lower end bent at right angles
Arrangement shown is for measuring velocity in free
flow- Open Channel flows
The Liquid level in the tube (h) depends on velocity
of stream. The term, H, is depth of tube from the free
surface
Fig. 15 Pitot tube

The points A and B are at the same level as that of H
The point A is just u/s of Pitot tube entry point and point B is at tube inlet point. The inlet of the
Pitot tube acts as an obstruction to flow, where in KE of flowing fluid converts to PE. Hence at
the point of inlet, i.e., at B, the velocity of flow become zero. This point is called as stagnation
point.
Let v be the velocity at A. The Pressure head, H, at A is given by,
------------------------------------------(20)
Where, w is the specific weight of the liquid.
Pressure at B: There is no velocity at B. It is a stagnation point, which means that the KE

flowing fluid converts in to potential energy. i.e., pressure head, h above liquid surface.
Pressure head at B is expressed as,
, ----------------------------------------(21)
Now applying Bernoulli’s Equation between A and B,
----------------------------------------(22)
i.e.,
-----------------------------------(23)

the converted energy head,h, can be represented by,
----------------(24)
From the above equation the theoretical velocity ,v, can be calculated as,
----------------(25)
The above expression would give the theoretical velocity because in the above analysis the
energy losses occurring in the system is not considered. The actual velocity can be determined by
introducing a coefficient, Cv, which is the ratio of Actual Velocity to Theoretical Velocity.
Hence the actual velocity is given by,
----------------(26)
Where Cv is the coeffcient of tube.
After obtaining the localvelocity, the discharge can be calculated by continuity equation as,
Discharge = Ax v
Discharge Measurements in Pipes
The cylindrical probe (Pitot tube) is inserted into fluid as show in Fig. 16. The Velocity head
converted into impact pressure. Since this point indicates the position of zero velocity, it is also
called as Stagnation pressure. As in the case of free flow, the pressure just u/s to the tube is also
measured here also. Since the pipe flow is a pressure flow, the pressure is measured by providing
a peizometer as sown in Fig. 16. This pressure is known as static pressure.
The difference between static pressure & impact pressure is proportional to rate of flow in the
pipe.
Fig. 16 Discharge Measurement in Pipe

The pressure,P1 is a Static pressure: It

ismeasured by a device (static tube) that causes
no velocity change to the flow. This is usually
accomplished by drilling a small hole normal to a
wall along which the fluid is flowing.
The pressure, P2 is a Stagnation pressure: It is the Fig. 17 Pressure Measurement in Pipe

pressure measured by an open-ended tube facing
the flow direction. Such a device is called a Pitot
Now, applying Bernoulli equation between 1 and 2:

2 2
(P−P ) (V − V ) ----------------(27)
21
 0
2 1
ρ 2
Stagnation Pressure is higher than Static Pressure
1 2
P  P  ρV
2
2 1 1
OR ----------------(28)
Where, ρ and w are the mass density and weight density of the lowing fluid respectively. From
the above equation velocity of flow at section 1 can be obtained as,
1/2
2(P−P ) OR 2 g (P − P ) 1/2
V1 
2 1
V1 
2 1
ρ w
----------------(29)
The velocity, V1, in the above expression gives the theoretical velocity of flow as the energy
losses are not considered in the analysis. The difference of pressure between the two points can
be measured using a differential manometer. If ‘h’, represents the difference of pressure head in
terms of flowing fluid then,
----------------(30) The actual velocity can be

determined by introducing a coefficient, Cv, which is the ratio of Actual Velocity to Theoretical
Velocity. Hence the actual velocity is given by,
1
----------------(31)
Where Cv is the coeffcient of tube.
The discharge in the pipe is determined using the principle of continuity equation.
Therefore, Q= A1x V1
Where, Aa is the area of cross section of pipe at section 1.
Pitot - static tube
The static and Pitot tube are often combined into the one-piece. This arrangement is known
asPitot-static tube. The Fig. 18 shows the salient features of this instrument.

(1 ) Static pressure measurement hole

(2) Stagnation pressure measurement
port
(3) And (4) to the manometer
connection to measure the difference
in pressure.
Fig. 18 Pitot- Static Tube
Determination of differential Pressure Head
Fig 19. Differential Pressure Measurement
The differential pressure head between the stagnation and static pressure can be determined
by using the principle ofmanometry.
Applying manometric equation along A-A,
It can be shown that as in the venturi and orifice meters,
----------------(32)
Where, Sm is the RD of Manometric liquid and S is the RD of flowing fluid

Advantages
Pitot tubes are simple, reliable, inexpensive, and suited for a variety of environmental
conditions, including extremely high temperatures and a wide range of pressures.
PROBLEM 1
A Pitot-static tube is used to measure the velocity of water in a pipe. The stagnation
pressure head is 6m and the static pressure head is 5 m. calculate the velocity of flow
assuming the coefficient of the tube equal to 0.98.
Solution
Given:
Stagnation pressure
head = 6 m Static
pressure head = 5m
Hence, h= 6-5 = 1m
Cv = 0.98
0.5
Substituting in the equation, v= 0.98 (2x9.81x1)
= 4.34 m/s
PROBLEM 2
A Pitot tube is used to measure the flow of turpentine in a pipe line. The two tapings of
the Pitot tube are connected to a differentia U-tube manometer. If the manometric liquid
is mercury and the differential mercury level is 12 cm, what is the velocity? Take RD of
turpentine = 0.86. The coefficient of the Pitot tube is 0.975.
Solution
Given:
Y = 12 cm of mercury
Cv = 0.975
Sm is the RD of Manometric liquid = 13.6
S is the RD of flowing fluid = 0.86
Dept. of Civil Engg. SJBIT, Bangalore Page 205

h = 0.12((13.6/0.86)-1) = 1.772 m
0.5
v= 0.975 (2x9.81x1.772)
v= 5.75 m/s
PROBLEM 3
A Pitot tube is mounted on aero plane to indicate relative speed of plane. What
differential pressure intensity the instrument will register when the plane is travelling at a
speed of 300 KMPH and the wind is blowing in opposite direction with 60 KMPH?
Given the Specific weight of Air = 11.9 N/m3 and Coefficient of Velocity ‘Cv’ = 0.98 for
Pitot tube.
Solution: Given Specific weight of Air = 11.9 N/m3, Cv = 0.98

300  1000
Velocity of plane ‘Vplane’ = 300 Km/hr = V Plane   83.33 m / s  
Plane
3600
60  1000
Velocity of Air ‘Vair’ = 60Km/hr = V Air   16.67 m / s 
Air
3600
Relative Velocity = (83.33 + 16.67) = 100 m/s
Flow Velocity V  CV 2 gH Air
100  0.98  2  9.81 H Air
HAir = 530.7 m of Air
Differential pressure (∆p) Air=Air × HAir
(∆p) Air=Air × HAir = 11.9 × 530.7 = 6.315 kN/m2
PROBLEM 4
A Pitot tube is inserted in a pipe of 300mm diameter. The static pressure in the pipe is
100 mm of mercury (Vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of the pipe, recorded
by Pitot tube is 0.981 bar. Calculate the rate of flow through water pipe. If the mean
velocity is 0.85 times the actual velocity.
Solution: Assuming Coefficient of velocity ‘Cv’ = 1.0 for Pitot tube

Given: D = 300mm = 0.3m,
pstatic = 100 mm of Hg(Vacuum) = -0.1 m of Hg =
  mercury

    0.1m  1.36m of water
  water 
0.981 105
pstagnation = 0.981 bar =  10m of water
9810
Vmean = 0.85 Vcentre
Vcentre =
VCentre  CV  2 g H stagnation  H Static   1.0  2  9.81 10  (1.36)   14.93 m / s

 0.3  0.85  14.93  0.897 m 3 / s
2
Q = A × Vmean =
4
PROBLEM 5
The following data was collected for a stream at a gauging station. Compute the
discharge through the stream. The rating equation of current meter V = 0.3 N + 0.05,
Where ‘V’ is velocity in m/s and N revolutions per second
Distance Water Current meter Immersion at

from one Depth
end in ‘D’ 0.6 D 0.2 D 0.8D
‘m’ Rev Sec Rev Sec Rev Sec
3 1.4 12 50 - - - -
6 3.3 - - 38 52 23 55
9 5.0 - - 40 58 30 54
12 9.0 - - 48 60 34 58
15 5.4 - - 34 52 30 50
18 3.8 - 35 52 30 54
21 1.8 18 50 - - - -
Soln. Using the concept of average velocity as prescribed by IS- code :
V 0 .2 D  V 0 .8 D
Vav = V0.6D and Vav =
2
Distance Water Area of Velocity Discharge
from one Depth flow N ‘V’ V= ‘Q’ = A ×
end in ‘D’ =3m× D (RPS) 0.3 N + 0.05 V
‘m’ (m) (m2) (m/s) (m3/s)
12
3 1.4 4.2  0.24 0.122 0.5124
50
38 23
6 3.3 9.9   0.73  0.418  0.574 0.2222 2.2
52 55
40 30
9 5.0 15.0   0.69  0.556  0.623 0.2369 3.5535
58 54
48 34
12 9.0 27.0   0.8  0.586  0.693 0.2579 6.9633
60 58
34 30
15 5.4 16.2   0.654  0.6  0.627 0.2381 3.85722
52 50
35 30
  0.673  0.566  0.6145
18 3.8 11.4 52 54 0.2343 2.67159
18
21 1.8 5.4  0.36 0.1580 0.8532
50
Total Discharge in stream ‘Q (m3/s) 20.611

UNIT-8: DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS
8.0 Introduction: Flow measurement in closed conduit and open channel flow are
discussed in this unit
Closed conduit flow:
It is a flow with boundaries and runs full. As in the case of open channel flow, the surface
is not exposed to atmosphere. Since it runs full it is also called as pressure flow and the
conduit in which it flows as pressure conduit. The examples are water mains, blood flow
in arteries, etc. The measurement of fluid flow is important in applications ranging from
measurements of blood-flow rates in human artery to the measurement of liquid oxygen
in a rocket. The selection of the proper instrument for a particular application is governed
by many variables, including cost. Flow-rate-measurement devices frequently require
accurate pressure and temperature measurements in order to calculate the output of the
instrument. The most widely used flow metering principle involves placing a fixed area
flow restriction of some type in the pipe or duct carrying the fluid. This flow restriction
causes a pressure drop that varies with the flow rate.
Thus, measurement of the pressure drop by means of a suitable differential-
pressure pick up allows flow rate measurement. These types meters are termed as
obstruction flow meters. Each of the flow measurement devices inherently has its own
advantages and disadvantages. Some of the instruments are:
DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS
Flow Measurement in pipelines
There are two devices which are commonly used to measure flow in pipes:
1. The venturimeter
2. The orifice meter
3. Rotameter
8.1 Venturimeter: The venturimeter consists essentially of a convergence in a pipeline
followed by a short parallel sided ‘throat’ and then a divergence.

In the venturi meter, the fluid is accelerated through a converging cone of angle 15-20°
and the pressure difference between the upstream side of the cone and the throat is
measured and provides the signal for the rate of flow.

Applying the Bernoulli equation along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the
narrow throat of the Venturi meter, we have

Continuity requires a greater velocity at the throat than the inlet, there is consequentially
a difference of pressure between the inlet and throat and measurement of this pressure
difference allows the flow rate to be calculated.
8.2 Orificemeter:
The orifice meter works on a similar principal to the venturimeter and is cheaper and
simpler to install but it generates larger energy losses. It consists of a circular disc, with
an orifice machined in its centre, which is easily bolted between pipe lengths.

The flow rate through a Venturi and Orifice meter can be found from the equation
a1a 2
Q  Cd 2gH
a12  a 22
where the cross-sectional areas are a1 for the inlet pipe and a2 for the throat or orifice.
a1a 2
The term is known as the meter coefficient, K. CD is the coefficient of discharge.
a12  a 22


8.3Rotometer


Flow Through Orifices

An orifice is an opening of any cross section, at the bottom or on the side walls of a
container or vessel, through which the fluid is discharged. If the geometric characteristics
of the orifice plus the properties of the fluid are known, then the orifice can be used to
measure the flow rates.
Classification of orifices
Based on shape circular triangular Based on size Based on shape Based

rectangular Small orifice of the u/s edge on flow
(when the Sharp edge Free
head over the Bell mouth Subme
orifice is more rged
than five
times its size
I.e. H>5d,
Large orifice
Consider the flow from a tank through a hole in the side close to the base. The general
arrangement and a close-up of the hole and streamlines are shown in the figure below
Looking at the streamlines you can see how they contract after the orifice to a minimum
cross section where they all become parallel; at this point, the velocity and pressure are
uniform across the jet. This convergence is called the vena contracta (from the Latin
'contracted vein'). It is necessary to know the amount of contraction to allow us to
calculate the flow. As the fluid passes through the orifice under a head H, the stream lines
converge and therefore the jet contracts. The stream lines which converge are mostly
those from near the walls and they do so because stream lines cannot make right angled
bend in motion. This phenomenon occurs just downstream of the orifice, and such a

section where the area of cross section of the jet is minimum is known as VENA
CONTRACTA.
At the surface velocity is negligible (V1 = 0) and the pressure atmospheric (p1 = 0). Outside
the orifice the jet is open to the air so again the pressure is atmospheric (p3 = 0). If we take
the datum line through the orifice then z1 = h and z3 =0, leaving
Equation for energy loss through an orifice
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between the liquid surface (A)

and the centre of jet and Vena Contracta (C) and considering
losses (hL).
p A VA2 p V2
ZA    Z C  C  C  hL
 2g  2g
ZA  H,
p A  p B  0(atmosphere)
VA  0, p A  pB  0(actualvelocity )
Va 2
H  0 0  0 0  hL
2g

Va 2
hL  ( H  )
2g

The pressure at Vena Contracta is assumed to be atmospheric and the velocity is assumed
to be the same across the section since the stream lines will be parallel and equally spaced.
Downstream of Vena contracta the jet expands and bends down. Figure shows the details
of free flow through a vertical orifice.

Hydraulic Coefficients of an orifice

(i) Coefficient of discharge (Cd): It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge (Qact)
to the theoretical discharge (Qth)
Q 
 Cd   act 
 Qth 
Value of Cd varies in the range of 0.61 to 0.65
(ii) Coefficient of Velocity (Cv): It is defined as the ratio of actual velocity (V act) to
the
theoretical velocity (Vth).
V 
 CV   act 
 Vth 
Value of Cv varies in the range of 0.95 to 0.99
(iii) Coefficient of Contraction (Cc): It is defined as the ratio of the area of cross section
of the jet at Vena of cross section of the jet at Vena Contracta (ac) to the area of the
orifice (a).
a 
 CC   c 
a
But V  CV 2 gH
Value of Cc will be generally more than 0.62
Torricelli’s equation:
hL  ( H  HxCV )
2
hL  H (1  CV )
2
Equation for Coefficient of Velocity (CV) (Trajectory method)
Consider a point P on the centre line of the jet, such that its horizontal and vertical
coordinates are x and y respectively. By definition, velocity
Orifice
h
Jet
D y
Dept. of Civil Engg. SJBIT,

- - -Bangalore
-- ------------------ Page 220
x
x
Va  x
t t
Va
Since, the jet falls through a vertical distance y under the action of gravity during this
time (t)
1
gt 2
 2y 2
y t       (2)
2  g 
But,
1
x  2y  2
Va  CV 2 gH   
CV 2 gH  g 
1
x g2
CV  1 1 1
x 1 1
2 2 2
2 g H 22 y 2
x
CV 
2 Hy
 x2 
CV   
 4 yH 




8.4 Notches & Weirs

Flow Over Notches & Weirs
Notches, often termed sharp crested or thin plate weirs, are little more than steel plates
inserted vertically into a channel section and with a crest plate of some non-rusting metal
(usually brass) with a precisely machined bevel.
The openings in such notches can be made triangular, for accurate measurement of small
flow rates, or rectangular when larger flow rates have to be passed. The accuracy
achievable with thin plate weirs is by far the highest of any type of weir (about 1 or 2
percent) but their use is rather restricted because they are unable, structurally, to
withstand the forces met in real life situations and their crest units are easily damaged by
floating debris and vandalism.
A notch is an opening made in the side wall of a tank such that the liquid surface in the
tank is below the upper edge of the opening. Generally notches are made of metallic
plates and their use is limited to laboratory channels.
A weir is a masonry/concrete structures built across an open channel so as to rise the
water level on the upstream side and to allow the excess water to flow over the entire
length onto the downstream side.
Classification of Notches and Weirs

a) Depending on shape:
i) Rectangular
ii) Triangular
iii) Trapezoidal
b) Depending on the shape of the crest
i) Sharp crested
ii) Broad crested.
c) Depending on flow
i) Free
ii) Submerged
d) Depending on Ventilation
i) Fully aerated
ii) Depressed
iii) Clinging or Drowned.

The equations for notches are:

5
8 
For the triangular notch Q  C d tan 2g H 2
15 2
3
2
For the rectangular notch Q  Cd b 2g H 2
3
Flow over a Triangular Notch.
Flow over a Rectangular Notch
L=length of the notch

H=head over the notch
Consider a small strip of thickness dh at a depth h below the liquid surface
Discharge through the strip dq  Area  Velocity
dq  Lxdhx 2 gh
Q H 1
Total discharge  dq  L 2 g  h 2 dh
0 0

H
2 3
Q  L 2g h 2 
3 0
3
2
Q  L 2g H 2
3
3
2
Qact  Cd 2 g LH 2    (1)
3
Cd=Coefficient of discharge, its average value is about 0.62.
End Contraction
When the length of the weir (L) is less than the width of the channel (B), the nappe
contracts at the sides, and this is knows as end contractions.(fig34)
According to Francis, the effective length of flow over the notch is given by
Substituting this value in EQ(1) and simplifying
2 3
Q  Cd 2 g  L  0.1nH  H    (2)
3 2
A notch without end contraction is known as a suppressed notch.
Velocity of approach (Va)

The total head over the weir will be the sum of static head (H) and velocity head (h a),
Va2
velocity head ha  is due to the Velocity of the liquid approaching the notch.
2a
On similar lines, considering a strip of uniform thickness dh at a depth h below the liquid
surface.
Discharge through the strip dq=area x velocity. dQ  Lxdhx 2 g  H  ha 
Therefore Total discharge is given by

1
Q H 2
 dq  L 2 g   H  ha  dh
0 0
2 3 3

 L 2g  H  ha  2  ha 2 
3 
2  3 3

Q  Cd 2 g L  H  ha  2  ha 2 
3  
Empirical Formula
 3 3

(i)Francis Formula Q  1.84  L  0.1nH   H  ha  2  ha 2 
 

 0.003  3
(ii) Bazin’s formula Q   0.405   L 2 gH
2
 H 
 0.053  H  0.011  3
(iii))Rehbock formula Q  0.403   L 2 g  H  0.0011 2
 Z 
Considering velocity of approach and End contraction, we have
2  3 3

Q  Cd 2 g  L  0.1nH   H  ha  2  ha 2 
3  
Considering velocity of approach and End contraction, we have
2  3 3

Q  Cd 2 g  L  0.1nH   H  ha  2  ha 2 
3  
OGEE WEIR
When the weir is suppressed and its height is large, the nappe emerging out may be
subjected to the problems of ventilation. Hence, in such cases the weir profile
downstream is constructed conforming to the shape of the lower side of the nappe. Such a
weir is known as a spillway or ogee weir.The coordinates of the spillway profile can be
worked out for the head H using the equation. x1.85  2 H 0.85 y
The u/s face of the spillway is generally kept vertical.
3
2
The discharge equation for an ogee weir will be Q  Cd 2 g LH 2
3
Same as that for a suppressed rectangular notch.
Broad Crested Weir
A weir is said to broad crested when its width (parallel to flow) b is greater than
0.5xmaximum head acting on it
i.e, b  0.5 xH
Let L=length of the weir

H=Head of water u/s of the weir w.r.t. the crest
H=Depth of water over the weir crest
V=Vel. Of flow over the weir
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2) with the crest of the weir as datum &
neglecting losses (hL)

p1 V12 p2 V22
Z1   }  {Z 2  
 2g  2g
V2
0 H 0  0h
2g
V  2 g ( H  h)    (1)
Discharge over the weir Q=area of flow over the weir x vel. of flow over the weir.
i.e. Q  (hxL) x 2 g ( H  h)
Actual discharge Qact  Cd Lh 2 g H  h     (2)

From Equation (2), we see that Qact is a function of h for a given value of H.
Q
 Q is maximum when 0
dh
  
h  H  h  2   0
1

h  
  1 h

hx H  h 2  H  h 2   0
1
 dh h 
 1 x1 
hx H  R 2  1  H  h 2   0
1 1
1
 2 
 1
 h 
 1
 ( H  h) 2   0
 2( H  h ) 2 
 
h  2H  h3h  2H
2
orh  ( H )  conditionforQmax
3
Substituting the value of h in eq(2) and simplifying.
Qact max  Cd L 2 H  x  2 

2g H  H 
3   3 
2 H
 Cd LHx 2 g
3 3
3
Qact max  2
Cd L 2 g H 2
3 3

VENTILATION OF WEIRS
When flow takes place over a suppressed rectangular weir with

wing walls on the downstream, the nappe takes away the air below it and a
partial vacuum is created. The behaviour of such a weir is very erratic and
it is not suitable for the measurement of flow. To obviate the difficulty,
ventilation of the weirs is done. This is done by providing air holes in the
wing walls so that air can reach below the nappe. Thus the pressure below
the nappe remains atmospheric and the standard formula for discharge can
be used, it may be noted that the ventilation of V-notch is generally not
necessary, because it never occupies the full width of the channel.
Wing wall
U/S D/S
TYPES OF NAPPE
Depending upon the extent of vacuum and ventilation, the nappe can be classified into 4
types
Fully aerated nappe. [Fig.(a)]. In this type, the weir discharge free. The pressure below
thenappe is atmospheric. This is the standard case.
Depressed Nappe: [Fig.(b)]. In this type, the space between the weir and the nappe
partially ventilated. Because of the negative pressure created, the discharge is about 5 to 10
percent more than that in a fully aerated nappe.

Clinging Nappe: [Fig. 1.15 (c)]. This type of nappe occurs under very low heads.
Here practically no ventilation and the nappe adheres to the face of the weir. The
discharge is 20 to ; percent more than that in a free nappe.
Drowned Nappe [Fig.(d)]. This type of nappe occurs under high heads when there
practically no ventilation. The entire space between the lower face of the nappe and the weir
filled with eddying mass of water. The discharge is 10 to 20 percent more than that in a free
nappe
Only fully aerated nappe gives a stable discharge. In all other types, there is pulsation, in
the flow and the discharge is not stable.
ADVANTAGES OF TRIANGULAR NOTCH OR WEIR OVER RECTANGULAR

NOTCH OR WEIR
A triangular notch or weir is preferred to a rectangular weir or notch due to

following reasons
1. The expression for discharge for a right-angled V-notch or weir is very simple.
2. For measuring low discharge, a triangular notch gives more accurate results
than rectangular weir or notch.
3. In case of triangular notch, only one reading, i.e., (H) is required for the
computation of discharge.
4. Ventilation of a triangular notch is not necessary.

EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR DISCHARGE OVER RECTANGULAR WEIR
The discharge over a rectangular weir is given by
Above equations are applicable to the weir or notch for which the crest length is equal to the
width of the channel. This type of weir is called Suppressed weir.
But if the weir is not suppressed, the effect of end contraction will be taken into account.
(a) Francis's Formula.

Francis on the basis of his experiments established that end
contraction decreases the effective length of the crest of weir and
hence decreases the discharge. Each end contraction reduces
the crest length by 0.1 x H, where H is the head over the weir.
For a rectangular weir there are two end contractions only and
hence effective length

(b) Bazin's Formula.

On the basis of results of a series of experiments, Bazin's proposed the following formula for the
discharge over a rectangular weir as
CIPOLLETTI WEIR
Cipolletti weir is a trapezoidal weir, which has side slopes of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical as shown in Fig.
Thus in triangle ABC
By giving this slopes to the sides, an increase in discharge through the triangular portions ABC
and DEF of the weir is obtained.
If this slope is not provided the weir would be a rectangular one, and due to end contraction, the
discharge would decrease. Thus in case of cipolletti weir, the factor of end contraction is not
required which is shown below.
The discharge through a rectangular weir with two end contractions is

Thus due to end contraction, the discharge decreases by
This decrease in discharge can be compensated by giving such a slope to the

sides that the discharge through two triangular portions is equal to
Let the slope is given by θ/2. The discharge through a V-notch of angle θ is given
by

DISCHARGE OVER A BROAD-CRESTED WEIR
A weir having a wide crest is known as broad-crested weir. Let H = height of

water, above the crest
W = width of the crest
W
Broad-crested weir
If w > H/2, the weir is called broad crested weir

If w < H/2, the weir Is called a narrow created weir
Let
h = head of water at the middle of weir which is constant
v = velocity of flow over the weir.

Applying Bernoulli's equation to the still water surface on the upstream side and running water
at the end of weir,
------Equation (1)
Qmax will be obtained by substituting this value of h in equation (1) as

DISCHARGE OVER A NARROW-CRESTED WEIR
For a narrow-crested weir, L < H/2. It is similar to a rectangular weir or

notch hence, Q is given by
DISCHARGE OVER AN OGEE WEIR
Below fig shows an Ogee weir, in which the crest of the weir rises up to
maximum height of 0.115 x H (where H is the height of water above inlet of the
weir) and then falls as shown in Fig.
The discharge for an Ogee weir is the same as that of a rectangular weir, and it
is given by
DISCHARGE OVER SUBMERGED OR DROWNED WEIR
When the water level on the downstream side of a weir is above the crest
of the weir, then the weir k called to be a submerged or drowned weir. Fig
below shows a submerged weir.
The total discharge, over the W is obtained by dividing the weir into two parts.
The portion between upstream and downstream water surface may be treated
as free weir and portion between downstream water surface and crest of weir
as a drowned weir.
Let H = height of water on the upstream of the weir

h = height of water on the downstream side of the weir

8.5 Venturi Flume:
Plan Elevation
Fig. Schematic of Venturiflume

Flumes do not suffer from siltation problems, since any silt is washed through the
structure. However their length and thus cost of construction are higher than for normal
weirs. To minimise these costs, a large number of flumes have been constructed by
driving sheet piles into the channel bed and backfilling to the original river bank with
suitable fill materials.
Another advantage of flumes is the very limited backing up of the upstream water level it
produces. In flat areas this is a considerable advantage.
3
Q actual  1.7C d C v bH 2
b = width of channel at throat
Cd, Cv – Coefficient of discharge and Coefficient of Velocity

H – Head in m

8.5 Solved Problems:

Problems
1. The head of water over the centre of an orifice 30mm diameter is 1.5m. If the
coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.613, Calculate the actual discharge.
Solution: d=30mm = 3x10-3 H=1.5m Cd= 0.613
Qact
Cd  ; Qact  Cd xQth  Cd xa 2 gH
Qth
(30 x103 )
x2 x9.81x1.52
1
 0.613xx
4
Qact  2.35x103 m3 / s or Qact  2.35lps
2. A jet of water issuing from an orifice 25mm diameter under a constant head of 1.5m
falls 0.915m vertically before it strikes the ground at a distance of 2.288m measured
horizontally from the Vena Contracta. The discharge was found to be 102lpm. Determine
the hydraulics coefficients of the orifice and the head due to resistance.
Solution: d=25mm=25x10-3H=1.5m, y=0.915m, x=2.288m
Qact=102lpm = 102/60 = 1.7lps = 1.7x10-3m3/sec, Cd=?, Cc=?, hL=?
x2 2.2882
CV    0.976
4 yH 4 x0.915x1.5
Qact  1.7 x10 3 x 4 

Cd     0.638
 
Qth x 25 x10 3 x 2 x9.81x1.5 
2
Cd  0.638 
Cd  CC xCV CC     0.999
Cv  0.976 

headloss hL  H 1  C v
2
  1.51  0.976  h
2
L  0.0712m  71.2mm
3. The head of water over a 100mm diameter orifice is 5m. The water coming out of the
orifice is collected in a circular tank 2m diameter. The time taken to collect 45cm of
water is measured as 30secs. Also the coordinates of the jet at a point from Vena Contract

are 100cm horizontal and 5.2cm vertical. Calculate the hydraulic coefficients of the
orifice.
Solution:
D=100mm=0.1m, H=5m
Qact = Area of collecting tank height of water collected / time
x 2 2 0.45
Q Act  x  0.0471 m 3 / s
4 30
X=100cm = 1m, y = 5.2cm = 0.052m
Cd=?, Cv=?, Cc=?
 x2   12 
Cv        0.98
 4 yH   4 x 0 . 052 x 5 
Qact  0.0471x 4 
Cd      0.605
Qth  x0.1 2 x9.81x5 
2
Cd 0.605
CC    0.618
CV 0.98
4. A jet of water issuing from an orifice 25mm diameter under a constant head of 1.5m
falls 0.915m vertically before it strikes the ground at a distance of 2.288m measured
horizontally from the Vena Contracta. The discharge was found to be 102lpm. Determine
the hydraulics coefficients of the orifice and the head due to resistance.
Solution: d=25mm=25x10-3H=1.5m, y=0.915m, x=2.288m
Qact=102lpm = 102/60 = 1.7lps = 1.7x10-3m3/sec, Cd=?, Cc=?, hL=?
x2 2.2882
CV    0.976
4 yH 4 x0.915 x1.5
Qact  1.7 x10 3 x 4 

Cd     0.638
 
Qth x 25 x10 3 x 2 x9.81x1.5 
2
C  0.638 
Cd  CC xCV  CC  d     0.999
Cv  0.976 

headlosshL  H 1  Cv
2
  1.51  0.976 
2
hL  0.0712m  71.2mm

5. The head of water over a 100mm diameter orifice is 5m. The water coming out of the
orifice is collected in a circular tank 2m diameter. The time taken to collect 45cm of
water is measured as 30secs. Also the coordinates of the jet at a point from Vena Contract
are 100cm horizontal and 5.2cm vertical. Calculate the hydraulic coefficients of the
orifice.
Solution:
D=100mm=0.1m, H=5m
Qact = Area of collecting tankxheight of water collected / time
x22 0.45
 x  0.0471m3 / s
4 30
X=100cm = 1m, y=5.2cm = 0.052m

Cd=?, Cv=?, Cc=?
Qact  0.0471x 4 
Cd      0.605
Qth  x0.1 2 x9.81x5 
2
Cd 0.605
CC    0.618
CV 0.98
 x2   12 

Cv   
 
    0.98
 4 yH   4 x 0 . 052 x 5 
6. The coordinates of a point on the jet issuing from a vertical orifice are 0.4m & 0.003m.
Neglecting air resistance, determine the velocity of the jet and the height of water above
the orifice in the tank.
Solution.
X=0.4m, y=0.3m, V=? H=?
Assume
CV  1
We know
x2
CV 
4 yH
Dept. of Civil Engg. SJBIT, Bangalore H=1.33m Page 241

4 yHxG 2  x 2
x2  0 .4 2 
H    
4 yxG 2  4 x0.03 x12 
V  G 2 gH  1x 2 x9.81x1.33  5.115m / s
7. A vertical orifice is fitted 0.2m above the bottom of a tank containing water to a depth
of 2m. If G=0.98. What is the vertical distance from the orifice of a point on the jet 0.6m
away from the Vena Contracta?
Solution
Head over the orifice H=(2-0.2)=1.8m
CV=0.98, y=?, x=0.6m
x2
CV 
4 yH
0.6 2
or , (0.98) 2 
4 xyx1.8
 0.6 2 
y     0.052m  52mm
2 
 4 x1.8 x0.98 
8. A closed tank contains water to a height of 2m above a sharp edged orifice 1.5cm
diameter, made in the bottom of the tank. If the discharge through the orifice is to be 4lps.
Workout the pressure at which air should be pumped into the tank above water. Take
Cd=0.6.
Solution
Q=4lps = 4x10-3m3/s
D=1.5x10-2m, Cd=0.6
PA=?
 air  11.772 N / m 3  11.772 x10 3 kN / m 3
Total head over the orifice

 p 
H   h  A 
  

Qact  Cd a 2 gH
4 x10 3  0.6 xx

1.5x10 
2 2

x 2 x9.81x 2 
PA 
3 
4  11.772 x10 
PA  0.83kN / m 2 (Gauge)
9. A closed tank contains 3m depth of water and an air space at 15kpa pressure. A 5cm
diameter orifice at the bottom of the tank discharge water to the tank B containing
pressurized air at 25kpa. If Cd = 0.61 for the orifice. Calculate the discharge of water
from tank A.
Solution
d=5cm = 5x10-2m Cd=0.61.
Total head over the orifice
 p  pB   15  25 
H  h  A   3  
    9.81 
H=1.9806m
x0.052
Qact  Cd a 2 gH  0.61x x 2 x9.81x1.9806
4
Qact  7.47 x10 3 m 3 / s  7.47lps
10 A tank has two identical orifices in one of its vertical sides. The upper orifice is 4m
below the water surface and the lower one 6m below the water surface. If the value of C v
for each orifice is 0.98, find the point of intersection of the two jets.
Solution.
x2
CV 
4 yH
Given Cv is same for both the orifices

2
x1 x22

4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2

x12 x2
 ( x1  x2 )
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
 4 y1  6 y2 ory1  1.5 y2    (1)
y1  y2  6  4 
y1  y2  2    (2)
Substituting eq(1) in eq(2) and simplifying
1.5 y2  y2  2
0.5 y2  2
 y 2  4m
Again
x22
CV  gives
4 y2 H 2
x22
0.98  (points of intersection of the jets from
4 x 4 x6 the Vena contracts)
 x2  9.6m
11 Two orifices have been provided in the side of the tank, one near the bottom and the
other near the top. Show that the jets from these two orifices will intersect a plane
through the base at the same distance from the tank if the head on the upper orifice is
equal to the height of the lower orifice above the base. Assume Cv to be the same for
both the orifices.

Solution.
To show that x1=x2 when H1=y2from figure y1=[y2+(H2-H1)---(1)
x12 x22 Or
Given, C V 1  CV2  
4 y1 H1 4 y2 H 2
Or
4 y1 H1  4 y2 H 2
[ y2  ( H 2  H1 ) H1  y2 H 2 ]
y2 H1  H1 H 2  H12  y2 H 2
H12  H1 H 2  y2 ( H 2  H1 )  0
substituting
H1  y2 ; y22  H 2 y2  y2 ( H 2  y2 )  0
0  0
Problems on Orifices
12. A 4cm dia orifice in the vertical side of a tank discharges water. The water surface in
the tank is at a constant level of 2m above the centre of the orifice. If the head loss in the
orifice is 0.2m and coefficient of contraction can be assumed to be 0.63. Calculate (I) the
values of coefficient of velocity & coefficient of discharge, (ii) Discharge through the
orifice and (iii) Location of the point of impact of the jet on the horizontal plane located
0.5m below the centre of the orifice.
Solution
V  2 gH  2 x9.81x 2
V  6.264m / s
Head loss
 Va 2 
hL   H  
 2 g 

Va  5.943m / s
 Or Va 2 
0.2   2  
 2 x 9.81 
Va 5.943
Cv    0.943
V 6.246
Coefficient of Velocity
Coefficient of discharge
Cd  Cv xCC  0.949 x0.63
Cd  0.598
(ii) Discharge through the orifice
Qact  Cd a 2 gH

 0.598 x x0.04 2 x 2 x9.81x 2
4
 4.707 x10 3 m / s  4.71lps
(iii) Coefficient of velocity
x2
Cv 
4 yH
4 yHC V  x 2
x 4 x 0 . 5 x 2 ( 0 . 949 ) 2
x  1 . 898 m

Problem
13. An orifice has to be placed in the side of a tank so that the jet will be at a maximum
horizontal distance at the level of its base. If the depth of the liquid int the tank is D, what
is the position of the orifice? Show that the jets from the two orifices in the side of the
tank will intersect at the level of the base if the head on the on the upper orifice is equal
to the height of the orifice above the base.
Solution:
Orifice
h
Jet
D y
----- ------------------
x
By definition, Velocity V=x/t
 x  Vt
V  2 gH 1 2
y gt
2
x 2  4 H D  H 
2
1  x 
 (D  H )  g 
2  2 gH 

For x to be maximum
Or dx
0
dH
x  4H (D  H )

4( D  2 H )  0
H  D / 2
We know, x=Vt,
V  2gH1
1 2
y  H2  gt
2
2
1  x 
 g 
2  2 gH1 
PROBLEM:
14. An oil of relative density 0.9 flows through a vertical pipe of diameter 10 cm. The
flow is measured by a 20 cm x 10 cm Venturimeter. The throat is 10 cm above the inlet
section. A differential U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to the throat
and the inlet. If Cd is 0.99 what is (a) flow for a manometer reading of 9 cm and (b)
the manometer reading for a
flow of 50 l/s ?
Solution:
Given;
Inlet (pipe diameter) = 20 cm
Throat diameter = 10 cm.
Oil specific gravity = 0.9
Cd = 0.99
Discharge Equation,
For,
Oil specific gravity, s = 0.9,
Specfic gravity of Mercury Sm = 13.6 (mercury)


 0.2 = 0.0314 m2
2
A1 = Area of c/s at inlet; A1 =
4

A2 = Area of c/s at throat A2 =  0.1 = 0.007854 m2
2
4
Case (a)
y=0.09 m, Q = ?
Substitute in discharge equation,
Q = 0.040 m3/s = 40 l/s

Case (b)
Q= 50l/s = 0.050 m3/s; y=?
Substituting in the equation,
Solving for y,
y = 0.14 m = 14 cm.



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Fluid Mechanics 10CV35

10CV35 FLUID MECHANICS

UNIT-1: BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

UNIT-2:PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

UNIT-3: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES

UNIT-4: KINEMATICS OF FLOW

UNIT-5: DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW

UNIT-6: PIPE FLOW

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 1

UNIT-7: DEPTH AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS

UNIT-8: DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 2

UNIT NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.

1 BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 4 - 33

2 PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT 34 - 67

3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES 68- 92

4 KINEMATICS OF FLOW 92 - 130

5 DYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW 131 – 148

6 PIPE FLOW 149 – 185

7 DEPTH AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 186 – 208

8 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS 209- 255

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 3

UNIT-1 BASIC PROPOERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.1INTRODUCTION:In general matter can be distinguished by the physical forms known as

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 4

Fluid deforms continuously under the action of a shear force

Fig. 1 Shear Deformation of Fluid

Differences between Liquids and Gases:

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 5

(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas

Fig.2 Comparison of Solid, Liquid and Gas

Quantity Unit Quantity Unit Quantity

Mass in Force in Newton Force in Newton

Pressure in Pascal (1 Pressure in Pascal

Temperature in K Power in Watt (1 W = W Power in Watt (1

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 6

Kelvin 1 J/s) W = 1 J/s)

1.2.1 CGS Units:

Force in dyne (1 dyn = 1 g.cm/s2) dyn

Work, energy in erg ( 1 erg = 1 dyn.cm = 1 x 10-7 J ) erg

Heat Energy in calorie ( 1 cal = 4.184 J) cal

Dimensions of derived quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions.

Quantity Representative symbol Dimensions

Angular velocity  t-1

Kinematic viscosity  L2/t

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 7

Linear velocity v L/t

1.3 Properties of fluids:

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 8

29.43 x 103  mx9.81 Method 2 :

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 9

6867 6867   x 9.81

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 10

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 11

 Newton’s law of viscosity:

Fixed Plate Linear Non-linear

Fig.3 Definition diagram of Liquid viscosity

Dept of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 12

Velocity gradient or rate of shear strain: